' '' '" 
 
 ( 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF ILLINOIS 
 LIBRARY 
 
 From the collection of 
 Julius Doerner, Chicago 
 Purchased, 1918. 
 
 ^©0.3 
 
 \84-:i- V.I 
 
Return this book on or before the 
 Latest Date stamped below. 
 
 University of Illinois Library 
 
 
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 L161 — 1141 
 
t 
 
DICTIONARY, 
 
 PRACTICAL, THEORETICAL, AND HISTORICAL, 
 
 or 
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 AND 
 
 COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPs> AND PLANS. 
 
 BY J. R. MTULLOCH, ESQ- 
 
 A NEW EDITION: 
 
 » 
 
 WITH AN ENLARGED SUPPLEMENT, 
 BRINGING DOWN THE INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THE WORK TO 
 
 September, 1842. 
 
 Tutte le invenzioni le piiJ benemerite del genere umano, e che hanno svillupato 1' ingcgno 
 e la facoUa dell' animo nostro, sono quelle che accostano 1* uomo all' uomo, e facilitano la 
 conimunicazioiie delle idee, del bisogni, dei sentimcnti, e riducano il genero umano a massa. 
 
 Vekri 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED FOB 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS. 
 
 MDCCCXLII. 
 
^%0, 3 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT TO THIS EDITION. 
 
 In this edition all the more important returns and accounts as to the Trade, 
 Navigation, and Consumption of Great Britain and other countries, have been 
 brought down to the latest period. In some instances, too, the form of the 
 returns has been changed, and new ones, drawn up on a more comprehensive 
 plan, and embracing various additional particulars, have been substituted for 
 those previously embodied in the work. In illustration of this, the reader is 
 referred to the tables now given under the article Imports and Exports ; they 
 will, it is believed, be found to contain, within a brief space, the completest view 
 hitherto laid before the public of the recent trade of the empire. A few 
 articles have also been rewritten, among which may be specified those on 
 Lighthouses, Bombay, Malta, Sydney, &c. 
 
 The Supplement given with this edition has been greatly enlarged, and, it is 
 hoped, materially improved. It contains as much matter as would fill, if printed 
 with types of medium size, a large octavo volume, and embraces a good deal of 
 important information not elsewhere to be met with. Neither labour nor expense 
 has been spared to render it instructive and trustworthy. It embodies the 
 principal part of the Supplement issued in February, 1839, and has, among 
 others, articles on the following subjects ; viz. Austrian Tariff, and Com- 
 mercial Treaty with Austria ; Joint-Stock Banks, embracing a complete 
 list of these establishments, with an examination of the principles on which they 
 should be founded ; Unjted States Bank, with an inquiry into the liabilities of 
 the foreign holders of its stock; New Customs Act for Benga-l; New Coin- 
 age of America and India ; State of the British Cotton Manufacture from 
 1816 to 1839, both inclusive ; Tables showing the extent of the Foreign 
 Trade of the Country during each of the ten years ending with 1839, with 
 remarks on the influence of Foreign competition ; New Post-Office Arrange- 
 ments ; Opium Trade; Trade with Prussia, Prussian Commercial League 
 and Tariff ; Railways and Railway Legislation ; Classification of Ships ; 
 State of the Sugar Trade ; Alterations in the British and Russian Ta- 
 riffs ; Commercial Treaty with Turkey ; with notices of Civita Vecchia, 
 Galacz and the Navigation of the Danube, Guayaquil, Port Lamar, Mon- 
 tevideo, Moulmein, Rostock, &c. 
 
 The author has been able to avail himself, in preparing this edition, of some 
 very valuable communications. In this respect, he is under especial obligations 
 to the government of Prussia. With a liberality of which there are few 
 (if any) examples, it has not merely taken pains to supply him with ample 
 and authentic details as to the Commerce, Population, Finances, &c. of 
 that flourishing kingdom, but has authorised him to make any use he pleased 
 of the information so communicated, without stipulation or condition of any 
 kind. 
 
 We have also been indebted to various private and official gentlemen, at home 
 and abroad, for many useful hints and valuable statements. Mr. Porter, of the 
 Board of Trade, allowed us the use of several unpublished returns belonging to 
 his department ; Mr. Wood, Chairman of the Board of Excise, and Mr. Mayer, 
 of the Colonial Office, gave us every assistance in their power ; the interventioi) 
 
 A 2 
 
 S0104G 
 
iv 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT TO THIS EDITION. 
 
 of Mr. Hall, late vice-consul for the republic of Uruguay, at Liverpool, and of Mr. 
 Kreeft, consul for Mecklenburg, has enabled us to furnish the commercial world 
 with accurate details as to the ports of Montevideo, Rostock, &c. ; and gentlemen 
 resident in Bombay, Calcutta, Malta, Singapore, &c., have supplied important 
 information. We are sorry that our limits will not permit of our specifying the 
 different parties to whom we have been indebted ; but we beg them to accept our 
 best thanks for their attentions. We are most anxious to have the means of cor- 
 recting the errors into which we may have fallen, and of rendering our book jts 
 accurate as possible. This, however, can only be effected by gentlemen apprising 
 us of the changes that are constantly taking place in the regulations under which 
 commerce is conducted, and in the channels in which it is carried on. This 
 information, so important to the mercantile world, might, sometimes, be com- 
 municated without much trouble, and will always be most gratefully received 
 by us. 
 
THE 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The first impression of this Dictionary, consisting of 2,000 copies, was entirely 
 sold off in less than nine months from the date of its publication. We feel very 
 deeply indebted to the public for this unequivocal proof of its approbation ; and we 
 have endeavoured to evince our gratitude, by labouring to render the work less un- 
 deserving a continuance of the favour with which it has been honoured. In the 
 prosecution of this object, we can truly affirm we have grudged neither labour 
 nor expense. We have subjected every part of the work to a careful revision; 
 have endeavoured to eradicate the errors that had crept into it ; to improve those 
 parts that were incomplete or defective ; and to supply such articles as had been 
 omitted. We dare not flatter ourselves with the idea that we have fully suc- 
 ceeded in these objects. The want of recent and accurate details as to several 
 important subjects, has been an obstacle we have not, in all cases, been able to 
 overcome; but those in any degree familiar with such investigations will not, 
 perhaps, be disposed severely to censure our deficiencies in this respect. 
 
 The changes in the law bearing upon commercial transactions have been care- 
 fully specified. Copious abstracts of all the late Customs Acts are contained in 
 the articles Colonies and CoLaNY Trade, Importation and Exportation, 
 Navigation Laws, Registry, Smuggling, Warehousing, &c. 
 
 The abolition of the East India Company's commercial monopoly, and the 
 great and growing interest that has in consequence been excited amongst all 
 classes as to the commercial capabilities and practices of India, China, and other 
 Eastern countries, have made us bestow peculiar attention to this department. 
 The articles Bangkok*, Batavia, Bombay, Bushire*, Bussorah*, Cal- 
 cutta, Canton, Columbo, East India Company and East Indies, Indigo, 
 Macao*, Madras, Manilla, Mocha, Muscat*, Nangasacki*, Rangoon*,. 
 Singapore, Tatta*, Tea, &c. contain, it is believed, a greater mass of recent 
 and well-authenticated details as to the commerce of the vast countries stretching 
 from the Arabic Gulf to the Chinese Sea, than is to be found in any other 
 English publication. In compiUng these and other articles, we derived much 
 valuable assistance from John Crawfurd, Esq. 
 
 The article Banking is mostly new. Besides embodying the late act prolong- 
 ing the charter of the Bank of England, and the more important details given in 
 the Report of the Select Committee on the Renewal of the Bank Charter, this 
 article contains some novel and important information not elsewhere to be met 
 with. No account of the issues of the Bank of England has hitherto been pub- 
 
 The articles marked with an asterisk were not in the former edition. 
 A 3 
 
vi 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 lished, that extends farther back than 1777. But this deficiency is now, for 
 the first time, supplied ; the Directors having obligingly furnished us with an 
 account of the issues of the Bank on the 28th of February and the 31st of 
 August of each year, from 1698, within four years of its establishment, down to 
 the present time. We have also procured a statement, from authority, of the 
 mode of transacting business in the Bank of Scotland ; and have been able to 
 supply several additional particulars, both with respect to British and to foreign 
 banks. 
 
 We have made many additions to, and alterations in, the numerous articles 
 descriptive of the various commodities that form the materials of commerce, and 
 the historical notices by which some of them are accompanied. We hope they 
 will be found more accurate and complete than formerly. 
 
 The Gazetteer department, or that embracing accounts of the principal foreign 
 emporiums with which this country maintains a direct intercourse, was, 
 perhaps, the most defective in the old edition. If it be no longer in this pre- 
 dicament, the improvement has been principally owing to official co-operation. 
 The sort of information we desired as to the great sea-port towns could 
 not be derived from books, nor from any sources accessible to the public; 
 and it was necessary, therefore, to set about exploring others. In this view 
 we drew up a series of queries, embracing an investigation of imports and 
 exports, commercial and shipping regulations, port charges, duties, &c., that 
 might be transmitted to any port in any part of the world. There would, 
 however, in many instances, have been much difficulty in getting them answered 
 with the requisite care and attention by private individuals ; and the scheme 
 would have had but a very partial success, had it not been for the friendly and 
 effectual interfereiK:e of Mr. Poulett Thomson. Alive to the importance of 
 having the queries properly answered, he voluntarily undertook to use his 
 influence with Lord Palnierston to get them transmitted to the Consuls. This 
 the Noble Lord most readily did ; and answers have been received from the 
 greater number of these functionaries. There is, of course, a considerable 
 inequality amongst them ; but they almost all embody a great deal of valuable 
 information, and some of them are drawn up with a degree of skill and sagacity, 
 and display an extent of research and a capacity of observation, that reflect 
 the highest credit on their authors.* 
 
 The information thus obtained, added to what we received through other, but 
 not less authentic channels, supplied us with the means of describing twice the 
 number of foreign sea-ports noticed in our former edition ; and of enlarging, 
 amending, and correcting the accounts of such as were noticed. Besides much 
 fuller details than have ever been previously published of the nature and extent 
 of the trade of many of these places, the reader will, in most instances, find a mi- 
 nute account of the regulations to be observed respecting the entry and clearing of 
 ships arid goods, with statements of the different public charges laid on shipping, the 
 rates of commission and brokerage, the duties on the principal goods imported and 
 exported, the prices of provisions, the regulations as to quarantine, the practice 
 as to credit, banking, &c., with a variety of other particulars. We have also 
 described the ports ; and have specified their depth of water, the course to be 
 steered by vessels on entering, with the rules as to pilotage, and the fees on 
 jiccount of pilots, light-houses, &c. As it is very difficult to convey a sufficiently 
 distinct idea of a sea-port by any description, we have given plans, taken from 
 
 * The returns furnished by the Consuls at lTambur{;h, Trieste and Venice, Naples, Dantzic, 
 Bordeaux, Christiaiiia, Amsterdam, Elsincur, New York, Charleston, &c, are particularly gooiL 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 vii 
 
 the latest and best authorities, of about a dozen of the principal foreign povtH. 
 Whether we have succeeded, is more than we can venture to say; but we hope 
 we have said enough to satisfy the reader, that we have spared no pains to 
 furnish him with authentic information on this important department. 
 
 The Tariff, or Table of Duties on Imports, &c., in this edition, is highly 
 important and valuable. It is divided into three columns : the first containing an 
 account of the existing duties payable on the importation of foreign products for 
 home use, as the same were fixed by the Act of last year, 3 & 4 Will. IV. cap. 56. 
 The next column exhibits the duties payable on the same articles in 1819, as 
 fixed by the Act 59 Geo. III. cap. 52. : and the third and last column exhibits the 
 duties as they were fixed m 1787 by Mr. Pitt's Consolidation Act, the 27 Geo. Ill- 
 cap. 13. The duties are rated throughout in Imperial weights and measures ; 
 and allowances have been made for differences in the mode of charging, &c. The 
 reader has, therefore, before him, and may compare together, the present customs' 
 duties with the duties as they stood at the end of the late war, and at its com- 
 mencement. No similar Table is to be met with in any other work. W e are 
 indebted for it to J. D. Hume, Esq., of the Board of Trade, at whose suggestion, 
 and under whose direction, it has been prepared. Its compilation was a work of 
 great labour and difficulty j and could not have been accomplished by any one 
 not thoroughly acquainted with the customs acts, and the various changes in the 
 mode of assessing the duties. Its accuracy may be relied on. 
 - The article Slaves and Slave Trade contains a full abstract of the late 
 important statute for the abolition of slavery. 
 
 Among the new articles of a miscellaneous description, may be specified those 
 on Aliens, Ionian Islands, Population, Tally Trade, Truck System, &c. 
 
 On the whole, we trust it will be found, that the work has been improved 
 throughout, either by the correction of mistakes, or by the addition of new and use- 
 ful matter. Still, however, we are well aware that it is in various respects defective ; 
 but we are not without hopes that those who look into it will be indulgent enough 
 to believe tli^ this has been owing as much to the extreme difficulty, or rather, 
 perhaps, the ;npossibihty, of obtaining accurate information respecting some of 
 the subjects treated of, as to the want of care and attention on our part. Even 
 as regards many important topics connected with the commerce and manufac- 
 tures of Great Britain, we have had to regret the want of authentic details, 
 and been obliged to grope our way in the dark. Nothing, indeed, can exceed 
 the accuracy and luminous arrangement of the customs accounts furnished 
 by the Inspector General of Imports and Exports. But, owing to the want of 
 any details as to the cross-channel trade between Great Britain and Ireland, the 
 value of these accounts is much diminished. The condition and habits of the 
 people of Ireland and of Great Britain are so very different, that conclusions 
 deduced from considering the trade or consumption of the United Kingdom e7i 
 masse, are generally of very little value ; and may, indeed, unless carefully sifted, 
 be the most fallacious imaginable ; while, owing to the want of any account 
 of the trade between the two great divisions of the empire, it is not possible ac- 
 curately to estimate the consumption of either, or to obtain any sure means of 
 judging of their respective progress in wealth and industry. As respects manu- 
 factures, there is a still greater deficiency of trustworthy, comprehensive details. 
 We submitted the articles relating to them in this work, to the highest practical 
 authorities ; so that we incline to think they are about as accurate as they can 
 well be rendered in the absence of official returns. It is far, however, from 
 creditable to the country, that we should be obliged, in matters of such import- 
 
 A 4 
 
viii 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 ance, to resort to private and irresponsible individuals for the means of coming 
 at the truth. Statistical science in Great Britain is, indeed, at a very low ebb : 
 and we are not of the number of those who suppose that it will ever be mate- 
 rially improved, unless government become more sensible, than it has hitherto 
 shown itself to be, of its importance, and set machinery in motion, adequate to 
 procure correct and comprehensive returns. 
 
 The statistical Tables published by the Board of Trade embrace the substance 
 of hundreds of accounts, scattered over a vast mass of Parliamentary papers. 
 They seem to be compiled with great care and judgment, and are a very valuable 
 acquisition. We have frequently been largely indebted to them. But their 
 arrangement, and their constantly increasing number and bulk, make them quite 
 unfit for being readily or advantageously consulted by practical men. Most part 
 of the returns relating to the principal articles given in this work, go back to a 
 much more distant period than those published by the Board of Trade. 
 
 We have seen no reason to modify or alter any principle of commercial 
 POLICY advanced in our former edition. In some instances, we have varied the 
 exposition a little, but that is all. In every case, however, we have separated the 
 practical, legal, and historical statements from those of a speculative nature ; so 
 that those most disposed to dissent from our theoretical notions will, we hope, 
 be ready to admit that they have not been allowed to detract from the practical 
 utility of the work. 
 
 The maps given with the former edition have been partially re-engraved, and 
 otlierwise improved. Exclusive of the plans already referred to, the present 
 edition contains two new maps : one, of the completed and proposed canals and 
 rail-roads of Great Britain and Ireland ; exhibiting, also, the coal fields, the 
 position of the different light-houses, &c. : the other map exhibits the mouths of 
 the rivers Mersey and Dee, and the country from Liverpool to Manchester, with 
 the various lines of communication between these two great and flourishing em- 
 poriums. Care has been taken to render them accurate. 
 
 The important service done to us, or rather to the public, by Mr. Poulett 
 Thomson, in the obtaining of the Consular Returns, is a part only of what we 
 owe to tliat gentleman. We never applied to him for any sort of information 
 which it was in his power to supply, that he did not forthwith place at our free 
 disposal. That system of commercial policy, of which the Right Honourable 
 gentleman is the enlightened and eloquent defender, has nothing to fear from 
 publicity. On the contrary, the better informed the public become, the more 
 fully the real facts and circumstances relating to it are brought before them, the 
 more will they be satisfied of the soundness of the measures advocated by 
 Mr. Thomson, and of their being eminently well fitted to promote and consolidate 
 the commercial greatness and prosperity of the empire. 
 
 It is proper, also, to state, that, besides the Board of Trade, all the other 
 departments of government to which we had occasion to apply, discovered every 
 anxiety to be of use to us. We have been particularly indebted to Mr. Spring 
 Rice ; Sir Jtlenry Parnell ; Mr. Wood, Chairman of the Board of Stamps and 
 Taxes ; Mr. Villiers, Ambassador at Madrid ; and Mr. Mayer, of the Colonial 
 Office. 
 
 We are under peculiar obligations to the many mercantile and private gentle- 
 men in this and other countries, who have favoured us with communications 
 Wc hardly ever applied to any one, however much engaged in business, for any 
 information coming within his department, which he did not readily furnish. We 
 have not met with any mystery, concealment, or affectation of concealment. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ix 
 
 Every individual seemed disposed to tell us all that he knew ; and several gen- 
 tlemen have taken a degree of trouble with respect to various articles in this 
 work, for which our thanks and gratitude make but a poor return. 
 
 The expense of reprinting a work of this sort, containing a greater mass of 
 figures and of small type than any other volume in the English language, is quite 
 enormous. This edition is, therefore, stereotyped ; and will not be recast for a 
 few years. But we intend to publish, whenever they seem to be required. 
 Supplements, containing statements of any alterations in the duties on commodities, 
 and in the laws and regulations as to commercial affairs in Great Britain and 
 foreign countries, with such additional information on other topics as may seem 
 to possess general interest. And we do most anxiously hope that our mercantile 
 and other friends at home and abroad will enable us to make these Supplements 
 as useful as possible, by pointing out whatever errors or omissions they may 
 perceive in the present edition, and by supplying us with fresh details. Much of 
 what is most valuable in this work has been derived from the Circulars ?ssued 
 by mercantile houses, brokers, &c. ; and the transmission to us, through 
 Messrs. Longman and Co., of such documents, is one of the greatest favours lue 
 can receive. Any stipulations as to the use to be made of them will be carefully 
 attended to ; and we beg no one will consider his Circular as not being of sufficient 
 interest to be acceptable to us. 
 
 / 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 It has been the wish of the Author and Publishers of this "Work, that it should 
 be as extensively useful as possible. If they be not deceived in their expectations, 
 it may be advantageously employed, as a sort of vade mecum.^ by merchants, 
 traders, ship-owners, and ship-masters, in conducting the details of their respective 
 businesses. It is hoped, however, that this object has been attained without 
 omitting the consideration of any topic, incident to the subject, that seemed cil- 
 culated to make the book generally serviceable, and to recommend it to the 
 attention of all classes. 
 
 Had our object been merely to consider commerce as a science, or to investi- 
 gate its principles, we should not have adopted the form of a Dictionary. But 
 commerce is not a science only, but also an art of the utmost practical importance, 
 and in the prosecution of which a very large proportion of the population of every 
 civilised country is actively engaged. Hence, to be generally useful, a work on 
 commerce should combine practice, theory, and history. Different readers may 
 resort to it for different purposes j and every one should be able to find in it clear 
 and accurate information, whether his object be to make himself familiar with 
 details, to acquire a knowledge of pnnciples, or to learn the revolutions that 
 have taken place in the various departments of trade. 
 
 The following short outline of what this Work contains may enable the reader 
 to estimate the probability of its fulfilling the objects for which it has been 
 intended : — 
 
 I. It contains accounts of the various articles which form the subject matter of 
 commercial transactions. To their English names are, for the most part, sub- 
 joined their synonymous appellations in French, German, Italian, Russian, 
 Spanish, &c. ; and sometimes, also, in Arabic, Hindoo, Chinese, and other Eastern 
 languages. We have endeavoured, by consulting the best authorities, to make 
 the descriptions of commodities as accurate as possible; and have pointed out the 
 tests or marks by which their goodness may be ascertained. The places where 
 they are produced are also specified ; the quantities exported from such places ; 
 and the different regulations, duties, &c. aflfecting their importation and export- 
 ation, have been carefully stated, and their influence examined. The prices of 
 most articles have been given, sometimes for a lengthened period. Historical 
 notices are inserted illustrative of the rise and progress of the trade in the most 
 important articles; and it is hoped, that the information embodied in these 
 notices will be found to be as authentic as it is interesting. 
 
 II. The Work contains a general article on Commerce, explanatory of its na- 
 ture, principles, and objects, and embracing an inquiry into the policy of restrictions 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 xl 
 
 intended to promote industry at home, or to advance the public interests by- 
 excluding or restraining foreign comi)etition. Exclusive, however, of this general 
 article, we have separately examined the operation of the existing restrictions 
 on the trade in particular articles, and with particular countries, in the accounts 
 of those articles, and of the great sea-port towns belonging to the countries 
 referred to. There must, of course, be more or less of sameness in the discus- 
 sion of such points, the principle which runs through them being identical. But 
 in a Dictionary this is of no consequence. The reader seldom consults more 
 than one or two articles at a time ; and it is of infinitely more importance to 
 bring the whole subject at once before him, than to seek to avoid the appearance 
 of repetition by referring from one article to another. In this Work such 
 references are made as seldom as possible. 
 
 III. The articles which more particularly refer to commercial navigation are 
 Average, Bills of Lading, Bottomry, Charterparty, Freight, Master, 
 Navigation Laws, Owners, Registry, Salvage, Seamen, Ships, Wreck, 
 &c. These articles embrace a pretty full exposition of the law as to shipping : 
 we have particularly endeavoured to exhibit the privileges enjoyed by British 
 ships ; the conditions and formalities, the observance of which is necessary to 
 the acquisition and preservation of such privileges, and to the transference of 
 property in ships ; the responsibilities incurred by the masters and owners in their 
 capacity of public carriers ; and the reciprocal duties and obligations of owners, 
 masters and seamen. In this department, we have made considerable use of the 
 treatise of liord Tenterden on the Law of Shipping, — a work that reflects very 
 great credit on the learning and talents of its noble author. The Registry Act 
 and the Navigation Act are given with very little abridgment. To this head may 
 also be referred the articles on the Cod, Herring, Pilchard, and Whale 
 fisheries. 
 
 IV. The principles and practice of commercial arithmetic and accounts are 
 unfolded in the articles Book-keeping, Discount^ Exchange, Interest and 
 Annuities, &c. The article Book-keeping has been furnished by one of the 
 official assignees under the new bankrupt act. It exhibits a view of this important 
 art as actually practised in the most extensive mercantile houses in town. The 
 tables for calculating interest and annuities are believed to be more complete than 
 any hitherto given in any work not treating professedly of such subjects. 
 
 V. A considerable class of articles may be regarded as descriptive of the various 
 means and devices that have been fallen upon for extending and facihtating com- 
 merce and navigation. Of these, taking them in their order, the articles Banks, 
 Brokers, Buoys, Canals, Caravans, Carriers, Coins, Colonies, Companies, 
 Consuls, Convoy, Docks, Factors, Fairs and Markets, Light-houses, 
 Money, Partnership, Pilotage, Post-Office, Rail-roads, Roads, 
 Treaties (Commercial), Weights and Measures, &c. are among the most 
 important. In the article Banks, the reader will find, besides an exposition of 
 the principles of banking, a pretty full account (derived principally from official 
 sources) of the Bank of England, the private banks of London, and the Enghsh 
 provincial banks; the Scotch and Irish banks; and the most celebrated foreign 
 banks: to complete this department, an account of Savings' Banks is subjoined, 
 with a set of rules which may be taken as a model for such institutions.* There 
 is added to the article Coins a Table of the assay, weight, and sterling value 
 of the principal foreign gold and silver coins, deduced from assays made at the 
 London and Paris Mints, taken, by permission, from the last edition of Dr. Kelly's 
 
 Some of the improvements made on this article arc noticed in the Preliice to the Second Edition. 
 
xii 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Cambist, The article Colonies is one of the most extensive in the work : it con- 
 tains a sketch of the ancient and modern S3'stems of colonisation ; an examination 
 of the principles of colonial policy ; and a view of the extent, trade, population, 
 and resources of the colonies of this and other countries. In this article, and in 
 the articles Cape of Good Hope, Halifax, Quebec, Sydney, and Van Diemen's 
 Land, recent and authentic information is given, which those intending to 
 emigrate v/ill find worthy of their attention. The map of the British possessions 
 in North America is on a pretty large scale, and is second to none, of those 
 countries, hitherto published in an accessible form. It will be a valuable acqui- 
 sition for emigrants to Canada, Nova Scotia, &c. The article Colonies is also 
 illustrated by a map of Central America and the West Indies. An engraved plan 
 is given, along with the article Docks, of the river Thames and the docks from 
 Blackwall to the Tower ; and the latest regulations issued by the different Dock 
 Companies here and in other towns, as to the docking of ships, and the charges 
 on that account, and on account of the loading, unloading, warehousing, &c. of 
 goods, are given verbatim. The statements in the articles Light-houses and 
 Pilotage have been mostly furnished by the Trinity House, or derived from 
 Parliamentary papers, and may be implicitly relied upon. In the,article Weights 
 and Measures the reader will find tables of the equivalents of Wine, ale, and 
 Winchester measures, in Imperial measure.* 
 
 VI. Besides a general article on the constitution, advantages, and disadvan- 
 tages of Companies, accounts are given of the principal associations existing in 
 Great Britain for the purpose of conducting commercial undertakings, or under- 
 takings subordinate to and connected with commerce. Among others (exclusive 
 of the Banking and Dock Companies already referred to) may be mentioned the 
 East India Company, the Gas Companies, the Insurance Companies, the 
 Mining Companies, the Water Companies, &c. The article on the East 
 India Company is of considerable length ; it contains a pretty complete sketch 
 of the rise, progress, and present state of the British trade with India ; a view 
 of the revenue, population, &c. of our Indian dominions ; and an estimate of 
 the influence of the Company's monopoly. We have endeavoured, in treating 
 of insurance, to supply what we think a desideratum, by giving a distinct and 
 plain statement of its principles, and a brief notice of its history ; with an account 
 of the rules and practices followed by individuals and companies in transacting the 
 more important departments of the business ; and of the terms on whicli houses, 
 lives, &c. are commonly insured. The pact of the article which peculiarly 
 respects marine insurance has been contributed by a practical gentleman of much 
 knowledge and experience in that branch. 
 
 VII. In addition to the notices of the Excise and Customs regulations affecting 
 particular commodities given under their names, the reader will find articles under 
 the heads of Customs, Excise, Importation and Exportation, Licences, 
 Smuggling, Warehousing, &c. which comprise most of the practical details as 
 to the business of the Excise and Customs, particularly the latter. The most 
 important Customs' Acts are^^iven with very little abridgment, and being printed 
 in small letter, they occupy comparatively little space. The article Tariff con- 
 tains an account of the various duties, drawbacks, and bounties, on the import- 
 ation and exportation of all sorts of commodities into and from this country. — 
 
 « The article Canals in this (the second) edition has been greatly enlarged. It is accompanied by 
 the map already referred to (see Preface to Second Edition) of the completed and proposed British Canalb, 
 llAiL-noAns, LiGiiT-iiousEs, &c. The latter have been laid down, by permission of the Trinity Houst^ 
 from a chart recently published by that corporation. 
 
 The article Docks is now, also, accompanied by a Chart of the Mouths of the Mersey and Dec, &c. 
 iSce Preface to Second Edition.) 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 xiii 
 
 (See Preface to Second Edition.) Wc once intended to give the tariffs 
 of some of the principal Continental states ; but from the frequency of the 
 changes made in them, they would very soon have become obsolete, and would 
 have tended rather to mislead than to instruct. But the reader will notwith- 
 standing find a good deal of information as to foreign duties under the articles 
 Cadiz, Dantzic, Havre, Naples, New York, Trieste, &c. 
 
 VI II. Among the articles of a miscellaneous description, may be specified 
 Aliens *, Apprentice, Auctioneer, Balance of Trade, Bankruptcy, 
 Contraband, Credit, Hanseatic League, Imports and Exports, Im- 
 pressment, Ionian Islands*, Maritime Law, Patents, Pawnbroking, 
 Piracy, Population*, Precious Metals, Prices, Privateers, Publicans, 
 Quarantine, Revenue and Expenditure*, Tally Trade *, Truck System*, 
 &c. 
 
 IX. Accounts are given, under their proper heads, of the principal emporiums 
 with which this country has any immediate intercourse ; of the commodities 
 usually exported from and imported into them ; of their monies, weights, and 
 measures ; and of such of their institutions, customs, and regulations, with respect 
 to commerce and navigation, as seemed to deserve notice. There are occasionally 
 subjoined to these accounts of the great sea-ports, pretty full statements of the 
 trade of the countries in which they are situated, as in the instances of Alexan- 
 dria, Amsterdam, Bordeaux, Cadiz, Calcutta, Canton, Copenhagen, 
 Dantzic, Havannah, Havre, Naples, New York, Palermo, Petersburgh, 
 Rio de Janeiro, Smyrna, Trieste, Vera Cruz, &c. To have attempted to 
 do this systematically would have increased the size of the Work beyond all 
 reasonable limits, and embarrassed it with details nowise interesting to the English 
 reader. The plan we have adopted has enabled us to treat of such matters as 
 might be supposed of importance in England, and to reject the rest. We believe, 
 however, that, notwithstanding this selection, those who compare this work with 
 others, will find that it contains a much larger mass of authentic information 
 respecting the trade and navigation of foreign countries than is to be found in any 
 other English publication, f 
 
 The reader may be inclined, perhaps, to think that it must be impossible to 
 embrace the discussion of so many subjects in a single octavo volume, without 
 treating a large proportion in a very brief and unsatisfactory manner. But, in point 
 of fact, this single octavo contains about as much letter-press as is contained in 
 two ordinary folio volumes, and more than is contained in Macpherson's Annals of 
 Commerce, in four large volumes quarto, published at 8/. Ss. ! This extraordinary 
 condensation has been eflfected without any sacrifice either of beauty or distinct- 
 ness. Could we suppose that the substance of the book is at all equal to its 
 form, there would be little room for doubt as to its success. 
 
 Aware that, in a work of this nature, accuracy in matters of fact is of prunary 
 importance, we have rarely made any statement without mentioning our autho- 
 rity. Except, too, in the case of books in every one's hands, or Dictionaries, 
 the page or chapter of the works referred to is generally specified ; experience 
 having taught us that the convenient practice of stringing together a list of 
 authorities at the end of an article is much oftener a cloak for ignorance than an 
 evidence of research. 
 
 Our object being to describe articles in the state in which they are offered for 
 sale, we have not entered, except when it was necessary to give precision or 
 
 * The articles marked * are new, 
 
 f For an account of the improvements effected in this department, see Preface to Second Editioa ' 
 
xiv 
 
 PIlEl'ACE. 
 
 clearness to their description, into any details as to the processes followed in 
 their manufacture. 
 
 Besides the maps ah'eady noticed, the work contains a map of the world, on 
 Mercator's projection, and a map of Central and Southern Europe and the Medi- 
 terranean Sea. These maps are on a hirger scale than those usually given with 
 works of this sort ; and have been carefully corrected, and compared with the 
 best authorities. 
 
 Such is a rough outline of what the reader may expect to meet with in this 
 Dictionary. We do not, however, flatter ourselves with the notion that he will 
 consider that all that has been attempted has been properly executed. In a work 
 embracing such an extreme range and diversity of subjects, as to many of which 
 it is exceedingly difficult, if not quite impossible, to obtain accurate information, 
 no one will be offended should he detect a few errors. At the same time we can 
 honestly say that neither labour nor expense has been spared to render the Work 
 worthy of the public confidence and patronage. The author has been almost 
 incessantly engaged upon it for upwards of three years; and he may be said 
 to have spent the previous part of his life in preparing for the undertaking.* 
 He has derived valuable assistance from some distinguished official gentlemen, 
 and from many eminent merchants; and has endeavoured, wherever it was 
 practicable, to build his conclusions upon official documents. But in very many 
 Instances he has been obliged to adopt less authentic data ; and he does not sup- 
 pose that he has had sagacity enough always to resort to the best authorities, or 
 that, amidst conflicting and contradictory statements, he has uniformly selected 
 those most worthy of being relied upon, or that the inferences he has drawn are 
 always such as the real circumstances of the case would warrant. But he has 
 done his best not to be wanting in these respects. Not being engaged in any sort 
 of business, nor being under any description of obligation to any political party, 
 there was nothing to induce us, in any instance, to conceal or pervert the truth. 
 We have, therefore, censured freely and openly whatever we considered wrong ; 
 but the grounds of our opinion are uniformly assigned ; so that the reader may 
 always judge for himself as to its correctness. Our sole object has been to 
 produce a work that should be generally useful, particularly to merchants and 
 traders, and which should be creditable to ourselves. Whether we have suc- 
 ceeded, the award of the public will show; and to it we submit our labours, 
 not with " frigid indifference," but with an anxious hope that it may be found 
 we have not misemployed our time, and engaged in an undertaking too vast 
 for our limited means. 
 
 The following notices of some of the most celebrated Commercial Dictionaries 
 may not, perhaps, be unacceptable. At all events, they will show that there is at 
 least room for the present attempt. 
 
 The Grand Dictionnaire de Commerce^ begun and principally executed by 
 M. Savary, Inspector of Customs at Paris, and completed by his brother, the 
 Abbe Savary, Canon of St. Maur, was published at Paris in 1723, in two volumes 
 folio: a supplemental volume being added in 1730. This was the first work of 
 the kind that appeared in modern Europe ; and has furnished the principal part 
 of the materials for most of those by which it has been followed. The under- 
 taking was liberally patronised by the French government, who justly considered 
 that a Commercial Dictionary, if well executed, would be of national importance. 
 
 The preparation of this new edition has cost nearly two years of additional labour. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 XV 
 
 Hence a considerable, and, indeed, the most valuable, portion of M. Savary's 
 work is compiled from Memoirs sent him, by order of government, by the 
 inspectors of manufactures in France, and by the French consuls in foreign coun- 
 tries. An enlarged and improved edition of the Dictionnaire was published at Ge- 
 neva in 1 750, in six folio volumes. But the best edition is that of Copenhagen, in 
 five volumes folio ; the first of which appeared in 1759, and the last in 1765. 
 
 More than the half of this work consists of matter altogether foreign to its 
 proper object. It is, in fact, a sort of Dictionary of Manufactures as well as of 
 Commerce; descriptions being given, which are, necessarily perhaps, in most 
 instances exceedingly incomplete, and which the want of plates often renders un- 
 intelligible, of the methods followed in the manufacture of the commodities 
 described. It is also filled with lengthened articles on subjects of natural his- 
 tory, on the bye laws and privileges of different corporations, and a variety of 
 subjects nowise connected with commercial pursuits. No one, however, need 
 look into it for any developement of sound principles, or for enlarged views. 
 It is valuable as a repertory of facts relating to commerce and manufactures at 
 the commencement of last century, collected with laudable care and industry ; 
 but the spirit which pervades it is that of a customs officer, and not that of a 
 merchant or a philosopher. " Souvent dans ses reflexions^ il tend plutot d egarer 
 ses lecteurs qu*d les conduire, et des maxhnes nuisibles au progres die com7nerce et 
 de rindustrie ohtiennent presqiie toujours ses eloges et son approbation.^' 
 
 The preceding extract is from the Prospectus, in one volume octavo, published 
 by the Abbe Morellet, in 1769, of a new Commercial Dictionary, to be completed 
 in five or probably six volumes folio. This Prospectus is a work of sterling 
 merit ; and from the acknowledged learning, talents, and capacity of its author for 
 laborious exertion, there can be no doubt that, had the projected Dictionary 
 been completed, it would have been infinitely superior to that of Savary. It 
 appears (Prospectus, pp. 353 — 373.) that Morellet had been engaged for a number 
 of years in preparations for this great work ; and that he had amassed a large 
 collection of books and manuscripts relative to the commerce, navigation, colo- 
 nies, arts, &c. of France and other countries. The enterprise was begun under 
 the auspices of M. Trudaine, Intendant of Finance, and was patronised by Messrs, 
 L'Averdy and Bertin, Comptrollers General. But whether it were owing to the 
 gigantic nature of the undertaking, to the author having become too much en- 
 grossed with other pursuits, the want of sufficient encouragement, or some other 
 cause, no part of the proposed Dictionary ever appeared. "We are ignorant of the 
 fate of the valuable collection of manuscripts made by the Abbe Morellet. His 
 books were sold at Paris within these few years. 
 
 A Commercial Dictionary, in three volumes 4to, forming part of the Encyclo^ 
 pedie Methodique, was published at Paris in 1783. It is very unequally executed, 
 and contains numerous articles that might have been advantageously left out. 
 The editors acknowledge in their Preface that they have, in most instances, been 
 obliged to borrow from Savary. The best parts of the work are copied from the 
 edition of the Traite General du Commerce of Ricard, published at Amsterdam 
 in 1781, in two volumes 4to.* 
 
 The earliest Commercial Dictionary published in England, was compiled by 
 Malachy Postlethwayt, Esq., a diligent and indefatigable writer. The first part 
 of the first edition appeared in 1751. The last edition, in two enormous foiio 
 volumes, was published in 1774. It is chargeable with the same defects as that 
 
 * This, when published, must have been a very valuable work. It is now, however, in a great measure 
 oosolele. 
 
xvi PREFACE. 
 
 of M. Savary, of which, indeed, it is for the most part a literal translation. The, 
 author has made no effort to condense or combine the statements under different 
 articles, which are frequently not a little contradictory ; at the same time that 
 many of them are totally unconnected with commerce. 
 
 In 1761, Richard Rojf, Esq. published a Commercial Dictionary in one pretty 
 large folio volume. The best part of this work is its Preface, which was contri- 
 buted by Dr. Johnson. It is for the most part abridged from Postlethwayt ; but 
 it contains some useful original articles, mixed, however, with many ahen to the 
 subject. 
 
 In 1766, a Commercial Dictionary was published, in two rather thin folio 
 volumes, by Thomas Mortimer, Esq., at that time Vice- Consul for the Nether- 
 lands. This is a more commodious and better arranged, but not a more valuable 
 work than that of Postlethwayt. The plan of the author embraces, like that 
 of his predecessors, too great a variety of objects ; more than half the work being 
 filled with geographical articles, and articles describing the processes carried on in 
 different departments of manufacturing industry ; there are also articles on very 
 many subjects, such as architecture, the natural history of the ocean, the land- 
 tax, the qualifications of surgeons, &c., the relation of which to commerce, 
 navigation, or manufactures, it seems difficult to discover. 
 
 In 1810, a Commercial Dictionary was published, in one thick octavo volume, 
 purporting to be by Mr. Mortimer. We understand, however, that he had but 
 little, if any thing, to do with its compilation. It is quite unworthy of the sub- 
 ject, and of the epoch when it appeared. It has all the faults of those by which 
 it was preceded, with but few peculiar merits. Being not only a Dictionary of 
 Commerce and Navigation, but of Manufactures, it contains accounts of the dif- 
 ferent arts: but to describe these in a satisfactory and really useful manner, 
 would require several volumes, and the co-operation of many individuals : so 
 that, while the accounts referred to are worth very little, they occupy so large a 
 space that room has not been left for the proper discussion of those subjects 
 from which alone the work derives whatever value it possesses. Thus, there is 
 an article of twenty-two pages technically describing the various processes of 
 the art of painting, while the general article on commerce is comprised in less 
 than two pages. The articles on coin and money do not together occupy four 
 pages, being considerably less than the space allotted to the articles on engraving 
 and etching. There is not a word said as to the circumstances which determine 
 the course of exchange ; and the important subject of credit is disposed of in 
 less than two Hues ! Perhaps, however, the greatest defect in the work is its total 
 want of any thing like science. No attempt is ever made to explain the prin- 
 ciples on which any operation depends. Every thing is treated as if it were em- 
 pirical and arbitrary. Except in the legal articles, no authorities are quoted 
 so that very little dependence can be placed on the statements advanced. 
 
 In another Commercial Dictionary, republished within these few years, the 
 general article on commerce consists of a discussion with respect to simple and 
 compound demand, and simple an4^ double competition : luckily the article does 
 not fill quite a page; being considerably shorter than the description of the 
 Kaleidoscope. 
 
 Under these circumstances, we do think that there. is room for a new Dictionary 
 of Commerce and Commercial Navigation : and whatever may be thought of our 
 Work, it cannot be said that in bringing it into the field we are ei^croaching on 
 ground already fully occupied. 
 
A 
 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 AND 
 
 COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION. 
 
 -A. AM, AuM, or Ahm, a measure for liquids, used at Amsterdam, Antwerp, Hamburgh, 
 Frankfort, &c. At Amsterdam it is nearly equal to 41 English wine gallons, at Antwerp 
 to 36^ ditto, at Hamburgh to 38^ ditto, and at Frankfort to 39 ditto. 
 
 AB ANDONMENT, in commerce and navigation, is used to express the abandoning 
 or surrendering of the ship or goods insured to the insurer. 
 
 It is held, by the law of England, that the insured has the right to abandon, and to 
 compel the insurers to pay the whole value of the thing insured, in every case " where, 
 by the happening of any of the misfortunes or perils insured against, the voyage is lost, 
 or not worth pursuing, and the projected adventure is frustrated; or where the thing 
 insured is so damaged and spoiled as to be of little or no value to the owner ; or where 
 the salvage is very high ; or where what is saved is of less value than the freight ; or 
 where further expense is necessary, and the insurer will not undertake to pay that 
 expense," &c (Marshall, book i, cap. 13. § 1.) 
 
 Abandonment very frequently takes place in cases of capture : the loss is then total, 
 and no question can arise in respect to it. In cases, however, in which a ship and cargo 
 are recaptured within such a time that the object of the voyage is not lost, the insured is not 
 entitled to abandon. The mere stranding of a ship is not deemed of itself such a loss as 
 will justify an abandonment. If by some fortunate accident, by the exertions of the 
 crew, or by any borrowed assistance, the ship be got off and rendered capable of con- 
 tinuing her voyage, it is not a total loss, and the insurers are only liable for the expenses 
 occasioned by the stranding. It is only where the stranding is followed by shipwreck, or 
 in any other way renders the ship incapable of prosecuting her voyage, that the insured 
 can abandon. 
 
 It has been decided, that damage sustained in a voyage to the extent of forty-eight 
 per cent, of the value of the ship, did not entitle the insured to abandon. If a cargo 
 be damaged in the course of a voyage, and it appears that what has been saved is less than 
 the amount of freight, it is held to be a total loss. — (Park on Insurance, cap. 9.) 
 
 When by the occurrence of any of the perils insured against the insured has acquired 
 a right to abandon, he is at liberty either to abandon or not, as he thinks proper. He is 
 in no case bound to abandon ; but if he make an election, and resolve to abandon, he must 
 abide by his resolution, and has no longer the power to claim for a partial loss. In some 
 foreign countries specific periods are fixed by law within which the insured, after being 
 infoi med of the loss, must elect either to abandon or not. In this country, however, no 
 particular period is fixed for this purpose ; but the rule is,, that if the insured determine 
 to abandon, he must intimate such determination to the insurers within a reasonable 
 period after he has got inteUigence of the loss, — any unnecessary delay in making this 
 intimation being interpreted to mean that he has decided not to abandon. 
 
 No particular form or solemnity is required in giving notice of an abandonment. It 
 may be given either to the underwriter himself, or the agent who subscribed for him. 
 
 The effect of an abandonment is to vest all the rights of the insured in the insurers. 
 The latter become the legal owners of the ship, and as such are liable for all her future 
 outgoings, and entitled to her future earnings. An abandonment, when once made, is 
 irrevocable. 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 ABATEMENT.— ACAPULCO. 
 
 In case of a shipwreck or other misfortune, the captain and crew are bound to exert 
 themselves to the utmost to save as much property as possible ; and to enable them to do 
 this without prejudice to the right of abandonment, our policies provide that, " in case of 
 any loss or misfortune, the insured, their factors, servants, and assigns, shall be at liberty 
 to sue and labour about the defence, safeguard, and recovery of the goods, and merchan- 
 dises, and ship, &c., without prejudice to the insurance ; to the charges whereof the in- 
 surers agi-ee to contribute, each according to the rate and quantity of his subscription." 
 
 " From the nature of his situation," says Mr. Serjeant Marshall, " the captain has an 
 implied authority, not only from the insured, but also from the insurers and all others 
 interested in the ship or cargo, in case of misfortune, to do whatever he thinks most con- 
 ducive to the general interest of all concerned ; and they are all bound by his acts. 
 Therefore, if the ship be disabled by stress of weather, or any other peril of the sea, the 
 captain may hire another vessel for the transport of the goods to their port of destination, 
 if he think it for the interest of all concerned that he should do so ; or he may, upon a 
 capture, appeal against a sentence of condemnation, or carry on any other proceedings for 
 the recovery of the ship and cargo, provided he has a probable ground for doing so ; or 
 he may, upon the loss of the ship, invest the produce of the goods saved in other goods, 
 which he may ship for his original port of destination ; for whatever is recovered of the 
 effects insured, the captain is accountable to the insurers. If the insured neglect to 
 abandon when he has it in his power to do so, he adopts the acts of the captain, and he 
 is bound by them. If, on the other hand, the insurers, after notice of abandonment, 
 suffer the captain to continue in the management, he becomes their agent, and they are 
 bound by his acts." 
 
 As to the sailors, when a misfortune happens, they are bound to save and preserve the 
 merchandise to the best of their power ; and while they are so employed, they are entitled 
 to wages, so far, at least, as what is saved will allow ; but if they refuse to assist in this, 
 they shall have neither wages nor reward. In this the Rhodian law, and the laws of 
 Oleron, Wisby, and the Hanse Towns, agree. 
 
 The policy of the practice of abandonment seems very questionable. The object of 
 an insurance is to render the insurer liable for whatever loss or damage may be incurred. 
 But this object does not seem to be promoted by compelling him to pay as for a total loss, 
 when, in fact, the loss is only partial. The captain and crew of the ship are selected by 
 the owners, are their servants, and are responsible to them for their proceedings. But 
 in the event of a ship being stranded, and so damaged that the owners are entitled to 
 abandon, the captain and crew become the servants of the underwriters, who had nothing 
 to do with their appointment, and to whom they are most probably altogether unknown. 
 It is admitted that a regulation of this sort can hardly fail of leading, and has indeed 
 frequently led, to very great abuses. We, therefore, are inclined to think that abandon- 
 ment ought not to be allowed where any property is known to exist; but that such pro- 
 perty should continue at the disposal of the owners and their agents, and that the under- 
 writers should be liable only for the damage really incurred. The first case that came 
 before the British courts with respect to abandonment was decided by Lord Hardwicke, 
 in 1744. Mr. Justice Buller appears to have concurred in the opinion now stated, that 
 abandonment should not have been allowed in cases where the loss is not total. 
 
 For further information as to this subject, see the excellent works of Mr. Serjeant 
 Marshall (book i. cap. 13. ) ; and of Mr. Justice Park (cap. 9.) on the Law of Insurance. 
 
 ABATEMENT, or Rebate, is the name sometimes given to a discount allowed for 
 prompt payment ; it is also used to express the deduction that is sometimes made at the 
 custom-house from the duties chargeable upon such goods as are damaged. This allow- 
 ance is regulated by the 6 Geo. 4. c. 107. § 28. No abatement is made from the duties 
 charged on coffee, currants, figs, lemons, oranges, raisins, tobacco, and wine. 
 
 ACACIA. See Gum Arabic. 
 
 ACAPULCO, a celebrated sea-port on the western coast of Mexico, in lat. 16° 50^' N., 
 long. 99^ 46' W. Population uncertain, but said to be from 4,000 to 5,000. The 
 harbour of Acapulco is one of the finest in the world, and is capable of containing any 
 number of ships in the most perfect safety. Previously to the emancipation of Spanish 
 America, a galleon or large ship, richly laden, was annually sent from Acapulco to 
 Manilla, in the Philippine Islands ; and at her return a fair was held, which was much 
 resorted to by strangers. But this sort of intercourse is no longer carried on, the trade 
 to Manilla and all other places being now conducted by private individuals. The exports 
 consist of bullion, cochineal, cocoa, wool, indigo, &c. The imports principally consist 
 of cotton goods, hardware, articles of jewellery, raw and wrought silks, spices, and 
 aromatics. Acapulco is extremely unheahhy ; and though it be the principal port on 
 the west coast of Mexico, its commerce is not very considerable. The navigation from 
 Acapulco to Guayaquil and Callao is exceedingly tedious and difllicult, so that there is but 
 little intercourse between Mexico and Peru. The monies, weights, and measures are the 
 same as those of Spain j for which see Cadiz. 
 
ACIDS. 
 
 3 
 
 ACIDS, are a class of compounds which are distinguished from all others by the 
 following properties. They are generally possessed of a very sharp and sour taste: 
 redden the infusions of blue vegetable colours; are often highly corrosive, and enter into 
 combination with the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides ; forming compounds in which 
 the characters of the constituents are entirely destroyed, and new ones i)roduced differing 
 in every respect from those previously existing. Tlie quality or strength of an acid is 
 generally ascertained, either by its specific gravity, which is found by means of the hydro- 
 meter, if the acid be liquid, or by the quantity of pure and dry subcarbonate of potass 
 or soda, or of carbonate of lime (marble), which a given weight of the acid re(juires 
 for its exact neutralisation. This latter process is termed Acidimetry, or the ascertain- 
 ing the quantity of real acid existing in any of the liquid or crystallised acids. 
 
 The principal acids at present known are, the Acetic, Benzoic, Boracic, Bromic, Car- 
 bonic, Citric, Chloric, Cyanic, Fluoric, Ferroprussic, Gallic, Ilydrobromic, liydriodic, 
 Iodic, Lactic, Malic, Margaric, Meconic, Muriatic or Hydrochloric, Nitrous, Nitric, 
 Oleic, Oxalic, Phosphoric, Prussic or Hydrocyanic, Purpuric, Saccholactic, Suberic, 
 Sulphurous, Sulphuric, Tartaric, Uric, and many others which it would be superfluous 
 to detail. It is the most important only of these, however, that will be here treated of, 
 and more particularly those employed in the arts and manufactures. 
 
 Acetic or pyroligneoics acid. — This acid, in its pure and concentrated form, is obtained from tlic fluid 
 matter which passes over in distillation, when wood is exposed to heat in close iron cylinders. This fluid 
 is a mixture of acetic acid, tar, and a very volatile ether ; from these the acid may be separated, after a 
 second distillation, by saturating with chalk, and evaporating to dryness ; an acetate of lime is thus pro. 
 cured, which, by mixture with sulphate of soda (Glauber's salt), is decomposed, the resulting coinpounda 
 beuigan insoluble sulphate of lime, and a very soluble acetate of soda; these are easily separated from 
 each other by solution in water and filtration ; the acetate of soda being obtained in the crystalline form 
 by evaporation. From this, or the acetate of lime, some manufacturers employing the former, others the 
 latter, the acetic acid is obtained by distillation with suljjhuric acid (oil of vitriol) ; as thus procured, it is 
 a colourless, volatile fluid, having a very pungent and refreshing odour, and a strong acid taste. Its 
 strength should be ascertained by the quantity of marble required for its neutralisation, as its specific 
 gravity does not give a correct indication. It is employed in the preparation of the acetate of lead 
 (sugar of lead), in many of the pharmaceutical compounds, and also as an antiseptic. 
 
 Vinegar is an impure and very dilute acetic acid, obtained by exposing cither weak wines or infusions 
 of malt to the air and a slow fermentation ; it contains, besides the pure acid, a large quantity of colouring 
 matter, some mucilage, and a little spirit; from these it is readily separated by distillation. The impurities 
 with which this distilled vinegar is sometimes adulterated, or with which it is accidentally contaminated, 
 are oil of vitriol, added to increase the acidity, and oxides of tin or copper, arising from the vinegar 
 having been distilled through tin or copper worms. These may be easily detected ; the oil of vitriol by 
 the addition of a little solution of muriate of barytes to the distilled vinegar, which, should the acid be 
 present, will cause a dense white precipitate ; and the oxides of tin or copper by the addition of water 
 impregnated with sulphureted hydrogen, Vinegar is em.ployed in many culinary and domestic operations, 
 and also very largely in the manufacture of the carbonate of lead (white lead). 
 
 Benzoic acid — exists naturally, formetl in the gum benzoin, and may be procured either by submitting 
 the benzoin in fine powder to repeated sublimations, or by digesting it with lime and water, straining off 
 the clear solution, and adding muriatic acid, which enters into combination with the lime, and the benzoic 
 acid, being nearly insoluble in water, falls as a white powder ; this may be further purified by a sublim. 
 ation. Benzoic acid is of a beautiful pearly white colour when pure, has a very peculiar aromatic odour, 
 and an acrid, acid, and bitter taste ; it is used in making pastilles and perfumed incense. This acid also 
 occurs in the balsams of Tolu and Peru, and in the urine of the horse and cow. 
 
 Boracic acid — is found in an uncombined state in many of the hot springs of Tuscany, as also at Sesso 
 in the Florentine territory, from whence it has received the name of Sessolin. In Thibet, Persia, and 
 South America, it occurs in combination with soda, and is imported from the former place into thi| 
 country in a crystalhne form, under the name of Tincal. These crystals are coated with a rancid, fatty 
 substance, and require to be purified by repeated solutions and crystallisations ; after w hich it is sold undei 
 the appellation of borax (bi-borate of soda) ; from a hot solution of this salt the boracic acid is readily ob- 
 tained, by the addition of sulphuric acid in slight excess ; sulphate of soda is formed, and the boracic 
 acid crystallises as the solution cools. When pure, these crystals are white, and have an unctuous greasy 
 feel ; they are soluble in alcohol, communicating a green tinge to its flame ; when fused it forms a trans- 
 parent glass, and has been found by Mr. Faraday to unite with the oxide of lead, producing a very 
 uniform glass, free from all defects, and well adapted for the purpose of telescopes and other astronomical 
 instruments. Borax is much employed in the arts, particularly in metallurgic operations as a flux ; also 
 in enamelling, and in pharmacy. 
 
 Carbonic acid. — This acid occurs very abundantly in nature, combined with lime, magnesia, barytes, 
 aerial acid, fixed air, mephitic acid ; from any of these it is easUy separated by the addition of nearly any 
 of the other acids. In its uncombined form, it is a transparent, gaseous fluid, having a density of Voo, 
 atmospheric air being unity ; it is absorbed to a considerable extent by water, and when the water is ren- 
 dered slightly alkaline by the addition of carbonate of soda, and a large quantity of gas forced into it by 
 pressure, it forms the well known refreshing beverage, soda water. This gas is also formed in very large 
 quantities during combustion, respiration, and fermentation. Carbonic acid gas is destructive of animal 
 life and combustion, and from its great weight accumulates in the bottoms of deep wells, cellars, caves, 
 &c., which have been closed for a long period, and numerous fatal accidents arise frequently to persons 
 entering such places incautiously; the precaution should always be taken of introducing a lighted candle 
 prior to the descent or entrance of any one ; for should the candle be extinguished, it would be dangerous 
 to enter until properly ventilated. The combinations of carbonic acid with the alkalies, earths, and 
 metallic oxides are termed carbonates. 
 
 Citric acid — exists in a free state, in the juice of the lemon, lime, and other fruits, combined however 
 with mucilage, and sometimes a little sugar, which renders it, if required to be preserved for a long 
 period, very liable to ferment; on this account, the crystallised citric acid is to be preferred. It is pre- 
 pared by saturating the lemon juice with chalk : the citric acid combines with the lime, forming an insoluble 
 compound, while the carbonic acid is liberated; the inso'uble citrate, alter being well washed, is to be 
 acted upon by dilute sulphuric acid, which forms sulphate of lime, and the citric acid enters into solution 
 in the water ; by filtration and evaporation the citric acid is obtained in colourless transparent crystals. 
 The chief uses to which it is applied are as a preventive of sea scurvy, and in making refreshing 
 acidulous or effervescing drinks; for which latter purposes it is peculiarly fitted from its very pleasant 
 flavour. 
 
 Fluoric acid — is found in the well known mineral fluor spar in combination with lime; from which it is 
 
 B 2 
 
4 
 
 ACIDS. 
 
 procured in the liquid form, by distillation with dilute sulphuric acid in a leaden or silver retort; the 
 receiver should be of the same material as the retort, and kept cool by ice or snow. 
 
 This acid is gaseous in its pure form, highly corrosive, and intensely acid ; it is rapidly absorbed by 
 water, communicating its properties to that fluid. Its chief use is for etching on glass, which it 
 corrodes with great rapidity. For this purpose a thin coating of wax is to be melted on the surface of the 
 glass, and the sketch drawn by a fine hard-pointed instrument through the wax ; the liquid acid is then 
 poured on it, and after a short time, on the removal of the acid and coating, an etching will be found in 
 the substance of the glass. A very excellent apphcation of this property, possessed by fluoric acid, is in 
 the roughing the shades for table lamps. All the metals, except silver, lead, and platina, are acted upon 
 by this acid. 
 
 Gallic acid. — The source from which this acid is generally obtained is the nut gall, a hard protuberance 
 produced on the oak by the puncture of insects. The most simple method of procuring the acid in its 
 pure form, is to submit the galls in fine powder to sublimation in a retort, taking care that the heat be 
 applied slowly and with caution ; the other processes require a very long period for their completion. 
 When pure, gallic acid has a white and silky appearance, and a highly astringent and slightly acid taste. 
 The nut galls, which owe their properties to the gallic acid they contain, are employed very extensively 
 in the arts, for dyeing and staining silks, cloths, and woods of a black colour ; this is owing to its forming 
 with the oxide of iron an intense black precipitate. Writing ink is made on the same principle: a very 
 excellent receipt of tlie late Dr. Black's is, to take 3 oz. of the best Aleppo galls in fine powder, 1 oz. sul. 
 phate of iron (green vitriol), 1 oz. logwood finely rasped, 1 oz. gum arabic, one pint of the best vinegar, 
 one pint of soft water, and 8 or 10 cloves ; in this case the black precipitate is kept suspended by the gum. 
 
 llydriodic acid, — a compound of iodine and hydrogen, in its separate form is of very little importance 
 In the arts; its combinations with potass, soda, and other of the metallic oxides, will be treated of 
 hereafter. 
 
 Malic acid — exists in the juices of many fruits, particularly the apple, as also in the berries of the 
 service and mountain ash. 
 
 Meconic acid — is found in opium, in combination with morphia, forming the meconate of morphia, on 
 which the action of opium principally depends. 
 
 Muriatic acid, or spirits of salts. — This acid (the hydrochloric of the French chemists) is manufactured 
 from the chloride of sodium (dry sea salt), by the action of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). The most econo- 
 mical proportions are 20 pounds of fused salt, and 20 pounds of oil of vitriol previously mixed with 
 an equal weight of water; these are placed in an iron or earthen pot, to which an earthen head and 
 receiver are adapted, and submitted to distillation ; the muriatic acid passes over in the vaporous form, 
 and may be easily condensed. The liquid acid thus obtained should have a specific gravity of ri7, 
 water being equal to 100; it has a strong acid taste, and a slight yellow colour; this is owing to a 
 small quantity of oxide of iron. By redistillation in a glass retort at a low temperature, it may 
 be obtained perfectly pure and colourless. It sometimes contains a little sulphuric acid ; this is detected 
 by a solution of muriate of barytes. Muriatic acid, in its uncombined state, is an invisible elastic 
 gas, having a very strong affinity for water; that fluid absorbing, at a temperature of 40° Fahrenheit, 480 
 times its volume, and the resulting liquid acid has a density of 121. So great is this attraction for water, 
 that when the gas is liberated into the air, it combines with the moisture always present in that medium, 
 forming dense white vapours. Its combinations with the alkalies, &c. are termed muriates ; those of the 
 greatest importance are, the muriates of tin, ammonia, barytes, and sea salt. The test for the presence 
 of muriatic acid in any liquid is the nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), which causes a curdy white pre- 
 cipitate. 
 
 Nitric acid, or aquafortis. — This, which is one of the most useful acidf with which the chemist is 
 acquainted, is prepared by acting upon saltpetre (nitre or nitrate of potass) with oil of vitriol : the pro- 
 portions best suited for this purpose are, three parts by weight of nitre and two of oil of vitriol ; or 100 
 nitre, and 60 oil of vitriol previously diluted with 20 of water ; either of these proportions will produce a 
 very excellent acid. When submitted to distillation, which should be conducted in earthen or glass 
 vessels, the nitric acid passes over in the form of vapour, and a biaulphate of potass (sal mixum) remains 
 in the retort. 
 
 Nitric acid of commerce has usually a dark orange-red colour, giving off copious fumes, and having 
 a specific gravity of 150, water being 100. It is strongly acid and highly corrosive. It may be obtained 
 perfectly colourless by a second distillation, rejecting the first portion that passes over. It is much 
 employed in the arts, for etching on copper-plates for engraving ; also, for the separation of silver from gold, 
 in the process of quartation. In pharmacy and surgery it is extensively used, and is employed for destroy- 
 ing contagious effluvia. Combined with muriatic acid, it forms aqua regia (nitro-muriatic acid), used as 
 a solvent for gold, platina, &c. This acid is frequently contaminated with the muriatic and sulphuric 
 acids ; these may be detected by the following methods. — A portion of the suspected acid should be diluted 
 with three or four times its volume of distilled water, and divided into two glasses ; to one of which 
 nitrate of silver Clunar caustic in solution) is to be added, and to the other, nitrate of barytes : if muriatic 
 acid be present, a white curdy precipitate will be thrown down by the former ; and if sulphuric, a white 
 granular precipitate by the latter. 
 
 Oxalic acid — occurs in combination with potass as binoxalate of potass in the different varieties of 
 sorrel, from whence the binoxalate of potass has been termed salt of sorrel. This acid is usually prepared 
 by the action of nitric acid upon sugar, evaporating the solution, after the action has ceased, to the con- 
 sistence of a syrup, and redissolving and recrystallising the crystals which are thus procured. 
 
 It is sold in small white acicular crystals, of a strongly acid taste and highly poisonous, and sometimes 
 in its external appearance bears a strong similarity to Epsom salts (sulphate of magnesia), which it has been 
 unfortunately frequently mistaken for. It is instantly distinguished from Epsom salts by placing a small 
 crystal upon the tongue ; when its strong acid taste, compared with the nauseous bitter of the sulphate of 
 magnesia, will be quite a sufficient criterion. In cases of poisoning however by this acid, lime, or chalk, 
 mixed with water to form a cream, should be immediately administered, the combinations of oxalic acid 
 with these substances being perfectly inert. It is employed in removing ink stains, iron moulds, &c. from 
 linen and leather; the best proportions for these purposes are, 1 oz. of the acid to a pint of water, 'ihe 
 most delicate test of the presence of oxalic acid is, a salt of lime or lime-water, with either of which it 
 forms a white precipitate, insoluble in water, but soluble in acids. Its combinations are termed oxalates. 
 
 Phosphoric acid — is of very little importance in a commercial point of view, except as forming with 
 lime the earth of bones (phosphate of lime). It is prepared by heating bones to whiteness in a furnace; 
 from this phosphoric acid is obtained by the action of sulphuric acid, still combined, however, with a 
 small quantity of lime. The action of nitric acid upon phosphorus, the latter being added gradually and 
 in small pieces, yields this acid in a state of purity ; its combinations are termed phosphates. 
 
 Prussic acid, or hi/droci/anic acid. — This acid, which is the most virulent and poisonous acid known, is 
 contained in peach blossoms, bay leaves, and many other vegetable productions, which owe their peculiar 
 odour to the presence of prussic acid. For the purposes of medicine and chemistry, this acid is prepared 
 either by distilling one part of the cyanuret of mercury, one part of muriatic acid of specific gravity ri.'j. 
 and six parts of water, six jiarts of prussic acid being collected; or, by dissolving a certain weight of 
 cyanuret of mercury, and passing a current of sulphureted hydrogen through the solution, until the 
 whole of the mercury shall be ])recipitated; if an excess of sulphureted hydrogen should be present, a 
 little carbonate of lead (white lead), will remove it ; on filtering, a colourless prussic acid will be obtained. 
 J}y the first process, which is the one followed at Apothecaries' Hall, the acid has a density 993, water 
 being equal to 1000 ; by the latter, it may bej>rocurcd of any required strength, depending on the quantity 
 
ACORNS.— ADAMANTINE SPAR. 5 
 
 of cyanurct of mercury dissolved. Tlie best test for the presence of this acid is, first to add a small quantity 
 of the protosulphate of iron (solution of green vitriol), then a little solution of potassa, and lastly diluted 
 sulphuric acid ; if prussic acid be preserit, i)russian blue will be formed. Its combinations are c alled prus. 
 siates or hydrocyanates ; when in its concentrated form, it is so rapid in its effects that large animals have 
 been killed in the short space of 80 seconds, or from a mirmtc to a minute and a half 
 
 Sulphurous acid — is formed whenever sulphur is burnt in atmospheric air: it is a sufTocating and 
 pungent gas, strongly acid, bleaches vegetable colours with great rapidity, and arrests the process of 
 vinous fermentation. For these purposes it is therefore very much employed, especially in bleaching 
 woollen goods and straws. Fermentation may be immediately arrested by burning a small quantity of 
 sulphur in casks, and then racking off the wine while still fermenting into them; this frequently givca 
 the wine a very unpleasant taste of sulphur, which is avoided by ihe use of sulphate of potass, made by 
 impregnating a solution of potass with sulphurous acid gas. 
 
 Sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol — called oil of vitriol from its having been formerly manufactured from 
 green vitriol (sulphate of iron). In some parts of the Continent this process is still followed. The method 
 generally adopted in this country, is to introduce nine parts of sulphur, intimately mixed with one part of 
 nitre, in a state of active combustion, into large leaden chambers, the bottoms of which are covered with 
 a stratum of water. Sulphurous and nitrous acid gases are generated, which entering into combination 
 form a white crystalline solid, which falls to the bottom of the chamber; the instant that the water 
 comes in contact with itj this solid is decomposed with a hi.ssing noise and effervescence, sulphuric acid 
 combines with the water, and nitrous gas is liberated, which combining with oxygen from the air of the 
 chamber, is converted into nitrous acid gas, again combines with sulphurous acid gas, and again falls to 
 the bottom of the chamber : this process continues as long as the combustion of the sulphur is kept up, or 
 as long as atmospheric air remains in the chamber; the nitrous acid merely serving as a means for the 
 transference of oxygen from the atmosphere to the sulphurous acid, to convert it into sulpfiuric acid. 
 The water is removed from the chamber when of a certain strength, and replaced by fresh. These acid 
 waters are then evaporated in leaden boilers, and finally concentrated in glass or platina vessels. As 
 thus manufactured, sulphuric acid is a dense oily fluid, colourless, intensely acid, and highly corrosive, 
 and has a specific gravity of 1,846, water being equal to 1,000. This acid is the most important with which 
 we are acquainted ; it is employed in the manufacture of the nitric, muriatic, acetic, phosphoric, citric, 
 tartaric, and many other acids ; also in the preparation of chlorine, for the manufacture of the bleaching 
 powder (oxymuriate of lime or chloride of lime), for the preparation of sulphate of mercury, in the manu- 
 facture of calomel and corrosive sublimate, and in innumerable other chemical manufactures. In the 
 practice of physic it is also very much employed. It usually contains a little oxide of lead, which is 
 readily detected by diluting the acid with about four times its volume of water, and allowing the sulphate 
 of lead to subside. Its combinations are denominated sulphates. The fuming sulphuric acid, as manu- 
 factured at Nordhausen, contains only one half the quantity of water in its composition. 
 
 Tartaric acid. — This acid is procured from the cream of tartar (bitartrate of potass), obtained by 
 purifying the crust which separates during the fermentation of wines by solution and crystallisation. 
 "When this purified bitartrate is dissolved, and lime or carbonate of lime added, an insoluble tartrate of 
 lime falls, which after washing should be acted upon by sulphuric acid ; sulphate of lime is thus formed, 
 and the tartaric acid enters into sohition, and may be obtained by evaporation and crystallisation. It is 
 employed very much in the arts, in calico-printing, as also in making effervescing draughts and powders 
 in pharmacy. 
 
 IJric acid — is an animal acid of very little importance, except in a scientific point of view : it exists in 
 the excrement of serpents, to the amount of 95 per cent., and forms the basis of many of the urinary 
 calculi and gravel 
 
 N. B. This article, and that on alkalies^ has been furnished by an able practical chemist. 
 
 ACORNS (Ger. Eicheln, Eckern ; Fr. Glands; It. Ghiande ; S^. Bellotas ; Rus. 
 Schedudii ; Lat. Glandes), the seed or fruit of the oak. Acorns formed a part of the 
 food of man in early ages, and frequent allusion is made in the classics to this circum- 
 stance ( Virgil, Georg. lib. i. lin. 8. ; Ovid. Met. lib. i. lin. 106, &c.). In some countries 
 they are still used, in periods of scarcity, as a substitute for bread. With us they aie 
 now rarely used except for fattening hogs and poultry. They are said to make, when 
 toasted, with the addition of a little fresh butter, one of the best substitutes for coffee. 
 Their taste is astringent and bitter. 
 
 A CO RUS ( Calamus aromaticus), sweet flag, or sweet rush, a red or knotty root, about 
 the thickness of the little finger, and several inches long. " The root of the sweet flag 
 has a pleasant aromatic odour, similar to that of a mixture of cinnamon and allspice. The 
 taste is warm, pungent, bitterish, and aromatic." — ( Thomson's Dispensatory.) The root, 
 which is used in medicine, was formerly imported from the Levant, but it is now obtained 
 of an equally good quality from Norfolk. 
 
 ACRE, a measure of land. The Imperial or standard English acre contains 4 roods, 
 each rood 40 poles or perches, each pole 272^ square feet ; and consequently each acre 
 = 43,560 square feet. Previously to the introduction of the new system of weights and 
 measures by the act 5 Geo. IV. cap. 74., the acres in use in different parts of England 
 varied considerably from each other and from the standard acre ; but these customary 
 measures are now abolished. The Scotch acre contains four roods, each rood 40 falls, 
 and each fall 36 ells ; the ell being equal to 37 -06 Imperial inches. Hence the Imperial 
 is to the Scotch acre nearly as 1 to 1:^, one Scotch acre being equal to 1-261 Imperial 
 acres. The Irish acre is equal to 1 acre 2 roods and 1 9j|'-j poles j 30^ Irish being equal 
 to 49 Imperial acres. 
 
 ADAMANTINE SPAR (Hind. Corundum), a stone so called from its hardness, 
 fouiid in India, Ava, China, &c., crystallised, or in a mass. It is ascertained to be a 
 species of sapphire. The Indian variety is the best. Colour grey, with shades of green 
 and light brown ; fracture foliated and sparry, sometimes vitreous. It is brittle, and 
 so hard as to cut rockr crystal and most of the gems. Specific gravity from 3-71 to 4-18. 
 The Chinese variety differs from the Indian in containing grains of magnetic iron ore 
 disseminated through it, in being generally of a darker colour, and having externally a 
 chatoyant lustre : its specific gravity is greater, and its hardness somewhat inferior. It 
 is employed to polish gems. 
 
 B 3 
 
6 ADJUSTMENT. — ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 ADJUSTMENT, in commercial navigation, the settlement of a loss incurred by the 
 insured. 
 
 In the case of a total loss, if the policy be an open one, the insurer is obliged to pay 
 the goods according to their prime cost, that is, the invoice price, and all duties and ex- 
 penses incurred till they are put on board, including the premium of insurance. Whether 
 they might have arrived at a good or a bad market, is held by the law of England to be 
 immaterial. The insurer is supposed to have insured a constant and not a variable sum ; 
 and in the event of a loss occurring, the insured is merely to be put into the same situ- 
 ation in which he stood before the transaction began. If the policy be a valued one, the 
 practice is to adopt the valuation fixed in it in case of a total loss, unless the insurers 
 can show that the insured had a colourable interest only, or that the goods were greatly 
 over-valued. In the case of all partial losses, the value of the goods must be proved. 
 
 " The nature of the contract between the insured and insurer is," says Mr. Justice 
 Park, " that the goods shall come safe to the port of delivery ; or, if they do not, that 
 the insurer will indemnify the owner to the amount of the value of the goods stated in 
 the policy. Wherever then the property insured is lessened in value by damage received 
 at sea, justice is done by putting the merchant in the same condition (relation being had 
 to the prime cost or value in the policy) in which he would have been had the goods 
 arrived free from damage ; that is, by paying him such proportion of the prime cost or 
 value in the policy as corresponds with the proportion of the diminution in value occa- 
 sioned by the damage. The question then is, how is the proportion of the damage to 
 be ascertained ? It certainly cannot be by any measure taken from the prime cost ; 
 but it may be done in this way : — Where any thing, as a hogshead of sugar, happens to 
 be spoiled, if you can fix whether it be a third, a fourth, or a fifth worse, then the da- 
 mage is ascertained to a mathematical certainty. How is this to be found out ? Not 
 by any price at the port of shipment, but it must be at the port of delivery, when the 
 voyage is completed and the whole damage known. Whether the price at the latter be 
 high or low, it is the same thing ; for in either case it equally shows whether the da- 
 maged goods are a third, a fourth, or a fifth worse than if they had come sound ; con- 
 sequently, whether the injury sustained be a third, fourth, or fifth of the value of the 
 thing. And as the insurer pays the whole prime cost if the thing be wholly lost, so if it 
 be only a third, fourth, or fifth worse, he pays a third, fourth, or fifth, not of the value for 
 which it is sold, hut of the value stated in the policy. And when no valuation is stated in 
 the policy, the invoice of the cost, with the addition of all charge, and the premium of 
 insurance, shall be the foundation upon which the loss shall be computed." 
 
 Thus, suppose a policy to be effected on goods, the prime cost of which, aU expenses 
 included, amounts to 1,000/. ; and suppose further, that these goods would, had they 
 safely reached the port of delivery, have brought 1,200Z., but that, owing to damage they 
 have met with in the voyage, they only fetch 800Z. ; in this case it is plain, inasmucli as 
 goods that would otherwise have been worth 1,200Z. are only worth 800/., that they have 
 been deteriorated one third ; and hence it follows, conformably to what has been stated 
 above, that the insurer must pay one third of Xhevr prime cost (1,000/.), or 333/. 6s. 8d. 
 to the insured. 
 
 In estimating the value of goods at the port of delivery, the gross and not the neti 
 proceeds of the sales are to be taken as the standard. 
 
 A ship is valued at the sum she is worth at the time she sails on the voyage insured, 
 including the expenses of repairs, the value of her furniture, provisions, and stores, the 
 money advanced to the sailors, and, in general, every expense of the outfit, to which is 
 added the premium of insurance. 
 
 When an adjustment is made, it is usual for the insurer to indorse upon the policy 
 " adjusted this loss at (so much) per cent." payable in a given time, generally a month, 
 and to sign it with the initials of his name. This is considered as a note of hand, and 
 as such is prima facie evidence of the debt not to be shaken, but by proving that fraud 
 was used in obtaining it, or that there was some misconception of the law or the fact 
 upon which it was made. See, for a further discussion of this subject, the article Marine 
 Insurance, Park on the Law of Insurance (cap. 6.), and Marshall (book i. cap. J 4.). 
 
 ADMEASUREMENT. Sec Tonnage. 
 
 ADVANCE implies money paid before goods are delivered, or upon consignment. 
 It is usual with merchants to advance from a half to two thirds of the value of goods 
 consigned to them, on being required, on their receiving invoice, bill of lading, orders to 
 insure them from sea risk, &c. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT, in its general sense, is any information as to any fact or 
 circumstance tliat has occurred, or is expected to occur ; but, in a commercial sense, it is 
 understood to relate only to specific intimations with respect to the sale of articles, the 
 formation and dissolution of partncrshijis, bankruptcies, meetings of creditors, &c. 
 Until last year, a duty of 3s. 6d. was charged upon every advertisement, long or short, 
 inserted in the Gazette, or in any newspaper, or literary work published in parts 
 
ADVICE. — ALCOHOL. 
 
 7 
 
 3T numbers. This duty added about 100 per cent, to the cost of advertising, for the 
 charge (exclusive of the duty) for inserting an advertisement of the ordinary length in 
 the newspapers rarely exceeds 3s. or 4s. In 1832, the duty produced 155,401/. in 
 Great Britain, and 15,249/. in Ireland. 
 
 Last year (1833) the duty on advertisements was reduced to Is. 6d. ; and this, we have no doubt, will 
 occasion such an increase of advertising as to prevent the revenue I'rom being materially injured by the 
 reduction. But, instead of being modified merely, this is a duty that ought to be wholly repealed. Its 
 operation is necessarily most unequal, and, in many instances, most oiipressive. Can any thing be more 
 glaringly unjust than to impose the same duty on a notice of the publication of a sixpenny pamphlet, or 
 of a servant being out of p'ace, as on an intimation of the sale of a valuable estate V But as it is alto- 
 gether impossible to impose the duty on an ad valorem principle, this injustice cannot be obviated so long 
 as it is maintained. In a commercial country, a duty on advertisements is peculiarly objectionable, inas- 
 much as it checks the circulation of information of much importance to mercantile men. We, there- 
 fore, hope that this unjust and impolitic tax may be speedily given up. Its abandonment would not cause 
 any diminution of revenue ; for it is abundantly certain that its loss would be more than made up by the 
 increased productiveness of the duties on paper and newspaper stamps. For an account of the operation 
 of the stamp duty on literature, see Books. 
 
 ADVICE, is usually given by one merchant or banker to another by letter, inform- 
 ing him of the bills or drafts drawn on him, with all particulars of date, or sight, the 
 sum, to whom made payable, &c. Where bills appear for acceptance or payment, 
 they are frequently refused to be honoured for want of advice. It is also necessary to 
 give advice, as it prevents forgeries : if a merchant accept or pay a bill for the honour of 
 any other person, he is bound to advise him thereof, and this should always be done 
 under an act of honour by a notary public. 
 
 AGARIC, a fungus growing on the trunks of trees. That produced in the Le- 
 vant from the larch is accounted the best. It is brought into the shops in irregular 
 pieces of different magnitudes, of a chalky whiteness, and very light. Tlie best is easily 
 cut with a knife, is friable between the fingers, and has no hard, gritty, or coloured veins. 
 It is used in medicine and dyeing. — (Lewis, Mat. Med.) 
 
 AGATE (popularly Cornelian), (Ger. Achat Tin. Achaat ; Ft. Agate ; It. Agata ; 
 Rus. Agat ; Lat. Achates). A genus of semi-pellucid gems, so called from the Greek 
 o.XO-T€S, because originally found on the banks of the river of that name in Italy. It is 
 never wholly opaque like jasper, nor transparent as quartz-crystal ; it takes a very high 
 polish, and its opaque parts usually present the appearance of dots, eyes, veins, zones, or 
 bands. Its colours are yellowish, reddish, bluish, milk-white, honey-orange, or ochre- 
 yellow, flesh-blood, or brick-red, reddish brown, violet blue, and brownish green. It is 
 found in irregular rounded nodules, from the size of a pin's head to more than a foot in 
 diameter. Th^ lapidaries distinguish agates according to the colour of their ground ; 
 the finer semi-transparent kinds being termed oriental. The most beautiful agates found 
 in Great Britain are commonly known by the name of Scotch pebbles, and are met with in 
 different parts of Scotland, but principally on the mountain of Cairngorm ; whence they 
 are sometimes termed Cairngorms. The German agates are the largest. Some very 
 fine ones have been brought from Siberia and Ceylon. They are found in great plenty 
 at the eastern extremity of the settlement of the Cape of Good Hope ; and are still met 
 with in Italy. But the principal mines of agate are situated in the little principality of 
 Rajpepla, in the province of Gujrat, fourteen miles distant from the city of Broach, 
 where they are cut into beads, crosses, snuff-boxes, &c. They are exported in con- 
 siderable quantities to other parts of India, and to this country ; and hence, perhaps, the 
 jewellers' term " broach." 
 
 AGENT. See Factor. 
 
 AGIO, a term used, to express the difference, in point of value, between metallic and 
 paper money ; or between one sort of metallic money and another. 
 
 ALABASTER (Ger. Alabaster ; It. Alabastro ; Fr. Albdtre ; Rus. Alabastr Lat, 
 Alabastrites). A kind of stone resembling marble, but softer. Under this name are con- 
 founded two minerals, the gypseous and calcareous alabasters ; they are wholly distinct 
 from each other when pure, but in some of the varieties are occasionally mixed together. 
 The former, when of a white or yellowish, or greenish coloui-, semi-transparent, and 
 capable of receiving a polish, is employed by statuaries. It is very easily worked, but is 
 not susceptible of a polish equal to marble. Calcareous alabaster is heavier than the 
 former ; it is not so hard as marble, but is notwithstanding susceptible of a good polish, 
 and is more used in statuary. The statuaries distinguish alabaster into two sorts, the 
 common and oriental. Spain and Italy yield the best alabaster. That produced at 
 Montania, in the papal states, is in the highest esteem for its beautiful whiteness. In- 
 ferior sorts are found in France and Germany. Alabaster is wrought into tables, vases, 
 statues, chimney-pieces, &c. 
 
 ALCOHOL, (ardent Spirit) (Fr. Esprit de Vin Ger. Weingeist ; It. Spirito 
 ardente, Spirito di Vino, Acquarzente), the name given to the pure spirit obtainable 
 by distillation, and subsequent rectification, from all liquors that have undergone 
 the vinous fermentation, and from none but such as are susceptible of it. It is light, 
 transparent, colourless, of a sharp, penetrating, agreeable smell, and a warm stimulating 
 
 B 4 
 
8 
 
 ALDER. — ALE AND BEER. 
 
 taste. It is quite the same, whether obtained from brandy, wine, whisky, or any other 
 fluid which has been fermented. The specific gravity of alcohol when perfectly pure is 
 from '792 to '800, that of water being 1,000 ; but the strongest spirit afforded by mere 
 distillation is about '820 ; alcohol of the shops is about '835 or "840. Alcohol cannot 
 be frozen by any known degree of cold. It boils at 174°. It is the only dissolvent of 
 many resinous substances; and is extensively used in medicine and the arts. — (Drs. 
 A. T. Thomson, TJre, Sec.) 
 
 ALDER, the Betula alnus of botanists, a forest tree abundant in England and most 
 parts of Europe. It thrives best in marshy grounds and on the banks of rivers. It 
 rarely attains to a very great size ; its wood is extremely durable in water or in wet 
 ground ; and hence it is much used for piles, planking, pumps, pipes, sluices, and ge- 
 nerally for all purposes where it is kept constantly wet. It soon rots when exposed to 
 the weather or to damp ; and when dry, it is much subject to worms. The colour 
 of the wood is reddish yellow, of different shades, and nearly uniform. Texture very 
 uniform, with larger septa of the same colour as the wood. It is soft, and works easily. 
 — ( Tredgolcfs Principles of Carpentry. ) 
 
 ALE and BEER, well known and extensively used fermented liquors, the principle 
 of which is extracted from several sorts of grain, but most commonly from barley, after 
 it has undergone the process termed malting. 
 
 1. Historical Notice of Ale and Beer. — The manufacture of ale or beer is of very high 
 antiquity. Herodotus tells us, that owing to the want of wine, the Egyptians drank a 
 liquor fermented from barley (lib. ii. cap. 77.). The use of it was also very anciently 
 introduced into Greece and Italy, though it does not appear to have ever been very 
 extensively used in these countries. Mead, or metheglin, was probably the earliest 
 intoxicating liquor known in the North of Europe. Ale or beer was, however, in com- 
 mon use in Germany in the time of Tacitvis (Morib. Germ. cap. 23.). " All ^ the 
 nations," says Pliny, " who inhabit the West of Europe have a liquor with which they 
 intoxicate themselves, made of corn and water (fruge madida). The manner of making 
 this liquor is somewhat different in Gaul, Spain, and other countries, and it is called by 
 many various names ; but its nature and properties are every where the same. The 
 people of Spain, in particular, brew this liquor so well that it will keep good for a long 
 time. So exquisite is the ingenuity of mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites, that 
 they have thus invented a method to make water itself intoxicate." — (Hist. Nat. lib. xiv. 
 cap. 22.) The Saxons and Danes were passionately fond of beer; and the drinking of 
 it was supposed to form one of the principal enjoyments of the heroes admitted to the 
 hall of Odin. — ( Mallefs Northern Antiquities, cap. 6, &c. ) The manufacture of ale was 
 early introduced into England. It is mentioned in the laws of Ina, King of Wessex ; 
 and is particularly specified among the liquors provided for a royal banquet in the reign 
 of Edward the Confessor. It was customary in the reigns of the Norman princes to regulate 
 the price of ale; and it was enacted, by a statute passed in 1272, that a brewer should 
 be allowed to sell two gallons of ale for a penny in cities, and three or four gallons for 
 the same price in the country. 
 
 The use of hops in the manufacture of ale and beer seems to have been a German 
 invention. They were used in the breweries of the Netherlands, in the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century ; but they do not seem to have been introduced into England till 200 
 years afterwards, or till the beginning of the sixteenth century. In 1530, Henry VIII. 
 enjoined brewers not to put hops into their ale. It would, however, appear that but 
 little attention was paid to this order; for in 1552 hop plantations had begun to be 
 formed. — (Beckmann's Hist. Invent, vol. iv. pp. 336 — 341. Eng. ed.) The addition of 
 hops renders ale more palatable, by giving it an agreeable bitter taste, while, at the same 
 time, it fits it for being kept much longer without injury. Generally speaking, the 
 English brewers employ a much larger quantity of hops than the Scotch. The latter 
 are in the habit of using, in brewing the fine Edinburgh ale, from a pound to a pound 
 and a half of hops for every bushel of malt. 
 
 2. Distinction between Ale and Beer, or Porter. — This distinction has been ably 
 elucidated by Dr. Thomas Thomson, in his valuable article on Brewing, in the Supple- 
 ment to the Encyclopaedia Britannica : — " Both ale and beer are in Great Britain 
 obtained by fermentation from the malt of barley ; but they differ from each other in 
 several particulars. Ale is light-coloured, brisk, and sweetish, or at least free from 
 bitter ; while beer is dark-coloured, bitter, and much less brisk. What is called porter 
 in England is a species of beer ; and the term *' jiorter " at present signifies what was 
 formerly called strong beer. The original difference between ale and beer was owing to 
 the malt from which they were prepared. Ale malt was dried at a very low heat, and 
 consequently was of a pale colour ; while beer or ])orter malt was dried at a higher tem- 
 perature, and had of consequence acquired a brown colour. This incipient charring had 
 developed a peculiar and agreeable bitter taste, wliich was communicated to tlie boor 
 along witli tlie dark colour. This bitter taste rendered beer more agreeable to tlio 
 
ALE AND BEER. 
 
 9 
 
 palate, and less injurious to the constitution than ale. It was consequently manufac- 
 tured in greater quantities, and soon became the common drink of the lower ranks in 
 England. When malt became high priced, in consequence of the heavy taxes laid upon 
 it, and the great increase in the price of barley which took place during the war of the 
 French revolution, the brewers found out that a greater quantity of wort of a given 
 strength could be prepared from pale malt tlian from brown malt. The consequence 
 was that pale malt was substituted for brown malt in the brewing of porter and beer. 
 We do not mean that the whole malt employed was pale, but a considerable proportion 
 of it. The wort, of course, was much paler than before ; and it wanted that agreeable 
 bitter flavour which characterised porter, and made it so much relished by most palates. 
 The porter brewers endeavoured to remedy these defects by seveial artificial additions. 
 At the same time various substitutes were tried to supply the place of the agreeable 
 bitter communicated to porter by the use of brown malt. Quassia, cocculus indicus, 
 and we believe even opium, were employed in succession ; but none of them was found " 
 to answer the purpose sufficiently. Whether the use of these substances be still per- 
 severed in we do not know ; but we rather believe that they are not, at least by the 
 London porter brewers." 
 
 3. Adulteration of Ale and Beer — substitution of Raw Grain for Malt. — The use 
 of the articles other than malt, referred to by Dr. Thomson, has been expressly forbidden, 
 under heavy penalties, by repeated acts of parliament. The act 56 Geo. 3. c. 58. 
 has the following clauses : — 
 
 " No brewer or dealer in or retailer of beer shall receive or have in his possession, or make, or use, or 
 mix with, or put into any worts or beer, any liquor, extract, calx, or other material or preparation for the 
 purpose of darkening the colour of worts or beer ; or any liquor, extract, calx, or other material or pre- 
 paration other than brown malt, ground or unground, as commonly used. in brewing ; or shall receive, or 
 have in his possession, or use, or mix with, or put into any worts or beer, any molasses, honey, liquorice, 
 vitriol, quassia, cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, Guinea pepper, or opium, or any extract or prepara- 
 tion of molasses, honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, Guinea pepper, or 
 opium, or any article or preparation whatsoever for or as a substitute for malt or /lops, upon pain that all . 
 such liquor, extract, calx, molasses, honey, vitriol, quassia, cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, Guinea 
 pepper, opium, extract, article, and preparation as aforesaid, and also the said worts and beer, shall be 
 I'orfeited, together with the casks, vessels, or other packages, and may be seized by any officer of excise; 
 and such brewer of, dealer in, or retailer of beer, so offending, shall for each offence forfeit 2( 0/. 
 
 " No druggist, or vender of or dealer in drugs, or chemist, or other person whatever, shall sell, send, 
 or deliver to any licensed brewer of, or dealer in, or retailer of beer, knowing him to be so licensed, or 
 reputed to be so licensed, or to any other person for, or on account of, or in trust for, or for the use of 
 such brewer, dealer, or retailer, any colouring, from whatever material made, or any other material or 
 preparation other than unground brown malt, for the purpose of darkening the colour of worts or beer ; 
 or any liquor or preparation heretofore or hereafter made use of for darkening the colour of worts or beer, 
 or any molasses or other articles, as mentioned in the first section, for or as a substitute for malt or hops 
 respectively ; and if any druggist, or vender of or dealer in drugs, or any chemist, or other person what- 
 ever, shall so do, all such liquor called colouring, and material or preparation for the purpose atbresaid, 
 and liquor and preparation used for darkening the colour of wortsorbeer, molasses, and article or jirepar- 
 ation to be used as a substitute for malt or hops, shall be forfeited, and may be seized by any ofhcer of 
 excise ; and the druggist, vender, dealer, chemist, or other person so offending, shall forfeit 5(jOZ." 
 
 By the act 1 Will. 4. c. 51. for the repeal of the ale and beer duties, it is enacted ( § 17.), " that no brewer 
 shall have in his brewery, or in any part of his entered premises, or in any mill connected with such 
 brewery, any raw or unmalted corn or grain ; and all unmalted corn or grain which shall be found in such 
 brewing premises or mill, and all malted corn or grain with which such unmalted corn or grain may have 
 been mixed, shall be forfeited, and may be seized by any officer, together with all vessels or packages in 
 which such raw or unmalted corn or grain shall be contained, or in which such unmalted corn or grain, 
 and the malted corn or grain with which the same may have been mixed, shall be contained ; and every 
 brewer shall for every such offence forfeit 200/." 
 
 4. Descriptions of Ale and Beer. — Previously to 1823 there were only two sorts of 
 beer allowed to be brewed in England, viz. strong beer, that is, beer of the value cf 
 16s. and upwards the barrel, exclusive of the duty; and small beer, or beer of the 
 value of less than 16s. a barrel, exclusive of the duty. In 1823, however, an act was 
 passed (4 Geo. 4. c. 51.) authorising the brewing, under certain conditions, of an i7i- 
 termediate beer. But this sort of beer was either not suited to the public taste, or, which 
 is more probable, the restrictions laid on the brewers deterred them from engaging 
 extensively in its manufacture. 
 
 This limitation and classification of the different sorts of ale and beer, according to 
 their strength, originated in the duties laid upon them; and now that these duties 
 have been repealed, ale and beer may be brewed of any degree of strength. This is an 
 immense advantage. 
 
 5. Regulations as to the Manufacture of Ale and Beer. — Since the abolition of the beer 
 duties, these regulations are very few and simple ; and consist only in taking out a 
 licence, entering the premises, and abstaining from the use of any article, other than 
 malt, in the preparation of the beer. A brewer using any place, or mash-tun, for the 
 purpose of brewing, without having made an entry thereof at the nearest excise office, 
 forfeits for every such offence 200/. ; and all the worts, beer, and materials for making 
 the same, together with the mash-tun, are forfeited, and may be seized by any officer. 
 — Brewers obstructing officers shall, for every such offence, forfeit 100/. — (1 Will. 4. 
 c. 51. §§ 15, 16.) 
 
 6. Licence Duties. — Number of Brewers. — The licence duties payable by brewers 
 
 -i 
 
10 
 
 ALE AND BEER. 
 
 of ale and beer, under the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 81., and the numbers of such licences granted 
 during the years 1829 and 1832 are as follow : — 
 
 Sums charged 
 for Licences. 
 
 Number of Licences 
 granted. 
 
 
 1829. 
 
 1832. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 2,854 
 
 8,593 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4,871 
 
 6,844 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 6,997 
 
 9,162 
 16,828 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 11,562 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 297 
 
 619 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 249 
 
 488 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 63 
 
 124 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 71 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 32 
 
 89 
 
 45 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 23 
 
 60 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 75 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 51 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 111 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 1,279 
 
 50 
 
 Common brewers of strong beer, not exceeding 20 barrels 
 Exceeding 20 and not exceeding 50 barrels 
 
 50 
 
 — 100 
 
 — 1,000 
 
 — 2,000 
 
 — 5,000 
 
 — 7,500 
 
 — 10,000 
 
 — 20,000 
 
 — 30,000 
 Exceeding 
 
 100 
 1,000 
 2,000 
 5,000 
 7,500 
 10,000 
 20,000 
 30,000 
 40,000 
 40,000 
 
 I5rewers of table beer only, not exceeding 20 
 Exceeding 20 and not exceeding 50 barrels 
 
 — 50 — 100 — 
 
 Exceeding - - - 100 — 
 
 Retail brewers of strong beer - _ - 
 
 parrels 
 
 Tlie great increase in the number of brewers in 1832, as compared with 1829, is to be ascribed to the 
 abolition of the beer duties in 1830. The increase since 1832 has not been very material. 
 
 N. B. The barrel contains 36 gallons, or 4 rirkins of 9 gallons each, Imperial measure. It is enacted 
 (1 Will. 4. c 51. S 7-)j that, from the 10th of October, 1830, brewers are to pay their licence duty according 
 to the malt used by them Ln brewmg, and that every brewer shall be deemed to have brewed one barrel of 
 beer for every two bushels of malt used by such brewer. 
 
 Account of the Number of Brewers, Licen.sed Victuallers, Persons licensed for the sale of Beer, to be 
 drunk on and off the Premises, &c. ; with the Quantities of Malt used by such Brewers, &c. in England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, during the Year 1835.— (Pari. Papery No. 259. Sess. 1836.) 
 
 Collections. 
 
 T«j,„r,i,»v „f 1 Number who brew their 
 Number of | ^^^^^ 
 
 Bushels of Malt consumed bj each 
 Class. 
 
 Brewers. 
 
 Victuallers. 
 
 Persons licensed to 
 sell Beer 
 
 Victuallers. 
 
 Persons licensed to 
 sell Beer 
 
 1 Brewers. 
 
 Victuallers. 
 
 Persons licensed to 
 sell Beer 
 
 To be 
 drunk on 
 
 the 
 Preniises. 
 
 Not to be 
 drunk on 
 
 the 
 Prem.ses. 
 
 To be 
 drunk on 
 
 the 
 Preniises. 
 
 Not to be 
 drunk on 
 
 the 
 Premises. 
 
 To be 
 drunk on 
 
 the 
 Preniises. 
 
 Not to be 
 drunk on 
 
 the 
 Premises. 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 2,0D9 
 
 34,551 
 17,026 
 
 35,536 
 
 4,ilS 
 
 25,962 
 335 
 
 14,810 
 
 987 
 
 16,412,440 
 
 988,800 
 1,829,58; 
 
 9,521,797 
 149,380 
 
 3,702,417 
 
 218,616 
 
 United ICing- 
 dom 
 
 2,5SG 
 
 
 .-.'•>/>,^6 
 
 4, lis 
 
 2^,907 
 
 
 987 
 
 10,2.-(l,S2; 
 
 9,671,177 
 
 .■5,702,417 
 
 218,616 
 
 It is enacted, (1 Will. 4. c. 51.,) that every person who shall sell any beer or ale in less quantities than 
 four and a half gallons, or two dozen reputed quart bottles, to be drunk elsewhere than on the premises 
 where sold, shall be deemed a dealer in beer. 
 
 7. Progressive Consumption of Ale and Beer. — Malt liquor early became to the labour- 
 ing classes of England what the inferior sorts of wine are to the people of France, at 
 once a necessary of life and a luxury : the taste for it was universally diffused. There 
 are, however, no means by which an estimate can be formed of the quantity actually 
 consumed previously to the reign of Charles II. But duties, amounting to 2s. 6d. a 
 barrel on strong, and to 6d. a barrel on small ale or beer, were imposed, for the first 
 time, in 1660. These duties being farmed until 1684, the amount of the revenue only 
 is known ; and as there are no means of ascertaining the proportion which the strong 
 bore to the small beer, the quantities that paid duty cannot be specified. But, since the 
 collection of the duty was intrusted to officers employed by government, accurate 
 accounts have been kept of the quantities of each sort of beer on which duty was paid, 
 as well as of the rate of duty and its amount. Now, it appears, that, at an average of 
 the ten years from 1684 to 1693 inclusive, the amount of ale annually charged with 
 duty was as follows : — Strong ale - - 4,567,293 barrels. 
 
 Small do - - 2,376,278 do. 
 
 Soon after the Revolution several temporary duties were imposed on ale and beer ; 
 but in 1694 they were consolidated, the established duties being then fixed at 4s. 9d. a 
 barrel on the strong, and at Is. 3d. on the small beer, instead of 2s. 6d. and 6d., which 
 had been the rates previously to 1 690. This increase of duty had an immediate efifect 
 on the consumption, the quantity brewed during the ten years from 1 694 to 1 703 being 
 as follows : — Strong ale - - - 3,374,604 barrels. 
 
 Small do. - - - 2,180,764 do. 
 
 The whole of this decrease must not, however, be ascribed to the increase of the beer 
 duties only ; the duties on malt and hops having been, at the same time, considerably 
 increased, operated partly, no doubt, to produce the tfllbct. 
 
ALE AND BEER. 
 
 11 
 
 During the five years ending with 1750, the ale brewed amounted, at an average, to 
 3,803,580 barrels of strong, and 2,162,540 barrels of small. — (^Hamilton's Principles 
 of Taxation, p. 255.) 
 
 The ale brewed in private families for their own use has always been exempted from 
 any duty ; and it may, perhaps, be supposed that the falling off' in the consumption, as 
 evinced by the statements now given, was apparent only, and that the decline in the 
 public brewery would be balanced by a proportional extension of the private brewery. 
 But, though there can be no doubt that the quantity of beer bre%w;d in private familit s 
 was increased in consequence of the peculiar taxes laid on the beer brewed for sale, it 
 is abundantly certain that it was not increased in any thing like the ratio in which the 
 other was diminished. This is established beyond all dispute, by the fact of the con- 
 sumption of malt having continued very nearly stationary, notwithstanding the vast 
 increase of population and wealth, from the beginning of last century down to 1750, 
 and, indeed, to 1830 ! — (See Malt.) Had the fact, as to malt, been different, 
 or had the demand for it increased proportionally to the increase of population, 
 it would have shown that the effect of the malt and beer duties had not been to lessen 
 the consumption of beer, but merely to cause it to be brewed in private houses instead 
 of public breweries : but the long continued stationary demand for malt completely 
 negatives this supposition, and shows that the falling off in the beer manufactured by 
 the public brewers has not been made up by any equivalent increase in the supply 
 manufactured at home. 
 
 I. An Account of the Quantity of the different Sorts of Beer made in England and Wales, in each 
 Year from 1787 to 1825, both inclusive, the Rate of Duty, and the total Produce of the Duties 
 (English Ale Gallons). 
 
 Years 
 ended 
 5th July. 
 
 Strong Beer. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty. 
 
 Table Beer. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty. 
 
 Small Beer. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty. 
 
 Total Amount of 
 Duty. 
 
 1787 
 1788 
 1789 
 1790 
 1791 
 1792 
 1793 
 1794 
 1795 
 1796 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1S03 
 1804 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 1808 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 1813 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 8*. Qd. 
 
 9 5 
 lO^O 
 
 4,426,482 
 4,304,895 
 4,437,831 
 4,525,950 
 4,754,588 
 5,082,293 
 5,167,850 
 5,011,320 
 5,037,804 
 5,504,453 
 5,839,627 
 5,784,467 
 5,774,311 
 4,824,306 
 4,735,574 
 5,345,884 
 6,582.516 
 5,265,623 
 5,412,131 
 5,443,502 
 5,577,176 
 5,571,360 
 5,513,111 
 5,753,319 
 5,902,903 
 5,860,869 
 5,382,946 
 5,624,015 
 6,150,544 
 5,982,379 
 5,236,048 
 5,364,009 
 5,629,240 
 5,296,701 
 5,575,830 
 5,712,937 
 6,177,271 
 6,188,271 
 
 6,500,664 — 
 
 35. Qd. 
 
 485,620 
 524,176 
 514,900 
 546,260 
 579,742 
 625,260 
 620,207 
 586,554 
 576,464 
 565,630 
 584,422 
 622,064 
 611,151 
 574,995 
 500,025 
 392,022 
 1,660,828 
 1,779,570 
 1,776,807 
 1,771,754 
 1,732,710 
 1,710,243 
 1,682,899 
 1,635,588 
 1,649,564 
 1,593,395 
 1,455,759 
 1,432,729 
 1,518,302 
 1,514,867 
 1,453,960 
 1,434,642 
 1,460,244 
 1,444,290 
 1,439,970 
 1,492,281 
 1,419,589 
 1,401,021 
 
 1,485,750 — 
 
 1,3-12,301 
 1,834,947 
 1,244,046 
 1,282,157 
 1,347,086 
 1,401,870 
 1,414,255 
 1,446,939 
 1,453,036 
 1,479,130 
 1,518,512 
 1,547,570 
 1,597,139 
 1,360,502 
 1,191,930 
 976,787 
 
 Intermediate 
 Beer. 
 
 9,559 
 
 j6'1, 932,922 
 1,889,580 
 1,935,303 
 1,977,796 
 2,078,602 
 2,2-0,164 
 2,254,454 
 2,188,973 
 2,198,460 
 2,385,234 
 2,524,748 
 2,510,267 
 2,507,872 
 2,106,671 
 2,048,695 
 2,321,198 
 2,782,263 
 2,810,768 
 2,883,746 
 2,898,926 
 2,961,859 
 2,956,704 
 2,924,845 
 3,040,218 
 3,116,407 
 3,089,774 
 2,837,048 
 2,955,280 
 3,227,102 
 3,142,676 
 2,763,420 
 2,825,468 
 2,960,&i4 
 2,792,779 
 2,931,912 
 3,005,696 
 3,230,594 
 3,234,237 
 
 3,401,296 15 0 
 
 It appears from the foregoing table, that the quantity of strong beer manufactured 
 by the public brewers had increased about a third since 1787 ; but the quantity of 
 malt consumed in 1787 was quite as great as in 1828; a fact, which shows conclu- 
 sively, either that the quality of the beer brewed in the public breweries has been 
 deteriorated since 1787, or that less, comparatively, is now brewed in private families; 
 or, which is most probable, that both effects have been produced. 
 
12 
 
 ALE AND BEER, 
 
 II. An Account of the Quantity of all the different Sorts of Beer, stated in Barrels, made in each Year, 
 from 5th of January 1S25 to 5th of January 1830; the Kates of Duty per Barrel in each Year, and 
 Total Amount thereof in each Year in England and Scotland. — {Pari. Paper, No. 190. Sess. 1830.) 
 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Years ended 
 3th January 
 
 Number of Barrels, Imperial Measure. * 
 
 Total Amount of 
 Duty. 
 
 Strong. 
 
 • 
 
 Rate per 
 Barrel. 
 
 Table. 
 
 Rate per 
 Barrel. 
 
 Intermediate. 
 
 Rate per 
 Barrel. 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 { 
 
 1828 [ 
 
 1829 ^ 
 
 1830 [ 
 
 7,008,143 
 4,177,225 
 2,512,767 
 3,895,226 
 2,500,043 
 3,941,519 
 2,617,691 
 3,569,364 
 2,379,930 
 
 s. d. 
 9 10 
 9 0 
 9 10 
 9 0 
 9 10 
 9 0 
 9 10 
 9 0 
 9 10 
 
 1,606,899 ~ 
 1,040,726 
 562,927 
 989,827 
 542,481 
 977,962 
 .552,457 
 879,879 
 500,590 
 
 S. d. 
 1 111 
 1 n 
 
 1 Hi 
 
 1 9i 
 
 1 Hi 
 
 1 9i 
 
 1 Hi 
 
 1 9i 
 
 1 Hi 
 
 6,160 
 ] 7,707 
 I 17,158 
 j 62,617 
 j 55,498 
 
 S. d. 
 4 11 
 
 je s. d. 
 
 3,m,179 10 4 
 3,265,441 14 6 
 
 3,128,047 9 0 
 
 3,217,812 2 11 
 
 2,917,828 8 4 
 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 [ 
 
 1828 [ 
 
 1829 1 
 
 1830 \ 
 
 133,903 
 116,594 
 5,545 
 102,769 
 9,250 
 101,475 
 17,248 
 94,387 
 16,566 
 
 s. d. 
 9 10 
 9 0 
 9 10 
 9 0 
 9 10 
 9 0 
 9 10 
 9 0 
 9 10 
 
 264,035 
 219,722 
 
 51,613 
 187,873 
 
 53,420 
 178,530 
 
 68,913 
 161,488 
 
 67,896 
 
 s. d. 
 1 Hi 
 1 9i 
 1 Hi 
 1 9i 
 1 Hi 
 1 9i 
 
 1 Hi 
 
 1 9i 
 1 lU 
 
 J- - 
 \- ■ 
 }■ - 
 ]■ ■ 
 
 S. d. 
 
 =£• s. d. 
 91,731 2 2 
 
 79,931 4 7 
 72,855 4 4 
 76,885 9 11 
 71,733 17 5 
 
 N. B. The duty on beer being repealed in 1830, there are no later accounts of the quantity brewed. 
 
 HL An Account of the Number of Barrels of Strong Beer exported in each Year, from 5th of January 1825 
 
 to 5th of January 1830. 
 
 
 Number of Barrels (Imperial Measure) 
 exported from 
 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 pl826 - 
 
 1 1827 
 Years ended 5lh of January - - ■{ 1828 
 
 1829 
 1 1830 
 
 53,013 
 42,602 
 59,471 
 71,842 
 74,902 
 
 1,827 
 1,679 
 2,509 
 3,304 
 3,131 
 
 9,855 
 10,000 
 11,261 
 14,499 
 15,207 
 
 The exports in 1832 were 70,130 barrels. 
 
 It has been contended by some, that the condition of the bulk of the people has 
 declined since the commencement of the late French war ; and that this decline, and 
 not the duties and restrictions on the manufacture and sale of malt and beer, has been 
 the real cause that the consumption of malt liquors continued stationary during the thirty 
 years ending with 1 830. But nearly four millions of persons were added to the population 
 of England and Wales during the eighteenth century, and it is admitted, on all hands, 
 that the condition of the middle and lower classes wa.s, at the same time, vastly im- 
 proved. Instead, however, of increasing, as no doubt it would have done but for 
 some very powerful counteracting cause, we have seen that the consumption of malt 
 liqvior continued stationary during the whole of last century ; so that the fair presump- 
 tion is, that it continued stationary during that period of the present century already re- 
 ferred to, not because the people have become less able to purchase beer, but because 
 the same causes which formerly prevented the increase of consumption have continued 
 to operate. If we except a portion of the peasantry in seme of the southern counties, 
 where the pernicious practice of paying wages out of the poor's rates has been intro- 
 duced, it will be found that the condition of the labouring classes has been, speaking 
 generally, changed very much for the better during the last thirty years. Their health 
 has been remarkably improved ; a result which could hardly have taken place without 
 an improvement in their habits as to cleanliness, and in their ordinary accommodations ; 
 and, independent of this circumstance, the fact that the lower classes liave lodged up- 
 wards of fifteen millions sterling in Savings' Banks, and that upwards of a million of 
 them are members of Friendly Societies, shows pretty clearly that, though they may 
 not be anywhere so comfortable as could be wished, and though, in Kent, Hampshire, 
 and some other southern counties, they are exposed to very great privations, their con- 
 dition is, on the whole, superior to what it has ever previously been. It has further 
 been contended, that if the decline in the consumption of beer cannot be ascribed to any 
 
 * The ale gallon contains 282 cubic inches, and the Imperial gallon 277J : the latter being ' Va^t less 
 than the former. °^ 
 
ALE AND BEER. 
 
 13 
 
 falling off in the condition of the people, or in theu" power to purchase malt liquors, 
 the fair inference is, that it has originated in a change of taste ; and the increased con- 
 sumption of spirituous liquors that lias taken place of late years has been api)ea]ed to 
 in proof that such is the fact. IJut this increase has been very greatly exaggerated : 
 admitting, however, that the circumstances are really such as have been represented, 
 the question instantly recurs, to what is this change of taste owing? Hoav comes it 
 that the people of England should be less partial than heretofore to that palatable 
 and nutritious beverage to which they have been long accustomed, and that they 
 should be resorting to ardent spirits and other deleterious compounds, destructive 
 alike of their health and morals ? If we mistake not, it will be found to be wholly 
 owing to the duties and restrictions that have been laid on the manufacture and sale 
 of beer. 
 
 8. Duties on Ale and Beer : old licensing System. — The duty on malt is 20s. Sd. a 
 quarter ; on hops 2d. a pound ; and on strong beer, which forms five tenths of the whole 
 quantity brewed, the duty was 9s. \0d. a barrel. It is commonly estimated, that from 
 three to three and a halt" barrels of beer are manufactured from a quarter of malt ; and 
 that each quarter of malt requires twelve pounds of hops. Now, supposing that three and 
 a quarter barrels of beer are produced from a quarter of malt, the duties affecting it, down 
 to the 10th of October, 1830, were 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Duty laid directly on malt - - 20 8 
 
 Beer duty on three and a quarter barrels - 31 11 
 
 Hop duty - - - 2 0 
 
 54s. Id. 
 
 and dividing this sum of 54s. Id. by 3^, thff duties affecting each barrel of beer will 
 be 17s. 
 
 Such duties are obviously oppressive. The price of barley does not at an average ' 
 exceed 35s. per quarter. But the duties on malt or beer produced from a quarter of 
 barley (exclusive of the hop duty) amounted to 52s. Id., being equal to 150 per cent, 
 upon the cost of the barley employed ! Need we seek elsewhere for the cause of the 
 stationary demand for malt liquors ? The taxes on wine, British spirits, tea, and coffee, 
 do not, in any case, exceed 100 per cent. Nor can there be a doubt that the dispro- 
 portionately heavy burden that has thus been imposed on the natural and healthy beverage 
 wf the lower classes has principally contributed to lessen its consumption, and to cause 
 them to resort to less salubrious substitutes. 
 
 In another point of view, the beer duties were still more indefensible. They affected 
 only that description of beer which was brewed for sale; and as all the higher classes 
 brewed their own beer, the duty fell only on the lower and middle ranks of the com- 
 munity, and particularly the former. It is singular, that a tax so grossly unequal and 
 oppressive should have been so long submitted to. Should the public necessities require, 
 at any future period, that an effort should be made to increase the revenue from beer, 
 the fair and proper method would be to increase the malt duties. They affect alike those 
 who brew the beer which they consume, and those who buy it from a public brewer. 
 Their increase would not require the employment of any additional officers ; for it is 
 obvious, that the same officers and regulations that serve to collect a duty of 20s. 8(/. 
 would equally serve to collect a duty of 30s. ; and, what is most important, an increase 
 of fliis sort would not require any interference with the process of brewing. 
 
 But besides the obstacles to the consumption of beer arising from the oppressive duties 
 with which it was burdened, the system recently in force of granting licences for its 
 sale, opposed obstacles that were hardly less formidable. Previously to 1830, no one 
 could open a house for the sale of beer without first obtaining a licence renewable 
 annually from tlie magistrates-; and as these functionaries were accustomed only to 
 grant licences to the occupiers of particular houses, the brewers naturally endeavoured, 
 in order to ensure the sale of their beer, either to buy up those houses or to lend money 
 upon them : and in many extensive districts a few large capitalists succeeded in engrossing 
 most of the public houses ; so that even the appearance of competition was destroyed, and 
 a ready market and good prices secured for the very worst beer ! 
 
 We, therefore, look upon the abolition of the beer duties, and the granting per- 
 mission to all individuals to retail beer upon taking out an excise licence costing 21. 2s., 
 as highly advantageous measures. The repeal of the duty has put an end to the unjust 
 distinction that previously obtained ; the poor man is no longer burdened with a heavy 
 tax, from which the noble and affluent of the land were exempted ; but all classes are 
 placed, in so far at least as the duties on beer are concerned, in the same situation. The 
 fall of price caused by the abolition of the duty, by rendering beer more easily obtainable, 
 will do much to check the consumption of spirits; and will, at the same time, powerfully 
 contribute to the health and comfort of the poor. The change in the mode of licensing 
 houses for the retail of beer has introduced into the trade that system of free competition 
 
14 
 
 ALE AND BEER. 
 
 that is so advantageous. It is no longer in the power of any combination of brewers to 
 maintain the price of beer at an unnatm-al elevation; and the public may now depend 
 on being supplied with malt liquors at the lowest price that will serve to indemnify the 
 brewers. 
 
 9. Complaints of the Increase of Beer Shops. — In despite, however, of what has now been 
 stated, it is strenuously objected to the late measure for licensing houses for the sale of 
 beer, that it has led to their excessive multiplication in different parts of the country, and 
 has, in consequence, had a most pernicious influence on the public morals : but there do 
 not seem to be any good grounds for sui3h statements. The whole number of public 
 houses licensed for the sale of beer and ale only in England and Wales, during the year 
 ended 31st of March, 1833, was 4,821 ; while 47,286 houses were licensed, during the 
 same year, for the sale of beer, ale, and spirits. — (Pari. Paper, No. 426. Sess. 1833.) 
 Whatever, therefore, may be the inconveniences arising from the number of the latter, it 
 does seem ludicrous to imagine that they can be materially increased by the opening of 
 the beer shops. On the contrary, we should think that every measure which has a 
 tendency to substitute beer shops for spirit shops must be advantageous ; and such is the 
 precise effect of the act 1 Will. 4. cap. 64. Its privileges are acquired by those only 
 who confine themselves to the sale of beer ; and until it has been shown that the drinking 
 of beer is less advantageous, or more pernicious, than the drinking of spirits, we shall not 
 be inclined to lay much stress on the complaints so frequently put forth as to the number 
 of beer shops. In order, however, to check their unnecessary multiplication, and to 
 ensure as far as possible the maintenance of good order in them, it might be expedient, 
 perhaps, to increase the license duty, and the security required from those applying for 
 a licence, and to facilitate the suppression of disorderly houses : but we protest against 
 any attempt to lessen the number of public houses by reviving the old licensing system, 
 with the injustice and jobbing inseparable from it, and from every modification of it. 
 
 10. Existing Regulations with respect to the Sale of Beer. — The sale of ale, beer, &c. by 
 retail in England, is now regulated by the act 1 Will. 4. c. 64., of which we subjoin a 
 pretty full abstract. 
 
 Licenses to be granted by commissioners of excise, or by persons authorised by them ; to cost 21. 2s. a 
 year : not to authorise the sale of wine or spirits ; not to be granted to sheriffs' officers, nor to any person 
 executing the legal process of any court of justice, nor to any person not being a householder assessed to 
 the parish. — § 2. 
 
 The party requiring such licence to enter into a bond to the commissioners, with one sufficient surety 
 in the penalty of 20/., or with two sufficient sureties in the penalty of 10/. each, for the payment of any 
 penalty or sum of money, not exceeding the amount of such 20/. or 10/. respectively, which shall be 
 incurred for any offence against this act by the party to whom such licence shall be granted ; and no person 
 licensed to soil beer by retail, or not being a householder paying the poor rates, shall be surety in any suca 
 bond. — § § 4, 5. 
 
 Every person who shall be licensed under this act, shall cause to be painted, in letters three inches at 
 least in length, in white upon a black ground, or in black upon a white ground, publicly visible and 
 legible, upon a board, to be placed over the door of the house in which such person shall be licensed, the 
 Christian and surname of the persons mentioned in such licence, at full length, together with the words 
 " Licensed to sell Beer by Retail ; " and every such person shall keep up such name and words during 
 all the time that auch _persoii shall continue so licensed, upon pain of forfeiting for every omission 10?. — • 
 \ 6. 
 
 No person to sell any beer by retail, under this act, after the expiration of any licence granted, nor m 
 any house not specified in such licence ; and any person selling beer by retail, not being duly licensed, as 
 the keeper of a common inn, ale-house, or victualling-house; or if any.such person, so licensed, shall deal 
 m or retail any wine or spirits, he shall, for every such offence, forfeit 20/., half to go to the informer and 
 half to the king ; such penalty to be recovered as other excise penalties ; and the powers of the excise act 
 7 & 8 G. 4. c. 53, &c. extended to this act. — ^ ^ 7, 8, 9. 
 
 Persons trading in partnership, and in one house, shall not be obliged to take out more than one licence 
 in any one year : provided also, that no one licence shall authorise any person to sell beer, in any other 
 than the house mentioned in such licence. — § 10 
 
 In cases of riot or expected riot or tumult, every person licensed under this act, and keeping any house 
 situate within their jurisdictions, shall close his house at any time which the justice or justices shall 
 direct; and every such person who shall keep open his house at or after any hour at which such justices 
 shall have so ordered or directed such house to be closed, shall be deemed to have not maintained good 
 order and rule therein, and to be guilty of an offence against the tenor of his licence. — \ 11. 
 
 livery person licensed to sell beer by retail, shall sell (except in quantities less than a half pint) by the 
 gallon, quart, pint, or half pint measure, sized according to the standard; and in default thereof, he shall 
 for every such offence forfeit the illegal measure, and pay not exceeding 40s., together with the costs of 
 the conviction, to be recovered within thirty days next after that on which such offence was committed, 
 before two justices ; such penalty to be over and above all penalties to which the offender may be liable 
 under any other act. — § 12. 
 
 Every seller of beer by retail, having a licence under this act, who shall permit any person to be guilty 
 of drunkenness, or disorderly conduct, in the house mentioned in such licence, shall forfeit the sums 
 following: for the first offence, not less than 40*. nor more than 5/., as the justices, before whom such' 
 retailer .shall be convicted, shall adjudge ; and for the second offence, any sum not less than [>l. nor more 
 than 10/. ; and for the third offence, any sum not less than 20/. nor more than 50/. ; and it shall be lawful 
 for the justices, before whom any such conviction for such third offence shall take place, to adjudge, it 
 they .shall think fit, that such offender shall be disqualified from .selling beer by retail for the space of 
 two years next ensuing such conviction, and also that no beer shall be sold by retail, by any per.son in the 
 house mentioned in the licence of such offender ; and if any person so licensed shall, knowingly, sell any 
 heer, ale, or porter, made otherwise than from malt and hoi)s, or shall mix, or cause to be mixed, any 
 drugs or other pernicious ingredients, with any beer .sold in his house, or shall fraudulently dilute, or in 
 any way adulterate, any such beer, such offender shall, for the first offence, forfeit not less than 10/. nor 
 more than 20/., and for the second such offence such otfonder shall be adjudged to be disqualified from 
 BcMing beer, ale, or porter, by retail, for the term of two years, or to forfeit not less than 20/. nor more than 
 50/., and shall be subject to a like penalty at every house where he shall commit such offence ; and if any 
 
ALE AND BEER. 
 
 15 
 
 person shall, during any term in which it shall not be lawful for beer to be sold by retail on the prcmiseg 
 of any offender, sell any beer by retail on such premises, knowing that it was not lawful to be soid, such 
 offender shall forfeit not less than 10/. nor more tlian m. ; every person suffering the conditions of the 
 hcence to be infringed to be deemed guilty of disorderly conduct — ^ 13. 
 
 Retailers' houses not to be open before four in the morning, nor after ten in the evening ; nor between 
 the hours often in the forenoon and one in the afternoon, nor at any time between the hours of three and 
 five in the afternoon, on any Sunday, Good Friday, Christmas-day, or any day appointed for a public fast 
 or thanksgiving ; and any person offending herein shall forfeit 40*. for every offence j every separate sale 
 to be deemed a separate offence. — ^ 14. 
 
 All penalties under this act, except for selling beer by any person not duly licensed, shall be recovered, 
 upon the information of any person before two justices in petty sessions; and every such penalty shall be 
 prosecuted for within three calendar months next after the offence ; and every person licensed under this 
 act, who shall be convicted before two justices, shall, unless proof be adduced to the satisfaction of sucJi 
 justices, that such person had been theretofore convicted before two justices, within the space of twelve 
 calendar months next preceding, be adjudged by such justices to be guilty of a first offience against this 
 act, and to forfeit and pay any penalty by this act imposed for such offence, or if no specific penalty be 
 imposed, then any sum not exceeding 5/., together with the costs of the conviction ; and if proof be 
 adduced to the satisfaction of such justices, that such person had been previously convicted, within the 
 space of twelve calendar months next preceding, of one such offence only, such person to be adjudged 
 guilty of a second offence against this act, and to forfeit and pay any penalty by this act imposed for such 
 offence, or if no specific penalty be so imposed, then any sum not exceeding 10/., together witli the costs 
 of conviction ; and if proof shall be adduced that such person had been previously convicted within the 
 space of eighteen calendar months next preceding, of two such separate offences, and if proof be adduced 
 that such person, so charged, is guilty of the offence charged against him, such person shall be adjudged 
 to be guilty of a third offence against this act, and to forfeit and pay any penalty imposed by this act, in 
 respect of such offence, or if no such specific penalty shall be imposed, then to forfeit and pay the sum of 
 50/., together with the costs of conviction. — ^ 15. 
 
 The party, convicted of any such third offence, may appeal to the general sessions, or quarter sessions, 
 then next ensuing, unless held within twelve days after conviction, and in that case, to tiie then next sub- 
 sequent sessions ; and, in such case, the party convicted shall enter into a recognizance, with two sureties, 
 personally to appear at the said general or quarter sessions, to abide the judgment of the court ; and to 
 pay such costs as shall be by the court awarded ; or, in failure of the party convicted entering into such 
 recognizance, such conviction shall remain good and valid; and the said justices who shall take such 
 recognizance, are also required to bind the person who shall make such charges to appear at such general 
 or quarter sessions, then and there to give evidence against the person charged, and, in like manner, to 
 bind any other person who shall have any knowledge of such offence; and it shall be lawful for the said 
 general or quarter sessions to adjudge such person to be guilty of such third offence against this act, and 
 such adjudication shall be final ; and it shall be lav/ful for such general or quarter sessions to punish suclr 
 offender by fine, not exceeding 100/., together with the costs of such appeal, or to adjudge the licence to 
 be forfeited, or that no beer be sold by retail in the house for the term of two years, and if such licence 
 shall be adjudged to be forfeited, it shall henceforth be void ; and whenever, in such case, the licence of 
 such offender shall be adjudged to be void, sucli offender shall be deemed incapable of selling beer, ale, or 
 porter, by retail, in any house kept by him, for the space of two years, to be computed from the time of 
 such adjudication ; and any licence granted to such person during such term shall be void. — ^ 16. 
 
 In default of payment of penalties, proceedings may be had against the sureties. — ^19. 
 
 Any person summoned as a witness, who shall neglect or refuse to appear, and not make such reasonable 
 excuse for such neglect, &c. as shall be admitted by such justices of sessions, or who, appearing, shall 
 refuse to be examined, shall, on conviction, forfeit not exceeding 10/. — ^ 20. 
 
 Offenders refusing or neglecting, within seven days after conviction, to pay the penalty imposed, and 
 any costs assessed, such justices may issue their warrant, to levy the amount by distress and sale, together 
 with the costs of distress and sale ; and in every such case, such offenders, if in custody, shall be forthwith 
 discharged ; but if the goods and chattels are not sufficient, such justices may commit the offender to the 
 common gaol or house of correction for not exceeding one calendar month, if the penalty shall not be 
 above bl. ; for not exceeding three calendar months, if the penalty shall be above 51. and not more than 
 10/. ; and for not exceeding .six calendar months, if the penalty shall be above 10/. ; provided, that when- 
 ever such offender shall pay to the gaoler or keeper, or to whomsoever such justices shall have appointed, 
 the penalty and costs, together with all the costs of apprehension and conveyance to gaol, at any time 
 previous to the expiration of the time for which such offender shall have been committed, such offijnder 
 shall be forthwith discharged. — § 21. 
 
 No conviction under this act, nor any adjudication made upon appeal therefrom, shall be quashed for 
 want of form, nor removed by certiorari. — § 27. 
 
 Every action against any justice, constable, or other person, for any thing done in execution of his duty 
 under this act, to be commenced within three calendar months, and not afterwards; and if any person be 
 sued, he may plead the general issue, and give the special matter in evidence. — § 28. 
 
 This act not to affect the two universities, nor the vintners' company in London; nor to prohibit the 
 sale of beer at fairs, as heretofore. 
 
 11. Scotch Ale and Beer Duties. — The duties on ale and beer in Scotland have been 
 for a lengthened period the same as in England. 
 
 At the union in 1707, the English duties on ale and beer were introduced into Scot- 
 land. But, besides strong and small beer, the Scotch had an intermediate species, which 
 they called two-penny, and which was their favourite beverage. The duty on this de- 
 scription of beer was fixed, at the union, at 2s. l^d. a barrel. For thirti/ years after its 
 imposition, the quantity of two-penny that paid duty was always above 400,000, and 
 .sometimes exceeded 500,000 barrels a year. But in 1760 the duty on two-penny was 
 increased to 3s. 41c?. and the consumption immediately fell off to between 100,000 and 
 200,000 barrels ! The quantity that paid duty in 1800 amounted to 149,803 barrels. 
 The manufacture of this species of beer ceased entirely in 1 802. 
 
 No account has been kept of the quantity of beer brewed in Ireland since 1809, when 
 it amounted to 960,300 barrels. — (Morewood on Intoxicatiiig Liquors, p. 353.) Per- 
 haps it may now amount to from 1,000,000 to 1,200,000 barrels. 
 
 1 2. Regulations as to the Exportation of Beer. — Ale or beer exported to foreign parts as 
 merchandise is allowed a drawback of 5s. the barrel of 36 gallons, Imp. nieas. But 
 before any debenture for the above drawback shall be paid, "the exporter or his prin- 
 cipal clerk or manager .shall make oath thereon, before the proper officer of excise, that 
 such ale or beer was put on board the exporting ship as merchandise to be sent beyond 
 
16 
 
 ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 seas, and no part thereof for the ship's use ; and that, according to the best of his know- 
 ledge and belief, the same has been brewed wholly from malt which has been charged 
 with and paid the duty of 2s. Id. a bushel, and shall also specify in such oath the time 
 when and the place where ; and the brewer, being an entered and licensed brewer for 
 sale, by whom such beer or ale was brewed, and that the quantity of malt used in 
 brewing was not less than two bushels (Imp. meas.) for every 36 gallons of such beer 
 or ale. Persons making false statements forfeit the sum of 200Z. and the debenture is 
 void. — (1 Will. 4. cap. 51. § 11.) 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, so called from its founder, Alexander the Great, the principal sea- 
 port of Egypt, on the coast of the Mediterranean. It is situate about 1 2 miles W. of the 
 Canopic mouth of the Nile; the Pharos being in lat. 31^ 12| N., long. 29° 53^' E. 
 The situation of this famous city was most admirably chosen. Until the discovery of 
 the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope, Egypt formed the natural seat of the 
 commerce between the eastern and western worlds ; and Alexandria was placed in the 
 most favourable position in Egypt for an emporium. It is the only port on the whole 
 northern coast of that country where there is, at once, deep water, and security for 
 shipping throughout the year. The ports of Rosetta and Damietta, the former on the 
 west, and the latter on the eastern arm of the Nile, are both difficult of entrance, 
 each having a bar, upon which there is always a dangerous surf. Ships bound for Alex- 
 andria avoid this serious inconvenience ; and by means of an artificial navigation, 
 stretching from the city to the western branch of the Nile, it has, for a while at 
 least, almost the same facilities of internal navigation that are enjoyed by the cities 
 referred to. 
 
 It may be proper, however, to mention that this artificial communication with the 
 Nile has not always been open. It existed in antiquity, but fell into decay during the 
 barbarism of more modern times. After being shut up for some centuries, it has 
 been re-opened by Mohammed Ali, who has dug a canal from Alexandria to Fouah 
 on the Nile, about 27 miles above Rosetta. This important work is 48 miles in 
 length, 90 feet in breath, and from 15 to 18 feet deep. It was opened in 1819; but 
 owing partly to the nature of the ground, partly to some defects in its construction, and 
 partly to the mud deposited by the water of the Nile, it is difficult to keep in repair ; 
 and cannot now, it is said, be navigated except during the period of the inundation. 
 Its free navigation at all periods would, however, be of the greatest advantage, not to 
 Alexandria only, but to all Egypt ; and it is believed that this might be secured by 
 facing the canal with brick, and putting it otherwise into good order. 
 
 Ports, 8fC.—The ancient city was situated a little more inland than the modern one, opposite to the 
 small island of Pharos, on which was erected the lighthouse, so celebrated in antiquity — {Ctesar de Bello 
 Civlli, lib. iii. cap. 112.) This island was, partly by artificial means, and partly by natural causes, gradually 
 joined to the land by a mound, and on this the new town is principally built. The isthmus and island 
 have now the form of a T, its head being N.E. and S.W. A square castle, or tower, built on a small islet or 
 rock, at the extremity of a mole projecting from the north-east angle of the city, is still called the 
 Pharos, and a light is regularly exhibited upon it. On each side of the city there is a port. That on the 
 western, or African side, called the Old Port, is by far the largest and best. It stretches from the town 
 westwards to Marabout, about six miles, and is about a mile and a half wide. It is bounded on the 
 north, partly by the western tongue or angle of the island on which the city is partially built, and 
 partly by rocks and sand banks. It has three entrances. The first, or that nearest the city, having 
 17 feet water, is about two miles S. W. from the large building, situated a little to the westward of the 
 town, called the palace ; but it is too narrow and difficult to be attempted by any one not thoroughly 
 acquainted with the port. The eastern side of the second or middle entrance is marked by buoys which 
 lie about two miles and three quarters S.W. from the palace ; it is about a quarter of a mile wide, and 
 nas, where shallowest, 27 feet water. The third or western entrance has its western boundary within 
 about three eighths of a mile from the east end of Marabout island ; it is about half a mile wide, and 
 has from 25 to 27 feet water in its shallowest places. This last is the best entrance. Ships, when in, 
 may anchor close to the town in from 22 to 40 feet water, and there is good anchorage in deep water 
 all along the shore. Foreigners were formerly excluded from this port; but this prohibition no 
 longer exists. 
 
 The New or Asiatic harbour is on the easterrf side of the town. A rock called the Diamond lies a 
 little to the east of the Pharos tower ; and ships entering the port ought to have this rock about a 
 cal)le's length on the right If they get much further to the left, they will come in contact with a shoal 
 which stretches westward from the'l'harillon, or little tower, on the east side of the port The water 
 immediately within the port S. W. from the Pharos is from3{) to 40 feet deep ; but the space for anchorage 
 is very limited, and is exposed to the northerly gales ; and the ground being foul and rocky, hempen cables 
 are very apt to chafe, and several accidents have happened in consequence to ships unprovided with iron 
 cables. Ordinary tides rise 2 feet ; but during the overflow of the Nile the rise is 4 feet. Variation IS^ 
 west. — (See Plan of Alexandria, by Lieut. Falbe.) 
 
 Ancient and Modem C%.— Under the Ptolemies and Romans, Alexandria was the first commercial 
 city in the world. It sutR'red greatly by its reduction by the Saracens in 640; but it continued to be a 
 place of considerable commercial imi')ortance til! the despotism of the Mamelukes and Turks, and tho 
 discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope, completed its ruin. Under the Ptolemies, the 
 population is l)elieved to have amounted to about ."OO.OOO, and the city was adorned by a vast number ot 
 magnificent structures. At present the population varies with the seasons of the year, but, when greatest, 
 it is not supposed to exceed 2.'j,()()() ; and may vary between this amount and l(),t)00 or 18,()(X). The 
 appearance of the modern town is most unpromising. " It may be justly said, that in the new city of Alex- 
 andria we find a poor orphan, whose sole inheritance has been the venerable name of its father. The vast 
 extent of the ancient city is contracted in the new, to a little neck of land, between the two ports. The 
 most superb temples are changed into j)lain mosques ; the most magnificent palaces into houses of a bad 
 structure ; the royal seat is become a prison for slaves ; an opulent and numerous people has given way 
 to a small number of foreign traders, and to a multitude of wretches, that are the servants of those on 
 whom they depend : a place formerly so famous for the extent of its conur.crcc, is no longer any thing 
 
ALEXANDHIA. 
 
 17 
 
 more than a mere place of embarking ; in fine, it is not a phoenix that revives from its own as!)C8, it is, at 
 most, a reptile, sprung from the dirt, the dust, and corrui)tion with which tlie Alcorau has infected the 
 wiiolo country " — [Norden's Travels, Eng. trans. 8voed. j). 37.) 'I'hore is reason, liowever, to think that 
 this striking (iescription, though accurate at the time when it was written (1737), conveys too unfavour- 
 able an idea ol tlie present state of Alexandria. 'J'lie vigorous government of Mohammed Ali, by intro- 
 ducing comparative security and good order into Egypt, has latterly revived the commerce of Alexandria, 
 which has again become a place of considerable importance in the trading world. 
 
 Trade of Alexandria. — The imports principally consist of cotton stufis, timber, hardware, iron and 
 tin, tobacco, machinery, ammunition, silk goods, woollens, staves, &c. The exi)orts consist of raw cotton, 
 wheat and barley, rice, linen, flax, linseed, sugar, coffee (from the Ked Sea), drugs, gums, sal-ammoniac, 
 saffron, wax, &c. 
 
 'I'he principal articles of importation into this country from Egypt are cotton, flax and linseed, senna, 
 and gum. Of these, cotton is by far the most important. We began to import it in 1823 ; and since 
 then the imi)orts have been as follows : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 1824 
 
 38,022 
 
 1827 
 
 22,450 
 
 1830 
 
 14,7.02 
 
 1825 
 
 111,023 
 
 1828 
 
 32,889 
 
 1S31 
 
 38,124 
 
 1826 
 
 47,6^1 
 
 1829 
 
 24,739 
 
 1832 
 
 41,183 
 
 In 1832, the French imported 25,807 bales of Egyptian cotton ; the imports at Trieste during the same 
 year were about .')0,00() bale's ; and those at Leghorn and Genoa were, together, about the same as at 
 Trieste. I'he l)ale of Egyptian cotton v/cighs about 220 lbs. This iniportant trade owes its existence 
 almost entirely to the exertions of the Pacha, by whom the cotton i)lantations have been established. 
 The cotton eximrted is all long>-staple, but of two sorts: one called in Egypt makko, and in England 
 connnon Egyptian; the other, the produce of sea-island seed, called in Eg>pt Sennaar, and in England 
 sea-island Egyptian. Besides these two descriptions, Egypt produces from 15,000 to 20,(/00 bales of short- 
 staple cotton, similar in quality to that of Smyrna, and chiefly consumed in the country. The cotton 
 brought from Egyi>t is found to be amongst the most useful that is grown : that raised from sea-island seed 
 ranks next to American sea-island. The exports from this country to Egy])t principally consist of cotton 
 goods and twist, earthenware, iron and steel, arms and ammunition, 8cc. Their real value amounted, in 1831, 
 to 122,832/. ; but besides what goes direct, a good deal of British produce finds its way to Egypt at second 
 hand from Malta, Smyrna, &c. Constantinople and the islands of the Archipelago are the great markets 
 for the wheat and other grain exported from Egypt, the quantity sent to them being sometimes very large. 
 The supplies are, however, extremely uncertain. Every thing in Egypt depends on the Nile; and 
 when it does not rise to the usual height, the crops are very much below an average. Beans are 
 extensively cultivated, and have sometimes been brought to England, but rarely, if ever, with advan- 
 tage to the importers. They are very inferior to English beans, and are peculiarly subject to the worm. 
 No oats are raised in Egypt, the horses being entirely fed upon barley. Besides cotton, the Pacha has 
 turned his attention to the culture of sugar, indigo, &c. The first has long been raised in Egypt, but 
 the exports are not very considerable. Silk is grown to some extent. The date-palm thrives in every 
 part of Egypt, and the fruit is largely exported. It is singular, that notwithstanding the luxuriance of 
 many of it's vegetable productions, Egypt should be entirely destitute of timber. — {Lords' Report of 
 IS^T, on llie Price 0' Fo7-eign Corn, Min. of Evid. p. 120., and private ivfo7-mation.) 
 
 In 1831, there entered the port of Alexandria 1,215 ships, of the burden of 198,299 tons. Of these, 
 the Austri^in were the most numerous; next, the English and Ionian; and then the French, Sardi- 
 nian, Spanish, &c. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept at Alexandria, as at Cairo, in current piastres, each piastre being equal to 
 40 paras, or medini, and each medijio to 30 asi>ers. The mednio is also divided into 8 borbi, or fi forli. A 
 purse contains 25,000 medini. The piastres struck in 1826 contain a great deal of alloy ; 15| or 16 i)iastres 
 = 1 Spanish dollar; hence 1 piastre — S^d. sterling, very nearly. Payments in transactions of any 
 importance are generally made in Spanish dollars. 
 
 Weights and Meas2{res. — The yard, or pik, — 26 8 English inches ; hence 100 piks = 74 '438 English 
 yards. The measures for corn are iUe rhebebe, and the quillot or kisloz ; the former — 4'36't English 
 bushels, the latter = 4 729 ditto. The cantaro or quintal ~ \00 rottoli, but the rottolo has different names 
 and weights : 1 rottolo forforo = '9347 lb. avoirdupois ; 1 rotfo/o xaidino — V3S5 lb. ditto; 1 rottolo xanro 
 or xaro — 2 07 lbs. ditto ; 1 rottolo mina — ViSl lb. ditto. — [Manuel Universel de Nelkcnbrecher.) 
 
 Duties. — With the exception of the commercial m.onopolies of the Pacha, and the arbitrary principles 
 on which he fixes the prices of commodities, there is nothing objectionable in his policy as to 
 commerce. The duties on imports are only 3 per cent. We believe, however, that a small increase of 
 the customs duty would comj-ensate the Pacha for the abolition of most of his monopolies; and thera 
 can be little doubt that his subjects would be materially benefited by the change. 
 
 Policy of the Pacha. — It is to be regretted that Mohammed Ali, who, in many 
 respects, is one of the most extraordinary persons of the age, should have no just idea 
 of the principles, by the adoption of which • his plans of improvement might be perpe- 
 tuated, and industry be rendered really floin-ishing. He leaves nothing to the discretion 
 and enterprise of individuals. He may, indeed, be said to be the sole proprietor, 
 manufacturer, farmer general, and wholesale merchaait of Egypt. He has monopolised 
 the entire foreign trade of the covmtry ; and has fixed the price to be paid for every 
 article to the cultivator, and the price at which it is to be sold to the foreigner. Hence 
 the extension of cultivation, and the growth of commerce and manufactures, have been 
 of no real advantage to the bulk of the nation ; and hence, also, the risk, in the event 
 of the reins of government falling into less vigorous or able hands, that the fabric of 
 apparent prosperity which the Pacha has been attempting to raise, may fall to pieces : 
 but we would fain hope that the influence of the many intelligent Europeans now in 
 Egypt, and the observation.s which the Egyjitians sent to England and France by the 
 Pacha cannot fail to have made upon the advant^iges resulting from the security of 
 property and the freedom of industry, may be instrumental in paving the way for the 
 gradual introduction of a more enlarged and liberal system. 
 
 Ancient Trade of Alexandria. — As already remarked, Alexandria was, for a long 
 series of years, — first under the Greek successors of Alexander, and subsequently under 
 the Romans, — the principal entrepot of the ancient world. Most part of the traffic be- 
 tween Asia and Europe that had at a more early period centered at Tyre, was gradually 
 
 C 
 
18 
 
 ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 diverted to this new emporluiTi. An intercourse between the ports on the eastern coast 
 of Egypt, and those on the o^jposite coast of Arabia, had svibsisted from a very early 
 period. That between Egypt and India was more recent. It was at first carried on by 
 ships, which having sailed down the Red Sea from Myos Hormos and Berenice, coasted 
 along the Arabian shores till they reached Cape Rasselgate, whence a short course 
 brought them to India near the mouth of the river Indus. This was the course fol- 
 lowed during the dynasty of the Ptolemies : but about 80 years after Egypt had been 
 annexed to the Roman empire, Hippalus, the comnnander of an Egyptian ship trading 
 to India, having observed the regular shifting of the trade winds, ventured to sail 
 with the western monsoon from the Straits of Babelmandeb right across the Arabian 
 Ocean ; and was fortunate enough, after a prosperous voyage, to arrive at J/Iusiris, in that 
 part of India now known by the name of the Malabar coast. Having taken on board a 
 cargo of Indian produce, Hippalus returned in safety with the eastern monsoon to 
 Egypt. This discovery was deemed of so much importance, that the name of the dis- 
 coverer was given to the wind which had carried him across the ocean to India: and 
 how trifling soever this voyage may now appear, those who consider that Hippalus had 
 no compass by which to direct his course, and that owing to this circumstance, and the 
 otherwise imperfect state of the art of navigation, the ancients seldom ventured out of 
 sight of land, even in seas with which they were well acquainted, will be forward 
 to admit that his enterprise and daring were nowise inferior to his success ; and 
 that he was well entitled to the gratitude of his contemporaries and the respect of 
 posterity. 
 
 From the epoch of this discoveiy, fleets traded periodically from Egypt to Musiris, 
 conveying the products of Eui'ope to India, and conversely. The Indian goods having 
 been landed at Myos Honnos and Berenice, were thence conveyed by caravans to 
 Coptos (the modern Kenne), on the Nile, where they were put on board lighters and 
 sent to Alexandria, whence they were distributed all over the western world. The 
 goods sent to India were conveyed to Myos Hormos and Berenice by the same route. 
 Myos Hormos was situated on the shore of the Arabian gulf, about a degree to the 
 north of the modern port of Cosseir. The distance from it to Coptos, in a straight 
 line, is about 70 English miles. Berenice was situated a good way further to the south, 
 being nearly under the tropic. It was built by Ptolemy Philadelphus. Its distance 
 from Coptos is stated by Pliny at 258 Roman miles ; the different resting places on the 
 road were determined by the wells, and the journey occupied about 12 days. Ptolemy 
 seems to have preferred this station to Myos Hormos, though the land carriage to 
 Coptos was so much further, from its greater proximity to the Straits of Babelmandeb, 
 and its lessening the voyage up the Red Sea. 
 
 Pliny says that the cost of the Indian commodities brought to Rome through Alex- 
 andria was increased a hundred fold (centuplicato veneant) by the expense of carriage, &c. 
 We suspect that this is a rhetorical exaggeration, meaning merely that their price was 
 very materially enhanced. If the increase was to any thing like the extent mentioned, 
 it must have been owing to the imposition of oppressive tolls and duties, for it could 
 not possibly have been occasioned by the mere expenses of conveyance. * — ( Pliyi. Hist. 
 Nat. lib. vi. cap. 23. ; Ameilhon, Commerce des Egyptiens, pp. 161 — 176. &c. ; Robertson's 
 Ancient India, note 20. &c. ) 
 
 Besides this important traflic, which supplied Rome and the western world with the 
 silks, spices, precious stones, and other products of Arabia and India, a great trade in 
 corn was carried on from Alexandria to Rome. Egypt, for a lengthened period, consti- 
 tuted the granary from which Rome, and afterwards Constantinople, drew the principal 
 part of their supplies ; and its possession was, on that account, reckoned of the utmost 
 consequence. Augustus employed merchantmen of a larger size than any that had 
 previously traded in the Mediterranean, to convey the corn of Egypt to Ostia. They 
 were escorted by ships of war. Tlte fleet received the names of sacra and felix enihole ; 
 and enjoyed several peculiar privileges. The ships belonging to it were the only ones 
 authorised to hoist the small sail called snpparum, when they drew near the coasts of 
 Italy. Some of the fast-sailing vessels attached to the fleet were sent on before, 
 to give notice of its approach ; and a deputation of senators went down to Ostia to 
 receive the ships, wJiich anchored amid the acclamations of an immense number of 
 spectators. The captains were obliged to make oath that the corn on board their ships 
 was that which had been delivered to them in Egypt, and that the cargoes were entire 
 as shi})ped. — (/fwe^. Commerce et Navigation des Anciens, cap. xlviii. ; Senec<e Epist. 
 cap. Ixxvii. Sec.) 
 
 * In the 16th century, the cost of Indian comiYioditios brought to Western Europe by way of Alexan- 
 dria and Alojjpo was about three times the cost of those brought by the C!\\ic of Good Hope. — (See 
 post. East India Company, Histori/of.) But Egypt wiis then occui)icd by the Mamchikes and Turks, 
 wlu) threw every sort of obstacle in the way of commerce, and loa<led it with the most oppressive 
 Kxactions, 
 
ALICANT. 
 
 19 
 
 Intercourse ivith India hy Alexandria. — These few details will, perhaps, serve to give 
 a faint idea of the importance of Alexandria in the commerce of antiquity. It is im- 
 possible, indeed, for any one to glance at a map of the world, or of the ancient hemi- 
 sphere, and not to perceive that Egypt is the natural entrepSt of the commerce between 
 Ilindostan and Europe. Nothing but the barbarism in which it has been so long in- 
 volved, could make the intercourse with India and the East be wholly carried on by 
 the Cape of Good Hope. The difficulty of navigating the Red Sea seems to have 
 been much exaggerated. Generally speaking, its westei-n side is shallow and infested 
 with coral reefs ; but on the Arabian side the water is deep and unobstructed ; and vessels 
 availing themselves of the proper seasons for sailing up and down the sea, may navigate 
 it expeditiously, and in perfect safety. — ( See Captain Chesney^s Report in Papers 
 relating to India, printed by order of the House of Commons, August 16. 1832.) 
 We have, therefore, little doubt that, in the event of good order and civilisation being 
 again established in Egypt, some considerable portion of the Indian trade will revert to 
 its ancient channel. There is not, we apprehend, much reason to think that the project 
 entertained by the Ptolemies, of cutting a canal across the Isthmus of Suez, will ever 
 succeed. The distance is not great, but, notwithstanding this circumstance, and the 
 flatness of the ground, the fact of its consisting almost wholly of moveable, parched 
 sand, presents obstacles to the undertaking, that Volney ( Voyage cn Syrie, 8fc. cap. xiv. ), 
 and other good^ judges, have declared insuperable. Tlie route by Cosseir (nearly the 
 same as that by Myos Hormos) seems, all things considered, to present the fewest 
 obstacles. The water in the port of Cosseir is deep, and the anchorage pretty good. — 
 (Ches7iey's Report.) The distance from Cosseir to Kenne (Coptos) may be taken at 
 about 70 English miles ; and it would not be very difficult to constiiict a road between 
 these points. After reacning Kenne, the goods would, as of old, be embarked on the 
 Nile for Alexandria, &c. Hence the importance, in a general point of view, of the 
 civilisation of Egypt. Even were it productive of no other consequences than the 
 facilitating of the correspondence between Europe and the East, it would not be easy 
 to overrate its importance; but the fair presumption undoubtedly is, that other results 
 •would follow ; and that the Mediterranean ports would in future derive the principal 
 part of their Indian commodities by-way of Alexandria. The more westerly European 
 ports would continue, we believe, to use the present channel of intercourse with India. 
 
 Whether these anticipations are ever destined to be realised, it is impossible to say ; 
 but the progress already made by Mohammed Ali in introducing a better order of 
 things into Egypt, and the present state of the Ottoman empire, which seems fast falling 
 to pieces, would appear to warrant the conclusion that important changes may be ex- 
 pected in the East. At all events, the brief statements now made, can hardly be deemed 
 out of place in a work intended to exhibit, however imperfectly, the history, principles, 
 and channels, as well as the details of commerce. 
 
 ALICANT, a sea-port town of Spain, in Valencia, in lat. 38° 20' 41" N., long. 0° SC 
 W. Population about 14,500, and declining. The port is an open and spacious bay, 
 between Cape de la Huerta on the north-east, and Isla Plana on the south, distant from 
 each other S. W. and N.E. about 10 miles. Ships may enter on any course between these 
 points, steering direct for the castle, which stands on an eminence about 400 feet high. 
 Those of considerable burden moor N. and S., distant from ^ to 1 mile from shore, in 
 from 4 to 8 fathoms water ; they are exposed to all winds from E. N. E. to S. by W. ; 
 but the holding ground is good, and there is no instance during the last twenty years of 
 a ship having been driven from her moorings. Small craft lie alongside the mole, which 
 is already 320 yards in length, and is to be projected still further into the sea. There 
 are no pilots. The trade of Alicant, though still considerable, h^s declined much within the 
 last few years ; a consequence partly of the emancipation of America from the Spanish 
 yoke, but more of the oppressive duties laid on the importation of most articles of foreign 
 produce into Spain — (see Barcelona), and the extensive smuggling carried on from 
 Cadiz and Gibraltar. Its exports consist principally of barilla, almonds, wine, and raisins, 
 with small quantities of olives, olive oil, brandy, figs, salt, wool, silk, anise, &c. The 
 barilla of Alicant, Avhich is of the finest quality, is almost wholly taken off by England. 
 The exports amount to from 50,000 to 90,000 quintals.* The celebrated sweet wine, 
 tent {vino tinto), is exported from this port, principally for Brazil ; a little dry wine goes 
 to Gibraltar. Almonds, of which about 10,000 quintals are exported, go mostly to 
 Hamburgh. The raisins are not of the finest quality ; those brought to England 
 are principally used in confectionary. Oil, which was formerly sent in large quan- 
 tities to South America, is now comparatively neglected. Dates are exported, and are 
 not unfrequently sold here as Barbary dates. The imports consist principally of linen, 
 salted fish, tobacco, grain, iron, timber, sugar, coffee, indigo, cochineal, cotton and 
 cotton stuffs, &c. The linens, of which from 350,000 to 500,000 yards are annually 
 
 • This is the consul's statement. Mr. Ingliss represents the exports as considerably greater. 
 
 C 2 
 
20 
 
 ALIENS. 
 
 imported, are furnished almost wholly by France and Genoa. In 1831, there entered 
 the port of Alicant 157 foreign vessels, of the burden of 16,715 tons; of these were, 
 British 54, burden 5,719 tons; French 45, burden 3,080 tons; Sardinian 40, burden 
 4,166 tons; Swedish 5, burden 1,350 tons, &c. 
 
 It was stated in the former edition of this work, that large quantities of Benicarlo 
 wine were shipped at Alicant for Cette : but this is a mistake; almost all the Benicarlo 
 being shipped from the northern ports of Valencia, and principally from Benicarlo, 
 whence it has its name. — {Ingliss''s Spain in 1830, p. 342.) 
 
 Shipping Charges. — These vary according to the burden of the ship, and the country to which she 
 belongs. On a ship of 300 tons unloading and loading mixed cargoes, they would be, including consulage, 
 as follows : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Swedish - - - 15 1 lOf 
 Russian - - - 14 11 lOf 
 Dutch - - - 13 19 6f 
 
 American - - - 13 17 lOf 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Spanish - - - 6 9 4 
 British - . - - 11 12 4| 
 French - - - 15 7 10 
 Danish - - . - 15 16 lOf 
 
 Custom-house Regulations. — A manifest of the cargo, the ship's tonnage, and number of crew, 
 must be presented within 24 hours after pratique being gii'en, when two officers are put on board to 
 jn-event smuggling. The consignees then make entry of the articles consigned to them, and obtain an 
 order to land and bring them to the Custom-house, where tliey are inspected and the duties ascertained ; 
 but before obtaining this order, the consignees must produce a certificate of origin from the Spanish 
 consul at the port of lading, if it be in a foreign country, for without this the entry is not allowed, and 
 the goods are deposited in the Custom-house until it be obtained. When the discharge is completed, the 
 vessel is searched by the surveyor, who reports having done so to the collector. To load the whole or 
 part of an outward cargo, tlie master has to report his intention to the collector, who gives his order per- 
 7nitting goods to be shipped, and the shippers make their specific entries wiipn the vessel is loaded, the 
 waiting officers make their return to the collector; who, on being presented with the receipts of the 
 captain of the i)ort and of the Pratique office for their respective charges, grants his clearance, upon which 
 a bill of health is obtained, and the vessel is clear for sea. 
 
 Wareliousing System. — Goods that may be legally imported, may be deposited in bonded warehouses for 
 twelve months, ])aying, in lieu of all charges, 2 per cent, ad valorem, but at the end of the year they must 
 be either taken for home consumption or re-shipped. The 2 per cent, is charged, whether the goods lie 
 for a day or the whole year. In charging duties, no allowance is made for waste or damage in the 
 warehouses. 
 
 Rates of Commission arc usually 2^ per cent, on sales and purchases ; | per cent is commonly charged 
 on the negotiation of bills. Goods a're commonly sold at 3 m.onths' credit. Ordinary discount at the rate . 
 of 6 i)er cent, per annum. 
 
 Alicant is not a favourable place for repairing ships, and provisions of all sorts are scarce and dear. 
 
 Vessels with foul bills of health, or coming from an infected or suspected place, though with clean bills, 
 are usually ordered to Port Mahon to perform quarantine. But vessels coming with clean bills obtain, 
 under ordinary circumstances, immediate pratique. 
 
 Monet/. Accounts are kept at Alicant in libras of 20 sueldos ; each sueldo containing 12 dineros ; the 
 
 libra, also called the peso, = 10 reals ; and a real of Alicant = 27'2 maravedis of plate, or 512 mara- 
 vedis vellon. The libra may be valued at os. 6d. sterling, and the real at 4j<f. ditto. 
 
 JVe'ghts and Measures. — The carga = 2^ quintals = 10 arrobas. The arroba consists either of 24 large 
 pounds, or of 36 small ditto; the latter having 12 Castilian ounces to the pound, the former 18. The 
 arroba := 27 lbs. 6oz. avoirdupois ; but at the Custom-house the arroba = 25 lbs. of 16oz. each. 
 
 The principal corn measure is the cahiz orcaffise, containing 12 barchillas, 96medios, or.iyg quartiUos. 
 The cahiz = 7 Winch, bushels, nearly. 
 
 The principal liquid measure is the cantaro of 8 medios, or 16 quartillos. The cantaro = 3-05 English 
 wine gallons. The tonnelada or ton contains 2 pipes, 80 arrobas, or 100 cantaros. 
 
 The yard or vara, divided into 4 palmos, is = 29 96, or very nearly 30 English inches. 
 
 {Consul's Answer to Circular Queries; Jngliss's Spain in 1830, vol. ii. p. 304. &c. ; Kelly's Cambist, 8(C.) 
 
 ALIENS. Accordhig to the strict sense of the term, and the interpretation of the 
 common law, all individuals born out of the dominions of the crown of England (alibi 
 natus) are aliens or foreigners. 
 
 It is obvious, however, that this strict interpretation could not be maintained without 
 very great inconvenience ; and the necessity of making exceptions in favour of the 
 children born of native parents resident in foreign countries was early recognised. The 
 25 Edw. 3. Stat. 2. enacts, that all children born abroad, provided hotJi the parents 
 ■were at the time of their birth in allegiance to tlie king, and the mother had passed the 
 seas by her husband's consent, might inherit as if born in England. And this relaxation 
 has been carried still further by several modern statutes : so that all children born out of 
 t/ie king's ligeance, whose fathers, or grandfathers by the father's side, were natural born 
 subjects, are now deemed to be themselves natural born subjects; unless their ancestors 
 were outlawed, or banished beyond sea for higli treason, or were, at the birth of sucli 
 children, in the service of a prince at enmity with Great Britain. 
 
 Naturalisation of Aliens. — Aliens may be naturalised by act of parliament, which puts them in exactly 
 the same condition as natural born subjects, except that they are incapable of being members of the Privy 
 Council of being elected to serve in parliament, or of holding any office of trust under the crown. 
 
 A denizen is an alien born, who has obtained letters patent, ex donatione regis, to make him an English 
 subject. He occupies a kind of middle station between a natural born subject and an alien. He may 
 acquire lands by purchase or devise, but not by inheritance ; and may transmit such lands to his children 
 born after his denization, but not to those born before. — {Blackstonc's Co?n. book i. cap. 10.) 
 
 An alien may ako b« naturalised by serving on board any of his Majesty's ships of war, in time of war, 
 for three years, or, if a proclamation has been issued to that effect, for two years. — (G Geo. 4. cap. 109. 
 
 16, 17.) 
 
 Influence of the Residence of Aliens. — There can be no doubt that, generally speaking, 
 tiie resort of foreigners to a coimtry, and their residence in it, arc highly conducive to its 
 interests. Those who emigrate in order to practi.se their calling in an old settled country, 
 are pretty uniformly distinguished for activity, enterprise, and good conduct. The 
 
ALIENS. 
 
 21 
 
 native inhabitants liave .so many advantages on their side, that it would be absurd to 
 suppose tliat foreigners should ever come into any thing like successful competition with 
 them, unless they were acquainted with some branch of trade or manufacture of wliicli 
 the others were ignorant, or possessed superior skill, industry, or economy, liut whether 
 aliens practise new acts, or introduce more perfect processes into the old, or display 
 superior economy, &c., their influx cannot fail to be of the very greatest advantage. 
 They practically instruct those among whom they reside in what it most concerns them 
 to know, that is, in those departments of art and science in which they are inferior to 
 others; and enable them to avail themselves of whatever foreign sagacity, skill, or j)rac- 
 tice has produced that is most perfect. It is not easy, indeed, to overrate the benefits 
 conferred on most countries by the resort of aliens. Previously to the invention of printing, 
 there was hardly any other way of becoming acquainted with foreign inventions and dis- 
 coveries ; and even now it is far easier to learn any new art, method, or process, from the 
 example and instruction of those familiar with its details, than from the best possible 
 descriptions. The experience, indeed, of every age and country shows that the progress 
 of nations in the career of arts and civilisation depends more on the freedom of commerce, 
 and on the liberality with which they have treated foreigners, than on dmost any thing 
 else. 
 
 English Legislation as to Aliens. — But, notwithstanding what has been stated above, 
 an antipathy to resident foreigners seems to be indigenous to all rude and uncivilised 
 nations. Whatever is done by them appears to be so much taken from the employment, 
 and, consequently, from the subsistence of the citizens ; while the advantages resulting 
 from the new arts or improved practices they introduce, for the most part manifest them- 
 selves only by slow degrees, and rarely make any impression on the multitude. Hence 
 the jealousy and aversion with which foreigners arc uniformly regarded in all countries 
 not far advanced in civilisation. The early Greeks and Romans looked upon strangers 
 as a species of enemies, with whom, though not actually at war, they maintained no sort 
 of friendly intercourse. " Hostis," says Cicero, " apud majores nostras is dicehatiir, quern 
 nunc peregrinum dicimus" — (Z)e Off. lib. i. cap. 12.) It may, therefore, be considered 
 as a striking proof of the good sense and liberality of those by whom it was framed, that 
 a clause is inserted in Magna Charta which has the encouragement of commerce for its 
 object ; being to the effect, that " all merchants (if not openly prohibited before) shall 
 have safe and sure conduct to depart out of and to come into England, to reside in and 
 go through England, as well by land as by water ; to buy and sell without any manner 
 of evil tolls, by the old and rightful customs, except in time of war ; and if they be of a 
 land making war against us, and such be found in our nation at the beginning of the 
 war, they shall be attached without harm of body or goods, until it be known unto us, 
 or our chief justice, how our merchants be entreated in the land making war against us j 
 and if our merchants be well entreated there, shall be so likewise here." 
 
 But until the era of Edward I. the stipulation in the Great Charter as to foreign mer- 
 chants seems to have been little attended to. It is doubtful whether, previously to his 
 reign, they could either hire houses of their own, or deal except through the medium of 
 some Englishman. But this intelligent prince saw the advantage that would result to 
 the trade and industry of his subjects from the residence and intercourse of Germans, 
 Flemings, Italians, and otlier foreigners, who, at that time, were very superior to the 
 English in most branches of manufactures and commerce. He, therefore, exerted him- 
 self to procure a repeal of some of the more oppressive restrictions on aliens, and gave 
 them a charter which conveyed considerable privileges.* Down, however, to the reign 
 of Edward III., it continued to be customary to arrest one stranger for the debt, and 
 even to punish him for the crimes and misdemeanors of others ! It may appear extraor- 
 dinary that the gross injustice of this barbarous regulation ever pennitted it to be 
 adopted ; and yet it was probably, at one period, the common law of most European 
 states. As soon, however, as the foundations of good order and civilisation began to be 
 laid, its operation was seen to be most pernicious. In 1325, Edward II. entered into a 
 convention with the Venetians, in which it was expressly stipulated that they should 
 have full liberty to come to England to buy and sell commodities, without being liable 
 for the debts or crimes of others. Conventions to the same effect were entered into with 
 other foreigners. At length, in 1353, this disgraceful practice was put an end to by 
 27 Edward 3. stat. ii. cap. 17. ; it being provided in this statute, not only that no 
 stranger shall be impeached for the trespass or debt of another, but that, in the event of 
 a war breaking out with any foreign power, its subjects, residing amongst us, shall be 
 warned thereof by proclamation, and be allowed forty days to arrange their afflurs, and 
 
 * Tliis charter was confirmed by Edward III. in 1328. Ariiong other clauses, it ha.s the following, viz. : 
 1st, That on any trial between foreigners and Englishmen, the jury sliall be half foreigners ; 2d, "That a 
 pro))cr person shall be appointed in London to be justiciary for Ibreign merchants ; and, Sd, That there 
 shall be but one weight and measure throughout the kingdom. — {Anderson, anno VoOx.) 
 
22 
 
 ALIENS. 
 
 to depart out of the kingdom ; and that, under special circumstances, this term may be 
 extended. There are few acts in the statute-book that reflect more credit on their pro- 
 posers, or that have been more advantageous than this. 
 
 In consequence of the encouragement given by Edward III. to such of the woollen 
 manufacturers of Flanders as chose to immigrate to England, a good many came over ; 
 and it is from their immigration that we may date the improvement and importance of tlie 
 Avoollen manufacture in this country. — (See Woollen Manufacture.) But this 
 policy, however wise and judicious, was exceedingly unpopular. The foreigners were 
 openly insulted, and their lives endangered, in London and other large towns ; and a few 
 of them in consequence returned to Flanders. Edward, however, was not to be driven 
 from his purpose by an unfounded clamour of this sort. A proclamation was issued, in 
 which every person accused of disturbing or attacking the foreign weavers was ordered 
 to be committed to Newgate, and threatened with the utmost severity of punishment. 
 In a parliament held at York, in 1335, an act was passed for the better protection and 
 security of foreign merchants and others, by which penalties Avere inflicted on all who 
 gave them any disturbance. This seems to have had the effect, for a while, at least, of 
 preventing any outrages. 
 
 The corporations of London, Bristol, and other great towns, have been at all times 
 the principal enemies to tlie immigration of foreigners. Perhaps, indeed, they were not 
 more hostile to them than to such of their own countrymen, belonging to another part 
 of the kingdom, as should have attempted to settle amongst them without being free 
 of their corporation. But in denouncing foreigners they had the national prejudice 
 on Iheir side ; and their attempts to confirm and extend their monopolies by their exclu- 
 sion were regarded as the noblest efforts of patriotism ! Edward III. was fully aware 
 of the real motives by which they were actuated, and steadily resisted their pretensions. 
 But in the reigns of his successors they succeeded better : some of these were feeble and 
 unfortunate, whilst others enjoyed the crown only by a disputed title, and in defiance of 
 powerful competitors. The support of the great towns was of the utmost consequence 
 to such princes, who, whatever might be their own opinion as to its policy, could hardly 
 venture to resist the solicitations of such powerful bodies to exclude strangers, and to 
 impose restrictions on commerce. From the death of Edward III. to the reign of 
 Elizabeth, the progress made by the country was not inconsiderable, but it was little 
 promoted by legislative enactments. Throughout the whole of this period, the influence 
 of corporations seems to have predominated in all matters relating to trade and the 
 treatment of foreigners ; and our legislation partook of the selfish, monopolising character 
 of the source whence it was principally derived. Were the acts and proceedings as to 
 aliens the only memorials of our policy from 1377 to 1560, we should certainly seem to 
 have retrograded materially during the interval. Some of these acts were passed with 
 so little consideration, and were so very absurd, that they had to be immediately repealed. 
 Of this sort was the statute of the 8 Henry 6. cap. 24., to the effect " that no English- 
 man shall within this realm sell, or cause to be sold, hereafter, to any merchant alien, 
 any manner of merchandises, but only for ready payment in hand, or else in merchandises 
 for merchandises, to be paid and contented in hand, upon pain of forfeiture of the same." 
 But as an enactment of this sort was very speedily found to be more injurious to our- 
 selves than to the foreigner, it was repealed in the following sessions. 
 
 The more tyrannical their conduct in other respects, the more were our princes disposed 
 to humour the national prejudice against foreigners. If not a cheap, it was, at least, an 
 easy method of acquiring popularity. In the very first parliament after the accession of 
 Richard III., a statute was passed full of the most ridiculous, contradictory, and un- 
 founded allegations as to the injury sustained by the influx of foreigners, and laying 
 them under the most oppressive restraints. Considering, indeed, the sort of treatment to 
 Avhich aliens were then exposed, it may excite surprise that they should ever have thought 
 of visiting the country ; and, in point of fact, it appears that the resort of foreign mer- 
 cliants to our ports was materially impaired by the statutes referred to, and others of the 
 same description. This is evident from the act 19 Henry 7. cap. 6., where it is stated 
 that <' woollen cloth is not sold or uttered as it hath been in divers parts," and that 
 " foreign commodities and merchandises are at so dear and exceeding high price, that 
 the buyer cannot live thereon." But in despite of this authoritative exposition of the 
 mischiefs arising from tlie restraints on aliens, and on trade, they were both increased in 
 the reign of Henry VIII. And it was not till the reign of Elizabeth tliat the preten- 
 sions of the corporations seem to have been disregarded, and an attemjit made to act, 
 not by starts, but consistently, on the jjolicy of Edward III. 
 
 The influx of foreigners during the reign of Elizabeth was occasioned chiefly by the 
 persecutions of the Duke of Alva and the Spaniards in the Low Countries. The friends 
 of the reformed religion, which, at the time, was far from being firmly established, and 
 the government, were glad to receive such an accession of strength ; and from the supe- 
 riority of the Flemings in connnerce and manufactures, the immigrants contributed 
 
ALIENS. 
 
 23 
 
 materially to tlie improvement of the arts in England. It would seem, however, that 
 the ministers of" Elizabeth contented themselves, perhaps that they might not excite the 
 public prejudice, with declining to enforce the laws against aliens, without taking any 
 very active steps in their favour. 
 
 In the reign of James I. the corporation of London renewed with increased earnest- 
 ness their complaints of aliens. In 1622, a proclamation was issued, evidently written 
 by James himself, in which, under pretence of keeping " a due temperament" between 
 the interests of the complainants and those of the foreigners, he subjects the latter to 
 fresh disabilities. 
 
 Since the revolution, more enlarged and liberal views as to the conduct to be followed 
 tvith respect to aliens have continued to gain ground : several of the restraining statutes 
 have fallen into disuse, while others have been so much modified by the interference of 
 tlie courts, which have generally been inclined to soften their severity, that their more 
 offensive provisions are become inoperative. In 1708, an act was passed, notwithstanding 
 the strenuous opposition of the corporations, for the general naturalisation of all foreign 
 protestants ; but the prejudice against them was still so powerful that it was repealed 
 within about three years. Some unsuccessful attempts have since been made to can y a 
 similar measure. One of these, about the middle of last century, occasioned the pub- 
 lication by Dr. Tucker of two excellent pamphlets, in which the policy of the natural- 
 isation act is most ably vindicated, and the arguments against it successfully exposed.* 
 But no such statute has hitherto been passed, and aliens still continue subject to various 
 disabilities. 
 
 Disabilities of Alkns. — The principal of these regards the possession of fixed property. It is ruled 
 that lands purchased by an alien for his own use, may be seized by the king. " If," says Bkickstonc, " he 
 could acquire a permanent property in lands, he mubt owe an allegiance, equally permanent v/ith that 
 property, to the king of England ; which would probably be inconsistent with that which he owes to his 
 own natural liege lord : besides that, thereby the nation might in him be subject to foreign influence, and 
 feel many other inconveniences. Wherefore by the civil law such contracts were made void, but the 
 prince had no such advantage of forfeiture thereby as with us in England." — {Commentaries, book i. 
 cap. 10.) 
 
 An alien cannot take a benefice without the king's consent, nor can he enjoy a place of trust, or take a 
 grant of lands from the crown. Aliens may, however, acquire property in money, goods, or other personal 
 estate, and may have houses for the purpose of their habitation, and for carrying on their business. They 
 may bring actions as to their personal effects, and may dispose of them by will. The droit d'aubaine [jus 
 albinatus, i. e. alibi natus), or the right of the crown to succeed to the effects of an alien at his death, so 
 long the custom in France, never obtained in England. If an alien abroad die intestate, his whole property 
 here is distributed according to the law of the country where he resided ; but such residence must have 
 been stationary, and not occasional, otherwise the foreign municipal regulations will not apply to the 
 property. 
 
 Aliens may trade as freely as natives ; and for these many years past, the duties of package and scavage 
 m the port of London, repealed in 183.'3, were the only peculiar duties with which they were buniened. 
 The statutes of Henry VIII. restraining alien artificers from working for themselves, are understood to 
 have been repealed by the stat. 5 Eliz, cap. 7. ; and they are quite at liberty to employ themselves as they 
 please. 
 
 Aliens indicted for felony or misdemeanor are tried by a jury of which half are foreigners ; a privilege 
 they have enjoyed, as already seen, with some partial interruptions, from the reign of Edward I. 
 
 Conditions of liesidcnce. — During the late war, aliens were placed under the surveillance of the police ; 
 they were obliged to send frequent reports of their residence, and of the mode in which they were 
 employed ; and were liable to be sent out of the kingdom at any moment by an order from the secretary 
 of state. The conditions under which they now reside amongst us are embodied in the 7 Geo. 4. cap. 5i. 
 
 Ihis act requires every master of a vessVl arriving from foreign parts to declare in writing the names, 
 rank, occupations, &c. of all aliens on boaid such vessel, or who have been landed from it any where 
 within the realm. Such declaration to bo made immediately on arrival : neglecting or refusing to make 
 it, or making a false one, is punished by tlie forl'eituie of 20/., and a further sum of 10/. for each alien in 
 such vessel, or landed from it within the realm. Aliens bomijide employed in the navigation of the vessel 
 are excepted. — ^ 1. 
 
 The act then goes on to lay down the conditions of residence, which are merely that every alien is 
 required to make a declaration and registry, renewed half yearly, or oftener if required by the secretary of 
 state, of his name, abode, and occupation. Aliens neglecting to make such declaration, or making a false 
 one, are, for every such offence, to forfeit any sum not exceeding 501., or be imprisoned any time not 
 exceeding six months, at the discretion of two justices. 
 
 Policy of the Laics as to Aliens. — The reasons assigned by Mr. Justice Blackstone 
 and others for preventing aliens from acquiring fixed property seem to be very unsatis- 
 factory. In small states there might be grounds, perhaps, for fearing lest the easy 
 admission of aliens to the rights of citizenship should give them an improper bias ; but 
 in a country like England, such apprehensions would be quite futile. In this respect 
 the example of Holland seems quite decisive. Notwithstanding the comparatively 
 limited population of that country, it was " the constant policy of the republic to make 
 Holland a perpetual, safe, and secure asylum for all persecuted and oppressed strangers ; 
 no alliance, no treaty, no regard for, nor solicitation of any potentate whatever, has at 
 any time been able to weaken or destroy, or make the state recede from protecting, those 
 who have fled to it for their own security and self-preservation." — {Projjosals fo7- amend- 
 ing the Trade of Holland, printed by authority. Lond. 1751.) 
 
 A short residence in the covmtry, and a small payment to the state, was all that was 
 required in Holland to entitle a foreigner to every privilege enjoyed by a native. And 
 
 • Historical Remarks on the late Naturalization Bill, 1751 ; Queries occasioned by the late Naturalization 
 Bill, 1752. 
 
 C 4 
 
24 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 
 it is of importance to remark, that it has not been so much as insinuated that this liberal 
 conduct was in any instance productive of a mischievous resuh. On the contrary, all 
 the highest authorities consider it as one of the main causes of the extraordinary progress 
 made by the republic in v/ealth and commerce. It is said in the official paper just 
 quoted, that " Throughout the whole course of all the persecutions and oppressions that 
 have occurred in other countries, the steady adherence of the republic to this fundamental 
 law has been the cause that many people have not only fled hither for refuge, with their 
 whole stock in ready cash, and their most valuable effects, but have also settled and 
 established many trades, fabrics, manufactures, arts, and sciences, in this country ; not- 
 withstanding the first materials for the said fabrics and manufactures were almost wholly 
 wanting in it, and not to be procured but at a great expense from foreign parts." ( Ibid. ) 
 
 With such an example to appeal to, we are warranted in affirming that nothing can 
 be more ridiculous than to suppose that any number of foreigners which it is at all likely 
 should ever come to England under the most liberal system, could occasion any political 
 inconvenience ; and in all other respects their immigration would be advantageous. A 
 general naturalisation act would, therefore, as it appears to us, be a wise and politic 
 measure. It might be enacted, that those only who had resided three or four years in 
 the country, and given proofs of their peaceable conduct, should be entitled to parti- 
 cipate in its advantages. 
 
 (Some parts of this article have been borrowed from the Treatise on Commerce written for the 
 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, by the author of this Work.) 
 
 ALKALIES. The distinguishing characters of these bodies are, a strong acrid and 
 powerfully caustic taste ; a corrosive action upon all animal matter, destroying its texture 
 with considerable rapidity ; exposed to the atmosphere, when in their caustic state, they 
 absorb carbonic acid with great rapidity, and become* carbonated (or mild). Their action 
 upon vegetable colours also affords us means by which the presence of an uncombined or 
 carbonated alkali may be detected ; the yellow colour of turmeric is changed to a red 
 brown tint when immersed into solutions containing them ; the blue colour of the litmus, 
 after being reddened by an acid, is again restored; the infusions of the red cabbage, the 
 violet, and many other purple vegetable colours, are converted to green. Litmus paper 
 reddened by carbonic acid is, however, the most delicate test of the presence of an alkali. 
 With the various acids they also combine, forming the very important and extensive class 
 of compounds generally called salts ; a salt being any compound formed by the union of 
 an acid with an alkali or a metallic oxide. 
 
 Alkalimetry. — The method by which the value of the alkalies, or carbonated alkalies, is determined, 
 being of considerable importance in a commercial point of view, we shall here treat it somewhat in detail. 
 It is an established fact, that 49 parts by weight of oil of vitriol of the specific gravity 1-8485, are exactly 
 equivalent to the neutralisation of 70 parts by weight of pure carbong^te of potash, or 48 of pure potass, or 5* 
 of carbonate of soda, or 32 of soda ; and that 70 parts of oil of vitriol will therefore be necessary to neutralise 
 100 parts of carbonate of potass : hence, by employing a glass tube of about two ounces' capacity, and 
 accurately divided into 100 equal parts, taking 70 grains of oil of vitriol, and diluting it with water, to 
 make the 100 measures complete, every measure of this dilute acid must be equal to a grain of pure car- 
 bonate of potass. The per centage of real carbonate of potass existing in any sample of pearlash may be 
 at once ascertained by taking 100 grains of the sample, dissolving it in hot water, straining, and adding 
 by degrees 100 measures of the test acid above mentioned ; the point of neutralisation (when it ceases to 
 afFect litmus paper or reddened litmus) being accurately ascertained, the residual acid will give the per 
 centage of impurities ; for instance, say that 75 measures of the dilute acid have been employed to render 
 100 grains of a sample of pearlash perfectly neutral, then we have ascertained that it contains '25 per cent, 
 impurities. The same process of course must be followed in examining samples of barilla or kelp, except 
 that the alkali contained in them, being carbonate of soda, 90-75 of oil of vitriol must be employed instead 
 of 70. The process recommended by Mr. Faraday, and in which he uses only one test acid, is as follows : — 
 Into a tube about three quarters of an inch in diameter, and nine and a half long, and as cylindrical as 
 possible throughout its whole length, 1,000 'grains of water are to be weighed, and the space occupied 
 marked on the tube by a fine file ; this space is then divided from above downwards into 100 equal parts. 
 At 23-44, or 76 56 parts from the bottom, an extra line should be made, and soda marked opposite to it j 
 at 48 96 potass should be marked in the same way ; at 54-63, carbonate of soda ; and at 65, carbonate of 
 potass. A diluted acid is now to be prepared, which shall have a specific gravity 1-127 ; and this is made 
 by mixing intimately together 19 parts by weight of oil of vitriol, and 81 of water. The method to be fol- 
 lowed in tiie employment of this acid is as follows : — The dilute acid is to he measured in the tube up to the 
 line opposite to which the alkali sought for is marked ; if barilla, which contains carbonate of soda, 54 63 
 measures are to be taken. The 100 measures are then made up by the addition of water, and is then 
 ready for use, following the method before stated. 
 
 The alkalies are four in number, namely, ammonia (or volatile alkali), potass (or vegetable alkali), soda 
 (or mineral alkali), and lithia ; wiiich last is of so little imjjortance that we shall not treat of it here. 
 
 The comljinations of these alkalies with the various acids, whenever they form compounds of any im- 
 portance, will be noticed. 
 
 Amtnonia, or Spirits of Hartshorn,, or Volatile Alkali, — in its uncombined form, is an elastic gaseous 
 body, having a very iiungcnt and suffocating odour, destroys au-nial life, converts the yellow of turmeric 
 paper to a brown, which, from the volatility of the alkali, i.s again restored by a gentle heat to its original 
 colour. This gas is rapidly absorbed by water, which takes into solution about 780 times its volume, 
 forming the liquid ammonia, or what is commonly called hartshorn. Anunonia is liberated whenever any 
 of the compounds of this alkali are acted upon by potass, soda, lime, and many otlu-r alkaline earths. Lime, 
 from its being the most economical, is generally employed : the best proportions for its preparations are 
 equal weights of sal ammoniac (muriate of ammonia), and fresh slaked lime. Wlieii these are introduced 
 into a retort, and heat applied, ammonia is liberated in the gaseous form, and is conducted by a Wettcr's 
 safety tube into a vessel of water, by which the gaa is instantly absorbed. Muriate of lime remains in the 
 retort : sometimes water is added to the mixture, and then distilled. As thus obtained, it has a specific 
 gravity of ^.X) or -940, water being equal to I'OOO. Tlie most concentrated solution of ammonia has the 
 •pccific gravity 875. 
 
ALKALIES. 
 
 25 
 
 Carbonate of Ammonia, or Volatile Salt, or Subcarbonate of AvimmUt. — Th\% salt, which is very much 
 employed in various processes of the arts, was formerly obtained by the action of chalk (carbonate of lime) 
 upon muriate of ammonia; a double decomposition takes place. Carbonic acid and ammonia are sublimed 
 ill vapour, and muriate of lime remains in the vessel. A much less expensive process is, however, now 
 followed, namely, from the waste gas liquors obtained in the purification of coal gas; these are evaporated, 
 and the black impure sulphuric acid added. By this means a sulphate of ammonia is formed, and the 
 carbonate procured from it by the action of powdered chalk, as in the former process. 
 
 Its uses are principally in forming other compounds of ammonia, as smelling salts ; and it is likewise em- 
 ployed rather extensively by pastry-cooks for making light pastry, which is caused by the volatile carbonate 
 of ammonia escaping and raising up the pastry by the heat of the oven. . It is entirely dissipated during 
 the baking, so that no ill effect can arise from its use. 
 
 Both this compound and the preceding act as violent stimulants on the animal system. 
 
 Muriate of Ammonia, or Sal Ammoniac — was formerly brought to this country from P>gypt, where it 
 was procured by submitting the soot of camels' dung (there emplo>ed for fuel) to sublimation in closed 
 vessels; it is, however, at present manufactured in ve<-y large quantities in this country in a variety of 
 ways. The most economical processes are either submitting sulphate of ammonia mixed intimately with 
 muriate of soda (sea salt) to sublimation, or by substituting the bittern of sea water, which consists chiefly 
 of muriate of magnesia, for the sea salt. In tiie first process a sulphate of soda is formed, and the muriate 
 of ammonia, which, being volatile, rises in the vaporous form, and is condensed in the cool parts of the 
 apparatus : in the latter process, a sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) results. It is generally from this 
 salt (muriate of ammonia) that the liquid ammonia is manufactured : it is also employed in tinning and 
 soldering, to preserve the metals from oxidation. It is a semi-transparent, tough salt, having an acri(i 
 and cool taste, and is usually met with in the form of hemispherical masses. Sal ammoniac is made at 
 Calcutta, and is thence exported to Great Britain, the United States, and the Arabian and Persian gulfs. 
 In 18'24-2.5, the exports amounted to 114 tons. 
 
 Sulphate of Ammonia. — The preparation of the sulphate has been already given under the head of am- 
 monia ; it is employed in the manufacture both of the carbonate and muriate. 
 
 Acetate qf Aynmoma. — The spirit of Min(Jererus is obtained by acting upon the carbonate of ammonia 
 by acetic acid ; the carbonic acid escapes with effervescence, and an acetate of amjnonia is formed : it is 
 employed in medicine as a febrifuge. 
 
 All these salts of ammonia have the following properties ; — they are volatile at a low red heat ; the fixed 
 alkalies decompose them, combining with their acid, and the ammonia is liberated. 
 
 VV'hen combined with a fixed acid, such as the boracic or phosphoric, they are decomposed, the am- 
 monia alone being volatilised, and the acid remaining pure. This process was described for obtaining 
 pure phosphoric acid. 
 
 Potass, or Vegetable Alkali. — The original source of this alkali is in the vegetable kingdom, whence 
 is derived its name of vegetable alkali. When wood is burnt, and the ashes lixiviated with water, boiled, 
 strained, and evaporated to dryness, an intensely alkaline mass is obtained, which is known by the name 
 of potash, from this process being conducted in iron pots. It is then removed to a reverberatory furnace, 
 and submitted to heat, and a current of air. This burns out extractive matter and other impurities, and 
 the salt assumes a pearly white colour, and is hence called pearlashes. Care should be taken, during this 
 process, that the potashes do not enter into fusion, as this would destroy the full eflect of the operation. 
 
 Pearlashes. — Pearlashes generally contain about from 60 to 83 or 84 per cent, of pure carbonate of 
 potass. Its uses in manufactures are numerous and important. It is employed in making flint-glass, of 
 which it constitutes about one sixth of the materials employed ; in soap-making, especially for the softer 
 kinds of soap : for this purpose, however, it is first rendered caustic by means of lime. In the rectifi- 
 cation of spirits, large quantities are employed to combine with the water previously in union with the 
 spirit. 
 
 Stcdcarbonate of Potass, or Salt of Tartar — is used in preparing the subcarbonate of potass of the Pharma- 
 copoeia, (carbonate of potass of the chemical nomenclature,) and likewise in rendering hard spring waters 
 soft, and in cleansing substances from grease; it is sometimes called salt of wormwood. When made by the 
 deflagration of two parts of tartar of argol and one of nitre, it is called black flux, and is used extensively 
 in metallurgic operations. 
 
 From the subcarbonate of potash the pure and uncombined potass is obtained, by adding an equal 
 weight of fresh burnt lime, previously slaked, and boiling them with half their weight of water. By this 
 process the lime combines with the carbonic acid, and the potass remains in solution in its caustic state ; 
 by boiling the clear solution rapidly in iron vessels, and submitting it to fusion, we obtain the fused 
 potass. 
 
 If it be required perfectly pure for chemical purposes, it is necessary to evaporate in silver vessels, and 
 dissolve in strong alcohol. This takes up the pure potass, and leaves any portion of the subcarbonate that 
 may not have been acted upon by the lime ; then the alcohol is to be distilled oft', and the potass fused at 
 a red heat, and poured out in its liquid state on a cold slab. As thus procured, it is a white, brittle mass, 
 highly deliquescent, absorbing moisture and carbonic acid rapidly from the atmosphere. When evapor- 
 ated in iron vessels it has a dirty colour, and lets fall a quantity of oxide of iron, when dissolved in water, 
 from its having acted upon the iron boilers. 
 
 Potass acts with great rapidity upon animal substances, destroying their texture, and is on this 
 account employed as a caustic, and was formerly called lapis infernalis. 
 
 Carbonate {or, in the chemical nomenclature. Bicarbonate) of Potass — is prepared by passing carbonic 
 acid gas through a solution of the subcarbonate : and evaporating at a temperature below 212°, and crys- 
 tallising. It is used in making effervescing draughts. It loses one proportion of its carbonic acid when 
 heated, and is converted into the subcarbonate. 
 
 Sulphate of Potass, or Sal Poli/chrest, or Vitriolated Tartar — is obtained by submitting the salt, which 
 remanis after the manufacture of nitric acid from nitre and sulphuric acid, to a red heat, or by neutrali.s. 
 ing the excess of acid contained in that salt by subcarbonate of potass. 
 
 Bisulphate of Potass, or Sal Enixum. — This is the salt mentioned above, as the residue from the process 
 for obtaining nitric acid. It is employed, in very large quantities, in the manufacture of alum; also in 
 tinning iron, for pickling, as it is termed ; it is sometimes also used as a flux. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash, Nitre, or Saltpetre. — This salt, which is of so much importance in every branch of 
 the arts, is found native in many parts of the world, especially in the East Indies. It is obtained ^'on 
 soils composed of decomposing granite, the felspar of which gives rise, as is supposed, to the potas; The 
 nitric acid is not so easily accounted for, except it is by a union of the nitrogen and oxygen gases in the 
 atmosphere taking place in those hot climates; for, from authenticated accounts, no 'decaying animal 
 or vegetable matter exists in the nitre districts of India. By lixiviation with water the nitre" is dissolved 
 from the soil, which is again thrown out into the air, to be washed the following year ; so that it is 
 formed continually. These lixiviations are then evaporated ; and when of a certain strength, a quantity 
 of common salt separates, which is removed as it falls; and the nitre is then crystallised and imported 
 to this country, always containing a certain quantity of impurities, which are deducted in the purchase 
 of large quantities of the article, being termed its refraction. It is generallv used for the manufacture of 
 gunpowder and pure nitric acid, rehned or re-crystallised. 
 
 Nitre may be also made artificially, in beds of decaying vegetable or animal substances, mixed with old 
 mortar, or other refuse calcareous earth ; these are watered occasionally, too much moisture being hurt- 
 ful; after a certain period, depending on the rapidity with which the process has gone on, the whole is 
 «ubniittetl to lixiviation together with wood-ashes, which contain subcarbonate of potass, and which de- 
 
26 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 
 composes any nitrate of lime formetl, of which there is generally a considerable quantity. After the 
 lixiviation is complete, which takes some time, the solution is separated and boiled dov/n ; the salt sepa- 
 rates as in the other process, and the nitre is tlien crystallised. It was from this source that the whole of 
 the nitre, nearly, employed by the French during the long protracted war with the continental powers, 
 was obtained. 
 
 Nitre has a cold, penetrating, and nauseous taste ; enters into igneous fusion at a gentle heat, and is 
 then moulded into round cakes called sal prunella. It is employed in the manufacture of nitric acid; of 
 gunpowder, which is composed of 75 parts by weight of nitre, 1(5 of charcoal, and 9 of sulphur (the nitre 
 for this purpose should be of great purity) ; and in the manufacture of oil of vitriol : as a flux it is one 
 of the most powerful we possess; it is also used for the preservation of animal food, and in making fri- 
 gorific mixtures : 1 oz. of nitre dissolved in 5 oz. of water lowers its temperature 15 degrees of Fahren- 
 heit's thermometer. — (See Saltpetre.) 
 
 Oxalate and Binoxalate of Potass. — The binoxalate of potass, or salt of lemon, or sorrel, by both wliich 
 last names it is very commonly known, is procured from the juice of the common sorrel (Rumex Acetosa), 
 or the wood sorrel (Oxalis Acetosella), by crystallisation, after the feculent matter has been separated by 
 standing a few days. Its chief uses are, in removing ink spots or iron moulds ; and also as a refreshing 
 beverage when mixed witii sugar and water. 
 
 The neutral oxalate is obtained from this salt by combining the excess of acid which it contains with a 
 solution of subcarbonate of potass. Is very much used in chemistry, as the best test of the presence of lime. 
 
 Tartrate and Bitarti-ate of Potass. — Bitartrate of potass, or cream of tartar, is, when in its crude and 
 impure state, called argol, and is deposited in the interior of wine casks during fermentation, and from 
 this source the whole of the cream of tartar is obtained. It is generally of a very dark brown colour, but 
 may be purified and rendered perfectly white by solution and crystallisation. It is employed very exten- 
 sively in dyeing, hat-making, and in the preparation of tartaric acid, and many of the compounds of 
 tartaric acid, as tartar emetic, soluble tartar (tartrate of potass) : when heated to redness it is converted into 
 carbonate of potass and charcoal ; mixed with half its weight of nitre and thrown into a red hot crucible it 
 forms the black flux, and with its own weight of nitre the white flux, both of which are very much em- 
 ployed in metallurgic operations. The tartrate is made by the addition of subcarbonate of potass to a 
 solution of the bitartrate until perfectly neutral : it is used in medicine as a mild purgative. 
 
 Ferrocyanate or Prussiate of Potass. — This salt is obtained by the action of subcarbonate of potass, at a 
 low red heat, upon refuse animal matter, such as hoofs, horns, skin, &c., in the proportion of two of sub- 
 carbonate, to four or five of the animal matter. But tlie process recommended by M. Gautier is prefer, 
 able; he finds, that wlien animal matter is heated with nitre, it yields a much larger quantity of the 
 ferroprussiate than when either potass or subcarbonate of potass are employed ; the proportions he finds 
 most economical are, 1 part by weight of nitre, 3 parts of dry blood, and iron scales or filings equal to a 
 fiftieth of tiie blood employed. 
 
 The coagulum of blood is mixed intimately with the nitre and iron filings, and dried by exposure to 
 the air; they are then submitted to a very low red heat, in deep iron cylinders, as long as vapours con- 
 tinue to be liberated; when cold, the contents are dissolved in 12 or 15 times their weight and strained. 
 On evaporation, till of the specific gravity 128i, and allowing it to cool, a large quantity of bicarbonate 
 of potass crystallises, and by further evaporation till of the specific gravity 1-306, the ferroprussiate of 
 potass crystallises on cooling. This is to be recrystallised. It is a beautiful yellow salt, very tough, having 
 a tenacity similar to spermaceti, and is decomposed at a red heat. It is employed very extensively in 
 dyeing blues, and in calico printing ; also in the manufacture of Prussian blue, which is a compound of the 
 ferroprussic acid and oxide of iron, prepared by adding 1 part of the ferroprussiate of potass dissolved in 
 water, to 1 part of copperas, and 4 parts of alum in solution. 
 
 Chromate of Potass. — This salt is obtained from the native chromate of iron by the action of nitre at 
 a full red heat in equal proportions. By solution, filtration, and evaporation, a beautiful lemon-yellow 
 coloured salt results. It is very much employed in dyeing, calico printing, and calico making, from its 
 producing bright yellow precipitates with solutions of lead. 
 
 Bichromate of Potass — is prepared from the above-mentioned salt, by the addition of nitric acid to the 
 yellow solution obtained from the heated mass by the action of water ; on evaporating this, a dark red 
 coloured salt crystallises, which is the bichromate. This is also very largely employed by the calico 
 printers, and when mixed in solution with nitric acid, possesses the property of destroying vegetable 
 colours ; on this account it is of great importance, as it at the same time removes a vegetable colour, and 
 forms a base for a yellow dye. 
 
 Chlorate or Hyperoxymuriate of Potass.— The preparation of this salt is attended with some little diffi- 
 culty, and requires a great deal of nicety. It is obtained by passing a current of chlorine gas through a 
 solution of caustic potass; then boiling and evaporating; the first salt that separates is the chlorate of 
 potass; and by further evaporation, muriate of potass is obtained. It is used in making matches for in- 
 stantaneous light boxes, which are prepared by first dipping the wood in melted sulphur, and then into 
 a thin paste, formed of 3 parts chlorate of potass, 2 parts starch, and a little vermilion ; with sulphur it 
 forms a very explosive compound, generally employed for filling the percussion caps of fowling-pieces. 
 
 Soda, or Mineral Alkali. — The sources of this alkali in nature are various. It is obtained in combination 
 with carbonic acid, when plants which grow by the sea-side are burnt. The ashes thus obtained are called 
 barilla and kelp; and also in some countries it is found as an efflorescence upon the surface of the earth, 
 and is called nitrum or natron ; this occurs particularly in Egypt and South America. Trona is also 
 another native carbonate of soda, and is exported from Tripoli. In combination with muriatic acid it is 
 also found in immense abundance, forming the rock salt, and sea salt, or muriate of soda. It is obtained 
 from the carbonate exactly in the same way as potass is obtained from its carbonate, namely, by boiling 
 it with fresh burnt lime previously slaked, decanting t'he clear solution, and evaporating and fusing. It 
 is a white brittle substance, and by exposure to the air becomes converted into a dry carbonate. Its uses 
 in the ai ts and manufactures are of considerable importance. In soap-making it is employed in very large 
 quantities, and lor this purpose is generally procured from barilla or kelp, by mixing them with lime, and 
 by the infusion of water procuring a caustic soda ley ; this is mixed with oil and fatty matters in various 
 pr()i)ortions, and boiled ; the saponification of the fatty matter takes place, and the soap formed rises to 
 the surface ; the ley is then drawn from beneath, and fresh leys added, until the soap is completely free 
 from oil ; it is then allowed to dry. Soda is also employed in the manufacture of plate, crown, and bottle 
 glass, though for this purpose it is generally in the form of carbonate or sulphate. 
 
 Subcarbonate of Soda. (In the chemical nomenclature it is called carbonate.) — This is generally pre- 
 pared from barilla, which contains about from IG to 24 per cent. Barilla is procured by incinerating the 
 salsola soda, and other sea-side plants ; it is made in large quantities on the coast of Spain. Kelp is another 
 impure carbonate of soda, but does not contain more than 4 or 5 per cent. ; it is the ashes obtained I'rora 
 sea weeds by incineration, and is made on the northern shores of Scotland. From these, the crystallised 
 carbonate (or subcarbonate, as it is more frequently called) is made by the addition of a small quantity of 
 water, boiling, straining, evaporating, and skimming ott" the common salt as it forms on the surface; on 
 cooling, the subcarbonate of soda crystallises. Another method is by heating the sulphate of soda with 
 carbonate of lirne and charcoal, and then dissolving out the soluble carbonate ; also, by the action of car- 
 bonate of potass (pcarlash) upon solutions of sea salt. — (See Bauii.la and Kei.p.) 
 
 Bicarbonate of Soda — is procured by driving a current of carbonic acid gas through solutions of the 
 carbonate, and then evaporating at a temperature below 212° Fahrenheit ; it is chiefly employed in making 
 soda water powders. This is the carbonate of soda of the Pharmacopa'ia. By the application of a red heat 
 it loses carbonic acid, and is converted into the subcarbonate. 
 
ALKANET. — ALMONDS. 
 
 27 
 
 Sulphafe of Soda, or Glauber Salts. — This salt, which has received the nnme of Glauber, from its dis- 
 coverer, is the residue of a great many chemical processes j for instance, when muriate of soda is acted 
 upon by oil of vitriol, muriatic acid and sulphate of soda result; in making chlorine gas for the manu- 
 facture of the chloride of lime, or bleaching powder, sulphate of soda and sulphate of manganese result; 
 the materials employed being sea salt, sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), and black oxide of manganese : also, 
 in the [)reparation of acetic acid from the acetate of soda, and in the preparation of muriate of ammonia 
 from sea salt and sulphate of ammonia. Sulphate of soda is a colourless, transparent salt, effloresces readily 
 when exposed to the air, and becomes converted into a dry powder ; it has a cold, bitter taste. It is used 
 for the preparation of carbonate of soda, and as a medicine. It is found native in some countries, particularly 
 in Persia and South America — frequently as an efflorescence upon new walls. 
 
 Nitiatc of Soda. — This salt is found native in some parts of the East Indies, and is called, from its square 
 form, cubic nitre; it is, however, very little used. 
 
 Muriate of Soda, or Sea Salt. — This compound is found in immense quantities in the earth, and is called 
 from this circumstance rock salt, or sal gem. The mines of Cheshire and Uroitwich, in this country, and 
 those in Poland, Hungary, and Spain, and many others, afford immense quantities of this compound. It 
 is also obtained by the evaporation of sea water, both spontaneously in pits formed for the purpose, and in 
 large iron boilers ; the uncrystallisable fluid is called the bittern ; basket salt is made by placing the salt 
 after evaporation in conical baskets, and passing through it a saturated solution of salt, which dissolves 
 and carries oft" the muriate of magnesia or lime. Pure salt should not become moist by exposure to the 
 air; it decrepitates when heated; it is employed for the preparation of muriatic acid, carbonate of soda, 
 muriate of ammonia, and many other operations ; also in glazing stone-ware, pottery, &c. ; and from its 
 great antiseptic properties, is used largely for the preservation of animal food; as a flux also in metal- 
 lurgy. 
 
 Borate of Soda, or Borax. — This salt is found in Thibet and Persia, deposited from saline lakes; it is 
 called tincal, and is imported into this country, where it is purified by solution ; the fatty matter with 
 which the tincal is always coated being removed, and the solution evaporated and crystallised : its principal 
 uses are as a flux, from its acting very powerfully upon earthy substances. 
 
 ALKANET, OR ANCH USA (Ger. Or/eawe^ ; Tin. Ossetong : Fr. Orcanette ; It. An- 
 cusa ; Sp. Arcaneta), a species of bugloss (Atichusa tinctoria Lin.). It has been cultivated 
 in England i but is found of the finest quality in Siberia, Spain, and more particularly 
 in the south of France, in the vicinity of Montpellier. The roots of the plant are the 
 only parts that are made use of. When in perfection, they are about the thickness of the 
 finger, having a thick bark of a deep purplish red colour. This, when separated from 
 the whitish woody pith, imparts a fine deep red to alcohol, oils, wax, and all unctuous 
 substances. To water it gives only a dull brownish hue. It is principally employed to 
 tint pomatums and unguents, wax used in the making of fancy candles, oils employed in 
 the dressing of mahogany, rose-wood, &c. The alkanet brought from Constantinople 
 yields a more beautiful but less permanent dye than that of France. — (^Lewis's Mat. Med.; 
 Magnien, Dictionnaire des Productions.) 
 
 The duty, which was previously very oppressive, was reduced in 1832 to 25. a cwt. In that year it pro- 
 duced 1,787/. 45. 8d. This, supposing it to have been all charged with the 25. duty, shows a consumption 
 of 17,87ii cwt. The price varies from 275. to 325. a cwt. 
 
 ALLOWANCES, TARES, &c. In selling goods, or in paying duties upon them, 
 certain deductions are made from their weights, depending on the nature of the packages 
 in which they are enclosed, and which are regulated in most instances by the custom of 
 merchants, and the rules laid down by public oflSces. These allowances, as they are 
 termed, are distinguished by the epithets Draft, Tare, Trett, and Cloff. 
 
 Draft is a deduction from the original or gross weight of goods, and is subtracted before the tare is 
 taken off! 
 
 Tare is an allowance for the weight of the bag, box, cask, or other package, in which goods are 
 weighed. 
 
 Beat or open tare is the actual weight of the package. 
 
 Customary tare is, as its name implies, an established allowance for the weight of the package. 
 Comptited tare is an estimated allowance agreed upon at the time. 
 
 Average tare is when a few packages only among several are weighed, their mean or average taken, and 
 the rest tared accordingly. 
 
 Super.tare is an additional allowance, or tare, where the commodity or package exceeds a certain 
 weight. 
 
 When tare is allowed, the remainder is called the nett weight; but if trett be allowed, it is called the 
 suttle weight. 
 
 Trett is a deduction of 41bs. from every 104 lbs. of suttle weight. 
 
 This allowance, which is said to be for dust or sand, or for the waste or wear of the commodity, was 
 formerly made on most foreign articles sold by the pound avoirdupois ; but it is now nearly discontinut d 
 by merchants, or else allowed in the price. It is wholly abolished at the East India warehouses in London ; 
 and neither trett nor draft is allowed at the Custom-house. 
 
 Cloff, or Clougfi, is another allowance that is nearly obsolete. It is stated in arithmetical books to be a 
 deduction of 2 lbs. from every 3 cwt. of the second suttle ; that is, the remainder after trett is subtracted ; 
 but merchants, at present, know cloff" only as a small deduction, like draft, from the original weight, and 
 this only from two or three articles. — (See Kelly's Cainbist, art. " London.") 
 
 For an account of the tares and allowances at London, see Tare; for the tares and allowances at the 
 great foreign trading towns, see their names. 
 
 ALMONDS (Ger. Mandeln,- Du. Amandelen; Fr. Amandes; It. Mandorli ; Sp. Al- 
 mendra; Port. Amendo ; Rus. Mindal; Lat. Amygdalce amarcc, didces), a kind of medicinal 
 fruit, contained in a hard shell, that is enclosed in a tough sort of cotton skin. The tree 
 (Amggdalus communis) which pi'oduces this fruit nearly resembles the peach both in 
 leaves and blossoms ; it grows spontaneously only in warm countries, as Spain, and par- 
 ticularly Barbary. It flowers early in the spring, and produces fruit in August. Almonds 
 are of two sorts, sweet and bitter. They are not distinguishable from each other but by 
 the taste of the kernel or fruit. " The Valentia almond is sweet, large, and flat-pointed 
 at one extremity, and compressed in the middle. The Italian almonds are not so sweet. 
 
28 
 
 ALOES. 
 
 smaller, and less depressed in the middle. The Jordan almonds come from Malaga, and 
 are the best sweet almonds brought to England. They are longer, flatter, less pointed 
 at one end and less round at the other, and have a paler cuticle than those we have de- 
 scribed. The sweet almonds are imported in mats, casks, and boxes ; the bitter, which 
 come chiefly from Mogadore, arrive in boxes." — ( Thomsoii's Dispensatory.) 
 
 Duties on Almonds. — Previously to 1832, almonds were among the most grossly overtaxed articles in 
 the British tariff; but the subjoined statement shows that the duties were then materially reduced. It 
 further appears from it, that though the duty on bitter almonds in 1832 amounted to only about one eighth 
 part of its amount in 1831, the revenue derived from them did not fall off more than about half, showing 
 that the consumption had increased in a fourfold proportion ! The revenue from Jordan almonds in 1831 
 was 7,830/. ; and in 1832, 5,092/. ; though the duty in the latter year was less than half what it had been in 
 the former. The results of the reduction of the duty on other sorts of almonds are exactly similar. This, 
 therefore, is a striking instance of the beneficial influence of reasonable duties. The fair presumption is, 
 that in a few years the revenue from almonds, under the present moderate duties, will be much greater 
 than it has ever been under the high duties. 
 
 An Account of the different Descriptions of Almonds imported into the United Kingdom in the Years 
 1831 and 1832, the Rates of Duty thereon, the Produce of the Duties, with the Countries from whence 
 the Almonds were brought, and specifying the Quantities brought from each. — (Obtained from the 
 Custom-house for this Work.) 
 
 Countries from which 
 imported. 
 
 Quantities imported. 
 
 Bitter Almonds. 
 
 Jordan Almonds. 
 
 Almonds of other Sorts. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 German.y ' - - - 
 The Netherlands 
 France - - 
 Portugal, Azores, and \ 
 Madeira - - - J 
 Spain - - - 
 Gibraltar - 
 Italy - - - 
 
 Tripoli,Barbary, andMo- 1 
 rocco - - -3 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 United States of America 
 Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, 1 
 and Man - - -i 
 
 Total . 
 
 From Foreign Countries 
 From British Possessions 
 
 Nett produce of the Duties 
 
 Cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 56 122 
 
 1 2 24 
 
 13 6 
 
 193 3 7 
 22 2 6 
 
 3,115 3 24 
 
 Cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 22 2 5 
 21 2 24 
 43 1 24 
 
 2 2 16 
 18 2 24 
 
 2,697 0 21 
 
 101 3 13 
 
 Cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 1 2 10 
 
 2,361 2 3 
 130 0 23 
 0 2 0 
 0 1 5 
 
 Cmt' qrs. lbs. 
 
 0 1 8 
 
 1,333 3 11 
 0 0 18 
 0 0 2 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 1 1 27 
 
 Cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 103 3 2 
 
 550 0 22 
 
 331 2 25 
 
 2,618 2 10 
 232 0 22 
 151 3 15 
 0 0 27 
 0 0 13 
 
 5,138 2 11 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 1 0 23 
 
 7 0 1 
 
 Cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 5 0 8 
 
 0 1 9 
 549 1 12 
 
 339 3 2 
 
 1,835 3 17 
 86 1 12 
 140 0 5 
 
 6,018 3 15 
 
 0 0 14 
 0 1 24 
 
 25 3 14 
 
 3,392 1 5 
 
 2,908 0 15 
 
 2,49'1 0 13 
 
 1,335 3 16 
 
 9,135 2 9 
 
 9,002 0 20 
 
 Rates of Duty per Cwt. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1 11 8 
 0 15 10 
 
 2,260 6 2 
 
 j£ s. d. 
 0 4 0 
 0 4 0 
 
 1,068 17 1 
 
 £ s. d. 
 4 15 0 
 2 7 6 
 
 7,830 5 11 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 2 0 0 
 1 0 0 
 
 5,092 0 6 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 2 7 6 
 2 7 6 
 
 7,850 17 6 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1 0 0 
 1 0 0 
 
 5,466 5 7 
 
 Almonds were worth, in bond, in the London market, in August 1833, Jordan, 75s. to 100s. per cwt. ; 
 Barbary (bitter), 31s. per ditto; Valencia (sweet), 72s. to 75s. per ditto. 
 
 ALOES (Du. Aloe; Fr. Aloes; Ger. and Lat. Aloe; Rus. Sahir; Sp. Aloe; Arab. 
 Mucihar), a bitter, gummy, resinous, inspissated juice, obtained from the leaves of the 
 plant of the same name. There are four sorts of aloes met with in commerce ; viz. 
 Socotrine, Hepatic, Caballine, and Cape. 
 
 1. Socotrine — so called from the island of Socotra, in the Indian Ocean, not very distant from Cape 
 Guardafui, whore the plant {Aloe spicata), of which this species is the produce, grows abundantly. It is 
 in pieces of a reddish brown colour, glossy as if varnished, and in some degree pellucid. "When reduced 
 to powder, it is of a bright golden colour. Its taste is extremely bitter; and it has a peculiar aromatic 
 odour, not unlike that of the russet apple decaying. It softens in the hand, and is adhesive; yet is suf- 
 ficiently pulverulent. It is importeti by way of Smyrna and Alexandria, in cJiests and casks, but is very 
 scarce in England. 
 
 2. llepatic. — The real hepatic aloes, so called from its liver colour, is believed to be the produce of the 
 Aloe perfoliala, which grows in Yemen in Arabia, from which it is exported to Bombay, whence it finds 
 its way to Europe. It is duller in the colour, bitterer, and has a less pleasant aroma than the Socotrine 
 aloes, for which, however, it is sometimes substituted. Barbadoes aloes, which is often passed off for the 
 hepatic, is the i)roduce of the Aloe vulgaris. It is brought home in calabashes, or largo gourd shells, con- 
 taining from 60 to 70 lbs. It is duskier in its hue than the Bombay, or real hepatic aloes, and the taste is 
 more nauseous, and intensely bitter. The colour of the powder is a dull olive yellow. 
 
 3. CaballinCy or Horse, Aloes seems to be merely the coarsest species or refuse of the Barbadoes aloes. It 
 is used only in veterinary medicine ; and is easily distinguished by its rank foetid smell. 
 
 4. Cape Aloes is the produce of the Aloe spicata, which is found in great abundance in the interior of 
 the Cape colony, and in Melinda. The latter furnishes the greater part of the extract sold in Europe 
 under the name of Socotrine aloes. The odour of the Cape aloes is stronger and more disagreeable than 
 that of the Socotiine ; they have, also, a yellower hue on the outside ; are less glossy, softer, and more 
 pliable; the colour of the jjowder is more like that of gamh(»gc than that of the true Socotrine aloes. — 
 {Ainslic's Mat. Iiidica ; Tfiomson's Dispensatory and Mat. Medico.) 
 
ALOES-WOOIX — AMBER-GRIS. 
 
 29 
 
 Last year the duty on aloes was reduced to Id. per 11). on those from a British posscssJon, and to8<f. 
 on those from a foreign country. The duty produced 1,810/. Im. Id. of nott revenue ; but as the old rates 
 Of duty existed during a part of the year, it docs not afford the means of determining the consumption. 
 
 ALOES-WOOD (Ger. Aloeholz; Du. Aldchout, Paradi/shout ; Vr .Bois (VAloh; It. 
 Legno di Aloe; Sp. Aloe chino; Lat. Lignum Aloes; Sans. Aguru; Malay, Agila; Siam. 
 Kistia), the produce of a large forest tree, to be found in most of the countries between 
 China and India, from the 24th degree of north latitude to the equator. 
 
 It seems to he the result of a diseased action confined to a small part of a few trees, of which the rest of 
 the wood is wholly valueless. It appears to be more or less frequent according to soil and climate, and 
 from the same causes to differ materially in quality. It is produced both in the greatest quantity and per- 
 fection in the countries and islands on the cast coast o;' the Gulf of Siam. 'J'his article is in high repute 
 for fumigations, and as incense, in all Hindu, Mohammedan, and Catholic countries. It formerly brought 
 a very high price, being at one time reckoned nearly as valuable as gold. It is now comparatively cheaj), 
 though the finest specimens are still very dear. The accounts of this article in most books, even of good 
 authority, are singularly contradictory and inaccurate. This is more surprising, as La Loubere has dis- 
 tinctly stated, that it consisted only of " certains endroits cori-ompus dans des arbrcs d'une cerlaine espt-ce. 
 Toutc arbre de cette cspecc n'cn a pas; et ceux qui en ont, ne les ont pas tous en mhne cndroit." — 
 (Royaumede Siam, t, i. p. 45. 12mo ed.) Tli£ difficulty of finding the trees which happen to be diseased, and 
 of getting at the diseased portion, has given rise to the fables that have been current as to its origin. The 
 late Dr. Roxburgh introduced the tree which yields this production into the Botanical Garden at Calcutta, 
 from the hills to the eastward of Sylhet, and described it under the name of Aquillaria Agalocha. 
 
 ALUM (Ger. Alaun; Du. Aluin; Fr. Alun; It. Allume; Sp. Allumbre ; Ru.s. 
 Kwassz'd; Lat. Alumen; Arab. SJieh), a salt of great importance in the arts, consisting of 
 a ternary compound of aluminum, or pure argillaceous earth, potass, and sulphuric acid. 
 Alum is sometimes found native ; but by far the greater part of that which is met with 
 in commerce is artificially prepared. The best alum is the Roman, or that which is 
 manufactured near Civita Vecchia, in the Papal territory. It is in irregular, octahedral, 
 crystalline masses, about the size of a walnut, and is opaque, being covered on the surface 
 with a farinaceous efflorescence. The Levant, or Roch alum, is in fragments, about the 
 size of the former, but in which the crystalline form is more obscure ; it is externally of 
 a dirty rose-colour, and internally exhibits the same tinge, but clearer. It is usually 
 shipped for Europe from Smyrna ; but it was anciently made at Roccha, or Edessa, in 
 Syria; and hence its name, Roch alum. English alum is in large, irregular, semi- 
 transparent, colourless masses, having a glassy fracture ; not efflorescent, and considerably 
 harder than the others. It is very inferior to either the Roman or Roch alum. The 
 principal use of alum is in the art of dyeing, as a mordant for fixing and giving per- 
 manency to colours which otherwise would not adhere at all, or but for a very short time ; 
 but it is also used for a great variety of other purposes. 
 
 Beckmann has shown [History of Inventions, vol. i art. " Alum") that the ancients were unacquainted 
 with alum, and that the substance which they designated as such was merely vitriolic earth. It was first 
 discovered by the Orientals, who established alum works in Syria in the thirteenth or fourteenth century. 
 The oldest alum works in Europe were erected about the middle of the fifteenth century. Towards the 
 conclusion of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Chaloner established the first alum work in Eng- 
 land, near Whitby, in Yorkshire, where the principal works of the sort in this country are still carried on. 
 There is a large alum work at Hurlctt, near Paisley. Alumis largely manufactured in China, and is thence 
 exported to all the western Asiatic countries. In 1831, 11,779 piculs (785 tons) were exported from 
 Canton. 
 
 AMBER (Ger. Bern ste{?i ; Tiw. Barnsteen ; Da. Bernsteen, Rav. ; Fr. Ambre jaune ; 
 It. Amhra gialla ; Sp. Ambar ; Rus. Jantar ; Pol. Bursztyn ; Lat. Succinum, Electrum), a 
 brittle, light, hard substance, usually nearly transparent, sometimes nearly colourless, 
 but commonly yellow, or even deep brown. It has considerable lustre. Specific gravity 
 1 '065. It is found in nodules or rounded masses, varying from the size of coarse sand 
 to that of a man's hand. It is tasteless, without smell, except when pounded or heated, 
 when it emits a fragrant odour. It is highly electric. Most authors assert that amber 
 is bituminous ; but Dr. Thomson states, that " it is undoubtedly of a vegetable origin ; 
 and though it differs from resins in some of its properties, yet it agrees with them in so 
 many others, that it may without impropriety be referred to them." — ( Chemistry, vol. iv. 
 p. 147. 5th ed.) 
 
 Pieces of amber occasionally enclose parts of toads and insects in their substance, which are beauti- 
 fully preserved. It is princiiially found on the shores of Pomerania and Polish Prussia ; but it is some- 
 times dug out of the earth in Ducal Prussia. It is also met with on the banks of the river Giaretta, in 
 Sicily. Sometimes it is found on the east coast of Britain, and in gravel pits round London. The 
 largest mass of amber ever found was got near the surface of the ground in Lithuania. It weighs 
 ' 18 lbs., and is preserved in ^e royal cabinet at Berlin. Most of the amber im.ported into this country 
 comes from the Baltic, but a small quantity comes from Sicily. Amber was in very high estimation 
 among the ancients, but is now comparatively neglected. 
 
 AMBER-GRIS, or AMBER-GREASE {Ger. Amber ; T>u. Amber ; Tr. Amber- 
 gris ; It. Amhra-grigia ; Sp. Ambar-gris ; Lat. Ambra, Ambra grisea), a solid, opaque, 
 generally ash-coloured, fatty, inflammable substance, variegated like marble, remarkably 
 light, rugged and uneven in its surface, and has a fragrant odour when heated ; it does 
 not effervesce with acids, melts freely over the fire into a kind of yellow resin, and is 
 hardly soluble in spirit of wine. It is found on the sea-coast, or floating on the sea, near 
 the coasts of India, Africa, and Brazil, usually in small pieces, but sometimes in masses 
 of 50 or 100 lbs. weight. " Various opinions have been entertained respecting its origin. 
 
8G 
 
 AMETHYST. — AMMUNITION. 
 
 Some affirmed that it was the concrete juice of a tree, others thought it a bitumen ; but 
 it is now considered as pretty well established that it is a concretion formed in the sto- 
 mach or intestines of the Pliyseter macrocephalus, or spermaceti whale." — ( Thomson's 
 Chemistry. ) Ambergris ought to be chosen in large pieces, of an agreeable odour, entirely 
 grey on the outside, and grey with little black spots within. The purchaser should be 
 very cautious, as this article is easily counterfeited with gums and other drugs. 
 
 AMETHYST (Ger. ^me%s^; ¥r. Amethyste ; It. Amatista ; S^p. Ametisto ; Lat. 
 Amethystus), a precious stone, of which there are two species differing widely in quality 
 and value. 
 
 The Oriental mnethyst is a gem of the most perfect violet colour, and of extraordinary brilliancy 
 and beauty. It is said to be as hard as the sapphire or ruby, with which it also corresponds in its form 
 and specific gravity — (see Sapphire), differing in colour merely. It has been met with in India, Persia, 
 Siam, and other countries ; but it is exceedingly scarce. That found in India is said by Pliny to be the 
 best. [Principatum amethysti Indicce tenent. — Nat. Hist. lib. xxxvii. cap. 9.) Mr. Mawe says he had 
 rarely seen an oriental amethyst offered for sale, unless small and inferior in colour. Mr. Hope, the 
 author of Anastasius, had in his cabinet the finest gem of this sort in Europe. This exquisite specimen 
 exceeds an inch in its greatest diameter ; in daylight it exhibits the most beautiful violet colour, while 
 by candle-light it is a decided blue. 
 
 The Occidental amethyst is merely coloured crystal or quartz. — " When perfect, its colour resembles 
 that of the violet, or purple grape ; but it not unfrequently happens that the tinge is confined to one part 
 of the stone only, while the other is left almost colourless. "When it possesses a richness, clearness, and 
 uniformity of hue, it is considered a gem of exquisite beauty; and as it occurs of considerable size, it is 
 suited to all ornamental purposes. In specific gravity and hardness it bears no comparison with the 
 oriental amethyst; it is also inferior in beauty and lustre; though I have often seen the common ame. 
 thyst offered for sale as oriental. Brazil, Siberia, and Ceylon produce very fine amethysts : they are 
 found in rolled pieces in the alluvial soil, and finely crystallised in fissures of rock. From the first of 
 these localities, they have lately been imported in such quantities, as considerably to diminish their 
 value : but as they are the only coloured stones, except garnets, that are worn with mourning, they 
 still retain, when perfect, a distinguished rank among the precious gems. The present price of inferior 
 light-coloured stones, in the rough state, is about 20s. per pound, whilst those of good quality sell at 10s- 
 or Yls. per ounce. Amethysts calculated for brooches or seals may be purchased at from I5s. to two or 
 three guineas each, for which, ten years ago, treble that sum would have been given." — {Mawe on 
 Diamonds, 2d ed. pp. 115—117.) 
 
 AMIANTHUS, ASBESTOS, or MOUNTAIN FLAX, a mineral of which there 
 are several varieties, all more or less fibrous, flexile, and elastic. It is inconsumable by a 
 high degree of heat ; and in antiquity the art was discovered of drawing the fibres into 
 threads, and then weaving them into cloth. Pliny says that he had seen napkins made of 
 this substance, which, when soiled, were thrown into the fire, and that they were better 
 cleaned by this means than they could have been by washing ! Hence it obtained from 
 the Greeks the name of A/xiauros (undefiled). Its principal use, as stated by Pliny, was 
 to wrap the bodies of the dead previously to their being exposed on the funeral pile, that 
 the ashes of the corpse might not be mixed with those of the wood. And in corrobo- 
 ration of this statement we may mention, that in 1702, a skull, some calcined bones, 
 and a quantity of ashes, were found at Rome, in a cloth of amianthus nine Roman palms 
 in length by seven in width. Its employment in this way was, however, confined to 
 a few of the very richest families, incombustible cloth being very scarce, and bringing an 
 enormously high price. Rarum inventu, difficile textu propter hrevitatem. Qiim inventum 
 est, cequat pretia exceUentium margaritarum. — (Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xix. cap. 1.) The 
 disuse of the practice of cremation, or of burning the dead, caused the manufacture of 
 amianthine cloth to be neglected. Several moderns have, however, succeeded in making 
 it ; but, if it be not lost, the art is now rarely practised. — ( For further particulars, see 
 Bees' s Cyclopcedia.) 
 
 AMMONIACUM (Fr. Gomme Ammoniaque ; It. Gomma Ammoniaco ; Sp. Goma 
 Ammoniaco ; Lat. Ammoniacum ; Arab. Feshook), a concrete resinous juice obtained 
 from a plant resembling fennel, found in the north of Africa, Arabia, Persia, the East 
 Indies, &c. Pliny says that it derived its name from its being produced in the vicinity 
 of the temple of Jupiter Ammon in Africa. — (Hist. Nat. lib. xii. cap. 23.) It has a 
 faint but not ungrateful smell ; and a bitter, nauseous, sweet taste. The fragments are 
 yellow on the outside and white within, brittle, and break with a vitreous fracture ; their 
 specific gravity is 1 -207. The best ammoniacum is brought from Persia by Bombay 
 and Calcutta, packed in cases and chests. It is in large masses, composed of small 
 round fragments or tears ; or in separate dry tears, Avhich is generally considered a sigp 
 of its goodness. The tears should be white internally and externally, and free fron? 
 seeds or other foreign substances. Reject that which is soft, dark-coloured, and foul. 
 It is used principally in the materia medica, and the quantity imported is but small. — 
 (Rees^s Cyclopaedia; Thomson's Dispensatory ; Milhurn's Orient. Com. 8fc.) 
 
 AMMONIAC (Sy^L). See Alkm.it.s (Muriate of Ammonia). 
 
 AMMUNITION, a term expressive of the various implements used in war. 
 
 No ammunition can be imported into the United Kingdom by way of merchandise, 
 except by licence from his Majesty, and such licence is to be granted for furnishing his 
 Majesty's stores only, under penalty of forfeiture. — (6 Geo. 4. c. 107.) His Majesty may 
 forbid, by order in council, the exportation of any saltpetre, gunpowder, or any sort of 
 
AMSTERDAM. 
 
 81 
 
 ammunition. Any master of a vessel exporting ammunition when so forbidden, shall 
 for every such offence forfeit 100/. — (29 Geo. 2. c. IG.) 
 
 AMSTERDAM, the principal city of Holland, situated on the Y, an arm of the Zuyder 
 Zee, in lat. 52° 25' N., and long. 4^ 40' E. From 1580 to 1750, Amsterdam was, per- 
 haps, the first commercial city of Europe ; and though her trade has experienced a 
 great falling off since the last-mentioned epoch, it is still very considerable. In 1785, 
 the population is said to have amounted to 2;}5,000 ; in 1814, it had declined to 180,000 , 
 but at present it exceeds 200,000. The harbour is spacious arid the water deep ; but on 
 account of a bank (the Pampus) wlicre the Y joins the Zuyder Zee, large vessels going 
 or coming by that sea are obliged to load and unload a part of their cargoes in the roads. 
 The navigation of the Zuyder Zee is also, by reason of its numerous shallows, very intri- 
 cate and difficult ; and as there were no hopes of remedying this defect, it became neces- 
 sary to resort to other means for improving the access to the port. Of the various plans 
 suggested for this purpose, the preference was given to the scheme for cutting a canal 
 capable of admitting the largest class of merchantmen, from the north side of the port of 
 Amsterdam to Newdiep, opposite to the Texel, and a little to the east of the Helder. 
 This canal has fully answered the views of the projectors, and has proved of signal service 
 to Amsterdam, by enabling ships to avoid the Pampus, as well as the difficult navigation 
 of the Zuyder Zee, where they were frequently detained for three weeks, and to get to 
 Newdiep without any sort of risk in less than 24 hours. The canal was begun in 
 1819, and completed in 1825. The ground between its extremities being nearly level, 
 it has only a lock at each end ; and the dues and charges on account of towing, &c. 
 are very moderate. At Newdiep the water is deeper than in any other port on the 
 coast of Holland, and ships are there in the most favourable position for getting expe- 
 ditiously to sea. — (See Canals. ) The imports principally consist of sugar, coffee, spices, 
 tobacco, cotton, tea, indigo, cochineal, wine and brandy, wool, grain of all sorts, timber, 
 pitch and tar, hemp and flax, iron, hides, linen, cotton and woollen stuffs, hardware, rock 
 salt, tin plates, coal, dried fish, &c. The exports consist partly of the produce of Holland, 
 partly of the produce of her possessions in the East and West Indies and other tropical 
 countries, and partly of commodities brought to Amsterdam, as to a convenient entrepot, 
 from different parts of Europe. Of the first class are cheese and butter (very important 
 articles), madder, clover, rape, hemp, and linseeds, rape and linseed oils, Dutch linen, &c. 
 Geneva is principally exported from Schiedam and Rotterdam ; oak bark principally from 
 the latter. Of the second class are spices. Mocha and Java coffee ; sugar of Java, Brazil, 
 and Cuba ; cochineal, indigo, cotton, tea, tobacco, and all sorts of Eastern and colonial 
 products. And of the third class, all kinds of grain, linens from Germany, timber and 
 all sorts of Baltic produce ; Spanish, German, and English wools ; French, Rhenish, and 
 Hungarian wines, brandy, &c. The trade of Amsterdam may, indeed, be said to com- 
 prise every article that enters into the commerce of Europe. Her merchants were 
 formerly the most extensive dealers in bills of exchange. And though London be now, 
 in this respect, far supei-ior to Amsterdam, the latter still enjoys a respectable share of 
 this business. 
 
 The Bank of the Netherlands was established at Amsterdam in 1814. It is not, like 
 the old Bank of Amsterdam, Vhich ceased in 1Y96, merely a bank of deposit, but a bank 
 of deposit and circulation formed on the model of the Bank of England. — (See Bank.s, 
 Foreign.) 
 
 For an account of the Dutch fisheries, see the articles Herring Fishery and 
 Whale Fishery. 
 
 Ships entering the Port of Amsterdam during the three Years ending with 1831, specifying the Coun- 
 tries whence they came. 
 
 Countries, 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Ports of Norway and North Sea . - - - 
 Baltic and Archangel - - - 
 Mediterranean, France, Spain, and Portugal . - - 
 South America - - - - - 
 North America - - - - - 
 West Indies - - _ - - - 
 Great Britain - 
 
 East Indies and China - . - - - 
 
 Total 
 
 Ships. 
 
 496 
 1,134 
 113 
 7 
 
 4fi 
 79 
 82 
 18 
 
 Ships. 
 
 788 
 801 
 105 
 10 
 57 
 95 
 114 
 26 
 
 Ships. 
 601 
 565 
 99 
 10 
 40 
 77 
 209 
 23 
 
 1,975 
 
 1,996 
 
 1,624 
 
 There are no means of ascertaining the tonnage and the crews of these vessels. About 220 or 230 
 large ships belong to Amsterdam ; they are employed in the East and West India trades, and in trading 
 to the Baltic, the Mediterranean, &c. There is comparatively little coasting trade at Amsterdam, the 
 communication with most other ports in the vicinity being principally kept up by canals, and that with 
 Friesland by regular packets. The total number of ships of all sorts annually entering the port amounts, 
 at an average, to about 2,200. 
 
32 
 
 AMSTERDAM. 
 
 Account of some of the principal Articles, specifying their Quantities and "Values, imported into Amster- 
 dam by Sea during the Years 1829, 1830, and 1831. 
 
 Denomination of Mer- 
 chandise. 
 
 Descrip- 
 tion of 
 Package. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value in 
 Dutch 
 Money. 
 
 ^'-alue 
 in Ster- 
 ling. 
 
 1830. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value in 
 Dutch 
 Money. 
 
 ing. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value in 
 Dutch 
 Money. 
 
 ling. 
 
 Coffee, East India - 
 
 — West India - 
 
 — Ditto 
 Sugar, West India - 
 
 Havannah 
 Brazil 
 Mauritius 
 East India 
 Ditto 
 Ditto 
 
 Cotton '\\'ool,_American 
 
 — Effyptian 
 
 — West India 
 
 — East India 
 Tobacco, Maryland 
 
 — Kentuclfy 
 Hides 
 
 Wheat 
 
 B gs 
 Casks 
 Bags 
 Casks 
 Chests 
 
 Do. 
 Bai<s 
 Chests 
 Caniste s 
 Bags 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Casks 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Bags 
 Casks 
 Bags 
 
 Rye 
 Barley 
 
 100,000 
 1,970 
 43,700 
 19,000 
 22,200 
 1,570 
 2,550 
 810 
 1,980 
 1,810 
 5, 190 
 220 
 2,900 
 1,800 
 7,100 
 fi20 
 2,2.i0 
 28,200 
 6H0 
 12,200 
 12,600 
 1.3,380 ] 
 ) equal to ( 
 1-10,500 i 
 ' quarters ' 
 12,870^ 
 ) equal to 
 ■ 135,135 
 quai'ters 
 
 i 12,261 
 equal to 
 128,730 I 
 quarters 
 
 1,100"] 
 equal to 
 11,550 
 quarters 
 
 Florins. 
 2,01G,000 
 397,152 
 2,796,80 I 
 3,.">5 1,600 
 I 1,758,240 
 ' 369,900 
 55,760 
 68,000 
 122,8.59 
 56,846 
 656,016 
 21,310 
 419,050 
 112,200 
 1,476,300 
 90,613 
 298,150 
 359,550 
 33,320 
 924,638 
 167,895 
 
 3,211,200 
 
 4,350,060 
 
 £ 
 168,000 
 -5,100 
 2.55,060 
 27g,.500 
 146,520 
 30,825 
 4,4S0^ 
 5,66G 
 10,240 
 3,076 
 54,670 
 2,026 
 34,920 
 11,850 
 123,080 
 7,550 
 24,846 
 29,960 
 2,777 
 77,0.50 
 13,990 
 
 267,000 
 
 362,505 
 
 84,470 
 2,270 
 
 50,770 
 
 21,560 
 8,820 
 1,060 
 
 11,400 
 1,800 
 2,530 
 6,6.>0 
 3,710 
 40 
 4,270 
 490 
 5,520 
 5,550 
 580 
 
 48,600 
 1,150 
 
 r no,s7oi 
 
 or 114,155 
 [.quarters \ 
 
 Florins. 
 
 1,667,437 
 436,1>S0 
 
 3,096,970 
 
 3,380,608 
 579,474 
 218,625 
 191,520 
 122,130 
 126,879 
 110,.389 
 466,752 
 4,680 
 609,756 
 44,120 
 
 1,0.53,620 
 673,712 
 72,007 
 577,125 
 35,220 
 487,129 
 100,200 
 
 138,9.53 
 36,250 
 258,080 
 281,717 
 48,290 
 18,220 
 15,960 
 10,177 
 10,573 
 
 9,200 
 38,896 
 390 
 50,815 
 
 3,G77 
 86,1.57 
 56,145 
 
 6,000 
 48,094- 
 
 2,955 
 40,591 
 
 8,342 
 
 187.500 
 
 910-j 
 ,870 
 ters ' 
 
 S 10. 
 
 or 114 
 (.quarte 
 
 c 15,3107 
 
 <5 or 161,070 J. 
 (.quarters \ 
 
 c 2,7707 
 
 •< or 29,085 J- 
 (.quarters j 
 
 3,183,540 
 
 2,515,7 
 
 265,295 
 
 121,500 
 1,190 
 21,280 
 19,850 
 17,690 
 1,260 
 27,800 
 
 7,430 
 
 1,490 
 
 500 
 2,590 
 660 
 .5,220 
 C,050 
 ISO 
 42,000 
 2,060 
 5,830 
 2,260 
 I 3,1707 
 or 33,2S5 ) 
 .quarters ) 
 
 c 13,3007 
 
 ■I or 139,650 V 
 (.quarters J 
 
 ( 18,2907 
 i or 192,015 V 
 (quarters J 
 
 r 2907 
 
 <J or 3,015 Y 
 (.quarters ) 
 
 Florins. 
 2,704,591 
 299,880 
 1,942,1(10 
 3,223,6 10 
 1,082,628 
 255,151 
 486,500 
 
 457,873 
 
 178,800 
 31,98(1 
 
 318,837 
 6.5,610 
 
 963,743 
 
 821,469 
 25,550 
 
 495,500 
 
 4,402,.500 
 
 £ 
 
 225,388 
 2 1,990 
 161,860 
 268,657 
 90,219 
 21,263 
 40,540 
 
 38,154 
 
 ,900 
 ,655 
 ,070 
 ,500 
 ,512 
 ,155 
 ,963 
 ,125 
 ,S54 
 ,012 
 3S0 
 
 54,683 
 566,858 
 520 075 
 3,52 
 
 During the year 1831, there were shipped from France for Holland, according to the official accounts 
 given by the French Custom-house, 5,488,572 litres, or 1,372,188 wine gallons of wine. Tlie total imports 
 of Amsterdam in 1831 are estimated in the Archives du Commerce (torn. i. p. 236.), at 85,169,700 francs 
 (3,400,000/. sterling), and the exports at 72,760,000 francs (2,910,000/. sterling). During 1831, 93,324 lbs. 
 (English) of cheese, 380 tons of oil cake, 2,189 tons of oak bark, and 23,100 quarters of wheat, were exported 
 from Amsterdam for Great Britain. The exports for England of butter, flax and tow, cloves and nut- 
 megs (of which articles the Dutch have a monopoly), smaltz, linens, hides, &c., were very considerable. 
 
 Expenses of Skips in Amsterdam. —The expenses of a ship of 300 English tons, or 158 Dutch lasts, with 
 a mixed cargo on board, inwards and outwards, coming and departing by the canal, were, in 1832, as 
 follows : — 
 
 Lock dues in the canal, and charges — inwards 
 Ditto - - - outwards 
 
 Measuring the ship . . - 
 
 I'onnage dues, inwards and outwards 
 A cliarge called Port money 
 
 Haven money . - - . 
 
 Quay or key money - - - 
 
 Permit to consume provisions free of excise dues 
 Clearance - - . - , 
 
 Expenses of clearing, fees, &c. 
 
 Total 
 
 25 12 
 
 1 12 
 
 0 13 
 
 1 2 
 0 8 
 0 5 
 
 2 18 
 
 .^•41 
 
 Arriving from the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 8 10 0 
 
 5 10 0 
 
 1 10 0 
 25 12 0 
 
 2 0 0 
 
 0 13 6 
 
 1 2 0 
 0 8 0 
 0 12 6 
 
 2 18 0 
 
 There is besides, the merchants' and brokers' commission on recovering and nrocurine freights eeno 
 rally settled by agreement. o 1 o s > s'-^c- 
 
 The rt?M(^/ is 45 cents (9<f.) the Netherlands ton (nearly equal to the British) inwards and the 
 
 same outwards with the addition of the Syndicate tax of 13 per cent. It is payable onlv 07ice a year by 
 ships bearing the following flags viz Netherlands, British, North American, Danish, Hanoverian, Ham- 
 burgh, Bremen, Lubeck, Mecklenburg, Oldenburg, Russian, Portuguese, Austrian, Syrian, Salonica 
 Swedish, Norwegian, Prussian, Turkish, Kio de la Plata. Others pay 57* cents (lUrf) per ton inwards' 
 and the same outwards every voyage. ^ ■> ■> \ s j \. waiuo, 
 
 The charge called port money is payable half on entry, and half on departure; and that called haven 
 money the same. The hire of a liorse for towing along the whole line of the canal amounts to 12 flor 
 40 cents, or about M. ]s. 
 
 (lunrantine. — The quarantine station is at the island of Wierengen, near tlie Hcldor 
 
 Cotnmission.— The usual rate of commission or factorage on the' purchase or sale of goods is 2 ner 
 cent, and on bill transactions § and per cent, according to their nature. 
 
 Provisions of all sorts are abundant at Amsterdam, and reasonably cheap. The wages of ships' car- 
 penters vary from 1 flor. 20 cents to 1 flor. 80 cents ; that is, from about 2*. to 3s. a day 
 
 For an account of the prices of corn at Amsterdam, see Corn Thadk and Corn Laws 
 
 Custom-house Reaulations. — Capfdina of ships are bound to make, within 24 hours of their arrival 
 at Amsterdam, or any Dutch port, a declaration in writing, of the goods of which their cargo consists 
 If the captains be not acfiuaiiitcd with the goods of which the cargo consists?, they must make their 
 dec aratioii under the general term of merchandise, and exhibit the bills of lading along with the 
 declaration. The Custom-house oHiccrs are instructed to inform the captains of all formalities required 
 
AMSTERDAM. 
 
 23 
 
 ' All ftood8, whether for homo consumption or transit, may bo deposited In bonacd warehouses. If re- 
 exported by sea, they pay no duty ; but if re-exported by canals or otlierwise for the interior, they arc 
 subject to a transit duty. The warehouse rent cliargeable per month on a quarter of wheat (Imp. mea«.) 
 is, on an upper loft, l2d., on an under do. l^d. ; on a ton (Eng.) of sugar in casks, the cliarge is 8d. ; in 
 chests or mats, 6d. ^ 
 
 The business of insurance is extensively practised at Amsterdam ; the premiums arc moderate, and 
 the security unexceptionable. The high duty imposed in this country on policies of insurance has con- 
 tributed to the increase of this busmess in Holland. 
 
 Credit, Discount, Sfc. — Holland is, and has always been, a country of short credit. A discount i? 
 usually given for prompt payment, at the rate of 1 per cent, for six weeks, and of 2 per cent, for 
 two months; but the terms of credit on most articles, and the discount allowed for ready money, have 
 been fixed by usage, and are regarded as essentialconditions in every bargain. Some of the more im. 
 portant of these terms and discounts are specified in the following table. In consequence of the pre- 
 ference given in Holland to ready money transactions, it is not a country in which adventurers without 
 capital have much chance of speedily making a fortune. " Rien, en efFet, de plus facile que de s'etablir 
 a Amsterdam ; mais rien de pltts difficile que de s'y sautemr sans des grandes ressources. Dans cette ville, 
 oi) I'argent abonde, oil on le prele centre des sGretes h. si bon march (5, il est pourtant impossible de s^en 
 procurer d. credit; et sans argent il n'y a plus de jjossibilite d'y travailler, que de trouver quelqu'un qui 
 veuille de se charger d'un papier nouveau qui ne seroit pas appuy^ d'un crtfdit que I'opinion, la protec- 
 tion, ou des effets reek feroient valoir k la bourse. Les HoUandois suivent l^t-dessus des maximes trfes 
 austferes, meme I'egard des maisons d'une certaine consideration." — {Encyclopidie MWiodique, Com- 
 merce, t. ii. p. 650.) But this austerity is not a disadvantage, but the reverse. It prevents commerce from 
 degenerating, as it has too often done in other places, into gambling adventures, and places it on a com- 
 paratively solid foundation. And it should be mentioned to the honour of the Dutch, and as a proof of 
 the excellence of this system, that, notwithstanding the distress and loss of trade occasioined by the inva- 
 sion and occupation of their country by the French, the bankruptcies in 1795 and subsequent years were 
 not, comparatively, so numerous as in England in ordinary seasons ! The regulations in the Code Napo- 
 leon as to bankruptcy are enforced in Holland. 
 
 It has long been the practice in Holland to make, on selling articles, considerable deductions from 
 their weight, particularly from those of large bulk, as compared with their value. These tares and 
 drafts, as they are termed, are now fixed by ancient usage; and the most important amongst them 
 are here specifietL 
 
 Tares and Allowances on the principal Articles sold at 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 Tares. Allowances. 
 
 (Draft and Discount.) 
 
 months' 
 
 Ashes 42 lbs. per cask 
 
 Barilla per cent 
 
 Cocoa, Caracas 42 lbs 
 
 Maranham ... ditto ' 
 
 Cayenne ditto 
 
 Martinique... ditto 
 
 Surinam 6 per cent 
 
 Coffee, East and West 7. „ , „„, „„ , 
 India in ge- ,^ 
 
 ieral ?!. \ casks real tare. . 
 
 Bourbon HO lbs per original 
 
 L mat 
 
 .Tava 14 lbs. per ffunny . 
 
 Mocha 24 lbs. per bal6 
 
 count, and 1 
 per cent. 
 2 per cent, and 2 
 
 per cent. 
 1 per cent. 
 
 2 per cent, and 2 
 per cent. 
 
 ''°"°"'bS..."^]8p-"°* |2percem. and 1 
 
 all other kinds . 6 per cent; j P^'^ 
 
 Cotton yarn twist 
 Indigo, Bengal real tare . 
 
 Cochineal 3 Ji 4 lbs 
 
 Galls 6 lbs. or 20 lbs. 
 
 1 per cent. 
 C 1 per cent. 2 per 
 i cent, and 1 per 
 / cent. 
 
 r4 per cent, aug- 
 < ment. 
 (.1 per cent. deduct, 
 f 2 per cent, and 2 
 1 per cent. 
 
 Gums, Senegal 16 lbs. 14 lbs. or 21 2 
 
 Arabic^ u ibs." oVso'ibs.' : f ^^^^ 
 
 Logwood 2 and 3 per cent. .1 g „„„^ 
 
 Fustic 2 per cent ) 2 per cent. 
 
 "&c!'. .^.r.':}'^ lbs. per hide •••{''^ ^^r"^*^.^'"'^ ^ 
 
 Linens. Flemish".!.'.'. Pfer^^^^;;^^"^ ^ 
 
 all other kinds .. 1 per cent. 
 
 Oils 1 per cent. 
 
 Kice, Carolina real tare 12 per cent, and 2 
 
 East India 6 lbs J per cent. 
 
 Saltpetre 8 k 14 lbs { ^ ''^er centf"** 
 
 Li'iuorice real tare and 4 lbs. { ^fj^^^,,^''^ ^ 
 
 Spices, pepper loon^ orl^lbs 
 
 cinnamon S '"^s* °' 
 
 cloves and mace — 1 per cent. 
 
 nim«ito C 42 lbs. and above 7 
 
 s;;c^:::::.|,^-^---;:::::jipercent. 
 
 ginger 8 lbs. a 16 lbs 2 per cent. 
 
 sugars, Martinique ..7 
 
 St. Domingo.. M8 per cent. 
 St. Croix ' 
 Surinam. 
 
 English colo- ^20 per cent 12 per cent, and 2 
 
 nies 3 C per cent. 
 
 Demerara . 
 
 Berbice , „ 
 
 >:s.se<)uibo per cent. 
 
 Brazil, white. 
 
 Ditto, Musco- 
 vado 
 
 Harannah ... 80 lbs. 
 Java 48 lbs. 
 
 18 months' dis- 
 count, 2 per 
 cent, ahd 2 per 
 cent. 
 
 2 per cent, and 2 
 per cent. 
 
 «»alt 
 
 Tea, bohea 
 
 Congo 
 
 souchong 
 
 campoi 
 
 hyson 
 
 pekoe 
 
 tonquin 
 
 Tobacco, Maryland 
 Virginia . 
 
 •21 lbs. k 24 lbs. 
 
 18 lbs 
 
 !■ 18 lbs. k 42 lbs. 
 
 1 per cent. 
 
 1 per cent. 
 
 Tin plates 
 
 Wool, Spanish . 
 
 Wines 
 Madder. 
 
 Herrings . 
 
 Smaltz. 
 
 Flax, hams, seeds, ge- 
 neva, grain 
 
 Butter 
 
 Hides . 
 
 Cheese, Edam 
 
 Gouda 
 
 , 2 per cent, and t 
 I per cent, da- 
 I maged, and 1 
 ( per ( enu 
 . 2 per cent 1 per cent. 
 
 Jbags tared, and 24? '"^I count'^Ld^'\" 
 l lbs..perl761bs.]- ^^clntf"'' ' 
 1 per cent. 
 
 . casks tared "^^^'^'^ 
 
 1. and 2 per cent. 
 { 1 per cent. 2 (ler 
 cent, and 2 pet 
 cent. 
 2 per cent. 
 1 per cent. 
 
 casks tared 
 
 2 and 8 fiet cent. 
 
 3 or 5 per cent. 
 36 lbs 
 
 none. 
 
 2 and 1 per cent. 
 2 per cent. 
 1 per cent. 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Sugar 
 
 The above are the customary tares and other allowance 
 made by the merchants in their transactions with each other. 
 But in paving the import duties at the Custom-house, the tare 
 upon goods paving duty by weight is, with the exceptions un- 
 dermentioned, fixed at 15 per cent, for such as are in casks or 
 barrels, and at 8 per cent, for such as are in packages, ca- 
 nisters, mats, baskets, &c. Merchants dissatisfied with these 
 allowances may pay the duty according to the real weight, 
 ascertained by the customs officers at their expense. 
 
 Exceptions. — The tare upon grain imported in sacks is fixetl 
 at 2 per cent. 
 Porcelain, 15 per cent. 
 
 in chests, 25 per cent. 
 
 serons, 15 per cent, 
 -chests from Havannah, 18 per cent., other places 20 
 per cent. 
 ^ canisters, 10 per cent. 
 
 casks and packages, 15 and 8 per cent. The tare 
 upon sugar refined in the interior and exported, 
 - is 12 per cent, per barrel, S per cent per package. 
 AUrirvavces for leakage are made upon all liquids, including 
 treacle and honey, as follows, viz. 
 
 Coming from England, the northern ports of Etirope, and 
 France, by inland navigation, 6 per cent. 
 
 From France by sea, and from other countries by the rivers 
 Rhine and Waal, 12 per cent. 
 From any other port or place, 14 per cent. 
 Finally, from whatever i^lace the same may come, upon train 
 oil, 12 per cent. ; blubber, 6 per cent. 
 
 In case liquids shall have experienced^upon the vovage, such 
 leakage as shall cause the importer to be dissatisfied with the 
 allowance before specified, he is permitted to pay the duty 
 upon the actual quantity, to be ascertained by tne otficers at 
 the importer's expense. 
 
 Money — Accounts used to be kept at -Amsterdam bv the 
 pound Flemish = 6 florins = 20 schillings = 120 stivers = 240 
 groats =1920 pennings. But in 1820, the decimal system 
 was introduced. In order, however, to cause as little incon- 
 venience ^s possible, the florin = \s. 8|rf. sterling, was mada 
 the unit ol the new system. The florin is supposed to be di. 
 vided info 100 equal parts or cents ; and the other sliver coins 
 are equal multiples or sub->"?iultiples of it. The new gold coin 
 is called the florin piece, and is worth 16j. f^d. very nearly. 
 But accounts are still sometimes kept in the old way or by 
 
AMSTERDAM. 
 
 the pound Flemish. Par of exchange between Amsterdam 
 and London is H flor. 58 cents per pound sterling. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — In 1820, the French system of 
 ■weights and measures was introduced into the Netherlands, 
 the names only being changed. 
 
 ^The pond is the uiut of weight, and answers to the French 
 "kilogramme. Its divisions are the ons, lood, wigtje, and 
 korrel. 
 
 The elle, which is the unit or element of long measure, 
 equals the French mitre. Its decimal divisions are the palm, 
 duim, and streep ; and its decimal multiples, the roede and 
 mijje. 
 
 The vierkante elle, or square ell, is the unit of superficial 
 measure ; and answers to the centiare or mitre carr^ of France. 
 Its divisions are the vierkante palm, vierkante duim, and the 
 •vierkante streep ; and iu multiples, the vierkante roede and 
 vierkante bunder. 
 
 The kubicke elle is the unit of measures of capacity ; and 
 equals the French stire. Its divisions are the kubicke palm, 
 kubicke duim, and. kubicke streep. 
 
 The term tvisae is given to a kubicke elle of fire-wood. 
 
 The kop is the unit of measures for dry wares, and is the 
 cube of the palm ; answering to the French litre. Its division 
 is the maatje, and its multiples the schepel and mudde ; the 
 latter is also called the zak, and equals the French hectolitre. 
 30 mudden make 1 last. 
 
 The kan is the unit for liquid measure, and is the cube of 
 the palm ; it corresponds to the French litre. Its divisions are 
 the maatje and vingerhoed, and 100 kans make a vat or cask, 
 •which equals the French hectolitre. 
 
 The apothecary's new pound is 12 ounces, 96 drachms, 288 
 scruples, or 5,760 grains ; and answers to 375 grammes, or 
 6,787 English grains. 
 
 By the old method of calculating, which is not yet entirely 
 supersede !, the pound of Amsterdam was = to 1'09 lb. avoir- 
 dupois, or 100 lbs. Amsterdam = 108-923 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 The last or measure for com = 27 mudden = 10 qurs. 
 bushels Winchester mejisure. The aam liquid mea- 
 sure =4 ankers=8 steckans = 21 viertels = G4 stoops or 
 stoppen = 128 mingles = 256 pints = 41 English wine gallons. 
 
 The stoop Contains 5 l-8th pints English wine measure. 
 
 100 mingles are equal to 32 English wine gallons, or 26 l-5th 
 
 English beer gallons, or 26 '<;-5d Imperial gallons. 
 
 French wine is sold per hogshead of 180 mingles. 
 
 Spanish and Portugxiese wine, per pipe of 319 ditto. 
 
 French brandy, per hogshead of .-. . . 30 viertels. 
 
 Beer, per barrel (equal to the aam) of 128 mingles* 
 
 Vegetable oils, per aam, of 120 ditto. 
 
 Whale oil, per ditto 16 ditto. 
 
 Rum is sold per anker of 2 steckan = 10^ English wine 
 gallons. 
 
 The foot of Amsterdam =11 l-7th English inches. 
 The Rhineland foot . . . = 12 ditto. 
 The ell, cloth measure = 27 1-1 2th ditto. 
 
 Rock salt is sold per hondert of 404 maaten, making 20 tons, 
 or 4,000 lbs. Dutch. 
 
 Pit coal is sold per hoed of 38 maaten ; nine hoeds are five 
 chaldrons of Newcastle, or six hoeds are five chaldrons of 
 London. 
 
 Butter is sold per barrel ; the barrel of Leyden is 320 lbs. 
 
 nett that of Friesland 28 lbs. nett — and tHe common Dutch 
 
 barrel 336 lbs. gross. 
 
 A last of herrings is reckoned at 12, 13, or 14 barrels. 
 
 A last of pitch is 12 barrels. 
 
 A last of tar, 13 barrels. 
 
 A bag of seed = 2^ Winchester quarters. 
 
 A last for freight is reckoned 4,000 lbs. equal to two English 
 tons. 
 
 Eight hogsheads (or oxhofts) of wine 
 
 Twelve barrels of pitch I are reckoned 
 
 Thirteen barrels of tar I as one last 
 
 Twenty chests of lemons, &c. > in settling 
 
 4,000 lbs. of iron, copper, and colonial produce I the freight 
 4,000 lbs. of almonds I of ships. 
 
 2,000 lbs . of wool or feathers J 
 A last of wheat is considered 10 per cent, higher than one 
 of rye, and the latter 20^ per cent, higher than oats, and 10 
 per cent, higher than seed. A last of ballast is only 2,000 lbs. 
 — These details have been derived from the answers by the 
 British consul to the circular queries, the Diclionnaire du 
 Commerce, (Ency. Mithod.) tom. ii. pp. 554—650., Kelly'i 
 Cambist, private information, '6(0. 
 
 Magnitude of the Commerce of Holland in the seventeenth Century. — Causes of its 
 Prosperity and Decline. — We believe we need make no apology for embracing this 
 opportunity to lay before our readers the following details with respect to the commerce 
 and commercial policy of Holland. It forms one of the most instructive topics of 
 investigation ; and it is to be regretted that so little attention should have been paid to 
 it in this country. 
 
 Previously to the commencement of the long-continued and glorious struggle made 
 by the Dutch to emancipate themselves from the blind and brutal despotism of Old 
 Spain, they had a considerable marine, and had attained to distinction by their fisheries 
 and commerce ; and the war, instead of being injurious to the trade of the repubb'c, con- 
 tributed powerfully to its extension. After the capture of Antwerp by the Spaniards, 
 in 1585, the extensive commerce of which it had been the centre was removed to the 
 ports of Holland, and principally to Amsterdam, which then attained to the distinction 
 she long enjoyed, of the first commercial city of Europe. 
 
 In 1602, the Dutch East India Company was formed; and notwithstanding the 
 pernicious influence of that association, the Indian trade increased rapidly in magni- 
 tude and importance. Ships fitted either for commercial or warlike purposes, and 
 having a considerable number of soldiers on board, were sent out within a few years of 
 the establishment of the company. Amboyna and the Moluccas were first wrested 
 from the Portuguese, and with them the Dutch obtained the monopoly of the spice 
 trade. Factories and fortifications were in no long time established, from Bussorah, near 
 the mouth of the Tigris, in the Persian Gulf, along the coasts and islands of India as 
 far as Japan. Alliances were formed with several of the Indian princes ; and in many 
 parts, particularly on the coasts of Ceylon, and in various districts of Malabar and 
 Coromandel, they were themselves the sovereigns. Batavia, in the large and fertile 
 island of Java, the greater part of which had been conquered by the Dutch, formed the 
 centre of their Indian commerce ; and though unhealthy, its port was excellent, and it 
 was admirably situated for commanding the trade of the Eastern Archipelago. In 
 1651, they planted a colony at the Cape of Good Hope, which had been strangely 
 neglected by the Portuguese. 
 
 Every branch of commerce was vigorously prosecuted by the Dutch. Their trade 
 with the Baltic was, however, by far the most extensive and lucrative of which they 
 were in possession. Guicciardini mentions that the trade with Poland, Denmark, 
 Prussia, &c., even before their revolt, was so very great, that fleets of 300 ships arrived 
 twice a year at Amsterdam from Dantzic and Livonia only ; but it increased pro- 
 digiously during the latter part of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth 
 centuries. The great population of Holland, and the limited extent and unfruitful 
 nature of the soil, render the inhabitants dependent on foreigners for the greater part of 
 their supplies of corn. The countries round the Baltic have always furnished them 
 with the principal part of those supplies ; and it is from them that tliey liave been in 
 tlie habit of bringing timber, iron, hemp and flax, pitch and tar, tallow, aslies, and other 
 bulky articles required in the building of their houses and ships, and in various ma- 
 nufactures. Nothing, however, redounds so much to the credit of the Dutch, as tlie 
 
AMSTERDAM. 
 
 35 
 
 policy they have invariably followed witli respect to the trade in com. Tliey liave, at 
 all times, had a large capital embarked in this business. The variations wliich are 
 pei-petually occurring in the harvests, early led them to engage very extensively in a 
 sort of speculative corn trade. When the crops liappened to be unusually productive, 
 and prices low, they bought and stored up large quantities of grain, in the expectation 
 of profiting by the advance that was sure to take place on the occurrence of an un- 
 favourable year. Repeated efforts were made, in periods when prices were rising, to pre- 
 vail on the government to prohibit exportation ; but they steadily refused to interfere. 
 In consequence of this enlightened policy, Holland has long been the most important 
 European entrepot for corn ; and her markets have on all occasions been furnished with 
 the most abundant supplies. Those scarcities which are so very disastrous in countries 
 without commerce, or where the trade in corn is subjected to fetters and restraints, have 
 not only been totally unknown in Holland, but became a copious source of wealth to 
 her merchants, who then obtained a ready and advantageous vent for the supplies ac- 
 cumulated in their warehouses. " Amsterdam," says Sir Walter Raleigh, " is never 
 without 700,000 quarters of corn, none of it of the growth of Holland ; and a dearth 
 of only one year in any other part of Europe enriches Holland for seven years. In 
 the course of a year and a half, during a scarcity in England, there were carried 
 away from the ports of Southampton, Bristol, and Exeter alone, nearly 20O,O00Z. ; and 
 if London and the rest of England be included, there must have been 2,000,000Z. more." 
 — ( Observations touching Trade and Commerce with the Hollander, Miscel. Works, vol. ii.) 
 
 The very well informed author of the Richesse de la Hollande, published in 1778, 
 observes, in allusion to these circumstances, " Que la disette de grains regne dans les 
 quatre parties du monde ; vous trouverez du froment, du seigle, et d'autres grains a 
 Amsterdam; its n'y' manqiient jamais." — (Tome i. p. 376.) 
 
 The Bank of Amsterdam was founded in 1609. The principal object of this esta- 
 blishment was to obviate the inconvenience and uncertainty arising from the circvdation 
 of the coins imported into Amsterdam from all parts of the world. The merchants who 
 carried coin or bullion to the Bank obtained credit for an equal value in its books : this 
 was called bank-money ; and all considerable payments were effected by writing it off 
 from the account of one individual to that of another. This establishment continued to 
 flourish till the invasion of the French in 1795. 
 
 Between the years 1651 and 1672, when the territories of the republic were invaded 
 by the French, the commerce of Holland seems to have reached its greatest height. 
 De Witt estimates its increase from the treaty with Spain, concluded at Munster in 1 643, 
 to 1669, at fully a half. He adds, that during the war with Holland, Spain lost the 
 greater part of her naval power ; that since the peace, the Dutch had obtained most of 
 the trade to that country, which had been previously carried on by the Hanseatic mer- 
 chants and the English ; that almost all the coasting trade of Spain was carried on by 
 Dutch shipping ; that Spain had even been forced to hire Dutch ships to sail to her 
 American possessions ; and that so great was the exportation of goods from Holland to 
 Spain, that all the merchandise brought from the Spanish West Indies was not sufficient 
 to make returns for them. 
 
 At this period, indeed, the Dutch engrossed, not by means of any artificial monopoly, 
 but by the greater number of their ships, and their superior skill and economy in all 
 that regarded navigation, almost the whole carrying trade of Europe. The value of the 
 goods exported from France in Dutch bottoms, towards the middle of the fourteenth 
 century, exceeded 40,000,000 livres ; and the commerce of England with the Low 
 Countries was, for a very long period, almost entirely carried on in them. 
 
 The business of marine insurance was largely and successfully prosecuted at Amster- 
 dam ; and the ordinances published in 1551, 1563, and 1570, contain the most judicious 
 regulations for the settlement of such disputes as might arise in conducting this difficult 
 but highly useful business. It is singular, however, notwithstanding the sagacity of the 
 Dutch, and their desire to strengthen industrious habits, that they should have prohibited 
 insurance upon lives. It was reserved for England to show the advantages that might 
 be derived from this beautiful application of the science of probabilities. 
 
 In 1690, Sir William Petty estimated the shipping of Eui'ope at about 2,000,000 
 tons, which he supposed to be distributed as follows : — viz. England, 500,000 > 
 France, 100,000 ; Hamburgh, Denmark, Sweden, and Dantzic, 250,000 ; Spain, Por- 
 tugal, and Italy, 250,000 ; that of the Seven United Provinces amounting, according 
 to him, to 900,000 tons, or to nearly one half of the whole tonnage of Europe ! No 
 great dependence can, of course, be placed upon these estimates ; but the probability is, 
 that, had they been more accurate, the preponderance in favour of Holland would have 
 been greater than it appears to be ; for the official returns to the circulars addressed in 
 1701 by the commissioners of customs to the officers at the different ports, show that the 
 wliole mercantile navy of England amounted at that period to only 261,222 tons, carry- 
 ing 27,196 men. — (^Mucphcr son's Annals of Commerce, anno 1701.) 
 
 D 2 
 
36 AMSTERDAM. 
 
 It may, therefore, be fairly concluded, that, during the seventeenth century the foreign 
 commerce and navigation of Holland was greater than that of all Europe besides ; and 
 yet the country which was the seat of this vast commerce had no native produce to 
 export, nor even a piece of timber fit for ship-building. All had been the fruit of 
 industry, economy, and a fortunate combination of circumstances. 
 
 Holland owed this vast commerce to a variety of causes : partly to her peculiar situ- 
 ation, the industry and economy of her inhabitants, the comparatively liberal and 
 enlightened system of civil as well as of commercial policy adopted by the republic ; and 
 partly also to the wars and disturbances that prevailed in most European countries in 
 the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and prevented them from emulating the success- 
 ful career of the Dutch. 
 
 The ascendancy of Holland as a commercial state began to decline from about the 
 commencement of last century. After the war terminated by the treaty of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, the attention of the government of Holland was forcibly attracted to the state 
 of the shipping and foreign commerce of the republic. The discovery of means by 
 which their decline might be arrested, and the trade of the republic, if possible, restored 
 to its ancient flourishing condition, became a prominent object in the speculations of every 
 one who felt interested in the public welfare. In order to procure the most correct in- 
 formation on the subject, the Stadtholder, William IV., addressed the following queries 
 to all the most extensive and intelligent merchants, desiring them to favour him with 
 their answers : — 
 
 " 1. What is the actual state of trade? and if the same should be found to be dimi- 
 nished and fallen to decay, then, 2. To enquire by what methods the same may be sup- 
 ported and advanced, or, if possible, restored to its former lustre, repute, and dignity ? " 
 
 In discussing these questions, the merchants were obliged to enter into an examin- 
 ation, as well of the causes which had raised the commerce of Holland to the high pitch 
 of prosperity to which it had once attained, as of those which had occasioned its subse- 
 quent decline. It is stated, that, though not of the same opinion upon all points, they, 
 speaking generally, concurred as to those that were most important. When their 
 answers had been obtained, and compared with each other, the Stadtholder had a dis- 
 sertation prepared from them, and other authentic sources, on the commerce of the 
 republic, to which proposals were subjoined for its amendment. Some of the principles 
 advanced in this dissertation apply to the case of Holland only ; but most of them are 
 of universal application, and are not more comprehensive than sound. We doubt, indeed, 
 whether the benefits resulting from religious toleration, political liberty, the security of 
 property, and the freedom of industry, have ever been more clearly set forth than in this 
 dissertation. It begins by an enumeration of the causes which contributed to advance the 
 commerce of the republic to its former unexampled prosperity ; these the authors divide 
 into three classes, embracing under the first those that were natural and physical ; under 
 the second, those they denominated moral ; and under the third, those which they consi- 
 dered adventitious and external ; remarking on them in succession as follows : — 
 
 " I. The natural and physical causes are the advantages of the situation of the country, on the sea, 
 and at the mouth of considerable rivers ; its situation between the northern and southern parts, which 
 by being in a manner the centre of all Europe, made the republic become the general market, where the 
 merchants on both sides used to bring their superfluous commodities, in order to barter and exchange 
 the same for other goods they wanted. 
 
 " Nor have the barrenness of the country, and the necessities of the natives arising from that cause, 
 less contributed to set them upon exerting all their application, industry, and utmost stretch of genius, 
 to fetch from foreign countries what they stand in need of in their own, and to support themselves by 
 trade. 
 
 " The abundance of fish in the neighbouring seas put them in a condition not only to supply their own 
 occasions, but with the overplus to carry on a trade with foreigners, and out of theproduce of the fishery 
 to find an equivalent for what they wanted, through the sterility and narrow boundaries and extent of 
 their own country. 
 
 " II. Among the moral and political causes are to be placed, The unalterable maxim and fundamental 
 law relating to the free exercise of different religions ; and always to consider this toleration and con., 
 nivance as the most effectual means to draw foreigners from adjacent countries to settle and reside here, 
 and so become instrumental to the peopling of these provinces. 
 
 " The constant policy of the republic to make this country a perpetual, safe, and secure asylum for an 
 persecuted and oppressed strangers. No alhance, no treaty, no regard for or solicitation of any potentate 
 whatever, has at any time been able to weaken or destroy this law, or make the state recede from pro^ 
 tecting those who have fled to it for their own security and self-preservation. 
 
 " Throughout the whole course of all the persecutions and oppressions that have occurred in other 
 countries, the steady adherence of the republic to this fundamental law has been the cause that many 
 people have not only fled hither for refuge, with their whole stock in ready cash, and their most valuable 
 effects, but have also settled, and established many trades, fabrics, manufactories, arts, and sciences, in 
 this country, notwithstanding the first materials for the said fabrics and manufactories were almost wholly 
 wanting in it, and not to be procured but at a great expense from foreign parts. 
 
 " The constitution of our form of government, and the liberty thus accruing to the citizen, are further 
 reasons to which the growth of trade, and its estal)lishment in the republic, may fairly be ascribed ; and 
 all her policy and laws are put upon such an equitable footing, that neither life, estates, nor dignities, 
 depend on the caprice or arbitrary power of any single individual ; nor is there any room for any person, 
 who, by care, frugality, and diligence, has once acquired an affluent fortune or estate, to fear a depriv- 
 ation of them by any act of violence, oppression, or injustice. 
 
 " The administration of justice in the country has, in like manner, always been clear and imp.irtial, 
 and without distinction of superior or inferior rank, — whether the parties have been rich or poor, or 
 were tliis a furcijncr and that a native; and it were greatly to be wished we could at this day boast of 
 
AMSTERDAM. 
 
 37 
 
 •uch impartial quickncES and despatch in all our legal processes, considering how great an influence it 
 has on trade. 
 
 " To sum up all, amongst the moral and political causes of the former flourishing state of trade, may be 
 likewise placed the wisdom and prudence of the administration ; the intrepid firmness of the councils ; 
 the faithlulness with which treaties and engagements were wont to be fulfilled and ratified ; and particu- 
 larly the care and caution practised to preserve tranquillity and peace, and to decline, instead of entering 
 on, a scene of war, merely to gratify the ambitious views of gaining fruitless or imaginary conquests. 
 
 " By these moral and political maxims was the glory and reputation of the republic so f ar spread, and 
 foreigners animated to place so great a confidence in the steady determinations of a state so wisely and 
 prudently conducted, that a concourse of them stocked this country with an augmentation of inhabitants 
 and useful hands, whereby its trade and opulence were from time to time increased. 
 
 " III. Amongst the adventitious and external causes of the rise and flourishing state of our trade may 
 be reckoned — 
 
 " That at the time when the best and wisest maxims were adopted in the republic as the means of 
 making trade flourish, they were neglected in almost all other countries; and any one, reading the his- 
 tory of those times, may easily discover, that the persecutions on account of religion throughout Spain, 
 Brabant, Flanders, and many other states and kingdoms, have powerfully promoted the establishment of 
 commerce in the republic. 
 
 " To this happy result, and the settling of manufacturers in our country, the long continuance of the 
 civil wars in France, which were afterwards carried on in Germany, England, and divers other parts, 
 have also very much contributed. 
 
 " It must be added, in the last place, that during our most burthensome and heavy wars with Spain 
 and Portugal (however ruinous that period was for commerce otherwise), these powers had both neglected 
 their navy ; whilst the navy of the republic, by a conduct direcily the reverse, was at the same time 
 formidable, and in a capacity not only to protect the trade of its own subjects, but to annoy and crush 
 that of their enemies in all quarters." * 
 
 We believe our readers will agree with us in thinking that these statements reflect 
 the greatest credit on the merchants and government of Holland. Nothing, as it 
 appears to us, could be conceived more judicious than the account they give of the 
 causes which principally contributed to render Holland a great commercial common- 
 wealth. The central situation of the country, its command of some of the principal 
 inlets to the continent, and the necessity under which the inhabitants have been placed, 
 in consequence of the barrenness of the soil and its liability to be overflowed, to exert all 
 their industry and enterprise, are circumstances that seem to be in a great degree 
 peculiar to Holland. But though there can be no doubt that their influence has been 
 very considerable, no one will pretend to say that it is to be compared for a moment with 
 the influence of those free institutions, which, fortunately, are not the exclusive attributes 
 of any particular country, but have flourished in Phoenicia, Greece, England, and 
 America, as well as in Holland. 
 
 Many dissertations have been written to account for the decline of the commerce of 
 Holland. But, if we mistake not, its leading causes may be classed under two pro- 
 minent heads, viz. first, the natural growth of commerce and navigation in other 
 countries ; and second, the weight of taxation at home. During the period when the 
 republic rose to great eminence as a commercial state, England, France, and Spain, dis- 
 tracted by civil and religious dissensions, or engrossed wholly by schemes of foreign con- 
 quest, were unable to apply their energies to the cultivation of commerce, or to withstand 
 the competition of so industrious a people as the Dutch. They, therefore, were under 
 the necessity of allowing the greater part of their foreign, and even of their coasting 
 trade, to be carried on in Dutch bottoms, and under the superintendence of Dutch 
 factors. But after the accession of Louis XIV. and the ascendancy of Cromwell 
 had put an end to internal commotions in France and England, the energies of these 
 two great nations began to be directed to pursuits of which the Dutch had hitherto 
 enjoyed almost a monopoly. It was not to be supposed, that when tranquillity and a regular 
 system of government had been established in France and England, their active and 
 enterprising inhabitants would submit to see one of their most valuable branches of 
 industry in the hands of foreigners. The Dutch ceased to be the carriers of Europe, 
 without any fault of their own. Their performance of that function necessarily termin- 
 ated as soon as other nations became possessed of a mercantile marine, and were able to 
 do for themselves what had previously been done for them by their neighbours. 
 
 Whatever, therefore, might have been the condition of Holland in other respects, the 
 natural advance of rival nations must inevitably have stripped her of a large portion of 
 the commerce she once possessed. But the progress of decline seems to have been con- 
 siderably accelerated, or rather, perhaps, the efforts to arrest it were rendered ineffectual, 
 by the extremely heavy taxation to which she was subjected, occasioned by the unavoidable 
 expenses incurred in the revolutionary struggle with Spain, and the subsequent wars 
 with France and England. The necessities of the state led to the imposition of taxes 
 on corn, on flour when it was ground at the mill, and on bread when it came from the 
 oven ; on butter, and fish, and fruit ; on income and legacies ; the sale of houses ; and, 
 in short, almost every article either of necessity or convenience. Sir William Temple 
 mentions that in his time — and taxes were greatly increased afterwards — one fish sauce 
 was in common use, which directly paid no fewer than thirty different duties of excise ; 
 
 * The Dissertation was translated into English, and published at London in 175L We have quoted 
 from the translation. 
 
 D 3 
 
38 
 
 AMSTERDAM. 
 
 and it was a common saying at Amsterdam, that every dish of fish brought to table was 
 paid for once to the fisherman, and six times to the state. 
 
 The pernicious influence of this heavy taxation has been ably set forth by the author 
 of the Richesse de la Hollande, and other well-informed writers ; and it has also been 
 very forcibly pointed out in the Dissertation already referred to, drawn up from the 
 communications of the Dutch merchants. " Oppressive taxes," it is there stated, " must 
 be placed at the head of all the causes that have co-operated to the prejudice and dis- 
 couragement of trade ; and it may be justly said, that it can only be attributed to them 
 that the trade of this country has been diverted out of its channel, and transferred to our 
 neighbom's, and must daily be still more and more alienated and shut out from us, unless 
 the progress thereof be stopped by some quick and effectual remedy : nor is it difficult to 
 see, from these contemplations on the state of our trade, that the same will be effected by 
 no other means than a diminution of all duties. 
 
 ** In former times this was reckoned the only trading state in Europe ; and foreigners 
 were content to pay the taxes, as well on the goods they brought hither, as on those they 
 came here to buy ; without examining whether they could evade or save them, by fetch- 
 ing the goods from the places where they were produced, and carrying others to the 
 places where they were consumed : in short, they paid us our taxes with pleasure, without 
 any farther enquiry. 
 
 " But, since the last century, the system of trade is altered all over Europe : foreign 
 nations, seeing the wonderful effect of our trade, and to what an eminence we had risen 
 only by means thereof, they did likewise apply themselves to it ; and, to save our duties, 
 sent their superfluous products beside our country, to the places where they are most 
 consumed ; and in return for the same, furnished themselves from the first hands with 
 what they wanted." 
 
 But, notwithstanding this authoritative exposition of the pernicious effects resulting 
 from the excess of taxation, the necessary expenses of the state were so great as to render 
 it impossible to make any sufficient reductions. And, with the exception of the transit 
 trade carried on through the Rhine and the Meuse, which is in a great measure 
 independent of foreign competition, and the American trade, most of the other branches 
 of the foreign trade of Holland, though still very considerable, continye in a com- 
 paratively depressed state. 
 
 In consequence principally of the oppressiveness of taxation, but partly, too, of the 
 excessive accumulation of capital that had taken place while the Dutch engrossed the 
 carrying trade of Europe, profits in Holland were reduced towards the middle of the 
 seventeenth century, and have ever since continued extremely low. This circumstance 
 would of itself have sapped the foundations of her commercial greatness. Her capitalists, 
 who could hardly expect to clear more than two or three per cent, of nett profit by any 
 sort of undertaking carried on at home, were tempted to vest their capital in other 
 countries, and to speculate in loans to foreign governments. There are the best reasons 
 for thinking that the Dutch were, until very lately, the largest creditors of any nation in 
 Europe. It is impossible, indeed, to form any accurate estimate of what the sums 
 owing them by foreigners previously to the late French war, or at present, may amount 
 to ; but there can be no doubt that at the former period the amount was immense, and 
 that it is still very considerable. M. Demeunier (JDictionnaire de VEconomie Politique^ 
 tome iii. p. 720.) states the amount of capital lent by the Dutch to foreign governments, 
 exclusive of the large sums lent to France during the American war, at seventy-three 
 millions sterling. According to the author of the Richesse de la Hollande (ii. p. 292. ), 
 the sums lent to France and England only, previously to 1778, amounted to 1,500,000 
 livres tournois, or sixty millions sterling. And besides these, vast sums were lent to 
 private individuals in foreign countries, both regularly as loans at interest, and in the 
 shape of goods advanced at long credits. So great was the difficulty of finding an 
 advantageous investment for money in Holland, that Sir William Temple mentions, that 
 the payment of any part of the national debt was looked upon by the cieditors as an evil 
 of the first magnitude. " They receive it," says he, " with tears, not knowing how to 
 dispose of it to interest with such safety and ease." 
 
 Among the subordinate causes which contributed to the decline of Dutch commerce, 
 or which have, at all events, prevented its growth, we may reckon the circumstance of 
 the commerce with India having been subjected to the trammels of monopoly. De Witt 
 expresses his firm conviction, that the abolition of the East India Company would have 
 added very greatly to the trade with the East ; and no doubt can now remain in the 
 mind of any one, that such would have been the case.* The interference of the 
 administration in regulating the mode in which some of the most important branches of 
 industry should be carried on, seems also to have been exceedingly injurious. Every 
 
 ' * For proofs of tliis, sco the article on the Commerce of Holland in the Edinburgh Review, No. 102., 
 from which most part of these statements have been taken. 
 
ANCHOR. 
 
 S9 
 
 proceeding with respect to the herring fishery, for example, was regulated by the orders 
 of government, carried into effect under the inspection of officers appointed for that 
 purpose. Some of these regulations were exceedingly vexatious. The period when the 
 fishery might begin was fixed at five minutes past twelve o'clock of the night of the 24th 
 of June ! and the master and pilot of every vessel leaving Holland for the fishery, 
 were obliged to make oath that they would respect the regulation. The species of salt 
 to be made use of in curing different sorts of herrings was also fixed by law ; and there 
 were endless regulations with respect to the size of the barrels, the number and thickness 
 of the staves of which they were to be made; the gutting and packing of the herrings; 
 the branding of the barrels, &c. &c. — (Histoire des Pcches, Sfc. dans les Mers du Nord, 
 tom. i. chap. 24.) These regulations were intended to secure to the Hollanders that 
 superiority which they had early attained in the fishery, and to prevent the reputation of 
 their herrings from being injured by the bad faith of individuals. But their real effect 
 was precisely the reverse of this. By tying up the fishers to a system of routine, they 
 prevented them from making any improvements ; while the facility of counterfeiting the 
 public marks opened a much wider door to fraud, than would have been opened had 
 government wisely declined interfering in the matter. 
 
 In despite, however, of the East India monopoly, and the regulations now described, 
 the commercial policy of Holland has been more liberal than that of any other nation. 
 And in consequence, a country not more extensive than Wales, and naturally not more 
 fertile, conquered, indeed, in a great measure from the sea, has accumulated a population 
 of upwards of two millions ; has maintained wars of unexampled duration with the most 
 powerful monarchies ; and, besides laying out immense sums in works of utility and 
 ornament at home, has been enabled to lend hundreds of millions to foreigners. 
 
 During the occupation of Holland by the French, first as a dependent state, and 
 subsequently as an integral part of the French empire, her foreign trade was almost 
 entirely destroyed. Her colonies were successively conquered by England ; and, in 
 addition to the loss of her trade, she was burdened with fresh taxes. But such was the 
 vast accumulated wealth of the Dutch, their prudence, and energy, that the influence of 
 these adverse circumstances was far less injurious than could have been imagined ; and, 
 notwithstanding all the losses she had sustained, and the long interruption of her com- 
 mercial pursuits, Holland continued, at her emancipation from the yoke of the French 
 in 1814, to be the richest country in Europe! Java, the Moluccas, and most of her other 
 colonies were then restored, and she is now in the enjoyment of a large foreign trade. 
 Her connection with Belgium was an unfortunate one for both countries. The union 
 Avas not agreeable to either party, and has been injurious to Holland. Belgium was an 
 agricultural and manufacturing country ; and was inclined, in imitation of the French, 
 to lay restrictions on the importations of most sorts of raw and manufactured produce. 
 A policy of this sort was directly opposed to the interests and the ancient practice of the 
 Dutch. But though their deputies prevented the restrictive system from being carried 
 to the extent proposed by the Belgians, they were unable to prevent it from being carried 
 to an extent that materially affected the trade of Holland. Whatever, therefore, may be 
 the consequences as to Belgium, there can be little doubt that the late separation between 
 the two divisions of the kingdom of the Netherlands will redound to the advantage of 
 Holland. It must ever be for the interest of England, America, and all trading nations, 
 to maintain the independence of a state by whose means their productions find a ready 
 access to the great continental markets. It is to be hoped that the Dutch, profiting by 
 past experience, will adopt such a liberal and conciliatory system towards the natives of 
 Java, as may enable them to avail themselves to the full of the various resources of that 
 noble island. And if they do this, and freely open their ports, with as few restrictions 
 as possible, to the ships and commodities of all countries, Holland may still be the centre 
 of a very extensive commerce, and may continue to preserve a respectable place among 
 mercantile nations. Even at this moment, after all the vicissitudes they have undergone, 
 the Dutch are, beyond all question, the most opulent and industrious of European 
 nations. And their present, no less than their former state, shows that a free system of 
 government, security, and the absence of restrictions on industry, can overcome almost 
 every obstacle ; " can convert the standing pool and lake into fat meadows, cover the 
 barren rock with verdure, and make the desert smile with flowers. 
 • ANCHOR (Fr. Ancre ; Lat. Afichora ; Gr. AyKvpa), a well-known maritime in- 
 • strument used in the mooring or fastening of ships. It consists of a shank having two 
 hooked arms at one end, and at the other end a bar, or stock, at right angles to the 
 arms, with a ring to which the cable is fastened. The arms, shank, and ring should be 
 made of the very best and toughest iron ; the stock is for the most part of oak, but it is 
 frequently also, especially in the smaller anchors, made of iron. On being let go, or 
 cast into the water, the anchor sinks rapidly to the bottom, and is thrown by the stock 
 into such a position that the Jit(ke, or point of one of the arms, is sure to strike the ground 
 perpendicularly, and being kept in that direction, unless the bottom be particularly hard 
 
 D 4 
 
40 
 
 ANCHORAGE. 
 
 or rocky, sinks into it, and cannot be dislodged, where the ground is not soft or oozy, 
 without a violent effort. When the anchor is dislodged, it is said, by the sailors, to come 
 home. 
 
 Seeing that the safety and preservation of ships and crews are very frequently depend- 
 ent on their anchors and cables, it is needless to say that it is of the utmost importance 
 that these should be of the most approved quality and construction. 
 
 Every ship has, or ought to have, three principal anchors ; viz. 1st, the sheet anchor, 
 the largest of all, and only let down in cases of danger, or when the vessel is riding in 
 a gale of wind ; 2d, the best bower anchor ; and, 3d, the small bower anchor. There are, 
 besides, smaller anchors for mooring in rivers, ports, &c. The largest class of men-of- 
 war have six or seven anchors. The weight of an anchor is determined principally by 
 the tonnage; it being usual to allow, for every 20 tons of a ship's burthen, 1 cwt. for the 
 weight of her best bower anchor ; so that this anchor in a ship of 400 tons should weigh 
 about 20 cwt., or a ton. 
 
 To cast, or let go, the anchor, is to let the anchor fall from the ship's bows into the water, so that it may 
 take hold of the ground. 
 
 To drag the anchor, is to make it come home ; that is, to dislodge it from its bed, and to drag it over or 
 through the ground. This may be occasioned by the anchor being too light, by the violent straining of 
 the cable in a storm or a current, by the too great hardness or softness of the ground, &c. 
 
 To weigh the anchor, is to dislodge it from jls hold, and heave it up by means of the capstan, &c. 
 
 Law as to Anchors left, parted from, S(C. — By the 1 & 2 Geo. 4. c. 75., pilots and other persons taking 
 possession of anchors, cables, and other ship materials, parted with, cut from, or left by any vessel, whe- 
 ther in distress or otherwise, shall give notice of the same to a deputy vice-admiral, or his agent, within 
 forty-eight hours, on pain of being considered as receivers of stolen goods ; and if any person shall 
 knowingly and wilfully purchase any such anchor, &c. that shall have been so obtained, without its being 
 so reported, he shall be held to be a receiver of stolen goods, and suffer the like punishment as for a mis- 
 *lemeanour at common law, or be liable to be transported for seven years, at the discretion of the court. 
 Any master of a ship or vessel outward-bound finding or taking on board any anchor, &c. shall make a 
 true entry of the circumstance in the log-book of such ship or vessel, reporting the same by the first 
 possible opportunity to the Trinity House, and on his return shall deliver the article to the deputy vice- 
 admiral, or his agent, nearest to the port where he shall arrive, under a penalty of not more than 100/. 
 nor less than 30/., on conviction before a magistrate on the oath of one witness ; one half to go to the 
 informer, the other half to the Merchant Seamen's Society, established by 20 Geo 3. c. 38. : he shall also 
 forfeit double the value of the article to the owner. And every pilot, hoveller, boatman, &c. who shall 
 convey any anchor, &c. to any foreign harbour, port, creek, or bay, and sell and dispose of the same, shall 
 be guilty of felony, and be transported for any term not exceeding seven years. — (See Salvage.) 
 
 Invention of the Anchor. — This instrument, admirable alike for its simplicity and 
 effect, is of very considerable antiquity. It was not, however, known in the earliest 
 ages. The President de Goguet has shown that it was not used by the Greeks till after 
 the Trojan war ; and that they were then accustomed to moor their «hips fcy means of 
 large stones cast into the sea, a practice which still subsists in some rude nations. — ( O'^igin 
 of Laws, vol. iL p. 330. Eng. tr^ns.) Pliny ascribes the invention of the anchor to the 
 Tyrrhenians. — (Hist. Nat. lib. vii. cap. 56.) At first it had only one arm, the other 
 being added at a subsequent period ; some authors say, by Anacharsis the Scythian. — 
 i Origin of Laws, vol. i. p. 293.) Since this remote epoch, the form and construction 
 of the instrument seem to have undergone very little change. 
 
 ANCHORAGE, or ANCHORING GROUND. Good anchoring ground 
 should neither be too hard nor too soft ; for, in the first case the anchor is apt not to 
 take a sufficient hold, and in the other to drag. The best bottom is a stiff clay, and next 
 to it a firm sand. In a rocky bottom the flukes of the anchor are sometimes torn away, 
 and hempen cables are liable to chafe and be cut through. It is also essential to a good 
 anchorage that the water be neither too deep nor too shallow. When too deep, the pull 
 of the cable, being nearly perpendicular, is apt to jerk the anchor out of the ground ; and 
 when too shallow, the ship is exposed to the danger, when riding in a storm, of striking 
 the bottom. Where a ship is in water that is land-locked, and out of the tide, the nature 
 of the ground is of comparatively little importance. 
 
 The anchorage of ships, especially ships of war, being a subject of great importance to the naval and 
 commercial interests of the kingdom, several statutes have been enacted with resp ct to it. The first 
 which it is necessary to notice here is 19 Geo. 2. c. 22. It prohibits masters of ships from casting out bal- 
 last, or rubbish of any kind, into any harbour or channel, except on the land where the tide never comes, 
 on pain of forfeiting not more than 51. nor less than 50*. on conviction before a justice on view, or on the 
 oath of one witness, or of being committed to prison for two months; which penalty is increased to 10/., 
 over and above the expense of removing the same, by 54 Geo. 3. c. 159. In pursuance of the same object, 
 54 Geo. 3. c. 159. enables the Lords of the Admiralty to establish regulations for the preservation of the 
 king's moorings or anchorage, as well as fbr those of merchant ships, in all the ports, harbours, channels, 
 &c. &c. of the United Kingdom, as far as the tide flows, where or near to which his Majesty has, or may 
 hereafter have, any docks, dock-yards, arsenals, wharfs, or moorings. It prohibits all descriptions of pri- 
 vate ships from being moored, or anchored, or placed in any of his Majesty's moorings, &c. without special 
 licence obtained from the Admiralty, or other persons' appointed to grant such licences, on pain of forfeit- 
 ing not exceeding 10/., one moiety to his Majesty, the other to the informer, on conviction before any 
 justice of the peace or commissioner of the navy. 
 
 It further prohibits the breaming of private vessels in such places, otherwise than appointed by the safd 
 authority of the Admiralty ; and the receiving or having gunpowder, beyond a certain limited quantity, 
 under a penalty of .0/. for every five pounds' weight of such powder beyond the quantity allowed. It prb- 
 liibits, likewise, all such private vessels, in any such places, having any guns on board shotted or loaded 
 with ball, as well as firing and discharging any such before sun-rising and after sun-setting, under a 
 
ANCHOVY ANTIMONY. 
 
 41 
 
 penalty of 51. fox every gun so shotted, and 10/. for every gun so fired. Tt furtliei gives to every officer of 
 vessels of war, to liarbour-masters, and others in their aid, a right of search in all i^rivate vessels so 
 moored in sucli places, and inflicts a penalty of 10/. on resistance. 
 
 Anchorage also means a duty laid on ships for the use of the port or harbour. 
 
 ANCHOVY (Fr. Anchois ; It. Acciughe ; Lat. Encrasicolus), a small fish (Clupea 
 encrusicolus Lin.), common in the Mediterranean, resembling the sprat. Those brought 
 from Gorgona in the Tuscan Sea are esteemed the best. They should be chosen small, 
 fresh pickled, white outside and red within. Their backs should be round. The sar- 
 dine, a fish which is flatter and larger than the anchovy, is frequently substituted for it. 
 About 120,000 lbs. are annually entered for home consumption. 
 
 ANGELICA, a large umbelliferous plant, with hollow jointed stalks, of which there 
 are several varieties. It grows wild, and is cultivated in moist places near London, and 
 in most European countries from Lapland to Spain. Its roots are thick, fleshy, and 
 resinous ; have a fragrant agreeable smell, and a bitterish pungent taste, mixed with a 
 pleasant sweetness glowing on the lips and palate for a long, time after they have been 
 chewed. To preserve them, they must be thoroughly dried, and kept in a well-aired 
 place. The other parts of the plant have the same taste and flavour as the roots, but 
 in an inferior degree. The leaves and seeds do not retain their virtues when kept. The 
 London confectioners make a sweetmeat of the tender stems. The faculty used to direct 
 that none but the roots of Spanish angelica should be kept by the druggists. In Nor- 
 way the roots are sometimes used as bread, and in Iceland the stalks are eaten with 
 butter. Here the plant is used only in confectionary and the materia medica. — 
 (^Lewis's Mat. Med.; Bees' s Cyclopaedia, S^c.) 
 
 The duty of 4s. per cwt on Angelica produced, in 1832, 275/. 10c/., showing that 1,375 cwt. had been 
 entered for home consumption. 
 
 ANISE, OR ANISUM (Fr. Anis ; It. Anice ; Lat. Anisum), a small seed of an oblong 
 shape. It is cultivated in Germany, but the best comes from Spain. It is also a pro- 
 duct of China, whence it is exported. It should be chosen fresh, large, plump, newly 
 dried, of a good smell, and a sweetish aromatic taste. 
 
 ANKER, a liquid measure at Amsterdam. It contains about 10\ gallons English 
 wine measure. 
 
 ANNOTTO, OR ARNOTTO (Fr. Rocou; Ger. Orlean; It. Onana), a species of red 
 dye formed of the pulp enveloping the seeds of the Bixa orellana, a plant common in 
 South America, and the East and West Indies ; but dye is made, at least to any extent, 
 only in the first. It is prepared by macerating the pods in boiling water, extracting the 
 seeds, and leaving the pulp to subside ; the fluid being subsequently drawn off, the 
 residuum, with which oil is sometimes mixed up, is placed in shallow vessels and gradu- 
 ally dried in the shade. It is of two sorts, viz. flag or cake, and roll annotto. The first, 
 which is by far the most important article in a commercial point of view, is furnished 
 almost wholly by Cayenne, and comes to us principally by way of the United States. It 
 is imported in square cakes, weighing 2 or 3 lbs. each, wrapped in banana leaves. When 
 well made, it ought to be of a bright yellow colour, soft to the touch, and of a good con- 
 sistence. It imparts a deep but not durable orange colour to silk and cotton, and is used 
 for that. purpose by the dyers. Roll annotto is principally brought from Brazil. The 
 rolls are small, not exceeding 2 or 3 oz. in weight ; it is hard, dry, and compact, 
 brownish on the outside, and of a beautiful red colour within. The latter is the best of 
 all ingredients for the colouring of cheese and butter ; and is now exclusively used 
 for that purpose in all the British and in some of the continental dairies. In 
 Gloucestershire it is the practice to allow an ounce of annotto to a cwt. of cheese ; in 
 Cheshire, 8 dwts. are reckoned suflficient for a cheese of 60 lbs. When genuine, it neither 
 affects the taste nor the smell of cheese or butter. The Spanish Americans mix annotto 
 with their chocolate, to which it gives a beautiful tint. — ( Gray's Supplement to the 
 Pharmacopeias; Loudon's Encyc. of Agriculture, andi private information.) 
 
 At an average of the three years ending with 1831, the annotto entered for home consumption 
 amounted to 128,528 lbs. a year. Previously to 1832, the duty on flag annotto was 185. 8t/. a cwt., and on 
 other sorts 5/. 12s. ; but the duty is now reduced to Is. a cwt. on the former, and to 4s. on the latter. 
 This judicious and liberal reduction will, we have no doubt, be followed by a considerable increase of 
 consumption. The price of flag annotto varies in the market from 6c/. to Is. per lb., and of roll from 
 Is, to Is. 6d. 
 
 ANNUITIES. See Interest and Annuities. 
 
 ANTIMONY (Ger. ^x^A Hvi. Spiesglas ; Fr. Antimoine ; It. Antimotiio ; B-us. Anti- 
 monia ; Lat. Antimonium), a metal which, when pure, is of a greyish white colour, and has 
 a good deal of brilliancy, showing a radiated fracture when broken ; it is converted by 
 exposure to heat and air into a white oxide, which sublimes in vapours. It is found in. 
 Saxony and the Hartz, also in Cornwall, Spain, France, Mexico, Siberia, the Eastern 
 Islands, and Martaban in Pegu. We are at present wholly supplied with this metal 
 from Singapore, which receives it from Borneo ; it is imported in the shape of ore, and 
 
42 
 
 ANTWERP. 
 
 commonly as ballast. It is about as hard as gold ; its specific gravity is about 6*7 ; it 
 is easily reduced to a very fine powder ; its tenacity is such that a rod ©f ^'^th of an inch 
 diameter is capable of supporting 10 lbs. vreight. Antimony is used in medicine, and 
 in the composition of metal types for printing. The ores of antimony are soft, and 
 vary in colour from light lead to dark lead grey ; their specific gravity varies from 
 4*4 to 6-8 ; they possess a metallic lustre, are brittle, and occur in the crystallised massive 
 forms. — ( Thomson's Chemistry, and private information. ) 
 
 ANTWERP, the principal sea-port of Belgium, long. 4° 22' E., lat. 51° 14' N. A 
 large, vi^ell built, and strongly fortified city, situated on the Scheldt. It has about 65,000 
 inhabitants. Previously to its capture by the Spaniards, under Farnese, in 1585, Ant- 
 werp v/as one of the greatest commercial cities of Europe ; but it suflfered much by 
 that event. In 1648, at the treaty of Westphalia, it was stipulated by Spain and Hol- 
 land, that the navigation of the Scheldt should be shut up ; a stipulation which was ob- 
 served till the occupation of Belgium by the French, when it was abolished. In 1803, 
 the improvement of the harbour was begun, and extensive new docks and warehouses have 
 since been constructed. Ships of the largest burden come up to the town, and goods 
 destined for the interior are forwarded with the greatest facility by means of canals. 
 Almost all the foreign trade of Belgium is at present centred in Antwerp, which has 
 again become a place of great commercial importance. By a decree issued in 1814, all 
 goods are allowed to be warehoused in Antwei-p en entrepot, and may be exported on 
 paying a charge of ^ per cent, ad valorem. The exports chiefly consist of corn, seeds, 
 linen, lace, carpets, flax, tallow, hops, &c. The imports principally consist of cotton, wine, 
 hardware, sugar, tobacco, colFee, and all sorts of colonial produce. 
 
 ' Money. — Accounts are now commonly kept in ^orms of 1816, worth ls.S\d. sterling. The florin is 
 divided into 20 sous, and the sou into 5 cents. Formerly accounts were kept in the pound Flemish =; 2| 
 rix dollars = 6 florins = 20 schillings = 120 stivers = 240 groats = 1,920 pennings. — (See U'able of Coins.) 
 The par of exchange between Antwerp and London is 11 florins 58 cents per pound sterling. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — By a law of 1816, the French system of weights and measures was adopted in 
 the Netherlands on the 1st of January, 1820 ; but the old denominations are retained. The pond is the 
 unit of weight, and answers to the French kilogramme. — (See Amsterdam.) 
 
 Of the old weights, which are still occasionally referred to, the quintal of 100 lbs. is equal to 103^ lbs. 
 avoirdupois, 100 lbs. avoirdupois being consequently equal to 96'8 lbs. of Antwerp. A schippound is equal 
 to 3 quintals, or 300 lbs. ; a stone is equal to 8 lbs. 
 
 Of the old measures, a viertel of corn =: 4 macken ; 37| viertels =: last ; and 40 viertcls = 10| Imperial 
 quarters very nearly. The aam of wine contains 50 stoopen, or 36^ English wine gallons. 
 
 Of the weights and measures now current, 50f lbs. = 112 lbs. English ; luO lbs. = 100 kilogrammes of 
 France, or 212f Antwerp old weight. One barrel =: 26| gallons English — 100 litres French. 
 
 Custo?n-house Regulations. — Captains of ships arriving at Antwerp, or any of the Belgian ports, 
 must make, within 24 hours, a declaration in writing, of the goods of which their cargo consists; 
 specifying the marks and numbers of the bales, parcels, &c. ; their value, according to the current price 
 at the time when the declaration is made ; the name of the ship or vessel, as well as that of the captain, 
 and of the country to which she belongs, &c. 
 
 Shipping. —The ships entering the port of Antwerp, during the five years ending with 1828, have been 
 as follows : — 
 
 Years. Ships. Years, Ships. 
 
 1824 - . - 681 1827 - - - - 822 
 
 1825 - - - - 800 1828 - - - 955 
 
 1826 - - . - 928 
 
 Of the 800 ships entering Antwerp in 1825, 114 were from Liverpool, 119 from London, 44 from Hull, 
 48 from Havre, 41 from Bordeaux, 24 from Petersburgh, 24 from New York, 25 from Cuba, 26 from Ri€ 
 Janeiro, 11 from Batavia, &c. — {^Bulletin des Sciences Geographiques, for January, 1829, and February 
 1826.) 
 
 The commerce of Antwerp suffered much, in 1831 and 1832, from the hostilities between the Belgians 
 and Dutch. In 1831, there were only 388 arrivals of foreign ships. 
 
 Comparative Statement of the Imports of the undermentioned Goods, at Antwerp, since 1827, 
 and of the Stocks at the Close of each Year, 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Coffee 
 Cotton 
 Hides, S.A, 
 Indigo 
 
 Pimenlo 
 Pei)i)fr, small 
 Kice 
 
 •SuL'ar 
 Tea 
 
 Tobacco 
 IjOffwood 
 Fustic 
 
 tons 
 bales 
 No. 
 chests 
 serons 
 bags 
 do. 
 tierces 
 bags 
 tons 
 packages' 
 - hhds.i 
 tons 
 do. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 1827 
 
 7,158 
 4,420 
 2.3, 100 
 23,108 
 211,549 
 1,3.57 
 
 rm 
 
 1,810 
 22,14 
 14,505 
 lfi,8!)7 
 IS. 000 
 1,564 
 1,101 
 70fi- 
 57.3 
 
 1828. 1829. 1S30. 1831. 1832, 
 
 !),fi47 
 1,501 
 22,900 
 18,,y24 
 148,584 
 2,103 
 380 
 1,870 
 6,340 
 13,961 
 .38,889 
 17,800 
 91 
 2,328 
 2,260 
 822 
 
 11,642 
 3,987 
 23,080 
 .33,985 
 462,577 
 1,846 
 725 
 1,810 
 11,522 
 18,712 
 98,827 
 24,730 
 186 
 1,552 
 855 
 1,6.39 
 
 6,951 
 
 1 ,639 
 21,110 
 21,845 
 340,507 
 
 1,063 
 206 
 
 2,220 
 12,999 
 2.3,221 
 41,5.30 
 10,51- 
 
 1,253 
 
 2,253 
 952 
 
 2,0.33 
 
 7,452 
 728 
 10,300 
 13,720 
 228,896 
 433 
 120 
 576 
 6,406 
 6,029 
 16,483 
 9,800 
 814 
 8, ,361 
 1,250 
 255 
 
 8,,506 
 3,.558 
 14,700 
 28,687 
 362,878 
 649 
 252 
 562 
 4,960 
 14,4,'-)S 
 10,1,53 
 12,200 
 3,778 
 12,825 
 1,200 
 31 
 
 Stocks, 31st December. 
 
 1827. 1828. 1829. 1830. 1831, 
 
 600 
 1,000 
 8,2,50 
 4,420 
 4,000 
 287 
 247 
 500 
 12,500 
 2,300 
 9,400 
 3,370 
 2,2,55 
 375 
 700 
 
 800 
 200 
 8,6,50 
 5,563 
 1,350 
 606 
 268 
 500 
 6,000 
 1 ,200 
 30,000 
 2,600 
 1,878 
 717 
 900 
 
 2,950 
 1,200 
 8,4.30 
 6,1.55 
 43,600 
 717 
 360 
 200 
 8,400 
 5,000 
 13, ,500 
 8,050 
 1,.3,35 
 225 
 3,50 
 490 
 
 214 
 250 
 4,000 
 4,700 
 22,500 
 286 
 101 
 100 
 3,000 
 4, .500 
 2,500 
 1,2.50 
 391 
 40 
 13'1 
 670 
 
 In the imports of 1831 and 1832, are included those received through Ostend which were destined for 
 this port. The stocks of these goods now at Ostend, or on their way thence, arc also included. 
 
APPLES. — APPRENTICE. 
 
 The following goods were imported at Antwerp in 1832 from all places ! 
 
 43 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 S. America and W. Indies 
 
 United States 
 
 Continent of Europe 
 
 East Indies 
 
 Jersey and Guernsey 
 
 Totals 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Hides. 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Casks. 1 Uarrels. 
 
 Bags. 
 
 Casks. 
 
 CBraz. 
 
 Ux.IIav 
 
 Can. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 BaKS. 
 
 Ox& Cow. 
 
 05,104 
 203,756 
 66,079 
 20,202 
 
 7,016 
 
 Bales. 
 
 12,789 
 1,62.3 
 13,754 
 521 
 
 211 
 
 90 
 
 ir, 
 102 
 
 101,285 
 71,121 
 .'>0,102 
 ll,(i<iO 
 
 623 
 1,37.5 
 841 
 
 992 
 488 
 
 8,103 
 30,088 
 1,732 
 291 
 
 85 
 
 2,451 
 
 443 
 147 
 203 
 200 
 
 10,316 
 351 
 1.3,602 
 1,078 
 
 
 179 
 
 216,769 
 
 2,839 
 
 1,480 
 
 40,299 
 
 2,451 
 
 1,053 
 
 31,350 
 
 .362,878 
 
 28,687 
 
 Places. 
 
 Pepper. 
 
 Pimento 
 
 Ashes. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 Tobac. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 DyeM 
 
 mods. 
 
 Bass. 
 
 Bags. 
 
 U. Stat. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Tierces. 
 
 Bags. 
 
 9,958 
 150 
 45 
 
 Chsts. 
 
 Sems. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Pack. 
 
 C.Tons. 
 
 F.Tons. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 S. Amer. & VV. Indie, 
 
 United States 
 
 Continent of Europe 
 
 East Indies 
 
 Jersey and Guernsey 
 
 Totals 
 
 960 
 6,000 " 
 
 212 
 350 
 
 779 
 
 '7,792 
 
 25 
 
 1,522 
 2,046 
 
 1,936 
 
 10,731 
 1,791 
 
 526 
 
 01 
 21 
 41 
 
 71 
 
 173 
 8 
 
 1,103 
 
 10,839 
 883 
 
 1,455 
 2,283 
 
 1 1,200 
 
 315 
 
 6,900 
 
 502 
 
 8,596 
 
 3,568 
 
 14,458 
 
 10,153 
 
 049 
 
 252 
 
 12,825 3,738 
 
 1,201) 
 
 315 
 
 Conditions under which Goods are sold.— On goods generally 2 per cent, is allowed for payment in 20 
 days, and 1| per cent, on credit of 6 weeks or 2 months. On cottons, at 20 days' credit, 3 per cent, are 
 allowed, and 1^ per cent, on a credit of 2 or 3 months. On ashes, hides, and sugar, 3 per cent, for 20 
 days, and 1^ per cent, for three months' credit. 
 
 Tares. — West India, Brazil, and Java coffee, in single bags, 2 per cent., and Havannah in joncs, | lb. 
 per bag extra. Bourbon, in whole bags, 4|lbs., and in ^ do. 2^ lbs. Pimento, pepper, and ginger, in bags, 
 2 per cent. ; on these articles, as also coffee, in casks and barrels, real tare. Cassia lignea, and cinna- 
 mon, in bales, 10 per cent. ; and in chests, G to 6| lbs. per chest. Ashes, 12 per cent. Quercitron bark, 
 10 per cent Cotton, in bales, 4 per cent., exclusive of ropes ; and in serons, 6 lbs. per seron. Horse 
 hair, real tare. Indigo, in chests or barrels, real tare; and in serons, 6| to 7 lbs. per seron. Rice, in 
 casks, 12 percent. ; and in bags, 2 per cent. Muscovado sugars, in casks and barrels, and Havannah clayed, 
 in boxes, 14 per cent. ; Brazil, in chests, 16 per cent. ; Java, in canisters and baskets, 9 per cent. : Slam 
 and Manilla, in bags, 3 per cent. : Bengal, in triple bags, 5 lbs. each : Bourbon, in mats, 6 per cent. 
 Bohea tea, exclusive of wrappers, 46 lbs. per chest, 24 lbs. per ^ ditto, and 13 lbs. per ^ ditto, 14| lbs. per 
 ^ ditto; fine black and green tea, 12 to 13 lbs. per ^ chest, 9 lbs. per J ditto, 7 lbs. per J ditto, 5 lbs. per 
 I.12th ditto, 3 lbs. per l-16th ditto, and 2 per cent, in boxes. Tobacco, real tare : no draft or other deduc- 
 tion allowed. — (From the Circular qf Jollie, Clibborn, and Co.) 
 
 APPLES, the fruit of the Pyrus Malus, or apple tree. It is very extensively culti- 
 vated in mo.st temperate climates. An immense variety and quantity of excellent apples 
 are raised in England, partly for the table, and partly for manufacturing into cider. 
 Those employed for the latter purpose are comparatively harsh and austere. The 
 principal cider counties are Hereford, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, Somerset, and 
 Devon. Mr. Marshall calculates the produce of the first four at 30,000 hhds. a year, 
 of which "Worcester is supposed to supply 10,000. Half a hogshead of cider may be 
 expected, in ordinarily favourable seasons, from each tree in an orchard in full bearing. 
 The number of trees on an acre varies from 10 to 40, so that the quantity of cider must 
 vary in the same proportion, that is, from 5 to 20 hhds. The produce is, however, very 
 fluctuating ; and a good crop seldom occurs above once in three years. — ( LoudorCs 
 Encyc. of Agriculture, ^-c.) 
 
 Besides the immense consumption of native apples, we import, for the table, considerable supplies of 
 French and American apples, especially the former; the entries of foreign apples for home consumption 
 having amounted, at an average of the three years ending with 1831, to 36,012 bushels a year. Were it 
 not for the oppressive duty of 4s. a bushel, there can be little doubt that the imports would be decidedly 
 larger. The apples produced in the vicinity of New York are universally admitted to be the finest of 
 any ; but unless selected and packed with care, they are very apt to spoil before reaching England. The 
 exports of apples from the United States during the year ended the 30th of September, 1832, amounted to 
 6,928 barrels, valued at 15,314 dollars. Of these, 1^370 barrels were shipped for BnglmA. — {Papers pub- 
 lished by the Board of Trade, p. 106. ; Papers laid before Congress, 15th of February, 1833.) 
 
 APPRENTICE, a young person of either sex, bound by indenture to serve some 
 particular individual, or company of individuals, for a specified time, in order to be 
 instructed in some art, science, or trade. 
 
 According to the common law of England, every one has a right to employ himself at 
 pleasure in every lawful trade. But this sound principle was almost entirely subverted 
 by a statute passed in the fifth year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, commonly called 
 the Statute of Apprenticeship. It enacted that no person should, for the future, exer- 
 cise any trade, craft, or mystery, at that time exercised in England and Wales, unless he 
 had previously served to it an apprenticeship of seven years at least ; so that what had 
 before been a bye-law of a few corporations, became the general and statute law of the 
 kingdom. Luckily, however, the courts of law were always singularly disinclined to 
 give effect to the provisions of this statute ; and the rules which they established for its 
 interpretation served materially to mitigate its injurious operation. But though its im- 
 policy had been long apparent, it was continued till 1814, when it was repealed by the 
 54 Geo. 3. c. 96. This act did not interfere with any of the existing rights, privi- 
 leges, or bye-laws of the different corporations ; but wherever these do not interpose, 
 the formation of apprenticeships, and their duration, is left to be adjusted by the parties 
 tlicmselvcs. 
 
4.4< 
 
 AQUA FORTIS. — ARCHANGEL. 
 
 The regulations with respect to the taking of apprentices on board ship, the only part 
 of this subject that properly comes within the scope of this work, are embodied in the 
 4 Geo. 4. c. 25. They are as follow : — 
 
 From the 1st of January, 1824, every master of a merchant ship exceeding the burden of 80 tons shall 
 have on board his ship, at the time of such ship clearing out from any port of the United Kingdom, one 
 apprentice or apprentices, in the following proportion to the number of tons of her admeasurement, 
 according to the certificate of registry ; viz. 
 
 For every vessel exceeding 80 tons, and under 200 tons, 1 apprentice at least, ' 
 
 200 400 — 2 
 
 400 500 — 3 
 
 700 and upwards - - 5 
 
 who shall, at the period of being indentured, respectively be under the age of 17 years ; provided that 
 every apprentice so to be employed on board any vessel, as above described, shall be duly indented for at 
 least four years ; and the indentures of every such apprentice shall be enrolled with the collector and 
 comptroller at the Custom-house of the port whence such vessel shall first clear out after the execution of 
 such indentures. — § 2. 
 
 Every apprentice so enrolled is hereby exempted from serving in his Majesty's navy until he shall have 
 attained the age of 21 years ; provided he is regularly serving his time either with his first master or 
 fhip-owner, or some other master or ship-owner to whom his indentures shall have been regularly trans- 
 ferred ; and every owner or master neglecting to enrol such indentures, or who shall suflfer any such ap- 
 prentice to leave his service, except in case of death or desertion, sickness, or other unavoidable cause, to 
 be certified in the log book, after the vessel shall have cleared outwards on the voyage upon which such 
 vessel may be bound, shall for every such offence forfeit 10/., to be paid in manner following ; that is to 
 say, one moiety by the owners of such vessel, and the other moiety by the master thereof, to be levied, 
 recovered, and applied, in manner hereinafter mentioned. — ^4. 
 
 Every person to whom such apprentice shall have been bound may employ him, at any time, in any 
 vessel of which such person may be the master or owner ; and may also, with the consent of such appren- 
 tice, if above 17, and if under that age, with the consent of his parents or guardians, transfer the inden- 
 tures of such apprentice, by endorsement thereon, to any other person who may be the master or owner 
 of any registered vessel. — § 5. 
 
 No stamp duty shall be charged on any such transfer by endorsement. — § 6. 
 
 And by 6 Geo. 4. c. 107. ^ 138. it is enacted, that no person shall be deemed to be an apprentice for 
 the purpo.ses of the preceding act (4 Geo. 4. c. 25.), unless the indenture of such apprentice shall have 
 been enrolled with the collector and comptroller of the port from which any such apprentice shall first go 
 to sea after the date of such indenture; or in default of such enrolment, until the same shall have been 
 enrolled at some port from which the ship in which such apprentice shall afterwards go to sea shall be 
 cleared. 
 
 By Stat. 7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 56. § 7. it is enacted that no higher duty than 2s. shall be charged upon the 
 indenture of any apprentice bound to serve at sea in the merchant service. 
 
 AQUA FORTIS. See Acid (Nitric). 
 AQUAMARINE. See Beryl. 
 
 AQUA VIT^ (Ger. Aquavit; Fr. Eau de vie ; It. Acqua vite ; Sp. Agua de 
 vida ; Rus. Wodka ; Lat. Aqua vitcB), a name familiarly applied to all native distilled 
 spirits ; equivalent to the eau de vie, or brandy, of the French, the whisky of the Scotch 
 and Irish, the geneva of the Dutch, &c. In this way it is used in the excise laws relating 
 to the distilleries. 
 
 ARANGOES, a species of beads made of rough carnelian. They are of various 
 forms, as barrel, bell, round, &c., and all drilled. The barrel-shaped kind, cut from the 
 best stones, are from two to three inches long, and should be chosen as clear as possible, 
 whether red or white, having a good polish, and free from flaws. The bell-shaped are 
 from one to two inches loi^g, being in all respects inferior. Considerable quantities were 
 formerly imported from Bombay, for re-exportation to Africa ; but since the abolition of 
 the slave trade, the imports and exports of arangoes have been comparatively trifling. — 
 (MilburrCs Orient. Com.) 
 
 ARCHANGEL, the principal commercial city of the north of Russia, in lat. 64° 
 34' N., long. 38° 59' E. It is situated on the right bank of the Dwina, about 30 English 
 miles above where it falls into the White Sea. Population, 7,000 or 8,000. The har- 
 bour is at the island of Sollenbole, about a mile from the town. The bar at the mouth 
 of the Dwina has generally 14§ feet water; so that ships drawing more than this depth 
 must be partially loaded outside the bar from lighters. The Dwina being a navigable 
 river, traversing a great extent of country, renders Archangel a considerable entrepot. 
 It was discovered in 1554, by the famous Richard Chancellor, the companion of Sir 
 Hugh Willoughby in his voyage of discovery ; and from that period, down to the found- 
 ation of Petersburgh, was the only port in the Russian empire accessible to foreigners. 
 Though it has lost its ancient importance, it still enjoys a pretty extensive commerce. 
 The principal articles of export are grain, tallow, flax, hemp, timber, linseed, iron, potash, 
 mats, tar, &c. Deals from Archangel, and Onega in the vicinity of Archangel, are 
 considered superior to those from the Baltic. Hemp not so good as at Riga, but pro- 
 portionally cheaper. Tallow is also inferior. Iron same as at Petersburgh, sometimes 
 cheaper and sometimes dearer. The quality of the wheat exported from Archangel is 
 about equal to that from Petersburgh. The imports are not very extensive. They 
 consist principally of sugar, coffee, spices, salt, woollens, hardware, &c. The merchants 
 of Archangel arc said by Mr. Coxe to be distinguished for honesty and intelligence. — 
 ( Travels in the North of Europe^ vol. iii. p. 150.) 
 
ARGOL. — ARRACK. 
 
 45 
 
 Account of the Quantities of the principal Articles exported from Archangel during each of the Six 
 
 Years ending with 1832. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 Flax 
 
 Grain, Barley 
 Oats - 
 Rye - 
 Wheat 
 
 Hemp 
 Iron 
 
 Linseed - 
 Mats - - 
 Pitch - - barrels 
 Potashes - - poods 
 Tallow - - do. 
 Tallow candles do. 
 Tar - - barrels 
 Train oil - poods 
 Wood, Deals jiieces 
 
 Battens do. 
 
 Deal ends do. 
 
 poods 
 chets. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 poods 
 
 do. 
 chets. 
 pieces 
 
 49,855 
 3,670 
 308,810 
 44,108 
 2,017 
 46,979 
 64,319 
 78,612 
 1,363,334 
 13,460 
 10,166 
 100,634 
 2,815 
 91,226 
 21,217 
 38Q,245 
 84,745 
 74,644 
 
 54,877 
 550 
 47,137 
 39,106 
 11,777 
 45,693 
 65,013 
 131,804 
 530,353 
 9,973 
 3,967 
 186,126 
 3,422 
 70,985 
 17,004 
 246,526 
 73,133 
 56,620 
 
 131,160 
 11,765 
 
 352,792 
 96,460 
 
 113,738 
 57,317 
 
 117,261 
 
 136,968 
 
 651,438 
 8,407 
 3,209 
 
 156,778 
 3,773 
 37,764 
 16,534 
 
 260,771 
 75,335 
 64,160 
 
 162,383 
 1,897 
 84,ti39 
 1.57,645 
 83,400 
 63,057 
 116,372 
 142,158 
 674,481 
 17,917 
 10,065 
 135,157 
 4,756 
 92,548 
 19,169 
 415,989 
 121,426 
 101,285 
 
 266,485 
 8,657 
 226,1(J9 
 174,102 
 104,037 
 53,8.55 
 89,675 
 95,039 
 424,119 
 8,237 
 12,823 
 119,264 
 3,491 
 52,467 
 4,129 
 238,660 
 63,175 
 53,363 
 
 120,719 
 323 
 27,779 
 189,486 
 37,728 
 51,142 
 47,369 
 103,494 
 841,450 
 13,434 
 9,2(J5 
 I;j0,263 
 2,937 
 58,014 
 8,989 
 234,313 
 43,.354 
 44,535 
 
 The total value of the exports in 1831 was estimated at 14,750,756 rubles, while that of the imports was 
 estimated at only 1,1.55,872 rubles. During the same year there arrived at Archangel 443 ships ; of which 
 349 were British, 12 Dutch, 14 Prussian, 12 Mecklenburgh, &c. 
 
 Account of the Number of Ships that sailed from Archangel during each of the Six Years ending 
 
 with 1832. 
 
 Years . - . 
 
 1827. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 Ships ... 
 
 386 
 
 290 
 
 450 
 
 505 
 
 445 
 
 364 
 
 The trade of Archangel is very much influenced by the demand from the more southerly parts of 
 Europe, and especially from England, for corn. When a brisk demand is anticipated, oats are brought in 
 large quantities from the interior, sometimes even from the distance of 1,500 miles, in covered barks 
 capable of holding several hundred quarters. But as there are few extensive mercantile establishments 
 here, the supplies are scanty, except when a large demand has been expected for some time previously to 
 the season for bringing them down. — {Oddy's European Commerce, and private information.) 
 
 Monies, Weights, and Measures, same as at Petersburgh ; which see. 
 
 ARGOL, ARGAL, OR TARTAR (Ger. Weinstein ; Du. Wynsteen ; Fr. Tarire ; 
 It. Sp. and Port. Tartaro ; Rus. Winnui kamen ; Lat. Tartarus), a hard crust formed 
 on the sides of the vessels in which wine has been kept ; it is red or white according to 
 the colour of the wine, and is otherwise impure. On being purified, it is termed cream 
 or crystals of tartar. It consists principally of bitartrate of potash. White argol is pre- 
 ferable to red, as containing less drossy or earthy matter. The marks of good argol of 
 either kind are, its being thick, brittle, hard, brilliant, and little earthy. That brought 
 from Bologna is reckoned the best, and fetches the highest price. Argol is of considerable 
 use among dyers, as serving to dispose the .stuffs to take their colours the better. Pure 
 argol, or cream of tartar, is extensively used in medicine. It has an acid and rather 
 unpleasant taste. It is very brittle, and easily reduced to powder : specific gravity 1 '95. 
 
 The duty on argol, whieh was judiciously reduced in 1832 from 2s. a cwt. to 6d., produced in that 
 year 678^. 3s. Id. of nett revenue. This, supposing the whole to have been charged with the low dutv 
 would show an importation of 27,127 cwt. The price of argol in the London market, in August, 1833* 
 varied, Bologna from 52s. to 58s. per cwt., Leghorn 48s. to 50s. per ditto, Naples 42s. to 48s , Rhenrsh 
 48s. to 50s. 
 
 ARISTOLOCHIA (Fr. Serpentaire ; Ger. Schlangenwiirzel ; It. Serpentaria ; 
 Lat. AristolocMa serperitaria), the dried root of Virginia snake-root, or birthwort : it is 
 small, light, and bushy, consisting of a number of fibres matted together, sprung from 
 one common head, of a brownish colour on the outside, and pale or yellow within. It 
 has an aromatic smell something like that of valerian, but more agreeable ; and a warm, 
 bitterish, pungent taste, very much resembling camphor. — (Ency. Metrop.) 
 
 ARMS. See Fire- Arms. 
 
 ARQUIFOUX (Ger. Bleyglanz Fr. Arquifou ; It. Archifoglio ; Lat. Galena), 
 a sort of lead ore, very heavy, easily reduced to powder, and hard to melt ; when it is 
 broken, it parts into shining scales of a whitish colour. The potters use it to give their 
 works a green varnish ; and in England it is commonly called potters' ore. Arqmfoux 
 is exported from England in large lumps ; it should be chosen heavy, the scales bright 
 and resembling tin-glass. 
 
 ARRACK, OR RACI^(Fr. Arac ; Ger. Arrack, Rack; Du, Arak, Rak ; It. Araco ; 
 Sp. Arak; Port. Araca ; Rus, Arak), a spirituous liquor manufactured at diflPerent 
 places in the East. 
 
 Arrack is a term applied in most parts of India, and the Indian islands, to designate 
 every sort of spirituous liquor ; a circumstance v.hich accounts for the discrepancy in the 
 statements as to the materials used in making it, and the mode of its manufacture. The 
 
46 
 
 ARROW-ROOT. — ASAFGETIDA. 
 
 arrack of Goa and Batavia is in high estimation ; that of Columbo or Ceylon has been 
 said to be inferior to the former ; but this is doubtful. Goa and Columbo arrack is in- 
 variably made from the vegetable juice, toddy, which flows by incision from the coco nut 
 tree ( Cocos nucifera). After the juice is fermented, it is distilled and rectified. It 
 usually yields about an eighth part of pure spirit. Batavia or Java arrack is obtained by 
 distillation from molasses and rice, with only a small admixture of toddy. When well 
 prepared, arrack is clear and transparent ; generally, however, it is slightly straw-coloured. 
 Its flavour is peculiar ; but it differs considerably, no doubt in consequence of the various 
 articles of which it is prepared, and the unequal care taken in its manufacture. In 
 England, arrack is seldom used except to give flavour to punch : formerly the imports 
 were quite inconsiderable ; but they have recently increased so as to amount, at an average 
 of the years 1829 and 1830, to above 30,000 gallons a year. In the East its consumption 
 is immense. It is issued to the soldiers in India as part of the established rations ; and 
 it is supplied, instead of rum, to the seamen of the royal navy employed in the Indian 
 seas. It is one of the principal products of Ceylon. Its prime cost in that island 
 varies from 8c?. to lOd. a galloil ; and from 600,000 to 700,000 gallons are annually 
 exported, principally to the presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. It is sold in 
 Ceylon by the legger of 150, and in Java by the legger of 160 gallons. In 1829, the 
 first quality of Java arrack sold in Batavia at 160 florins the legger, or Is. 8|<i. per gal- 
 lon. The second quality fetched 125 florins. 
 
 Pariah-arrack is a phrase used to designate a spirit distilled in the peninsula of India, which is said to 
 be often rendered unwholesome by an admixture of ganga {Cannabis sativa), and a species of Datura, in 
 the view of increasing its intoxicating power. But it is not clear whether the term pariah-arrack be 
 meant to imply that it is an inferior spirit, or an adulterated compound. This liquor is sometimes dis- 
 tilled from coco nut toddy, and sometimes from a mixture of jaggery, water, and the barks of various 
 trees. — (See Milbum's Orient. Com. s and Mr. Marshall's valuable Essay on the Coco Nut Tree, p. 18.) 
 
 ARROW-ROOT, the pith or starch of the root Maranta arundinacea. It has re- 
 ceived its common name from its being supposed to be an antidote to the poisoned 
 arrows of the Indians. The powder is prepared from roots of a year old. It is reckoned 
 a very wholesome nutritious food : it is often adulterated, when in the shops, with the 
 starch or flour of potatoes. It is a native of South America ; but has been long intro- 
 duced into the West Indies, where it forms a pretty important article of cultivation. 
 An excellent kind of arrow-root, if it may be so called, is now prepared in India from 
 the root of the Curcuma angustifolia. The plant is abundant on the Malabar coast, 
 where the powder is made in such quantities as to be a considerable object of trade. 
 Some of it has been brought to England. The Maranta arundinacea has been carried 
 from the West Indies to Ceylon, where it thrives extremely well, and where arrow-root 
 of the finest quality has been manufactured from it. — [Ainslie's Mat. Indica. ) 
 
 At an average of the three years ending with 1831, the arrow-root entered for home consumption 
 amounted to 441,556 lbs. a year. Previously to last year (1832), the duty on arrow-root from a British 
 possession was 9s. 4c?. a cwt. ; but as it is now reduced to Is. a cwt, a considerable increase of consumption 
 may be expected. It was quoted in the London market, in August, 1833, at from 9d. to Is. \Qd. per lb. . 
 
 ARSENIC (Ger. Arsenik; Fr. Arsenic; It. and Sp. Arsenica; Rus. M'dschjah ; 
 Eat. Arsenicum). This metal has a bluish white colour not unlike that of steel, and a 
 good deal of brilliancy. It has no sensible smell while cold, but when heated it emits a 
 strong odour of garlic, which is very characteristic. It is the softest of all the metallic 
 bodies, and so brittle that it may easily be reduced to a very fine powder by trituration 
 in a mortar. Its specific gravity is 5*76. — ( Thomson's Chemistry.) 
 
 Metallic arsenic is not used in the arts, and is not, therefore, extracted from the ore, except for the 
 purposes of experiment or curiosity. The arsenic of commerce is the white oxide, or arsenious acid of 
 chemists. It is a white, brittle, compact substance, of a glassy appearance ; is inodorous; has an acrid 
 taste, leaving on the tongue a sweetish impression ; and is highly corrosive. In its metallic state, arsenic 
 exerts no action on the animal system; but when oxidised, it is a most virulent poison. The arsenic of 
 the shops is sometimes adulterated with white sand, chalk, or gypsum : the fraud may be detected by 
 Heating a small portion of the suspected powder ; when the arsenic is dissipated, leaving the impurities, if 
 there be any, behind. Though the most violent of all the mineral poisons, the white oxide of arsenic, or 
 the arsenic of the shops, is yet, when judiciously administered, a medicine of great efficacy. It is also 
 used for various purposes in the arts. It is principally imported from Saxony and Bohemia. — {Thomson's 
 Chemistry; A. T. Thomson's Dispensatory.) 
 
 ASAFGETIDA (Ger. Teufelsdrech ; Du. Duivelsdreck ; Fr. Assa-fetida ; Sp. Asa- 
 fetida ; Lat. Asa-fcetida ; Per. Ungoozeh), a gum resin, consisting of the inspissated 
 juice of a large umbelliferous plant, the Ferula asafoetida. It is produced in the 
 southern provinces of Persia, and in the territory of Sinde, or country lying at the mouth 
 of the Indus. 
 
 It is exported from the Persian gulf to Bombay and Calcutta, whence it is sent to Europe. It has 
 a nauseous, somcwiiat bitter, biting taste, and an excessively strong, foetid, alliaceous smell : the newer it 
 is, it possesses its smell ami other peculiar properties in the greater perfection. It is imported, packed in 
 irregular masses, in mats, casks, and cases ; the last being, in general, the best. It should be chosen clean, 
 fresh, strong-scented, of, a pale reddish colour, variegated with a number of fine, wiiite tears: when 
 broken, it should somewhat resemble marble in appearance; and, after being exposed to the air, should 
 turn of a violet red colour. That which is soft, black, and foul, siiould be rejected. 'J'hc packages 
 should be carefully examnied, and ought to be ti^ijt, to prevent the smell from injuring any other article. 
 Ill 1825, the imports of asalcetida amounted to 106,770 lbs., but they have not been so large since ; and in 
 
 4 
 
ASARUM. — AUCTIONEER. 
 
 47 
 
 1830, only 8,722 lbs. were imported. Wc Iiave not learned the quantity cleared for consuinption, but it 
 must be trifling. In this country, it is used only in the materia rnedica. In France, it is used both in that 
 ■way, and to some extent, also, as a condiment. It is worth, in bond, in the London market, from 21. to 
 8/. per cwt. — {Milburn^s Orient. Com. j Pari. PajKrs ; and private information.) 
 
 ASARUM (Fr. Asaret ; Ger. Hazdwurzcl ; Sp. Asaro de Europa), the root or driadi 
 leaves of the asarabacca. The leaves are nearly inodorous ; their taste slightly aromatic, 
 bitter, acrid, and nauseous. The powder of the leaves is the basis of most cephalic snufFs. 
 A good deal of their acrimony is lost in keeping : they should, consequently, be used in 
 as recent a state as possible, and dried without the application of much heat. Asarabacca 
 grows in several parts of England, particularly Lancashire and Westmoreland. 
 
 ASH (COMMON), the Fraxinus excelsior of botanists, a forest tree of which there 
 are many varieties. It is abundant in England, and is of the greatest utility. 
 
 The ash is of very rapid growth ; and, unlike most other trees, its value is rather increased than di- 
 minished by this circumstance. Like the chesnut, the wood of young trees is most esteemed. It grows 
 on a great variety of soils, but is best where the growth has been most vigorous. It is inferior to the oak 
 in stiffness, and is more easily split ; but in toughness and elasticity it is far superior to the oak, or to any 
 other species of timber. Hence its universal employment in all those parts of machinery which have to 
 sustain sudden shocks, such as the circumference, teeth, and spokes of wheels, ship.blocks, &c., and in 
 the manufacture of agricultural implements ; in the latter, indeed, it is almost exclusively made use of. 
 The want of prolonged durability is its greatest defect ; and it is too flexible to be employed in building. 
 The wood of old trees is of a dark brown colour, sometimes beautifully figured ; the wood of young trees 
 is brownish white, with a shade of green. The texture is alternately compact and porous : where the 
 growth has been vigorous, the compact part of the several layers bears a greater proportion to the spongy, 
 and the timber is comparatively tough, elastic, and durable. It has neither taste nor smell ; and, when 
 young, is difficult to work. Th.e mountain ash ( Pyrus aucuparia) is quite a different tree from the common 
 ash, and its timber is far less valuable. — {Tredgold's Principles of Carpentry ; Timber Trees and Fruits, 
 in Lib. of Entertaining Knoivledgc, ^c.) 
 
 ASHES (Fr. Vedasse ; Ger. Waidasche ; Du. Weedas ; Da. Veedaske ; It. Feccia 
 hruciata ; Sp. Alumhre de hez ; Rus. Weidasch ; Lat. Cineres infectorii), the residuum, 
 or earthy part, of any substance after it has been burnt. In commerce, the term is applied 
 to the ashes of vegetable substances ; from which are extracted the alkaline salts called 
 potash, pearlash, barilla, kelp, &c. ; which see. 
 
 ASPHALTUM. See Bitumen. 
 
 ASS (Fr. Ane ; Ger. Esel ; It. Asino ; Lat. Asinus), the well-known quadruped of 
 that name. 
 
 ASSETS, in commerce, a term used to designate the stock in trade, and the entire 
 property of all sorts, belonging to a merchant or to a trading association. It is also 
 applied to goods or property placed, for the discharge of some particular trust or obli- 
 gation, in the hands of executors, assignees, &c. 
 
 ASSIENTO, a Spanish word signifying a contract. In commerce, it means the 
 contract or agreement by which the Spanish government ceded first to a company of 
 French, and afterwards (by the treaty of Utrecht) to a company of English merchant.s, 
 the right to import slaves into the Spanish colonies. — (^Brougham'' s Colonial Policy ^ 
 vol. i. p. 439.) 
 
 ASSIGNEE, a person appointed by competent authority to do, act, or transact some 
 business, or exercise some particular privilege or power, for or on account of some speci- 
 fied individual ot individuals. 
 
 Assignees may be created by deed, or by law : by deed, where the lessee of a farm 
 assigns the same to another ; by Jaw, where the law makes an assignee, without any 
 appointment of the person entitled, as an executor is assignee in law to the testator, and 
 an administrator to an intestate. The term is most commonly applied to the creditors 
 of a bankrupt appointed to manage for the rest, and who consequently have the bank- 
 rupt's estate assigned over to them. — (See Bankrupt.) 
 
 ASSIZE. See Bread. 
 
 ASSURANCE. See Insurance. 
 
 AUCTION, a public sale of goods to the highest bidder. Auctions are generally- 
 notified by advertisement, and are held in some open place. The biddings may be made 
 either by parties present, or by the auctioneer under authority given to him ; the sale is 
 usually terminated by the fall of a hammer. 
 
 AUCTIONEER, a person who conducts sales by auction. It is his duty to state 
 the conditions of sale, to declare the respective biddings, and to terminate the sale by 
 knocking down the thing sold to the highest bidder. An auctioneer is held to be law- 
 fully authorised by the purchaser to sign a contract for him, whether it be for lands or 
 goods. And his writing down the name of the highest bidder in his book is suflicicnt 
 to bind^any other person for whom the highest bidder purchased, even though such per- 
 son be present, provided he do not object before entry. 
 
 Every auctioneer must take out a licence, renewable annually on the 5th of Julv, for which he is 
 charged 51. ; and if he sell goods for the sale of which an excise licence is specially leqiiired, he must also 
 take out such licence, unless the goods be the property of a licensed person, and sold for his behalf and 
 on his enter ed premises, in which case such additional licence is not required. — (6 Geo. 4, c. 81.) 
 
 Auctioneers within the limits of the chief excise office in London are bound,\vhcn thev receive their 
 licence, to give security to the excise by bond, themselves in 1,0G0/. and two sureties in"£tX)/. each, to 
 deliver in within twenty-eight days of any sale a true and particular account of such sale, and to pay the 
 
48 
 
 AUCTIONEER. 
 
 duties on the same. Auctioneers refusing or delaying to pay the duties within the specified time, forfeit 
 their bond and the bonds of their sureties, and double the amount of the duties. — (19 Geo. 3. c. 56.) 
 
 Auctioneers carrying on their trade without the limits ot the head office give bond, themselves in 500/. 
 and two sureties in 50/. each, to render an account of the duties accruing on sales, and to pay them within 
 6ix weeks, under the penalties already mentioned. — (19 Geo. 3. c. 56., and 38 Geo. 3. c. 54.) 
 
 A licensed auctioneer going firom town to town by a public stage coach, and sending goods by a public 
 conveyance, and selling them on commission by retail or auction, is a trading person within the 50 Geo. 3. 
 C. 41. \ 6., and must ta^ce out a hawker's and pedlar's licence. 
 
 The following duties are payable on goods sold by auction : — ' 
 
 For every 20s. of the purchase money arising or payable by virtue of any sale at auction for the benefit 
 of the growers or first purchasers respectively of any sheep's wool, the growth or produce of any part of 
 the United Kingdom, 2d. 
 
 For every 20s. of the purchase money arising or payable by virtue of any sale at auction of any interest 
 in possession or reversion in any freehold, customary, copyhold, or leasehold lands, tenements, houses, or 
 hereditaments, and any share or shares in the capital or joint stock of any corporation or chartered com- 
 pany, and of any annuities or sums of money charged thereon, and of any ships and vessels, and of any 
 reversionary interest in the public funds, and of any plate or jewels, and so in proportion for any greater 
 or less sum, Id. 
 
 For every 20s. of the purchase money arising or payable by virtue of any sale at auction of furniture, 
 fixtures, pictures, books, horses, and carriages, and all other goods and chattels whatsoever, and so in 
 proportion for any greater or less sum. Is. 
 
 The duties to be paid by the auctioneer, agent, factor, or seller by commission. 
 
 By Stat. 29 Geo. 3. c. 63. ^ § 1,2., no duty shall be paid for piece goods sold by auction, wove or fabricated 
 in this kingdom, which shall be sold entire in the piece or quantity as taken from the loom, and in lots of 
 the price of 20/. or upwards, and so as the same be sold in no other than entered places, and openly shown 
 and exposed at such sale. 
 
 And the auctioneer shall, besides the bond given on receiving his licence, give a further bond in 5,000/, 
 with two sureties, that he will, within fourteen days after every such sale, deliver an account thereof at 
 the next excise office, and will not sell by auction any goods woven out of this kingdom, or woven in 
 this kingdom, which shall not be sold in the entire piece, without payment of the proper duty. § 6. 
 
 By Stat. 41 Geo. 3. c. 91. § 8., all corn and grain of every sort, flour, and meal, and all beef, pork, hams, 
 bacon, cheese, and butter, imported into Great Britain, shall be free of the duty on the first sale thereof by 
 auction on account of the importer, so as the same be entered at some custom-house at the port of import- 
 ation, and the sale thereof be within twelve months and by a licensed auctioneer. 
 
 By Stat. 30 Geo. 3. c. 26., all goods imported by way of merchandise from Yucatan, and by 32 Geo. 3. c. 41., 
 all whale-oil (and by 41 Geo. 3. c.42., all elephant-oil, produced from sea-cows or sea-elephants, and com- 
 monly called " elephant's oil,") whalebone, ambergris, and head-matter, and all skins of seals and other 
 animals living in the sea, and also elephants' teeth, palm-oil, dyeing-wood, drugs, and other articles for 
 dyers' use, and all mahogany and other manufactured wood for the use of cabinet-makers and other manu- 
 facturers, imported in British ships from Africa and (by 42 Geo. 3. c. 93. §3.) America, or any B?itish 
 settlement abroad, shall be free of the excise duty on the first sale thereof at auction by or for the account 
 of the original importer to whom the same were consigned, and by whom they were entered at the 
 Custom-house, so as such sale be made within twelve months after such goods are imported, and the same 
 be sold by a licensed auctioneer. 
 
 By Stat. 19 Geo. 3. c. 56. ^ 13., no duties shall be laid (1.) on any sale by auction of estates or chattels made 
 by order of the Court of Chancery or Exchequer, or courts of great sessions in Wales : (2.) on any sale 
 made by the East India or Hudson's Bay companies : (3.) by order of the commissioners of customs or 
 excise : (4.) by order of the Board of ordnance : (5.) by order of the commissioners of the navy or victual- 
 ling offices : (6.) on any such sales made by the sheriff, for the benefit of creditors, in execution of judg- 
 ment: (7.) on sales of goods distrained for rent : (8.) on sales for non-payment of tithes : (9.) on sales of 
 effects of bankrupts sold by assignees : (10.) on goods imported by way of merchandise from any British 
 colony in America, the same being of the growth, produce, or manufacture of such colony, on the first 
 sale thereof on account of the original importer to whom they were consigned, and by whom they were 
 entered at the Custom-house, so as such sale be made within twelve months after importation (see 59 Geo. 3. 
 c. 54. § 3.) : (11.) on any ships or their cargoes condemned as prize, and sold for the benefit of the captor : 
 (12.) on any ships or goods wrecked or stranded, sold for the benefit of the insurers or proprietors : (13.) on 
 the sale of any goods damaged by fire, and sold for the benefit of the insurers : (14.) on any auction to be 
 held on the account of the lord or lady of the manor for granting any copyhold or customary messuages, 
 lands, or tenements for the term of a life or lives, or any number of years : (15.) on any auction to be held 
 fr<r the letting or demising any messuages, lands, or tenements for the term of a life or lives, or any number 
 of years, to be created by the person on whose account such auction shall be held : (16.) on the sale of any 
 wood, coppice, produce of mines or quarries, or materials for working the«ame ; or on the sale of any 
 cattle, and live or dead stock, or unmanufactured produce of land, so as such sale of woods, coppices, 
 produce of mines or quarries, cattle, corn, stock or produce of land, may be made whilst they continue on 
 the lands producing the same, and by the owner of such lands, or proprietor of or adventurer in such 
 mines or quarries, or by their steward or agent. 
 
 By Stat. 52 Geo. 3. c. 53. § 1., all coffee imported in any British ship from any British colony in America 
 may be sold by auction, free of the auction duty, whilst the same shall remain in warehouses under the 
 act 43 Geo. 3. c. 132. or any other act. 
 
 Certain articles from the United States, as regulated by the act 59 Geo. 3. c. 54, ^ 3., and goods from 
 Portugal imported imder stat. 51 Geo. 3. c. 47., may also be sold by auction free of duty, if on account 
 of the original importer, and within twelve months of their importation. 
 
 By stat. 19 Geo. 3. c. 56. ^ 9., the auctioneer, if the sale be within the limits of the chief office of excise in 
 London, shall give two days' notice at the said office, elsewhere three days' notice to the collector or at the 
 next excise office, in writing, signed by him, specifying the particular day when such .sale shall begin ; 
 and shall at the same time, or within twenty-four hours after, deliver a written or printed catalogue, 
 attested and signed by such auctioneer or his known clerk, in which catalogue shall be particularly 
 enumerated every article, lot, parcel, and thing intended to be sold at such auction. And if he shall 
 presume to make such sale without delivering such notice and catalogue, or sell any estate or goods not 
 enumerated therein, he shall forfeit 20/. 
 
 By stat. 32 Geo. 3. c. 11., every auctioneer who shall have delivered such notice or catalogue shnll, 
 within 28 days (if within the limits of the chief office of excise, elsewhere within six weeks) after tlie 
 day specified in such notice for such sale, deliver at such chief office, or to the collector of excise in 
 whose collection such sale has been or was intended to be, a declaration in writing, setting forth whether 
 or not any such sale had been or was oi)ened or begun under such notice, or any article, lot, parcel, or 
 thing contained in such catalogue was bid for or sold at such auction ; and such auctioneer, or person 
 acting as his clerk as aforesaid, shall make oath to the truth of such declaration before the said commis- 
 sianers or collector, on pain of forfeiting 50/. for every neglect or refusal of delivering such declaration, 
 verified as aforesaid. 
 
 The real owner of any estate, goods, or effects put up to sale by way of auction, and bought m either 
 by himself or by his steward or known agent employed in the management of the sale, or by any other 
 person appointed in writing by the owner to bid for him, shall be allowed the duties, provided notice in 
 writing be given to the auctioneer before such bidding, both by the owner and person intended to be the 
 
AUCrnONEEii. 
 
 49 
 
 bidder, of such person being appointed by tlic owner ; and provided such notice be vcri'led by ti.e o.tii of 
 the auctioneer, as also the fairness of the transaction to the best of his kuowleilge and liehef. — 
 (19 Geo. 3. c. 56., 28 Geo. 3. c. 37.) An auctioneer employed in a case of this sort, and neglecting to take the 
 proper steps to prevent the duties from attaching, may be obliged to pay them himself. — (19 Geo. 3. c. .06.) 
 
 If the sale of an estate be void tlirough defect of title, the commissioners of excise, or 
 justices of the peace in the county, may, on oath being made, grant relief for tlie duties 
 paid. Claim must be made within twelve months after the sale, if rendered void within that 
 time ; or if not rendered void witliin that time, within three months after the di.scovery. 
 
 The auctioneer is by law liable to pay the auction duties, but he may recover the 
 same from the vendor. The conditions of .sale usually oblige the buyer to pay the 
 whole, or a part of the duties ; and upon his refusing or neglecting to pay them, the 
 bidding is void. 
 
 An auctioneer who declines to di-sclose the name of his principal at the time of sale, 
 makes himself responsible. But if he disclose the name of his principal, he ceases to be 
 responsible, either for the soundness of or title to the thing sold, unless he have expressly 
 warranted it on his own responsibility. 
 
 If an auctioneer pay over the produce of a sale to his ciTiployer, after receiving notice 
 that the goods were not the property of .such employer, the real owner of the goods may 
 recover the amount from the auctioneer. 
 
 It has long been a common practice at certain auctions (called for that reason mock 
 auctions) to employ puffers, or mock bidders, to raise the value of the articles sold by 
 their apparent competition, and many questions have grown out of it. It was long 
 ago decided, that if the owner of an estate put up to sale by auction employ puffers 
 to bid for him, it is a fraud on the real bidder, and the highest bidder cannot be com- 
 pelled to complete his contract. — (6 T. Rep. p. 642.) But it would .seem as if the 
 mere employment of puffers under any circumstances were now held to be illegal. 
 " The inclination of the courts at the present time is, that a sale by auction shoidd be 
 conducted in the most open and public manner possible ; that there should be no reserve 
 on the part of the seller, and no collusion on the part of the buyers. Puffing is illegal, 
 according to a late case, even though there be only one puffer ; and it was then decided 
 that the recognised practice at auctions of employing such persons to bid upon the sale 
 of horses could not be sustained." — ( Woolrych on Commercial Law, p. 262.) 
 
 A party bidding at an auction may retract his offer at any time before the hammer is 
 down. Another clearly established principle is, that verbal declarations by an auctioneer 
 are not to be suffered to control the printed conditions of sale ; and these, when pasted 
 up under the box of the auctioneer, are held to be sufficiently notified to purchasers. 
 
 Auctioneers, like all other agents, should carefully observe their instructions. Should 
 those who employ them sustain any damage through their carelessness or inattention, 
 they will be responsible. They must also answer for the consequences, if they sell the 
 property intru-sted to their care for less than the price set upon it by the owners, or in a 
 way contrary to order. 
 
 An auctioneer who has duly paid the licence duty is not liable, in the city of London, to 
 the penalties for acting as a broker without being admitted agreeably to the 6 Anne, c. 1 6. 
 
 The establishment of mock auctions is said to be a common practice among swindlers 
 in London. Persons are frequently placed at the doors of such auctions, denominated 
 barkers, to invite strangers to come in ; and puffers are in wait to bid up the article much 
 beyond its value. A stranger making an offer at such an auction is almost sure to have 
 the article knocked down to him. Plated goods are often disposed of at these auctions ; 
 but it is almost needless to add, that they are of very inferior quality. Attempts have 
 sometimes been made to suppress mock auctions, but hitherto without much success. 
 
 We subjoin 
 
 An. Account of the Number of Auction Licences granted from the 5th of January, 1819, with the 
 Amount of Duty received on Sales by Auction ; distinguishing each Year, and specifying those who 
 have taken out such Licences for Town, Country, and Town and Country, down to 18ol. — {Pari. 
 Paper, No. 138. Sess. 1831.) 
 
 Years ended 
 S<h of January-. 
 
 Amount of Duty received on Sales 
 by Auction. 
 
 Number of Licences taken out. 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 182fi 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 2,557 
 2,770 
 2,939 
 2.897 
 2,939 
 2,941 
 2,910 
 2,981 
 3,119 
 2,972 
 3,043 
 2,467 
 
 £ s. 
 
 256,554 16 
 
 225,630 5 
 
 202,317 18 
 
 206,322 
 223,8 
 279,264 
 
 327 
 338 
 509 
 343 
 334 
 
 308,591 12 7f 
 
 225,061 9 11 
 
 250,2..9 10 3 
 
 235,447 18 101 
 
 225,2.'38 11 U 
 
 203,090 17 0" 
 
 2,124 
 2,323 
 2,523 
 2,433 
 2,493 
 2,490 
 2,437 
 2,525 
 2,577 
 2,422 
 2,519 
 2,478 
 
 106 
 109 
 107 
 121 
 112 
 107 
 116 
 49 
 542 
 550 
 524 
 489 
 
50 
 
 AVERAGE. 
 
 Account of the Produce of the Auction Duties, in each of the Three Years, ending the 6th of January 
 1833, distinguishing the Amount paid under separate Heads. 
 
 
 Amount of Auction Duties on the Sale ot 
 
 Total Produce. 
 
 Estates.Housesi 
 Annuities, 
 Ships, Plate, 
 Jewels, &c. 
 
 Household Furni- 
 ture, Horses, 
 
 Carriages, and all 
 other Goods 
 and Chattels. 
 
 Sheep's 
 Wool. 
 
 Foreign 
 Produce tFirst 
 Sale thereof.) 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland - . . 
 Ireland - - - 
 
 Year ended 5th of January, 1831 - 
 
 £ s. d. 
 72,348 19 6 
 7,150 6 7 
 1,952 13 5 
 
 £ s. d. 
 128,184 13 1 
 12,387 11 3 
 9,004 18 8 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 11 14 9 
 0 19 9 
 0 6 9 
 
 £ s. d. 
 2,865 13 4 
 85 10 11 
 
 £ s. d. 
 203,4U 0 S 
 19,624 8 6 
 10,957 18 10 
 
 81,451 19 6 
 
 149,577 3 0 
 
 13 1 3 
 
 2,951 4 3 
 
 233,993 8 0 
 
 England - - - 
 Scotland - - 
 Ireland - 
 
 Year ended 5th of January, 1832 - 
 
 76,164 3 0 
 4,863 9 7 
 1,616 8 5 
 
 122,088 8 11 
 12,014 11 3 
 8,847 2 7 
 
 25 10 11 
 0 16 9 
 0 7 3 
 
 2,857 3 8 
 69 7 2 
 1 7 5 
 
 201,135 6 6 
 16,948 4 9 
 10,465 5 8 
 
 82,614 1 0 
 
 142,950 2 9 
 
 26 14 11 
 
 2,927 18 3 
 
 228,548 16 11 
 
 England _ . - 
 Scotland - - . . 
 Ireland - 
 
 Year ended 5th of January, 1833 - 
 
 79,218 9 8 
 5,436 13 8 
 2,213 5 5 
 
 126,126 15 2 
 12,294 3 7 
 8,180 5 4 
 
 15 10 6 
 1 2 2 
 
 2,694 13 8 
 136 0 2 
 0 13 2 
 
 208,055 9 0 
 17,867 19 7 
 10,394 3 11 
 
 86,868 8 9 
 
 146,601 4 1 
 
 16 12 8 
 
 2,831 7 0 
 
 236,317 12 6 
 
 Excise Office, London, 5th of August, 1833, 
 
 AVERAGE, a term used in commerce and navigation to signify a contribution 
 made by the individuals, when they happen to be more than one, to whom a ship, or 
 the goods on board it, belong, or by whom it or they are insured ; in order that no 
 particular individual or individuals amongst them, who may have been forced to make a 
 sacrifice for the preservation of the ship or cargo, or both, should lose more than others. 
 " Thus," says Mr. Serjeant Marshall, " where the goods of a particular merchant are 
 thrown overboard in a storm to save the ship from sinking ; or where the masts, cables, 
 anchors, or other furniture of the ship, are cut away or destroyed for the preservation of 
 the whole ; or money or goods are given as a composition to pirates to save the rest ; or 
 an expense is incurred in reclaiming the ship, or defending a suit in a foreign court of 
 admiralty, and obtaining her discl^arge from an unjust capture or detention ; in these 
 and the like cases, where any sacrifice is deliberately and voluntarily made, or any 
 expense fairly and bond fide incurred, to prevent a total loss, such sacrifice or expense is 
 the proper subject of a general contribution, and ought to be rateably borne by the 
 owners of the ship, freight, and cargo, so that the loss may fall equally on all, according 
 to the equitable maxim of the civil law — no one ought to be enriched by another's loss : 
 Nemo debet locupletari aliend jacturd," 
 
 Upon this fair principle is founded the doctrine of average contributions ; regulations 
 with respect to which having been embodied in the Rhodian law, were thence adopted 
 into the Roman law ; and form a prominent part of all modern systems of maritime 
 jurisprudence. The rule of the Rhodian law is, that " if, for the sake of lightening a 
 ship in danger at sea, goods be thrown overboard, the loss incurred for the sake of all, 
 shall be made good by a general contribution." — {JDiff- lib. 14. tit. 2. § l.j Schomberg 
 on the Maritime Laws of Hhodes, p. 60.) 
 
 Formerly it was a common practice to ransom British ships when captured by an 
 enemy, the ransom being made good by general average. But this practice having been 
 deemed disadvantageous, it was abolished by statute 22 Geo. 3. c. 25., which declares, 
 " That all contracts and agreements which shall be entered into, and all bills, notes, and 
 other securities, which shall be given by any person or persons, for ransom of any ship 
 or vessel, merchandise, or goods, captured by the subjects of any state at war with liis 
 Majesty, or by any person committing hostilities against his Majesty's subjects, shall be 
 absolutely void in law, and of no effect whatever ;" and a penalty of 500Z. is given to the 
 informer, for every offence against this act. 
 
 Average is either general or particular; that is, it either affects all who have any 
 interest in the ship and cargo, or only some of them. The contributions 'levied in the 
 cases mentioned above, come under the first class. But when losses occur from ordinary 
 wear and tear, or from the perils naturally incident to a voyage, without being voluntarily 
 encountered, such as the accidental springing of masts, the loss of anchors, &c., or when 
 any peculiar sacrifice is made for the sake of the ship only, or of the cargo only, these 
 losses, or this sacrifice, must be borne by the parties not immediately interested, and are 
 consequently defrayed by a particular average. 
 
 There are also some small charges called petty or accustomed averages; it is usual- to 
 charge one third of them to the ship and two thirds to the cargo. 
 
 No general average ever takes place, except it can be shown that the danger was 
 
AVERAGE. 
 
 51 
 
 imminent, and that the sacrifice made was indispensable, or supposed to he indispensable, 
 hy the captain and officers, for the safety of the ship and cargo. The captain, on coming 
 on shore, should immediately make his protests ; and he, with some of the crew, sliould 
 make oath that the goods were thrown overboard, masts or anchors cut away, money 
 paid, or other loss sustained, for the preservation of the sliip and goods, and of tlie lives 
 of those on board, and for no other purpose. The average, if not settled belore, should 
 then be adjusted, and it should be paid before the cargo is landed ; for the owners of the 
 ship have a lien on the goods on board, not only for the freight, but also to answer uU 
 averages and contributions that may he due. But though the captain should neglect his 
 duty in this respect, the sufferer would not be without a remedy, but might bring an 
 action either against him or the owners. 
 
 The laws of different states, and the opinions of the ablest jurists, vary as to whether 
 the loss incurred in defending a ship against an enemy or pirate, and in the treatment of 
 the wounded officers and men, should be made good by general or particular average. 
 The Ordinance of the Hanse Towns (art. 35.), the Ordinance of 1681 (liv. iii. tit. 7. 
 § 6.), and the Code de Commerce (art. 400. § 6.), explicitly declare that the charges on 
 account of medicine, and for attendance upon the officers and seamen wounded in 
 defending the ship, shall l)e general average. A regulation of this sort seems to be 
 founded on reason. But other codes are silent on the subject ; and though the contrary 
 opinion had been advanced by Mr. Serjeant Marshall, and by Mr. Justice Park in the 
 earlier editions of his work, the Court of Common Pleas has vmanimously decided, that 
 in England neither the damage done to a ship, nor the ammunition expended, nor the 
 expense of healing sailors wounded in an action with an enemy or pirate, is a subject of 
 general average. — {Abbott on the Law of Shipping, part iii. cap. 8.) 
 
 Much doubt has been entertained, whether expenses incurred by a ship in an inter- 
 mediate port in which she has taken refuge, should be general average, or fall only on 
 the ship. But on principle, at least, it is clear, that if the retreat of the ship to port be 
 made in order to obviate the danger of foundering, or some other great and imminent 
 calamity, the expenses incurred in entering it, and during the time she is forced by stress 
 of weather, or adverse winds, to continue in it, ought to belong to general average. 
 But if the retreat of the ship to port be made in order to repair an injury occasioned by 
 the unskilfulness of the master, or in consequence of any defect in her outfit, such, for 
 example, as deficiencies of water, provisions, sails, &c., with which she ought to have been 
 sufficiently supplied before setting out, the expenses should fall wholly on the owners. 
 
 When a ship (supposed to be seaworthy) is forced to take refuge in an intermediate 
 port, because of a loss occasioned by a peril of the sea, as the springing of a mast, &c., 
 then, as the accident is not ascribable to any fault of the master or owners, and the re- 
 treat to port is indispensable for the safety of the ship and cargo, it would seem that any 
 extraordinary expense incurred in entering it should be made good by general average. 
 
 Supposing, however, that it could be shown, that the ship was not, at her outset, 
 seaworthy, or in a condition to withstand the perils of the sea; that the mast, for 
 example, which has .sprung, had been previously damaged; or supposing that the 
 mischief had been occasioned by the incapacity of the master ; the whole blame would, in 
 such a case, be ascribable to the owners, who, besides defraying every expense, should be 
 liable in damages to the freighters for the delay that would necessarily take place in 
 completing the voyage, and for whatever damage might be done to the cargo. 
 
 These, however, are merely the conclusions to which, as it appears to us, those must 
 come who look only to principles. The law with respect to the points referred to, 
 differs in different countries, and has differed in this country at different periods. " A 
 doubt," says Lord Tenterden, " was formerly entertained as to the expenses of a ship in 
 a port in which she had taken refuge, to repair the damage occasioned by a tempest ; 
 but this has been removed by late decisions. And it has been held, that the wages and 
 provisions of the crew during such a period must fall upon the ship alone. But if a ship 
 should necessarily go into an intermediate port for the purpose only of repairing such a 
 damage as is in itself a proper object of general contribution, possibly the wages, &c. 
 during the period of such detention, may also be held to be general average, on the 
 ground that the accessory should follow the nature of its principal." — {Law of Shipping, 
 part iii. cap. 8.) 
 
 Perhaps the reader who reflects on the vagueness of this passage will be disposed 
 to concur with Lord Tenterden's remark in another part of the same chapter, " That 
 the determinations of the English courts of justice furnish less of authority on this 
 subject (average) than on any other branch of maritime law." 
 
 The question, whether the repairs which a ship undergoes that is forced to put into an 
 intermediate port ought to be general or particular average, has occasioned a great 
 diversity of opinion ; but the principles that ought to regulate our decision with respect 
 to it seem pretty obvious. Injiuies voluntarily done to the ship, as cutting away masts, 
 yards, &c. to avert some impending danger, are universally admitted to be general 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 AVERAGE. 
 
 average. It seems, however, hardly less clear, and is, indeed, expressly laid down by all 
 the great authorities, that injuries done to the ship by the violence of the winds or the 
 waves should be particular average, or should fall wholly on the owners. The ship, to 
 use the admirable illustration of this principle given in the civil law, is like the tool or 
 instrument of a workman in his trade. Jf in doing his work he break his hammer, his 
 anvil, or any other instrument, he can claim no satisfaction for this from his employer. — ■ 
 (^Dig. lib. xiv. tit. 2. § 2.) The owners are bound, both by the usual conditions in 
 all charterparties, and at common law, to carry the cargo to its destination ; and they 
 must consequently be bound, in the event of the ship sustaining any accidental or 
 natural damage during the voyage, either to repair that damage at their own expense, or 
 to provide another vessel to forward the goods. In point of fact, too, such subsidiary 
 ships have often been provided ; but it has never been pretended that their hire was a 
 subject of general average, though it is plain it has quite as good a right to be so 
 considered as the cost of repairing the damage done to the ship by a peril of the sea. 
 Hence, when a ship puts into an intermediate port for the common safety, the charges 
 incurred in entering the port, and down to the earliest time that the wind and weather 
 become favourable for leaving it, ought to be general average ; but the repair of any 
 damage she may have sustained by wear and tear, or by the mere violence of the storm, 
 or an accidental peril, and the wages of the crew, and other expenses incurred after the 
 weather has moderated, should fall wholly on the owners. 
 
 It has been, however, within these few years, decided, in the case of a British ship 
 that had been obliged to put into port in consequence of an injury resulting from her 
 accidentally coming into collision with another, that so much of the repair she then 
 underwent as was absolutely necessary to enable her to perform her voyage should be 
 general average. The Judges, however, spoke rather doubtfully on the subject ; and it 
 is exceedingly difficult to discover any good groun;ls for the judgment. — (Plummer and 
 Anocher v. Wildman, 3 M. §* S. 482.) — It seems directly opposed to all principle, as 
 well as to the authority of the laws of Rhodes (^Dig. 14. tit. 2.), of Oleron (art. 9.), of 
 Wisby (art. 12.), and to the common law with respect to freight. Lord Tenterden has 
 expressed himself as if he were hostile to the judgment. It is, indeed, at variance with 
 all the doctrines he lays down ; and the terms in which he alludes to it, " yet in one 
 case," appear to hold it forth as an exception (which it certainly is) to the course of 
 decisions on the subject. 
 
 It is now usual in this country, when a vessel puts into port on account of a damage 
 belonging to particular average, which requires to be repaired before she can safely 
 proceed on her voyage, to allow in general average the expense of entering the port and 
 unloading, to charge the owners of the goods or their underwriters with the warehouse 
 rent and expenses attending the cargo, and to throw the expense of reloading and 
 departure on the freight. 
 
 According to the law of England, when a ship is injured by coming into collision 
 with or running foul of another, if the misfortune has been accidental, and no blame can 
 be ascribed to either party, the owners of the damaged ship have to bear the loss ; but 
 where blame can be fairly imputed to one of the parties, it, of course, falls upon him to 
 make good the damage done to the other. The regulations in the Code de Commerce 
 (art. 407.) harmonise, in this respect, with our own. According, however, to the laws 
 of Oleron and Wisby, and the famous French ordinance of 1681, the damage occasioned 
 by an accidental collision is to be defrayed equally by both parties. 
 
 The ship and freight, and every thing on board, even jewels, plate, and money, except 
 wearing apparel, contribute to general average. But the wages of seamen do not con- 
 tribute; because, had they been laid under this obligation, they might have been 
 tempted to oppose a sacrifice necessary for the general safety. 
 
 Different states have adopted different modes of valuing the articles which are to 
 contribute to an average. In this respect the law of England has varied considerably at 
 different periods. At present, however, the ship is valued at the price she is worth on 
 her arrival at the port of delivery. The value of the freight is held to be the clear sum 
 which the ship has earned after seamen's wages, pilotage, and all such other charges as 
 come under the name of petty averages, are deducted. It is now the settled practice to 
 value the goods lost, as well as those saved, at the price they would have fetched in ready 
 money, at the port of delivery, on the ship's arrival there, freight, duties, and other 
 charges, being deducted. Each person's share of the loss will bear the same proportion 
 to the value of his property, that the whole loss bears to the aggregate value of the ship, 
 freight, and cargo. The necessity of taking the goods lost into this account is obvious ; 
 for otherwise their owner would be the only person who would not be a loser. 
 
 When the loss of masts, cal)lcs, and other furniture of the ship, is compensated by 
 general average, it is usual, as the new articles will, in all ordinary cases, be of greater 
 value than those that have been lost, to deduct 0}ie third from the vali^p of the ft)rmer, 
 leuvin;* two thirds only to be contributed. 
 
AVERAGE. 
 
 53 
 
 But the mode of adjusting an average will be better understood by the following 
 example, extracted from Chief Justice Tenterden's valuable work on the Law of Shij)j)inij, 
 part iii. cap. 8. 
 
 " The reader will suppose that it became necessary, in the Downs, to cut the cable of 
 a ship destined for Hull ; that the ship afterwards struck upon the Goodwin, which 
 compelled the master to cut away his mast, and cast overboard part of the cargo, in which 
 operation another part was injured; and that the ship, being cleared from tlie sands, 
 was forced to take refuge in Ramsgate harbour, to avoid the further effects of the storm. 
 
 AMOUiNT OF LOSSES. 
 
 Goods of A. cast overboard 
 Damage of the goods of B. by the jettison 
 Freight of the goods cast overboard 
 Price of a new cable, anchor, and^ 
 mast . . j; 300 V 
 
 Deduct one third - 100 J 
 
 Expense of bringing the ship off the sands 
 Pilotage and port duties going into the 
 harbour and out, and commission to the 
 agent who matie the disbursements 
 Expenses there - , _ . 
 Adjusting this average - - - 
 Postage - - . . . 
 
 Total of losses - - £ 
 
 £ 
 
 500 
 200 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 1,180 
 
 VALUE OP ARTICLES TO CONTRIBUTE. 
 
 Goods of A. cast overboard 
 Sound value of the goods of B., deduct- 
 ing freight and charges 
 Goods of C. - - - - 
 of D. 
 
 Value of the ship - - 
 Clear freight, deducting wages, victuals, 
 &c. . . - - . 
 
 Total of contributory values 
 
 £ 
 
 500 
 
 1,000 
 5(;0 
 2,000 
 5,000 
 S^,000 
 
 800 
 
 11,800 
 
 Then, 11,800/. : 1,180/. : : 100/. : 10/. 
 " That is, each person will lose 10 per cent, upon the value of his interest in the cargo, ship, or freight. 
 Therefore, A. loses SO/., B. 100/., C. 50/., D. 200/., E. 500/., the owners 280/. ; in all, 1,180/. Upon this 
 calculation, the owners are to lose 280/. ; but they are to receive from the contribution 380/., to make 
 good their disbursements, and 100/. more for the freight of the goods thrown overboard ; or 480/., 
 minus 280/. 
 
 They, therefore, are actually to receive - - - . ^ £ 200 
 
 A. is to contribute 50/., but has lost 500/. ; therefore A. is to receive ... 450 
 
 B. is to contribute 100/., but has lost 200/, : therefore B. is to receive - - - 100 
 
 Total to be actually received 
 On the other hand, C, D., and E. have lost nothing, and are to pay as before j viz. 
 
 Total to be actually paid 
 
 {I 
 
 £ 750 
 
 £ m 
 200 
 500 
 
 £ 750 
 
 which is exactly equal to the total to be actually received, and must be paid by and to each person in 
 rateable proportion. 
 
 " In the above estimate of losses, I liave included the freight of the goods thrown 
 overboard, which appears to be proper, as the freight of the goods is to be paid, and 
 their supposed value is taken clear of freight, as well as other charges. In this country, 
 where the practice of insurance is very general, it is usual for the broker, who has pro- 
 cured the policy of insurance, to draw up an adjustment of the average, which is com- 
 monly paid in the first instance by the insurers without dispute. In case of dispute, 
 the contribution may be recovered either hy a suit in equity, or by an action at law, 
 instituted by each individual entitled to receive, against each p^'ty that ought to pay, for 
 the amount of his share. And in the case of a general ship, where there are many con- 
 signees, it is usual for the master, before he delivers the goods, to take a bond from the 
 different merchants for payment of their portions of the average when the same shall be 
 adjusted." 
 
 The subject of average does not necessarily make a part of the law of insurance ; 
 though as insurers, from the terms of most policies, are liable to indemnify the insured 
 against those contributions which are properly denominated general average, its con- 
 sideration very frequently occurs in questions as to partial losses. But in order to 
 confine assurances to that which should be their only object, namely, an indemnity 
 against real and important losses arising from a peril of the sea, as well as to obviate 
 disputes respecting losses arising from the perishable quality of the goods insured, and 
 all trivial subjects of difference and litigation, it seems to be the general law of all 
 maritime states, and is expressly, indeed, provided by the famous Ordinance of 1681 (see 
 liv. iii. tit. 6. § 47., and the elaborate commentary of M. Valin), that the insurer shall 
 not be liable to any demand on account of average, unless it exceed one per cent. An 
 article (No. 408.) to the same effect is inserted in the Code de Comvierce ; and, by sti- 
 pulation, this limitation is frequently extended in French policies to three or four per 
 cent. A similar practice was adopted in this country in 1749. It is now constantly 
 stipulated in all policies, that upon certain enumerated articles of a quality peculiarly 
 perishable, the insurer shall not be liable for any partial loss whatever ; that upon certain 
 others liable to' partial injuries, but less diflicult to be preserved at sea, lie shall only be 
 liable for partial losses above five per cent. ; and that as to all other goods, and also the 
 
 E 3 
 
54. 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS. — BAGGAGE. 
 
 ship and freight, he shall only be liable for partial losses above three per cent. Tliis 
 stipulation is made by a memorandum inserted at the bottom of all policies done at 
 Lloyd's, of the following tenour ; — " N. B. Corn, fish, salt, fruit, flour, and seeds, are 
 warranted free from average, unless general, or the ship be stranded ; sugar, tobacco, 
 hemp, flax, hides, and skins; are warranted free from average under 5/. per cent. ; and all 
 other goods free from average under Si. per cent., unless general, or the ship be stranded." 
 
 The form of this memorandum was universally used, as well by the Royal Exchange 
 and London Assurance Companies as by private underwriters, till 1754, when it was 
 decided that a ship having run aground, was a stranded ship within the meaning of the 
 memorandum ; and that although she got off again, the underwriters were liable to the 
 average or partial loss upon damaged corn. This decision induced the two Companies 
 to strike the words " or the ship be stranded," out of the memorandum ; so that now 
 they consider themselves liable to no losses which can happen to such commodities, 
 except general averages and total losses. The old form is still retained by the private 
 underwriters. — ( See Stranding. ) 
 
 The reader is referred, for the further discussion of this important subject, to the 
 article Marine Insurance ; and to Mr. Stevens's Essay on Average ; Abbott on the Law 
 of Shipping, part iii. cap. 8. ; Marshall on Insuratice, book i. cap. 12. s. 7'. ; Park on 
 Insurance, cap. 7. ; and Mr. Benecke's elaborate and able work on the Principles of 
 Indemnity in Marine Insurance. 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS, a weight used in determining the gravity of bulky commodities. 
 See Weights and Measures. 
 
 B. 
 
 BACON (Ger. Speck; Du. Spek ; Fr. Lard; It. Span, and Port. Lardo ; Rus. 
 Sola; Lat. Larduni) is made from the sides and belly of the pig, which are first 
 thoroughly impregnated with salt ; then suffered to remain for a certain period in brine ; 
 and, lastly, dried and smoked. The counties of England most celebrated for bacon are 
 York, HantSj Berks, and Wilts. Ireland produces great quantities of bacon ; but it is 
 neither so clean fed, nor so well cured, as the English, and is much lower priced. 
 Of the Scotch counties, Dumfries, Wigtown, and Kirkcudbright are celebrated for 
 the excellence of their bacon and hams, of which they now export large quantities, 
 principally to the Liverpool and London markets. 
 
 The imports of bacon and hams from Ireland have increased rapidly of late years. 
 The average quantity imported during the three years ending the 25th of March, 1800, 
 only amounted to 41,948 cwt. ; whereas during the three years ending with 1820, the 
 average imports amounted to 204,380 cwt. ; and during the three years ending with 1825, 
 they had increased to 338,218 cwt. In 1825, the trade between Ireland and Great 
 Britain was placed on the footing of a coasting trade ; and bacon and hams are imported 
 and exported v/ithout any specific entry at the Custom-house. We believe, however, 
 that the imports of these articles into Great Britain from Ireland amount, at present, to 
 little less than 500,000 cwt. a year. The quantity of bacon and hams exported from 
 Ireland to foreign countries is inconsiderable ; not exceeding 1,500 or 2,000 cwt. a year. 
 
 The duty on bacon, being 28s. the cwt. is in effect prohibitoiy. The duty on hams 
 is the same as on bacon. By the 7 Geo. 4. c. 48. bacon is not to be entered to be 
 warehoused except for exportation only ; and if it be so warehoused, it cannot be taken 
 out for home use. 
 
 BAGGAGE, in commercial navigation, the wearing apparel and other articles 
 destined for the sole use or accommodation* of the crews and passengers of ships. The 
 following are the Custom-house regulations with respect to baggage : — 
 
 Baggage and apparel accompanied by the proprietor, worn and in use (not made up for the purpose of 
 being introduced into this country), exempted from all duty on importation. 
 
 Articles in baggage subject to duty or prohibited may be left in custody of the officers of customs for 
 a period of six months, to give the party an opportunity of paying the duty or taking them back. 
 — {Custotn^ Order, August 6. 1822.) 
 
 If unaccompanied by proprietor, proof must be made by the party that it is as aforesaid, and not im- 
 ported as merchandise, otherwise it is subject to a duty of 20 per cent. 
 
 If not cleared at the expiration of six months from the date of landing, it is liable to be sold for duty 
 and charges, tlio residue (if any) to be paid to the right owner on proof being adduced to the satisfaction 
 of the honourable Board. 
 
 One fowling-i)iece and one pair of pistols accompanying the party, bond fide in use, free per Customs 
 Order, July 5. 1825. 
 
 Spirits, being the remains of passengers' stores may be admitted to entry. — (6 Geo. 4. c. 107. % 107.) 
 
 One pint of drinkable spirits of whatever strength, or half a pint of cordial or Cologne water, in baggage 
 for private use — free. — [Treasury Order, October 20. 1820.) 
 
 Carriages of British manufacture, in use — free. — {Treasury Order, September 26. 1817.) 
 
 Glass, in dressing or medicine cases, of British manufacture, free upon proof that no drawback has 
 befcn received. — [Treasury Order, December 5. 1821.) — [Nyren's Tables.) 
 
 Erif^ltsh Books reprinted abroad. — Not more than a sinale copy of eacii work is allowed to be imported 
 in a passenger's baggage, and for the i)rivate use of the party himself. — [Customs Order, 29th of 
 June, 18;50.) — Such works are absolutely prohibited to be imported as merchandise. — (Sec Books.) 
 
BAHIA. 
 
 55 
 
 Passengos denying having Foreign Goods in their Possession. — The following clause in the act 3 & 4 
 Will. 4. c. 5.'}. has reference to this subject : — " If any jjasseiiger or other person, on board any vessel or 
 boat, shall, upon being questioned by any customs officer, whether he or she has any foreign goods upon 
 his or her person, or in his or her possession, deny the same, and any such goods shall, attc.r such denial, 
 be discovered upon his or her person, or in his or her possession, such goodo shall be forfeited, and such 
 person shall forfeit treble the value of such goods." — ^37. 
 
 BAHIA, OR ST. SALVADOR, a large city (formerly the capital) of Brazil, con- 
 tiguous to Cape St. Antonio, which forms the right or eastern side of the entrance of 
 the noble bay of Todos os Santos, or All- Saints. According to the observations of 
 M. Roussin, the light-house on the Cape is in lat. 13° O' 30" S., long. 38"^ 30' W. The 
 opposite side of the entrance to the bay is formed by the island of Taporica, distant from 
 Cape St. Antonio about 2^ leagues. But a bank along the shore of the island narrows the 
 passage for large ships to about two thirds this distance. Another bank runs S. S.W. 
 from Cape St. Antonio about league. Within, the bay expands into a capacious 
 basin, having several islands and harbours, the depth of water varying from 8 and 10 to 40 
 fathoms, affording ample accommodation and secure anchorage for the largest fleets. 
 
 P/an. — The subjoined wood-cut conveys a clearer and belter idea of this celebrated bay than could be 
 acquired from any description. It is copied, without any reduction, from a revised edition of a Portuguese 
 chart, published by Mr. Laurie; and exhibits the banks, soundings, anchorage, &c. 
 
 References to the Plan. — A, Cape, light-house, and fort of St. Antonio; B, Fort do Mar; C, Fort 
 St. Philip ; D, Tapagippe ; E, Tsla do Mar ; F, Isla dos Frados; G, Fort Beaumont. The figures in the 
 plan are the soundings in fathoms. 
 
 E 4 
 
56 
 
 BALACHONG. — BALANCE. 
 
 There is another entrance to the bay, partly exhibited in the above plan, on the 
 west side of the island of Taporica ; but it is narrow, intricate, and at its mouth has 
 not more than 6 feet water. Several rivers have their embouchure in the bay, which 
 generally occasions a current to set from the north end of the island by Cape St. 
 Antonio ; when the rivers are flooded, this current is sometimes very strong. The 
 light-house at the extremity of the cape has no great elevation, and cannot be seen at 
 a distance of more than 3 or 3^ leagues. The usual place of anchorage is abreast of the 
 city, north and south of Fort do Mar. 
 
 The city is partly built on the beach, but principally on pretty high ground im- 
 mediately contiguous. The public buildirigs, particularly the churches, are numerous, 
 and some of them magnificent ; but the streets are narrow, ill paved, and filthy. Popu- 
 lation, 125,000. The city is defended by several ports, but none of them are of very 
 great strength. 
 
 The trade of Bahia is very considerable ; and will no doubt continue to increase. The 
 average exports amount, at present, to about 45,000 chests (13 cwt. each) of sugar; 
 35,000 bags (170 lbs. each) of cotton; 4,000 tons of coflfee, with hides, tobacco, rice, 
 dye and fancy woods, bullion, &c. The imports are similar to those of Rio de Janeiro, 
 to which the reader is referred for some account of the commerce of Brazil', with parti- 
 culars as to duties, charges, &c. There are several private building yards at Tapagippe, 
 in which ships of all dimensions are built ; they are handsome, well modelled, and the 
 timber very suitable for the purpose. 
 
 Monies, Weights, and Measures of Brazil same as those of Portugal ; for which, see Lisbon. The 
 filquk'7-e, or measure for corn, rice, &c. differs in different provinces, being in some 125 bushel Winch, 
 meas., and in others 1 only. At Bahia it is estimated at 1. Wine and olive oil pay duty on being 
 imported by the pipe, hogshead, or barrel : they are retailed by the frasco or case bottle = 4'5 pints 
 English wine measure. In 1828, 122 British ships, carrying 25,166 tons, entered Bahia. — {Annuaire 
 du Commerce Maritime for 1833, p. 583. \ and private information.) 
 
 BALACHONG, an article consisting of pounded or bruised fish. Small fish, with 
 prawns and shrimps, are principally employed in making it. Though fcetid and offensive 
 to strangers, this substance, used as a condiment to rice, is largely consumed in all the 
 countries to the east of Bengal, including the southern provinces of China, and the 
 islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Its distribution gives rise to an extensive internal 
 traffic. 
 
 BALANCE, in accounts, is the term used to express the difference between the 
 debtor and creditor sides of an account. 
 
 BALANCE, in commerce, is the term commonly used to express the difference 
 between the value of the exports from and imports into a country. The balance is said 
 to be favourable when the value of the exports exceeds that of the imports, and unfavour- 
 able when the value of the imports exceeds that of the exports. According to the 
 Custom-house returns, the official value of the exports from Great Britain, exclusive of 
 foreign and commercial merchandise, during the year ending 5th of January, 1833, 
 amounted to 64,582,037/. ; and the official value of the imports during the same year 
 amounted to 43,237,416/. ; leaving a favourable balance of 21,344,621Z. 
 
 The attainment of a favourable balance was formerly regarded as an object of the 
 greatest importance. The precious metals early acquired, in consequence of their being 
 used as money, an artificial importance, and were long considered as the only real wealth 
 either individuals or nations could possess. And as countries without mines could not 
 obtain supplies of these metals except in exchange for exported products, it was concluded, 
 that if the value of the commodities exported exceeded that of those imported, the balance 
 would have to be paid by the importation of an equivalent amount of the precious metals ; 
 and conversely. A very large proportion of the restraints imposed on the freedom of 
 commerce, during the last two centuries,»grew out of this notion. The importance of 
 having a favourable balance being universally admitted, every effort was made to attain 
 it; and nothing seemed so effectual for this purpose as the devising of schemes to 
 facilitate exportation, and to hinder the importation of almost all products, except gold 
 and silver, that were not intended for future exportation. But the gradual though slow 
 growth of sounder opinions with respect to the nature and functions of money, showed 
 the futiHty of a sy.steni of policy having such objects in view. It is now conceded on all 
 hands that gold and silver are nothing but commodities ; and that it is in no respect 
 necessary to interfere either to encourage their importation, or to prevent their export- 
 ation. In Great Britain they may be freely exported and imported, whether in the shape 
 of coin or bullion. — (See Coin.) 
 
 Tlie truth is, however, that tlie theory of tlie balance of trade is not erroneous merely 
 from the false notions which its advocates entertained with respect to money ; it proceeds 
 on radically mistaken views as to the nature of commerce. The mode in which tlie 
 balance is usually estimated is, indeed, completely tallacious. Supposing, however, that 
 it could be correctly ascertained, it would be foinul, in opposition to the common ojjinion, 
 tliat the imports into every commercial country generally exceed the exports ; and that 
 
BALANCE. 
 
 51 
 
 when a balance is formed, it is only in certain cases, and those of rare occurrence, that it 
 is cancelled by a bullion payment. 
 
 I. The proper business of the wholesale merchant consists in cari-ying tlie various 
 products of the different countries of the world, from the places where their value is lerst 
 to those where it is greatest ; or, which is the same thing, in distributing them according 
 to the effective demand. It is clear, however, that there could be no motive to export 
 any species of produce, unless that which it was intended to import in its stead were of 
 greater value. When an English merchant commissions a quantity of Polisli wheat, he 
 calculates on its selling for so much more than its price in Poland, as will be sufficient 
 to pay the expense of freight, insurance, &c., and to yield, besides, the common and 
 ordinary rate of profit on the capital employed. If the wheat did not sell for this much, 
 its importation would obviously be a loss to the importer. It is plain, then, that no 
 merchant ever did or ever will export, but in the view of importing something more 
 valuable in return. And so far from an excess of exports over imports being any 
 criterion of an advantageous commerce, it is directly the reverse ; and the truth is, not- 
 withstanding all that has been said and written to the contrary, that unless the value of 
 the imports exceeded that of the exports, foreign trade could not be carried on. Were 
 this not the case — that is, were the value of the exports always greater than the value 
 of the imports — merchants would lose on every transaction with foreigners, and the 
 trade with them would be speedily abandoned. 
 
 In England, the rates at which all articles of export and import are officially valued 
 were fixed so far back as 1696. But the very great alteration that has since taken place, 
 not only in the value of money, but also in the cost of most part of the commodities 
 produced in this and other countries, has rendered this official valuation, though valuable 
 as a means of determining their quantity, of no use whatever as a criterion of the true 
 value of the exports and imports. In order to remedy this defect, an account of the real 
 or declared value of the exports is annually prepared, from the declarationi? of the 
 merchants, and laid before parliament : there is, however, no such account of the imports ; 
 and, owing to the difficulties which high duties throw in the way, it is, perhaps, impossible 
 to frame one with any thing like accuracy. It has also been alleged, and apparently with 
 some probability, that merchants have not unfrequently been in the habit of exaggerating 
 the value of articles entitled to drawbacks on exportation ; but the recent extension and 
 improvement of the warehousing system, and the diminution of the number of drawbacks, 
 must materially lessen whatever fraud or inaccuracy may have arisen from this source. 
 Indeed, as most articles are charged vi^ith an ad valorem duty of 10s. per cent, on export- 
 ation, we should consider that, if anything, their value would be rather under than over- 
 rated. We believe, however, that their declared value comes very near the truth ; at least, 
 sufficiently so for all practical purposes. 
 
 Now the declared value of the exports in 1832 v/as only 36,046,027Z., being little 
 more than half their official value,' and vipwards of 7,000,000Z. under the official 
 value of the imports. What the excess of the latter might be, had we the means of 
 comparing their real value with that of the exports, it is impossible to say : but there can 
 be no manner of doubt, that, generally speaking, it would be very considerable. The 
 value of an exported commodity is estimated at the moment of its being sent abroad, and 
 before its value is increased by the expense incurred in transporting it to the place of its 
 destination ; whereas the value of the commodity imported in its stead is estimated after 
 it has arrived at its destination, and, consequently, after its value has been enhanced by 
 the cost of freight, insurance, importer's profits, &c. 
 
 In the United States, the value of the imports, as ascertained by the Custom-house 
 returns, always exceeds the value of the exports. And although our practical politicians 
 have been in the habit of considering the excess of the former as a certain proof of a 
 disadvantageous commerce, " it is nevertheless true," says Mr. Pitkin, " that the real 
 gain of the United States has been nearly in proportion as their imports have exceeded their 
 exports." — (^Commerce of the United States, 2d ed. p. 280.) The great excess of 
 American imports has in part been occasioned by the Americans generally exporting 
 their own surplus produce, and, consequently, receiving from foreigners not only an 
 equivalent for their exports, but also for the cost of conveying them to the foreign 
 market. " In 1811," says the author just quoted, " flour sold in America for nitie 
 dollars and a half per barrel, and in Spain for fifteen dollars. The value of the cargo of 
 a vessel carrying 5,000 barrels of flour would, therefore, be estimated at the period of its 
 exportation at 47,500 dollars ; but as this flour would sell, when carried to Spain, for 
 75,000 dollars, the American merchant would be entitled to draw on his agent in Spain 
 for 27,500 dollars more than the flour cost in America; or than the sum for which he 
 could have drawn, had the flour been exported in a vessel belonging to a Spanish 
 merchant. But the transaction would not end here. The 75,000 dollars would be 
 vested in some species of Spanish or other European goods fit for the American m.arket ; 
 and the freight, insurance, &c., on account of the return cargo, would probably increase 
 
68 
 
 BALANCE. 
 
 its value to 100,000 dollars ; so that, in all, the American merchant might have imported 
 goods worth 52,500 dollars more than the flour originally sent to Spain." It is as 
 impossible to deny that such a transaction as this is advantageous, as it is to deny that its 
 advantage consists entirely in the excess of the value of the goods imported over the value 
 of those exported. And it is equally clear that America might have had the real balance 
 of payments in her favour, though such transactions as the above had been multiplied to 
 any conceivable extent. 
 
 II. In the second place, when a balance is due by one country to another, it is but 
 seldom that it is paid by remitting bullion from the debtor to the creditor country. If 
 the sum due by the British merchants to those of Holland be greater than the sum due 
 by the latter to them, the balance of payments will be against Britain ; but this balance 
 will not, and indeed cannot, be discharged by an exportation of bullion, unless bullion be, 
 at the time, the cheapest exportable commodity ; or, which is the same thing, unless it may 
 be more advantageously exported than any thing else. To illustrate this principle, let us 
 suppose that the balance of debt, or the excess of the value of the bills drawn by the 
 merchants of Amsterdam on London over those drawn by the merchants of London on 
 Amsterdam, amounts to 100,000/. : it is the business of the London merchants to find 
 out the means of discharging this debt with the least expense ; and it is plain, that if 
 they find that any less sura, as 96,000/., 97,000/., or 99,900/., will purchase and send to 
 Holland as much cloth, cotton, hardware, colonial produce, or any other commodity, as 
 would sell in Amsterdam for 100,000/., no gold or silver would be exported. The laws 
 which regulate the trade in bullion are not in any degree different from those which 
 regulate the trade in other commodities. It is exported only when its exportation is 
 advantageous, or when it is more valuable abroad than at home. It would, in fact, be 
 quite as reasonable to expect that water should flow from a low to a high level, as it is to 
 expect that bullion should leave a country where its value is great, to go to one where it 
 is low ! It is never sent abroad to destroy but always to find its level. The balance of 
 payments might be ten or a hundred millions against a particular country, without 
 causing the exportation of a single ounce of bullion. Common sense tells us that no 
 merchant will remit 100/. worth of bullion to discharge a debt in a foreign country, 
 if it be possible to invest any smaller sum in any species of merchandise which would sell 
 abroad for 100/. exclusive of expenses. The merchant who deals in the precious metals 
 is as much under the influence of self-interest, as he who deals in coffee or indigo ; but 
 what merchant would attempt to extinguish a debt, by exporting coffee which cost 100/., 
 if he could effect his object by sending abroad indigo which cost only 99/. ? 
 
 The argument about the balance of payment is one of those that contradict and con- 
 fute themselves. Had the apparent excess of exports over imports, as indicated by the 
 British Custom-house books for the last hundred years, been always paid in bullion, as 
 the supporters of the old theory contend is the case, there ought at this moment to be 
 about 450,000,000 or 500,000,000 of bullion in the country, instead of 50,000,000 or 
 60,000,000, which it is supposed to amount to ! Nor is this all. If the theory of the 
 balance be good for any thing — if it be not a mere idle delusion — it follows, as every 
 country in the world, with the single exception of the United States, has its favourable 
 balance, that they must be paid by an annual importation of bullion from the mines 
 corresponding to their aggregate amount. But it is certain, that the entire produce of 
 the mines, though it were increased in a tenfold proportion, would be insufficient for this 
 purpose ! This reductio ad absurdum is decisive of the degree of credit that ought to 
 be attached to the conclusions respecting the flourishing state of the commerce of any 
 country drawn from the excess of the exports over the imports ! 
 
 Not only, therefore, is the common theory with respect to the balance of trade erro- 
 neous, but the very reverse of that theory is true. In the first place, the value of the 
 commodities imported by every country which carries on an advantageous commerce 
 (and no other will be prosecuted for any considerable period), invariably exceeds the value 
 of those which she exports. Unless such were the case, there would plainly be no fund 
 whence the merchants and others engaged in foreign trade could derive either a profit 
 on their capital, or a return for their outlay and trouble ; and in the second place, whether 
 the balance of debt be for or against a country, that balance will neither be paid nor 
 received in bullion, unless it be at the time the commodity by the exportation or im- 
 portation of which the account may be most profitably settled. Whatever the partisans 
 of the doctrine as to the balance may say about money being a preferable product, a 
 marchandise par excellence, it is certain it will never appear in the list of exports and 
 imports, while there is any thing else with which to carry on trade, or cancel debts, that 
 will yield a larger profit, or occasion a less expense to the debtors. 
 
 It is difficult to estimate the mischief which the absurd notions relative to the balance 
 of trade have occasioned in almost every commercial country ; — here they have been 
 particularly injurious. It is j)rinclpal]y to the prevalence of prejudices to which they 
 have given rise, that the restrictions on the trade between this country and France are to 
 
BALE. ~ BALLAST. 
 
 59 
 
 be ascribed. The great, or rather the only, argument insisted upon by those who pre- 
 vailed on the legislature, in the reign of William and Mary, to declare the trade with 
 France a nuisance, was founded on the statement that the value of the imports from that 
 kingdom considerably exceeded the value of the commodities we exported to it. The 
 balance was regarded as a tribute paid by England to France ; and it was sagaciously 
 asked, what had we done, that we should be obliged to pay so much money to our na- 
 tural enemy ? It never occurred to those who so loudly abused the French trade, that 
 no merchant would import any commodity from France, unless it brought a higher 
 price in this country than the commodity exported to pay it ; and that the profit of the 
 merchant, or the national gain, would be in exact proportion to this excess of price. 
 The very reason assigned by these persons for prohibiting the trade affords the best 
 attainable proof of its having been a lucrative one ; nor can there be any doubt that an 
 unrestricted freedom of intercourse between the two countries would still be of the 
 greatest service to both. 
 
 BALE, a pack, or certain quantity of goods or merchandise ; as a hale of silk, 
 cloth, &c. 
 
 Bales are always marked and numbered, that the merchants to whom they belong 
 may know them ; and the marks and numbers correspond to those in the bills of lading, 
 &c. Selling under the bale, or under the cords, is a term used in France and other 
 countries for selling goods wholesale, without sample or pattern, and unopened. 
 
 BALKS, large pieces of timber. 
 
 BALLAST (Du. Ballast; Fr. Lest; Ger. Ballast; It. Savorra; Sp. Lastre ; Sw. 
 Ballast), a quantity of iron, stones, sand, gravel, or any other heavy material, laid in a 
 ship's hold, in order to sink her deeper in the water, and to render her capable of carry- 
 ing sail without being overset. All ships clearing outwards, having no goods on board 
 other than the personal baggage of the passengers, are said to be in ballast. 
 
 The quantity of ballast required to fit ships of equal burden for a voyage, is often materially different ; 
 the proportion being always less or more, according to the sharpness or flatness of the ship's bottom, 
 called, by seamen, the floor. 
 
 The proper ballasting of a ship deserves peculiar attention, for, although it be known that ships in 
 general will not carry sufficient sail, till they are laden so that the surface of the water nearly glances on 
 the extreme breadth midships, more than this general knowledge is required. If the ship have a great 
 weight of heavy ballast, as lead, iron, &c., in the bottom, the centre of gravity will be too low in the hold j 
 this no doubt will enable her to carry a press of sail, but it will, at the same time, make her sail heavily, 
 and roll so violently, as to run the risk of being dismasted. 
 
 The object in ballasting a ship is. therefore, so to dispose of the ballast or cargo, that she may be duly 
 poised, and maintain a proper equilibrium on the water, so as neither to be too stiff, nor too crank, qua- 
 lities equally pernicious. If too stiff, she may carry much sail, but her velocity will not be proportionally 
 increased ; whilst her masts are endangered by sudden jerks and excessive labouring. If too crank, she 
 •will be unfit to carry sail without the risk of oversetting. 
 
 Stiffness in ballasting is occasioned by disposing a too great quantity of heavy ballast, as lead, iron, &c., 
 in the bottom, which throws the centre of gravity very near the keel ; and this being the centre about 
 which the vibrations are made, the lower it is placed, the more violent is the rolling. 
 
 Crankness, on the other hand, is occasioned by having too little ballast, or by disposing the ship's 
 lading so as to raise the centre of gravity too high : this also endangers the masts when it blows hard ; 
 for when the masts cease to be perpendicular, they strain on the shrouds in the nature of a lever, which 
 increases as the sine of their obliquity ; and it is superfluous to add, that a ship that loses her masts is 
 in great danger of being lost. 
 
 Hence the art of ballasting consists in placing the centre of gravity to correspond with the trim and 
 shape of the vessel, so as to be neither too high nor too low ; neither too far forward, nor too far aft; 
 and to lade the ship so deep, that the surface of the water may nearly rise to the extreme breadth mid- 
 ships : she will then carry a good quantity of sail, incline but little, and ply well to windward. — (See 
 Falconer's Marine Dictionary.) 
 
 The mischievous consequences of not attending to the circumstances now mentioned are often experi- 
 enced by ships loading barilla, brimstone, and such heavy articles, on the coasts of Sicily and Spain. The 
 habit there is to cut large quantities of brushwood and faggots, and to spread them in the hold, to hinder 
 the cargo from sinking the centre of gravity too low, and causing the ship to labour violently ; but it very 
 frequently happens that the pressure of the cargo on this sort of dunnage is so great as to squeeze it into 
 a much smaller space than could at first have been supposed ; so that ships after getting to sea are some- 
 times obliged to return to port, to unload a part of their cargo, to prevent their foundering. In such cases 
 firm dunnage, such as oak staves, should, if possible, be always employed. — (See Jackson's Cofnmerce of 
 Mediterranean, pp. 125—128.) 
 
 Ships that have cargoes of light goods on board require a quantity of ballast ; increasing, of course, 
 according to the greater lightness of the goods. The following table shows the average quantity of ballast 
 allowed to ships of war : — 
 
 Ballast allowed to the following Ships. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Iron, Tons. 
 
 Shingles, Tons. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Iron, Tons. 
 
 Shingles, Tons. 
 
 110 
 100 
 98 
 90 
 80 
 74 
 64 
 50 
 44 
 38 
 
 2,290 
 2,090 
 2,110 
 1,870 
 1,620 
 1,700 
 1,370 
 1,100 
 900 
 930 
 
 180 
 180 
 160 
 160 
 140 
 80 
 70 
 65 
 65 
 70 
 
 370 
 370 
 350 
 350 
 300 
 270 
 260 
 170 
 160 
 170 
 
 36 
 32 
 28 
 24 
 22 
 20 
 
 Sloop - - 
 Brig - . 
 Cutter - 
 Sloop - - 
 
 870 
 700 
 600 
 500 
 450 
 
 300 
 160 
 
 65 
 65 
 60 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 30 
 20 
 15 
 
 160 
 140 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 J seldom any. 
 
 The iron ballast is first stored fore and aft, from bulk-head to bulk-head j then the shingle ballast is 
 spread and levelled over the iron. 
 
60 
 
 BALSAM. 
 
 The soil of the river Thames from London Bridge to the sea is vested in the Trinity House corpora, 
 tion, and a sum of 10/. is to be paid for every ton of ballast taken from the channel of the river without 
 due authority from the said corporation. Ships may receive on board land ballast from the quarries, pits, 
 &c. east of Woolwich, provided the quantity taken in a year do not exceed the number of tons notified (o 
 the Trinity corporation. Land ballast must be enteredj and Id. paid per ton on entering. No ballast is 
 to be put on board before entry at the ballast office, under a [)enalty of 51. a ton. The Trinity corporation 
 is authorised by the 3 Geo. 4. c. 111. to charge the following rates for all ballast demanded and entered at 
 the ballast office, viz. : — 
 
 For every ton (,20 cwt.) of ballast, not being washed ballast, c^Vried to any ship or vessel employed in 
 the coal trade, the sum of l5. 
 
 For every such ton carried to any other British ship or vessel, the sum of 1^. 3d. 
 For every such ton carried to any foreign ship or vessel, the sum of l.f. Id. 
 
 For every ton of washed ballast carried to any ship or vessel employed in the coal trade, the sum of 2s. 
 
 For every ton of washed ditto carried to any other British ship or vessel, the sum of 2s. 6d. 
 
 For every ton of washed ditto carried to any foreign ship or vessel, the sum of 3s. 2d. 
 
 And for every ton of ballast delivered in or unladen from the Inward West India Dock, the further 
 sum of lOd. ; and for every ton of ballast delivered in or unladen fron> the Outward West India Dock, 
 the further sum of 4rf. ; and for every ton of ballast delivered in or unladen from the London Docks, tlia 
 further sum of id. ; and for every ton of ballast delivered in or unladen from the Inward East India Doc):, 
 the further sum of lOd. ; and for every ton of ballast delivered in or unladen from the Outward East 
 India Dock, the further sum of 4d. ; and for every ton of ballast delivered in or unladen from the Com-. 
 mercial Dock, the further sum of id. ; and for every ton of ballast delivered in or unladen from the East 
 Country Dock, the further sum of id. ; and for every ton of ballast delivered in or unladen from the 
 City Canal, the further sum of id. ; and for every ton of ballast delivered in or unladen from the Surrey 
 Canal, the I'urther sum of id. ; and for every ton of ballast delivered in or unladen from the Regent's 
 Canal, the further sum of id. 
 
 Which further rates or prices shall be payable and paid over and above the respective rates first 
 mentioned. 
 
 In 1832, the gross receipt of the sums paid on account of ballast to tlie ballast office, on the Thames, 
 amounted to 25,220/. 19s. id. The expenses amounted, during the same year, to about 23,000/. 
 
 The ballast of all ships or vessels coming into the Thames is to be unladen into a lighter, at the charge 
 of Of/, a ton. If any ballast be thrown or unladen from any ship or vessel into the Thames, the captain, 
 master, &c. shall for every such offence forfeit 20/. No ballast is to be received on board otherwise than 
 from a. lighter. By the stat. 54 Geo. 3. c. 149. it is enacted, that no person shall, under a penalty of 10/. 
 over and above all expenses, discharge any ballast, rubbish, &c. in any of the ports, harbours, roadsteads, 
 navigable rivers, &c. of the United Kingdom ; nor take ballast from any place prohibited by the Lords of 
 the Admiralty. 
 
 The masters of all ships clearing out in ballast, are required to answer any questions that may be put 
 
 to them by the collectors or comptrollers, touching the departure and destination of such ships. 
 
 (3 Si i Will. 4. c.52. §80.) 
 
 If a foreign ship clear out in ballast, the master may take with him British manufactured goods of the 
 value of 20/., the mate of the value of 10/., and 51. worth for each of the crew. — § 87. 
 
 BALSAM (Ger. Balsam; Du. Balsem ; Fr. Baume ; It. and Sp. Bahama ; Lat. 
 Balsamum). Balsams are vegetable juices, either liquid, or which spontaneously become 
 concrete, consisting of a substance of a resinous nature, combined with benzoic acid, or 
 which are capable of affording benzoic acid by being heated alone, or with water. The 
 liquid balsams are copaiva, opobalsam, balsam of Peru, storax, and Tolu ; the concrete are 
 benzoin, dragon's blood, and red or concrete storax. — (Dr. Ure.) 
 
 1. Copaiva (Fr. Baume de Copahu ; Ger. Kopaiva Balsam; Sp. Copayva"), obtained 
 from a tree ( Copaifera) growing in South America and the West India islands. The 
 largest quantity is furnished by the province of Para in Brazil. It is imported in small 
 casks, containing from 1 to 1^ cwt. Genuine good copaiva or copaiba balsam has a 
 peculiar but agreeable odour, and a bitterish, hot, nauseous taste. It is clear and trans- 
 parent ; its consistence is that of oil ; but when exposed to the action of the air it becomes 
 solid, dry, and brittle, like resin. — ( Thomson's Dispensatory.) 
 
 2. Opobalsam ( Fr. Balsamier de la Mecquc ; It. Opohulsamo ; Pat. Balsamum verum 
 album, JEgyptiacum ; Egypt. Balessan), the most precious of all the balsams, com- 
 monly called Balm of Gilead. It is the produce of a tree (Amyris Gileadensis), indige- 
 nous to Arabia and Abyssinia, and transplanted at an early period to Judea. It is 
 obtained by cutting the bark with an axe at the time that the juice is in the strongest 
 circulation. The true balsam is of a pale yellowish colour, clear and transparent, about 
 the consistence of Venice turpentine, of a strong, penetrating, agreeable, aromatic smell, 
 and a .sliglitly bitterish pungent taste. By age it becomes yellower, browner, and 
 thicker, losing by degrees, like volatile oils, some of its finer and more subtile parts. It 
 is rarely if ever brought genuine into this country ; dried Canada balsam being generally 
 substituted for it. It was in high repute among the ancients ; but it is now principally 
 used as a cosmetic by the Turkish ladies. — (Drs. Ure and IVwmson.) 
 
 The Canada balsam, now referred to, is merely twpentine. It is the produce of 
 the Pinus Balsamea, and is imported in casks, each containing about 1 cwt. It has a 
 strong, but not a disagreeable odour, and a bitterish taste ; is transparent, whitish, and 
 has the consistence of copaiva balsam. — (See Tuhpentine.) 
 
 " Szafra and Bcder are the only places in the Hedjaz where the balsam of Mccha, or Balessan, can be 
 I)rocui ed in a j>ure state. The tree from which it is collected grows in the TiciKhbouring mountains, but 
 principally upon Djebel Sobh, ami is called, by the Arabs, Beshem. [ was infornK'd that it is from 10 to 
 15 feet high, with a smooth trunk, and thin bark. In the middle of summer small incisions are made in 
 the bark ; and the juice, which immediately issues, is taken off with the thumb nail, and put into a 
 vessel : the gum api)ears to be of two kinds, one of a white, and the other of a yellowish white colour ; 
 the first is the moat esteemed. I saw here some of the latter sort in a small sheep-skin, which the Be- 
 douins use in bringing it to marliel : it had a strong turpentine smell, and its taste was bitter. The people 
 of Szafra usually adulterate it with sesamum oil and tar. When they try its purity, they dip their finger 
 Mito it and then set it on fire ; if it burn without liurting or leaving a mark on the finger, they judge it 
 
BALSAM. 
 
 61 
 
 to be of good quality, but if it burn the fingor as soon as it is set on fire, they consider it to be adul- 
 terateii. 1 renieinbcr to have read, in Bruce's Travels, an account of the mode of trying it, by letting a 
 drop fall into a cup filled with water; the good balsam falling coagulated to the bottom, and the bad 
 dissolving and swimming on the surface. I tried this experiment, which was unknown to the people 
 here, and found the drop swim upon the water ; 1 tried also their test by fire upon the finger of a 
 Bedouin, who had to regret his temerity : I, therefore, regarded the balsam sold here as adulterated ; it 
 was of less density than honey. I wished to purchase some ; but neither my own baggage, nor any of 
 the shops of Szafra coidd furnish any thing like a bottle to hold it : the whole skin wa.-> too dear. 'l"he 
 Bedouins, who bring it here, usually demand two or three dollars per pound for it when <iuife i)ure ; and 
 the Szafra Arabs resell it to the hadjeys of the great caravan at between 8 and 12 dollars per pound in 
 an adulterated state. It is bought up principally by Persians." — {fiurckhardVs Travels in Arabia^ 
 vol. ii. p. 123.) 
 
 3. Balsam of Peru ( Fr. Baume de Peru ; Ger. Peruvianischer Balsam ; Sp. Balsamo 
 de Quinquina; Lat. Balsamum Peruvianum), the produce of a tree {Myroxylun Perui- 
 ferum) growing in the warmest parts of South America. The balsam procured by 
 incisions made in the tree is called white liquid balsam ; that which is found in the .shops 
 is obtained by boiling the twigs in water : it is imported in jars, each containing from 
 20 to 40 lbs. weight. It has a fragrant aromatic odour, much resembling that of ben- 
 zoin, with a warm bitterish taste. It is viscid, of a deep reddish brown colour, and of 
 the consistence of honey. — ( Thomson's Dispensatory. ) 
 
 4. Storax {¥y. Storax ; Ger. Stryaxhroom ; It. Storace ; Sp. Azumbar ; Lat. Styrux ; 
 Arab. Usteruk), the produce of a tree (Styrax officinale) growing in the south of Europe 
 and the Levant. Only two kinds are found in the shops ; storax in tears, which is pure ; 
 and storax in the lump, or red storax, which is mixed with sawdust and other impurities. 
 Both kinds are brought from the Levant in chests and boxes. Storax has a fragrant 
 odour, and a pleasant, sub-acidulous, slightly pungent, and aromatic taste ; it is of a 
 reddish brown colour, and brittle. ( Thomson's Dispensatory. ) 
 
 5. Tolu, Balsam of ( Fr. Baume de Tolu ; Ger. Tolutanischer Balsam ; Sp. Balsamo de 
 Tolu). The tree which yields this balsam is the same as that which yields the balsam 
 of Peru ; it being merely the white balsam of Peru, hardened by exposure to the air. 
 
 6. Benzoin, or Benjamin (Fr. Benzoin; Ger. Benzoe ; Sp. Bengui ; It. Belzuino ; 
 Lat. Benzoinum ; Arab. Liban ; Hind. Luban ; Jav. Menian ; Malay, Caminyan), is 
 an article of much greater commercial importance than any of those balsams previously 
 mentioned. It is obtained from a tree {Styrax Benzoin) cultivated in Sumatra and 
 Borneo, but particularly the former. The plants produce in the seventh year. The 
 balsam is obtained by making incisions in the bark, when it exudes, and is scraped off. 
 During the first three years, the balsam is of a clear white colour, after which it becomes 
 brown. Having borne 10 or 12 years, the tree is cut down, a very inferior article being 
 obtained by scraping the wood. The balsams procured in these different stages are dis- 
 tinguished in commerce, and differ widely in value. Benzoin has a very agreeable, fra- 
 grant odour, but hardly any taste. It is imported in large masses, packed in chests and casks. 
 It should be chosen full of clear, light-coloured, and white spots, having the appearance of 
 white marble when broken : it is rarely, however, to be met with in so pure a state, but 
 the nearer the approach to it the better. The worst sort is blackish, and full of impuri- 
 ties. — {Milburn's Orient. Com., a.nd private information.) 
 
 Mr. Crawfurd has given the following interesting and authentic details with respect 
 to this article : — - " Benzoin, or frankincense, called in commercial language Benjamin, 
 is a more general article of commerce than camphor, though its production be confined 
 to the same islands. Benzoin is divided in commerce, like camphor, into three sorts, 
 (head, belly, foot), according to quality, the comparative value of which may be ex- 
 pressed by the figures 105, 45, 18. Benzoin is valued in proportion to its whiteness, 
 semi-transparency, and freedom from adventitious matters. According to its purity, 
 the first sort may be bought at the emporia to which it is brought, at from 50 to 100 
 dollars per picul (133|lbs.); the second from 25 to 45 dollars; and the worst from 
 8 to 20 dollars. According to Linschoten, benzoin, in his time, cost, in the market of 
 Sunda Calapa or Jacatra, from 19^^ to 25^^^ Spanish dollars the picui. By Niebuhr's 
 account, the worst benzoin of the Indian islands is more esteemed by the Arabs than 
 their own best olibanum, or frankincense. In the London market, the best benzoin is 
 fourteen times more valuable than olibanum, and even the worst 2\ times more valuable. 
 Benzoin usually sells in England at 10s. per pound. The quantity generally imported 
 into England, in the time of the monopoly, was 312 cwts. The principal use of this 
 commodity is as incense, and it is equally in request in the religious ceremonies of Ca- 
 tholics, Mohammedans, Hindus, and Chinese. It is also used as a luxury by the great 
 in fumigations in their houses ; and the Japanese chiefs are fond of smoking it with 
 tobacco. Its general use among nations in such various states of civilisation, and the 
 steady demand for it in all ages, declare that it is one of those commodities, the taste for 
 which is inherent in our nature, and not the result of a particular caprice with any in- 
 dividual people, as in the case of Malay camphor with the Chinese." — {hidian Archi- 
 pelago, vol. iii. p. 418.) The imports of benzoin, at an average of the three years ending 
 with 1830, were 36,397 lbs. a year. 
 
62 
 
 BALTIMORE. — BAMBOO. 
 
 An inferior description of benzoin, the produce of a different tree from the Styrax 
 benzoin, is produced in Siaxn. It is comparatively cheap and abundant. 
 
 7. Dragon's Blood ( Fr. Sang-Dragon ; Lat. Sanguis Draconis ; Arab. Damuldkhwain ; 
 Hind. Heraduky), the produce of a large species of rattan ( Calamus Draco') growing on 
 the north and north-east coast of Sumatra, and in some parts of Borneo. It is largely- 
 exported to China, and also to India and Europe. It is either in oval drops, w^rapped 
 up in flag-leaves, or in large and generally more impure masses, composed of smaller 
 tears. It is externally and internally of a deep dusky red colour, and when powdered it 
 should become of a bright crimson ; if it be black, it is worth little. When broken and 
 held up against a strong light, it is somewhat transparent : it has little or no smell or 
 taste ; what it has of the latter is resinous and astringent. Dragon's blood in drops is 
 much preferable to that in cakes ; the latter being more friable, and less compact, resin- 
 ous, and pure than the former. Being a very costly article, it is very apt to be adul- 
 terated. Most of its alloys dissolve like gums in water, or crackle in the fire without 
 proving inflammable ; whereas the genuine dragon's blood readily melts and catches 
 flame, and is scarcely acted on by watery liquors. It sells in the market of Singapore at 
 from 15 to 35 dollars per picul, according to quality: but the Chinese have the art of 
 purifying and refining it, when it sells at from 80 to 100 dollars per picul. The price 
 of the best dragon's blood in the London market, varies from 2\l. to 251. per cwt. — 
 (^Milburn's Orient. Com. ; Crawfurd's East. Archip. ; and private information.) 
 
 The nett duty on balsams imported into Great Britain in 1832 amounted to 
 2,440/. 8s. 10c?. 
 
 BALTIMORE, a large and opulent city of the United States, in Maryland, situated 
 on the north side of the Patapsco river, about 14 miles above its entrance into Chesa- 
 peake bay, in lat. SO' 17' N. long. 76° 30' W. Population in 1830, 81,000. The 
 harbour is spacious, convenient, and the water deep. The exports principally consist of 
 tobacco, wheat and wheat-flour, hemp and flax, flax-seed, Indian corn, and other agricultural 
 products, timber, iron, &c. The imports principally consist of cottons and woollens, sugar, 
 coffee, tea, wine, brandy, silk goods, spices, rum, &c. There were, in 1830, ten banks in 
 this city, with an aggregate capital of 6,888,691 dollars ; the total dividends for the same 
 year amounted to 362,118 dollars, being at the rate of 5\ per cent. There were also 
 four marine insurance companies, with a capital of 1,200,000 dollars, producing a dividend 
 of nearly 15 per cent, on the capital paid up ; and two fire insurance companies, one of 
 which is on the principle of mutual guarantee. — ( Statement hy J. H. Goddard, New 
 York Daily Advertiser, 29th of January, 1831.) The registered, enrolled, and licensed 
 tonnage belonging to Baltimore, in December, 1831, amounted to 43,263 tons, of which 
 17,575 tons were employed in the coasting trade. The total value of the articles im- 
 ported into Maryland, in the year ending the 30th of September, 1832, was 4,629,303 
 dollars; the total value of the exports during the same year being 4,499,918 do. 
 {Papers laid before Congress, 15th of February, 1833.) In Maryland the dollar is worth 
 7s. 6d. currency, IZ. sterling being=lZ. 13s. 4c?. currency. For an account of the cur- 
 rency of the different states of the Union, with a table of the value of the dollar in 
 each, see New York ; and to it also the reader is referred for an account of the foreign 
 trade of the United States. Weights and measures same as those of England. 
 
 Exports of Flour. — Baltimore is one of the principal ports of the United States for the export of flour. 
 None is allowed to be shipped from any poff of the Union tilf it has been inspected by public officers 
 appointed for the purpose, and its quality branded on the barrel. — (See New York.) It appears from 
 the reports of these officers that the flour inspected at Baltimore during the five years ending with 1830, 
 was as follows : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Wheat Flower. 
 
 Rye Flour. 
 
 Indian Corn Meal. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Half barrels. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Half barrels. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Half barrels. 
 
 
 583,671 
 561, '259 
 537,010 
 466,144 
 587,875 
 
 25,555 
 22,921 
 18,882 
 15,149 
 19,865 
 
 1,098 
 1,874 
 4,409 
 
 4,436 
 
 4 
 
 63 
 
 30 
 
 '415 
 
 1,609 
 559 
 
 2,699 
 5,214 
 8,798 
 6,483 
 5,458 
 
 20 
 2 
 
 11 
 1 
 
 In 1832 there were inspected 518,674 barrels, and 17,544 half barrels of wheat flour. The inspections of 
 tobacco during the same year amounted to 24,156 hhds. 
 
 BAMBOO, (Fr. Bamhou, Bamhochcs ; Ger. Indianischer Rohr j It. Bamhu ; Hind. 
 Bans ; Malay, Buluh ; Jav. Preng), a species of cane, the Bamhos arundinacea of 
 botanists. It grows every where within the tropics, and is of the greatest utility : 
 strictly speaking, it is a gigantic grass with a ligneous stem. It often rises to the height 
 of 40 or 50 feet, and sometimes to even double those heights. Like most plants long 
 and extensively cultivated, it diverges into many varieties. Some of these are dwarfish, 
 while others, instead of being hollow canes, are solid. The bamboo is of rapid growth, 
 and in four or five years is fit for many uses, but does not bear fruit or grain till it be 
 25 years old, after which it perishes. The grain makes tolerable bread. The young, 
 
BANDANAS. — BANK. 
 
 63 
 
 but gigantic shoots, as they spring from the earth, make a tender and good esculent 
 vegetable. The mature bamboo is employed in an immense variety of ways, in the 
 construction of houses, bridges, boats, agricultural implements, &c. Some varieties grow 
 to such a size as to be, in the largest part, near two feet in circumference, and single 
 knees of tliese are used as pails or buckets. The Chinese are believed to fabricate their 
 cheap and useful paper of macerated bamboo. The canes used in Europe as walking 
 sticks are not bamboos, but rattans — a totally distinct class of plants. Bamboos are 
 never used for that purpose. — {Private information.) 
 
 BANDANAS, silk handkerchiefs, generally red spotted with white. They were 
 formerly manufactured only in the East Indies ; but they are now manufactured of a 
 very good quality at Glasgow and other places. 
 
 BANK. — BANKING. Banks are establishments intended to serve for the safe 
 custody of money ; to facilitate its payment by one individual to another j and, sometimes, 
 for the accommodation of the public with loans. 
 
 I. Banking { General Principles op). 
 
 II. Bank of England (Account of). 
 
 III. Banks (English Private and Provincial). 
 
 IV. Banks (Scotch). 
 V. Banks (Irish). 
 
 VI. Banks (Foreign). 
 VII. Banks (Savings). 
 
 I. Banking (General Principles of). 
 
 Banks are commonly divided into two great classes ; banks of deposit, and banks of 
 ch-culation. This division is not, however, a very distinct one ; for there is no bank 
 of deposit that is not, at the same time, a bank of circulation, and few or no banks of 
 circulation that are not also banks of deposit. But the term banks of deposit is meant 
 to designate those which keep the money of individuals and circulate it only j while the 
 term banks of circulation is applied to those which do not thus confine their circulation, 
 but issue notes of their own payable on demand. The Bank of England is the principal 
 bank of circulation in the empire ; but it, as well as the private banks in England and 
 Scotland that issue notes, is also a bank of deposit. The 'private banking establishments 
 in London do not issue notes, and there are many similar establishments in Lancashire, 
 and other parts of the country. 
 
 ( 1 . ) Utility of Banks. Private hanhing Companies of London. — The establishment of 
 banks has contributed, in no ordinary degree, to give security and facility to all sorts of 
 commercial transactions. They afford safe and convenient places of deposit for the 
 money that would otherwise have to be kept, at a considerable risk, in private houses. 
 They also prevent, in a great measure, the necessity of carrying money from place to 
 place to make payments, and enable them to be made in the most convenient and 
 least expensive manner. A merchant or tradesman in London, for example, who em- 
 ploys a banker, keeps but very little money in his own hands, making all his coiv- 
 siderable payments by drafts or checks on his banker ; and he also sends the various 
 checks, bills, or drafts payable to himself in London, to his bankers before they become 
 due. By this means he saves the trouble and inconvenience of counting sums of money, 
 and avoids the losses he would otherwise be liable to, and would no doubt occasion- 
 ally incur, from receiving coins or notes not genuine. Perhaps, however, the great 
 advantage derived by the merchant or tradesman from the employment of a banker, 
 consists in its relieving him from all trouble with respect to the presentation for 
 payment of due bills and drafts. The moment these are transferred to the banker, 
 they are at his risk. And if he either neglect to present them when due, or to have 
 them properly noted in the event of their not being paid, he has to answer for the 
 consequences. 
 
 " This circumstance alone must cause an immense saving of expense to a mercantile 
 house in the course of a year. Let us suppose that a merchant has only two bills due 
 each day. These bills may be payable in distant parts of the town, so that it may take 
 a clerk half a day to present them ; and in large mercantile establishments it would take 
 up the whole time of one or two clerks to present the due bills and the drafts. The salary 
 of these clerks is, therefore, saved by keeping an account at a banker's : besides the 
 saving of expense, it is also reasonable to suppose that losses upon bills would sometimes 
 occur from mistakes, or oversights, from miscalculation as to the time the bill would 
 become due — from errors in marking it up — from forgetfulness to present it — or 
 from presenting it at the wrong place. In these cases the indorsers and drawees are 
 exonerated ; and if the acceptor do not pay the bill, the amount is lost. In a banking 
 bouse such mistakes occur sometimes, though more rarely ; but when they do occur. 
 
64. 
 
 BANKING (GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF). 
 
 the loss falls upon the banker, and not upon his customer." — (Gilbart's Practical 
 Observations on Banking.) 
 
 It is on other grounds particularly desirable for a merchant or tradesman to have 
 an account with a banking house. He can refer to his bankers as vouchers for his 
 respectability : and in the event of his wishing to acquire any information with respect 
 to the circumstances, of credit, of any one with whom he is not acquainted, his bankers 
 will render him all the assistance in their power. In this respect they have great 
 facilities, it being the common practice amongst the bankers in London, and most other 
 trading towns, to communicate information to each other as to the credit and solvency 
 of their customers. ^ 
 
 To provide for the public security, the statute 7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 29. ^ 49. " for the punishment of em- 
 bezzlement committed by agents intrusted with property," enacts, " That if any money, or security for 
 the payment of money, shall be intrusted to any banker, merchant, broker, attorney, or other agent, with 
 any direction in writing to apply such money, or any part thereof, or the proceeds, or any part of the pro- 
 ceeds of such security, for any purpose specified in such direction, and he shall, in violation of good faith, 
 and contrary to the purpose so specified, in any wise convert to his own use or benefit such money, secu- 
 rity, or proceeds, or any part thereof respectively, every such offender shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, 
 and being convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the discretion of the court, to be transported beyond seas, 
 for any term not exceeding fourteen years, nor less than seven years, or to suffer such punishment by fine 
 or imprisonment, or by both, as the court shall award ; and if any chattel or valuable security, or any 
 power of attorney for the sale or transfer of any share or interest in any public stock or fund, whether of 
 this kingdom, or of Great Britain, or of Ireland, or of any foreign state, or in any fund of any body corpo- 
 rate, company or society, shall be intrusted to any banker, merchant, broker, attorney, or other agent, for 
 safe custody, or for any special purpose, without any authority to sell, negotiate, transfer, or pledge, and 
 he shall, in violation of good faith, and contrary to the object or purpose which such chattel or security, 
 or power of attorney, shall have been intrusted to him, sell, negotiate, transfer, pledge, or in any manner 
 convert to his own use or benefit such chattel or security, or the proceeds of the same, or any part thereof, 
 or the share or interest in stock or fund to which such power of attorney shall relate, or any part 
 thereof, every such offender shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and being convicted thereof, shall be liable, 
 at the discretion of the court, to any of the punishments which the court may award as hereinbefore 
 last mentioned." 
 
 This act is not to affect trustees and mortgagees, nor bankers receiving money due upon securities, nor 
 securities upon which they have a lien, claim, or demand, entitling them by law to sell, transfer, or other- 
 wise dispose of them, unless such sale, transfer, or other disposal shall extend to a greater number or 
 part of such securities or eflJects than shall be requisite for satisfying such lien, claim, &c. — \ 50. 
 
 Nothing in this act is to prevent, impeach, or lessen any remedy at law or in equity, which any party 
 aggrieved by any such offence might or would have had, had it not been passed. No banker, merchant, 
 &c. shall be convicted as an offender against this act, in respect of any act done by him, if he shall at any 
 time previously to his being indicted for such offence have disclosed such act on oath, in consequence of 
 any compulsory process of any court of law or equity, in any action bona fide instituted by any party 
 aggrieved, or if he shall have disclosed the same in any examination or deposition before any commis- 
 sioner of bankrupt. — \ 52. 
 
 The Bank of England, and the private banking companies of London, as well as 
 some of the English provincial banks, charge no commission on the payments made 
 and received on account of those who deal with them. But they allow no interest on 
 the sums deposited in their hands ; and it is either stipulated or distinctly understood 
 that a person employing a banker should, besides furnishing him with sufficient funds 
 to pay his drafts, keep an average balance in the banker's hands, varying, of course, 
 according to the amount of business done on his account ; that is, according to the num- 
 ber of his checks or drafts to be paid, and the number of drafts and bills to be received 
 for him. The bankers then calculate, as well as they can, the probable amount of 
 cash that it will be necessary for them to keep in their coffers to meet the ordinary de- 
 mands of their customers, and employ the balance in discounting mercantile bills, in the 
 purchase of government securities, or in some other sort of profitable adventure ; so that 
 their pi-ofits result, in the case of their not issuing notes, from the difference between the 
 various expenses attendant on the management of their establishments, and the profits 
 derived from such part of the sums lodged in their hands as they can venture to employ 
 in an advantageous way. 
 
 The directors of the Bank of England do not allow any individual to overdraw his 
 account. They answer drafts to the full extent of the funds deposited in their hands ; 
 but they will not pay a draft if it exceed their amount. Private bankers are not generally 
 so scrupulous ; most of them allow respectable individuals, in whom they have confidence, 
 to overdraw their accounts ; those who do so paying interest at the rate of 5 per cent, 
 on whatever sums they overdraw. The possession of this power of overdrawing is often 
 a great convenience to merchants, while it is rarely productive of loss to the banker. 
 The money which is overdrawn is usually replaced within a short period ; sometimes, 
 indeed, in the coiu-.se of a day or two. The directors of the Bank of England decline 
 granting this facility from a disinclination on their part to come into competition in a 
 matter of this sort with private bankers, who transact this kind of business better, pro- 
 bably, than it could be done by a great establishment like the Bank; 
 
 The facility which banks afford to the i)ublic in the negotiation of bills of exchange, 
 or in the making of payments at distant ])laces, is very great. Many of the banking 
 companies estabHshed in different districts have a direct intercourse with each other, and 
 they have all correspondents in London. Hence an individual residing in any part of 
 the country, who may wish to make a payment in any other part, however distant, may 
 
BANKING (GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF). 
 
 65 
 
 effect his object by applying to tlic bank nearest to him. Thus, Buppose A.*of Pen- 
 zance has a payment to make to B. of Inverness : to send the money by post would be 
 hazardous ; and if there were fractional parts of a pound in the sum, it would hardly be 
 practicable to make use of the post: how then will A. manage ? He will pay the sum 
 to a banker in Penzance, and his debtor in Inverness will receive it from a banker there. 
 The transaction is extremely simple : the Penzance banker orders his correspondent in 
 London to pay to the correspondent of the Inverness banker the sum in question on 
 account of B. ; and the Inverness banker, being advised in course of post of what has been 
 done, pays B. A small commission charged by the Penzance banker, and the postages, 
 constitute the whole expense. There is no risk whatever, and the whole affair is 
 transacted in the most commodious and cheapest manner. 
 
 By far the largest proportion both of the inland bills in circulation in the countrj, 
 and also of the foreign bills drawn upon Great Britain, are made payable in London, 
 the grand focus to which all the pecuniary transactions of the empire are ultimately 
 brought to be adjusted. And in order still further to economise the use of money, the 
 principal bankers of the metropolis are in the habit of sending a clerk each day to the 
 clearing house in Lombard-street, who carries with him the various bills in the possession 
 of his house that are drawn upon other bankers ; and having exchanged them for the 
 bills in the possession of those others that are drawn upon his constituents, the balance 
 on the one side or the other is paid in cash or Bank of England notes. By this con- 
 trivance the bankers of London are enabled to settle transactions to the extent of several 
 millions a day, by the employment of not more, at an average, than from 200,000/'. to 
 500,000/. of cash or Bank notes. — (Seo Clearing House.) 
 
 In consequence of these and other facilities afforded by the intervention of bankers 
 for the settlement of pecuniary transa'ctions, the money required to conduct the business 
 of an extensive country is reduced to a trifle only, compared with what it would other- 
 wise be. It is not, indeed, possible to form any very accurate estimate of the total 
 saving that is thus effected ; but, su])posing that 50 or 60 millions of gold and silver 
 and bank notes are at present required, notwithstanding all the devices that have been 
 resorted to for economising money, fcr the circidation of Great Britain, it may, one 
 should think, be fairly concluded, that i-OO millions would, at the very least, have been 
 required to transact an equal extent of business but for those devices. If this statement 
 be nearly accurate, and there are good grounds for thinking that it is rather under than 
 over rated, it strikingly exhibits the vast importance of banking in a public point of 
 view. By its means 50 or 60 millions are rendered capable of performing the same 
 functions, and in an infinitely jmore commodious manner, that would otherwise have 
 required four times that sum ; and supposing that 20 or SO millions are employed by 
 the bankers as a capital in their establishments, no less than 120 or 130 millions will 
 be altogether disengaged, or cease to be employed as an instrument of circulation, and 
 made available for employment in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. 
 
 (2.) Substitution of Bank Notes for Coins. Means by wJiich the Value of Bank Notes 
 may be sustained. — Not only, however, does the formation of banking establishments 
 enable the business of a country to be conducted with a far less amount of money, but 
 it also enables a large portion of that less amovmt to be fabricated of the least valuable 
 materials, or of paper instead of gold. It would, however, alike exceed the limits and 
 be inconsistent with the objects of this article, to enter into lengthened details with respect 
 to the mode in which this substitution originally took place. It is sufficient to observe, 
 that it naturally grew out of the progress of society. When governments became 
 sufficiently powerful and intelligent to enforce the observance of contracts, individuals 
 possessed of written promises from others that they would pay certain sums at specified 
 periods, began to assign them to those to whom they were indebted ; and when those by 
 whom such obligations are subscribed are persons of whose solvency no doubt can be 
 entertained, they are readily accepted in payment of the debts due by one individual to 
 another. But when the circulation of obligations or bills in this way has continued for 
 a while, individuals begin to perceive that they may derive a profit by issuing them in 
 such a form as to fit them for being readily used as a substitute for money in the 
 ordinary transactions of life. Hence the origin of bank notes. An individual in whose 
 wealth and discretion the public have confidence being applied to for a loan, say of 5,CC0/., 
 grants the applicant his bill or note payable on demand for that sum. Now, as this note 
 passes, in consequence of the confidence placed in the issuer, currently from hand to hand 
 as cash, it is quite as useful to the borrower as if he had obtained an equivalent amount 
 of gold ; and supposing that the rate of interest is 5 per cent., it will yield, so long as it 
 continues to circulate, a revenue of 250Z. a year to the issuer. A banker who issues 
 notes, coins as it were his credit. He derives the same revenue from the loan of his 
 written promise to pay a certain sum, that he would derive from the loan of the sum 
 itself ; and while he thus increases his own income, he at the same time contributes to 
 increase the wealth of the society Besides being incomparably cheaper, bank notes ar» 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 BANKING (GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF). 
 
 also incomparably more commodious than a metallic currency. A bank note for 1,0007. 
 or 100,000/. may be carried about with as much facility as a single sovereign. It is of 
 importance, too, to observe, that its loss or destruction, vrhether by fire, shipwreck, or 
 otherwise, would be of no greater importance in a public point of view, than the loss or 
 destruction of as much paper. No doubt it might be a serious calamity to the holder ; 
 but to whatever extent it injured him, it would proportionally benefit the issuer, whereas 
 the loss of coin is an injury to the holder without being of service to any one else j it is, 
 in fact, so much abstracted from the -w^ealth of the community. 
 
 Promissory notes issued by private individuals or associations circulate only because 
 those who accept them have full confidence in the credit and solvency of the issuers, 
 or because they feel assured that they will be paid when they become due. If any 
 circumstances transpired to excite suspicions as to their credit, it would be impossible 
 for them to circulate any additional notes, and those that they had issued would be 
 immediately returned for payment. Such, however, is not the case with paper money 
 properly so called, or with notes that are declared legal tender. It is not necessary, in 
 order to sustain the value of such notes, that they should be payable at all ; the only 
 thing that is required for that purpose is, that they should be issued in limited quantities. 
 Every country has a certain number of exchanges to make j and whether these are 
 effected by the employment of a given number of coins of a particular denomination, or 
 by the employment of the same number of notes of the same denomination, is, in this 
 respect, of no importance whatever. Notes which have been made legal tender, and 
 are not payable on demand, do not circulate because of any confidence placed in the 
 capacity of the issuers to retire them ; neither do they circulate because they are of the 
 same real value as the commodities for which they are exchanged ; but they circulate 
 because, having been selected to perform the functions of money, they are, as such, 
 readily received by all individuals in payment of their debts. Notes of this description 
 may be regarded as a sort of tickets or counters to be used in computing the value of 
 property, and in transferring it from one individxxal to another. And as they are no 
 wise affected by fluctuations of credit, their value, it is obvious, must depend entirely on 
 the quantity of them in circulation as compared with the payments to be made through 
 their instrumentality, or the business they have to perform. By reducing the supply of 
 notes below the supply of coins that would circulate in their place werfe they withdrawn, 
 their value is raised above the value of gold ; while, by increasing them to a greater 
 extent, it is proportionally lowered. 
 
 Hence, supposing it were possible to obtain any security other than immediate con- 
 vertibility into the precious metals, that notes declared to be legal tender would not 
 be issued in excess, but that their number afloat would be so adjusted as to preserve their 
 value as compared with gold nearly uniform, the obligation to pay them on demand might 
 be done away. But it is needless to say that no such security can be obtained. Wherever 
 the power to issue paper, not immediately convertible, has been conceded to any set of 
 persons, it has been abused, or, which is the same thing, such paper has uniformly been 
 over-issued, or its value depreciated from excess. It is now admitted on all hands to 
 be indispensable, in order to prevent injurious fluctuations in the value of money, that 
 all notes be made payable, at the pleasure of the holder, in an unvarying quantity of 
 gold or silver. This renders it impossible for the issuers of paper to depreciate its 
 value below that of the precious nietals. They may, indeed, by over-issuing paper, 
 depress the value of the whole currency, gold as well as paper, in the country in which 
 the over-issue is made ; but the moment that they do this, gold begins to be sent abroad ; 
 and paper being returned upon the issuers for payment, they are, in order to prevent 
 the exhaustion of their coffers, compelled to lessen their issues ; and thus, by raising 
 the value of the currency, stop the drain for bullion. 
 
 It does, however, appear to us, that it is not only necessary, in order to prevent the 
 over-issue of paper, to enact that all notes should be payable on demand, but that it is 
 further necessary, in order to insure compliance with this enactment, to prohibit any one 
 from issuing notes vmtil he has satisfied the government of his ability to pay them. 
 The circumstances that excite public confidence in the issuers of paper are often of the 
 most deceitful description ; and innumerable instances have occurred, of the population 
 of extensive districts having suffered severely from the insolvency of bankers in whom 
 they placed the utmost confidence. In 1793, in 1814, 1815, and 181C, and again in 
 18Si5, a very large proportion of the country banks were destroyed, and produced by 
 their fall an extent of ruin that has hardly been equalled in any other country. And 
 wlien such disasters have already happened, it is siuely the bounden duty of government 
 to hinder, by every means in its power, their recurrence. It is no exaggeration to 
 affirm, that we have sustained ten times more iiijiuy from the circulation of worthless 
 paper, or paper issued by persons without the means of retiring it, than from the issue 
 of spurious coin. It is said, indeed, by those who are hostile lo interference, tliat coins 
 are legal tenders, whereas, notes being destitute of tliat privilege, those who suspect 
 
BANKING (GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF). 
 
 67 
 
 them are at liberty to refuse them : but, whatever notes may be in law, they are, in very 
 many districts, practically, and in fact, legal tenders ; and could not be rejected without 
 exposing the parties to much inconvenience. It should also be observed, that labourers, 
 women, minors, and every sort of persons, however incapable of judging of the stability 
 of banking establishments, are dealers in money, and consequently liable to be imposed 
 upon. This, then, is clearly a case in which it is absolutely imperative upon govern- 
 ment to interfere, to protect the interests of those who cannot protect themselves, either 
 by compelling all individuals applying for stamps for notes, to give security for their 
 payment, or by making sure, in some other way, that they have the means of paying 
 them, and that the circulation of the notes will be a benefit and not an injury to the 
 public, 
 
 A security of this sort has been exacted in the case of the Bank of England ; and the 
 whole 14,686,000/. lent by the Bank to government, must be sacrificed before the holders 
 of her notes can sustain tlie smallest loss. Her stability has, therefore, been truly said, 
 by Dr. Smith, to be equal to that of the British government. The system of taking 
 securities having been found to answer so well in the case of the Bank of England, is a 
 powerful argument in favour of its extension. Were securities taken from t!ie country 
 banks, their ultimate failure, in the capacity of banks of issue, would be rendered im- 
 possible ; and a degree of solidity would be given to our money system, which it is idle 
 to expect it can ever attain, so long as it continues on its present footing. 
 
 It is exceedingly difficult to f^event the issue of forged notes. Various schemes have 
 been suggested for this purpose; and though it is hardly possible to suppose that 
 an inimitable note will ever be produced, it is contended, that by judiciously combining 
 different sorts of engraving, forgery may be rendered so difficult, as to be but rarely 
 attempted. But however this may be, during the period from 1797 to 1819, when 
 tJie Bank of England issued 1/. notes, their forgery was carried on to a great 
 extent. And the desire to check this practice, and to lessen the frequency of capital 
 punishments, appears to have been amongst the most prominent circumstances which 
 led to the return to specie payments in 1821, and the suppression of 1/. notes. — (See 
 Table I.) 
 
 (3.) Bank of England Notes legal Tender. — According to the law as it stood previ- 
 ously to the present year (1834), all descriptions of notes were payable at the pleasure of 
 the holder, in coin of the standard weight and purity. But the policy of such a regulation 
 was very questionable ; and we regard the enactment of the late stat. 3 & 4 Will. 4. 
 c. 98., v/hich makes Bank of England notes legal tender, every where except at the 
 Bank and its branches^ for all sums above 51. , as a very great improvement. So long as 
 the notes of the Bank are themselves convertible, at the pleasure of the holder, into coin, 
 an arrangement of this sort will, it is obvious, effectually prevent any over-issue of country 
 paper, at the same time that it is free from many very serious disadvantages that attached 
 to the former plan. The unjust liabilities imposed upon the Bank of England by 
 the old system, placed her in a situation of great difficxilty and hazard. They obliged 
 her to provide a supply of coin and bullion, not for her own exigencies only, but for 
 those of all the country banks ; and, what is harder still, they exposed her to be deeply 
 injured by any misconduct on the part of the latter, as well as by the distress in which 
 they might accidentally be involved. In consequence, her free action has been at all times 
 in some degree impeded ; and her power to render assistance to the banking and mercan- 
 tile interests in periods of discredit materially diminished. The country banks kept but 
 a small supply of coin in their coffers. They were all, however, holders, to a greater or 
 less extent, of government securities ; and whenever any circumstance occurred,^o occasion 
 a demand upon them for coin, they imm.ediately sold or pledged the whole or a portion of 
 their stock, carried the notes to the Bank to be exchangedj and then carried the specie to 
 the country. Hence, when any suspicions were entertained of the credit of the country 
 banks, or when a panic originated amongst the holders of their notes, as was the case in 
 1793 and 1825, the whole of them retreated upon the Bank of England, and 700 or 
 800 conduits were opened, to draw off the specie of that establishment, which v/as thus, it 
 is evident, exposed to the risk of stoppage without having done any thing wrong. It was 
 not the drain for gold from abroad, but the drain for gold from the country, that nearly 
 exhausted the Bank's coffers in 1825, and forced her to isssue about a million of 1/. and 
 2/. notes. The currency could not possibly be in a sound healthy state, while the Bank 
 of England, and, through her, public credit, were placed in so perilous a situation. 
 But the making of Bank of England notes legal tender at all places except the Bank, 
 will tend materially to protect her from the injurious consequences of panics or rxtns 
 among the holders of country bank paper ; and while it does this, it will not, as it appears 
 to us, in anywise impair the securities against over-issue or depreciation. 
 
 It was, no doubt, contended during the discussions on the late act, that the measure 
 row referred to would lead to the depreciation of provincial paper ; inasmuch ns the 
 expense of sending notes fiom a distance to I^oudon, to be exchanged for gold, would 
 
 V 2 
 
BANKING (GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF). 
 
 prevent ary one from demanding Bank of England notes from country banks in good 
 credit, till the value of the notes issued by them was so much depreciated below the 
 value of gold, that the difference would more than pay the expense of sending them to 
 London, and bringing gold back. But this notion proceeds on a radical misconception 
 of the nature of the old as well as of the new system of currency. There cannot, in 
 point of fact, be the least difference, as respects value, in the provinces, between Bank 
 of England paper, now that it is legal tender, and gold. London being the place where 
 the exchanges are adjusted, the value of money in every part of the empire must depend 
 on its value in it ; and this, it is plain, cannot be in any degree affected by the late mea- 
 sure. Formerly the provincial currency, gold as well as paper, might be, and, indeed, 
 frequently was, depreciated. This was brought about either by an over-issue on the part 
 of the country banks, generally, in the first instance, the effect, but always, in the end, 
 the cause of a rise of prices ; or by the issues of the Bank of England being, in conse- 
 quence of an adverse exchange, narrowed sooner or more rapidly than those of the 
 country banks. In either case, the provincial currency being redundant as compared with 
 that of the metropolis, there was a demand on its issuers for bills on London ; but it 
 is material to observe, that, unless their credit was suspected, there was not, in such 
 cases, any demand upon them for gold. It is, indeed, obvious that a redundancy of the 
 currency is a defect that cannot be obviated by getting gold from the country banks, 
 unless (as hoarding is out of the question) it be intended to send it abroad ; and that 
 may always be done better and cheaper by getting from them Bank of England notes, or 
 bills on London. A local redundancy of the currency may take place in future as it 
 has done formerly ; and its occurrence cannot be prevented, even though paper were 
 wholly banished from circulation, so long as the whole currency is not supplied from 
 one source, and as London is the focus where the exchanges with foreign countries are 
 adjusted. But the statements now made show that it is a radical mistake to suppose 
 that it can take place more readily, or to a greater extent, under the new system than 
 formerly. In this respect no change has been made. But while our ancient security 
 against over-issue is maintained unimpaired, the recent arrangements increase the stability 
 of the Bank of England, and consequently improve our whole pecuniary system. 
 
 If any doubt could possibly remain as to the operation of the new system, it would 
 be removed by referring to Scotland. Gold has been practically banished from that 
 country for a long series of yeai-s ; and yet no one pretends to say that prices are 
 higher in Scotland than in England, or that her currency is depreciated. The Scotch 
 currency is kept at its proper level, not by the check of gold payments, but by the 
 demand for bills on London ; and it is as effectually limited in this way as it could be 
 were the banks universally in the habit of exchanging their notes for gold. On what 
 grounds, then, is it to be apprehended that the obligation to give Bank of England notes 
 or bills on London, will be less effectual in restraining over-issue in Yorkshire or Durham 
 than in Scotland ? 
 
 A banker who issues notes must keep beside him such a stock of cash and bullion, as 
 may be sufficient to answer the demands of the public for their payment. If the value 
 of the cash and bullion in his coffers were equal to the value of his notes in circulation, 
 he would not, it is plain, make any profit ; but if he be in good credit, a third, a fourth, 
 or even a fifth part of this sum will probably be sufficient ; and his profit consists of the 
 excess of the interest derived from his notes in circulation, over the interest of the sum 
 he is obliged to keep dormant in his sti-ong box, and the expenses of managing his 
 establishment. The Bank of England, as will be afterwards seen, keeps an average, 
 stock of coin and bullion equal to a third of her liabilities. 
 
 (4.) Legal Description of Bank Notes. — Bank notes are merely a species of promissory 
 notes. They are subscribed either by the parties on whose account they are issued, or 
 by some one in their employment, whose signature is binding upon them. A Bank of 
 England note for 51. is as follows : — 
 
 oeanft of CngianD. 
 
 N° I promise to pay to Mr, Thomas Rippon, or Bearer, N° 
 on Demand, the Sum of jfitie Pounds. 
 1833. September 9, London, 9 September, 183S. 
 
 For the Gov"" and Comp^ of tJie 
 
 BANK of ENGLAND. 
 
 A. B. 
 
BANKING (GENERAL PRINCIPLES 01> 
 
 69 
 
 No particular form of words is necessary in a bank note. The essential requisites are, 
 that it should be for a definite sum (in England and Wales not less than 5/., and in 
 Scotland and Ireland not less than 1/.), that it should be payable to bearer on demand, 
 and that it should be properly stamped. Promissory notes, though issued by bankers, if 
 not payable to bearer on demand, do not come under the denomination of bank notes ; 
 they are not, like the latter, taken as cash m all ordinary transactions ; nor are they, like 
 them, assignable by mere delivery. 
 
 The circulation of notes for less than 51. was restrained by law (stat. 15 Geo. 3. c. 51.) 
 from 1766 to 1797. In 1808, it was enax;ted by stat. 48 Geo. 3. c. 88., that all bank 
 notes, promissory notes, or other negotiable instruments for less than 20s. should be 
 absolutely void: a penalty of from 20s. to 51., at the discretion of the justices, being 
 imposed on their issuers. It was enacted by the 7 Geo. 4. c. 6., that the issue of all 
 bank notes or promissory notes for less than 51. by the Bank of England, or by any 
 licensed English bankers, and stamped on the 5th of February, 1826, or previously 
 (after which period such notes were not stamped), should terminate on the 5th of April, 
 1829. 
 
 The stamp duties on bank notes or promissory notes payable on demand, are — 
 
 ' £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 Not exceeding 110- - - - - -005 
 
 Exceeding 110 and not exceeding 220- . - - 0 0 10 
 
 — 220 — 550- - - -013 
 
 — 550 — 10 00- - - -01 9 
 
 — 10 0 0 — 20 0 0- - - -0 2 0 
 
 — 20 0 0 — SO 00- . - -030 
 
 — 30 0 0 — 50 0 0 - - - - 0 5 C 
 
 — 50 0 0 — 100 0 0- - - -0 8 6 
 
 Which notes may be reissued after payment, as often as shall be thought fit, provided 
 they be issued by a banker or person who has taken out a licence, renewable annually, 
 and costing 30Z., to issue notes payable to bearer on demand. Any banker or other 
 person issuing such reissuable notes, without being duly licensed, shall forfeit 100/. for 
 every offence. — (55 Geo. 3. c. 184. § 27.) 
 
 These conditions do not apply to the Bank of England, the stamp duties on the notes 
 of that establishment being compounded for at the rate of 3,5001. per million of its notes 
 In circulation. 
 
 Notes or bills not payable to bearer on demand, are not reissuable, under a peralty of 
 50/. — (For the stamp duties affecting them, see Exchange.) 
 
 By the 9 Geo. 4. c. 23., English bankei's not in the city of London, or within three 
 miles thereof, are authorised to issue promissory notes, and to draw and issue bills of 
 exchange, on unstamped paper, for any siim of 51. or upwards, expressed to be payable 
 to the bearer on demand, or to order at any period not exceeding 7 days after sight, 
 {hills may also be drawn at any period not exceerding 21 days after date,) upon 
 obtaining licences, costing 30Z., to that effect, provided such bills of exchange be drawn 
 upon bankers in London, Westminster, or Southwark ; or provided such bills be drawn 
 by any banker or bankers at the place where he or they shall be licensed to issue 
 unstamped notes and bills, upon himself or themselves, or his or their copartner or 
 copartners, payable at any other place where such banker or bankers shall be licensed 
 to issue such notes and bills. Bankers having such licences, are to give security by bond, 
 that they will keep a true account of all promissory notes and bills so issued, and account 
 for the duties on them at the rate of 3s. 6d. for every lOOZ., and also for the fractional 
 jjarts of 1 OOZ. of the average value of such notes and bills in circulation. Persons post- 
 dating unstamped notes or bills shall, for every such offence, forfeit lOOZ. 
 
 (5.) Legal Effect of the Payment of Bank Notes. — Notes of the Bank of England were 
 not, previously to the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 98., like bills of exchange, mere securities, 
 or documents of debt, but were treated as money or cash in the ordinary course or 
 transactions of business ; the receipts given upon their payment being always given 
 as for money. Now, however, they are legal tender, every where except at the Bank, 
 for all sums above 51. All notes payable to bearer are assignable by delivery. The 
 holder of a bank note is prima facie entitled to prompt payment of it, and cannot be 
 affected by the previous fraud of any former holder in obtaining it, unless evidence be 
 given to show that he was privy to such fraud. Such privity may, however, be inferred 
 from the circumstances of the case. To use the words of Lord Tenterden, " If a persoa 
 take a bill, note, or any other kind of security, under circumstances which ought to excite 
 suspicion in the mind of any reasonable man acquainted with the ordinary affairs of life, 
 and which ought to put him on his guard to make the necessary inquiries, and he do 
 not, then he loses the right of maintaining possession of the instrument against the 
 lawful owner."— (Guildhall, 25th October, 1826.) 
 
 Country bank notes are usually received as cash. But though taken as such, if they 
 be presented in due time and not paid, they do not amount to a payment, and the de- 
 liverer of the notes is still liable to the holder. It is not easy to determine what is a 
 
 F 3 
 
70 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 due or reasonable time, inasmuch as it must depend in a great measure on the circtinv- 
 stances of each particular case. On the whole, the safest rule seems to be to present all 
 notes or drafts payable on demand, if received in the place where they are payable, on the 
 day on which they are received, or as soon after as possible. When they have to be 
 transmitted by post for payment, no unnecessary delay should be allowed to intervene. 
 — ( Chith/s Commercial Law, vol. iii. p. 590., and the art. " Check " in this Dic- 
 tionary. ) 
 
 II. Bank of England (Account of). 
 
 ( 1 . ) Historical Sketch of the Bank. — This great establishment, which has long been the 
 principal bank of deposit and circulation, not in this country only, but in Europe, was 
 founded in 1694. Its principal projector was Mr. William Paterson, an enterprising 
 and intelligent Scotch gentleman, who was afterwards engaged in the ili-fated colony at 
 Darien. Government being at the time much distressed for want of money, partly from 
 the defects and abuses in the system of taxation, and partly from the difficulty of bor- 
 rowing, because of the supposed instability of the revolutionary establishment, the Bank 
 grew out of a loan of 1,200,000/. for the public service. The subscribers, besides 
 receiving eight per cent, on the sum advanced as interest, and 4,000/. a year as the 
 expense of management, in all 100,000/. a year, were incorporated into a society deno- 
 minated the Governor and Company of the Bank of England. The charter is dated the 
 27th of July, 1694. It declares, amongst other things, that they shall " be capable in 
 law, to purchase, enjoy, and retain to them and their successors, any manors, lands, rents, 
 tenements, and possessions whatsoever ; and to purchase and acquire all sorts of goods 
 and chattels whatsoever, wherein they are not restrained by act of parliament ; and also 
 to grant, demise, and dispose of the same. 
 
 <' That the management and government of the corporation be committed to the 
 governor, deputy governor, and twenty- four directors, who shall be elected between the 
 25th day of March and 25th day of April, each year, from among the members of the 
 Company duly qualified. 
 
 " That no dividend shall at any time be made by the said Governor and Company, save 
 only out of the interest, profit, or produce arising by or out of the said capital stock or 
 fund, or by such dealing as is allowed by act of parliament. 
 
 " They must be natural born subjects of England, or naturalised subjects ; they shall 
 have in their own name and for their own use, severally, viz. — the governor, at least 
 4,000/., the deputy governor 3,000/., and each director 2,000/. of the capital stock of the 
 said corporation. 
 
 " That thirteen or more of the said governors and directors (of which the governor 
 or deputy governor must be always one) shall constitute a court of directors, for the 
 management of the affairs of the Company, and for the appointment of all agents and 
 servants which may be necessary, paying them such salaries as they may consider 
 reasonable. 
 
 " Every elector must have, in his- own name and for his own use, 500/. or more 
 capital stock, and can only give one vote. He must, if required by any member present, 
 take the oath of stock ; or the declaration of stock, in case he be one of the people called 
 Quakers. 
 
 " Four general courts to be held in every year ; in the months of September, De- 
 cember, April, and Julj'. A general court may be summoned at any time, upon the 
 requisition of nine proprietors, duly qualified as electors. 
 
 " The majority of electors in general courts have the power to make and constitute 
 l)y-laws and ordinances for the government of the corporation, provided that such by- 
 laws and ordinances be not repugnant to the laws of the kingdom, and be confirmed and 
 approved, according to the statutes in such case made and provided." 
 
 The corporation is prohibited from engaging in any sort of commercial imdertaking 
 other than dealing in bills of exchange, and in gold and silver. It is authorised to ad- 
 vance money upon the security of goods or merchandise pledged to it ; and to sell, by 
 public auction, such goods as are not redeemed within a specified time. 
 
 It was also enacted, in the same year in which the Bank was established,4)y statute 
 6 William and Mary, c. 20., that the Bank " sliall not deal in any goods, wares, or 
 merchandise (except bullion), or purchase any lands or revenues belonging to the crown, 
 or advance or lend to their Majesties, their lieirs or successors, any sum or sums of 
 money by way of loan or anticipation, or any part or parts, branch or branches, fund 
 or funds of the revenue, now granted or belonging, or hereafter to be granted to their 
 Majesties, their heirs and successors, other than such fund or funds, part or parts, branch 
 or branches of the said revenue only, on which a credit of loan is or shall be granted 
 by parliament." And in 1697 it was enacted, that the "common capital and principal 
 slock, and also the real fund of the Governor and Company, or any profit or produce to 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 71 
 
 be made thereof, or arising thereby, shall be exempted from any rates, taxes, assess- 
 ments, or impositions whatsoever, durin<^ the continuance of the IJank ; and that all the 
 profit, benefit, and advantage, from tims to time arising out of the management of the 
 said corjioration, shall be applied to the vises of all the members of the said corporation 
 of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England, rateably and in propoi tion to 
 each member's part, share, and interest in the common capital and principal stock of the 
 said Governor and Company hereby establislied." 
 
 It was further enacted, in 1697, that the forgery of the Company's seal, or of any 
 sealed bill or Bank note, should be felony without benefit of clergy, and that the making 
 of any alteration or erasure in any bill or note should also be felony. 
 
 In 1696, during tlie great recoinage, the Bank was involved in considerable difficulties, 
 and was even compelled to suspend payment of her notes, which were at a heavy discount. 
 Owing, however, to the judicious conduct of the directors, and the assistance of govern- 
 ment, the Bank got over the crisis. But it was at the same time judged expedient, in 
 order to place her in a situation the better to withstand any adverse circumstances that 
 might afterwards occur, to increase her capital from 1,200,000Z. to 2,201,1 7 In 
 1708, the directors undertook to pay off and cancel one million and a half of Exchequer 
 bills they had circulated two years before, at 4^ per cent., with the interest on them, 
 amounting in all to 1,775,028/. ; which increased the permanent debt due by the public 
 to the Bank, including 400,000/. then advanced in consideration of the renewal of the 
 charter, to 3,375,028/., for which they were allowed 6 per cent. The Bank capital was 
 then also doubled or increased to 4,402,343/. But the year 1708 is chiefly memorable, 
 in the history of the Bank, for the act that was then passed, which declared, that during 
 the continuance of the corporation of the Bank of England, " it should not be lawful for 
 any body politic, erected or to be erected, other than the said Governor and Company of the 
 Bank of England, or for any other persons whatsoever, united or to be vmited in covenants 
 or partnership, exceeding the number of 6 persons, in that part of Great Britain called 
 England, to borrow, owe, or take up any sum or sums of money on their bills or notes 
 payable on demand, or in any less time than 6 months from the borrowing thereof." — 
 This proviso, which has had so powerful an operation on banking in England, is said to 
 have been elicited by the Mine-adventure Company having commenced banking business, 
 and begun to issue notes. 
 
 It has been pretty generally imagined, from the private banking companies in the 
 metropolis not issuing notes, that they were legally incapacitated from doing so. But 
 the clause in the act of 1708, which has been the only restriction on the issue of notes, 
 applied generally to all England, and had no peculiar reference to London. The fact 
 that banks with 6 or fewer partners have not issued notes in the metropolis, as well as 
 in the provinces, is, therefore, ascribable either to their being aware that their notes 
 would obtain no considerable circulation concurrently with those of a great association 
 like the Bank of England, or from their believing that their issue would not be pro- 
 fitable. 
 
 The charter of the Bank of England, when first granted, was to continue for eleven 
 years certain, or till a year's notice after the 1st of August,. 1705. The charter was 
 further prolonged in 1697. In 1708, the Bank having advanced 400,000/. for the 
 public service, without interest, the exclusive privileges of the corporation were pro- 
 longed till 1733. And in consequence of various advances made at different times, the 
 exclusive privileges of the Bank have been continued by successive renewals, till a year's 
 notice, after the 1st of August, 1855, under the proviso that they may be cancelled on a 
 year's notice to that effect being given on the 1st of August, 1845. 
 
 We subjoin 
 
 An Account of the successive Renewals of the Charter, of the Conditions under which these Renewals 
 were made, and of the Variations in the Amount and Interest of the Permanent Debt due by Govern- 
 ment to the Bank, exclusive of the Dead Weight, 
 
 Dato of 
 
 Conditions under which Renewals were made, and Pennatient Debt contracted. 
 
 Permanent Debt. 
 
 
 Charter granted under the act 5 & 6 Will. 3. c. 20., redeemable upon the 
 expiration of 12 months' notice after the 1st of August, 1705, upon 
 payment by the public to the BanR of the demands therein specified. 
 Under this act the Bank advanced to the public 1,200,000/., in con- 
 sideration of their receiving an annuity of 1GU,00()/. a year, viz. 8 per 
 cent, interest, and 4,00()/. lor management . - 
 Charter continued by the 8& 9 Will. 3. c. 20. till 12 months' notice after 
 1st of August, 1710, on payment, &c. 
 
 Under this act the Bank took up and added to their stock 1,001,171/. 
 Exchequer bills and tallies. 
 
 Carried forward - 
 
 ^ s. d. 
 1,200,000 0 0 
 
 1,200,000 0 0 
 
72 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 An Account of the successive Renewals of the Charter, &c. — continued. 
 
 Conditions under which Renewals were made, and Permanent Debt contracted. 
 
 1708. 
 
 1713. 
 
 1742. 
 
 17&i. 
 
 1781. 
 
 1833. 
 
 Brought forward - 
 Charter continued by 7 Anne, c. 7. till 12 months' notice after 1st of 
 August, 1732, on payment, &c. 
 
 Under this act the Bank advanced 400,000/. to government vyitli- 
 out interest; and delivered up to be cancelled 1,775,027/. 17*. lOrf. 
 Exchequer bills, in consideration of their receiving an annuity of 
 106,501/. 135., being at the rate of 6 per cent. 
 Charter continued by 12 Anne, stat. 1. c. 11. till 12 months' notice after 
 1st of August, 1742, on payment, &c. 
 
 In 1716, by the 3 Geo. 1. c. 8., Bank advanced to government, at 
 5 per cent. - - - - - 
 
 And by the same act, the interest on the Exchequer bills cancelled 
 in 1708 was reduced from 6 to 5 per cent. 
 
 In 1721, by 8 Geo. 1. c. 21., the South Sea Company were authorised 
 to sell 200,000/. government annuities, and corporations pur- 
 chasing the same at 26 years' purchase were authorised to add the 
 amount to their capital stock. The Bank purchased the whole of 
 these annuities at 20 years' purchase 
 
 5 per cent, interest was payable on this sum to Midsummer, 
 1727, and thereafter, 4 per cent. 
 
 At different times between 1727 and 1738, both inclusive, the Bank 
 received from the public, on account of permanent debt, 3,275,027/. 
 17*. lOd., and advanced to it on account of ditto, 3,000,000/. : Dif- 
 ference - - - - _ 
 
 Debt due by the public in 17:?8 .... 9,100,000 0 0 
 
 Charter continued by 15 Geo. 2. c. 13. till 12 months' notice after 1st of 
 August, 1764, on payment, &c. 
 
 Under this act the Bank advanced 1,600,000/. witliout interest, 
 which being added to the original advance of 1,200,000/., and the 
 400,000/. advanced in 1710, bearing interest at 6 per cent., reduced 
 the interest on the whole to 3 per cent. - - - 1,600,000 0 0 
 
 In 1745, under authority of 19 Geo. 2. c. 6., the Bank delivered up 
 to be cancelled 986,000/. of Exchequer bills, in consideration of an 
 annuity of 39,472/., being at the rate of 3 per cent - - 986,000 0 0 
 
 In 1749, the 23 Geo. 2. c. 6. reduced the interest on the 4 per cent, 
 annuities held by the Bank, to 3i percent, for 7 years from the 25th 
 of December, 1750, and thereafter to 3 per cent. 
 Charter continued by 4 Geo. 3. c. 25. till 12 months' notice after lai of 
 August, 1786, on payment, &c. 
 
 Under this act theBank paid into the Exchequer 110,000/. free of 
 all charge. 
 
 Charter continued by 21 Geo. 3. c. 60. till 12 months' notice after 1st of 
 August, 1812, on payment, &c. 
 
 Under this act the Bank advanced 3,000,000/. for the public service 
 for 3 year^at 3 per cent. 
 Charter continued by 40 Geo. 3. c. 28. till 12 months' notice after 1st of 
 August, 1833, on payment, &c. 
 
 Under this act theBank advanced to government 3,000,000/. for 6 
 years without interest ; but in pursuance of the recommendation of 
 the committee of 1807, the advance was continued without interest 
 till 6 months after the signature of a definitive treaty of peace. 
 
 In 1816, the Bank, under authority of the act 56 Geo. 3. c. 96, 
 advancedat3per cent., to be repaid on or before 1st of August, 18.33 3,000 000 0 0 
 
 Charter continued by 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 98. till 12 months' notice after 1st of | ! 
 
 August, 1855, with a proviso that it may be dissolved on 12 months' i 14,686,800 0 0 
 notice after 1st of August, 181-5, on payment, &c. 
 
 This act directs that in future the Bank shall deduct 120,000/. a I 
 year from their charge on account of the management of the public i 
 debt ; and that a fourth part of the debt due by the public to the 
 Bank, or 3,638,250/., be pakl off . - - - 5,638,250 0 0 
 
 Permanent advance by the Bank to the public, bearing interest 
 
 at 3 per cent, independent of the advances on account of dead 
 
 weight - - ■ - - ! 11,048,550 0 0 
 
 Permanent Debt. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1,200,000 0 0 
 
 2,175,027 17 10 
 2,000,000 0 0 
 
 4,000,000 0 0 
 
 9,375,027 17 10 
 
 275,027 17 10 
 
 For further details as to this subject, see the Appendix No. 1. of the Report o/1832 on the Renewal of 
 the Bank Charter, and the acts of parliament referred to in it; see also James PostlethwayVs History 
 of the Revenue, pp. 301 — 310. ; and Fainnan on the Funds, 7th ed. pp. 85 — 88. &c. 
 
 The capital of the Bank on which dividends are paid, has never exactly coincided 
 with, though it has seldom differed very materially from, the permanent advance by the 
 Bank to the public. We have already seen that it amounted, in 1708, to 4,402,343/. 
 Between that year and 1727 it was increased to near 9,000,000Z. In 1746, it amounted 
 to 10,780,000/. From tliis period it underwent no change till 1782, when it was increased 
 8 per cent., or to 11,642,400/. It continued stationary at this sum down to 1816, 
 when it was raised to 14,553,000/. by an addition of 25 per cent, from the profits of 
 the Bank, under the provisions of the act 56 Geo. 3. c. 96. The late act for the renewal 
 of the charter, 3&4 Will. 4. c. 98., directs that the sum of 3,638,250/., the portion of 
 tJic debt due to the Bank to be repaid by the public, shall be deducted from the Bank's 
 capital; which will, therefore, be in future 10,914,750/. — (Report on Barik Charter, 
 Appen. No. 33.) 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 73 
 
 The Bank of England has been frequently affected by panics amongst the holders of 
 Its notes. In 1745, the alarm occasioned by the advance of the Highlanders under the 
 Pretender as far as Derby, led to a run upon the Bank ; and in order to gain time to 
 concert measures for averting the run," the directors adopted the device of paying in 
 shillings and sixpences ! But they derived a more effectual relief from the retreat of 
 tlie Highlanders ; and from a resolution agreed to at a meeting of the principal merchants 
 and traders of the city, and very numerously signed, declaring the willingness of the 
 subscribers to receive Bank notes in payment of any sum that might be due to them, and 
 pledging themselves to use their utmost endeavours to make all their payments in the 
 same medium. 
 
 During the tremendous riots in June, 1780, the Bank incurred considerable danger. 
 Had the mob attacked the establishment at the commencement of the riots, the con- 
 sequences might have proved fatal. Luckily, however, they delayed their attack till 
 time had been afforded for providing a force sufficient to insure its safety. Since that 
 period a considerable military force is nightly placed in the interior of the Bank, as a 
 protection in any emergency that may occur. 
 
 In the latter part of 1792 and beginning of 1793, there was, in consequence of a pre- 
 vious over-issue on their part, a general run on most of the private banks ; and about 
 OTie third of these establishments were forced to stop payment. This led to a consider- 
 able demand for coin from the Bank. 
 
 The year 1797 is, however, the most important epoch in the recent history of the Bank. 
 Owing partly to events connected with the war in which we were then engaged — to loans 
 to the Emperor of Germany — to bills drawn on the treasury at home by the British 
 agents abroad — and partly, and chiefly, perhaps, to the advances most unwillingly made 
 by the Bank to government, which prevented the directors from having a sufficient con- 
 trol over their issues, — the exchanges became unfavourable in 1795, and in that and the 
 following year large sums in specie were drawn from the Bank.* In the latter end of 
 1796 and beginning of 1797, considerable apprehensions were entertained of invasion, 
 and rumours were propagated of descents having been actually made on the coast. In 
 consequence of the fears that were thus excited, runs were made on the provincial 
 banks in different parts of the country ; and some of them having failed, the panic be- 
 came general, and extended itself to London. Demands for cash poured in upon the 
 Bank from all quarters; and on Saturday, the 25th of February, 1797, she had only 
 1,272,000/. of cash and bullion in her coffers, with every prospect of a violent run taking 
 place on the following Monday. In this emergency an order in council was issuod on 
 Sunday, the 26th, prohibiting the directors from paying their notes in cash until the sense 
 of parliament had been taken on the subject. And after parliament met, and the mea- 
 sure had been much discussed, it was agreed to continue the restriction till six months 
 after the signature of a definitive treaty of peace. 
 
 As soon as the order in council prohibiting payments in cash appeared, a meeting of 
 the principal bankers, merchants, traders, &c. of the metropolis, was held at the Mansion- 
 house, when a resolution was agreed to, and very numerously signed, pledging, as had 
 been done in 1745, those present to accept, and to use every means in their power to 
 cause Bank notes to be accepted as cash in all transactions. This resolution tended to 
 allay the apprehensions that the restriction had excited. 
 
 Parliament being sitting at the time, a committee was immediately appointed to ex- 
 amine into the affairs of the Bank ; and their report put to rest whatever doubts might 
 have been entertained with respect to the solvency of the establishment, by showing that 
 at the moment when the order in council appeared, the Bank was possessed of property to 
 the amount of 15,513,690/., after all claims upon it had been deducted. 
 
 Much difference of opinion has existed with respect to the policy of the restriction in 
 
 * So early as Deceinber, 1794, the court of directors represented (o government their uneasiness on 
 account of the magnitude of the debt due by the government to the Bank, and aiixiouslv requested a re- 
 payment of at least a considerable part of what had been advanced. In January, 1795,' they resolved to 
 limit their advances upon treasury bills to 500,000/. ; and at the same time they informed Mr. Pitt that it 
 was their wish that he would adjust his measures for the year m such a manner as not to depend on any 
 further assistance from them. On the 11th of February, ]79f), they resolved, " That it is the opinion of 
 this court, founded upon the experience of the late Imperial loan, that if any further loan or advance of 
 money to the emperor, or to any of the foreign states, should in the present state of affairs take place, it 
 will, in all probability, prove fatal to the Bank of England. The court of directors do, therefore, most 
 earnestly deprecate the adoption of any such measure, and they solemnly i)rotest against any responsibility 
 for the calamitous consequences that may follow thereupon." But notwithstanding these, and many other 
 similar remonstrances, fresh advances of money were made to our foreign allies, and fresh demands upon 
 the Bank ; the directors reluctantly abandoning their own better judgment to what thev truly termed the 
 " pressinfT solicitations " of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and their desire to avert " the probable dis- 
 tress which a refusal {on their part) might occasion, in the then alarming situation of public affairs." 
 But notwithstanding the difficulties of the Bank were greatly aggravated by that conduct on the part of 
 government against which the directors had so strongly protested, she could hardly, in any state of her 
 affairs, have got safely over the crisis of 1797. The run upon the Bank that then took place, was occa- 
 sioned by alarms of invasion ; and it is clear, as remarked in the text, that while they continued, no paper 
 immediately convertible into gold could remain in circulation. 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 1797 ; but, considering the peculiar circumstances under which it took place, its ex- 
 pediency seems abundantly obvious. The run did not originate in any over-issue of 
 Bank paper ; but grew entirely out of political causes. So long as the alarms of invasion 
 continued, it was clear that no Bank paper immediately convertible into gold would 
 remain in circulation. And as the Bank, though possessed of ample funds, was without 
 the means of instantly retiring her notes, she might, but for the interference of govern- 
 ment, have been obliged to stop payment ; an event which, had it occurred, must have 
 produced consequences in the last degree fatal to the public interests. 
 
 It had been generally supposed, previously to the passing of the Restriction Act, that 
 Bank notes would not circulate unless they were immediately convertible into cash ; but 
 the event showed, conformably to principles that have since been fully explained, that 
 this was not really the case. Though the notes of the Bank of England were not, 
 at the passing of the Restriction Act, publicly declared to be legal tender, they were 
 rendered so in practice, by being received as cash in all transactions on account of govern- 
 ment, and of the vast majority of individuals. For the first three years of the restriction, 
 their issues were so moderate, that they not only kept on a par with gold, but actually 
 bore a small premium. In the latter part of 1 800, however, their quantity was so much 
 increased that they fell to a discount of about 8 per cent, as compared with gold, but 
 they soon after rose nearly to par; and it was not until 1808 that the decline of their 
 value excited any considerable attention. Early in 1810, they were at a discount of 
 about 13^ per cent. ; and this extraordinary fall having attracted the attention of the 
 legislature, the House of Commons appointed a committee to inquire into the circum- 
 stances by which it had been occasioned. The committee examined several witnesses ; 
 and in their report, which was drawn up with considerable ability, they justly ascribed 
 the fall to the over-issue of Bank paper, and recommended that the Bank should be 
 obliged to resume cash payments within two years. This recommendation was not, 
 however, acted upon ; and the value of Bank paper continued to decline, as compared 
 with gold, till 1814. 
 
 At the period when the restriction on cash payments took place in 1797, it is supposed 
 that there were about 280 country banks in existence ; but so rapidly were these esta- 
 blishments multiplied, that they amounted to above 900 in 1813. The price of corn, 
 influenced partly by the depreciation of the currency, and the facility with which dis- 
 counts were obtained, but far more by deficient harvests, and the unprecedented diffi- 
 culties which the war threw in the way of importation, had risen to an extraordinary 
 height during the five years ending with 1813. But the harvest of that year being 
 unusually productive, and the intercourse with the Continent being then also renewed, 
 prices, influenced by both circumstances, sustained a very heavy fall in the latter part 
 of 1813, and the beginning of 1814. And this fall having proved ruinous to a 
 considerable number of farmers, and produced a general want of confidence, such a 
 destruction of provincial paper took place as has rarely been paralleled. In 1814, 
 1815, and 1816, no fewer than 240 country banks stopped payment; and cighty-ni7ic 
 commissions of bankruptcy were issued against these establishments, being at the 
 rate of one commission against every ten and a half of the total number of banks existing 
 in 1813. 
 
 The great reduction that had been thus suddenly and violently brought about in the 
 quantity of country bank paper, by extending the field for the circulation of Bank of 
 England paper, raised its value in 1817 nearly to a par with gold. The return to cash 
 payments being thus facilitated, it was fixed, in 1819, by the act 59 Geo. 3. c. 78., 
 commonly called Mr. Peel's Act, that they should take place in 1823. But to prevent 
 any future over-issue, and at the same time to render the measure as little burdensome 
 as possible, it was enacted, in pursuance of a plan suggested by the late Mr. Ricardo, 
 that the Bank should be obliged, during the interval from the jiassing of the act till the 
 return to specie payments, to pay her notes, if required, in bars of standard bullion of 
 not less than sixty ounces' weight. This plan was not, however, acted upon during the 
 period allowed by law ; for, a large amount of gold having been accumulated at the 
 Bank, the directors preferred recommencing specie payments on the 1st of May, 1821. 
 — (See Table III. for an account of the price of bullion, the depreciation of paper, &c. 
 from 1800 to 1821.) 
 
 A great diversity of opinion has been entertained with respect to the policy of the 
 return to the old standard, in 1819. By one party it has been represented as a wise and 
 politic measure: they contend that Mr. Peel's Act not only put an end to those fluctu- 
 ations in the value of money, which had previously been productive of great mischief, 
 and gave cfFect to the solemn engagements into which the jiublic had entered with the 
 national creditor, but that it did this without adding any thing material to the national 
 burdens. But another, and, perhaps, a more numerous party, take a totally different 
 view of this measure : they contend that the public was not really bound to return to 
 cash pnymcnts ut the old standard at the termination of the war; that the return has 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 75 
 
 very greatly cnlicinccd tlie value of tlie currency ; and that this enhancement, by adding 
 proportionally to the fixed burdens laid on the industrious classes, has been most inju- 
 rious to their interests. It will, however, be found in this, as in most cases of tlie sort, 
 that the statements of both parties arc exaggerated ; and that if, on the one hand, the 
 measure has not been so advantageous as its apologists represent, neither, on the other, 
 has it been nearly so injurious as its enemies would have us believe. 
 
 In discussing this question, it is material to observe that tJie value of paper, which 
 had been in 1815 and 1816 about 16f per cent, below that of gold, rose in 1817 and 
 1818, from the causes already mentioned, without any interference whatever on the part 
 of government, to within little more than 2^ per cent, of the value of gold ; and that in 
 1819 the depreciation only amounted to 4^ per cent. — (See Table III.) It is, therefore, 
 quite ludicrous to ascribe to the act of 1819, as is often done, the whole rise that has 
 taken place in the value of the currency since the peace, seeing that the currency had 
 been for three years previously to its enactment from 12^ to Hi per cent, above its value 
 in 1815, and from 21 to 23 per cent, above its value in 1814! The main object which 
 the promoters of the act of 1819 had in view, was to sustain the value of the ciu-rency at 
 the point to which it had recovered itself, without legislative interference. This, however, 
 could not be done without recurring to specie payments ; and the difference of 4| per 
 cent, that obtained in 1819 between the value of gold and paper, was not deemed suffi- 
 ciently considerable to warrant a departure from the old standard, and from the acts 
 engaging to restore it. 
 
 But it is alleged, that those who suppose that the act of 1819 added only 4i per cent, 
 to the value of the currency, mistake altogether the effect of the measure. It is 
 admitted, indeed, that paper was then only 4^ per cent, less valuable than gold ; but by 
 reverting to specie payments, we made an unexpected purchase of thirty millions of gold ; 
 and it is affirmed, that this novel and large demand, concurring simultaneously with the 
 contraction of paper in several of the continental states, and with a falling off in the 
 supply of bullion from the mines, had the effect of adding very greatly to the value of 
 gold itself, and consequently to that of the currency. It is very difficult, or rather, per- 
 haps, impossible, to determine the precise degree of credit that ought to be attached to 
 this statement ; but while we incline to think that it is well founded to a certain extent, 
 we see no grounds for believing that it is so to any thing like the extent that has been 
 stated. The gold imported into Great Britain, to enable the Bank to resume specie 
 payments, was not taken from any particular country or district, but was drawn from 
 the market of the world ; and considering the vast extent of the supply whence it was 
 derived, it is against all reason to suppose that its value could be materially influenced 
 by our purchases. We doubt, too, whether the contraction of the paper currency of 
 some of the continental states, and the substitution of specie in its stead, was not more 
 than balanced by the cessation of the demand for specie for the military chests of the 
 different armies, by the stoppage of the practice of hoarding, and the greater security 
 consequent to the return of peace. And with respect to the falling off in the supplies 
 from the mines, it is not a circumstance, supposing it to have had a considerable 
 influence, that parliament could take into accoimt. It could neither determine the 
 extent to which bullion had been raised, nor at what point the rise would stop, nor 
 liow soon it might again begin to decline. The diminution in the supply of bullion 
 had then continued for too short a period, and its influence on the value of gold 
 was much too uncertain, to make it a ground for interfering in anj degree with the 
 standard. 
 
 The decline in the price of most articles that has taken place since the peace, has been 
 often referred to, as a conclusive proof of the great enhancement in the value of bullion. 
 But the inference is by no means so certain as has been represented. The prices of 
 commodities are as much affected by changes in the cost of their production, as by 
 changes in the quantity of money afloat. Now, there is hai-dly one of the great articles 
 of commerce, the cost of wliich has not been considerably reduced, or which has not 
 been supplied fi-om new sources, within the last few years. The growth of corn, for 
 example, has been vastly extended in France, Prussia, and generally throughout the 
 Continent, by the splitting of large estates, and the complete subversion of the feudal 
 system ; and the reduction of its price in this country is, at least, as much owing to the 
 extraordinary increase of imports from Ireland, as to any other cause. The fall in the 
 price of wool is most satisfactorily accounted for by the introduction and rapid multipli- 
 cation of Merino sheep in Germany, where they seem to succeed even better than in 
 Spain ; and by the growing imports from New Holland and elsewhere. And a very 
 large portion, if not the whole, of the fall in the price of colonial products, is admitted,, 
 on all hands, to be owing to the destruction of the monopoly system, and the vast 
 extension of cultivation in Cuba, Brazil, Louisiana, Demerara, &c. Although, there- 
 fore, we do not deny that the falh'ng off in the supply of bullion from the mines musf 
 have had some influence on prices, we hold it to be the greatest imaginable error to 
 
76 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ascribe to it the entire fall that has taken place since the peace. Were its effect rated at 
 10 per cent, we believe it would be very considerably overstated. — ;(See art. Precious 
 Metals.) 
 
 On the whole, therefore, we are disposed to approve of the conduct of those who 
 framed the act of 1819. That it added to the burdens of the industrious classes, and 
 has been in so far hostile to the public interests, it seems impossible to doubt ; but it has 
 not done this in any thing like the degree which its enemies represent. The period, 
 too, when it was passed, is now so distant, that the existing engagements amongst indi- 
 viduals have almost all been formed with reference to the altered value of the currency ; 
 so that whatever injury it may have occasioned in the first instance, must be nearly gone 
 by. To modify or change the standard at this late period, would not be to repair injus- 
 tice, but to commit it afresh. At the end of the war, the circumstances were consider 
 ably different. The standard had been really abandoned for the previous 18 years; 
 and, perhaps, we may now say, that it would have been better, all things considered, had 
 the mint price of bullion been raised, in 1815, to the market price. But having sur- 
 mounted all the difficulties attendant upon the restoration of the old standard, and 
 maintained it since 1821, it would be in the last degree impolitic to subject it to new 
 alterations. Should the country become, at any future period, unable to make good 
 its engagements, it will better consult its honour and its interest, by fairly compounding 
 with its creditors, than by endeavouring to slip from its engagements by resorting to tlie 
 dishonest expedient of enfeebling the standard. 
 
 The price of corn, which had been very much depressed in 1821 and 1822, rallied 
 in 1823; and this circumstance contributed, along with others peculiar to that period, 
 to promote an extraordinary rage for speculation. The issues of the country banks being 
 in consequence far too much extended, the currency became redundant in the autumn of 
 1824 ; and the exchanges having been depressed, a drain for gold began to operate upon the 
 Bank of England. But the directors of the Bank having entered, in the early part of 
 that year, into an engagement with government to pay off such holders of 4 per cent, 
 stock as might dissent from its conversion into a 3^ per cent, stock, they were obliged 
 to advance a considerable sum on this account after the depression of the exchange. This 
 tended to counteract the effect of the drain on the Bank for gold ; and, in consequence, 
 the London currency was not very materially diminished till September, 1825. When, 
 however, the continued demand of the public on the Bank for gold had rendered money 
 scarce in the metropolis, the pressure speedily extended to the country. Such of the 
 provincial banks — and they were a numerous class — as had been originally established 
 without sufficient capital, or had conducted their business upon erroneous principles, began 
 to give way the moment they experienced an increased difficulty of obtaining pecuniary 
 accommodations in London. The alarm, once excited, soon became general ; and con- 
 fidence and credit were, for a while, almost wholly suspended. In the short space 
 of 6 weeks, above 70 banking establishments were desti'oyed, notwithstanding the 
 very large advances made to them by the Bank of England ; and the run upon the 
 Bank, for cash to supply the exigencies of the country banks, was so heavy, that she was 
 well nigh drained of all the coin in her coffers, and obliged, as already remarked, to issue 
 about a million of IZ. and 21. notes. 
 
 In order to guard against a recurrence of the wide-spread mischief and ruin, produced 
 by this and the previous bankruptcies of the country banks, it was resolved, in 1826, with 
 consent of the Bank of England, to make a change in the law of 1 708, limiting the 
 number of partners in banking establishments to 6 only. And it was accdrdingly 
 enacted, that thenceforth any number of partners might form themselves into associations, 
 to carry on the business of banking, including the issue of notes, any where not within 
 sixty-five miles of London. The directors of the Bank of England came, at the same 
 time, to the resolution of establishing branches in some of tlie principal towns ; and, at 
 this moment, branch banks are established in Gloucester, IManchester, Birmingham, 
 Leeds, Liverpool, Bristol, Exeter, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hull, Norwich, &c. 
 
 The branch banks cannot fail of being highly useful : but we believe that the benefit 
 resulting from the formation of joint stock banks will not be nearly so great as has 
 been anticipated. — (See post, 13anks (English Provincial).) So long as every 
 one is allowed to issue notes without any sort of check or control, a thousand devices 
 may be fallen upon to insure a certain circulation to those tliat are most worthless. 
 At best, this measure is but a feeble palliative of inveterate disorders. It is quite 
 illusory to expect to make any real improvement upon the system of country banking 
 in England, by the mere introduction of a plan for aUowincj banking establishments with 
 large capitals to be set on foot. There have always been, and are at this moment, a 
 great number of such establishments in England. What is really wanted, is the 
 adoption of a system, that will exclude the possibility of notes being discredited, by 
 prerenting all individuals or associations from issuing such as have not been previously 
 guaranteed. 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND 
 
 77 
 
 Besides attempting to lessen the frequency of bankruptcy among the country banlc% 
 by repealing the law limiting the number of partners, it was further resolved, in 182G, 
 to prohibit the future issue of 1/. notes. The policy and effects of this measure have 
 given rise to much dispute. It seems clear, that it has gone far to shut up one of the 
 most convenient channels by which the inferior class of country bankers contrived to get 
 their notes into circulation, and must, in so far, do good, liut there are many other 
 channels still open to them ; and to imagine that tliis measure will place the pro- 
 vincial currency on that solid basis on which it ought to be placed, is quite visionary. 
 There were no notes under 51. in ciixulation in 1792 ; and yet fully one third of the 
 country banks then in existence became bankrupt ! The truth is, as already stated, that 
 it is not possible to guard against loss and fraud, from the proceedings of the country 
 bankers, otherwise than by compelling them to give security for their issues; and, as 
 security may as easily be given for 1/. notes as for those of 51., the suppression of the 
 former does not appear to have been at all essential. No doubt can, however, be enter- 
 tained, that the representations as to the extreme injury occasioned by the withdrawal 
 of the 1/. notes have been very greatly exaggerated ; — though it is at the same time 
 obvious, that the means of the bankers to make advances, as well as the profit derived 
 from making them, must both have been diminished by the suppression of the small 
 notes ; and it would be foolish to deny that this circumstance must have occasioned some 
 loss and inconvenience to many individuals. 
 
 These remarks are meant to apply only to the case of the country banks. The extra- 
 ordinary extent to which the forgery of the ll. notes of the Bank of England was carried, 
 affords, perhaps, a sufficient vindication of the policy of their suppression. But the 
 comparatively limited circulation of the country banks, and, perhaps we may add, the 
 greater attention paid to the manner in wiiich their notes were engraved, hindered their 
 forgery from becoming injuriously prevalent. 
 
 (2.) Cash kept hy the Bank. Regulation of her Issues. — Of late, the Bank directors 
 have endeavoured, as a general rule, to have as much coin and bullion in their coffers as 
 may together amount, when the exchange is at par, to a third part of the Bank's liabilities, 
 including deposits as well as issues ; so that, in the event of the notes afloat, and the 
 public and private deposits in the coffers of the Bank, amounting to 27,000,OOOZ. or 
 30,000,000?., they would not consider the establishment in a perfectly satisfactory state, 
 unless she was, generally speaking, possessed of about 9,000,000/. or 10,000,000/. of 
 coin and bullion. Such a supply seems to afford every requisite security ; and now 
 that the notes of the Bank are made legal tender, and that she must be less exposed 
 than formerly to drains during panics, it may, probably, be found to be unnecessarily 
 large. 
 
 The issues of the Bank are wholly governed, at least in all ordinary cases, by what 
 Mr. Horsley Palmer expressively calls " the action of the public : " — that is, they are 
 increased during a favourable exchange, or when bullion is sent to the Bank to be ex- 
 changed for notes, and diminished during an unfavourable exchange, or when notes are 
 sent to the Bank to be paid. If the exchange were so favourable that the Bank was 
 accumulating considerably more bullion than was equivalent to the third part of her 
 liabilities, the directors would seem to be justified in adding to the currency by buying 
 a larger amount of government securities, or by increasing their discounts, &c. ; and 
 conversely, if the exchange were so unfavourable as to depress the supply of coin and 
 bullion considerably below the average proportion. But the most intelligent directors 
 seem to think that this would be an undue interference ; and, in all but extraordinary 
 cases, the rule of the Bank is, to allow the public to regulate the currency for itself through 
 the action of the exchange. * 
 
 It is frequently said that the value of money, and, consequently, that the price 
 of all sorts of property, depends on the fiat of the Bank, by which it is capriciously 
 elevated at one time and depressed at another. But the account now given of the 
 mode in which the issues of the Bank are regulated completely disproves such state- 
 ments ; and independently of this, every one who knows that the Bank must pay her 
 notes in coin when presented, and that coin may be at all times obtained from the Mint, 
 without any charge, in exchange for bullion, must know that the very supposition of their 
 being true involves a contradiction. 
 
 (3.) Bank of England in its Connexion with Government and the Public. — The Bank 
 of England conducts the whole banking business of the British government. " It acts 
 not only," says Dr. Smith, " as an ordinary bank, but as a great engine of state. It 
 receives and pays the greater part of the annuities, which are due to the creditors 
 of the public ; it circulates Exchequer bills ; and it advances to government the annua] 
 
 * Mr. Horsley Palmer's evidence before the late committee of the House of Commons on the Bank 
 charter contains by far the best exposition ever given to the public, of the mode in which the business 
 of the Bank of England is conducted. It is also highly deserving of attention, from its general ability, 
 and the strong and steady light which it throws on the p.»inciplcs of banking and currency. 
 
78 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 amount of the land and malt taxes, which are frequently not paid till some years there- 
 after." 
 
 (4. ) Advances hij the Bank in Discounts, ^c. — The greater part of the paper of the 
 Bank has generally been issued in the way of advances or loans to government, upon 
 security of certain branches of the revenue, and in the purchase of Exchequer bills and 
 bullion; but her issues through the medium of discounts to individuals have, notwith- 
 standing, been at all times considerable, while, during war and in periods of distress, 
 they have been occasionally very great. Generally speaking, however, the directors do 
 not think it advisable to enter into competition with private bankers in the transacting 
 of ordinary banking business, or in the discounting of mercantile paper. Mr. Horsley 
 Palmer is decidedly of opinion, that all banking business, apart from the issue of notes, 
 is better transacted by private bankers than by public bodies. — (Min. of Evidence, p. 37.) 
 He also thinks, that were the Bank to come fairly into competition, at all times, witli 
 the private bankers and other individuals in discounting, it would be very apt to lead, 
 every now and then, to an excess of the currency, and a fall of the exchange, producing 
 fluctuations that could not fail to be most injurious. At present, therefore, and gene- 
 rally since the peace, the rate of interest charged by the Bank for loans has been some- 
 what above the market rate. The consequence is, that, in ordinary periods, very few 
 applications are made to her for discounts. But, at the same time, every one who has 
 any reasonable security to offer, knows where they may always be had ; while the rate of 
 interest charged by the Bank necessarily forms a maximum rate which no other esta- 
 blishment can exceed. When, however, any circumstances occur to occasion a pressure 
 in the money market, or a difficulty of obtaining accommodations in the usual channels, 
 the market rate of interest immediately rises to the rate fixed by the Bank ; and on 
 such occasions, the private bankers, and the public generally, resort to the Bank for aid. 
 She then becomes, as it were, a bank of support ; and has, as such, on many trying occasions, 
 particularly in 1793, 1815 and 1816, and 1825-26, rendered the most essential service 
 to public credit, and to the commercial interests of the country. The usual limited 
 amount of the Bank's discounts does not, therefore, proceed, as has been absurdly enough 
 stated, from any indisposition on the part of the directors to render every assistance in 
 their power to the commercial classes, bixt is, in fact, the effect of such disposition. They 
 consider, and we believe justly, that, except under peculiar circumstances, the business of 
 discounting and banking is best conducted by private parties ; and that, by abstaining 
 from coming into competition with them, they are better able to act as a bank of sup- 
 port — that is, to sustain public and private credit by making extraordinary advances in 
 seasons of distress and difficulty. This is not to neglect the interests of the mercantile 
 classes, but to promote them in the best and most efficient manner, even though it should 
 be at the expense of the Bank. 
 
 No. XIV. of the accounts subjoined to this article shows the average annual amount 
 of commercial paper discounted by the Bank in London, from 1795 down to 1831. 
 But the svibjoined account will probably be deemed still more interesting, from its ex- 
 hibiting in detail 'the variations in the discounts by the Bank during the 17 years ending 
 with 1831. The sudden increase and immense amount of the discounts, in the last quarter 
 of 1825 and the first quarter of 1825, show the vast importance of the assistance 
 then rendered by the Bank to the trading interests. Had this assistance been with- 
 held, or the Bank not been in a situation to render it, it is not easy to estimate the 
 consequences. 
 
 Account of the Average Amount of Bills and Notes discounted by the Bank of England, in each 
 Quarter of each of the Seventeen Years ending with 1831. — {Appen. to Rep. on Bank Cliartcrt 
 No. 5G.) 
 
 1815 
 181f) 
 1S17 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 182.'3 
 1824 
 1825 
 1S26 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 
 i8.';o 
 
 £ 
 
 IS.Gll.-^OO 
 
 i+,yi.'5,yoo 
 
 5,823,500 
 2,97(i,900 
 8,3(i3,700 
 4,810,700 
 3,238,300 
 3,137,000 
 4,107,200 
 2,226,800 
 2,4fi0,800 
 9,.586,700 
 
 Q,m,cm 
 
 1,298,400 
 3,952,!)u0 
 l,8f)(),5(K) 
 2,549,200 
 
 £ 
 
 13,8-16,500 
 13,380,400 
 4,148,300 
 2,847,800 
 6,632,.';00 
 3,fi()5,500 
 2,715,100 
 3,21fi,.0OO 
 3,252,200 
 2,5.53,500 
 3,973,700 
 5,037,400 
 1,226,4<X) 
 ],lG5,r)00 
 '3,283,700 
 1,414,(500 
 3,240,200 
 
 3d Quarter, ending 
 30tii of Septt mber. 
 
 £ 
 
 16,613,200 
 10,569,400 
 3,3-29,300 
 4,610,400 
 6,021,600 
 3,9S7,6()0 
 2,294,100 
 3,388,700 
 2,801,400 
 2,449,800 
 5,486,000 
 2,950,500 
 1,107,.G00 
 1,170,800 
 2,61 1, SCO 
 1,275,000 
 3,422,500 
 
 £ 
 
 l.'5,7 17,300 
 7,399,800 
 
 2.. W 1,200 
 6,865,700 
 5,042,200 
 3,130,700 
 2,459,300 
 3,724,600 
 2,334,200 
 2,248,!K)0 
 7,839,500 
 2,164,800 
 1,239,800 
 
 2.1. '">7,2(X) 
 2,152,700 
 1,930,7(X) 
 S,771,fjOO 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 79 
 
 The annual average loss by bad debts on the discounts of the Bank of England in 
 London, from 1791 to 1831, both inclusive, has been 31,698/. — (/ijjpen. to liep. on 
 Bank Charter, No. 60.) 
 
 (5.) Advances hy the Bank to Government. — These are made on account of the produce 
 of taxes not yet received, and on the security of Exchequer bills, &c. They varied, from 
 1792 down to 1810, from about 10,000,000/. to about 16,000,000/. During the re- 
 mainder of the war, and down to 1820, they were a good deal larger ; they were, at an 
 average of each of the 7 years ending with that last mentioned, as follows : — 
 
 £ £ 
 
 1814 - - - 30,149,000 1818 - - - 28,061,000 
 
 1815 - - - =26,494,000 1819 - - - 24,636,975 
 
 1816 - - - 23,544,000 1820 - - - 21,915,825* 
 
 1817 - - - 27,347,000 
 
 But in these are included about 1,000,000/. a year paid to government out of the sums 
 issued on account of the dividends, but not claimed. This can hardly be regarded as an 
 advance by the Bank. 
 
 In 1819, provision was made for reducing the amount of these advances; and they do 
 not at present, excluding the permanent advance on account of the dead weight, exceed a 
 third of their amount in 1820. They are represented by the Exchequer bills and defi- 
 ciency bills in the hands of the Bank ; and the average amount of these in her possession 
 during the 4 years ending with 1831, was as follows : — 
 
 £ I £ 
 
 1828 - - - 9,367,630 1830 - - - 8,783,730 
 
 1829 - - - 8,664,020 | 1831 - - - 6,733,260 
 
 (Appen. to Rep. on Bank Charter, No. 64.) 
 
 (6. ) Balances of Puhlic Money. — In point of fact, however, a very large part of these 
 advances has been nominal only, or has been virtually cancelled by the balances of public 
 money in the hands of the Bank. Thus, from 1806 to 1810, both inclusive, the average 
 advances to government amounted to 14,492,970/. But the average balance of public 
 money in possession of the Bank during the same period amounted to about 1 1 ,000,000/. ; 
 so that the real advance was equal only to the difference between these two sums, or to 
 about 3,500,000/. This statement completely negatives, as Mr. Tooke has justly stated, 
 tlie supposition so commonly entertained and reasoned upon as a point beyond doubt, that 
 the Bank was rendered, by the restriction, a mere engine in the hands of government for 
 facilitating its financial operations (First Letter to Lord Grenville, p. 64.) 
 
 The Bank being enabled to employ the greater part of the balances of public money 
 in her hands as capital, they have formed one of the main sources of the profit she has 
 derived from her transactions with the public. This subject was brought very promi- 
 nently forward jn the Second Report of the Committee of the House of Commons on 
 Public Expenditure in 1807. And it was agreed in the same year, that the Bank 
 should, in consideration of the advantages derived from the public balances, continue 
 the loan of 3,000,000/. made to government in 1800 for 6 years, without interest, on 
 the same terms, till 6 months after the signature of a definitive treaty of peace. In 
 1816, this sum was finally incorporated with the debt due by government to the 
 Bank, at an interest of 3 per cent. In 1818, the public balances had fallen to about 
 7,000,000/. ; and they have been still further reduced, in consequence of measures that 
 were then adopted. Thev amoimted, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1831, 
 to 4,157,570/. — (See Table XII.) 
 
 A part of the public balances is formed of the dividends payable at the Bank, but 
 unclaimed. The balance arising from this source has sometimes amounted to above 
 1,000,000/.; but in 1808 and 1811, arrangements were made by which the balances 
 growing out of this fund have been much reduced. 
 
 (7. ) Management of Public Debt. — Previously to 1786, the Bank received an allowance 
 on this account — that is, for trouble in paying the dividends, superiti tending the trans- 
 fer of stock, &c. — of 5G2L 10s. a million. In 1786, this allowance was reduced to 
 450/. a million, the Bank being, at the same time, entitled to a considerable allowance 
 for her trouble in receiving contributions on loans, lotteries, &c. This, however, 
 though long regarded as a very improvident arrangement on the part of the public, 
 was acquiesced in till 1808, when the allowa*ice on account of management was reduced 
 to 340/. a million on 600,000,000/. of the public debt ; and to 300/. a million on all that 
 it exceeded that sum, exclusive of some separate allowances for annuities, &c. The im- 
 pression, however, was still entertained, that the allowances for management should be 
 further reduced; and the act 3&4\Vill. 4. c. 98., fo^ the renewal of the charter, 
 has directed that 1 20,000/. a year shall be deducted from their amount. During the 
 year ended the 5th of April, 1832, the Bank received 251,461/. for the management oi 
 
 » These arc (he averages of the total advances on the 26th of February, and the 26th of August, each 
 year. 
 
80 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the public debt, and annuities. This item may, therefore, be taken for the future at 
 about 130,000Z. a year.* — (^Report on Bank Charter, Appen. p. 35.) 
 
 It should be observed, that the responsibility and expense incurred by the Bank in 
 managing the public debt are very great. The temptation to the commission of 
 fraud in transferring stock from one individual to another, and in the payment of 
 the dividends, is well known ; and notwithstanding the skilfully devised system 
 of checks adopted by the Bank for its prevention, she has frequently sustained very 
 great losses by forgery and otherwise. In 1803, the Bank lost, through a fraud com- 
 mitted by one of her principal cashiers, Mr. Astlett, no less than 340,000/. ; and the 
 forgeries of Fauntleroy the banker cost her a still larger sum ! At an average of the 10 
 years ending with 1831, the Bank lost, through forgeries on the public funds, 40,204/. a 
 year.f — (^Report on Bank Charter, Appen. p. 165.) 
 
 The total sum paid by the public to the Bank on account of the loans raised. Exche- 
 quer bills funded, transfer of 3^ per cent, stock, &c. from 17&3 to 1820, both included, 
 amoimted to 426,795/. Is- \ \d. — {Pari. Paper, No. 81. Sess. 1822.) 
 
 (8.) Dead Weight. — Besides the transactions alluded to, the Bank entered, on the 20th 
 of March, 1823, into an engagement with government with respect to the public pensions 
 and annuities, or, as they have been more commonly termed, the dead weight. At the 
 end of the war, the naval and military pensions, superannuated allowances, &c. amounted 
 to above 5,000,000/. a year. They would, of course, have been gradually lessened and 
 ultimately extinguished by the death of the parties. But it was resolved, in 1822, to 
 attempt to spread the burden equally over the whole period oi forty-five years, during 
 which it was calculated the annuities would continue to decrease. To effect this 
 purpose, it was supposed that, upon government offering to pay 2,800,000/. a year for 
 45 years, capitalists would be found who would undertake to pay the entire annui- 
 ties^ according to a graduated scale previously determined upon, making the first year 
 a payment of 4,900,000/. and gradually decreasing the payments until the forty-fifth 
 and last year, when they were to amount to only 300,000/. This supposition was not, 
 however, realised. No capitalists were found willing to enter into such distant engage- 
 ments. But in 1823 the Bank agreed, on condition of receiving an annuity of 585,740/. 
 for forty -four years, commencing on the 5th of April, 1823, to pay, on account of the 
 pensions, &c., at different specified periods, between the years 1823 and 1828, both 
 inclusive, the sum of 13,089,419/. — (4 Geo. 4. c. 22.) 
 
 (9.) Rate of Discount. — The Bank discounted private bills at 5 per cent, during 
 nearly the whole period from her establishment till 1 824, when the rate was reduced to 4 per 
 cent. In 1 825, it was raised to 5 per cent. ; but was again reduced to 4 per cent, in 1827, 
 at which it continues. It may well be doubted, however, whether the rate of discount ought 
 not to be more frequently varied, as occasion may require. When the currency happens, 
 from any cause, to become redundant, its contraction, always a matter of some difficulty, 
 is to be eflfected only by the sale of bullion or public securities by the Bank, or by a 
 diminution of the usual discounts, or all. But were the Bank to throw any consider- 
 able amount of public securities upon the market, the circumstance would be apt to 
 excite alarm ; and, even though it did not, it would be difficult to dispose of them 
 without a heavy loss. Hence, when a reduction is determined upon, it is most com- 
 monly effected partly by a contraction of discounts ; and it is plain, that such con- 
 
 * See Table VI. for an account of the sums paid by the public to the Bank, for the management of 
 the public debt during the year 1829. 
 
 t We subjoin an abstract of the principal provisions in the late statute with respect to the forgery of 
 bank notes, powers of attorney, &c. 
 
 It is enacted, 1 Will. 4. c. 66., that if any person shall forge or alter, or shall offer, utter, dispose of, or 
 put off, knowing the same to be forged or altered, any Exchequer bill or Exchequer debenture, or any 
 indofsement on or assignation of any such bill or debenture, or any East India bond, or indorsement upon 
 or assignation of the same, or any note or bill of the Bank of England, or a bank post bill, or any 
 indorsement on or ass?^nment of any bank note, bank bill of exchange, or bank post bill, with intent to 
 defraud any person whatsoever, he shall be guilty of felony, and shall upon conviction sufffer death as a 
 
 Persons making false entries in the books of the Bank of England, or other books in which accounts of 
 public stocks or funds are kept, with intent to defraud, shall suffer death as felons. — § 5. 
 
 By the same act, the forging of any transfer of any share of, or interest in, or dividend upon, any public 
 stock or of a power of attorney to transfer the same, or to receive dividends thereon, is made capital. If 
 any person, falsely personating the owner of any share, interest, or dividend of any of the public funds, 
 thereby transfer such share, &c., and receive the money due to the lawful owner, he shall upon conviction 
 suffer death as a felon. — § 6. 
 
 And any person endeavouring hy such false personation to procure the transfer of any share, niterest, 
 &c. in the public funds, may, upon conviction, be transported beyond seas for life, or for any term not 
 less than seven years, or be imprisoned for any term not more than four, nor less than two years. — § 7. 
 
 The forgery of the attestation to any power of attorney for the transfer of stock is to be punished by 
 transportation for seven years, or by imprisonment for not more than two and not less than one year. 
 
 Clerks or servants of the Bank of England knowingly making out or delivering any dividend warrant 
 for a greater or less amount than the party in whose behalf such warrant is matle out is entitled to, may, 
 upon conviction, be transported beyond seas for the term of seven years, or imprisoned for not more thau, 
 two por less than one year. — ^ 9. 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 81 
 
 traction cannot be made except by rejecting altogether some of the bills sent in for 
 discount, or, which is in effect the same thing, by shortening their dates, or by raising 
 the rate of interest, so that fewer may be sent in. Of these methods, the last seems to 
 be in every respect the most expedient. When bills are rejected for no other reason 
 than that the currency may be contracted, the greatest injury is done to individuals, 
 who, entertaining no doubt of getting their usual accommodations from the Bank, may 
 have entered into transactions which they are thus deprived of the means of completing. 
 Were the reduction made by raising the rate of interest, it would principally affect those 
 who are best able to bear it ; at the same time that its operation, instead of being, like the 
 rejection of bills, arbitrary and capricious, would be uniform and impartial. It does, 
 therefore, seem that the Bank should never throw out good bills that she may contract 
 her issues; but that when she has resolved upon such a measure, she should, provided 
 the contraction cannot be made by the sale of bullion and public securities, raise the rate 
 of discount. The Bank could not, however, act in the way now suggested, until the 
 usury laws were modified ; but the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. cap. 98. has exempted all bills not 
 having more than 3 months to run from their operation ; and it is to be hoped that this 
 serious inroad on these antiquated, unjust, and impolitic laws may be followed by their 
 total repeal. 
 
 The dividends on Bank stock, from the establishment of the Company to the present 
 time, have been as follows : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Dividend. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Dividend. 
 
 1694 
 1697 
 1708 7 
 17293 
 
 Lady-day - - 1730 
 Michaelmas - 1730 
 Lady-day - , 1731 
 Michaelmas - 1731 
 Lady.day - - 1732 
 
 8 per cent. 
 
 9 — 
 Varied from 9 to 
 
 5i per cent. 
 6 — 
 51 - 
 6 — 
 5| - 
 6 — 
 
 Michaelmas - 1732 
 Lady-dav . - 1747 
 Ditto - . 1753 
 Michaelmas - 1764 
 Ditto . - 1767 
 Ditto - - - 1781 
 Lady-day - - 1788 
 Ditto - . - 1807 
 Ditto . - 1823 
 
 5| per cent 
 5 — 
 41 — 
 5 — 
 
 I' - 
 
 7 — 
 10 — 
 
 8 — 
 
 Previously to 1759, the Bank of England issued no notes for less than 20/. She 
 began to issue lOZ. notes in 1759; 51. notes in 1793; and IZ. and 21. notes in March, 
 1797. The issue of the latter ceased in 1821. 
 
 (10.) Interest on Deposits. — The Bank of England does not allow, either in London, 
 or at her branches, any interest on deposits ; but it would be exceedingly desirable if .she 
 could safely make some alteration in this respect. The want of tlie power readily to invest 
 small sums productively, and, at the same time, with perfect security, tends to weaken 
 the motives to save and accumulate. Nothing has contributed more to diffuse a spirit 
 of economy, and a desire to save, amongst all classes of the population of Scotland, than 
 the readiness with which deposits of small sums are received by banks of undoubted 
 solidity in that part of the country, and the allowance of interest upon them. — (See 
 Banks (Scotch).) This advantage is in some degree, indeed, secured in England, by 
 the institution of savings banks. These, however, are but a very inadequate substitute. 
 They are not open to all classes of depositors ; and of those to whom they are open, no 
 one can deposit more than 30Z. in a year, and 150Z. in all. — (See Banks (Savings).) But 
 it is desirable that every facility should be given to safe and profitable investments. 
 " Were the English banks, like the Scotch banks, to receive deposits of lOZ. and upwards, 
 and allow interest upon them at about 1 per cent, less than the market rate, they 
 would confer an immense advantage upon the community, and open a source of profit to 
 themselves. This is, in fact, a part of the proper business of a bank. A banker is a 
 dealer in capital, an intermediate party between the borrower and the lender. He 
 borrows of one party, and lends to another ; and the difference between the terms at 
 which he borrows and those at which he lends is the source of his profit. By this 
 means, he draws into active operation those small sums of money which were previously 
 unproductive in the hands of private individuals, and at the same time furnishes accom- 
 modation to another class, who have occasion for additional capital to carry on their 
 commercial transactions." — (See GilbarVs Practical Observations on Banking, p. 52.) 
 
 In further corroboration of what has now been stated, it may be mentioned that it 
 was estimated hy a very well-informed witness (Sir J. G. Craig), before the Lords' 
 Committee on Scotch and Irish Banking, in 1826, that the deposits in the Scotch banks, 
 at that period, amounted to about 24,000,000Z. , of which more than a half consisted of 
 sums from lOZ. to 200Z. ! This is a most satisfactory proof of the vast importance of the 
 system. Perhaps it is not going too far to affirm, that but for the receiving of deposits 
 by the banks, and the allowing of interest upon them, not one third of the sums under 
 200Z., and not one half of those above it, would ever have been accumulated. — (See Banks 
 (Scotch).) 
 
 We are not, however, able to say whether the Bank of England could offer interest 
 on deposits without having so large a sum forced upon her as might endanger her 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 stability. And it were better that the system should continue as at present, than that 
 any risk of this sort should be incurred. 
 
 Since 1826, the private deposits in the hands of the Bank have nearly doubled. Their 
 increase is mainly ascribable to the preceding panic, and the loss that was then occasioned 
 by the failure of private banks. 
 
 The composition paid by the Bank at the rate of 3,500/. per million, as an'equivalent 
 for the stamp duty on her notes, amounts, at an average, to about 70,000/. a year. 
 
 (11.) Method of conducting Business at the Bank. — All accounts kept at the Bank with 
 individuals are termed drawing accounts ; those with whom they are opened being entitled 
 to draw checks upon them, and to send the bills and drafts in their favour to be presented 
 by the Bank, exactly as if they dealt with private bankers. There is no fixed sum with 
 which an individual must open a drawing account ; nor is there any fixed sum which the 
 Bank requires him to keep at his credit to indemnify them for their trouble in answering 
 his drafts, &c. Mr. Horsley Palmer gave in his evidence the following statement as to 
 the facilities granted by the I5ank in drawing accounts since 1 825 : — 
 
 1. The Bank receive dividends by power of attorney for all persons having drawing accounts at the 
 Bank. 
 
 2. Dividend warrants are received at the Drawing. office for ditto. 
 
 3. Exchequer bills and other securities are received for ditto ; the bills exchanged, the interest received, 
 and the amount carried to their respective accounts. 
 
 4. Checks may be drawn for 51. and upwards, instead of 10/. as heretofore. 
 
 5. Cash-boxes taken in, contents unknown, for such parties as keep accounts at the Bank. 
 
 6. Bank notes are paid at the counter, instead of drawing tickets for thera on the pay clerks as hereto^ 
 fore. 
 
 7. Checks on city bankers paid in by three o'clock may be drawn for between lour and five; and 
 those paid in before four will be received and passed to account the same evening. 
 
 8. Checks paid in after four are sent out at nine o'clock the following morning, received and passed to 
 account, and may be drawn for as soon as received. 
 
 y. Dividend warrants taken in at the Drawing-office until five in the afternoon, instead of three as 
 heretofore. 
 
 10. Credits paid into account are received without the Bank book, and are afterwards entered therein 
 without the party claiming them. 
 
 11. Bills of exchange accepted payable at the Bank are paid with or without advice; heretofore with 
 advice only. 
 
 12. Notes of country bankers payable in London are sent out the same day for payment. 
 
 13. Checks are given out in books, and not in sheets as heretofore. 
 
 A person having a drawing account may have a discount account ; but no person can 
 have the latter without, at the same time, having the former. When a discount account 
 is opened, the signatures of the parties are entered in a book kept for the purpose, and 
 powers of attorney are granted, empowering the persons named in them to act for their 
 principals. No bill of exchange drawn in the country is discounted by the Bank in 
 London under 20/., nor London note under 100/., nor for a longer date, under existing 
 regulations, tlian three months. 
 
 The number of holidays formerly kept at the Bank has recently been reduced about 
 a half, in the view, as stated by the directors, of preventing the interruption of business. 
 There are no holidays in the months of March, June, September, and December, except- 
 ing Christmas ; Easter Monday and Tuesday are no longer kept. 
 
 We subjoin an account of the days for transferring stock, and when the dividends are 
 due at the Bank, the South Sea House, and the East India House : — 
 Transfer Days at the Bank. 3 
 
 Bank Stock. —Tues. Thurs. and Frid. -■) 
 3 per Cent. Red.— Tues. Wed. Thurs. f April 5. 
 
 and Frid. - - -f Oct. 10. 
 
 31 per Cent. 1818.— Tues. Thurs. and Frid. J 
 3 per Cent. 1726. — Tues. and Thurs. t„„ n 
 
 3 per Cent. Cons.— Tues. Wed. Thurs. V^^^^ ^• 
 
 Ved. Thurs.-) 
 
 - ( April 5. 
 ». — Mond. f Oct. 10. 
 
 and Frid. 
 
 Si per Cent. Red. —Tues. Wed. Thurs. 
 
 and Frid. 
 Long Annuit. to Jan 
 
 Wed. and Sat. 
 4 per Cent. 1826. — Mond. Wed. and f April 
 
 Frid. - - - -I Oct. 10. 
 
 New 3J per Cent Annuit. — Tues. Wed.") 
 
 Thurs. and Frid. - - -(Jan. .'5. 
 
 New 5 per Cent. Annuit. —Tues. Wed. f July 5. 
 
 and Frid. - - -J 
 
 Annuit. for Terms of Years, ending 7 Anril <> 
 10th of Oct. 18r>9, pursuant to 10 Geo. 
 4. — Tues. Thurs. and Sat. - -3 ^ *" 
 
 Annuit. for Terms of Years, ending 5th ^ 
 of Jan. 1860, pursuant to 10 Geo. 4- — f juiy 5 
 Tues. Thurs. and Sat. - -J ' ' 
 
 ife Annuit., if transferred between '^j ^ 
 Jan. 5. and April 4., or between July 5. > t„, * ^ 
 and Oct. 9. - - ^Juiyi?.. 
 
 ife Annuit., if transferred between 7 , 
 April 5. and July 4., or between Oct. 10. ,n 
 and Jan. 4. - - - .i""-^"- 
 
 At the South Sea House. 
 3| per Cents. — Mond. Wed. and Frid. - ^j^^^ |- 
 3 per Cent. Old Annuit. — Mond. Wed. C April 5. 
 
 and Frid. - - -I Oct. 10. 
 
 3 per Cent. New Annuit. — Tues. Thurs. ^ j^^^^ ^ 
 
 and Sat. - - - > t' 1 ' .-" 
 
 3 per Cent. 1751. — Tues. and Thurs. -3 
 
 At the East India House. 
 India Stock. — Tues. Thurs. and Sat . [ j^iy^ 
 
 C Mar 31 
 
 Interest on India Bonds, due - - J^sept'ao, 
 
 Tickets for preparing transfer of stock must be given in at each office before one o'clock : at the East 
 India House before two o'clock. Private transfers may be made at other times than as above, the books 
 not being sliut, by paying, at the Bank and India House, 2s. (></. extra for each transfer ; at the South Sea 
 House, '.Is. 6(<. , , . ., T .• TT . .1. » 
 
 Transfer at the Bank must be made by lialf-past two o'clock : at the India House, by three : at the 
 South Sea ftouse, by two : on Saturday, by one. 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 83 
 
 £spense of transfer in Bank Stock, for 25/. and under, 9s. ; above that sum, 12*. 
 
 India Stock, for 10/ 1/. 10s. 1/. 14s. 
 
 South Sea Stock, if under 100/ 9s. 6d.. 12s. 
 
 Powers of attorney for the sale or transfer of stock to bo lef t at the Bank, &c. for examination, one day 
 before they can be acted upon ; if for receiving dividends, present them at the time the first dividend is 
 jiayable. 
 
 The expense of a power of attorney is 11. Is. 6d. for each stock ; but for Bank, India, and South Sea 
 stock, 1/. lis. M. If wanted for the same day, half.past twelve o'clock is the latest time for receiving 
 orders. The boxes for receiving powers of attorney for sale close at two. 
 
 Trobates of wills, letters of administration, and other proofs of decease, must be left at the Bank, Sec. 
 for registration, from two or three clear days, exclusive of holidays. 
 
 Stock cannot be added to any account (whether single or joint) in which the decease of the individual, 
 or one or more of a joint party, has taken place; and the decease to be proved as soon as practicable. 
 Powers of attorney, in case of the death of a party or parties granting it, become void. 
 
 The unaltered possession of 500/. or upwards Bank stock, for six months clear, gives the proprietor a 
 vote. 
 
 (12.) Branch Banhs of the Bank of England. — The Bank of England, as already- 
 observed, has within these few years established branch banks at several of the most 
 considerable towns throughout the country. The mode and terms of conducting business 
 at these establishments have been described as follows : — 
 
 " The branch bank (of Swansea, and the same is true of those established in other 
 places) is to be a secure place of deposit for persons having occasion to make use of a 
 bank for that purpose ; such persons are said to have drawing accounts : to facilitate to the 
 mercantile and trading classes the obtaining discounts of good and unexceptionable bills, 
 founded upon real transactions, two approved names being required upon every bill or 
 note discounted ; these are called discount accounts. The application of parties who 
 desire to open discount accounts at the branch are forwarded every Saturday to the 
 parent establishment for approval, and an answer is generally received in about ten days. 
 When approved, good bills may be discounted at the branch without reference to London. 
 Bills payable at Swansea, London, or any other place where a branch is established, are 
 discounted under this regulation. The dividends on any of the public funds, which are 
 payable at the Bank of England, may be received at the branch, by persons who have 
 opened * drawing accounts,' after signing powers of attorney for that purpose, which the 
 branch will procure from London. No charge is made in this case, except the expense 
 of the power of attorney and the postages. Purchases and sales of every description 
 of government securities are eftected by the branch at a charge of j per cent., 
 which includes brokerage in London, and all expenses of postage, &c. A charge of 
 i per cent, is also made on paying at the Bank of England, bills accepted by per- 
 sons having drawing accounts at Swansea, such bills to be advised by the branch ; also 
 for granting letters of credit on London, or on the other branches. The branch grants 
 bills on London, payable at 21 days' date, without acceptance, for sums of IQ>L and 
 upwards. Persons having drawing accounts at Swansea may order money to be paid at 
 the Bank in London to their credit at this place, and vice versa, without expense. The 
 branch may be called upon to change any notes issued and dated at Swansea ; but they 
 do not change the notes of the Bank in London, nor receive them in payment, unless as 
 a matter of courtesy where the parties are known. Bank post bills, which are accepted 
 and due, are received at the branch from parties having drawing accounts, and taken to 
 account without any charge for postage ; but unaccepted Bank post bills, which must be 
 sent to London, are subject to the charge of postage, and taken to account when due. 
 No interest is allowed on deposits.. No advance is made by the branch upon any 
 description of landed or other property, nor is any account allowed to be overdrawn. 
 The notes are the same as those issued by the parent establishment, except being dated 
 Swansea, and made payable there and in London. No note issued exceeds the sum of 
 500/., and none are for a less amount than 51" 
 
 (13.) Act for the Renewal of the Charter. — We subjoin a full abstract of the act 3 & 
 4 Will. 4. c. 98., continuing the charter, and regulating the exclusive privileges of the 
 Bank of England. 
 
 The first section, after referring to the acts 39 & 40 Geo. 3. c. 28., and the 7 Geo. 4. c. 46., goes on to 
 declare that it is expedient that certain exclusive privileges of banking be continued to the Governor 
 and Company of the Bank of England, for the period, and upon the terms and conditions herein-after 
 mentioned. — \\. 
 
 No Banking Company of more than 6 Persons to issue Notes payable on Demand within London, or 65 
 Miles t/iereof. — That during the continuance of the said privilege, no body politic or corporate, and no 
 society or company, or persons united or to be united in covenants or partners.hips, exceeditig 6 persons, 
 shall make or issue in London, or within 65 miles thereof, any bili of exchange or promissory note, or 
 engagement for the payment of money on demand, or upon which any person holding the same may 
 obtain payment on demand: provided always, that nothing herein or in the said act of the 7 Geo. 4. 
 c. 46. contained shall be construed to prevent any body politic or corporate, or atiy society or companv» 
 or incorporated company or corporation, or co-partnership, carrying on and transacting banking business 
 at any greater distance than 65 miles from London, and not having any house of business or establish- 
 ment as bankers in London, or within 65 nnics thereof, (except as herein-after mentioned,) to make and 
 issue their bills and notes, payable on demand or otherwise, at the place at which the same shall be issued, 
 being more than 65 miles from London, and also in London, and to have an agent or agents in London, 
 , or at any other place at which such bills or notes shall be made payable, for the purpose of payment only, 
 but no such bill or note shall be for any sum less than 51., or be re-issued in London, or within 65 milei 
 thereof.— ^2. 
 
 G 2 
 
84. 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND 
 
 Companies or Partnerships may carry on Banking in London, or within 65 Miles thereof . And 
 whereas the intention of this act is, that the Bank of England should, during the period stated in this 
 act (subject nevertheless to such redemption as is described in this act), continue to hold and enjoy all the 
 exclusive j)rivileges of banking given by the act 39 & 40 Geo. 3. c. 28. as regulated by the act 7 Geo. 4. 
 c. 46. or any prior or subsequent act or acts of parliamejit, but no other or further exclusive privilege 
 of banking : and whereas doubts have arisen as to the construction of the said acts, and as to the extent 
 of such exclusive privilege; and it is expedient that all such doubts should be removed, be it therefore 
 declared and enacted, that any body politic or corporate, or society, or company, or partnership, although 
 consisting of more than 6 persons, may carry on the trade or business of banking in London, or within 
 65 miles thereof, provided that such body politic or corporate, or society, or company, or partnership, do 
 not borrow, owe, or take up in England any sum or sums r>f money on their bills or notes payable on 
 demand, or at any less time than 6 months from the borrowing thereof, during the continuance of the 
 privileges granted by this act to the said Governor and Company of the Bank of England. — ^3. 
 
 An Bank of England Notes payable on Demand issued out of London payable at the Place where 
 issued, 4c. — From and after the 1st of August, l&3i, all promissory notes payable on demand of the 
 Governor and Company of the Bank of England issued at any pl.ice in England out of London, where 
 the trade and business of banking shall be carried on for and on behalf of the said Governor and Com- 
 pany, shall be made payable at the place where such promissory notes shall be issued ; and it shall not be 
 lawful for the said Governor and Company, or any committee, agent, cashier, officer, or servant of the 
 same, to issue at any place out of London, any promissory note payable on demand not made payable at 
 the place where the same shall be issued, any thing in the said act 7 Geo. 4. c. 46. to the contrary not- 
 withstanding. — § 4. 
 
 Exclusive Privileges to end upon One Year's Notice at the end of 10 Years after August, 1834. — Upon 
 one year's notice given within 6 months after the expiration of 10 years from the 1st of August, 18 )4, 
 and upon repayment by parliament to the said Governor and Company, or their successors, of all principal 
 money, interest, or annuities which may be due from the public to the said Governor and Company at the 
 time of the expiration of such notice, as is herein. after stipulated and provided in the event of such notice 
 being deferred until after the 1st of August, 1855, the exclusive privileges of banking granted by this act 
 shall cease and determine at the expiration of such year's notice ; and any vote or resolution of the 
 House of Commons, signified by the Speaker of the said house in writing, and delivered at the public office 
 of the said Governor and Company, or their successors, shall be deemed and adjudged to be a sufficient 
 notice. — h 5. 
 
 Bank Notes to be a legal Tender, except at the Bank and Branch Banks. — From and after the 1st of 
 August, 1834, unless and until parliament shall otherwise direct, a tender of a note or notes of the 
 Governor and Company of the Bank of England, expressed to be payable to bearer on demand, shall be a 
 legal tender, to the amount expressed in such note or notes, and shall be taken to be valid as a tender to 
 guch amount for all sums above 51. on all occasions on which any tender of money may be legally made, 
 so long as the Bank of England shall continue to pay on demand their said notes in legal coin : provided 
 always, that no such note or notes shall be deemed a legal tender of payment by the Governor and Com- 
 pany of the Bank of England, or any branch bank of the said Governor and Company ; but the said 
 Governor and Company are not to become liable or be required to pay and satisfy, at any branch bank of 
 the said Governor and Company, any note or notes of the said Governor and Company not made specially 
 payable at such branch bank ; but the said Governor and Company shall be liable to pay and satisfy at the 
 Bank of England in London all notes of the said Governor and Company, or of any branch thereof. — \ 6. 
 
 Bills not having more thanS Months to run, not subject to Usury Laws. — No bill of exchange or 
 promissory note made payable at or within 3 months after the date thereof, or not having more than 3 
 months to run, shall, by reason of any interest taken thereon or secured thereby, or any agreement to pay 
 or receive or allow interest in discounting, negotiating or transferring the same, be void, nor shall the 
 liability of any party to any bill of exchange or promissory note be affected by reason of any statute or 
 law in force for the prevention of usury ; nor shall any person or persons drawing, accepting, indorsing, 
 or signing any such bill or note, or lending or advancing any money, or taking more than the present 
 rate of legal interest in Great Britain and Ireland respectively for the loan of money on any such bill or 
 note, be subject to any penalties under any statute or law relating to usury, or any other penalty or for- 
 feiture ; any thing in any law or statute relating to usury in any part of the United Kingdom to the con. 
 trary notwithstanding. — ^7. 
 
 Accounts of Bullion and of Notes in Circulation to be sent tveekly to the Chancellor of the Exchequer. — - 
 An account of the amount of bullion and securities in the Bank of England belonging to the said 
 Governor and Company, and of notes in circulation, and of deposits in the said Bank, shall be trans- 
 mitted weekly to the Chancellor of the Exchequer for the time being, and such accounts shall be con- 
 solidated at the end of every month, and an average state of the Bank accounts of the preceding 2 
 months, made from such consolidated accounts as aforesaid, shall be published every month in the next 
 succeeding London Gazette. — ^8. 
 
 Public to pay the Bank i Part o/ 14,686,800/. — One fourth part of the debt of 14,686,800/., now due 
 from the public to the Governor and Company of the Bank of England, shall and may be repaid to the said 
 Governor and Company. — ^9. 
 
 Capital Stock of the Bank may be reduced. — A general court of proprietors of the said Governor and 
 Company of the Bank of England shall be held some time between the passing of this act and the 5th of 
 October, 1834, to determine upon the propriety of dividing and appropriating the sum of 3,638,250/. out 
 of or by means of the sum to be repaid to the said Governor and Company as before mentioned, or out of 
 or by means of the fund to be provided for that purpose amongst the several persons, bodies politic or 
 corporate, who may be proprietors of the capital stock of the said Governor and Company on the said 5th 
 of October, 1834, and upon the manner and the time for making such division and appropriation, not 
 inconsistent with the provisions for that purpose herein contained; and in case such general court, or 
 any adjourned general court, shall determine that it will be proper to make such division, then, but not 
 otherwise, the capital stock of the said Governor and Company shall be, and the same is hereby declared to 
 be reduced from the sum of 14,553,000/., of which the same now consi.sts, to the sum of 10,914,750/., making 
 a reduction or difference of 3,638,250/. capital stock, and such reduction shall take place from and after 
 the 5th of October, 18.j4 ; and thereupon, out of or by means of the sum to be repaid to the said Governor 
 and Company as herein-before mentioned, or out of or by means of the fund to be provided for that purpose, 
 the sum of 3,638,250/. sterling, or such proportion of the said fund as shall represent the same, shall be 
 appropriated and divided amongst the several persons, bodies politic or corporate, who may be proprietors 
 of the said sum of 14,5.53,000/. Bank stock on the said 5th of October, 1834, at the rate of 25/. sterling for 
 every 100/. of Bank stock which such persons, bodies politic and corporate, may then be proprietors of, or 
 shall have standing in their respective names in the books kept by the said Governor and Company for the 
 entry and transfer of such stock, and so in proportion for a greater or lesser sum. — \ 10. 
 
 Governor, Deputy, or Directors not to be disqualified by Reduction of their Share of the Capital Stock. — 
 The reduction of the share of each proprietor in the capital stock of the said Governor and Company of 
 the Bank of England, by the repayment of such i part thereof, shall not disqualify the present governor, 
 deputy governor, or directors, or any or either of them, or any governor, deputy governor, or director 
 who may be chosen in the room of the present governor, deputy governor, or directors at pny time before 
 the general court of the said Governor and Company to be hold between the 25th of March and the 25tlj 
 of A|)ril, 1835 : provided that at the said general court, and from and after the same, no governor, deputy 
 governor, or director of the said corporation shall be capable of being chosen such governor, deputy 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND 
 
 S5 
 
 governor, or director, or shall continue in his or their respective offices, unless he or they respectively 
 shall at the time of such choice have, and during such his respective office continue to have, in his and 
 their respective name, in his and their own right, and for his and their own use, the respective sums or 
 shares of and in the capital stock of the said corporation in and hy the charter of the said Governor and 
 Company prescribed as the qualification of governor, deputy governor, and directors resj)ectively. — ^ J 1. 
 
 Proprietors not (o he disqualified. — Provided also, and be it enacted, that no i)roi)rietor shall be dis. 
 qualified from attending and voting at any general court of the said Governor and Company to be held 
 between the said 5th of October, 1834, and the 25th of April, IS35, in consequence of the share of such 
 proprietor of the capital stock of the said Governor and Company having been reduced by such repayment 
 as aforesaid below the sum of 500/. of the said capital stock; provided such proprietor had in his own 
 name the full sum of 500/. of the said capital stock on the said 6th of October, 1834 ; nor shall any pro- 
 prietor be required, between the said 5th of October, 1834, and 4he 25th of April, 1835, to take the oath 
 of qualification in the said charter. — § 12. 
 
 Bank to deduct 1 20,000/. /row Sum allowed for Management of National Debt. — From and after the 
 1st of August, 1834, the said Governor and Company, in consideration of the privileges of exclusive bank- 
 ing given by this act, shall, during the continuance of such privileges, but no longer, deduct from the 
 sums now payable to them, for the charges of management of the public unredeemed debt, the annual 
 sum of 120,000/., any thing in any act or acts of parliament or agreement to the contrary notwithstand- 
 ing : provided always, that such deduction shall in no respect i)rejudice or afTect the right of the said 
 Governor and Company to be paid for the management of the public debt at the rate and according to the 
 terms provided by the act 48 Geo. 3. c. 4., intituled " An Act to authorize the advancing for the public 
 Service, upon certain Conditions, a Proportion of the Balance remaining in the Bank of England for Pay- 
 ment of unclaimed Dividends, Annuities, and Lottery Prizes, and for regulating the Allowances to be 
 made for the Management of the National Debt." — ^ 13. 
 
 Provisions of Act of 39 8{ 40 Geo. 3. to remain in force, except as altered by this Act. — All the powers, 
 authorities, franchises, privileges, and advantages given or recognised by the said recited act of the 39& 
 40 Geo. 3. c. 28. aforesaid, as belonging to or enjoyed by the Governor and Company of the Bank of England, 
 or by any subsequent act or acts of parliament, shall be and the same are hereby declared to be in full 
 force, and continued by this act, except so far as the same are altered by this act, subject nevertheless to 
 such redemption upon the terms and conditions following; (that is to say,Uhat at any time, upon 12 
 months' notice to be given after the 1st of August, 1855, and upon repayment by parliament to the said 
 Governor and Company, or their successors, of the sum of 11,015,100/., being the debt which will remain 
 due from the public to the said Governor and Company after the payment of the \ of the debt of 
 14,686,804/. as herein-before provided, without any deduction, discount, or abatement whatsoever, and 
 upon payment to the said Governor and Company and their successors of all arrears of the sum of 
 100,000/. per annum in the said act of 39 & 40 Geo. 3. aforesaid mentioned, together with the interest or 
 annuities payable upon the said debt or in respect thereof, and also upon repayment of all the principal 
 and interest which shall be owing unto the said Governor and Company and their successors upon all 
 such tallies, exchequer orders, exchequer bills, or parliamentary funds which the said Governor and Com- 
 pany, or their successors, shall have remaining in their hands or be entitled to at the time of such notice 
 to be given as last aforesaid, then and in such case, and not till then, (unless under the proviso herein- 
 before contained,) the said exclusive privileges of banking granted by this act shall cease and determine 
 at the expiration of such notice of 12 months. — \ 14. 
 
 Tables exhibiting a View of the Circulation, Deposits, Profits, 8j-c. of the Bank of England. 
 
 No. I. — A Return of the Number of Persons convicted of Forgery, or passing forged Notes and Post Bills 
 of the Bank of England, in each Year, from 1791 to 1829, inclusive. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Capital 
 Convic- 
 tions. 
 
 Convictions 
 for having 
 forged Bank 
 Notes in 
 Possession. 
 
 Total Num- 
 ber of Con- 
 victions each 
 Year. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Capital 
 Convic- 
 tions. 
 
 Convictions 
 for having 
 forged Bank 
 
 Notes in 
 Possession. 
 
 Total Num. 
 ber of Con- 
 victions each 
 Year. 
 
 1791-1796 
 
 nil. 
 
 nil. 
 
 nil. 
 
 1813 
 
 9 
 
 49 
 
 58 
 
 1797 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1814 
 
 5 
 
 39 
 
 44 
 
 1798 
 
 11 
 
 
 11 
 
 1815 
 
 8 
 
 51 
 
 59 
 
 1799 
 
 12 
 
 
 12 
 
 1816 
 
 20 
 
 84 
 
 104 
 
 1800 
 
 29 
 
 
 29 
 
 1817 
 
 33 
 
 95 
 
 128 
 
 1801 
 1802 
 
 32 
 
 1 ' 
 
 33 
 
 1818 
 
 62 
 
 165 
 
 227 
 
 32 
 
 12 
 
 44 
 
 1819 
 
 33 
 
 160 
 
 193 
 
 1803 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1820 
 
 77 
 
 275 
 
 352 
 
 1804 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 1821 
 
 41 
 
 93 
 
 134 
 
 1805 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 1822 
 
 16 
 
 
 16 
 
 1806 
 
 nil. 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 1823 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 1807 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 40 
 
 1824 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 1808 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 32 
 
 1825 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 1809 
 
 23 
 
 29 
 
 52 
 
 1826 
 
 18 
 
 " 4 ' 
 
 22 
 
 1810 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 1827 
 
 24 
 
 
 24 
 
 1811 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 1828 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 1812 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 52 
 
 1829 
 
 13 
 
 1 " 
 
 14 
 
 The Bank of England does not possess the means of stating or distinguishing the punishments inflicted 
 for the said crimes. 
 
 No. li. — A Return of the Number of Persons convicted of Forgery on the Bank of England connected 
 with the Public Funds, Bills of Exchange, or otherwise, except Bank Notes, &c., in each Year, from 
 1791 to 1829, inclusive. 
 
 ConvictioBS. 
 
 Convictions. 
 
 Convictions. 
 
 Convictions. 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1 
 
 1800 
 
 1 
 
 1810 
 
 nil. 
 
 18207 
 
 nil 
 
 1791 
 
 
 nil. 
 
 1801 . - 
 
 nil. 
 
 1811 - 
 
 2 
 
 18215 ' 
 
 1792 
 
 
 2 
 
 1802 
 
 1 
 
 1812 
 
 nil. 
 
 1822 
 
 1 
 
 1793- 
 
 
 
 1803 - 
 
 1 
 
 1813 . 
 
 2 
 
 1823 
 
 nil 
 
 1794 
 
 
 nil. 
 
 1804 - 
 
 1 
 
 1814 
 
 1 
 
 1824 
 
 1 
 
 1795: 
 
 
 
 1805 . 
 
 1 
 
 1815 - 
 
 nil. 
 
 1825 ■) 
 
 
 1796 
 
 
 2 
 
 1806 
 
 nil. 
 
 1816 
 
 2 
 
 1826 f 
 
 nil. 
 
 1797 
 
 
 nil. 
 
 1807 . 
 
 1 
 
 1817 
 
 3 
 
 1827 C ■ 
 
 1798 
 
 
 3 
 
 1808 
 
 nil. 
 
 1818 7 
 
 nil. 
 
 1828 3 
 
 
 1799 
 
 
 nil. 
 
 1809 - 
 
 1 
 
 1819 i " 
 
 1S29 
 
 2 
 
 The Bank of England does not possess the means of stating or distinguishing the punishments inflicted 
 for the said crime*. — (2Gth of May, 1830. 
 
 G 3 
 
S6 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 No. 1 II,— An Account of the Average Market Price of Bullion in each Year, from 1800 to 1821 (taken from 
 otiicial Documents), of the Average Value per Cent, of the Currency, estimated by the Market Price 
 of Gold for the same Period, and of the Average Depreciation per Cent. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Average Price of 
 Gold per oz. 
 
 Average erCent 
 of the Value of 
 the Currency. 
 
 Average Depre- 
 ciation per Cent. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Average Price of 
 Gold per oz. 
 
 Average erCent 
 of the Value of 
 the Currency. 
 
 Average Depre- 
 ciation per Cent. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1800 
 
 3 17 10| 
 
 100 0 0 
 
 Nil. 
 
 1811 
 
 4 4 6 
 
 92 3 2 
 
 7 16 10 
 
 1801 
 
 4 5 0 
 
 91 12 4 
 
 8 7 8 
 
 1812 
 
 4 15 6 
 
 79 5 3 
 
 20 14 9 
 
 1802 
 
 4 4 0 
 
 92 14 2 
 
 7 5 10 
 
 1813 
 
 5 1 0 
 
 77 2 0 
 
 22 18 0 
 
 1803 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1814 
 
 5 4 0 
 
 74 17 6 
 
 25 2 6 
 
 1801 
 
 4 0 o; 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1815 
 
 4 13 e 
 
 83 5 9 
 
 16 14 3 
 
 1805 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1816 
 
 4 13 6 
 
 83 5 9 
 
 16 14 3 
 
 1806 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1817 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1807 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1818 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1808 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1819 
 
 4 16 
 
 95 11 0 
 
 4 9 0 
 
 1809 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1820 
 
 3 19 11 
 
 97 8 0 
 
 2 12 0 
 
 1810 
 
 4 10 0 
 
 86 10 6 
 
 13 9 6 
 
 1821 
 
 3 17 IQA 
 
 100 0 0 
 
 Nil. 
 
 No. IV. —Account of the Debts and Assets (exclusive of the Bank Capital) of the Bank of England j 
 exhibiting, on the one hand, the Amount of Bank Notes, Post Bills, &c. in Circulation, and of the 
 public and private Deposits in the Hands of the Bank ; and, on the other, the Amount of the various 
 public and private Securities, and of the Bullion held by the Bank, on the 31st of August, in each 
 Year, from 1778 to 1831 inclusive. — (From the Appendix, No. 5. of Report on Bank Charter.) 
 
 31 August, 1778. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1779. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1780. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1781. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1782. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 SO August, 17S3. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1784. 
 Civculation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1785. 
 Circulation 
 
 I 
 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1786. 
 Circulation 
 Deiwsits 
 
 £ 
 
 4,715,580 
 
 11,473,650 
 
 7,276,540 
 5,201,040 
 
 12,477,580 
 
 6,341,600 
 6,655,800 
 
 12,997,400 
 
 6,309,430 
 5,921,630 
 
 12,231,060 
 
 6,759,310 
 6,759,450 
 
 13,518,760 
 
 6,307,270 
 6,105,650 
 
 12,412,920 
 
 5,592,510 
 6,267,130 
 
 11,859,640 
 
 6,570,650 
 6,252,030 
 
 12,822,680 
 
 8,184,330 
 5,867,240 
 
 14,051,570 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1778. 
 (•Public 
 i Private 
 
 Rest, 1,282,740/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1779. 
 r Public 
 \ Private 
 
 - Rest, 1,355,560/. 
 
 31 August, 1780. 
 f Public 
 i Private 
 
 Securities 
 BuUion 
 
 . . - Rest, 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 . . - Rest, 1,742,040/. 
 
 1,527,510/. 
 
 31 August, 1781, 
 r Public 
 X Private 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 August, 1782. 
 
 (•Public 
 
 X Private • 
 
 Rest, 1,921,580/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 SO August, 1783 
 f Public 
 X Private 
 
 2,018,960/. 
 
 31 August, 1784. 
 f Public 
 i Private 
 
 - Rest, 2,204,570/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1785. 
 f Public 
 X Private 
 
 - - Rest, 2,608,930/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1786. 
 (• Public 
 X Private 
 
 Rest, 2,638,260/. 
 
 6,540,433: 
 3,087,537: 
 
 7,493.649 
 2,336,191. 
 
 6,740,514 
 3,605,026 
 
 6,609,457 7 
 4,501,053 i 
 
 8,987,573 7 
 4,496,2173 
 
 9,566,037 \ 
 4,275,763 j 
 
 8,435,777 7 
 4,088,6033 
 
 6,725,891 7 
 3,218,6793 
 
 7,988,241 X 
 2,390,5393 
 
 £ 
 
 9,627,970 
 3,128,420 
 
 12,756,390 
 
 9,849,840 
 3,983,300 
 
 13,833,140 
 
 10,345,540 
 4,179,370 
 
 14,524,910 
 
 11,110,510 
 
 2,862,590 
 
 13,973,100 
 
 13,483,790 
 1,956,550 
 
 15,440,340 
 
 13,841,800 
 
 590,080 
 
 14,431,880 
 
 12,524,380 
 1,539,830 
 
 14,064,210 
 
 9,944,570 
 5,487,040 
 
 15,431,610 
 
 10,378,780 
 6,311,050 
 
 16,689,830 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Amount of Notes in Circulation, and Deposits, and Securities held by the Bank 
 
 — continued. 
 
 87 
 
 31 August, 1787. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 30 August, 1788. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1789 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1790. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1791. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1192. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1793. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 30 August, 1794. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1795. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1796. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1797. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1798. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1799. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 9,685,720 
 5,031,540 
 
 15,317,260 
 
 10,002,880 
 5,528,640 
 
 15,531,520 
 
 11,121,800 
 6,402,450 
 
 17,524,250 
 
 11,433,340 
 6,199,200 
 
 17,632,540 
 
 11,672,320 
 6,437,730 
 
 18,110,050 
 
 11,006,300 
 5,526,480 
 
 10,865,050 
 6,442,810 
 
 17,307,1 
 
 10,286,780 
 5,935,710 
 
 16,222,490 
 
 10,862,200 
 8,154,980 
 
 9,246,790 
 6,656,320 
 
 15,903,110 
 
 11,114,120 
 
 7,765,350 
 
 18,879,470 
 
 12,180,610 
 8,300,720 
 
 20,481,330 
 
 13,389,490 
 7,642,240 
 
 21,031,730 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1787. 
 ( Public 
 I Private 
 
 Rest, 2,829,400^. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 30 August, 1788. 
 C Public 
 (_ Private 
 
 - Rest, 2,937,960/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1789. 
 (■ Public 
 i Private 
 
 Rest, 2,819,370/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1790. 
 ("Public 
 I Private - 
 
 - - - Rest, 2,757,310/. 
 
 31 August, 1791. 
 securities - {?,ta?e i 
 Bullion 
 
 - - - Rest, 2,765,400/. 
 
 8,066,303 > 
 3,787,3573 
 
 8,840,068 7 
 2,730,2523 
 
 9,661,859 7 
 2,035,9013 
 
 10,047,257 ■ 
 1,956,263. 
 
 10,921,300 7 
 1,898,6403 
 
 11,853,600 
 6,293,000 
 
 18,140,fi60 
 
 11,570,320 
 6,899,160 
 
 18,469,480 
 
 11,697,700 
 8,645,860 
 
 20,343,620 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1792. 
 
 (■Public - 10,715,041 
 i Private 
 
 3,715,041 7 
 3,190,8693 
 
 - Rest, 2,730,510/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1793. 
 (" Public 
 I Private 
 
 12,003,520 
 8,386,330 
 
 20,389,850 
 
 12,819,940 
 8,055,510 
 
 20,875,450~ 
 
 13,905,910 
 5,357,380 
 
 19,263,290 
 
 Rest, 2,823, 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 30 August, 1794. 
 y Public 
 i Private 
 
 - - - Rest, 2,994,080/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1795. 
 (■Public 
 t Private 
 
 - Rest, 3,109,C 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1796. 
 f Public 
 i Private 
 
 . - - Rest, 3,245,310/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1797. 
 ("Public 
 (.Private 
 
 10,381,838 7 
 4,427,8423 
 
 8,863,048 7 
 3,583,4123 
 
 13,250,904 ; 
 3,739,016' 
 
 10,875,347 7. 
 6,150,1233 
 
 8,765,224 7 
 9,495,9463 
 
 Rest, 3,471,320/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1798. 
 ("Public 
 I Private 
 
 - - - Rest, 3,414,410/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 179 
 C Public 
 l Private 
 
 0,930,038 7 
 6,419,602 3 
 
 9,452,9557 
 7,477,4853 
 
 Rest, 2,899,490/. 
 O 4, 
 
 14,809,680 
 5,322,010 
 
 20,131,690 
 
 12,446,460 
 6,770,110 
 
 19,216,570 
 
 16,989,920 
 5,136,350 
 
 22,126,270 
 
 17,025,470 
 2,122,950 
 
 19,148,420 
 
 18,261,170 
 4,089,620 
 
 22,350,790 
 
 17,349,640 
 6,546,100 
 
 23,895,740 
 
 16,930,440 
 7,000,780 
 
88 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Amount of Notes in Circulation, and Deposits, and Securities held by the Bank — continued. 
 
 30 August, 1800. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 SI August, 1801. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1802. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1803. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1804. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1805. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits - ; 
 
 31 August, 1806. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1807. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1808. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1809. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1810. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1811. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 .■31 August, 1812. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 15,047,180 
 8,335,060 
 
 23,382,240 
 
 14,556,110 
 8,133,830 
 
 22,689,940 
 
 17,097,630 
 9,739,140 
 
 26,836,770 
 
 15,983,330 
 9,817,240 
 
 25,800,570 
 
 17,153,890 
 9,715,530 
 
 26,869,420 
 
 16,388,400 
 14,048,080 
 
 30,436.480 
 
 21,027,470 
 9,636,330 
 
 30,663,800 
 
 19,678,360 
 11,789,200 
 
 31,467,560 
 
 17,111,290 
 13,012,510 
 
 30,123,800 
 
 19,574,180 
 12,257,180 
 
 31,831,360 
 
 24,793,990 
 13,617,520 
 
 3,411,510 
 
 23,286,850 
 11,075,660 
 
 34,362,510 
 
 23,026,880 
 11,848,910 
 
 34,875,790 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 30 August, 1800. 
 ("Public 
 I Private 
 
 Rest, 3,906,630^. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1801. 
 C Public 
 ? Private 
 
 - Rest, 3,854,890/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 180^ 
 f Public 
 ? Private 
 
 - Rest, 4,168,370/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1803. 
 
 f Public 
 " /Private 
 
 Rest, 4,710,770/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1804. 
 C Public 
 # Private 
 
 - Rest, 4,836,450/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1805. 
 (" Public 
 ? Private 
 
 Rest, 4,960,870/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1806. 
 f Public 
 / Private 
 
 - Rest, 5,024,320/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1807. 
 r Public 
 i Private 
 
 Rest, 4,953,740/L 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1808. 
 C Public 
 i Private 
 
 Rest, 5,136,230/. 
 
 31 August, 1809. 
 (■ Public 
 I Private 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 - - - Rest, 5,256,390/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1810. ' 
 f Public 
 / Private 
 
 Rest, 5,754,110/. 
 
 Securitips 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1811 
 C Public 
 Private 
 
 Rest, 5,964,070/1 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 81 August, 1812. 
 f Public 
 / Private 
 
 13,586,590 i 
 8,551,830J 
 
 11,926,873 
 10,282,697 
 
 13,528,599 7 
 13,584,761 5 
 
 13,336,179 7 
 13,582,661 i 
 
 14,993,395 
 10,833,285 
 
 11,413,266 7 
 16,359,584] 
 
 14.167,772 7 
 15,305,328 i 
 
 13,410,055 ; 
 16,526,895 J 
 
 14,956,394 7 
 14,2a7,696j 
 
 15,307,673 
 18,127,597 
 
 17,198,677 7 
 23,775,0933 
 
 21,884,248 7 
 15,199,032 J 
 
 21,165,iy07 
 17,010,9303 
 
 - Rest, 6,399,600/. 
 
 22,138,420 
 5,150,450 
 
 27,288,870 
 
 22,209,570 
 4,335,260 
 
 26,544,830 
 
 27,113,360 
 3,891,780 
 
 31,005,140 
 
 26,918,840 
 3,592,500 
 
 25,826,680 
 5,879,190 
 
 31,705,870 
 
 27,772,850 
 7,624,500 
 
 35,397,350 
 
 29,473,100 
 6,215,020 
 
 35,688,120 
 
 29,936,950 
 6,484,350 
 
 36,421,300 
 
 29,244,090 
 6,015,940 
 
 35,260,030" 
 
 33,435,270 
 3,652,480 
 
 37,087,750 
 
 40,973,770 
 3,191,850 
 
 44,165,( 
 
 37,083,280 
 3,243,300 
 
 38,176,120 
 3,099.270 
 
 41,275,390 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Amount of Notes in Circulation, and Deposits, and Securities held by the Bank — continued. 
 
 89 
 
 31 August, 1813. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1814. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1815. 
 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1816. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 50 August, 1817. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1818. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1819. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1820. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1821. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 51 August, 1822. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 30 August, 1823. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1824. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1825. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 24,828,120 
 11,159,730 
 
 35,987,850 
 
 28,368,290 
 14,849,940 
 
 43,218,230 
 
 27,248,670 
 12,696,000 
 
 39,944,670 
 
 26,758,720 
 11,856,380 
 
 58,615,100 
 
 29,543,780 
 9,084,590 
 
 2,150 
 7,730 
 
 34,129,! 
 
 25,252,690 
 6,304,160 
 
 31,556,850 
 
 24,299,340 
 4,420,910 
 
 28,720,250 
 
 20,295,300 
 5,818,450 
 
 26,113,750 
 
 17,464,790 
 6,399,440 
 
 23,864,230 
 
 19,231,240 
 7,827,350 
 
 27,058,590 
 
 20,132,120 
 9,679,810 
 
 ,811,930 
 
 19,598,840 
 6,410,560 
 
 25,809,400 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1813. 
 ("Public 
 1 Private 
 
 591, 
 14,514,744 
 
 25,591,536 ^ 
 
 Rest, 6,830,500/. 
 
 40,106,080 
 2,712,270 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1814. 
 
 f Public 
 ■ I Private 
 
 Rest, 7,225,4W. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1815. 
 (■Public 
 1 Private 
 
 Rest, 8,318,550i 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1816. 
 (•Public 
 i Private 
 
 34,982,485 > 
 13,363,4753 
 
 24,194,086 > 
 20,660,0943 
 
 26,097,431 > 
 11,182,1093 
 
 Rest, 6,227,220/. 
 
 42,818,350 
 
 48,345,960 
 2,097,680 
 
 50,443,640 
 
 44,854,180 
 3,409,040 
 
 48,263,220 
 
 37,279,540 
 7,562,780 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 30 August, 1817. 
 (■ Public 
 I Private 
 
 Rest, 5,645,if30/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1818. 
 f Public 
 i Private 
 
 Rest, 4,604,040/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1819. 
 (" Public 
 (, Private 
 
 Rest, 3,779,060/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1820. 
 (" Public 
 t Private 
 
 Rest, 3,336,950/, 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1821. 
 ("Public 
 t Private 
 
 27,098,238 ' 
 5,507,392. 
 
 27,257,012 ^ 
 5,113,7483 
 
 25,419,148 ■ 
 6,321,402 J 
 
 19,173,997 : 
 4,672,123J 
 
 15,752,953; 
 2,722,587: 
 
 44,842,320 
 
 82,605,630 
 11,668,260 
 
 44,273^890" 
 
 32,370,760 
 6,363,160 
 
 5,733,920 
 
 31,740,550 
 3,595,360 
 
 35,335,910 
 
 23,846,120 
 8,211,080 
 
 Rest, 3,595,380/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1822. 
 ("Public 
 I Private 
 
 Rest, 3,524,240/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 50 August, 1823. 
 
 ("Public 
 ■ I Private 
 
 - - - Rest, 3,067,020A 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1824 
 ("Public 
 i Private 
 
 - Rest, 2,880,030/: 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1825. 
 (■ Public 
 / Private 
 
 13,668,359 > 
 3,622,1513 
 
 11,842,677" 
 5,624,693 ' 
 
 14,649,187 7 
 6,255,3433 
 
 17,414,5667 
 7,691,4643 
 
 - Rest, 2,930,950/. 
 
 32,057,200 
 
 18,475,540 
 11,233,590 
 
 29,709,130 
 
 17,290,510 
 10,097,960 
 
 27,JJ88,470 
 
 17,467,370 
 12,658,240 
 
 30,125,610 
 
 20,904,530 
 11,787,430 
 
 32,691,960 
 
 25,106,030 
 3,634,320 
 28,740^350" 
 
^ BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Amount of Notes in Circulation, and Deposits, and Securities held by 
 
 the Bank— continued. 
 
 31 August, 1826. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1827. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 30 August, 1828. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1829. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 30 August, 1830. 
 Circulation 
 Deposits 
 
 31 August, 1831. 
 ^ Circulation 
 I Deposits 
 
 21,563,560 
 7,199,860 
 
 28,763,420 
 
 22,747,600 
 8,052,090 
 
 30,799,690 
 
 21,357,510 
 10,201,280 
 
 31,558,790 
 
 19,547,380 
 9,035,070 
 28,582,450 
 
 21,464,700 
 11,620,840 
 
 33,085,540 
 
 18,538,630 
 9,069,310 
 
 27,607,940 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 - - - Rest, 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1826. 
 ("Public 
 I Private 
 
 3,074,440/. 
 
 31 August, 1827. 
 (■Public 
 1 Private 
 
 Rest, 2,863,400i 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 30 August, 1828. 
 (■Public 
 1 Private 
 
 Rest, 2,845,620/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1! 
 (" Public 
 i Private 
 
 Rest, 2,874,890/. 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 30 August, 1830. 
 (•Public 
 1 Private 
 
 Rest, 2,630,630/: 
 
 Securities 
 Bullion 
 
 31 August, 1831. 
 
 (■public 
 " I Private 
 
 Rest, 2,736,850/. 
 
 17,713,881 7 
 7,369,749 i 
 
 19.809,595 7 
 3,389,725 i 
 
 25,083,630 
 6,754,230 
 
 31,837y 
 
 23,199,320 
 10,463,770 
 
 I 33,663,090 
 
 20,682,7767 
 3,222,754 j 
 
 20,072,4407 
 4,589,370 J 
 
 20,911,616 7 
 3,654,074 j 
 
 18,056,552 7 
 5,848,4785 
 
 23,905,530 
 10,498,880 
 
 34,404,410 
 
 24,661,810 
 6,795,530 
 
 31,457,340 
 
 24,565,690 
 11,150,480 
 
 35,716,170 
 
 23,905,030 
 6,439,760 
 
 30,344,-/90 
 
 No. V. — An Account of the total Amount of Outstanding Demands on the Bank of England, and 
 likewise the Funds for discharging the same j 30th of January, 1819.- 
 
 Db. - - The Bank, 
 
 To Bank notes out 
 To other debts ; viz. 
 
 Drawing accounts 
 
 Audit roll 
 
 Exchequer bills deposited 
 And various other debts 
 
 Balance of surplus in favour of 
 the Bank of England, exclusive 
 of the debt from government, 
 at 31. per cent 
 
 ^11,686,800 
 And the advance to government, 
 per 56 Geo. 3. cap. 96. at 31. 
 per cent 
 
 £3,m,m 
 
 £ 
 
 26,094,430 
 
 7,800,150 
 
 33,894,580 
 
 5,202,320 
 
 39,096,900 
 
 30th January, 1819. 
 
 By advances on government 
 securities ; viz. 
 
 On Exchequer bills, on malt, 
 &c. 1818 
 
 Bank loan, 1808 - - . 
 
 Supply, 1816, at 4/. per cent - 
 
 Growing produce of the conso- 
 lidated fund to 5th of April, 
 1819, and interest due, and 
 loans to government on un- 
 claimed dividends 
 By all other credits, viz. 
 
 Cash and bullion 
 
 Exchequer bills purchased, and 
 interest - 
 
 Bills and notes discounted 
 
 Treasury bills for the service of 
 Ireland . . . 
 
 Money lent, and various other 
 articles - 
 
 By the permanent debt due from 
 government, for the capital of 
 the Bank, at 31. per cent per 
 annum . . _ - 
 By the advance to government, 
 • per act 56 Geo. 3. cap. 96. at 
 31. per cent per annum 
 
 Bank of England, 
 22d of February, 1819. 
 
 William Dawes, 
 
 Accountant GeneraL 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 91 
 
 No. VI. — An Account of Money paid or payable at the Bank of England, for the Management of the 
 Public Debt, in the Year 1829, together with an Account of all the Allowances made by the Public to 
 the Bank, or charged by the Bank against the Public, for transacting any Public Service in the Year 
 1829; describing the Nature of the Service, and the Amount charged thereon in the said Year, and 
 including any Sum under the Denomination of House-money, or House Expenses; and also, any Sum 
 under the Denomination of Charges of Management on South Sea Stock, and stating the aggregate 
 Amount of the whole. 
 
 Denomination of Payments. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Charge for management of the unredeemed public debt for one year, ending the 
 5th of April, 1830, being the annual period at which the accounts are made up, as 
 directed by the act 48 Geo. 3. c. 4. - - - - - - 
 
 Ditto, ditto, for one year ending ditto, on sundry annuitieis, transferred to the Com- 
 missioners for the Reduction of the National Debt, for the purchase of life 
 annuities per act 48 Geo. 3. and subsequent acts - . . . 
 
 Charges of management, being part of an entire yearly fund of 100,000/. enjoyed 
 by the Governor and Company of the Bank of England, originally by the act of 
 the 5th and 6th of William and Mary, c. 20., confirmed to the said Governor and 
 Company by several subsequent acts, and lastly by the Act of the 39th and 40th 
 Geo. 3. c. 28., as per Return made to the Honourable House of Commons, on the 
 21st of June, 1816 - - ..... 
 
 Ditto, ditto, on 4,000,000/. South Sea stock, purchased by the Governor and Com. 
 pany of the Bank of England of the South Sea Company, and transferred by them 
 to the said Governor and Company, in pursuance of the act of the 8th Geo. 1. c. 21., 
 and which charges of management were assigned by the said South Sea Company 
 to the said Governor and Company, out of a sum of 8,397/. 9*. 6d. per annum then 
 paid by the public to the said South Sea Company for charges of management on 
 their funds, as per Return made to the Honourable House of Commons, on the 
 21st of June, 1816 - - . ... 
 
 je s. d. 
 
 248,417 17 2| 
 
 2,922 11 9 
 
 4,000 0 0 
 
 1,898 3 5 
 
 ^251,238 12 4f 
 
 Bank of England, 11th of March, 1830. 
 
 T. RippoN, Chief Cashier. 
 
 No. VIL — The following is an Account of all Distributions made by the Bank of England amongst the 
 Proprietors of Bank Stock, whether by Money Payments,' Transfer of 5 per Cent. Annuities, or other- 
 wise, under the Heads of Bonus, Increase of Dividend, and Increase of Capital, betwixt the 25th of 
 February, 1797, and 31st of March, 1832, in addition to the ordinary Annual Dividend of 7 per Cent, 
 on the Capital Stock of that Corporation, existing in 1797, including therein the whole Dividend paid 
 since June, 1816, on their increased Capital; stating the Period when such Distributions were made, 
 and the aggregate Amount of the whole. — {Appen. No. 29.) 
 
 Denomination and Periods of Distribution. 
 
 In June, 1799 : 10/. per cent, bonus in 5 per cents. 1797, on 11,642,400/., is - . 
 May, 1801 : 51. per cent, ditto, in Navy 5 per cents, ditto _ . . 
 
 November, 1802 : 2/. 10s. per cent, ditto, ditto, ditto - . . - 
 
 October, 1804 : 51. per cent, ditto, cash, ditto - - . - 
 
 October, 1805 : 51. per cent, ditto, ditto, ditto ..... 
 October, 1806 : 51. per cent, ditto, ditto, ditto ..... 
 From April, 1807, to Oct. f Increase of dividends at the 'rate of 31. per cent, per 
 
 1822, both inclusive i annum on 11,642,400/., is, 16 years . . 
 From April, 1823, to Oct. C Increase of dividend at the rate of 1/. per cent, per 
 
 1829, both inclusive \ annum on 11,642,400/., is, 7 years . - . 
 
 In June, 1816 - - Increase of capital at 25 per cent, is 
 From Oct. 1816, to Oct. f Dividend at the rate of 10/. per cent, per annum on 
 
 1822, both inclusive f 2,910,600/., increased capital, is, 6^ years 
 From April, 1823, to Oct. (" Dividend at the rate of 8/. per cent, per annum on 
 
 1831, both inclusive 1 2,910,600/. increased capital, is, 9 years 
 
 Aggregate amount of the whole 
 
 Annual dividend payable on Bank stock in 1797, on a capital of 11,642,400/. at the 
 rate of 11. per cent per annum - - . . . 
 
 Annual dividend payable since June, 1816, on a capital of 14,553,000/., to October, 
 1822, inclusive, at the rate of 10/. per cent per annum ... 
 
 Annual dividend payable from April, 1823, to the 31st of March, 1832, both inclusive, 
 on a capital of 14,553,000/., at the rate of 8/. per cent per annum 
 
 £ 
 
 1,164,240 
 
 582,120 
 291,060 
 582,120 
 582,120 
 582,120 
 
 5,588,352 
 
 814,968 
 2,910,600 
 
 1,891,890 
 
 2,095,632 
 
 ^17,318,070 
 
 jf* 814,968 
 
 £ 1,455,300 
 
 £ 1,164,240 
 
 Bank of England, 27th of June, 1832. 
 
 William Smee, Dep. Acct 
 
 No. VIII. _ An Account of the Profits of the Bank of England, in fie Year ending 29th of February, 
 1832 ; stating the Description of the Securities held by the Bank, and the Sources from which the said 
 Profits have accrued. — (JVb. 15. Appen. to Report.^ 
 
 Interest on commercial bills - - . 
 
 Interest on Exchequer bills - - . . . 
 
 Annuity for 45 years (the dead-weight account) - - - - . 
 
 Interest on capital received from government - . . - « 
 
 Allowance received for management of the public debt - . - . 
 
 Interest on loans on mortgages - - - - . 
 
 Interest on stock in the public funds - - . - . - 
 
 Interest on private loans - - . . 
 
 Profit on bullion, commission, rent, receipts on discounted bills unpaid, management of 
 the business of the Banks of Ireland, of Scotland, and Royal Bank of Scotland, and 
 sundry items - - - - - 
 
 £ 
 130,695 
 204,109 
 451,415 
 446,502 
 2;jl,896 
 60,684 
 15,075 
 56,941 
 
 71,859 
 
92 BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 No. IX. — Expenses of the Bank of England, for the Year ending 29th of February, 
 
 Dr. 
 
 National debt department 
 
 Bank notes . 
 
 Banking department - - - 
 
 164,143 
 106,092 
 69,165 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Salaries and pensions - 
 House expenses - - 
 Directors' allowance 
 Rent - - - 
 Expenses at eleven branches, arising 
 
 from the banking department 
 Expenses attending the circulation of 
 2,500,000/. of branch Bank of Eng- 
 land notes, at eleven branches 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 218,003 
 39 187 
 
 slooo 
 
 40,000 
 5,702 
 
 28,508 
 
 
 ^339,400 
 
 339,400 
 
 No. X. — An estimated Account of Profit derived by the Bank from Circulation of Promissory Notes, 
 
 and from Government Business {Appen. No. 23.) 
 
 £ 
 
 Circulation . - - 20,000,000 
 Government deposits - 4,000,000 
 
 24,000,000, of which two thirds are estimated to be invested in securities, and 
 one third in bullion. 
 
 Securities of 16,Ofl0,O0OZ. ; viz. 
 9,000,000 Exchequer bills 
 
 800,000 stock - . - 
 
 1,000,000 advances for circulation on discount 
 
 500,000 country discount 
 4,700,000 ... 
 
 at 2^ per cent. 
 
 — 3 — 
 -3i _ 
 -4^ - 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 Deduct, 
 
 Expense of circulation - - 
 
 Expense of government deposits 
 Stamp duty on circulation 
 
 1 per cent, on capital (held by government at 3 per cent.) 
 
 The Public Debt. 
 
 Amount received from government for management of the public debt, for 
 
 the year ending 5th of April, 1832, including life annuities 
 Management of life annuities, supposed to be transferred 
 Deduct, 
 
 Expenses for management of the national debt - - 
 
 Average of forgeries per annum, during the last ten years 
 
 £ 
 
 202,500 
 24,000 
 30,000 
 17,500 
 
 193,875 
 
 106,000 
 10,000 
 70,000 
 
 147,000 
 
 251,000 
 3,000 
 
 164,000 
 40,000 
 
 467,875 
 
 333,000 
 
 248,000 
 204,000 
 
 Estimated profit 
 
 134,875 
 
 44,000 
 
 ^178,875 
 
 No. XL — State of the Affairs of the Bank of England, 29th of February, 1832. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 To Bank notes outstanding 
 
 To public deposits, viz. 
 Drawing accounts - 
 Balance of audit roll 
 Life annuities unpaid - 
 Annuities for terms of 
 
 years unpaid 
 Exchequer bills deposited 
 
 To private deposits, viz. 
 Drawing accounts - 
 Various other debts 
 
 To the Bank of England for 
 the capital 
 
 To balance of surplus in 
 favour of the Bank of 
 England - ■ 
 
 2,034,790 
 550,550 
 85,030 
 
 38,360 
 490,000 
 
 5,683,870 
 54,560 
 
 18,051,710 
 3,198,730 
 
 5,738,430 
 14,553,000 
 
 2,637.760 
 
 £ 44,179,630 
 
 Cr. 
 
 By advances on government 
 securities ; by Exchequer 
 bills on the growing pro- 
 duce of the consolidated 
 fund in the quarter ending 
 5th of April, 1832 
 Ditto, 5th of July, 1832 
 Exchequer bills on supplies, 
 1825 
 
 Ditto for 10,500,000/. for 1825 
 By the advances to the trus- 
 tees appointed by the act 
 3 Geo. 4. c. 51. towards the 
 purchase of an annuity of 
 585,740/. for 44 years from 
 5th of April, 1823 
 By other credits ; viz. 
 Exchequer bills purchased 
 Stock purchased 
 City bonds 
 
 Bills and notes discounted - 
 Loans on mortgages - 
 London Dock Company - 
 Advances on security, and 
 various articles 
 
 By cash and bullion 
 
 By the permanent debt due 
 from government 
 
 3,428,340 
 697,000 
 
 7,600 
 2,000 
 
 2,700,000 
 764,600 
 500,000 
 2,951,970 
 1,452,100 
 227,500 
 
 570,6 
 
 Rest or surplus brought down - 
 Bank capital due to proprietors - 
 
 4,134,940 
 
 10,897,880 
 
 - 9,166,860 
 
 5,293,150 
 14,686,800 
 
 .£■44,179,1 
 
 2,637,760 
 14,553,000 
 
 £ 17,190,^ 
 
BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 9S 
 
 No. XII. — An Account of the Average aggregate Amounts of Public Deposits in the Hands of the Bank, 
 from the Year 1800 ; distinguishing each Year. — {Appcn. No. 24.) 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 1 Year. 
 
 j Amount. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 j Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 1807 
 
 1808» 
 
 1809 
 
 1810 
 
 1811 
 
 1812 
 
 1813 
 
 12,647,.'351 
 11,761,448 
 11,093,648 
 11,9.'>0,047 
 10,19J,854 
 10,390,130 
 10,393,404 
 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 
 12,158,227 
 11,737,436 
 10,807,660 
 8,699,133 
 7,066,887 
 4,538,373 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 
 3,713,442 
 3,920,157 
 4,107,853 
 5,-026,635 
 7,222,187 
 5,347,314 
 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 18.30 
 1831 
 
 j£ 
 
 4,214,271 
 4,223,867 
 3,821,697 
 3,862,6.56 
 4,761,9.52 
 3,948,102 
 
 N. B. — The Bank is unable to furnish correctly the aggregate amount of public deposits previous to the 
 year 1807 ; the public accounts prior to that period not being required generally to be kept at the Bank ; 
 and many of the public accounts at that time werein the names of individuals, without reference to that 
 part of the public service to whicli the accounts applied. 
 
 No. XIII. — An Account of the Average aggregate Amounts of Private Deposits in the Hands of the 
 Bank, from the Year 1807; distinguishing each Year. — {Appen. No. 32.) 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 1807 
 l.S(J8 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 1813 
 
 1,582,720 
 1,940,630 
 1,492,190 
 1,428,720 
 1,567,920 
 1,573,950 
 1,771,310 
 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 
 j£ 
 
 2,374,910 
 1,690,490 
 1,333,120 
 1,672,800 
 1,640,210 
 1,790,860 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 
 1,325,060 
 1,326,020 
 1,373,370 
 2,321,920 
 2,369,910 
 2,607,900 
 
 1826t 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 3,322,070 
 3,931,370 
 5,701,280 
 5,217,210 
 5,562,250 
 5,201,370 
 
 N. B. — The Bank is unable to return the average aggregate amounts of private deposits for the years 
 prior to 1807, as the public and private drawing accounts were not kept separately till that period, when 
 distinct offices were established. 
 
 No. XIV An Account of the annual Average Amount of Commercial Paper under Discount at the 
 
 Bank, in London, in each Year, from the Year 1795. — {Appen. No. 59.) 
 
 1795 
 1796 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1K04 
 
 Amount. 
 
 2,946,500 
 3,505,000 
 5,350,000 
 4,490,600 
 5,403,900 
 6,401,900 
 7,905,100 
 7,523,300 
 10,747,600 
 9,982,400 
 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 1808 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 1813 
 
 11,366,500 
 12,380,100 
 13,484,600 
 12,950,100 
 15,475,700 
 20,070,600 
 14,355,400 
 14,291,600 
 12,330,200 
 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 
 Amount. 
 
 £ 
 
 13,285,800 
 14,947,100 
 11,416.400 
 3,960,600 
 4,325,200 
 6,515,000 
 3,883,600 
 2,676,700 
 5,366,700 
 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 Amount. 
 
 £ 
 
 3,123,800 
 2,369,800 
 4,941,500 
 4,908,300 
 1,240,400 
 1,167,400 
 2,250,700 
 919,900 
 1,533,600 
 
 No. XV. — An Account of the Notes, Post-Bills, &c. of the Bank of England in Circulation, on the 28th 
 of P'ebruary and 31st of August in each Year, from 1698 to 1792 both included, as near as the same 
 can be made up. 
 
 Year 28th Feb. 
 
 1699 
 1700 
 1701 
 1702 
 1703 
 1704 
 1705 
 1706 
 1707 
 1708 
 1709 
 1710 
 1711 
 1712 
 
 1,221,290 
 745,850 
 938,240 
 
 920,730 
 933,760 
 961,990 
 556,610 
 996,840 
 959,820 
 648,680 
 707,470 
 f;01,580 
 477,510 
 738,920 
 
 1713 1,221,880 
 
 1714 623,640 
 
 1715 972,160 
 17161,460,660 
 
 1717 2,053,150 
 
 1718 2,782,420 
 
 1719 1,807,010 
 
 1720 2,466,880 
 
 1721 2,244,280 
 
 31st Aug 
 
 £ 
 
 1,240,400 
 519,150 
 781,430 
 763,860 
 1,030,900 
 1,214,040 
 946,010 
 1,043,150 
 80.5,410 
 824,860 
 598,940 
 691,350 
 480,920 
 573,230 
 2,025,200 
 800,810 
 1,651,780 
 978,840 
 1,579,730 
 2,188,030 
 1,806,640 
 1,939,5.50 
 3,032,460 
 206,-260 
 
 Year 'iSth Feb. 
 
 1722 
 1723 
 1724 
 1725 
 1726 
 1727 
 1728 
 1729 
 1730 
 1731 
 1732 
 1733 
 1734 
 1735 
 1736 
 1737 
 1738 
 1739 
 1740 
 1741 
 1742 
 1743 
 1744 
 1745 
 
 £ 
 
 2,365,640 
 3,516,110 
 3,232,830 
 3,734,480 
 3,076,850 
 3,888,180 
 4,574,920 
 4,152,590 
 3,998,280 
 4,451,720 
 4,251,660 
 4,385,060 
 4,203,070 
 4,627,990 
 4,907,750 
 5,215,010 
 4,766,280 
 4,347,270 
 4,550,980 
 4,841,840 
 4,471,510 
 4,654,890 
 4,253,610 
 4,279,610 
 
 31st Aug. 
 
 £ 
 
 3,006,430 
 ,3,482,210 
 3,857,710 
 3,343,400 
 3,152,340 
 4,677,640 
 4,513,790 
 4,199,910 
 4,416,870 
 5,249,880 
 4,592,400 
 4,543,000 
 4,671,930 
 4,738,550 
 5,077,570 
 4,414,690 
 4,609,420 
 [ 4,152,420 
 I 4,444,000 
 i 4,084,450 
 , 4,911,390 
 i 4,250,180 
 4,270,590 
 I 3,465,3.50 
 
 1746 
 174 
 1748 
 1749 
 1750 
 1751 
 1752 
 1753 
 1754 
 1755 
 1756 
 1757 
 1758 
 1759 
 1760 
 1761 
 1762 
 1763 
 1764 
 1765 
 1766 
 1767 
 1768 
 1769 
 
 28th Feb. 
 
 £ 
 
 3,383,720 
 4,107,420 
 3,894,650 
 3,737,110 
 3,964,970 
 4,022,160 
 4,444,960 
 4,401,580 
 4,062,870 
 3,950,650 
 4,106,790 
 5,319,130 
 5,320,590 
 4,586,840 
 4,969,250 
 5,632,350 
 5,741,090 
 5,999,910 
 5,501,800 
 6,316,670 
 5,617,570 
 5,510,990 
 5,778,990 
 .5,707,190 
 
 31st Aug. 
 
 £ 
 
 3,842,500 
 3,652,310 
 3,789,720 
 4,183,390 
 4,318,490 
 5,195.310 
 4,750;350 
 4,420,290 
 4,081,280 
 4,115,280 
 4,516,360 
 5,149,940 
 4,864,110 
 4,809,790 
 4,936,280 
 5,246,680 
 5,886,980 
 5,314,600 
 6,210,680 
 5,356,490 
 5,246,410 
 4,883,440 
 5,415,530 
 5,411,450 
 
 Year 28th Feb. 
 
 1770 
 
 1771 
 
 1772 
 
 1773 
 
 1774 
 
 177 
 
 1776 
 
 1777 
 
 1778 
 
 1779 
 
 1780 
 
 1781 
 
 1782 
 
 178: 
 
 1784 
 
 1785 
 
 1786 
 
 1787 
 
 1788 
 
 1789 
 
 1790 
 
 1791 
 
 1792 
 
 £ 
 
 5,237,210 
 6,822,780 
 5,962,160 
 6,037,060 
 7,550,780 
 9,135,930 
 8,699,720 
 8,712,230 
 7,440,530 
 9,012,610 
 8,410,7^0 
 7,092,450 
 8,028,880 
 7,675,090 
 6,202,760 
 5,923,090 
 7,581,960 
 8,329,840 
 9,561,120 
 9,807,210 
 10,040,540 
 11,439,200 
 11,307,380 
 
 31st Aug. 
 
 £ 
 
 5,736,780 
 6,0 14, IK 
 5,987,570 
 6,362,220 
 9,886,2-0 
 8,398,310 
 8,551,090 
 7,753,590 
 6,758,070 
 7,276,540 
 6,341,600 
 6,309,4.S0 
 6,759,..10 
 6,307,270 
 5,592,510 
 6,570,650 
 8,184,330 
 9,685,720 
 10,002,880 
 11,121,800 
 11,433,340 
 11,672,320 
 11,006,300 
 
 jV. B. — No previously published table of the circulation of the Bank of England extends further back 
 than 1777 : we are indebted to the Court of Directors for being able to supply this striking detect, and to 
 exhibit, for the first time, the circulation of the Bank, from within four years of its establishment down 
 to the present day. 
 
 * The Bank advanced, in March, 1808, 3,000,000/., without interest, for the public service, which so 
 continued till April, 1818, on account of public balances, 
 t The increased amount of deposits in this and the following years, arose from the increase of accoiint& 
 
94 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 NO. XVL — An Account of the Amount of Bank Notes in Circulation on the undermentioned Days • 
 distinguishing the Bank Post Bills, and the Amount of Notes under Five Pounds, with the AgRregate 
 of the whole. 
 
 1792 February 25 
 
 
 August 25 
 
 1793 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1794! 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1795 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1796 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1797 
 
 February 25 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1798 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 25 
 
 1799 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1800 
 
 February 25 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1801 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1802 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1803 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1804 
 
 February 25 
 
 
 August 25 
 
 1805 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1806 
 
 February 25 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1807 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1808 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1809 
 
 February 25 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1810 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 25 
 
 1811 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1812 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1813 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1814 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1815 
 
 February 25 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1816 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1817 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1818 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1819 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1820 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1821 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1822 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1823 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1824 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1825 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1826 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1827 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 A ugust 26 
 
 1828 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1829 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1830 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1831 
 
 February 26 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 1832 
 
 February 25 
 
 
 August 25 
 
 1833 
 
 February 2() 
 
 
 August 26 
 
 Notes of 5/. 
 and upwards. 
 
 10,394,106 
 10,281,071 
 10,780,643 
 10,163,839 
 10,079,165 
 10,060,248 
 12,968,707 
 10,939,880 
 10,266,561 
 8,981,645 
 8,167,949 
 9,109,614 
 10,856,188 
 9,997,958 
 10,576,510 
 11,260,675 
 13,106,368 
 12,221,451 
 12,975,006 
 11,715,665 
 12,038,970 
 12,801,746 
 11,796,424 
 12,413,924 
 12,054,943 
 11,766,628 
 11,403,290 
 11,182,188 
 11,994,350 
 14,141,510 
 12,274,629 
 15,077,013 
 13,746,598 
 12,440,930 
 12,730,999 
 13,255,599 
 13,650,592 
 16,078,390 
 15,110,688 
 15,203,611 
 14,523,049 
 14,873,705 
 14,567,267 
 14,975,479 
 15,632,250 
 18,066,180 
 16,394,359 
 16,332,275 
 15,307,228 
 16,686,087 
 17,538,656 
 20,388,502 
 19,077,951 
 17,465,628 
 16,307,000 
 16,972,140 
 15,402,830 
 16,047,390 
 14,372,840 
 16,095,020 
 15,178,490 
 15,295,090 
 15,751,120 
 17,392,260 
 17,244,940 
 18,409,230 
 18,308,990 
 17,091,120 
 21,100,400 
 18,172,160 
 18,787,330 
 19,253,890 
 19,428,010 
 19,016,980 
 17,402.470 
 17, 16-1,940 
 17,862,990 
 19,40.5,610 
 17,566,140 
 16,774,890 
 16,201 ,8!)0 
 16,068,370 
 17,507,320 
 17,827,150 
 
 755,703 
 725,898 
 647,738 
 674,375 
 618,759 
 567,972 
 570,456 
 518,502 
 643,133 
 549,690 
 474,615 
 524,587 
 551,549 
 553,236 
 607,907 
 653,766 
 723,600 
 823,366 
 954,982 
 759,270 
 803,499 
 772,577 
 820,039 
 776,030 
 848,894 
 743,841 
 1,029,580 
 718,510 
 725,736 
 702,425 
 724,485 
 725,262 
 742,671 
 795,102 
 944,727 
 880,104 
 907,620 
 1,145,832 
 1,133,419 
 1,016,303 
 1,059,854 
 '987,880 
 1,034,882 
 1,015,616 
 1,091,242 
 1,246,479 
 1,184,459 
 1,115,079 
 1,336,467 
 1,286,429 
 1,376,416 
 1.712,807 
 1,838,600 
 1,627,427 
 1,622,330 
 1,468,920 
 1,421,160 
 1,633,730 
 1,615,600 
 1,634,260 
 1,609,620 
 1,610,600 
 1,742,190 
 1,763,650 
 2,198,260 
 2,122,760 
 2.334.260 
 2,061,010 
 2,487.080 
 2,040,400 
 2,052,310 
 2,270,110 
 2,329,880 
 2,417,440 
 2,444,660 
 2,030,280 
 2,284.520 
 2,217,870 
 1,777,790 
 1,621,350 
 1,641,990 
 1,533,970 
 1,603,710 
 1,604.590 
 
 934,015 
 1,442.348 
 1.639,831 
 1,451,728 
 1,345,432 
 1,406,708 
 1,690.561 
 2,647,526 
 2,495,386 
 2,616,407 
 3,312,790 
 2,960,469 
 3.846.005 
 4,673,515 
 4,813,525 
 4,801,596 
 4,395,480 
 4,428,360 
 4,228,958 
 4,206,230 
 4.231.837 
 4.103.785 
 4,129,234 
 4,338.951 
 5,221,538 
 5.871.069 
 7,221.953 
 7,140,726 
 7,573,201 
 7,415,294 
 7,621,325 
 7,705.322 
 8.033,774 
 8,371,923 
 9,667,217 
 9,094,552 
 9,576,695 
 9,036,374 
 9,103,338 
 8,143,506 
 7,998,599 
 7,362,492 
 7,509,782 
 7,317,360 
 7,216,530 
 6,745,160 
 6,772,260 
 6,483,010 
 2,598,460 
 1,384,360 
 862,650 
 683,160 
 550,010 
 486,600 
 443,970 
 416,880 
 396,670 
 1,367,560 
 1,175,450 
 668,910 
 483,060 
 416,890 
 382,860 
 357,170 
 334,190 
 320,550 
 313,4(50 
 306,900 
 302,480 
 2^:9,190 
 294,940 
 292.450 
 289,720 
 
BANKS (ENGLISH PRIVATE AND PROVINCIAL). 95 
 
 No, XVII An Account of the aggregate Circulation of the Branch Banks of the Bank of England, 
 
 from their first Establishment, on the 28lh of February and Slst of August in each Year. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1827 February 
 
 - 322,150 
 
 1830 February 
 
 . 1,482,160 
 
 1832 February 
 
 . 2,748,280 
 
 August 
 
 559,870 
 
 August 
 
 - 2,019,770 
 
 August 
 
 - 2,8(^0.650 
 
 1828 February 
 
 585,820 
 
 1831 February 
 
 - 2,272,360 
 
 1833 February 
 
 - 3,088,670 
 
 August 
 
 649,740 
 
 August 
 
 . 2,433,860 
 
 August 
 
 - 3,313,850 
 
 1829 February 
 
 807,450 
 
 
 
 
 
 August 
 
 - 1,165,390 
 
 
 
 
 
 III. Banks (English Private and Provincial). 
 
 Besides charging the usual rate of interest on bills discounted, the provincial bankers 
 are mostly in the habit of charging 5s. or 6s. per cent, as commission. They also charge 
 a commission on all payments ; and derive a profit from charges for the transmission of 
 money, &c. They usually allow from 2 to 3 per cent, on money deposited ; but the 
 numerous failures that have taken place amongst them have, by generating a feeling of 
 insecurity in the minds of the depositors, confined this branch of their business within 
 comparatively narrow limits. When their customers overdraw their accounts, they are 
 charged with interest at the rate of 5 per cent. 
 
 Country banks established by individuals possessed of adequate funds, and managed 
 with due discretion, are productive of the greatest service. They form commodious 
 reservoirs, where the floating and unemployed capital of the surrounding districts 
 is collected, and from which it is again distributed, by way of loan, to those who will 
 employ it to the best advantage. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance, in a public 
 point of view, that these establishments should be based upon solid foundations. But 
 in England, unfortunately, this has been but little attended to; and the destruction 
 of country banks has, upon three different occasions, — in 1792, in 1814, 1815, and 1816, 
 and in 1825 and 1826, — produced an extent of bankruptcy and misery that has never, 
 perhaps, been equalled, except by the breaking up of the Mississippi scheme in France. 
 Government is bound to interfere to hinder the recurrence of such disastrous results. 
 The repeal of the act of 1708, preventing the association of more than six persons for 
 carrying on the trade of banking, has already led to the formation of joint stock banking 
 companies in a few of the large towns ; but it remains to be seen in how far this should be 
 regarded as an improvement. It is, indeed, quite visionary to suppose that the power 
 to establish such banks is all that is required to establish the provincial currency on a 
 secure foundation. What is really wanted, is not a regulation to allow banks with large 
 capitals to be set on foot, (for there have, at all times, been many such banks in England,) 
 but a regulation to prevent any bank, be its partners few or many, from issuing notes 
 without previously giving security for their payment. This would render the bankruptcy 
 of such banks impossible, and would give a degree of security to the money system of 
 the country that it can never otherwise attain. — (The reader is referred, for a full discus- 
 sion of this important question, to the Note on Money, in my edition of the Wealth of 
 Nations, vol. iv. pp. 280 — 292. ) 
 
 The following is an account of the number of commissions of bankruptcy issued against 
 country bankers in England, from 1809 to 1830, both inclusive: — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commissions. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commissions. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commissions. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commissions. 
 
 1809 
 
 4 
 
 1815 
 
 25 
 
 1821 
 
 10 
 
 1826 
 
 43 
 
 1810 
 
 20 
 
 1816 
 
 37 
 
 1822 
 
 9 
 
 1827 
 
 8 
 
 1811 
 
 4 
 
 1817 
 
 3 
 
 1823 
 
 9 
 
 1828 
 
 3 
 
 1812 
 
 17 
 
 1818 
 
 3 
 
 1824 
 
 10 
 
 1829 
 
 3 
 
 1813 
 
 8 
 
 1819 
 
 13 
 
 1825 
 
 37 
 
 1830 
 
 14 
 
 1814 
 
 27 
 
 1820 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 {Appen. to Report on Bank Charter, p. 116.) 
 
 Exclusive of the above, many banks stopped payments, to the great injury of their 
 creditors and the public, that afterwards resumed them ; at the same time that the affairs 
 of some bankrupt concerns were arranged without a commission. During the whole of 
 this period, not a single Scotch bank gave way. 
 
 The stamp duties on country bank notes have been already specified (p. 69.). 
 
 Besides the stamp duties payable on notes, each individual or company issuing them 
 must take out a licence, renewable annually, which costs 30Z. This licence specifies the 
 names and places of abode of the body corporate, person, or persons, in the firm to whom 
 it is granted, the name of such firm, the place where the business is carried on, &c. ; and 
 a separate licence is to be taken out for every town or place where any notes shall be 
 issued by or on account of any banker, &c. Unless the licence granted to persons in 
 partnership set forth the names and places of abode of all persons concerned in the 
 partnership, whether their names appear on the notes issued by them or not, such licence 
 shall be absolutely void. — (55 Geo. 3. c. 184. s. 24.) For the regulations as to the issue 
 of unstamped notes, see ante, p. 69. 
 
96 BANKS (ENGLISH PRIVATE AND PROVINCIAL). 
 
 The issue of notes for less than 51. was prohibited in England, as previously shown, 
 from 1777 to 1797 ; but they continued to be issued from the latter period down to the 
 5th of April, 1829, when their further issue ceased in consequence of an act passed in 
 1826. This act did not extend to Scotland or Ireland, and was intended to give greater 
 stability to the system of country banking in England, by shutting up one of the prin- 
 cipal channels through which the inferior class of bankers had been in the habit of 
 getting their notes into circulation. But notwithstanding it will certainly have this 
 effect, the policy of the measure seems very doubtful. It is idle, indeed, to imagine that 
 it can give that stability to the banking system which is so desirable ; and in proof of 
 this, it is sufficient to state, that though none of the country banks existing in 1793 had 
 any notes for less than 51. in circulation, -upwards of one third of their entire nurhber 
 stopped payment during the revulsion that then took place. The truth is, that nothing 
 but the exacting of security for payment of notes can ever place the country issue of 
 notes on that solid foundation on which it ought to stand ; and as security may be 
 taken for IZ. notes as easily as for those of 51., there would, were such a system adopted, 
 be no ground for suppressing the former. 
 
 Metropolitan Joint Stock Banks. — It was for a lengthened period generally under- 
 stood, that the act of 1708, and the other acts conveying exclusive privileges to the Bank 
 of England, not only prevented any company with more than 6 partners from issuing 
 notes payable on demand ; but that they also prevented such companies from under- 
 taking ordinary banking business, — that is, from receiving the money of individuals and 
 paying their drafts, &c. Recently, however, strong doubts began to be entertained 
 whether companies with numerous bodies of partners, established for the mere business 
 of banking, and without issuing notes, were really prohibited by the acts in question. 
 During the discussions on the late renewal of the charter of the Bank of England, the 
 point was submitted for the consideration of the Attorney and Solicitor Generals, who 
 gave it as their decided opinion, that such banks might be legally established within the 
 limits to which the exclusive privileges of the Bank of England were restricted by the 
 act 7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 46. But as the opinion of other eminent lawyers differed from 
 theirs, a clause has been inserted in the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 98., which removes all 
 doubts on the subject, by expressly authorising the establishment of banks not issuing 
 notes, with any number of partners, any where within the district to which the ex- 
 clusive privileges of the Bank of England, as a bank of issue, are now restricted. — (See 
 ante, p. 84.) 
 
 Down to this period (September, 1833), no advantage has been taken of this declar- 
 atory enactment, by the formation of a joint stock bank in the metropolis ; but several 
 projects of the kind have been made public, and it seems most likely that some of them 
 will be matured. It is not easy to form beforehand any certain conclusions as to the 
 probable working of such establishments. Provided, however, that they possess large 
 paid up capitals, and numerous bodies of partners, individually liable, as at present, for 
 the debts of the company, it may, one should think, be fairly concluded, that they will 
 afford comparatively safe places for the deposit of money ; and in so far their institution 
 will be advantageous. But it is not easy to discover in what other respects they will 
 have any superiority over the present banks. There is great weight in the following 
 statement made by Mr. Jones Loyd before the committee on the Bank of England 
 charter : — "I think that joint stock banks are deficient in every thing requisite for 
 the conduct of banking business, except extended responsibility ; the banking busi- 
 ness requires peculiarly persons attentive to all its details, constantly, daily, and hourly 
 watchful of every transaction, much more than mercantile or trading businesses. It also 
 requires immediate, prompt decisions upon circumstances when they arise, — in many 
 cases a decision that does not admit of delay for consultation ; it also requires a discretion 
 to be exercised with reference to tha special circumstances of each case. Joint stock banks 
 being, of course, obliged to act through agents, and not by a principal, and, therefore, 
 under the restraint of general rules, cannot be guided by so nice a reference to degrees 
 of difference in the character or responsibility of parties ; nor can they undertake to regu- 
 late the assistance to be granted to concerns under temporary embarrassment by so 
 accurate a reference to the circumstances, favourable or unfavourable, of each case." — 
 (Min. of Evid. p. 236.) 
 
 We confess, too, that we have great doubts whether the competition of such banks 
 with each other, and with the private banks, may not be productive of much inconve- 
 nience. It will be very apt, at times, to occasion an artificial reduction of the rate of 
 interest, and a redundancy of the currency, which must, of course, be followed by a fall 
 of the excliange, and a period of more or less difficulty. It is stated, that the metro- 
 politan joint stock banks are to give interest on deposits ; and if they can do so without 
 endangering their stability, it will be an important advantage. But we have yet to learn 
 how it is possible that a joint stock bank should be able to do what would seem to 
 ejcceed the power of (he wealthiest and best managed private establishments. 
 
BANKS (ENGLISH PRIVATE AND niOVlNCIAL). 97 
 
 As already remarked, the only circumstance in which joint stock banks seem to liave 
 any decided superiority over private companies, consists in their greater resjjonsibiiity. 
 But this is not a necessary attribute of all joint stock companies. Associations of this 
 sort may, and indeed do, exist, that are in all respects inferior to respectable private' com- 
 panies. And it seems indispensable, in order to the prevention of fraud, that such regu- 
 lations should be adopted as may make the public fully aware of the real nature of all 
 joint stock associations, and of their claims to credit and confidence. 
 
 Proposed Measures as to Joint Stock Banks. — The future intentions of government os 
 to the regulation of private banking companies in England were supposed to be partially 
 developed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer in his speech introducing the l)ill lor the 
 renewal of the charter of the Bank of England. According to the statement then made, 
 it appears to have been intended that half the subscribed capital of all banks for the issue 
 of notes should be paid up and vested in such securities as parliament should direct ; 
 that the responsibility of the partners in such banks should be unlimited ; and that their 
 accounts should be periodically published. In the case of banks not issuing notes, only 
 a fourth part of their subscribed capital was to be paid up, and the responsibility of their 
 shareholders was to be limited. 
 
 But with the exception of that part of the above plan which relates to the publication 
 of the accounts of banks of issue, the consideration of the remainder was deferred to a more 
 convenient opportunity ; and notwithstanding our respect for the quarter whence it pro- 
 ceeded, we hope it may never be revived. The adoption of the proposed regulations would 
 not have amended any one of the principal defects in the present system of English country 
 banking, while there are not a few which it would have materially aggravated. There is 
 not so much as the shadow of a ground for interfering with the concerns of such banks as 
 do not issue notes, further than to let the public know with whom they are dealing, and tlie 
 real amount of their paid up capital ; and the proposed interference in the case of banks 
 that do issue notes, could have been productive of nothing but mischief. On this point we 
 shall take leave to quote a conclusive paragraph from a Memorial drawn up by tlie directors 
 of the Manchester and Liverpool District Banking Company : — " We contend, first, 
 that, except in so far as the issue of notes is concerned, banking is essentially a private 
 business, with which the state has no more title to interfere than it has to interfere with 
 any other description of mercantile agency. If A. choose to deposit money in the hands 
 of B., who lends it to others, why is the interference of government more necessary 
 than if A. had deposited it in the hands of C, who employs it in manufactures or 
 agriculture ? It is the duty of parliament to take care that coins, and the paper notes 
 issued as substitutes for them, be always of their professed value ; but assuredly it is no 
 part of its duty to inquire into the solvency of those into whose hands coins or paper 
 may come. We contend, secondly, that, admitting it to be right to exact secvirity from 
 banks of issue, that should not be done by the compulsory investment of a portion of 
 their capital. The issues of one bank may be more than twice or three times the amount 
 of its capital ; while those of another, placed in a different situation, or conducted in a 
 different way, may be under a third or a fourth part of its capital. What, then, could 
 be more unequal as respects the banks, and anore illusory as respects the public, than to 
 oblige both these establishments to give security for their issues by vesting half their 
 capital in government stock ? Were the first bank to stop payment, the security in tl:e 
 hands of government would not afford the holders of its notes more than from 3s. 4rf. to 
 5s. in the pound; while, were the latter in the same predicament, the holders of i(s 
 notes would be paid in full out of the government securities, and there would be a large 
 surplus over. It is clear, therefore, that the security to be given by a bank of issue 
 ought to be proportioned to its issues, and not to its capital. The former mode will 
 effectually protect the public from loss ; the latter gives little, or rather no protf ctiou 
 whatever." It is, in fact, quite ludicrous to tamper with a subject of this sort. Nothing 
 short of the obligation to give security for their issues can ever give the public that 
 effectual guarantee for the integrity of the currency that is so essential ; nor is there 
 any other plan at once fair and equal as respects different banks. 
 
 Distinction between subscribed aiid paid up Capital. Expediency of suppressing all 
 Reference to the former. — An immediate stop ought, we think, to be put to the practice 
 now so prevalent among joint stock banking companies, of representing their capitals as 
 consisting, not of what has been actually paid up by the shareholders, but of what they 
 have subscribed for. Not a few institutions have recently been set on foot in England, 
 professing to have capitals of 1,000,OOOZ., 2,000,000Z., or more, when, in point of fact, their 
 capital does not really consist of a tenth part of that sum. The practice is to organise 
 u company with«some 5,000 or 10,000 shares of lOOZ. each ; but it is perfectly under- 
 stood that not more than 5 or at most 10 per cent, of each share is to be called up ; and 
 if more were demanded, it is most probable it could not be paid, at least witl;cut 
 much difficulty. This practice is pregnant with mischief. In the first place, it tends 
 
 11 
 
98 BAiSfKS (ENGLISH PRIVATE AND PROVINCIAL;. 
 
 to deceive the public, who imagine there can be no risk in dealing with a bank professing 
 to possess 1,000,000/. of capital, who yet might hesitate about having any thing to do 
 with it, were they aware that the capital paid into its coffers, and on which it carries on 
 business, does not really exceed 50,000Z. or 100,000Z. In the second place, this system 
 tends to deceive the mass of the partners. These are tempted to embark in such 
 hazardous concerns, imagining that they are to be large shareholders with but little out- 
 lay, and that they will derive a considerable dividend upon the nominal amount of their 
 shares ! We mistake if a good many such persons be not in the end grievously disap- 
 pointed. Banking, in an ordinary state of things, is not a business in which large profits 
 can be expected. It is true that many banking houses made immense sums during the 
 war, but they did this more as dealers in the funds, and particularly by their rise on 
 the return of peace, than as bankers. But it is needless to say that no prudently con- 
 ducted banking establishment will now count much upon this source of emolument. 
 At present, the dividend on the stock of the best established Scotch banks varies, we 
 believe, from about 5 to 6 per cent. ; and as they might invest their capital at 3^ or 4 
 per cent., it appears that the real profits of banking, even in the best managed concerns, 
 can hardly be estimated at more than from 1^ to 2^ per cent. 
 
 It is, besides, a radical mistake to suppose that any banking concern can ever be esta- 
 blished on a solid foundation, that is not possessed of a pretty large amount of paid up 
 and available capital. We believe, however, that several of the joint stock companies 
 recently established in England take a different view of this matter ; and that they 
 trust more to deposits and credit, than to their command of capital of their own. 
 There can be no objection to these, or, indeed, to any associations whatever, being allowed 
 to issue notes, provided they give full security for their payment : but government and 
 parliament will be alike neglectful of their duty to the public if they do not take imme- 
 diate steps to compel this being done ; and to secure the currency of the country from 
 being disturbed by the fraud, mismanagement, or insuflScient capital of its issuers. The 
 system of advertising subscribed instead of paid up capitals ought also to be put an end 
 to ; nor ought any association to be allowed to say that its capital exceeds what has 
 actually been paid into its coffers. 
 
 Responsibility ought not, in any Case, to he limited. — We protest against the pro- 
 posal for allowing the partners in banks not issuing notes to limit their responsibility. 
 Such a measure would be good for nothing, except to serve as a premium on every species 
 of fraud. What check would there be, under such a system, to hinder the partners of a 
 bank going on for a series of years dividing large profits, when, perhaps, they were 
 really incurring a loss, until every farthing of its capital and deposits was absorbed ? To talk 
 of subjecting such persons to punishment as fraudulent bankrupts, on evidence derived from 
 their books, is absurd ; for, supposing that it was the intention of the parties to defraud, 
 they might easily keep their books so that they could afford no information that was not 
 false or misleading. The annexed list of joint stock banking companies shows that there 
 is no disinclination on the part of individuals to engage in such concerns even with the 
 present unlimited responsibility. And the way in which some of them are conducted, 
 proves sufficiently, if any such proof were wanted, that the serious liabilities incurred by 
 the partners are not more than enough for the protection of the public. To lessen them 
 would be an act of gratuitous folly. If we are to interfere, let them be increased, not 
 diminished. But in the case of banks not issuing notes, enough is done if measures 
 be taken to prevent deception, by letting the public know the partners in them, and 
 making sure that they shall have no means of evading the responsibility attaching 
 to their engagements. The first object may be secured by compelling all banking 
 associations whatever to publish annually a list of the names and addresses of their 
 partners, with the amount of their paid up capital ; and to accomplish the latter object, 
 we have merely to abstain from interference, and to let the law take its natural 
 course. 
 
 Accounts of Issues. — The act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 83. directs that all persons or associ- 
 ations carrying on banking business, and issuing promissory notes payable on demand, shall 
 keep weekly accounts of their issues ; and shall, within a month of each of the quarters 
 ending with the 1st of April, 1st of July, 1st of October, and 1st of January, make up, 
 from the weekly accounts, an average account, verified on oath, of their issues during the 
 preceding quarter, which shall be transmitted to the Stamp-oflfice in London. Penalty 
 for neglecting or refusing to make and transmit such account, 500/. on the corporation, 
 company, persons, &c. issuing the notes, and 100/. on the secretary so offending. The 
 wilful sending a false return to be punished as perjury. 
 
 Drawing on London. — The act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 83. repeals the n^ulation in the 
 7 Geo. 4. c. 46., prohibiting banks with more than 6 partners from drawing on London 
 on demand, or otherwise, for sums of less than 50Z. — § 2. 
 
BANKS (ENGLISH PRIVATE AND PROVINCIAL). 99 
 
 No. 
 
 An Account of the Number of Licences taken out by Country Bankers 
 Wales, in each Year since 1809. 
 
 England and 
 
 Years. 
 
 Licences. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Licences. 
 
 Years. 
 
 licences. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jyicences. 
 
 1809 
 
 702 
 
 1815 
 
 916 
 
 1821 
 
 781 
 
 1827 
 
 668 
 
 1810 
 
 782 
 
 1816 
 
 831 
 
 1822 
 
 776 
 
 1828 
 
 672 
 
 1811 
 
 779 
 
 1817 
 
 752 
 
 1823 
 
 779 
 
 1829 
 
 677 
 
 1812 
 
 825 
 
 1818 
 
 765 
 
 1824 
 
 788 
 
 1830 
 
 671 
 
 1813 
 
 922 
 
 1819 
 
 787 
 
 1825 
 
 797 
 
 1831 
 
 641 
 
 1814 
 
 940 
 
 1820 
 
 769 
 
 1826 
 
 809 
 
 1832 
 
 636 
 
 N. B. — The years in this account end on the 10th of October. The account for 1832 only comes down to 
 the 26th of June. 
 
 Stamp Office, 26th of June, 1832. 
 
 x^o. II. — An Account of all Places where United or Joint Stock Banks have been established under 
 the Act 7 Geo. 4. c. 46., together with the Number of Partners therein ; also, the Nominal Capital * 
 of each such Bank, and the Amount of Capital paid up. — (Par/. Paper, No. 504. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 Birmingham . _ - 
 
 Liverpool - 
 
 Manchester and Bolton in Lancashire, and 
 
 Stockport in Cheshire. 
 Kendal - . - . 
 
 Barnsley - - ^ 
 
 Birmingham ... 
 Bradford, Yorkshire » - . 
 
 Bradford, Yorkshire 
 
 Bristol .... 
 
 Workington, Cockermouth, Maryport, Wig- 
 ton, Carlisle and Penrith. 
 
 Darlington, Stockton and Barnard Castle, in 
 Durham ; Northallerton and Stokesley in 
 Yorkshire. 
 
 Gloucester - - - 
 
 Halifax . - . . 
 
 Huddersfield 
 
 Knaresborough, Wetherby, Ripon, Easing- 
 wold, Helmsley, Thirsk, Boroughbridge, 
 Masham, Pately Bridge, Otley and Harro- 
 gate. 
 
 Lancaster, Ulverston and Preston 
 Leeds _ - - . . 
 
 Leicester and Hinckley - - 
 Carlisle - - - - 
 
 Liverpool .... 
 
 Manchester, Liverpool, Oldham, Ashton, 
 Warrington, Bury, Preston, Blackburn 
 and Wigan, in Lancashire ; Stockport and 
 Nantwich in Cheshire ; Hanley, Stafford, 
 Cheadle, Lane End and Kugeley, in Staf. 
 fordshire; Market Drayton in Shropshire, 
 and Glossop in Derbyshire. 
 
 Mirfield, Huddersfield, Wakefield, Dews- 
 bury and Dobcross. 
 
 Norwich, SwaflFham, Foulsham, East Dere- 
 ham, Fakenham, I>ynn, Harleston and 
 Watton, in Norfolk : and Bungay in Suf- 
 folk. 
 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne in Northumberland, 
 
 and Sunderland in Durham. 
 Plymouth, Devonport and Kingsbridge 
 Saddleworth, Ashton and Oldham 
 Sheffield - 
 
 Stamford, Spalding, Market Deeping, Boston, 
 Bourn and Grantham, in Lincolnshire; 
 Oundle, Kettering, Thrapstone and Peter- 
 borough, in Northamptonshire; Oakham 
 and Uppingham, in Rutlandshire ; Melton 
 Mowbray and Market Harborough, in 
 Leicestershire ; Huntingdon in Hunts, 
 and Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. 
 
 Bristol, Bridgewater, Taunton, Chard, Crew- 
 kerne, llminster, Langport, Wells, Bruton 
 and Shepton Mallet 
 
 Wakefield 
 
 Whitehaven and Penrith 
 
 Wolverhampton - . - 
 
 York, Malton, Selby, Howden, Scarborough 
 
 and Goolc. 
 York, Bridlington and Great Driffield 
 
 The Bank of Birmingham 
 
 The Bank of Liverpool 
 
 The Bank of Manchester - - 
 
 The Bank of Westmorland 
 
 The Barnsley Banking Company 
 
 The Birmingham Banking Company 
 
 The Bradford Banking Company 
 
 The Bradford Commercial Joint Stock 
 
 Banking Company. 
 The Bristol Old Bank 
 
 The Cumberland Union Banking Company - 
 
 The Darlington District Joint Stock Bank- 
 ing Company. 
 
 The Gloucestershire Banking Company 
 The Halifax Joint Stock Banking Company 
 The Huddersfield Banking Company 
 The Knaresborough and Claro Banking 
 Company. 
 
 The Lancaster Banking Company 
 The Leeds Banking Company 
 The Leicestershire Banking Company 
 The Leith Banking Company 
 The Liverpool Commercial Banking Com- 
 pany. 
 
 The Manchester and Liverpool District 
 Banking Company. 
 
 The Mirfield and Huddersfield District 
 Banking Company. 
 
 The Norfolk and Norwich Joint Stock Bank- 
 ing Company. 
 
 North of England Joint Stock Banking Com- 
 pany. 
 
 Plymouth and Devonport Banking Company 
 The Saddleworth Banking Company 
 The Sheffield Banking Company 
 The Stamford and Spalding Joint Stock Bank- 
 ing Company. 
 
 Stuckey's Banking Company 
 
 The Wakefield Banking Company 
 The Whitehaven Joint Stock Banking Com- 
 pany. 
 
 The W^olverhampton and Staffiardshire 
 
 Banking Company. 
 The York City and County Banking Com. 
 
 pany. 
 
 The York Union Banking Company 
 
 * This department is not in possession of any information which enables a statement to be 
 the nominal capital of each such Bank, and the amount of capital paid up. 
 Stamps and Taxes, Somerset Place, 4th of July, 1833. 
 
 H 2 
 
0 -- . 
 
 100 BANKS (SCOTCH). 
 
 It is not possible to obtain any accurate account of the number of country notes in 
 circulation at different periods. But the following table, drawn up by the late 
 Mr. Mushet, of the Mint, founded pai-tly on official returns, and partly on the estimates 
 of Mr. Sedgwick, late chairman of the Board of Stamps, is, so far as it goes, the most 
 complete and comprehensive hitherto published. 
 
 No. III. — An Account of theTfJumber of Country Bank Notes, of all Denominations, stamped in each 
 Year, ending Oct. 10., from 1804 to 1825 inclusive, with the Percentage of Increase and Decrease, 
 comparing each Year with the Year preceding; together with an Estimate of the total Amount in 
 Circulation, according to Mr. Sedgwick's Tables, in each Year, from 1804 to 1825 inclusive ; with the 
 Percentage of Increase and Decrease, comparing each Year with the Year preceding. 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Amount of Coun- 
 
 
 
 
 The Amount of Coun- 
 
 The Percent- 
 
 The Percent- 
 
 try Bank Notes in Cir- 
 
 The Percent- 
 
 The Percent- 
 
 
 try Sank Notes of all 
 
 age of 
 
 
 Mr. Sedgwick's 'f'a- 
 
 
 age of 
 
 
 Denominations stamp- 
 
 Increase, com- 
 
 Decrease, com- 
 
 Increase, com- 
 
 Decrease, com- 
 
 Vears. 
 
 ed in each vear, end- 
 
 peiring each 
 
 paring each 
 
 bles, in each year, 
 ending Oct. 10., from 
 
 paring each 
 ^ar witli the 
 
 paring each 
 
 
 ing Oct. "10., from 
 
 year with the 
 
 year with the 
 
 year with the 
 
 
 1804 to 1825. 
 
 year preceding. 
 
 year preceding. 
 
 1804 to 1825 inclu- 
 
 year preceding. 
 
 year preceding. 
 
 1805 
 
 11,342,413 
 11,480,547 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1806 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 1807 
 
 6,587,398 
 
 
 42-6 
 
 18,021,900 
 
 
 
 1808 
 
 8,653,077 
 
 23-8 ' 
 
 
 16,871,524 
 
 
 6-3 
 
 1809 
 
 15,737,986* 
 
 81-8 
 
 
 23,702,493 
 
 40-5 
 
 
 1810 
 
 10,517,519 
 
 
 33-1 
 
 23,893,868 
 
 •8 
 
 
 1811 
 
 8,792,433 
 10,577,134 
 12,615,509 
 
 
 16-4 
 
 21,453,000 
 
 
 1-6 
 
 1812 
 
 20-3 
 
 
 19,944,000 
 22,597,000 
 
 
 7- 
 
 1813 
 
 19-2 
 
 
 13-3 
 
 
 1814 
 
 10,773,375 
 
 
 14-6 
 
 22,709,000 
 
 •5 
 
 
 1815 
 
 7,^24,949 
 
 
 29 2 
 
 19,011,000 
 
 
 16-3 
 
 1816 
 
 6,423,466 
 
 
 15-7 
 
 15,096,000 
 
 
 20-6 
 
 1817 
 
 9,075,958 
 
 41-1 " 
 
 
 15,898,000 
 20,507,000 
 
 5-3 
 
 
 1818 
 
 12,316,868 
 
 35-7 
 
 
 29- 
 
 
 1819 
 
 6,130,313 
 
 
 50-2 ' 
 
 17,366,875 
 
 
 15-3 
 
 1820 
 
 3,574,894 
 
 
 417 
 
 11,767,391 
 
 
 32-2 
 
 3821 
 
 3,987,582 
 
 115 " 
 
 
 8,414,281 
 
 
 28-5 
 
 1822 
 
 4,217,241 
 4,657,589 
 
 5-7 
 
 
 8,067,260 
 8,798,277 
 
 
 4 1 
 
 1823 
 
 10-4 
 
 
 9- 
 
 
 18^24 
 
 6,093,367 
 
 SO-8 
 
 
 10,604,172 
 
 20-5 
 
 
 182'") 
 
 8,532,438 
 
 40- 
 
 
 14,147,211 
 
 23-4 
 
 
 No. IV. — An Account of the Value of Country Bank Notes, of all Denominations, stamped in each Year 
 from 1826 to 1832, both inclusive. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 
 £ 
 
 1,239,755 
 1,970,595 
 2,842,130 
 2,403,700 
 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 £ 
 
 1,955,430 
 2,217,915 
 1,751,685 
 
 {.Pari. Paper, Na 456. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 JV. B. — No 1/. and 11. notes were stamped after the 3d of February, 1826. 
 
 IV. Banks (Scotch). 
 
 The act of 1 708, preventing more than 6 individuals from entering into a partnership 
 for carrying on the business of banking, did not extend to Scotland. In consequence of 
 this exemption, several banking companies, with numerous bodies of partners, have always 
 existed in that part of the empire. 
 
 Banh of Scotland. — This institution was projected by Mr. John Holland, merchant 
 of London, and was established by act of the Scotch parliament (Will. 3. Pari. 1. § 5.) 
 in 1695, by the name of the Governor and Company of the Bank of Scotland. Its ori- 
 ginal capital was 1,200,000Z. Scotch, or 100,000Z. sterling, distributed in shares of 1,000?. 
 Scotch, or S?>1. 6s. 8d. sterling, each. The act exempted the capital of the bank from all 
 public burdens ; and gave it the exclusive privilege of banking in Scotland for 21 years. 
 The objects for which the bank was instituted, and its mode of management, were in- 
 tended to be, and have been, in most respects, similar to those of the Bank of England. 
 The responsibility of the shareholders is limited to the amount of their shares. 
 
 The capital of the bank was increased to 200,000/. in 1744; and was enlarged by 
 subsequent acts of parliament, the last of which (44 Geo. 3. c. 23.) was passed in 1804, 
 to 1,500,000Z., its present amount. Of this sum, 1,000,000Z. has been paid up. The 
 last mentioned act directed that all sums relating to the affairs of the bank should hence- 
 forth be rated in sterling money, that the former mode of dividing bank stock by shares 
 should be discontinued, and that, for the future, it should be transferred in any sums 
 or parcels. On the union of the two kingdoms in 1707, the Bank of Scotland under- 
 took the rccoinnge, and effected the exchange of the currency in Scotland : it WH6 also 
 lljc organ of government, in the i.ssue of the new silver coinage in 1817. 
 
 * In 1809, the duty on 1/. notes was increased from 3(1. to 4d., and may account for the great increase in 
 ih'n ytar, the notes bearing a Sd. stamp being no longer issuable. 
 
BANKS (SCOTCH). 
 
 101 
 
 The Bank of Scotland is the only Scotch bank constituted by act of parliament. It 
 began to establish branches in 1696 ; and issued notes for 1/. so early as 1704. Tlie bank 
 also began, at a very early period, to receive deposits on interest, and to grant credit on 
 cash accounts ; a minute of the directors with respect to the mode of keeping the latter, 
 being dated so far back as 1729. It is, therefore, entitled to the credit of having intro- 
 duced and established the distinctive principles of the Scotch banking system, which, 
 whatever may be its defects, is probably superior to every other system hitherto esta- 
 blished. Generally speaking, the Bank of Scotland has always been conducted on sound 
 and liberal principles; nor can there be a doubt that it has been productive, both directly 
 and as an example to other banking establishments, of much public utility and advantage. 
 
 It may be worth mentioning, that the act of Will. 3., establishing the Bank of Scot- 
 land, declared that all foreigners who became partners in the bank, should, by doing so, 
 become, to all intents and purposes, naturalised Scotchmen. After being for a long time 
 forgotten, this clause was taken advantage of in 1818, when several aliens acquired pro- 
 perty in the bank in order to secure the benefit of naturalisation. But after being 
 suspended, the privilege was finally cancelled in 1822. 
 
 We subjoin an official abstract of the constitution and objects of the Bank of Scotland, 
 printed for the use of the proprietors in 1818; — the terms and mode of transacting 
 business are, of course, sometimes altered, according to circumstances. 
 
 I. The Bank of Scotland is a public national establishment ; erected and regulated by the legislature 
 alone : and expressly as a public Bank in this kingdom ; for the benefit of the nation, and for the 
 
 advancement of agriculture, commerce, and manufactures ; and for other objects of public policy 
 
 {fVm. Pari. 1. ^ 5. ; 14 Geo. 3. c. 32. ; 24 Geo. a c. 8. ; 32 Geo. 3. c 25. ; 34 Geo. 3. c. 19. ; 44 Geo. 3. 
 c. 23.) 
 
 II. The statutory capital is at present 1,500,OOOZ. sterling. It is raised by vnluntary subscription ; .and 
 has been subscribed for. 1,000,000/. has been called for, and paid in. — (44 Geo. 3. c. 23.) 
 
 III. Subscribers, if not under obligation to the Bank, may, at pleasure, transfer their right. If under 
 obligation to the Bank, the obligation must be previously liquidated ; or, the proceeds of the sale, at a 
 price to the satisfaction of the directors, must be applied towards such liquidation. Transfers are made 
 by a short assignment and acceptance thereof, both in a register appointed for that purpose. ' The ex- 
 pense, beside the government stamp, is lis. — {Will. Pari. 1. ^ 5.) 
 
 IV. Bank of Scotland stock may be acquired, in any portions, by any person, community, or other 
 lawful party whatsoever J without selection, exclusion, or limitation of numbers. — {IVill. Vatl. 1. ^5.; 
 44 Geo. 3. c. 23.) 
 
 V. Bank of Scotland stock may be conveyed by latter will, and, if specially mentioned, without ex- 
 pense of confirmation. It cannot be arrested : the holder's right may be adjudged. Dividends may be 
 arrested. — ( Will. Pari. 1. § 5.) 
 
 VI. The Bank of Scotland is a public corporation by act of parliament. The Bank's transactions are 
 distinct from those of the stockholders ; and theirs from those of the Bank. — ( Will. Pari. 1. § 5.) 
 
 VII. The establishment is expressly debarred from any other business than that of banking. — 
 (.Will. Pari. 1. ^ 5.) 
 
 VIII. The management is vested, by statute, in a governor, deputy governor, twelve ordinary, 
 and twelve extraordinary directors. They are chosen annually, on the last Tuesday of March, by tlie 
 stockholders having 2501. of stock or upwards. Those above 2501. have a vote for every 2.'50/. ; to 5,000/., 
 or 20 votes. No person can have more than 20 votes. The governor must hold, at least, 2,000/. of stock ; 
 the deputy governor 1,500/. ; and each director 750/. They swear to be equal to all persons : and cannot 
 hold any inferior office in the Bank. — ( WiU. Pari. 1. ^ 5. ; 14 Geo. 3. c. 32. ; 44 Geo. 3. c. 23.) 
 
 IX. The executive part is conducted by a treasurer, secretary, and other public officers, all sworn. 
 Those having the official charge of ca.sli find due security. — {Will. Pari. 1. § 5.) 
 
 X. The Board of directors sits for the general administration of the Bank, at the Bank's Public Head 
 Olllce in Edinburgh. The local business of that district is also conducted at that oflice. For the local 
 business in the other parts of the kingdom, the Bank has its regular public offices in the principal towns. 
 At each of these offices, there is the Bank agent or cashier, who gives due security, and conducts the 
 Bank's business for that district, in the manner after mentioned. There is aho the Bank's accountant 
 for that office ; who is appointed by the directors. — {Will. Pari. 1. § 5.) 
 
 XI. The Bank takes in money, at all its public offices, on deposit receipts or promissory notes, or on 
 current deposit account.* At the Head Office, draughts on London, or on any of the agencies, are 
 given : at each agency, draughts on London, or on the Head Otiice, are given. All these documents 
 are on t/ie Bank's check (and sealed with the Bank's sealf). They bear, in words, to be " For the 
 Bank of Scotl.nnd ; " or, " For the Governor and Company of the Bank of Scotland.'' These documents 
 are signed, if at Eidinburgh, by the treasurer, and countersigned by the principal accountant : if at au 
 agency, they must be signed by the Bank's agent as agent, and countersigiied by the Rank's acr 
 covntant for that agency ; otherwise they infer no obligation on the Bank. — {Resolution of Court, * 
 28th Feb. 1793.) 
 
 XII. Bills on London, Edinburgh, or any town where the Bank has its official correspondents, are dis- 
 counted and purchased at all the Bank's public offices. The Bank's agents judge, in ordinary cases, of 
 the bills presented ; so that parties meet with no delay. The Bank does not sell, at any of its offices, the 
 bills which it has discounted and purchased. Its agerits cannot indorse its bills, unless officially to the 
 treasurer. — {Resolution of Court, 23d Feb. 1789.) 
 
 XIII. Government stock and other public funds, transferable in London, may be purchased or sold, 
 and dividends thereon may be received, througli the Bank. 
 
 XIV. The Bank gives credit on cash accounts at any of its offices, on bond, with security. The secu- 
 rity may be personal co-obligants, conjunctly and severally; or Bank of Scotland stock; or both : or 
 such other security as may be specially agreed on. Applications for cash accounts are given in to the 
 office where liie casn account is wanted, and must specify the credit desired, and the security proposed ; 
 and the individual partners, where copartneries are proposed. Cash accounts are granted by the directors 
 only ; and are not recalled unless by their special authority. It is understood that these credits are r,ot 
 used as dead loans, to produce interest only. In the fair course of business, the advantage of the Bank 
 
 * The Bank has always allowed interest on deposits. The rate allowed varies, of course, with the 
 variations in the market rate. During the greater part of the late war it vvi* as high as 4 per cent. ; but 
 at present it is only 2 per cent. 
 
 f The seal is now dispensed with, except on the Bank's notes. 
 
 II 3 
 
102 
 
 BANKS (SCOTCH). 
 
 IS consulted by an active circulation of its notes, and by frequent repayments to it in a way least afftctJng 
 that circulation. -r/^eso/M^ora of Court, 6th Nov. 1729, and 23d Feb. 1789.) 
 
 XV. The Bank's dividend of profits has for some time been 91 per cent, per annum (at present, 1833, 
 it is 6 per cent.) on that part of its capital stock, or 1,000,000/. sterling, paid in. The dividends are paid 
 regularly twice a year, without expense. They may be drawn either at the Bank's Head Office, or at 
 any of its other offices, as most agreeable to the stockholder. 
 By Order of the Court of Directors. 
 6th Nov. 1818. 
 
 Most of the other Scotch banks are conducted on the same principles and in the same 
 way as the Bank of Scotland, so that the details as to its management will nearly apply 
 to them all. 
 
 The Royal Bank of Scotland was established in 1727. Its original capital was 151,000/. 
 At present it amounts to 2,000,000/. 
 
 The British Linen Company was incorporated in 1746, for the purpose, as its name 
 implies, of undertaking the manufacture of linen. But the views in which it originated 
 were speedily abandoned ; and it became a banking company only. Its capital amounts 
 to 5O0,O00Z. 
 
 None of the other banking companies established in Scotland are chartered asso- 
 ciations, with limited responsibility ; the partners being jointly and individually liable, to 
 the whole extent of their fortunes, for the debts of the firms. Some of them, such as the 
 National Bank, the Commercial Banking Company, the Dundee Commercial Bank, the 
 Perth Banking Company, &c., have very numerous bodies of partners. Their affairs are 
 uniformly conducted by a Board of directors, annually chosen by the shareholders. 
 
 The Bank of Scotland began, as already stated, to issue \l. notes so early as 1704; 
 and their issue has since been continued without interruption. " In Scotland," to use 
 the statement given in the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons of 
 1826, on the Promissory Notes of Scotland and Ireland, " the issue of promissory notes 
 payable to the bearer on demand, for a sum of not less than 20s. has been at all times 
 permitted by law ; nor has any act been passed, limiting the period for which such issue 
 shall continue legal in that country. In England, the issue of promissory notes for a 
 less sum than 51. was prohibited by law from the year 1777 to the period of the 
 Bank Restriction in 1797. It has been permitted since 1797; and the permission 
 will cease, as the law at present stands, in April, 1829." 
 
 There have been comparatively few bankruptcies among the Scotch banks. In 1793 
 and 1825, when so many of the English provincial banks were swept off, there was not 
 a single establishment in Scotland that gave way. This superior stability seems to be 
 ascribable partly to the formation of so many banks with numerous bodies of partners, 
 which tends to prevent any company with only a few partners, unless they are known to 
 possess considerable fortunes, from getting paper into circulation ; partly to the less 
 risk attending the business of banking in Scotland ; and partly to the facility afforded by 
 the law of Scotland of attaching a debtor's property, whether it consist of land or 
 moveables, and making it available to the payment of his debts. 
 
 In the Report already quoted, the last-mentioned topic is touched upon as follows : 
 — " The general provisions of the law of Scotland bearing upon this subject are cal- 
 culated to promote the solidity of banking establishments, by affording to the creditor 
 great facilities of ascertaining the pecuniary circumstances of individual partners, and 
 by making the private fortunes of those partners available for the discharge of the 
 obligations of the bank with which they are connected. There is no limitation upon 
 the number of partners of which a banking company in Scotland may consist ; and, ex- 
 cepting in the case of the Bank of Scotland and the two chartered banks, which have 
 very considerable capitals, the partners of all banking companies are bound jointly and 
 severally, so that each partner is liable, to the whole extent of his fortxme, for the whole 
 debts of the company. A creditor in Scotland is empowered to attach the real and 
 heritable, as well as the personal estate of his debtor, for payment of personal debts, 
 among which may be classed debts due by bills and promissory notes ; and recourse may 
 be had, for the purpose of procuring payment, to each description of property at the same 
 time. Execution is not confined to the real property of a debtor merely during his life, 
 but proceeds with equal effect upon that property after his decease. 
 
 " The law relating to the establishment of records gives ready means of procuring 
 information with respect to the real and heritable estate of which any person in Scotland 
 may be possessed. No purchase of an estate in that country is secure until the seisine 
 (that is, the instrument certifying that actual delivery has been given) is put on record, 
 nor is any mortgage effectual until the deed is in like manner recorded. 
 
 " In the case of conflicting pecuniary claims ui)on real property, the preference is not 
 regulated by the date of the transaction, but hy the date of its record. These records are 
 accessible to all persons; and thus the public can with ease ascertain the effective means 
 wln"ch a banking company possesses of discharging its obligations ; -and the partners in 
 that coin])any arc enabled to determine, with tolerable accuracy, the degree of risk and 
 responsibility to which the private property of each is cxjjosed." 
 
BANKS (SCOTCH). 
 
 103 
 
 Deposits. — As was previously observed, all the Scotch banks receive deposits of so 
 low a value as 10/., and sometimes lower, and allow interest upon them. 
 
 " The interest," say the committee, " allowed by the Bank upon deposits varies from 
 time to time according to the current rate of interest which money generally bears. At 
 present (1826) the interest allowed upon deposits is 4 per cent." (At this moment 
 (1833) the interest allowed on deposits is only 2 or 2^ per cent.) " It has been 
 calculated that the aggregate amount of the sums deposited with the Scotch banks 
 amounts to about 20,000,000/. or 21,000,000/." (It is believed to be now, (1833,) 
 little if any thing under 24,000,000/.) " The precise accuracy of such an esti- 
 mate cannot of course be relied on. The witness by whom it was made thought 
 that the amount of deposits could not be less than 16,000,000/., nor exceed 25,000,000/., 
 and took an intermediate sum as the probable amount. Another witness, who had 
 been connected for many years with different banks in Scotland, and has had expe- 
 rience of their concerns at Stirling, Edinburgh, Perth, Aberdeen, and Glasgow, stated 
 that more than one half of the deposits in the banJts with which he had been connected were 
 in sums from ten pounds to two hundred pounds. Being asked what class of the commu- 
 nity it is that makes the small deposits, he gave the following answer, from which it 
 appears that the mode of conducting this branch of the banking business in Scotland 
 has long given to that country many of the benefits derivable from the establishment of 
 savings banks. 
 
 " Question, What class of the community is it that makes the smallest deposits? — 
 Answer. They are generally the labouring classes in towns like Glasgow : in country 
 places, like Perth and Aberdeen, it is from servants and fishermen, and that class of the 
 community, who save small sums from their earnings, till they come to be a bank deposit. 
 There is now a facility for their placing money in the Provident Banks, which receive 
 money till the deposit amounts to 10/. When it comes to 10/., it is equal to the 
 minimum of a bank deposit. The system of banking in Scotland is an extension 
 of the Provident Bank system. Half-yearly or yearly those depositors come to tlie bank, 
 and add the savings of their labour, with the interest that has accrued upon the deposits 
 from the previous half year or year, to the principal ; and in this way it goes on without 
 being at all reduced, accumulating (at compound interest) till the depositor is able 
 either to buy or build a house, when it comes to be 100/., or 200/., or 300/., or 
 till he is able to commence business as a master in the line in which he has hitherto been 
 a servant. A great part of the depositors of the bank are of that description, and a 
 great part of the most thriving of our farmers and manufacturers have arisen from such 
 beginnings.^'' 
 
 Cash Accounts, or Credits. — The loans or advances made by the Scotch banks are 
 either in the shape of discounts, or upon cash credits, or, as they are more commonly 
 termed, cash accounts. 
 
 This species of account does not differ in principle from an over-drawing accoiuit at a 
 private banker's in England. A cash credit is a credit given to an individual by a bank- 
 ing company for a limited sum, seldom under 100/. or 200/., upon his own security, and 
 that of two or three individuals approved by the bank, who become sureties for its pay- 
 ment. The individual who has obtained such a credit is enabled to draw the whole sum, 
 or any part of it, when he pleases ; replacing it, or portions of it, according as he finds 
 it convenient ; interest being charged upon such part only as he draws out. *' If 
 a man borrows 5,000/. from a private hand, besides that it is not always to be 
 found when required, he pays interest for it whether he be using it or not. His bank 
 credit costs him nothing, except during the moment it is of service to him ; and this 
 circumstance is of equal advantage as if he had borrowed money at a much lower rate of 
 interest." — (Hume^s Essay on the Balance of Trade.) This, then, is plainly one of the 
 most commodious forms in which advances can be made. Cash credits are not, however, 
 intended to be a dead loan ; the main-t)bject of the banks in granting them is to get their 
 notes circulated, and they do not grant them except to persons in business, or to those 
 who are frequently drawing out and paying in money. 
 
 The system of cash credits has been very well described in the Report of the Lords' 
 Committee of 1826, on Scotch and Irish Banking. " There is also," say their lordships, 
 " one part of their system, which is stated by all the witnesses (and, in the opinion of the 
 committee, very justly stated) to have had the best effects upon the people of Scotland, 
 and particularly upon the middling and poorer classes of society, in producing and en- 
 couraging habits of frugality and industry. The practice referred to is that of cash 
 cre(fits. Any person who applies to a bank for a cash credit, is called upon to produce 
 two or more competent sureties, who are jointly bound ; and after a full inquiry into the 
 character of the applicant, the nature of his business, and the sufficiency of his securities, 
 he is allowed to open a credit, and to draw upon the bank for the whole of its a:nount, 
 or for such part as his daily transactions may require. To the credit of the account he 
 pays in such sums as he may not have occasion to use, and interest is charged or credited 
 
 H 4 
 
104. 
 
 BANKS (SCOTCH). 
 
 upon the daily balance, as the case may be. From the facility which these cash credits 
 give to all the small transactions of the country, and from the opportunities which they 
 atibrd to persons, who begin business with little or no capital but their character, to 
 employ profitably the minutest products of their industry, it cannot be doubted that the 
 most important advantages are derived to the whole community. The advantage to the 
 banks who give these cash credits arises from the call which they continually produce for 
 the issue of their paper, and from the opportunity which they afford for the profitable 
 employment of part of their deposits. The banks are indeed so sensible, that in order to 
 make this part of their business advantageous and secure, it is necessary that their cash 
 credits should (as they express it) be frequently operated upon, that they refuse to con- 
 tinue them unless this implied condition be fulfilled. The total amount of their cash 
 credits is stated by one witness to be 5,000,000/., of which the average amount advanced 
 by the banks may be one third." 
 
 The expense of a bond for a cash credit of 500Z. is stamp duty, and a charge of 
 from 5s. to 10s. 6d. per cent, for filling it up. 
 
 Circulation, ^c. — According to a demi-official return given in the Commons' Report 
 already referred to, the total number of notes m circulation in Scotland, in the early part 
 of 1826, amounted to 3,309,082 ; of which 2,079,344 were under 5l, and 1,229,838, 51 
 and upwards. 
 
 The Scotch banks draw on London at 20 days' date. This is denominated the par of 
 exchange between London and Edinburgh. 
 
 Most of the great Scotch banks, such as the Bank of Scotland, the Royal Bank, &c., 
 have established branches in other towns besides that where the head office is kept. 
 
 By the act 9 Geo. 4. c. 65., to restrain the negotiation in England of Scotch or Irish 
 promissory notes and bills under 51., it is enacted, that if any body politic or corporate, 
 or person, shall, after the 5th of April, 1829, publish, utter, negotiate, or transfer, in any 
 part of England, any promissory or other note, draft, engagement, or undertaking, pay- 
 able on demand to the bearer, for any sura less than 51., purporting to have been made 
 or issued in Scotland or Ireland, every such body politic or corporate, or person, shall 
 forfeit for every such offence not more than 20Z. nor less than 51. 
 
 Nothing contained in this act applies to any draft or order drawn by any person on his 
 or her banker, or on any person acting as such banker, for the payment of money held by 
 such banker or person for the use of the person by whom such draft or order shall be drawn. 
 
 No. I. — Tlie following Table contains an Account of the Number of Banks in Scotland; the Names 
 of the Firms or Banks ; Dates of their Establishment ; Places of the Head Offices ; Number of 
 Branches ; Number of Partners ; and the Names of their London Agents.— (Extracted principally from 
 the Appendix, p. 19. to the Commons' Report of 18'i6, on Scotch and Irish Baiiking.) 
 
 
 Names of Firms or Banks. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Head Office. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Branches 
 
 No. of 
 Partners. 
 
 London Agents. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 1-2 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 2o 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 
 Bap.k of Scotland 
 Royal Bank of Scotland 
 British Linen Company 
 Aberdeen Banking Company 
 Aberdeen Town and Coun. Bk. 
 Arbroath Banking Company 
 Carrick and Co. or Ship Bank 
 Com. Bank. Comp. of Scotland 
 Commercial Banking Comp. 
 Dundi-e Banking Company - 
 Dundee New Bank 
 Dundee Commercial Bank - 
 Dundee Union Bank - 
 Falkirk Banking Company - 
 Greenock Banking Company 
 Glasgow Banking Company - 
 Hunters and Co. 
 Leith Banking Company 
 National Bank of Scotland - 
 Montrose Bank 
 Paisley Banking Company - 
 Paisley Union Bank 
 Perth Banking Company 
 Perth Union Bank 
 Ramsay's, Bonar's, and Co. - 
 Renfrewshire Banking Comp. 
 Shetland Hank - - 
 Sir Wni. Forbes and Co. 
 Stirling Banking Company - 
 Thistle Bank 
 
 1695 
 1727 
 1746 
 1767 
 18'25 
 1825 
 1746 
 1810 
 1778 
 1777 
 1802 
 1825 
 1809 
 1787 
 1785 
 1809 
 1773 
 1792 
 18i;5 
 1814 
 1783 
 1788 
 1766 
 
 1738 
 1802 
 
 1777 
 1761 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 Aberdeen 
 
 Ditto 
 Arbroath 
 Glasgow 
 Edinburgh 
 Aberdeen 
 Dundee 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 Falkirk 
 Greenock 
 Glasgow 
 Ayr 
 Leith 
 Fdinburgh 
 Montrose 
 Paisley 
 
 Ditto 
 Perth 
 
 Ditto 
 Kdinburgh 
 Greenock 
 I erwick 
 Edinburgh 
 Stirling 
 Glasgow 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 None 
 
 SI 
 None 
 None 
 1 
 
 None 
 4 
 I 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 4 
 8 
 2 
 4 
 3 
 
 None 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 None 
 
 Act of P. 
 Charter 
 Ditto 
 
 80 
 446 
 112 
 3 
 521 
 15 
 61 
 6 
 
 202 
 85 
 5 
 14 
 19 
 8 
 15 
 1,238 
 97 
 6 
 4 
 147 
 
 8 
 6 
 4 
 7 
 7 
 6 
 
 Coutts and Co. 
 
 Bank of England, and ditto. 
 
 Smith, Payne, and Co. 
 
 Glyn and Co. 
 
 Jones, Loyd, and Co. 
 
 Glyn and Co. 
 
 Smith, Payne, and Co. 
 
 Jones, Loyd, and Co. 
 
 Kinloch and Sons. 
 
 Kinloch and Sons. 
 
 Ransom and Co. 
 
 Glyn and Co. 
 
 Glyn and Co. 
 
 Remington and Co. 
 
 Kay and Co. 
 
 Ransom and Co., Glyn and Co. 
 
 Herries and Co. 
 
 Barnet and Co. 
 
 Glyn and Co. 
 
 Barclay and Co. 
 
 Smith, Payne, and Co. 
 
 Glyn and Co. 
 
 Barclay and Co. 
 
 Remington and Co. 
 
 Coutts and Co. 
 
 Kay and Co. 
 
 Barclay and Co. 
 
 Barclay & Co., Coutts & Co. 
 
 Kinloch and Sons. 
 
 Smith, Payne, and Co. 
 
 Private Banking Companies in Edinburgh who do not issue Notes. 
 
 
 Names of Firms or Banks. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Head Office. 
 
 No. of 
 Brandies. 
 
 No. of 
 Partners. 
 
 London Agents. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 Messrs. Kinnear, Smith, & Co 
 Robert Allan and Son . 
 James Inglis and Co. - 
 
 \H:]() 
 1776 
 
 Kdiiibu'gh 
 Ditto 
 Ditto 
 
 None 
 None 
 None 
 
 
 Smith, Payne, and Co. 
 IJosanquet and Co. 
 Bosanquct and Co. 
 
 I 
 
BANKS (IRISH). 
 
 105 
 
 No. IT. — An Account of the Number of Licences taken out by Country Bankers in Scotland for the 
 Years ending tlie 10th of October, 1824., 1825, 182G. and 1827 ; specifying such as have been given to 
 Firms carrying on Business in more Places than one. 
 
 
 1824. 
 
 1825. 
 
 i8i.'a 
 
 1827. 
 
 Number of licences issued to bankers who issue notes at one place only 
 
 10 
 
 1.3 
 
 y 
 
 
 Ditto to bankers who issue notes at two different places - - - 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 Ditto to bankers who issue notes at three different jjlaces - - 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 1" 
 56 
 
 
 Ditto to bankers who issue notes at four or more places 
 
 52 
 
 .02 
 
 GO 
 
 
 78 
 
 8;J 
 
 89 
 
 IT 
 
 Certified. Thomas Pundeh, Compt. 
 
 Stamp Office, Edinburgh, 4th of March, 1828 
 
 No. III. — Statement of the Number of Persons convicted of Forgery of all Instruments connected 
 with the Chartered and other Banks of Scotland ; whether of Bank Notes, of Post Bills, Bills of 
 Exchange, or otherwise, from 1791 to 1829, both inclusive; particularising the Capital Convictions upon 
 which Execution took place, and the Cases of mitigated Punishment. 
 
 For Forging. 
 
 For Uttering. 
 
 Total Number 
 Convicted. 
 
 Number were Pains 
 of Law restricted, 
 
 and Sentence short of 
 Death pronounced. 
 
 Number on 
 wliom Capital 
 Sentence pro- 
 
 Number whose 
 Sentences were miti- 
 gated by His Majesty. 
 
 Number 
 Executed 
 
 nounced. 
 
 Pardoned. 
 
 Commuted. 
 
 49 
 
 150 
 
 199 
 
 -472 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 Edinburgh, Certified by Ja. Andebson, 
 
 18th of June, 1830. Depute Clerk of Justiciary. 
 
 V. Banks (Irish). 
 
 " In no country, perhaps," says Sir Henry Parnell, " has the issuing of paper money 
 been carried to such an injurious excess as in Ireland. A national bank was established 
 in 1783, with similar privileges to those of the Bank of England, in respect to the 
 restriction of more than 6 partners in a bank ; and the injury that Ireland has sustained 
 from the repeated failure of banks may be mainly attributed to this defective regulation. 
 Had the trade of banking been left as free in Ireland as it is in Scotland, the want of 
 paper money that would have arisen with the progress of trade would, in all probability, 
 have been supplied by joint stock companies, supported with large capitals, and governed 
 by wise and effectual rules. 
 
 "In 17 97, when the Bank of England suspended its payments, the same privilege was 
 extended to Ireland ; and after this period the issues of the Bank of Ireland were rapidly 
 increased. In 1797, the amount of the notes of the Bank of Ireland in circulation was 
 621,917Z. ; in 1810, 2,266,471Z. ; and in 1814, 2,986,9997. 
 
 " These increased issues led to corresponding increased issues by the private banks, of 
 which the number was 50 in the year 1804. The conseqvience of this increase of paper 
 was a great depreciation of it; the price of bullion and guineas rose to 10 per cent, 
 above the mmt price; and the exchange with London became as high as 18 per cent., 
 the par being 8g. . This unfavourable exchange was afterwards corrected ; not by any 
 reduction in the issues of the Bank of Ireland, but by the depreciation of the British 
 currency in the year 1810, when the exchange between London and Dublin settled again 
 at about par. 
 
 " The loss that Ireland has sustained by the failure of banks may be described in a 
 few words. It appears by the Report of the Committee on Irish Exchanges in 1804, 
 that there were at that time in Ireland .50 registered banks. Since that year, a great 
 many more have been established ; but the whole have failed, one after the other, involv- 
 ing tlie country from time to time in immense distress, with the following exceptions : 
 — first, a few that withdrew from business ; secondly, four banks in Dublin ; thirdly, 
 three at Belfast ; and, lastly, one at Mallow. These eight banks, with the new Provin- 
 cial Bank, and the Bank of Ireland, are the only banks now existing in Ireland. 
 
 " In 1821, in consequence of 11 banks having failed nearly at the same time, in 
 the preceding year, in the south of Ireland, government succeeded in making an 
 arrangement with the Bank of Ireland, by which joint stock companies were allowed to 
 be established at a distance of 50 miles (Irish) from Dublin, and the bank was permitted 
 to increase its capital 500,000Z. The act of 1 & 2 Geo. 4. c. 72. was founded on this 
 agreement. 
 
 " But ministers having omitted to repeal in this act various restrictions on the trade 
 of banking that had been imposed by 33 Geo. 2. c. 14., no new company was formed. 
 In "1824, a party of merchants of Belfast, wishing to establish a joint stock company, 
 petitioned parliament for the repeal of this act of Geo. 2. ; and an act was accordingly 
 passed in that session, repealing some of the most objectionable restrictions of it (the 
 5 Geo. 4. c. 73.). 
 
 " In consequence of this act, the Northern Bank of Belfast was converted into a joint 
 stock company, with a capital of 500,000/., and commenced business on the 1st of 
 
106 
 
 BANKS (IRISH). 
 
 January, 1825. But the remaining restrictions of 33 Geo. 2., and certain provisions 
 contained in the new acts of 1 & 2 Geo. 3. and 5 Geo. 4., obstructed the progress of 
 this company, and they found it necessary to apply to government to remove them ; and 
 a biU vi'as accordingly introduced, which would have repealed all the obnoxious clauses 
 of the 33 Geo. 2., had it not been so altered in the committee as to leave several of them 
 in force. In 1825, the Provincial Bank of Ireland commenced business, with a capital 
 of 2,000,000Z. ; and the Bank of Ireland has of late established branches in all the 
 principal towns in Ireland. 
 
 " The losses that have been sustained in Ireland by abusing the power of issuing 
 paper have been so great, that much more is necessary to be done, by way of protecting 
 the public from future loss, than the measure proposed last session (1826) by ministers, 
 of abolishing small notes ; and the measure already adopted, of allowing joint stock com- 
 panies to be established in the interior of the country. As the main source of the evi) 
 consists in the interference of the law in creating a national bank with exclusive privi- 
 leges, the first step that ought to be taken for introducing a good system into Ireland is 
 the getting rid of such a bank, and opening the trade of banking in Dublin. The next 
 measure should be the requiring of each bank to give security for the amount of paper 
 that is issued ; for after the experience of the ignorance with which the Irish banks have 
 conducted their business, and the derangement of the natural course of the trade by the 
 long existence of the Bank of Ireland, it would be unwise to calculate upon a sound 
 system of banking speedily supplanting that which has been established. 
 
 " Under the circumstances in which Ireland is placed, nothing would so much contri-. 
 bute to her rapid improvement in wealth, as the introducing of the Scotch plan of cash 
 credits, and of paying interest on deposits. By cash credits, the capital which now exists 
 would be rendered more efficient, and the paying of interest on small deposits would lead 
 to habits of economy, and to the more rapid accumulation of new capital. 
 
 " The charter of the Bank of Ireland has still to run till the year 1838." — ( Observ- 
 ations on Paper Money, ^c, by Sir Henry Parnell, pp. 171 — 177.) 
 
 The capital of the Bank of Ireland at its establishment in 1783 amounted to 600,000/. ; 
 but it has been increased at various periods ; and has, since 1821, amounted to 3,000,000/. 
 At present, no bank having more than 6 partners can be established any where within 
 50 Irish miles of Dublin ; nor is any such bank allowed to draw bills upon Dublin for 
 less than 50/., or at a shorter date than 6 months. This enactment seems to amount to 
 a virtual prohibition of the drawing of such bills. The Bank of Ireland draws on 
 London at 20 days' date. She neither grants cash credits, nor allows any interest on 
 deposits. She discounts at the rate of 51. per cent. 
 
 In 1828, the currency of Ireland was assimilated to that of Great Britain. Previously 
 to that period, the currency of the former was 8i per cent, less valuable than that of the 
 latter. 
 
 Account of Bank of Ireland Notes in Circulation, including Bank Post Bills, in each Half Year, com- 
 mencing with the Half Year ending 1st of January, 1797, to 1st of January, 1819, inclusive. 
 
 January 1. 
 
 July 1. 
 
 January 1. 
 
 July 1. 
 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1804 
 1805 
 180fi 
 1807 
 
 £ 
 [733,763 
 1,081,512 
 1,363,710 
 1,928,381 
 2,350,133 
 2,431,152 
 2,662,405 
 2,798,767 
 2,817,697 
 2,560,271 
 2,693,796 
 2,746,717 
 
 £ 
 785,101 
 1,245,214 
 1,557,737 
 2,317,235 
 2,323,901 
 2,587,187 
 2,617,144 
 2,859,977 
 2,778,635 
 2,517,581 
 2,789,544 
 2,798,835 
 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 1813 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 
 £ 
 
 3,002,699 
 3,170,064 
 3,331,892 
 3,616.476 
 3,957;920 
 4,165,906 
 4,528,041 
 4,179,549 
 4,277,018 
 4,387,155 
 4,477,019 
 
 £ 
 
 3,144,677 
 3,171,607 
 3,472,781 
 3,763,229 
 4,199,474 
 4,281,449 
 4,434,455 
 4,193,853 
 4,304,040 
 4,413,463 
 
 An Account of the Average Amount of Bank of Ireland Notes, including Bank Post Bills, issued during 
 the Six Years ending with 1825. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Notes and Bills 
 
 Irish Currency. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Notes and Bills 
 
 Irish Currency. 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 
 of 51. and upwards 
 under 51. 
 
 0(51. and upwards 
 under 51. . 
 
 of 51. and upwards 
 under 51. - 
 
 £ s. 
 
 2,894,777 5 
 1,314,806 15 
 
 3,501,119 11 
 1,710,603 3 
 
 £ s. 
 4,209,584 0 
 5,211,792 14 
 5,170,432 3 
 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 
 of 51. and upwards 
 under 51. . 
 
 of 51. and upwards 
 under 5/. - 
 
 of 51. and upwards 
 under 51. - 
 
 £ s. 
 3,528,625 7 
 1,588,764 7 
 
 £ s, 
 5,117,389 14 
 5,(22,455 14 
 6,411,349 8 
 
 3,890,337 8 
 1,732,118 6 
 
 3,618,111 1 
 1,552,321 2 
 
 4,446,995 0 
 1,964,354 8 
 
 {Commons Report of 1826, p. 29.) 
 There is no later account of the circulation of the Bank of Ireland, or of the other Irish banks. The entire 
 paper circulation of Ireland may now, probably, amount to between 7,000,000^. and 8,000,000/. sterling. 
 
BANKS (FOREIGN). 
 
 107 
 
 It appears from the statements given in the Report of tlie Commons' Committee of 
 1826, that the average value of the notes and post bills of the Bank of Ireland of 5L 
 and upwards in circulation, during the five years ending vi^ith 1825, amounted to 
 3,646,660/. Irish currency ; and that the average value of the notes and post bills under 
 51. in circulation during the same period amounted to 1,643,828/. Irish currency. The 
 average value of the notes of all descriptions issued by the other banking establishments 
 in Ireland, in 1825, amounted to 1,192,886/. 
 
 Provincial Bank of Ireland. — This important establishment was, as already stated, 
 founded in 1825. Its subscribed capital consists of 2,000,000/., divided into 20,000 
 shares of 100/. each, of which 25 per cent., or 500,000/., has been paid up. Its head 
 office is in I^ondon j and at present it has subordinate offices in Cork, Limerick, Clonmel, 
 Londonderry, Sligo, Wexford, Waterford, Belfast, Galway, Armagh, Athlone, Coleraine, 
 Kilkenny, Ballina, Tralee, Youghall, Enniskillen, Monaghan, Banbridge, and BalJy- 
 mena. The last 5 have been opened since 1831. The entire management of the 
 establishment is vested in the court of directors in London. The business of the branch 
 banks is conducted, under the control of the head office, by the managers, with the 
 advice and assistance of 2 or more gentlemen of respectability in the district, each holding 
 10 shares in the bank. The business consists of discounting bills; granting cash credits, 
 after the manner of the Scotch banks; receiving deposits, on which interest, varying 
 according to circumstances, is allowed ; in drawing and giving letters of credit on other 
 places of Ireland, Great Britain, &c. ; and of other details incident to banking. It has 
 had several pretty severe runs to sustain. In the course of a single week, in October, 
 1828, about 1,000,000/. in gold was sent from England to Ireland on account of the 
 Provincial Bank ! This prompt and ample supply effectually maintained the credit of 
 the establishment, and did much to restore confidence. 
 
 The notes of the Provincial Bank have always been payable at the places where they 
 are issued. The Bank of Ireland began to establish branches in 1825; but the notes 
 issued by her branches were not, at first, payable except at the head office in Dublin. 
 This distinction, which tended to throw the principal pressure of runs in the country on 
 the Provincial Bank, and other private companies, was abolished by the act 9 Geo. 4. 
 c. 81., which made it obligatory on a// banks to pay their notes at the place of issue. 
 Notes of the Provincial Bank are received by the Treasury in payment of taxes, in the same 
 way as those of the Bank of Ireland ; and it is the bank of government for the excise, 
 post-office, and stamp revenues for those parts of the country beyond the exclusive 
 privileges of the Bank of Ireland. The dividends have been at the rate of 4, 5, and, since 
 the 25th of December, 1832, of 6 per cent, per annum. Its stock is now at a high 
 premium, the 25/. paid up shares fetching 35/. or 36/. 
 
 Northern Banking Company. — This establishment has its head office in Belfast, and 
 its branches are distributed throughout Ulster. Its capital and operations are on a 
 much less extensive scale than those of the Provincial Bank, but in other respects they 
 are conducted nearly in the same way. 
 
 There are very few private banking establishments at present existing in Ireland, at 
 least compared with those in this country. 
 
 VI. Banks (Foreign). 
 
 To attempt giving any detailed account of the principal foreign banks would very far 
 exceed our limits ; we shall, therefore, only notice a few of the more celebrated. 
 
 The Bank of Venice seems to have been the first banking establishment in Europe. 
 It was founded so early as 1171, and subsisted till the subversion of the republic in 1797. 
 It was essentially a deposit bank ; and its bills bore at all times a premium or agio over 
 the current money of the city. 
 
 The Bank of Amsterdam was established in 1659. It was a deposit bank ; and pay- 
 ments were made by writing off sums from the account of one individual to those of 
 another. According to the principles on which the bank was established, it should have 
 had at all times in its coffers bullion equal to the full amount of the claims upon it. 
 But the directors privately lent about 10,500,000 florins to the states of Holland and 
 Friesland. This circumstance transpired when the French invaded Holland, and caused 
 the ruin of the bank. — (See my edition of the Wealth of Nations, vol. ii. p. 333.) 
 
 The Bank of the Netherlands was established in 1814. It is formed on the 
 model of the Bank of England ; and was to enjoy for 25 years the exclusive privi- 
 lege of issuing notes. The original capital of 5,000,000 florins was doubled in 1819. 
 The king holds one tenth of the shares. The affairs of the bank are managed by a 
 president, secretary, and 5 directors, who are chosen every 6 months, but may be 
 indefinitely re-elected. This bank discounts bills of exchange with three responsible 
 signatures ; it takes continuations on stock, and sometimes lends on bullion at such a 
 rate of interest and to such an extent as may be agreed upon. It occasionally, also. 
 
108 
 
 BANKS (FOREIGN). 
 
 makes loans on merchandise, but never at less than 5 per cent. Its notes vary from 
 1,000 florhis to 25 florins, that is, from 83i/. to 2^J. The dividends have varied from 
 3 to 7 per cent. The shares are each 1,000 florins, and are at present worth 25 per 
 cent, premium ex dividend. The responsibility of the shareholders is limited to the 
 amount of their stock. — (^Consul's Answer to Circular Queries.^ 
 
 The Bank of Hamburgh is a deposit bank, and its affairs are managed according to a 
 system that insures the fullest publicity. It receives no deposits in coin, but only in 
 bullion of a certain degree of fineness. It charges itself with the bullion at the rate of 
 442 schillings the mark, and issues it at the rate of 444 schillings ; being a charge of 
 |ths, or nearly ^, per cent, for its retention. It advances mon'fey on jewels to f ths bf 
 their value. The city is answerable for all pledges deposited with the bank ; they may 
 be sold by auction, if they remain 1 year and 6 weeks without any interest being paid. 
 If the value be not claimed within years, it is forfeited to the poor. The Bank of 
 Hamburgh is universally admitted to be one of the best managed in Europe. 
 
 The Bank of France was founded in 1 803. The exclusive privilege of issuing notes 
 payable to bearer was granted to it for 40 years. The capital of the bank consisted at • 
 first of 45,000,000 fr., but it was subsequently increased to 90,000,000 fr., divided into 
 90,000 shares or actions of 1,000 fr. each. Of these shares, 67,900 are in the hands of 
 the public; 22,100, being purchased up by the bank, form part of her capital. The 
 notes issued by the bank are for 1,000 and 500 fr. The dividend varies from 4 to 5 
 « per cent. ; and there is, besides, a reserve retained from the profits, which is vested in 
 the 5 per cents. A bonus of 200 fr. a share was paid out of this reserve to the share- 
 holders in 1820. The reserve in possession of the bank in 1828, amounted to 6,623,000 fr. 
 No bills are discounted that have more than 3 months to run. The customary rate 
 of discount is 4 per cent., but it varies according to circumstances. The discounts in 
 1827 amounted to 621,000,000 fr. The bank is obliged to open a compte courant for 
 every one who requires it ; and performs services for those who have such accounts, 
 similar to those rendered by the private banks of London to their customers. She is 
 not allowed to charge any commission upon current accounts, so that her only remu- 
 neration arises out of the use of the money placed in her hands by the individuals whose 
 payments she makes. This branch of tlie business is said not to be profitable. There 
 are about 1,600 accounts current at the bank ; and of the entire expenses of the establish- 
 ment, amounting to about 900,000 fr. a year, two thirds are said to be incurred in this 
 department. The bank advances money on pledges of different kinds, such as foreign 
 coin or ^ullion, government or other securities, &c. It also undertakes the care of 
 valuable articles, as plate, jewels, bills, title-deeds, &c. The charge is g per cent, of the 
 value of each deposit for every period of 6 months or under. 
 
 The administration of the bank is vested in a council general of 20 members, viz. 
 17 regents, and 3 censors, who are nominated by 200 of the principal proprie- 
 tors. The king appoints the governor and deputy governor. The first must be 
 possessed of 150, and the latter of 50 shares. A compte rendu is annually published, and 
 a report by the censors, which together give a very full exposition of the affairs of the 
 bank. The institution is flourishing, and enjoys unlimited credit. — (For further details 
 with respect to the Bank of France, see Storch, Cours d'Eco7iomie Politique, Paris, 
 1823, torn. iv. pp. 168 — 180., and the Comptes Rendus of the different years.) 
 
 Banks have also been established at Berlin, Copenhagen, Vienna, and Petersburgh. 
 Those who wish for detailed information with respect to these establishments, may 
 consult the work of M. Storch, to which we have just referred. In the 4th volume, 
 there is an admirable account of the paper money of the different continental states. 
 The objects we have in view will be accomplished by laying before our readers the 
 following details with respect to the Commercial Bank of Russia, established in 1818 : — 
 " This bank receives deposits in gold and silver, foreign as well as Russian coin, and in 
 bars and ingots. It has a department for transferring the sums deposited with it, on the 
 plan of the Hamburgh Bank. It discounts bills, and lends money on deposits of mer- 
 cliandise of Russian produce or origin. Its capital consists of 30,000,000 of bank-note 
 rubles. It is administered by a governor and 4 directors appointed by government, 
 and 4 directors elected by the commercial body of Petersburgh. The property in the 
 bank is protected against all taxation, sequestration, or attachment; and it is enacted, 
 that subjects of countries with which Russia may be at war shall be entitled at all times 
 to receive back their deposits witliout any reservation. It is also declared, that at no 
 time shall the bank be called upon for any part of its capital to assist the government. 
 All deposits must be made for 6 months at least, and be repayable at or before that 
 period, and not be less than 500 rubles : sums so deposited to \niy ^ per ce'.it. The 
 deposits, if in bars, ingots, or foreign specie, are estimated in Russian silver coin, and so 
 registered in the attestation ; and if not demanded back within 15 days of the expiration 
 of 6 niontlis, or the necessary premium paid for tlie prolongation, the owner loses the 
 right of claiming his original deposit, and must take its estimated value in Russian silver 
 
BANKS (FOREIGN). 
 
 109 
 
 coin. No bills are discounted that have less than 8 days or more than 6 months to 
 run. The rate of discount is 6 per cent. No interest is allowed on money deposited in 
 the bank, unless notice be given that it will be allowed to lie for a year, and 3 
 months' notice be given of the intention to draw it out, when six per cent, interest is 
 allowed." — {Kelly's Cambist, vol. i. p. 303.) This bank has branches at Archangel, 
 Moscow, Odessa, Riga, &c. 
 
 The Bank of the United States v/as incorporated in 1816. Its capital is 35,000,000 
 dollars, divided into 350,000 shares of 100 dollars each. Seven millions were sub- 
 scribed by the United States, and the remaining 28,000,000 by individuals, companies, 
 corporations, &c. In 1832, 84,000 shares were held by foreigners. The bank issues no 
 note for less than 5 dollars; all its notes are payable in specie on demand. It discounts 
 bills and makes advances on bullion at the rate of 6 per cent. The management is under 
 25 directors; 5 of whom, being holders of stock, are annually appointed by the 
 President of the United States. Seven directors, including the president, constitute 
 a Board. 
 
 The principal office of the bank is in Philadelphia; but in January, 1830, it had 
 twenty-seven subordinate offices, or branch banks, established in diffiirent parts of the 
 Union. Subjoined is a statement of some of the items in the affairs of the Bank of 
 the United States, on the 1st of April, 1830, and the 2d of November, 1832. 
 
 
 1830. 
 
 1832. 
 
 Notes discounted . - - 
 
 Domestic bills discounted . - . 
 
 Funded debt held by the bank . . - 
 
 Real estate - 
 
 Funds in Europe, equal to specie 
 
 Specie .... 
 
 Public deposits - . - . 
 
 Private deposits - - 
 
 Circulation . _ - . 
 
 32,138,270-89 dol. 
 
 10,506,882-54. 
 
 11,122,530-90 
 
 2,891 ,890-75 
 
 2,789,498-54 
 
 9,043,748-97 
 
 8,905,501-87 
 
 7,704,256 87 
 16,083,894 00 
 
 45,726,934 95 dol. 
 
 16,304,498-48 
 4,747,696-45 
 1,822,721-51 
 2,8.s5,016-26 
 8,026,055-45 
 6,957,621-54 
 7,622,898 84, 
 
 17,968,733-36 
 
 The total liabilities of the bank to the public on the 1st of November, 1832, includ- 
 ing its notes in circulation, deposits, and debts to the holders of public funds, were 
 37,296,950-20 dollars ^ and its assets, including .specie, cash in Europe, debts from 
 individuals, banking companies, &c. were 79,593,870-97 dollars; leaving a surplus of 
 42,296,920-77 dollars, showing the stability of the bank to be equal to that of any 
 institution of the sort in the world. — (lieport to Secretary of Treasury on Affairs of 
 the Bank of the United States, Dec. 4. 1832.) The charter of the bank expires in 
 1836. A bill for its renewal passed both houses of Congress in 1832, but was rejected 
 by the President. The probability, however, seems to be, that the measure will still 
 pass. Of its expediency no reasonable doubt can be entertained. 
 
 The establishment of the Bank of the United States has been of material service, by 
 affording a currency of undoubted solidity, readily accepted in all parts of the Union. 
 At the period when it was organised, nothing could be in a less satisfactory condition 
 than the paper currency of the United States ; in fact, with the exception perhaps of 
 England and Ireland, they have suffered more than any other country from the abuse 
 of banking. In 1814, all the banks south and west of New England stopped-payment ; 
 and it appears, from the official returns, that in all, no fewer than 165 banks were in this 
 predicament between the 1st of January, 1811, and the 1st of January, 1830! It is of 
 importance to observe, that rn^t of these banks were joint stock companies. At present, 
 indeed, there are no strictly private banking companies in the United States. They 
 are all incorporated by law, with a fixed capital, the shareholders being only liable in 
 most cases, though not uniformly, to the extent of their shares. They all issue notes 
 of 5 dollars ; but the issue of notes of a lower value has been forbidden in Pennsyl- 
 vania, Maryland, and Virginia. A good deal has been said in this country of the 
 flourishing state of the New England banks, particularly those of INIassachusetts, and 
 they have been held up as a model for our imitation. But, bad as our system of 
 country banking undoubtedly is, we should be exceedingly sorry to see any attempt 
 made to improve it, by the adoption of even the best parts of the American system. 
 Among other regulations, an act of the legislature of Massachusetts provides that no 
 bank for the issue of notes can go into operation in any way, until at least half its 
 capital stock shall be paid in gold and silver into the bank, and be actually exist- 
 ing in its coffers ; and the cashier of every bank is bovmd to make specific returns 
 once a year of its debts and assets, on being required to do so by the secretary of state. 
 But such regulations are found, in practice, to be nearly if not wholly worthless. In- 
 stances have occurred of banks having borrowed an amount of dollars equal to half 
 their capital, for a single day ; and of such dollars having been examined by the com- 
 missioners appointed for that purpose, and reported by them, -and sworn by a majority of 
 the directors to be the first instalment paid by the stockholders of the bank, and intended 
 
110 
 
 BANKS FOR SAVINGS. 
 
 to remain in it ! — ( Gouge's Paper Money and Banking in the United States, part ii. 
 p. 157.) We do not, of course, imagine that such disgraceful instances can be of 
 common occurrence; but a system which permits of frauds of this sort being per- 
 petrated under cover of authority, must be altogether vicious. The publicity, too, to 
 which the banks are subject, is injurious rather than otherwise. They know when they 
 are to be called upon to make their returns ; and in order to render them as favourable 
 as possible, they are in the habit, for a month or two previously, of narrowing their 
 discounts, to the great inconvenience of those with whom they deal ; and endeavour by 
 every means in their power, through temporary loans, and all manner of devices, to swell 
 the amount of bullion in their coffers on the day of examination. If the banks were 
 obliged to make regular weekly or even monthly returns of their situation, they might 
 afford some little useful information ; but it is abundantly obvious, that that which is 
 derived from the present returns must be, even when not so intended, misleading and 
 deserving of very little attention. The truth cannot be too often repeated, that it is 
 quite impossible ever to organise secure banks of issue, — and it is with such only that the 
 legislature has any right to interfere, — except by obliging them to give security for their 
 notes. Every other scheme, how carefully soever it may be devised, is sure in the end 
 to prove nugatory and to be defeated. That part of the American system which limits 
 the responsibility of the partners in a bank to the amount of their shares, seems to us 
 to be in the last degree objectionable. It affords a strong temptation to the commission 
 of fraud, and we have yet to learn that it possesses a single countervailing advantage. 
 We have been assured by those weU acquainted with the facts, that it has been produc- 
 tive of the most mischievous consequences. Six of the Massachusetts banks, having, or 
 professing to have, a capital of 800,000 dollars, failed between the 1st of January, 1811, 
 and the 1st of July, 1830. 
 
 We subjoin an official abstract of the state of the 84 banks existing in Massachusetts 
 on the first Saturday of August, 1832. 
 
 Abstract Account of the Massachusetts Banks. 
 
 Capital stock paid in - 
 Bills in circulation 
 Nett profits on hand 
 Balances due to other banks 
 Cash deposited, &c., not bearing 
 interest - - - 
 Cash deposited, bearing interest - 
 Due from the banks 
 Gold, silver, &c. in banks 
 Real estate ... 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Bills of banks in this State 
 
 Bills of banks elsewhere 
 
 Balances due from other banks - 
 
 Due to the banks, excepting ba- 
 lances ... 
 
 Total resources of the banks 
 
 Amount of last dividend 
 — reserved profits 
 
 Debts secured by pledge of stock - 
 — due, and considered doubtful 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 24,520,200-00 
 7,122,856 00 
 1,031,900-16 
 1,993,904-15 
 
 2,938,970-33 
 6,268,584-61 
 43,996,900-00 
 902,205-78 
 738,612-64 
 
 1,027,362-03 
 174,568-62 
 2,307,784-26 
 38,889,727-24 
 
 44,042,006-54 
 689,275-00 
 4-^6,708-74 
 944,761-73 
 211,914-78 
 
 Rate of dividend on amount of capital of the banks, as existing when dividend was made, 3"125 
 per cent. 
 
 Mr. Gallatin has given the following account of the number and capital of the banking 
 establishments existing in the United States on the 1st of January, 1830: — 
 
 States. 
 
 Number 
 of Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 States. 
 
 Number 
 of Banks. 
 
 1 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Maine . . - 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut - . - 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware - 
 
 Maryland 
 
 District of Columbia 
 Virginia 
 
 66 
 18 
 18 
 10 
 47 
 13 
 37 
 18 
 33 
 4 
 13 
 9 
 4 
 
 Dollars. 
 20,420,000 
 2,050,000 
 1,791,670 
 432,625 
 6,118,397 
 4,485,177 
 20,083,353 
 2,017,009 
 14,609,963 
 830,000 
 6,250,495 
 3,875,794 
 5,571,100 
 
 North Carolina 
 South Carolina - 
 Georgia - - 
 Louisiana - - 
 Alabama 
 Mississippi 
 Tennessee 
 Ohio 
 
 Michigan - - . 
 Florida ... 
 Delaware 
 
 Total 
 
 *) 
 5 
 9 
 4 
 2 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 11 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 . Dollars. 
 3,195,000 
 4,631,000 
 4,203,029 
 5,6&5,980 
 643,503 
 950,600 
 737,817 
 1,454,386 
 10,000 
 75,000 
 
 330 
 
 110,101 ,8!)8 
 
 For further information with respect to the banks of the United States, see the Report, 
 12th of February, 1820, of the Secretary of the Treasury (W. H. Crawford, Esq.) to 
 Congress ; the pamphlet of Albert Gallatin, Esq. on the Currency and Banking System 
 of the United States, Philadelphia, 1831 ; Gouge's Account of Paper Money and Banking 
 in the United States, §-c. And for further details as to foreign banks, see Bokueaux, 
 Calcutta, Christiania, Copenhagen, Naples, &c. 
 
 VII. Banks for Savings, 
 Are banks established for the receipt of small sums deposited by the poorer class of 
 persons, and for the accumulation of such sums at compound interest. Tliey are managed 
 by individuals, who derive no benefit whatever from the deposits. All monies paid into 
 any Savings Bank established according to the provisions of the act 9 Geo. 4. c. 92., are 
 
BANKS FOR SAVINGS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 ordered to be paid into the Banks of England and Ireland, and vested in Bank annuities 
 or Exchequer bills. The interest payable to depositors is not to exceed 2\d. per cent. 
 per diem, or 3/. 8s. 5\d. per cent, per annum. No depositor can contribute more than 
 30/., exclusive of compound interest, to a Savings Bank in any one year; and the total 
 deposits to be received from any one individual are not to exceed 150/. ; and whenever 
 the deposits, and compound interest accruing upon them, standing in the name of any 
 one individual, shall amount to 200/., no interest shall be payable upon such deposit so 
 long as it shall amount to 200/. Since the establishment of this system in 1817, down 
 to January, 1831, the sums received from depositors, and the interest accruing upon 
 them, amounted to 20,760,228/., of which the depositors had received, in principal and 
 interest, 5,648,838/. ; leaving, at the period in question, a balance due to the depositors 
 of 15,111,890/. The commissioners for the reduction of the national debt have the 
 disposal of the sums vested in the public funds on account of Savings Banks. 
 
 The principle and object of these institutions cannot be too highly commended. In 
 the metropolis, and many other parts of England, public banks do not receive small de- 
 posits, and upon none do they pay any interest. And even in Scotland, where the public 
 banks allow interest upon deposits, they do not generally receive less than 10/. But few 
 poor persons are able to save so large a sum, except by a lengthened course of economy. 
 The truth, therefore, is, that until Savings Banks were established, the poor were every 
 where without the means of securely and profitably investing those small sums they are 
 not unfrequently in a condition to save ; and were consequently led, from the difficulty of 
 disposing of them, to neglect opportunities for making savings, or if they did make them, 
 were tempted, by the offer of high interest, to lend them to persons of doubtful characters 
 and desperate fortunes, by whom they were, for the most part, squandered. Under such 
 circumstances, it is plain that nothing could be more important, in the view of diffusing 
 habits of forethought and economy amongst the labouring classes, than the establishment 
 of Savings Banks, where the smallest sums are placed in perfect safety, are accumulated 
 at compound interest, and are paid, with their accumulations, the moment they are 
 demanded by the depositors. The system is yet only in its infancy ; but the magnitude 
 of the deposits already received, sets its powerful and salutary operation in a very striking 
 point of view. 
 
 We subjoin a copy of the rules of the St. Pancras Savings Bank, which may be taken 
 as a model for similar institutions, inasmuch as they have been drawn up with great care, 
 and closely correspond with the provisions in the act 9 Geo. 4. c. 92. 
 
 1. Management. — This Bank is under the management of a president, vice-presidents, trustees, and 
 not less than fifty managers, none of whom are permitted to derive any benefit whatsoever, directly or 
 indirectly, from the deposits received, or the produce thereof. One or more of the managers attend 
 when the Bank is open for business. 
 
 2. Superintending Committee. — A committee of not less than ten managers, three of whom form a 
 quorum, is empowered to superintend, manage, and conduct the general business of this Bank ; to add to 
 their number from among the managers ; to fill up vacancies in their own body, and to appoint a treasurer 
 or treasurers, agent or agents, auditors, an actuary and clerks, and other officers and servants, and to 
 withdraw any such appointments, and to appoint others, should it be considered necessary so to do. — 
 The proceedings of this committee are regularly laid before the general meetings of the Bank. * 
 
 3. Elections. — The superintending committee is empowered to 'add to the number of managers, until 
 they amount to one hundred and twenty, exclusively of the president, vice-presidents, and trustees. And 
 any vacancies of president, vice-presidents, and trustees, are to be filled up at a general meeting. 
 
 4- General Meetings. — A general meeting of the president, vice-presidents, trustees, and managers of 
 this Bank shall be held once a year, in the month of February. The superintending committee shall lay 
 before every such meeting a report of the transactions of the bank, and state of the accounts. The 
 superintending committee for the succeeding year shall be elected at such general meeting j and failing 
 such election, the former committee shall be considered as reappointed. 
 
 5. Special Meetijigs. — The superintending committee are authorised to call special general meetings 
 when they think proper ; and also, on the requisition of any ten managers, delivered in writing to the 
 actuary, or to the manager in attendance at the Bank ; and of such meeting seven days' notice shall be 
 given. 
 
 6. Liability of Trustees, Managers, Officers, SfC. —tfo trustee or manager shall be personally liable 
 except for his own acts and deeds, nor for any thing done by him in virtue of his office, except where he 
 shall be guilty of wilful neglect or default ; but the treasurer or treasurers, the actuary, and every 
 officer intrusted with the receipt or custody of any sum of money deposited for the purposes of this 
 Institution, and every officer, or other person, receiving salary or allowance for their services from the 
 funds thereof, shall give good and sufficient security, by bond or bonds, to the clerk of the peace of the 
 county of Middlesex, for the just and faithful execution of such office of trust. 
 
 7. Investment and Limitation of Deposits. — Deposits of not less than one shilling, and not exceeding 
 thirty pounds in the whole, exclusive of compound interest, from any one depositor, or trustee of a 
 depositor, during each and every year ending on the 20th of November, will be received and invested, 
 pursuant to 9 Geo. 4. c. 92. s. 11., until the same shall amount to one hundred and fifty potinds in the 
 whole; and when the principal and interest together shall amount to live hundred pounds, then no 
 interest will be payable on such deposit, so long as it shall continue to amount to that sum. But depo- 
 sitors, whose accounts amounted to, or exceeded, ttvo hundred pounds, at the passing of the said act, 
 on the S&th of July, 1828, will continue to be entitled to interest and compound interest thereon. 
 
 8. Interest to be allowed to Depositors. — In conformity with the 24th clause of the 9 Geo. 4. c. 92., an 
 interest at the rate of 9\d. per cent, per day, being S/. 8s. 5\d. per cent, per annum {the full amount 
 authorised by the said act), will be allowed to depositors, and placed to their accounts as a cash deposit, 
 in the month of November in each year. Depositors demanding payment of the whole amount of 
 their deposits in this Bank, will be allowed the interest due on such deposits up to the day on which 
 notice of withdrawing shall be given, but no interest will be allowed, in any case, on the fractional parts 
 of a pound sterling. 
 
 9. Description and Declaration. — Every person desirous of making any deposit in this Bank, shall, at 
 
112 
 
 BANKS FOR SAVINGS, 
 
 the time of making their first deposit, and at such other times as they shall be required so to do, declare 
 their residence, occupation, profession, or calling, and sign (either by themselves, or, in case of infants 
 under the age of seven years, by some person or persons to be approved of by tiie trustees or managers, 
 or their officer), a declaration that they are not directly or indirectly entitled to any deposit in, or benefit 
 from, the funds of any other Savings Bank in England or Ireland, nor to any sum or sums standing in 
 the name or names of any other person or persons in the books of this Bank. And in case any such 
 declaration shall not be true, every such person (or the person on whose behalf such declaration may have 
 been signed) shall forfeit and lose all right and title to such deposits, and the trustees and managers 
 shall cause the sum or sums so forfeited to be paid to the commissioners for the reduction of the 
 natiojial debt ; but no depositor shall be subject or liable to any such forfeiture, on account of being 
 a trustee on behalf of others, or of being interested in the funds of any Friendly Society legally esta- 
 blished. 
 
 10. Trustees on Behalf of others. — Persons may act as trustees for depositors, whether such persons are 
 themselves depositors "in any Savings Bank or not, provided tlaat such trustee or trustees shall make 
 such declaration on behalf of such depositor or depositors, and be subject to the like conditions in every 
 respect, as are required in the case of persons making deposits on their own account, and the receipt and 
 receipts of such trustee or trustees, or the survivor of them, or the executors or administrators of any 
 sole trustee, or surviving trustee, with or without (as may be required by the managers) the receipt of 
 the person on whose account such sum may have been deposited, shall be a good and valid discharge to 
 the trustees and managers of the Institution. 
 
 11. Minors. — Deposits are received from, or for the benefit of, minors, and are subject to the same 
 regulations as the deposits of persons of 21 years of age and upwards. 
 
 12. Friendly and Charitable Societies. — Friendly Societies, legally established previous to the 2Sth of 
 July, 1828, may deposit their funds through their treasurer, steward, or other oiticer or officers, with- 
 out any limitation as to the amount. But Friendly Societies formed and enrolled after that date, are not 
 permitted to make deposits exceeding the sum of 300/., principal and interest included ; and no interest 
 will be payable thereon, whenever the same shall amount to, or continue at, the said sum of 300/. or 
 upwards. 
 
 Deposits are received from the trustees or treasurers of Charitable Societies, not exceeding 100/. per 
 annum, provided the amount shall not at any time exceed the sum of 300/., exclusive of interest, 
 
 13. Deposits of Persons unable to attend. — Forms are given at the office, enabling persons to become 
 depositors who are unable to attend personally ; and those who have previously made a deposit, may 
 send additional sums, together luith their book, by any other person. 
 
 14. Depositors'" Book. — . The deposits are entered in the books of the Bank at the time they are niacte 
 and the depositor receives a book with a corresponding entry therein ; which book must be brought to 
 the office every time that any further sum is deposited, also when notice is given for withdrawing money, 
 and at the time the repayment is to be made, so that the transactions may be duly Ciitered therein. 
 
 15. Withdraivina; Deposits. — Depositors may receive the whole or any part of their deposits on any 
 day appointed by the managers, not e-x.ceeA\ng fourteen days after notice has been given for that purpose ; 
 but such deposits can only be repaid to the depositor personally, or to the bearer of an order inider the 
 hand of the depositor, signed in the presence of either the minister or a churchwarden of the parish in 
 which the depositor resides, of a justice of the peace, or of a manager of this Bank. 
 
 The Depositor's Book must always be produced when notice of withdrawing is given. 
 ifi. Money withdrawn may be re-deposited. — Depositors may withdraw any sum or sums of money, and 
 re-deposit the same at any time or times within any one year, reckoning from the 20th day of November, 
 provided such sum or sums of money re-deposited, and any previous deposit or deposits which may have 
 been made by such depositor in the course of the year, taken together, shall not exceed, at any time in 
 such year, the sum of 30/., additional principal money bearing interest. 
 
 17. Return or Refusal of Deposits. — This Bank is at liberty to return the amount of the deposits to all 
 or any of the depositors, and may refuse to receive deposits in any case, where it shall be deemed expe- 
 dient so to do. 
 
 18. Deposits of a deceased Depositor exceeding Fifty Pounds. — In case of the death of any depo- 
 sitor in this Bank, v/hose deposits, and the interest thereon, shall exceed in the whole the sum oi fifty 
 pounds, the same shall only be paid to the executor or executors, administrator or administrators, on 
 the production of the probate of the will, or letters of administration. 
 
 19. Deposits of a deceased Depositor not exceeding Fifty Pounds. — Incase a depositor in this Bank . " , 
 sliall die, whose deposits, including interest thereon, shall not exceed the sum of fifty pounds, and that 
 the trustees or managers shall be satisfied that no will was made and left, and tliat no letters of 
 adnnnistration will be taken out, they shall be at liberty to pay the same to the relatives or friends of the 
 deceased, or any or either of them, or according to the statute of distribution, or require the production 
 
 of letters of administration, at their discretion. And the Bank shall be indemnified by any such pay- 
 ments from all and every claim in respect thereof by any person whatsoever. 
 
 20. Certificate. — In ail cases wherein certificates shall be required of the amount of deposits in this 
 Bank belonging to depositors therein, for the purpose of obtaining, free of stamp duties, a probate of 
 will, or letters of administration, such certificate shall be signed by a manager, and countersigned by 
 the actuary for the time being, as a true extract from the Ledger of the Institution. 
 
 21. Arbitration of Differences. — In case any dispute shall arise between the trustees or managers of 
 this Bank, or any i)crson or persons acting under them, and any individual depositor therein, or any 
 trustee of a depositor, or any person claiming to be such executor, administrator, or next of kin, 
 then, and in every such case, the matter so in dispute shall be referred to the barrister at law appointed 
 by the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt, under the authority of the P Geo. *. 
 c. 92. s. 45. ; and wliatever award, order, or determination shall be made by the said barrister, shall be 
 binding and conclusive upon all parties, and shall be final, to all intents and purposes, without any 
 appeal. 
 
 Purchase of Government Annuities hy Depositors in Savings Banks. — The act 2 & 3 
 Will. 4. c. 14. enables depositors in Savings Banks and others to purchase government 
 annuities for life or for years, and either immediate or deferred. At present these 
 annuities are limited to 201. a year. The money advanced is returnable in case the 
 contracting party does not live to the age at which the annuity is to become payable, or 
 is unable to continue the nnonthly or annual instalments. That this measure was bene- 
 volently intended, and that it may l)e productive of advantage to inany individuals, can- 
 not be doubted ; but we look upon all attempts, and jjarticulariy tnose made by govern- 
 ment, to get individuals to exchange capital for annuities, as radically objectionable; 
 and as being subversive of princijjles which ought to be strengthened rather than 
 weakened. — (See Funds.) 
 
BANGKOK. 
 
 Summarj' of Savings Banks, &c. in England, Wales, and Ireland, November, 1832. 
 
 113 
 
 In England there were, on the 10th of November, 
 1832, 384 Savings Banks : of these,? have made 
 no return, the remaining Banks contain. 
 
 Depositors. 
 
 £ 
 
 Under 20 - 
 i — 50 - 
 
 — 100 - 
 
 — 150 - 
 1 — 200 - 
 iAbove 200 - 
 
 Friendly Societies 
 Charitable ditto 
 
 No. 
 
 1P5,035 
 102,536 
 47,903 
 17,031 
 7,908 
 3,756 
 
 374,169 
 4,162 
 1,996 
 
 1,410,792 
 3,146,753 
 3,235,(J83 
 2,042,425 
 1,338,233 
 930,953 
 
 12,161,607' 
 623,273 
 131,148 
 
 Accounts - -. . 380.327 l'^,916,028 
 
 Average amount of each deposit in England, 32^. 
 
 * This is the amount given in the table whence 
 this abstract has been taken, but it does not quite 
 agree with the items. 
 
 In Wales there were on the 10th of November, 1832 
 22 Savings Banks: 1 has made no return; the 
 remaining J3anks contain. 
 
 Depositors. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 £ 
 
 Depositors 
 
 - 1 0,174 
 
 3'22,b73 
 
 Friendly Societies 
 
 J67 
 
 23.385 
 
 Charitable ditto 
 
 53 
 
 3,836 
 
 Accounts 
 
 - 10,5!;4 
 
 349,794 
 
 Average amount of each deposit in Wales, 311. 
 
 In Ireland there were, on the 10th of November 
 1832, 77 Savings Banks: 7 have made no return; 
 the remaining Banks contain. 
 
 Depositors. 
 
 Depositors 
 Friendly .Societies 
 Charitable ditto 
 
 No. 
 
 37,^98 
 
 2:.'4 
 347 
 
 Amount. 
 
 £ 
 
 1,(-04,189 
 .1(),6(j9 
 31,027 
 
 Accounts - . . 38,479 1,015,825 
 Average amount of each deposit in Ireland, 26^. 
 
 Grand Total in England, Wales, and Ireland, on the 10th of November, 1832. 
 
 Savings Banks. 
 
 Accounts. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Average Amount of each Deposit. 
 
 483 
 
 429,400 
 
 £ 
 
 14,311,647 
 
 £ 
 
 30 
 
 (From the Statistical Table compiled by John Tidd Pratt, Esq.) 
 
 BANGKOK, the capital of the kingdom of Siam, sittiated about 20 miles from the 
 sea, on both sides of the river Menam, but chiefly on its left or eastern bank, in lat. 13° 
 ■40' N., long. 101° lO' E. The Menam opens in the centre nearly of the bottom of the 
 Gulf of Siam. There is a bar at its mouth, consisting, for the most part, of a mud flat 
 10 miles in depth. The outer edge of this flat, which is little more than 200 yards 
 broad, is sandy and of harder materials than the irmer part ; which is so soft, that when a 
 ship grounds on it during the ebb, she often sinks 5 feet in the mud and clay, which 
 supports her upright, so that she is but little inconvenienced. The highest water on the 
 bar of the Menam, from February to September, is about ISg feet; and in the remain- 
 ing 4 months, somewhat more than 14 feet, — a difference probably produced by the 
 accumulation of water at the head of the bay after the south-west monsoon, and by the 
 heavy floods of the rainy season. On account of the deficiency of water on the bar, 
 vessels sent to Bangkok had better, perhaps, not exceed SCO or 250 tons burden. In 
 all other respects, the river is extremely safe and commodious. Its mouth is no sooner 
 approached, than it deepens gradually j and at Paknam, two miles up, there are 6 and 7 
 fathoms water. This depth increases as you ascend, and at Bangkok is not less than 9 
 fathoms. The only danger is, or rather was, a sand bank oflt' Paknam, bare at low 
 water ; but on this a fort or battery has been erected within the last few years, affording 
 at all times a distinct beacon. The channel of the river is so equal, that a ship may 
 range from one side to another, approaching the banks so closely that her yards may 
 literally overhang them. The navigation is said to be equally safe all the way up to the 
 old capital of Yuthia, 80 miles from the mouth of the river. 
 
 The city of Bangkok extends along the banks of the Menam to the distance of about 
 2^ miles ; but is of no great breadth, probably not exceeding 1^ mile. On the left bank 
 there is a long street or row of floating houses ; each house or shop, for they are in 
 general both, consisting of a distinct vessel, which may be moored any where along the 
 banks. Besides the principal river, which at the city is about a quarter of a mile 
 broad, the country is intersected by a great number of tributary streams and canals, so that 
 almost all intercourse at Bangkok is by water. The population has been computed at 
 50,000 or 60,000, half of whom are Chinese settlers. 
 
 The total area of the kingdom of Siam has been estimated at 190,000 square miles, and 
 the population at only 2,790,500, principally resident in the rich valley of the Menam. 
 Of the entire population, it is supposed that not less than 440,CC0 are Chinese. The 
 common necessaries of life at Bangkok are exceedingly cheap. A cwt. of rice may 
 always be had for 2s. and very often for Is. Other necessaries, such as salt, palm-sugaj-, 
 spices, vegetables, fish, and even flesh, are proportionally cheap. The price of good 
 pork, for example, is 2^rf. per lb. A duck may be had for Id. and a fowl for 5d. The 
 neighbourhood of Bangkok is one of the most productive places in the world for fine 
 
]14 
 
 BANGKOK. 
 
 fruits ; for here are assembled, and to be had in the greatest perfection and abundance, 
 the orange and lichi of China, the mangoe of Hindostan, and the mangostein, durian, and 
 shaddock of the Malay countries. 
 
 Monies, Weights, and Measures. — Gold and copper are not used as money in Siam, and the currency 
 consists only of cowrie shells and silver. The denominations are as follow : — 200 bia or cowries make 
 1 p'hai-nung; 2 p'hai-nungs, 1 sing-p'hai ; 2 sing-p'hais, 1 fuang ; 2 fuangs, 1 salung; 4 salungs, 1 bat or 
 tical ; 80 ticals, 1 cattie ; 100 catties, 1 pfcul. 
 
 The standard coin is the bat, which Europeans have called a tical ; but there are also coins, though less 
 frequently, of the lower denominations. These are of a rude and peculiar form. They are, in fact, 
 nothing more than small bits of a silver bar bent, and the ends beaten together. They are impressed 
 with two or three small stamps, not covering the whole surface of the coin. The cattie and picul are, or 
 course, only used in speaking of large sums of money. Gold and silver are weighed by small weights, 
 which have the same denominations as the coins. The p'hai-nung, the lowest of these, is in this case 
 subdivided into 32 sagas, or red beans, the Aln-us precatorius of botanists. 
 
 ■ The bat, or tical, was assayed at the mint of Calcutta; it was found to weigh 236 grains ; its standard, 
 however, was uncertain, and the value of different specimens varied from 1 rupee 3 anas and 3 pice, to 1 
 rupee 3 anas and 7 pice. The value, therefore, in sterling money, is about 25. 6rf., and it is so coasidered. 
 
 In respect to ordinary measures, the Siamese cattie is double the weight of the Chinese cattie, which, 
 as is well known, is equal to l^lb. avoirdupois. The picul, however, is of the same weight, con- 
 sisting in the one case of 50 catties only, and in the other of 100. In weighing rice and salt, a large 
 measure is used, consisting, in respect to the first of 22 piculs, and of the last of 25 piculs. Rice is also 
 measured by the basket, of which 100 go to the large measure above-mentioned. 
 
 The long measures are as follow : — 12 finger breadths make 1 span ; 2 spans, 1 cubit ; 4 cubits, 1 fathom ; 
 20 fathoms, 1 sen ; and 100 sen, 1 yuta, or, as it is more commonly pronounced by the Siamese, yut. The 
 fathom is the measure of most frequent use, and the Siamese have a pole of this length divided into its 
 fractional parts. This, as nearly as can be ascertained, is equal to about 6 feet 6 inches. The sen appears 
 to be also used in the admeasurement of land, and to be the name of a square measure of 20 fathoms to 
 the side. 
 
 Port Regulations and Duties. — As soon as a European ship reaches' the bar of Siam, she must, ac- 
 cording to the regulations of the country, communicate with the chief of the village of Paknam, at the 
 mouth of the Menam, and from him obtain a pilot. At Paknam, the rule is to land ammunition, cannon, 
 and small arms ; but this regulation is not very rigidly insisted on. The duties and other imposts levied 
 on external trade are somewhat complex, and differ in some degree according to the class of vessels sub. 
 jected to them, and which consist or junks carrying on trade with China Proper, junks of the island of 
 Hai-nan, junks trading to the Malay islands, and European shipping. The imposts consist of a duty on 
 the measurement or dimensions of the vessel; an ad valorem duty upon imports ; and a rated tariff in most 
 cases, with an ad valorem duty in a few, on exports. The first-named class of vessels, viz. the large junks 
 trading with the principal ports of China, pay no measurement or import duties, because these are 
 vessels belonging to the king, or to the princes, or courtiers, licensed to engage freely in this branch 
 of trade. The Hai-nan junks pay 40 ticals per Siamese fathom, on the extreme breadth of the vessel. 
 The junks trading to the Malay countries, in lieu of measurement duty, pay 130 ticals each, without 
 regard to size. Neither of these vessels pay import duties. The measurement duties on European vessels 
 are estimated at 118 ticals per fathom, besides an inconsiderable impost in the form of an anchorage 
 fee. The cargoes of these alone pay an import duty, which is reckoned at 8 per cent, ad valorem, levied 
 in kind. 
 
 The tariff on exports consists of specific duties, of which the following are specimens : — 
 
 Ivory - - - per picul • - 2^ ticals. 
 
 Stick lac « - - - - - I 
 
 Sugar, if exported under a European flag - - - l| 
 
 Ditto — an Indian flag - . - l 
 
 Cotton wool - - - - - 1 
 
 Trade. — The foreign trade of Siam is conducted with China, Cochin China, Cam- 
 bogia, and Tonquin, Java, Singapore, and the other British ports within the Straits of 
 Malacca, with an occasional intercourse with Bombay and Surat, England and America. 
 The most important branch of the foreign trade is that with China. This is wholly carriea 
 on in vessels of Chinese form, navigated by Chinese, but the greater portion of them are 
 built in Siam. The whole of the Chinese trade centres in Bangkok, with the exception 
 of a few junks, which trade to Sungora and Ligor. The ports of China which carry on 
 trade with Siam are, Canton, Kiang-mui, and Changlim, in the province of Quantong ; 
 Amoi, or Emwi, in Fokien; Limpo, or Nimpo, in Chekiang ; with Siang-hai, and 
 Saochen, in Kiang-nan ; besides several ports of the great island Hai-nan. These 
 junks are expected in Siam in the following order ; — those of the island of Hai-nan 
 usually arrive in January ; and those from the provinces of Canton, Fokien, and 
 Chekiang, in the latter end of February, and down to the beginning of April. They all 
 sail from the Menam in the months of June and July, when the south-west monsoon is 
 at its height, and, of course, there is but one voyage performed yearly. The imports 
 from China are very numerous, consisting of what are called in commercial language 
 "assorted cargoes." The following is a list of the principal commodities : — Coarse 
 earthenware and porcelain, spelter, quicksilver, tea, lacksoy (vermicelli), dried fruits, raw 
 silk, crapes, satins, and other silk fabrics, nankeens, shoes, fans, umbrellas, writing paper, 
 sacrificial paper, incense rods, and many other minor articles. Not the least valuable 
 part of the importations are immigrants. 
 
 The exports from Siam are also very various, but the following list comprehends the 
 most considerable : — Black pepper, sugar, tin, cardamoms, eagle-wood, sapan-wood, red 
 mangrove bark, rose-wood for furniture and cabinet work, cotton, ivory, stick lac, rice, 
 areca nuts, salt fish ; the hides and .skins of oxen, buffaloes, elephants, rhinoceroses, deer, 
 tigers, leopards, otters, civet cats, and pangolins ; of snakes, and rays, with the belly-shell 
 of a species of land tortoise ; the horns of the buffalo, ox, deer, and rhinoceros ; the bones 
 of the ox, buffalo, elephant, rhinoceros, and tiger ; dried deer's sinews ; the feathers of the 
 pelican; of several .species of storks, of the peacock and kingfisher, &c. ; and, finally, 
 
BANKRUPT AND BANKRUPTCY. 115 
 
 esculent swallows' nests. The tonnage carrying on the China trade amounts in all to 
 probably about 130 junks in number, a few of which are of 1,000 tons burden, and the 
 whole shipping is not short of 35,000 tons. 
 
 The trade with the different countries of the Malay Archipelago forms the next most 
 important branch of the Siamese commerce, and the only one respecting which it can be 
 necessary to give any particulars in this place. It is conducted with the following 
 ports : — Patani, Kalantan, Tringano, Pahang, Rhio, Singapore, Malacca, Penang, 
 Batavia, Samarang, Cheribon, Palembang, and Pontianak. In this intercourse, the 
 staple exports of Siam are sugar, salt, oil, and rice ; to which may be added the minor 
 articles of stick lac, iron pans, coarse earthenware, hogs' lard, &c. The returns are 
 British and Indian piece goods, opium, with a little glass ware, and some British woollens 
 from the European settlements, with commodities suited for the Chinese market, such 
 as pepper, tin, dragon's blood, rattans, biche-de-mer, esculent swallows' nests, and Malay 
 camphor from the native ports. 
 
 The following are believed to be the quantities of the two greatest staple articles of 
 Siamese export ; viz. clayed sugar, 10,000 tons ; black pepper, 3,525 tons. 
 
 [We are indebted for this, as we have been for many other excellent communications, 
 to our esteemed friend, John Crawfurd, Esq., who ascertained the particulars on the 
 spot.] 
 
 BANKRUPT AND BANKRUPTCY. In the general sense of the term, bank- 
 rupt is equivalent to insolvent, and is applied to designate any individual unable to 
 pay his debts. But in the law of England bankrupts form that particular class of 
 insolvents who are engaged in trade, or who " seek their living by buying and selling," 
 and who are declared, upon the oath of one or more of their creditors, to have committed 
 what the law has defined to be an act of bankruptcy. At present, however, we shall 
 merely lay before the reader a few observations with respect to the principles and leading 
 provisions embodied in the law as to bankruptcy and insolvency ; referring the reader to 
 the article Insolvency and Bankruptcy, for a detailed statement of these and the other 
 provisions in that law. 
 
 " All classes of individuals, even those who have least to do with industrious under- 
 takings, are exposed to vicissitudes and misfortunes, the occurrence of which may render 
 them incapable of making good the engagements into which they have entered, and 
 render them bankrupt or insolvent. But though bankruptcy is most frequently, perhaps, 
 produced by uncontrollable causes, it is frequently also produced by the thoughtlessness 
 of individuals, or by their repugnance to make those retrenchments which the state of 
 their affairs demands ; and sometimes also by fraud or bad faith. Hence it is, that the 
 laws with respect to bankruptcy occupy a prominent place in the judicial system of every 
 state in which commerce has made any progress, and credit been introduced. They 
 differ exceedingly in different countries and stages of society ; and it must be acknow- 
 ledged that they present very many difficulties, and that it is not possible, perhaps, to 
 suggest any system against which pretty plausible objections may not be made. 
 
 " The execrable atrocity of the early Roman laws with respect to bankruptcy is well 
 known. According to the usual interpretation of the law of the twelve tables, which 
 Cicero has so much eulogised*, the creditors of an insolvent debtor might, after some 
 preliminary formalities, cut his body to pieces, each of them taking a share proportioned 
 to the amount of his debt ; and those who did not choose to resort to this horrible 
 extremity, were authorised to subject the debtor to chains, stripes, and hard labour ; or 
 to sell him, his wife, and children, to perpetual foreign slavery trans Tyherim ! This 
 law, and the law giving fathers the power of inflicting capital punishments on their 
 children, strikingly illustrate the ferocious and sanguinary character of the early 
 Romans. 
 
 " There is reason to think, from the silence of historians on the subject, that no un- 
 fortunate debtor ever actually felt the utmost severity of this barbarous sentence ; but 
 the history of the republic is full of accounts of popular commotions, some of which 
 led to very important changes, that were occasioned by the exercise of the power given 
 to creditors of enslaving their debtors, and subjecting them to corporal punishments. 
 The law, however, continued in this state till the year of Rome 427, 120 years after the 
 promulgation of the twelve tables, when it was repealed. It was then enacted, that the 
 persons of debtors should cease to be at the disposal of their creditors, and that the latter 
 should merely be authorised to seize upon the debtor's goods, and sell them by auction 
 in satisfaction of their claims. In the subsequent stages of Roman jurisprudence, further 
 changes were made, which seem generally to have leaned to the side of the debtor ; and 
 it was ultimately ruled, that an individual who had become insolvent without having 
 committed any fraud, should, upon making a cessio bonorum, or a surrender of his entire 
 
 ♦ Fremant omnes, licet ! dicam quod sentio ; bibliothecas, mehercule, omnium philosophorum unus 
 mihi videtur duodecim labularum libellus ; siquis legum fontes et capita viderit et authoritatis pondere 
 et utilitatia ubertate superare.— X>e Oratore, lib. i. 
 
 I 2 
 
116 
 
 BANKRUPT AND BANKRUPTCY. 
 
 property to his creditors, be entitled to an exemption from all personal penalties. — 
 ( Terasson, Histoire de la Jurisprudence Romaine, p. 117.) 
 
 *' The law of England distinguishes between the insolvency of persons engaged in 
 trade, and that of others. The former can alone be made bankrupts, and are dealt with 
 in a comparatively lenient manner. ' The law,' says Blackstone, ' is cautious of encou- 
 raging prodigality and extravagance by indulgence to debtors ; and therefore it allows 
 the benefit of the laws of bankruptcy -to none but actual traders, since that set of men 
 are, generally speaking, the only persons liable to accidental losses, and to an inability of 
 paying their debts without any fault of their own. If persons in other situations of life 
 run in debt without the power of payment, they must take the consequences of their own 
 indiscretion, even though they meet with sudden accidents that may reduce their fortunes ; 
 for the law holds it to be an unjustifiable practice for any person but a trader to encumber 
 himself with debts of any considerable value. If a gentleman, or one in a liberal pro- 
 fession, at the time of contracting his debts has a sufficient fund to pay them, the delay 
 of payment is a species of dishonesty, and a temporary injustice to his creditors ; and if 
 at such time he has no sufficient fund, the dishonesty and injustice are the greater : he 
 cannot, therefore, murmur if he suffer the punishment he has voluntarily drawn upon 
 himself. But in mercantile transactions the case is far otherwise ; trade cannot be carried 
 on without mutual credit on both sides : the contracting of debts is here not only justi- 
 fiable, but necessary ; and if, by accidental calamities, as by the loss of a ship in a tempest, 
 the failure of brother traders, or by the nonpayment of persons out of trade, a merchant 
 or trader becomes incapable of discharging his own debts, it is his misfortune and not his 
 fault. To the misfortunes, therefore, of debtors, the law has given a compassionate 
 remedy, but denied it to their faults ; since at the same time that it provides for the 
 security of commerce, by enacting that every considerable trader may be declared a bank- 
 rupt, for the benefit of his creditors as well as himself, it has also, to discourage extrava- 
 gance, declared that no one shall be capable of being made a bankrupt but only a trader, 
 nor capable of receiving the full benefit of the statutes but only an industrious trader.' — 
 (^Commentaries, book ii. cap. 31.) 
 
 " After the various proceedings with respect to bankruptcy have been gone through, 
 if nothing be discovered to impeach the honesty of the debtor, he is allowed a certificate 
 or discharge, provided three out of five of his creditors both in number and value agree to 
 sign it. The bankrupt is then entitled to a reasonable allowance out of his effects ; which 
 is however, made to depend partly on the magnitude of his dividend. Thus, if his effects 
 will not pay half his debts, or 10s. in the pound, he is left to the discretion of the com- 
 missioners and assignees, to have a competent sum allowed him, not exceeding 3 per 
 cent, upon his estate, or SOOZ. in all ; but if his estate pay 10s. in the pound, he is to be 
 allowed 5 per cent., provided such allowance do not exceed 400Z. ; 12s. 6d. then 7^ per 
 cent, under a limitation as before of its not exceeding 500Z. ; and if 15s. in the pound, 
 then the bankrupt shall be allowed 10 per cent, upon his estate, provided it do not exceed 
 600/. 
 
 " According to our present law, when a person not a trader becomes insolvent, he 
 may, after being actually imprisoned at the suit of some of his creditors for fourteen days, 
 present a petition to the court to be relieved ; and upon surrendering his entire property, 
 he is, unless something fraudulent be established against him, entitled to a discharge. 
 While, however, the certificate given to the bankrupt relieves him from all future claims 
 on account of debts contracted previously to his bankruptcy, the discharge given to an in- 
 solvent only relieves him from imprisonment ; in the event of his afterwards accumulating 
 any property, it may be seized in payment of the debts contracted anterior to his in- 
 solvency. This principle was recognised in the cessio bo7iorum of the Romans, of which 
 the insolvent act is nearly a copy. 
 
 " It may be questioned, however, notwithstanding what Blackstone has stated, whether 
 there be any good ground fijr making a distinction between the insolvency of traders 
 and other individuals. There are very few trades so hazardous as that of a farmer, and 
 yet should he become insolvent, he is not entitled to the same privileges he would have 
 enjoyed had he been the keeper of an inn, or a commission agent ! The injustice of this 
 distinction is obvious ; but, without dwelling upon it, it seems pretty clear that certi- 
 ficates should be granted indiscriminately to all honest debtors. Being relieved from all 
 concern as to his previous incumbrances, an insolvent who has obtained a certificate is 
 prompted to exert himself vigorously in future, at the same time that his friends are not 
 deterred from coming forward to his assistance. But when an insolvent continues liable 
 to his previous debts, no one, however favourably disposed, can venture to aid him with 
 a loan ; and he is discouraged, even if he had means, from attempting to earn any thing 
 more than a bare livelihood ; so that, while creditors do not, in one case out of a hundred, 
 gain tlie smallest sum by this constant liability of the insolvent, his energies and useful- 
 ness are for ever paralysed. 
 
 " The policy of imprisoning for debt seems also exceedinffly questionable. Notwith- 
 
BANKRUPT AND BANKRUPTCY. 117 
 
 standing the deference due to the great authorities who have vindicated this practice, 
 I confess I am unable to discover any thing very cogent in the reasonings advanced in 
 its favour. Provided a person in insolvent circumstances intimate his situation to 
 his creditors, and offer to make a voluntary surrender of his property to them, he has, as 
 it appears to me, done all that should be required of him, and ought not to undergo any 
 imprisonment. If he had deceived his creditors by false representations, or if he conceal 
 or fraudulently convey away any part of his property, he should of course be subjected 
 to the pains and penalties attached to swindling ; but when such practices are not alleged, 
 or cannot be proved, sound policy, I apprehend, would dictate that creditors ought to 
 have no power over the persons of their debtors, and that they should be entitled only to 
 their effects. The maxim, career non solvit, is not more trite than true. It is said, that 
 the fear of imprisonment operates as a check to prevent persons from getting into debt ; 
 and so no doubt it does. But then it must, on the other hand, be borne in mind, that 
 the power to imprison tempts individuals to trust to its influence to enforce payment ot 
 their claims, and makes them less cautious in their inquiries as to the condition and cir- 
 cumstances of those to whom they give credit. The carelessness of tradesmen, and their 
 extreme earnestness to obtain custom, are, more than any thing else, the great causes of 
 insolvency ; and the power of imprisoning merely tends to foster and encourage these 
 habits. If a tradesman trust an individual with a loan of money or goods, which he is 
 unable to pay, he has made a bad speculation. But why ought he, because he has done so, 
 to be allowed to arrest the debtor's person ? If he wished to have perfect security, he 
 either should not have dealt with him at all, or dealt with him only for ready money ; 
 such transactions are, on the part of tradesmen, perfectly voluntary ; and if they place 
 undue confidence in a debtor who has not misled them by erroneous representations of 
 his affairs, they have themselves only to blame. 
 
 " It would really, therefore, as it appears to us, be for the advantage cf creditors, were 
 all penal proceedings against the persons of honest debtors abolished. The dependence 
 placed on their eflBcacy is deceitful. A tradesman ought rather to trust to his own pru- 
 dence and sagacity to keep out of scrapes, than to the law for redress : he may deal upon 
 credit with those whom he knows ; but he should deal for ready money only with those 
 of whose circumstances and characters he is either ignorant or suspicious. By bringing 
 penal statutes to his aid, he is rendered remiss and negligent. He has the only effectual 
 means of security in his own hands ; and it seems highly inexpedient that he should be 
 taught to neglect them, and put his trust in prisons. 
 
 " It is pretty evident, too, that the efficacy of imprisonment in deterring individuals 
 from running into debt has been greatly overrated. Insolvents who are honest, must 
 have suffered from misfortune, or been disappointed in the hopes they entertained of 
 being able, in one way or other, to discharge their debts. The fear of imprisonment 
 does not greatly influence such persons ; for when they conti-act debts, they have no 
 doubt of their ability to pay them. And though the imprisonment of hond fide insol- 
 vents were abolished, it would give no encouragement to the practices of those who 
 endeavour to raise money by false representations; for these are to be regarded as 
 swindlers, and ought as such to be subjected to adequate punishment. (See Credit.) 
 
 " But the regulations with respect to bankruptcy and insolvency differ radically in 
 other important respects. An individual cannot be subjected to the insolvent law, ex- 
 cept by his own act, that is, his petitioning for relief from actual imprisonment for debt ; 
 and, on the other hand, an individual cannot be made a bankrupt and subjected to 
 the bankrupt law, except by the act of another, that is, of a petitioning creditor*, as he 
 is called, swearing that the individual in question is indebted to him, and that he 
 believes he has committed what is termed an act of bankruptcy. These differences, 
 coupled with the refinements introduced into other branches of the law, give rise to very 
 extraordinary results. 
 
 " While the law of England gives the creditor an unnecessary degree of power o^ er 
 the debtor's person, it does not give him sufficient power over his property. In this 
 respect, indeed, it is so very defective, that one is almost tempted to think it had been 
 intended to promote the practices of fraudulent debtors. The property of persons sub- 
 jected to the bankrupt laws, as well as those who choose to subject themselves to the 
 insolvent laws, is placed at the disposal of assignees or trustees for the benefit of tlieir 
 creditors; but when a person possessed of property, but not subject to the bankrupt 
 laws, contracts debts, if he go abroad, or live within the rules of the King's Bench or the 
 Fleet, or remain in prison Avithout petitioning for relief (in neither of which cases can 
 he be subjected to the insolvent laws), he may most probably continue to enjoy the income 
 arising from that property without molestation. 
 
 " It is true, the law says that the creditors shall be authorised to seize the debtors' 
 
 * One creditor, whose debt is to the amount of upwards of 100/. ; or two, whose d<?bts amount to 150/. • 
 or three, whose debts amount to 200/. ' 
 
 I 3 
 
118 
 
 B ARC ALAO. — BARCELONA. 
 
 lands and goods, — a description which an unlearned person would be apt to conclude was 
 abundantly comprehensive ; but the law is so interpreted, that neither funded property, 
 money, nor securities for money, are considered goods. If the debtor have a copyhold 
 estate, it cannot be touched in any way whatever ; if hfs estate be freehold, the creditor 
 may, after a tedious process, receive the rents and profits, but no more, during the life- 
 time of his debtor. Should the debtor die before judgment against him in a court has 
 been obtained, then, unless the debt be on bond, the creditor has no recourse upon the 
 land left by the debtor, whatever may be its tenure : < nay, though his money borrowed 
 on note or bill has been laid out in buying land, the debtor's heir takes that land, wholly 
 discharged of the debt!'" — (^Lord Brougham's Speech on the State of the Law, p. 100.) 
 
 « In consequence of this preposterously absurd system, an individual known to have 
 a large income, and enjoying a proportionally extensive credit, may, if he go to Paris or 
 Brussels, or confine himself within the rules of the King's Bench or Fleet, defraud his 
 creditors of every farthing he owes them, without their being entitled to touch any part 
 of his fortune. All owners of funded, monied, and copyhold property, have a licence 
 given them to cheat with impunity ; and the only wonder is, not that some do, but that 
 a vast number more do not, avail themselves of this singular privilege. In point of fact, 
 therefore, the power of imprisonment is operative only on the really necessitous — on 
 those from whom it can extract little or nothing. The rich debtor is seldom subjected 
 to its operation ; he resorts, before a writ can be executed against him, either to the 
 Continent or the rules, and then laughs at the impotent wrath of those he has defrauded, 
 and perhaps ruined. That such a system of law should be suffered to exist in a com- 
 mercial country, and so little outcry be raised against it, is truly astonishing, and 
 strikingly exemplifies the power of habit in reconciling us to the most pernicious ab- 
 surdities. Can any one wonder at the frequency of fraudulent bankruptcy, when it is 
 thus fostered and encouraged ? 
 
 " A reform of the bankrupt law on the principles already mentioned, seems, there- 
 fore, to be imperiously called for. Its evils were forcibly stated by Mr. Brougham 
 (now Lord Brougham) in his * Speech on the State of the Law.' He has also 
 pointed out the remedial measures necessary to be adopted to render this important de- 
 partment of commercial jurisprudence consistent with the obvious principles of justice 
 and common sense. * Let the whole,' says he, ' of every man's property, real and per- 
 sonal — his real, of what kind soever, copyhold, leasehold, freehold ; his personal, of 
 whatever nature, debts, money, stock, chattels — be taken for the payment of all his debts 
 equally, and, in cases of insolvency, let all be distributed rateably ; let all he possesses be 
 sifted, bolted from him unsparingly, until all his creditors ere satisfied by payment or 
 composition ; but let his person only be taken when he conceals his goods, or has merited 
 punishment by fraudulent conduct.' — (pp. 106 — 110.) Were these measures adopted, 
 and a certificate given to every man who has been divested of his property for behoof of 
 his creditors, and against whom no charge of fraud has been established, there would be 
 little room for improvement in the principles of the law of bankruptcy." — (See my 
 Principles of Political Economy, 2d ed. pp. 264 — 274.) 
 
 BARCALAO, or BACALAO, the Spanish name for cod. 
 
 BARCELONA, the capital of Catalonia, and the principal town of Spain, on the 
 Mediterranean, in lat. 41° 22' N., and long. 2° 10' E. It is a strongly fortified, well- 
 built city. The population is supposed to amount to about 150,000. Barcelona is 
 eminently distinguished in the history of the middle ages for the zeal, skill, and success 
 with which her citizens prosecuted commercial adventures at a very early period. She 
 would seem also to be entitled to the honour of having compiled and promulgated the 
 famous code of maritime law known by the name of the Consolato del Mare ; and the 
 earliest authentic notices of the practice of marine insurance and of the negotiation of 
 bills of exchange are to be found in her annals.* Catalonia has continued, amidst all the 
 vicissitudes it has undergone, to be the most industrious of the Spanish provinces ; and 
 several valuable and extensive manufactures have been established at Barcelona. Lat- 
 terly, however, her commerce, owing to a variety of causes, but principally to oppressive 
 restrictions on the importation of foreign goods, and the emancipation of South America, 
 has very much declined. 
 
 The Harbour, which is naturally bad, is formed by a mole or jetty, which has recently been a good deal 
 enlarged, running out to a considerable distance in a southerly direction, and having a light-house and 
 some batteries near its extremity. The depth of water within the mole is from 18 to 20 feet; but there 
 is a bar between the mole and Monjui, which has frequently not more than 10 feet water; and which 
 
 * For proofs of this, see the articles Maritime Law, Insurance, &c. in this Dictionary. TheM^hortas 
 Historicas sobrc la Marina, Comcrcio, SfC. de Barcelona, by Capmany, in 4 vols. 4to, is one of the most 
 valuable and authentic works that has ever been published on the commerce, arts, and commercial and 
 maritime legislation of the middle ages. The first volume is the most interesting, at least to the general 
 reader; the others consisting principally of extracts from the archives of the city. There is a brief 
 but pretty good account of the early trade of Barcelona, drawn jjrincipally from Capmany, in the work ol 
 Oepplng, Histoire du Comtnerce entre le Levant ct r Europe dcpuis h-s Croisadrs. S(C. torn. i. c. o. 
 
BARCELONA. 
 
 119 
 
 would, it is believed, entirely shut up the harbour, were it not occasionally lowered by means of dredging 
 machines. Vessels in the harbour moor at a short distance from the mole ; where, though exposed to the 
 southerly gales, they are so well protected that no accident of any consequence has taken place since the 
 dreadful storm of 1821. Large ships must anchor outside the mole, and in winter are much intom. 
 moded by winds. Vessels entering the harbour are under no obligation to take a pilot on board ; 
 but they are always in attendance, and it is generally deemed safest to have their assistance in passing 
 the bar. 
 
 Tariff. — Of prohibited articles, the most important are tobacco, cotton goods, salt, gunpowder, brandy, 
 carpets, leather, baizes, soap, wearing apjparel, hemp, fire-arms, copper, beds, mattresses, furniture, 
 manufactured tin, flour, and all sorts of grain and pulse, manufactured cast iron, earthenware, blankets, 
 paper, oil-cloths, sealing-wax, &c. 
 
 The following were the duties on the principal articles allowed to be imported into Barcelona in 1833 : — 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Span. 
 Wts. 
 
 National 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Nat. 
 
 For. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Span. 
 Wts. 
 
 National 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Kng. 
 
 National 
 
 For. 
 
 Flag. 
 
 Flas. 
 
 Wts. 
 
 Flag. 
 
 Flag. 
 
 Flag. 
 
 Flag. 
 
 Wts. 
 
 Flag. 
 
 Flag. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sterl. 
 
 Sterl. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sterling. 
 
 Sterl. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 ». d. 
 
 Cotton - 
 
 lb. 
 
 16 maravs. 
 
 25 maravs. 
 
 lb. 
 
 0 M 
 
 0 1-8 
 
 Oyewoods - 
 
 quintal 
 
 61 maravs. 
 
 6 reals 
 
 
 0 4 
 
 1 2 
 
 Sugar - 
 
 arroba 
 
 4 reals 
 
 8 reals 
 
 
 0 0-4 
 
 0 0-8 
 
 Fish 
 
 do. 
 
 36 reals 
 
 48 reals 
 
 
 7 2 
 
 9 7 
 
 Hides . 
 
 do. 
 
 8/^maravs. 
 
 1 real 
 
 
 0 0-6 
 
 0 2-2 
 
 Iron hoops 
 
 do. 
 
 26 reals 
 
 35 reals 
 
 
 5 2 
 
 7 0 
 
 Cocoa . 
 
 lb. 
 
 10 maravs. 
 
 20 maravs. 
 
 
 0 0-7 
 
 0 1-4 
 
 Staves 
 
 1,000 
 
 20 reals 
 
 40 reals 
 
 1,000 
 
 4 0 
 
 8 0 
 
 Coffee . 
 
 quintal 
 
 8 reals 
 
 20 reals 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 7 
 
 4 0 
 
 Cheese 
 
 quintal 
 
 12J reals 
 
 17^ieals 
 
 cwt. 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 6 
 
 Beeswax 
 
 lb. 
 
 36 maravs. 
 
 59 maravs. 
 
 
 0 2^ 
 
 0 4 
 
 Tar 
 
 arroba 
 
 3 maravs. 
 
 1 real 
 
 lb. 
 
 0 001 
 
 0 2-4 
 
 Horns - 
 
 quintal 
 
 5 reals 
 
 20 reals 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 Butter 
 
 lb. 
 
 1^ reals 
 
 2^ reals 
 
 
 0 3^ 
 
 0 6 
 
 All articles whatever, the produce of the soil, or the manufacture of the country, may at present be 
 exported ; and, in most instances, without paying any duty. In this respect there is nothing in the 
 legislation of Spain to which to object; but the government seems, like many others, to have forgotten 
 that reciprocity is the beginning, the middle, and the end of commerce, — that there can be no exportation 
 without an equivalent importation ; and that, to prohibit or restrict the latter is, in fact, to prohibit or 
 restrict the former. 
 
 Cuttom-houie and Warehousing RegultUioM, same as at Ahi- 
 CANT ; which see. 
 
 Port Charges.— The following are the various charges of a 
 pubUc nature that would be paid by a Spanish and a British 
 ship, each of 300 tons burden, unloading and loading mixed 
 cargoes in Barcelona : — 
 
 Spanish Vessel. 
 
 Anchorage 
 New do. 
 Cleaning of port 
 Lantern 
 
 Captain of the port 
 Light-house of Tarrifa - 
 Loading (1 real per ton) 
 Extraordinary contri- 
 bution 
 New mole 
 
 Total 
 
 Reals. 
 
 British Vessel. 
 
 75 Anchorage 
 15 Double do. 
 10 New do. 
 6 Cleaning of port 
 8 (Lantern 
 105 Captain of the port 
 300 Light-house of Tarrifa - 
 New mole (8 reals per 
 401 ton) 
 
 lelLoading (1 real per ton) 
 Extraordinary contri- 
 bution 
 
 Reals. 
 
 211 
 
 2,400 
 
 575 
 
 I 3,140 
 
 Consular fees usually 
 required - - 160 
 
 Total 
 
 3,300 
 
 Taking the real at 4d., this would be 9^. Us. ^d. on the 
 Spanish ship, and 55/. on the British do. 
 
 Commission is at the rate of 2^ per cent, on goods shipped, 
 and 2 per cent, on those received on consignment. Goods are 
 sometimes sold for ready money, and sometimes on credit for 
 3 or 4 months ; mercantile discount is i per cent, per month. 
 There are no banking establishments in Barcelona. 
 
 Insurance on ships is effected by individuals, but insurances 
 on houses, lives, &c. are unknown here. 
 
 Tares. — At the Custom-house, real tares only are allowed ; 
 »nd the nett weights must be rigorously manifested. A sur- 
 
 Imports. — Account of the Quantity and Value of the principal Foreign Articles imported into Barce- 
 lona during the Three Years ending with 1831. 
 
 plus of 3 per cent, is, however, allowed, to cover any inexact- 
 ness in the proportion between foreign and Spanish weights; 
 but if the weight of any parcel should turn out to be 3 per cenU 
 greater than is marked in the manifest, the surplus is seized, at 
 the same time that the importer loses the benefit of the 3 per 
 cent, allowed by law, and becomes liable to the penalties oi 
 smuggling. The tares usually allowed by merchants are, on 
 Havannan sugar 13 per cent. ; on coffee 2 per cent., exclusive 
 of the barrel, bag, &c. in which it is contained ; on cocoa and 
 pepper 2 per cent. ; Pemambuco cotton 4 lbs. per bale ; other 
 cotton 1 lb. per cwt. 
 
 Sea-siores of all sorts are dear at Barcelona, but they may 
 always be obtained. Beef costs about 7d. per lb., and biscuit 
 about 8 dollars per cwt. 
 
 MoTiei). — Accounts are k£»t in Ubras of 20 sveldos, 240 
 dineros, or 480 mallas. The libra is likewise divided into reals 
 de plata Catalan, of 3 sueldor each ; and into reales ardites, of 2 
 sueldos each. Hence, 6*7 of the former, or 10 of the latter, =. I 
 libra Catalan. 
 The libra Catalan is = 2*. id. sterling nearly. 
 The peso dAro, or hard dollar, is valued at 37^ sueldos Catalan, 
 eight such dollars making 15 libras. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — There are endless discrepancies 
 amongst the weights and measures in the diflferent Spanish 
 provinces, and there is a very great discrepancy in the accounts 
 of the authors who have written upon them. The following 
 statements are taken from Nelkenbrecher : — 
 
 The quintal is divided into 4 arrobas, or 104 lbs. of 12 oz. 
 to the pound. The pound = 6,174 English grains = 4 kilof. 
 = 8325-6 as of Holland. 100 lbs. of Barcelona = 88-215 Ite. 
 avoirdupois. 
 
 The yard, named cana, is divided into 8 palmos, of 4 qtiartot, 
 and is = 21 inches very nearly. Hence, 100 canas = 53-499 
 metres = 77-5 yards of Amsterdam = 58-514 English yards. 
 
 The quartera, or measure for grain, is divided into 12 cor- 
 tanes and 48 pieolins. 100 quarteras = 23-536, or Win- 
 chester quarters. 
 
 The carga, or measure for liquids, is divided into 12 cortanet 
 or arrobas, 24 cortarinas, and 72 miladellas. It is = 32-7 
 English wine gallons. 4 cargas = 1 pipe. The pipe of Ma- 
 jorca oil contains 107 cortanes. 
 
 Cotton 
 Sugar 
 Hides - 
 Cocoa 
 Coffee - 
 Bces'-wax 
 Horns 
 Specie - 
 Dye woods 
 Fish 
 
 Iron hoops 
 Staves 
 Cheese - 
 Tar 
 Butter 
 Indigo - 
 Pepper 
 Cinnamon 
 
 18,600 
 14,100 
 67,500 
 4,100 
 1,400 
 1,200 
 111,000 
 51,400 
 15,000 
 70,000 
 22,000 
 400,000 
 2,000 
 700 
 50 
 ,200 
 600 
 250 
 
 bales 
 boxes 
 
 bags 
 cwt. 
 cwt. 
 
 dollars 
 cwt. 
 cwt 
 bundles 
 
 cwt 
 
 barrels 
 
 cwt 
 
 cwt 
 
 cwt 
 
 cwt. 
 
 Value in 
 Sterling 
 Money. 
 
 100,000 
 1)2,000 
 54,000 
 25,000 
 2,800 
 4,200 
 2,200 
 10,300 
 9,000 
 84,000 
 17,000 
 6,400 
 6,000 
 800 
 200 
 8,000 
 1,200 
 10,000 
 
 22,900 bales 
 23,600 boxes 
 82,400 
 8,300 
 2,030 
 700 
 133,600 
 39,286 
 5,000 
 42,000 
 6,000 
 820,600 
 1,000 
 180 
 
 bags 
 cwt 
 cwt 
 
 dollars 
 cwt 
 cwt 
 bundles 
 
 cwt 
 barrels 
 
 750 cwt 
 800 cwt 
 800 cwt 
 
 Value in 
 Sterling 
 Money. 
 
 137,000 
 188,000 
 62,000 
 50,000 
 4,500 
 1,100 
 2,600 
 7,900 
 3,000 
 50,000 
 5,000 
 14,850 
 3,000 
 200 
 
 30"i000 
 1,600 
 32,000 
 
 43,400 bales 
 20,300. boxes 
 75,000 
 7,300 bags 
 620 cwt 
 460 cwt 
 95,000 
 380,700 dollars 
 16,000 cwt. 
 64,500 cwt. 
 4,000 bundles 
 702,000 
 2.000 cwt 
 
 900 cwt 
 700 cwt 
 1,000 cwt 
 
 Value in 
 Sterling 
 Money. 
 
 260,000 
 160,000 
 
 56,000 
 
 44,000 
 1,200 
 2,400 
 2,000 
 
 76,200 
 9,600 
 
 77,000 
 3,200 
 
 16,000 
 6,000 
 
 56,000 
 1,400 
 40,000 
 
 Grain is usually represented as forming an important article in the imports into Barcelona ; but its 
 importation from abroad is prohibited ; and the wants of the city are supplied either by land carriage from 
 the interior, or by coasting vessels from the Spanish ports more to the north. 
 
 I 4 
 
120 
 
 BARILLA. — BARK 
 
 Of the imports specified above, the greater portion are furnished by Cuba and Porto Rico. The importl 
 from France are also considerable. Those from England, which were once very large, have dwindled to 
 almost nothing. The only goods now openly imported from Great Britain, are iron hoops, hardware, and 
 woollen stuffs, and these in too small quantities to deserve notice. Fish is principally supplied by Sweden 
 and Denmark. Smuggling, particularly in tobacco and printed cottons, is carried on to a considerable 
 extent. 
 
 Exports. — The principal exports are wrought silks, soap, fire-arms, paper, hats, laces, ribands, steel, 
 &c. But no vessels, except a few that take on board manufactured goods for the Spanish West Indies, 
 are loaded here ; and even this trade is much fallen off. Upwards of 2,000 hands used formerly to be 
 employed in the city in the manufacture of shoes for the colonies ; but their export has now nearly 
 ceased. The cotton manufacture has made some progress in the town and its vicinity, and is increasing. 
 The principal articles of native produce that Catalonia has to export are most conveniently shipped at Vil- 
 lanova, Tarragona, and Salon. They consist of wine, brandy, nuts, almonds, cork bark, wool, fruits, &c. 
 Of these, Cuba takes annually about 12,000 pipes of wine, worth at an average U. per pipe, and about 3,000 
 pipes of brandy, worth 2>l. per do. ; South America, 16,000 pipes of wine, and 6,000 do. brandy; the north 
 of Europe, 2,000 pipes of wine, and 2,000 do. brandy. A good deal of brandy is sent to Cadiz and Cette : 
 most part of the former finds its way into the wine vaults of Xeres ; and the latter, being conveyed by the 
 canal of Languedoc to the Garonne, is used in the preparation of the wines of Bordeaux. From 25,000 to 
 30,000 bags of nuts are annually sent from Tarragona to England. Tarragona also exports about 12,000 
 bags of almonds. 
 
 1 n 1831, only 128 foreign ships, of the burden of 15,130 tons entered Barcelona. Of these, 31 were Tuscan, 
 24 Sardinian, 19 Swedish, 18 English, 14 French, 8 American, &c. The ships belonging to the port carry 
 on no foreign trade except to the Spanish West Indies ; they are few in number, and are daily decreasing. 
 Those engaged in the coasting trade are usually of very small burden. The customs duty in the same 
 year did not exceed 100,000/. 
 
 (We have derived these details from various sources ; but principally from the Consul's Answer to Cir^ 
 cular Queries, and from Ingliss's Spain in 1830, vol. ii. pp. 384-387. and 362.) 
 
 BARILLA (Du. Soda; Fr. Sonde, Barille ; Ger. Soda, Barilla; It. Barriglia ; 
 Port. Solda, Barrilha ; Rus. Socianka ; Sp. Barrilla ; Arab. Kali), carbonate of soda — 
 (see Alkalies), is found native in Hungary, Egypt, and many other countries. It is 
 largely used by bleachers, manufacturers of hard soaps, glass-makers, &c. The barilla 
 of commerce consists of the ashes of several marine and other plants growing on the sea- 
 shore. The best, or Alicant barilla, is prepared from the Salsola soda, which is very 
 extensively cultivated for this purpose in the huerta of Murcia, and other places on the 
 eastern shores of Spain. — ( Townsend's Travels in Spain, vol. iii. p. 1 95. ) The plants are 
 gathered in September, dried, and burned in furnaces heated so as to bring the ashes into 
 a state of imperfect fusion, when they concrete into hard, dry, cellular masses of a greyish 
 blue colour. Sicily and TenerifFe produce good barilla, but inferior to that of Alicant 
 and Carthageria. Kelp, which is a less pure alkali, is formed by the incineration of the 
 common sea-wrack. — (See Kelp.) 
 
 The Saracens established in Spain seem to have been the first who introduced the 
 manufacture of barilla into Europe. They called the plants employed in its prepar- 
 ation kali ; and this, with the Arabic article al prefixed, has given rise to the modern 
 chemical term alkali. 
 
 Of 184,649 cwt. of barilla imported into Great Britain in 1831, 61,921 cwt. 
 came from Spain, 95,995 from TenerifFe, and 23,867 from Sicily. The values of 
 these species are, for the most part, in the proportion of about 12, 9, and 10; that 
 is, if Spanish barilla fetch 12Z. a ton, TenerifFe barilla will fetch 9?., and Sicilian \0l. 
 Prime quality in barilla is to be distinguished by its strong smell when wetted, and by 
 its whitish colour. Particular attention should be paid to have as little small or dust 
 as possible. The duties on barilla have recently been very considerably reduced. 
 -T-(See Tariff.) 
 
 At an average of the three years ending with 1831, the barilla entered for home consumption amounted 
 to 255,289 cwt. a year. In 1832, it produced 15,329/. 8s. M. nett revenue. 
 
 BARK, the outer rind of plants. There is an immense variety of barks known in 
 commerce, as cinnamon, Peruvian bark, oak bark, quercitron, &c. The term " bark " 
 is, however, generally employed to express either Peruvian bark, or oak bark ; and it is 
 these only that we shall describe in this place. 
 
 1. Peruvian or Jesuits' Bark (Fr. Quinquina; Ger. Kron-china ; Du. China-hast; 
 Sp. Quina, Quinquina; Lat. Quinquina, Cortex Peruvianus). There are three prin- 
 cipal species of this bark known in commerce, which have been elaborately described by 
 Dr. A. T. Thomson, from whose account the following particulars are selected. 
 
 The first species is the pale bark of the shops. It is the produce of the Cinchona 
 lancifolia, and is the original cinchona of Peru. It is now very scarce. It is imported 
 in chests covered with skins, each containing about 200 lbs., well packed, but generally 
 mixed with a quantity of dust and other heterogeneous matter. It consists of pieces 
 8 or 10 inches long, some of them being scarcely one tenth of an inch thick, singly 
 and doubly quilled, or rolled inwards; the quills, generally, being in size from a 
 swan's quill to an inch and a half. It is internally of a pallid fawn or cinnamon hue; 
 but approximates, on being moistened, to the colour of a pale orange. When in sub- 
 stance it has scarcely any odour ; but during decoction the odour is sensible, and 
 agreeably aromatic. The taste is bitter, but not unpleasant, acidulous, and austere. 
 
 The second species, or red bark, is obtained from the Cinchona ohlongifolia 
 
 , growing on 
 
 the Ande!j. It is imported in chests containing from 100 to 150 lbs. each. It consists 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 121 
 
 of variously sized pieces, most of them flat, but some partially quilled or rolled. The 
 internal part is woody, and of a rust red colour : it has a weak peculiar odour ; and its 
 taste is much less bitter, but more austere and nauseous, than that of the other barks. 
 
 1 he third species, or yellow bark of the shops, is obtained from the Cinchona cordifolia, 
 growing in Quito and Santa Fe. It is imported in chests containing from 90 to 100 lbs. 
 each, consisting of pieces 8 or 10 inches long, some quilled, but the greater part 
 Hat. The interior is of a yellow colour, passing to orange. It has nearly the same 
 odour in decoction as the pale ; the taste is more bitter and less austere, and it excites no 
 astringent feeling when chewed. The goodness decreases when the colour varies from 
 orange yellow to pale yellow j when of a dark colour, between red and yellow, it should 
 be rejected. 
 
 It is needless to add, that bark is one of the most valu'^ble medical remedies. The 
 Indians were unacquainted with its uses, which seem to have been first discovered by tlie 
 Jesuits. It was introduced into Europe in 1632, but was not extensively used till the 
 latter part of the seventeenth century. According to M. Humboldt, the Jesuits' bark 
 annually exported from America amounts to from 12,000 to 14,000 quintals. Of these, 
 2,000 are furnished by Santa F^, and 110 by Loxa; Peru furnishing the remainder, 
 which is shipped at Callao, Guayaquil, &c. 
 
 2. Oak Bark ( Fr. Ecorce de la Chene ; Ger. Eichenrinde ; It. Corteccia della Querela ; 
 Lat. Querciis cortex). The bark of the common oak is a powerful astringent, and is 
 preferred to all other substances for tanning leather. The bark of the larch is now, 
 however, used for the same purpose. The import of oak bark is very considerable ; but 
 owing to the cork tree being a species of oak ( Quercus Suber), bark for tanning and 
 cork bark are usually mixed together in the parliamentary returns. The latter, how- 
 ever, does not amount to a tenth part of the whole quantity imported. The imports of 
 both sorts amounted, in 1831, to 931,075 cwt., which is about the average importation. 
 Of this quantity, no less than 608,304 cwt. were brought from the Netherlands (Hol- 
 land and Belgium), 62,437 cwt. from Germany, &c. Cork bark is almost entirely 
 imported from Italy, Spain, and Portugal ; the imports from them being, in the above- 
 mentioned year, Italy 95,163 cwt., Spain 78,067 cwt., and Portugal only 187 cwt. 
 The quality of bark varies according to the size and age of the tree, the season when it is 
 bai-ked, &c., so much, that the price varies, at this moment, from about 51. to about lOZ. 
 per ton. The duty, which is 13s. 4c?. a ton, produced in 1832, in Great Britain, 
 22,251?. Os. 5d. nett. 
 
 Quercitron is the bark of a species of oak tree ( Quercus tinctoria). It is not used, at 
 least in this country, for tanning, but for imparting a yellow dye to silk and wool. It 
 is principally imported from North America. The price varies, at present, according to 
 the quality, from about 12s. 6d. to 15s. a cwt., duty (Is.) included. At an average of 
 the three years ending with 1831, the entries for home consumption were 25,015 cwt. 
 a year. 
 
 We are indebted for the discovery and application of the useful properties of quer- 
 citron to Dr. Bancroft. The doctor obtained a patent for his invention in 1775 ; but 
 the American war breaking out soon after, deprived him of its advantages. In consi- 
 deration of this circumstance, parliament passed, in 1785, an act (25 Geo. 3. c. 38.) 
 securing to him the privileges conveyed by his patent for 14 years. At the expira- 
 tion of the latter period, the House of Commons agreed to extend the doctor's pri- 
 vilege for an additional 7 years ; but the House of Lords rejected the bill. Like 
 too many discoverers. Dr. Bancroft profited but little by his invention, though it has been 
 of great use to the arts and manufactures of the country. — (See Bancroft on Permanent 
 Colours, vol. ii. p. 112., and the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons on 
 Patents, Appendix, p. 175.) 
 
 Oak bark, the produce of Europe, is not to be imported into the United Kingdom for home consump- 
 tion, except in British ships, or in ships of the country of which it is the produce, or in ships of the 
 country from which it is imported, on pain of forfeiting the goods, and 100/. by the master of the vessel — 
 (7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 58.) 
 
 BARLEY (Fr. Orge; Ger. Gerstengraupen ; Du. Ryg ; It. Orzo ; Sp. Cehada : 
 Rus. Fatschmea ; Lat. Hordeum ; Arab. Dhourra ; Hind. Jow), a species of bread-corn 
 {Hordeum Lin.), of which there are several varieties. It is extensively cultivated in 
 most European countries, and in most of the temperate districts of Asia and Africa. 
 It may also be raised between the tropics ; but not at a lower elevation than from 3,000 to 
 4,000 feet, and then it is not worth cultivating. Large quantities of barley have been, 
 for a lengthened period, raised in Great Britain. Recently, however, its cultivation has 
 been supposed, though probably on no good grounds, to be declining. In 1765, 
 Mr. Charles Smith estimated the number of barley consumers in England and Wales at 
 739,000 ; and as a large proportion of the population of Wales, Westmoreland, and 
 Cumberland continue to subsist chiefly on barley bread, we are inclined to think that 
 this estimate may not, at present, be very wide of the mark. But the principal demand 
 
122 
 
 BARLEY-SUGAR. — BARRATRY. 
 
 for barley in Great Britain is for conversion into malt, to be used in the manufacture of 
 ale, porter, and British spirits ; and though its consumption in this way has not certainly 
 increased proportionally to the increase of wealth and population, still there does not 
 seem to be any grounds for supposing that it has diminished. Barley is also extensively 
 used in fattening black cattle, hogs, and poultry. It now generally follows turnips, and 
 is a very important crop in the rotation best adapted to light soils. The principal barley 
 counties of England are Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Bedford, Herts, Leicester, Not- 
 tingham, the upper parts of Hereford, Warwick, and Salop. The produce varies, 
 according to soil, preparation, season, &c., from about 20 to 60 or 70 bushels an acre. 
 The most usual crop is from 28 to 36 or 38 bushels- The Winchester bushel of good 
 English barley generally weighs about 50 lbs., but the best Norfolk barley sometimes 
 weighs 53 or 54 lbs. Its produce in flour is about 12 lbs., to 14 lbs. grain. Barley 
 is a tender plant, and easily hurt in any stage of its growth. It is more hazardous than 
 wheat, and is, generally speaking, raised at a greater expense ; so that its cultivation 
 should not be atttempted except when the soil and climate are favourable for its growth. 
 — (For details as to the prices ot barley, the quantities imported and exported, &c., see 
 Corn Laws and Corn Trade. And for further details as to its consumption and 
 culture, see Smith's Tracts on the Corn Trade, 2d ed. p. 182. ; Brown on Mural Affairs, 
 vol. ii. p. 42. ; Loudon's Encyc, of Agriculture, ^-c.) 
 
 BARLEY-SUGAR (Fr. Sucre d'orge ; Ger. Gerstenzucker ; It. Pennito ; Sp. Al- 
 fenique ; Lat. Alphenix), a preparation of sugar, candied with orange or lemon peel. 
 
 BARRATRY, in navigation, is, in its most extensive sense, any fraudulent or un- 
 lawful act committed by the master or mariners of a ship, contrary to their duty to their 
 owners, and to the prejudice of the latter. It appears to be derived from the Italian 
 word harratrare, to cheat. It may be committed by running away with a ship, wilfully 
 carrying her out of the course prescribed by the owners, delaying or defeating the 
 voyage, deserting convoy without leave, sinking or deserting the ship, embezzling the 
 cargo, smuggling, or any other offence whereby the ship or cargo may be subjected to 
 arrest, detention, loss, or forfeiture. 
 
 It is the practice, in most countries, to insure against barratry. Most foreign jurists 
 hold, that it comprehends every fault which the master and crew can commit, whether 
 it arise from fraud, negligence, unskilfulness, or mere imprudence. But in this country 
 it is ruled, that no act of the master or crew shall be deemed barratry, unless it proceed 
 from a criminal or fraudulent motive. 
 
 " Barratry can only be committed by the master and mariners by some act contrary 
 to their duty, in the relation in which they stand to the owners of the ship. It is, 
 therefore, an offence against them, and consequently an owner himself cannot commit 
 barratry. He may, by his fraudulent conduct, make himself liable to the owner of the 
 goods on board, but not for barratry. Neither can barratry be committed against the 
 owner, with his consent ; for though he may be liable for any loss or damage occasioned 
 by the misconduct of the master to which he consents, yet this is not barratry. Nothing 
 is more clear than that a man can never set up as a crime, an act done by his own 
 direction or consent." — (^Marshall on Insurance, book i. c. 12. § 6.) 
 
 When, therefore, the owner of a ship is also the master, no act of barratry can be 
 committed ; for no man can commit a fraud against himself. 
 
 It is a maxim in law, that fraud shall not be presumed, but must be clearly proved ; and 
 it is a rule in questions of insurance, that he who charges bari'atry must substantiate it 
 by conclusive evidence. 
 
 It is not necessary, to render an act barratrous, that it should be committed with a 
 criminal intent as respects the owners, in order to injure them, or to benefit the captain 
 or crew. It may even be committed with a view to promote the owner's interests ; for 
 an illegal act done without the authority or privity of the owners, and which proves 
 detrimental to them, is barratry, whatever be the motives in which it originated. Lord 
 EUenborough, in an able judgment, has laid it down as clear law, " that a breach of 
 duty by the master in respect of his owners, with a fraudulent or criminal intent, or ex 
 malejicio, is barratry ; that it makes no difference whether this act of the master be 
 induced by motives of advantage to himself, malice to the owner, or a disregard of those 
 laws which it was his duty to obey ; and that it is not for him to judge or suppose, in 
 cases not intrusted to his discretion, that he is not breaking the trust reposed in him, 
 when he endeavours to advance the interests of his owners by means which the law 
 forbids, and which his owners also must be taken to have forbidden." 
 
 The circumstance of the owners of ships being permitted to insure against the barratry 
 of the master and mariners can hardly fail, it may be not uncharitably presumed, of 
 rendering them less scrupulous in their inquiries with respect to their character than 
 they would otherwise be. Perhaps, therefore, it might be expedient to prohibit such 
 insurances, or to lay some restrictions upon them. They were, indeed, expressly for- 
 bidden by the Ordinance of Rotterdam ; and Lord Mansfield, whose authority on aU 
 
BARREL. — BAT AVI A. 
 
 123 
 
 points connected with the law of insurance is so deservedly high, seems to have thought 
 that it would be well to exclude barratry entirely from policies, and to cease " making 
 the underwriter become the insurer of the conduct of the captain whom he does not 
 appoint, and cannot dismiss, to the owners who can do either." But though it were 
 expedient to prevent the owners from making an insurance of this sort, nothing can be 
 more reasonable than that third parties, who freight a ship, or put goods on board, 
 should be allowed to insure against such a copious source of loss. — ( For a further dis- 
 cussion of this subject, see the article Marine Insurance ; and Marshall on Insurance^ 
 book i. c 12. § 6., and Park on Insurance, c. 5.) 
 
 Owners, masters, or seamen, who wilfully cast away, burn, or destroy ships, to the 
 prejudice of freighters or insurers, incur the penalty of death. — (See Seamen.) 
 
 BARREL, a cask or vessel for holding liquids, particularly ale and beer. Formerly 
 the barrel of beer in London contained only 32 ale gallons = 32§ Imperial gallons : but 
 it was enacted by 43 Geo. 3. c. 69., that 36 gallons of beer should be taken to be a 
 barrel j and by the 6 Geo. 4. c. 58. it is enacted, that whenever any gallon measure is 
 mentioned in any excise law, it shall always be deemed and taken to be a standard Im- 
 perial gallon. At present, therefore, the barrel contains 36 Imperial gallons. It may 
 be worth while observing that the barrel or cask is exclusively the produce of European 
 ingenuity ; and that no such article is known to any nation of Asia, Africa, or America, 
 who have not derived it from Europeans. 
 
 BARWOOD, a red dye wood brought from Africa, particularly from Angola, and the 
 river Gaboon. The dark red which is commonly seen upon British Bandana handkerchiefs 
 is for the most part produced by the colouring matter of barwood, saddened by sulphate 
 of iron. — (^Bancroft on Colours.) The imports of barwood, in 1829, amounted to 246 
 tons 15 cwt. It fetches at present (October, 1833) from 9/. to 11/. a ton (duty 5s. 
 included) in the London market. 
 
 BASKETS (Fr. Corbeilles ; Ger. Korbe It. Paniere ; Sp. Canastas, Canastos } 
 Rus. Korsinii) are made, as every one knows, principally of the interwoven twigs of 
 willow, osier, birch, &c., but frequently also of rushes, splinters of wood, straw, and 
 an immense number of other articles. They are used to hold all sorts of dry goods, and 
 are constructed of every variety of quality and shape. Besides the vast quantities pro- 
 duced at home, some of the finer kinds are imported under an ad valorem duty of 20 per 
 cent. In 1832, this duty produced 1,044/. 7s. 9c/., showing that the value of the foreign 
 baskets entered for home consumption in the same year had been 5,221/. 18s. 9c?. 
 
 BAST, for straw hats or bonnets. See Hats. 
 
 BATAVIA, a city of the island of Java, the capital of the Dutch possessions in the 
 East Indies, and the principal trading port of the Oriental islands, in lat. 6° 12' S., long. 
 106° 54' E., situated in the north-west part of the island, on an extensive bay. The 
 harbour, or rather road, lies between the main land and several small uninhabited islands, 
 which, during the boisterous or north-western monsoon, afford suflScient shelter and 
 good anchorage. Ships of from 300 to 500 tons anchor at about a mile and a half 
 from shore. A small river runs through the town, navigable for vessels of from 20 to 
 40 tons, from the sea, a couple of miles inland ; a number of canals branch off from it 
 into different parts of the town, affording great conveniences for trade. Batavia was 
 formerly so notorious for its insalubrity, that General Daendels was anxious to transfer 
 the seat of government to Sourabaya ; but being thwarted in this, he set about building 
 a new town, a little further inland, on the heights of Weltevreden, whither the government 
 offices were immediately removed. Most of the principal merchants have now their 
 residences in the new town, repairing only to the old city, when business requires it, during 
 a portion of the day. In consequence, the old town is at present principally occupied by 
 Chinese, and the descendants of the ancient colonists, several of its streets having been 
 deserted and demolished. Recently, however, the Baron Capellen, whose enlightened 
 administration will long be gratefully remembered in Java, sensible of the superior 
 advantages of the old town as a place of trade, exerted himself to prevent its further 
 decay, by removing the causes of its unhealthiness ; to accomplish which, he widened 
 several of the streets, filled up some of the canals, and cleaned others, demolished useless 
 fortifications, &c. ; and the effect of these judicious measures has been, that Batavia is 
 now as healthy as any other town in the island. The population, according to an accu- 
 rate census taken in 1824, consisted of 3,025 Europeans and their descendants, 23,108 
 natives, 14,708 Chinese, 601 Arabs, and 12,419 slaves; in all, 53,861 persons, exclusive 
 of the garrison. As the population has increased since, it may at present be estimated 
 at about 60,000, independently pf the military, of which there are always a consider- 
 able number. Among the principal merchants are Dutch, English, Americans, French, 
 and Germans. The island of Java forms the most important portion of the Dutch 
 possessions in the East, and is, in fact, one of the finest colonies in the world. It contains 
 an area of 50,000 square miles, with a population of 6,000,000 individuals, or 120 
 to the square mile. The annual revenue of the Dutch government, which possesses 
 
124^ 
 
 BATAVIA. 
 
 about two thirds of the island, amounts to about 3,000,000?. sterling ; and the military 
 force amounts to about 15,000; of which not less than 8,000 are European troops, being 
 about one third of the whole European force in British India, which has a population 
 of 90,000,000, and an area of between 1,200,000 and 1,300,000 square miles of ter- 
 ritory. 
 
 The staple products of the island are rice (of which 25,500 tons were exported in 
 1828), a variety of pulses, vegetable oils, tobacco, sugar, and coffee. The production 
 of sugar is rapidly increasing. In 1832 the exports were estimated at 200,000 
 piculs (12,000 tons); but it was supposed that the exports in 1833 would not fall 
 short of 18,000 tons; and as the Dutch authorities have made extensive contracts 
 with the owners of large tracts of land to take sugar at very remunerating prices for some 
 years to come, it has been calculated that the exports of 1 834 would amount to 400,000 
 piculs, or about 24,000 tons. The production of indigo, cocoa, tea, and raw silk, is 
 making considerable progress. The tin exported from Batavia is brought from Banca, 
 the copper from Japan, the finer spices from the Moluccas, and the pepper from Sumatra. 
 
 In 1828, the exports from and imports into Batavia were, in quantity and value, as 
 follows : — 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Mace . . . 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Nutmegs . - - 
 
 Rice 
 
 Tin 
 
 Sugar* - - - - 
 
 Birds' nests . . - 
 
 Piece goods - - - 
 
 Java tobacco . • - 
 
 Pepper - • . . 
 Rattans - - - 
 
 Salt 
 
 Japan and sandal wood 
 
 Indigo* - • - 
 
 Arrack - - 
 
 Hides - . . . 
 
 Turmeric - - - - 
 
 Horses ,"584 (to the Isle of France) 
 
 Tortoiseshell 
 
 Japan camphor 
 
 Articles not specified 
 
 Treasure - 
 
 Total 
 
 Piculs of 
 1361bs.each. 
 
 416,171 
 
 600 
 1,832 
 1,647 
 419,499 
 19,554 
 25,869 
 
 8,226 
 51,301 
 24,9.^0 
 7,240 
 188 
 Leg. 533 
 
 5,412 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 8,024,039 Cotton manufactures, Netherlands 
 90,078 I English 
 229,107 French - 
 
 221,121 Woollen ditto Netherlands 
 1,194,486 I English and French 
 
 866,521 Provisions from England only 
 456,084 Brandy and geneva 
 5iil,392 Wines 
 499,470 Opium, Levant 
 401,002 t Bengal 
 151,537 Lead - - 
 141,506 Copper, Europe 
 119,890 1 "^"^ Japan - 
 96,474 Steel from the Netherlands 
 94,342 j England 
 86,362 I Sweden 
 52,140 Iron from Sweden 
 42,038 1 England 
 35,975 I Netherlands 
 57,941 Cotton piece goods, Bengal and Madras 
 43,200 Cotton yarn fi-om the Netherlemds 
 2,859,356 Ditto English 
 1,209,294 Gambir (terra Japonica) 
 
 — — Rattans ... 
 
 17*499,341 Tripang (Holothurion) 
 
 Silk and cotton piece goods, Chinese 
 
 manufacture - - - 
 Marine stores ... 
 Articles not specified 
 Treasure 
 
 Total 
 
 559 
 110 
 2,891 
 354 
 11,631 
 726 
 404 
 186 
 3,200 
 4,593 
 9,033 
 
 Florins. 
 
 2,940,635 
 1,819,435 
 18,679 
 246,545 
 16,861 
 522,342 
 322,606 
 1,154,868 
 717,529 
 314,300 
 76,612 
 45,110 
 988,635 
 22,963 
 12,625 
 5,812 
 23,275 
 45,050 
 138,003 
 787,917 
 1,146 
 41,430 
 477,854 
 223,667 
 380,964 
 
 566,701 
 264,226 
 3,383,596 
 2,616,707 
 
 17,976,094 
 
 The following Table shows the different Countries with which Batavia carries on Trade, and the Value 
 of the Export and Import Trade with each, in 1828. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Hamburgh 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Sweden 
 
 U. S. of America 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 Isle of France 
 Persian Gulf 
 Bengal 
 Siam 
 
 Cochin China 
 China 
 Macao 
 Manilla 
 •Japan 
 
 New Holland 
 Eastern Arch 
 pelago 
 
 Total 
 
 Florins. 
 
 6,459,852 
 2,166,515 
 139,302 
 69,932 
 18,275 
 30,384 
 305,161 
 1,624 
 21,051 
 1,510 
 757,424 
 131,004 
 4,909 
 585,566 
 65,(528 
 29,989 
 1,067,231 
 7,613 
 
 3,526,415 
 
 15,359,387 
 
 Florins. 
 1,001,913 
 
 16,830 
 89,250 
 
 597,210 
 
 10,200 
 5,408 
 
 " 2,550 
 
 Florins. 
 
 7,461,765 
 2,166,515 
 139,302 
 76,762 
 107,525 
 50,384 
 1,002,371 
 1,624 
 21,051 
 1,510 
 747,624 
 131,004 
 4,909 
 59(),<i74 
 65,628 
 29,989 
 1,067,231 
 10,163 
 
 793,346 4,319,761 
 
 2,616,707 j 17,976,094 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Hamburgh 
 
 Sweden 
 
 U. S. of America 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 Isle of France 
 Mocha 
 Persian Gulf 
 Bombay 
 Bengal 
 Siam 
 
 Cochin China 
 China 
 Macao 
 Manilla 
 Japan 
 
 New Holland 
 Eastern Archi- 
 pelago 
 
 Florins. 
 
 9,188,929 
 200,962 
 102,628 
 85,174 
 23,652 
 120,880 
 1,970 
 88,547 
 28,481 
 112,957 
 3,055 
 77,497 
 77,451 
 21,883 
 1,474,486 
 78,361 
 35,210 
 291,263 
 75,083 
 
 271,544 
 
 Florins. 
 279,601 
 
 165,750 
 7,650 
 
 ,523 
 
 2,040 
 22,785 
 
 '87,167 
 15,536 
 37,500 
 22,050 
 1,377 
 
 Florins. 
 
 9,398,530 
 366,712 
 110,278 
 85,174 
 23,652 
 120,880 
 1,970 
 151,070 
 28,481 
 112,957 
 3,055 
 79,537 
 100,236 
 21,883 
 l,561,a53 
 93,897 
 72,740 
 313,313 
 76,460 
 505,314 4,776,858 
 
 Total . 16,290,046 11,209,294 17,499,341 
 
 • The quantity of sugar exported in 1829 had risen to 80,000 piculs, and the indigo to 1,200 lbs. 
 
BATTEN. — BAZAAR. 125 
 
 The Exports and Imports under different Flags were as follow : — 
 
 Imports. 
 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Cera. 
 
 
 
 Floriru. 
 
 CerU. 
 
 Netherlands ... 
 
 12,843,901 
 
 88 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 
 11,986,049 
 
 26 
 
 English - - 
 
 l,9ii8,743 
 
 
 English 
 
 
 2,312,449 
 
 24 
 
 American (U. States) 
 
 1,715,306 
 
 27 
 
 French 
 
 
 16(i,025 
 
 50 
 
 Chinese - 
 
 472,093 
 
 50 
 
 American (U. 
 
 States) 
 
 1,324,570 
 
 34 
 
 Siamese - - . 
 
 314,802 
 
 94i 
 
 Siamese 
 
 
 314,802 
 
 94 
 
 Native - - 
 
 473,083 
 
 73 
 
 Chinese 
 
 
 951,133 
 
 97 
 
 Various other flags 
 
 228,163 
 
 221 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 
 103,822 
 
 85 
 
 
 Various other 
 
 foreign 
 
 334,487 
 
 
 
 17,976,094 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17,499,341 
 
 12 
 
 In 1828, the Number of Ships and Amount of Tonnage entering Inwards and clearing Outwards under 
 different Flags were as follow : — 
 
 Outwards. 
 
 Inwards. 
 
 Flaff. 
 
 Number of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage in 
 Lasts. 
 
 Flag. 
 
 Number of 
 VesseU. 
 
 Tonnage in 
 Lasts. 
 
 Netherlands 
 English 
 
 French ... 
 Hamburgh 
 
 Danish ... 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Russian 
 
 Spanish - - - 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 American 
 
 Chinese - - 
 
 Siamese 
 
 Other Asiatic 
 
 843 
 68 
 9 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 4 
 19 
 8 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 45,689 
 14,778i 
 86U 
 137 
 85 
 66 
 153 
 420 
 962i 
 3,116 
 805 
 308 
 813 
 
 Netherlands 
 English 
 
 French ... 
 
 Hamburgh 
 
 Danish 
 
 Swedish ... 
 Russian 
 
 Spanish - - 
 Portuguese 
 American 
 Chinese - - 
 Siamese 
 Other Asiatic 
 
 801 
 54 
 8 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 4 
 14 
 8 
 9 
 55 
 
 45,684 
 10,7991 
 692i 
 137 
 85 
 66 
 153 
 505 
 962i 
 2,087 
 805 
 497i 
 804 
 
 
 1,026 
 
 68,194| 
 
 
 960 
 
 63,278 
 
 2Vb<e. — Taking the last at 2 tons, the quantity of tonnage which cleared outwards will be 136,389, and 
 inwards 126,556 tons. 
 
 - Port Regulations. — The following is the substance of the port regulations of Batavia : _ 1st. The com- 
 mander of a ship arriving in the roads, is not to land himself, or permit any of his crew or passengers to 
 land, until his vessel be visited by a boat from the guard-ship. —2d. The master, on landing, is first to 
 wait on the master attendant, and afterwards report himself at the police office. — 3d. A manifest of the 
 whole cargo must be delivered at the Custom-house within 24 hours of the ship's arriving in the roads. — . 
 4th. The master of a vessel must lodge the ship's papers with the master attendant when he first lands, 
 
 which are duly delivered up to him when he receives his port clearance from the same authority. 
 
 5th. No goods can be shipped or landed after sunset, under a penalty of 500 florins. — 6th. No goods can 
 be shipped on Sunday without a special permission from the water fiscal, which, however, is never refused 
 on application. — 7th. No muskets or ammunition can be imported; but the prohibition does not extend 
 to fowling pieces exceeding 100 florins value. 
 
 Tar?^ — With respect to the tariff, all foreign woollens and cottons, being the manufacture of countries 
 to the westward of the Cape of Good Hope, imported under a foreign flag, pay an ad valorem duty of 26|: per 
 cent., and under the Netherlands flag, of 12| percent, that is, a duty upon the wholesale price at Batavia, 
 not in bond. With the exception of wines, spirits, and opium, which pay a rated duty, all other articles, if 
 imported under a foreign flag, pay an arfiiftZomw duty, rated on the invoice value, of 16 38 per cent, and 
 if under the Netherlands flag, of 819 per cent Cottons and woollens, the manufacture of the Netherlands, 
 if accompanied by a certificate of origin, are duty free; but since the separation of Belgium and Holland, 
 there have been no importations of cotton manufactures claiming this privilege. The export duty on 
 coffee, if exported on a foreign bottom to a foreign country, is 5 florins per picul ; if on a foreign bottom 
 to a port in the Netherlands, 4 florins ; and if on a Netherlands bottom to a Netherlands port, 2 florins. 
 Sugar, if exported on a foreign bottom to whatever country, pays 1 florin per picul; but if exported on a 
 Netherlands bottom to a Netherlands port, is duty free. Rice, on whatever bottom exported, and to what- 
 ever country, pays a duty of 3 florins per coyang of 27 piculs. Tin, exported on a foreign ship to whatever 
 port, 4 florins per picul ; and by a Netherlands ship, 2 florins per picuL The trade in spices is now mono- 
 polised by the Netherlands Trading Company. 
 
 Goods are received in entrepdt not only at Batavia, but at the ports of Samarang, Sourabaya, and 
 Anjier in Java, and Rhio in the Straits of Malacca, on payment of a duty of 1 per cent levied on the 
 invoice value. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept, at Batavia, in the florin or guilder, divided into centimes, or 100 parts, 
 represented by a copper coinage or doits. The florin is a new coin made expressly for India, hut of the 
 same value as the florin current in the Netherlands. It usually estimated at the rate of 12 to the 
 pound sterling, but the correct par is 11 florins 58 centimes per pound. Doubleons, and the coins of Con- 
 tinental India, are receivable at the Custom-house at a fixed tariff; the Spanish dollar, for example, at 
 the rate of 100 for 260 florins. 
 
 Weights. — The Chinese weights are invariably used in commercial transactions at Batavia, and 
 throughout Java and the other Dutch possessions in India. These are the picul, and the cattie, which 
 is its hundredth part. The picul is commonly estimated at 125 Dutch, or 133^ lbs. avoirdupois, but at 
 Batavia it has been long ascertained and considered to be equal to 136 lbs. avoirdupois. — [Hogendorp, 
 Coup d'fEil sur Vile de Java, cap. 8. &c. ; Evidence of Gillian Maclaine, Esq. before the Select Committee 
 of the House of Commons on the Affairs of the East India Company, 1831, and. private communications 
 from the same.) 
 
 BATTEN, a name in common use for a scantling of wood 2^ inches thick and 
 7 wide. If above 7 inches wide, it is called deal. 
 
 BAZAAR, a term used in the East to designate a market, or building in which 
 various articles of merchandise are exposed for sale. Bazaars are now met with in most 
 large cities of Europe. There are several in London, of which the one in Soho-square 
 L» the most considerable. 
 
126 
 
 BDELLIUM. — BERGEN. 
 
 BDELLIUM (Arab. Aflatoon), a gum-resin, semi-pellucid, and of a yellowish brown 
 or dark brown colour according to its age, unctuous to the touch, but brittle ; soon, 
 however, softening between the fingers; in appearance it is not unlike myrrh, of a 
 bitterish taste, and moderately strong smeU. Two kinds have been distinguished : the 
 opocalpasum of the ancients, which is thick like wax ; and the common dark sort. It is 
 found in Persia and Arabia, but principally in the latter ; all that is met with in India is 
 of Arabic origin. The tree which produces it has not been clearly ascertained. — 
 (AinsUe*s Materia Indica.) 
 
 BEACONS, in commerce and navigation, public marks or signals to give warning of 
 rocks, shoals, &c. No man is entitled to erect a light-house, beacon, &c., without being 
 empowered by law. The Trinity House corporation are authorised to set up beacons 
 in whatever places they shall think fit ; and any person who shall wilfuUy remove or run 
 down any buoy, beacon, &;c. belonging to the Trinity House, or to any other corporation, 
 individual or individuals, having authority to establish it, shall, besides being liable to 
 the expense of replacing the same, forfeit a sum of not less than 10/. nor more than 50/. 
 for every such offence. — (6 Geo. 4. c. 125. § 91.) — (See Buoys.) 
 
 BEADS (Fr. Eosaires ; Ger. Rosenkr'dnze ; Du. Paternosters; It. Coronej Sp. 
 Coronas'), small globules or balls used as necklaces, and made of different materials ; as 
 pearl, steel, amber, garnet, coral, diamonds, crystal, glass, &c. Roman Catholics use 
 beads in rehearsing their Ave Marias and Paternosters. Glass beads or bugles are im- 
 ported in large quantities into India and Africa, and also into Borneo and Sumatra. 
 They are brought partly from Europe, and partly from China and the Persian Gulf. 
 The glass beads sent from England are all imported, principally, we believe, from Venice. 
 Their non-manufacture in this country is said to be a con,sequence of the excise regu- 
 lations on the manufacture of glass. 
 
 BEANS (Fr. Feves ; Ger, Bohnen ; It. Fave ; Rus. Boohii ; Sp. Hahas ; Lat. Fahce), 
 a well-known vegetable of the pulse species, largely cultivated both in gardens and 
 fields. Its cultivation is of much importance in rural economy, inasmuch as it has gone 
 far to supersede fallows on strong loams and clays. 
 
 BEAVER. See Skins. 
 
 BEECH {Fagus sylvatica'), a forest tree to be met with every where in England. 
 There is only one species, the difference in the wood proceeding from the difference of 
 soil and situation. A considerable quantity of beech is grown in the southern parts of 
 Bucks. It is not much used in building, as it soon rots in damp places ; but it is used 
 as piles in places where it is constantly wet. It is manufactured into a great variety of 
 tools, for which its great hardness and uniform texture render it superior to all other 
 sorts of wood ; it is also extensively used in making furniture. 
 
 BEEF, as every one knows, is the flesh of the ox. It is used either fresh or salted. 
 Formerly it was usual for most families, at least in the country, to supply themselves 
 with a stock of salt beef in October or November, which served for their consumption 
 until the ensuing summer ; but in conseauence of the universal establishment of markets 
 where fresh beef may be at, all times obtained, the practice is now nearly relinquished, 
 and the quantity of salted beef made use of as compared with fresh beef is quite incon- 
 siderable. Large supplies of salted beef are, however, prepared at Cork and other 
 places for exportation to the East and West Indies. During the war, large supplies 
 were also required for victualling the navy. The vessels engaged in the coasting trade, 
 and in short voyages, use only fresh provisions. 
 
 The English have at all times been great consumers of beef ; and at this moment 
 more beef is used in London, as compared with the population, than any where else. 
 (For further details with respect to the consumption of beef, &c., see Cattle.) 
 
 BEER. See Ale and Beer. 
 
 BELL-METAL (Fr. Metal de Fonte ou de Cloches; Ger. Glockengut; Du. Klok- 
 spys ; Sp. Campanil ; Rus. Koloklnaja mjed), a composition of tin and copper, usually 
 consisting of 3 parts of copper and 1 of tin. Its colour is greyish white ; it is very 
 hard, sonorous, and elastic. Less tin is used for church bells than for clock bells ; 
 and in very small bells, a little zinc is added to the alloy. — ( Thomson's Chemistry. ) 
 
 BENZOIN. See Balsam. 
 
 BERGEN, the first commercial city of Norway, situated at the bottom of a deep 
 bay, in lat. 60'^ 24' N., long. 5° 20' E. Population 21,000. The bay is inclosed on all 
 sides by rugged rocks and islands : the water is deep ; but, owing to the number and in- 
 tricacy of the passages, the access to the town is attended at all times with a good deal 
 of difficulty, and should never be attempted without a pilot. Codfish, sfjted or dried, is 
 one of the principal articles of export ; when dried, it is called stock-fish, and goes chiefly 
 to Italy and Holland. The cod fishery employs several thousand persons during the 
 months of February and March ; and the exports amounted, in 1829, to 184,064 barrels. 
 The herring fishery, which used to be very successfully carried on vipon the coasts of 
 Norway, has, for a good many years, been comparatively unproductive. Whale oil, 
 
BERRIES. — BERYL. 
 
 127 
 
 skJp.s, bones, tar, with iinmense numbers of lobsters, &c., are exported. Tlie exports 
 of timber from Bergen are inconsiderable, and none has latterly gone to England. 
 Norway timber is not so large as that brought from Prussian ports, nor so free from 
 knots ; but, being of slower growth, it is more compact, and less liable to rot. The 
 planks are either red or white fir or pine : the red wood is produced from the Scotch 
 fir ; the white wood, which is inferior in price and estimation, is the produce of the 
 spruce fir: each tree yields three pieces of timber of 11 or 12 feet in length; and is 70 
 or 80 years of age before it arrives at perfection. The planks or deals of Bergen are, 
 however, a good deal inferior to those of Christiania. The imports into Bergen prin- 
 cipally consist of grain from the Baltic ; and salt, hardware, coffee, sugar, &c. from 
 England. 
 
 For Monies, Weights, and Measures, see Christiania ; where there are further details as to the trade 
 
 ofNoi 
 
 and navigation of Norway. 
 
 We subjoin an account of the principal exports from Bergen in 1829. 
 
 Bones - - - 50 tons. Oil, whale - - - 2,402 tuns. 
 
 Fish, Lobsters - - - 250,000 number. 
 
 Cod, smoked and dry - 15,373 tons. 
 
 — salt - 184,064 barrels. 
 
 — roe, ditto - - 13,927 do. 
 Pickled sprats - - 1,912 kegs. 
 
 Horns, ox and cow - - 178 cwt. 
 
 Moss, rock - . - 131 tons. 
 
 Skins, goat, buck, and deer . 440 cwt. 
 
 sheep and lamb - 75 do. 
 
 fox, martin, otter, &c. - 97 skins. 
 
 Tar - - - 451 barrels. 
 
 Wood, timber and deals - 380 tons. 
 
 staves - 800 number. 
 
 {Private information.) 
 
 BERRIES {Baccce), the fruits or seeds of many different species of plants. The 
 berries quoted in London Price Currents are bay, juniper, Turkey, and Persian. 
 
 1 . Bay Berries ( Fr. Baies de Laurier ; Ger. Lorbeeren ; It. Bacchi di Lauro ; Sp. 
 Bayas), the fruit of the Laurus nohilis. This tree is a native of the south of Europe, 
 but is cultivated in this country, and is not uncommon in our gardens. The berry is of 
 an oval shape, fleshy, and of a dark purple colour, almost black ; it has a sweet fragrant 
 odour, and an aromatic astringent taste. Bay berries, and the oil obtained by boiling 
 them in water, are imported from Italy and Spain. — ( Thomson's Dispensatory. ) 
 
 2. Juniper Berries ( Fr. Genevrier ; Du. Sevenboom ; It. Ginepro ; Sp. Embro), the fruit 
 of the common juniper (Juniperus communis). They are round, of a black purple colour, 
 and require two years to ripen. They have a moderately strong, not disagreeable, but 
 peculiar smell, and a warm, pungent, sweetish taste, which, if they be long chewed, or 
 previously well bruised, is followed by a considerable bitterness. They are found in 
 this country ; but most of those made use of here are imported from Holland, Germany, 
 and Italy. They should be chosen fresh, not much shrivelled, and free from mouldi- 
 ness, which they are apt to contract in keeping. On distillation with water, they yield 
 a volatile essential oil, very subtile and pungent, and in smell greatly resembling the 
 berries. The peculiar flavour and diuretic qualities of Geneva depend principally on 
 the presence of this oil. English gin is said to be, for the most part, flavoured with oil 
 of turpentine. — (Lewis's Mat. Med.; Thomson's Dispensatory.) 
 
 The duty on juniper berries, previously to 1832, was 11 «. Id. a cwt., being more than 
 100 per cent, on their price in bond. The oppressiveness of this duty seems to have been 
 the principal reason why turpentine, which in point of flavour and all other respects is 
 so inferior, has been largely used in preference to juniper berries in the preparation of 
 gin. This oppressive duty was reduced, in 1832, to 2s., and we entertain little doubt 
 that this wise and liberal measure will at no distant period occasion the receipt of a greater 
 amount of revenue, at the same time that it cannot fail materially to improve the 
 beverage of a large proportion of the people. 
 
 Italian juniper berries fetch at present (Sept. 1833), in the London market, from 
 9s. 6d. to lOsf. 6d. a cwt., duty included ; and German and Dutch ditto, from 8s. to 9s, 
 
 3. Turkey Yellow Berries, the unripe fruit of the Rhamnus infectorius of Linnagus. 
 They are used as a dye drug, in preparing a lively but very fugitive yellow, for topical 
 application in calico-printing. Considerable quantities of them are exported from Sa- 
 lonica, to which they are brought from Thessaly and Albania. An inferior sort is pro- 
 duced in France. — (^Bancroft on Colours.) The duty on Turkey berries is 2s. ; and 
 their price, duty included, in the London market, is (Sept. 1833) 34s. to 36s. a cwt. 
 
 4. Persian Fellow Berries are said by the merchants to be of the same species as the 
 Turkey yellow berries. The colours which tfaey yield are more lively and lasting. They 
 are high priced, fetching (duty 2s. included) from llOs. to 130s. a cwt. Hitherto the 
 imports have been very inconsiderable ; the whole yellow berries (Turkey as well as 
 Persian) entered for home consumption during the 3 years ending with 1831, being 
 only 1,939 cwt. a year. The nett revenue derived from all sorts of berries imported in 
 1832, was 3,062/. 12s. 4d. 
 
 BERYL, called by the jewellers Aquamarine. This stone was suspected by Pliny 
 to be a variety of the emerald ; a conjecture which modern mineralogists have completely 
 confirmed. The term emerald is applied to that particular variety which presents its 
 own peculiar colour, or enurald green ; while that of beryl is given indiscriminately to 
 
128 
 
 BETEL-NUT. — BILBAO. 
 
 all the other varieties ; as the sea green, pale blue, golden yellow, and colourless. 
 Pliny says that the beryl is found in India, and rarely elsewhere ; but besides India, i 
 is found in Peru and Brazil ; at Nantes and Limoges, in France ; in the Wicklow moun- 
 tains, in Ireland ; in the district of Cairngorm, in Scotland ; and in various other places. 
 — (PZiw. Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvii. cap. 5. ; Ency. Brit, new edit.) 
 
 " Those only which are of good colour and sufficient depth are manufactured ; they have a pretty, 
 lively effect, if in good proportion and well polished. Large stones, from one to three and four ounces, 
 are not uncommon, but from their bulk are only in request as specimens for the cabinet : smaller stones 
 suitable for necklaces may be bought at low prices, within the reach of every description of purchasers : 
 ring stones may be had at a few shillings each ; and larger, for brooches or seals, from \L to 51. and often 
 lower." — [Mauve on Diamonds, 8(c. 2d edit) 
 
 BETEL-NUT, OR ARECA (Sans, and Hind. Supari ; Malay, Pinang ; Javan. 
 Jambi), the fruit of the Areca catechu, a slender and graceful palm, rising to the height 
 of about 30 or 40 feet ; it produces fruit at the age of five or six years, and continues 
 bearing till its 25th or 30th year. The fruit, which is the only part of the palm that is 
 made use of, is eaten both in its unripe and in its mature state. When ripe, it is of 
 the size of a small egg, and of an orange colour ; the exterior part consists of a soft, 
 spongy, fibrous matter, inclosing a nucleus resembling a nutmeg in shape, internal 
 structure, and colour, but usually larger, and always harder. A single tree produces, 
 according to its situation, age, culture, &c., from 200 to 800 nuts. They are objects of 
 great importance in the East, forming the principal ingredient of a compound in uni- 
 versal use as a masticatory in all Central and Tropical Asia. The other ingredients are 
 the leaf of the Betel pepper — (which see), in which the areca nut is wrapped ; a little 
 Chunam — (which see) ; and generally, but not always, a little catechu or terra japonica — 
 (see Catechu). The whole compound is called betel, and is used to an extent of which 
 it is difficult for a European to form a just idea. All individuals, without exception 
 of age or sex, begin at an early period to accustom themselves to betel. They are un- 
 ceasingly masticating it, and derive a gratification from its use that strangers can 
 neither understand nor explain. It reddens the saliva, gives a bright hue to the lips, 
 and, in course of time, renders the teeth quite black. It is said to dispel nausea, excite 
 appetite, and strengthen the stomach. Besides being used as an article of luxury, it is 
 a kind of ceremonial which regulates the intercourse of the more polished classes of the 
 East. When any person of consideration visits another, after the first salutations, 
 betel is presented : to omit it on the one part would be considered neglect, and its rejec- 
 tion would be judged an affront on the other. No one of inferior rank addresses a 
 dignified individual without the previous precaution of chewing betel ; two people seldom 
 meet without exchanging it ; and it is always offered on the ceremonious interviews of 
 public missionaries. The areca nut is, in consequence, an article of very extensive trade. 
 The countries which yield it most largely for exportation are Malabar, Ceylon, and 
 Sumatra. Of the extent of this trade, some notion may be formed from the fact, that 
 the imports of areca into Bengal in 1829-30, were 695 tons, and into Canton 2,894 
 tons, though Bengal and Southern China are countries in which areca is largely pro- 
 duced. — (See the article Betel in the new edition of the Ency. Britannica ; Bell's 
 Review of the External Commerce of Bengal ; Crawfurd's Indian Archipelago, vol. i. 
 p. 102., vol. iii. p. 414. ; Chinese Kalendar and Register for 1832, &c.) 
 
 BETEL-LEAF (Hind. Pan; Malay, Sireh ; Javan. Suro), the leaf alluded to in 
 the foregoing article. It is the produce of a species of pepper vine (Piper betel), and 
 somewhat resembles the ivy leaf. In their fresh state, betel leaves form an important 
 article of Eastern traffic, being every where used in the preparation of betel. The 
 Biper Betle is a scandent plant, and poles are placed in the ground, round which it twines 
 itself. In consequence of the great consumption of its leaves, it is extensively cultivated 
 throughout Tropical Asia. It grows in the greatest perfection in vich soils close to the 
 equator; and is raised with more difficulty the further we recede from it. — (Ency. 
 Britannica, new edition, article Betel; Crawfurd's Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 403.) 
 
 BEZOAR ( Ar ah. FaduJ ; Hind. Zeher-morah ; Fers. Padzehr Kanie), a concretion 
 found in the stomach of an animal of the goat kind ; it has a smooth glossy surface, and 
 is of a dark green or olive colour : the word bezoar, however, has lately been extended 
 to all the concretions found in animals ; — such as the hog bezoar, found in the stomach 
 of the wild boar in India; the bovine bezoar, found in the gall-bladder of the ox, common 
 in Nepaul ; and the camel bezoar, found in the gall-bladder of the camel : this last is 
 much prized as a yellow paint by the Hindoos. The finest bezoar is brought to India 
 from Borneo and the sea-ports of the Persian Gulf ; the Persian article is particularly 
 sought after, and is said to be procured from animals of the goat kind, Capra Gazella. 
 Many extraordinary virtues were formerly ascribed to this substance, but without any 
 sufficient reason. — (Ainslie's Materia Indica.) 
 
 BILBAO, oa (as it is commonly, though incorrectly, written in this country) BIL- 
 BO A, a sea-port town of Spain, in the province of Biscay, on the river Ybai Cabal, 
 about 9 miles from Portugalcte. Population H,500. 
 
BILL OF EXCHANGE.— 
 
 BILL OF LADING. 
 
 123 
 
 Port — The bay of Bilbao lies between Pun/o Galea on its east, and Punlo Luxuero on its western side, 
 distant about 3 miles. It stretches S.E. to witliin i of a mile of Tortugalete, in lat. 4.jO <-2Q' w N., long. 
 £o 54^/ near the mouth of the river on which Bilbao is built. 'J he water in the bay varies from b to 
 10 and 14 fathoms. There is a bar at the mouth of the river, between Santurce and Portugalete, on which 
 there is not above 4 feet water at ebb tide. High water at lull and change at 3 h. p. m. Spring tides rise 
 about 13 feet ; and large ships taking advantage of thern sometimes ascend the river as far as Bilbao ; but 
 tht y usually load and unload by lighters, either at Portugalete, or at Olaviaga, 4 miles below the town. 
 Pilots are to be had at Santurce, without tlie bar. In winter, a heavy sea sometimes sets into the bay ; 
 but if the pilot cannot go oft", he places himself on one of the batteries to the N. W. of Santurce, and makes 
 signals with a red flag, so as to direct the ship to the best anchorage ground. — (.See Laurie's excellent 
 Chart ojthe Bay qf Biscay, with the Sailing Directions tliat accompany it.) 
 
 Trade. — Bilbao is favourably situated for commerce. The Biscayans are distin- 
 guished for the zeal and courage with which they have defended their peculiar pri- 
 vileges, and for their industry and activity. Bilbao and Santander are the principal 
 ports through which the extensive province of Old Castile, and large portions of Leon 
 and Navarre, most easily communicate with foreign countries. They have, in conse- 
 quence, particularly the former, a pretty considerable foreign trade. Wool is one of the 
 principal articles of export ; but since the introduction of Merino sheep into Germany, 
 and their extraordinary increase in that country, this branch of Spanish commerce, 
 though still of a good deal of importance, has materially declined. Since the abolition, 
 in 1820, of all restrictions on the exportation of corn, flour, &c., the shipments of wheat 
 from Bilbao have been, in some years, very considerable. The supplies are principally 
 brought from the provinces of Palencia, Valladolid, and Zamora, which yield immense 
 quantities of wheat. The distance is from 130 to 140 English miles; and owing to the 
 badness of the roads, and the deficient means of transport, the rate of carriage advances 
 enormously when there is any extraordinary foreign demand. If the Canal of Castile, 
 intended to imite the Douro with Reynosa, Bilbao, and Santander, were completed, it 
 would make a considerable revolution in this trade. The campos, or plains, on the south 
 side of the Douro, are amongst the finest wheat countries in the world ; the crops being 
 frequently so abundant, that tl>e peasants decline reaping the fields at a distance from the 
 villages! In 1831, 146,234 quarters of Spanish wheat, principally from Bilbao, were 
 imported into Great Britain. The iron manufactures of Biscay are in a state of con- 
 siderable activity, and some part of the produce is exported. The principal articles of 
 importation are wove fabrics, cod-fish, cutlery, and jewellery ; sugar, coflTee, cacao, and 
 other colonial products, spices, indigo, &c. In 1831, 210 foreign ships, of the burden 
 of 18,822 tons, entered the port of Bilbao. The countries to which these ships belonged 
 are not mentioned ; but in 1828, 49 British ships, of the burden of 6,051 tons, entered 
 the port. — (We have derived these details from the Foreign Quarterly Review, No. 9. 
 art. Spain ; the Annuaire du Commerce Maritime for 1833, p. 265. ; the Pari. Papery 
 No. 550. Sess. 1833; dead private information.^ 
 
 Monies, fVeights, and Measures, same as those of Cadiz ; which see. We may mention, however, that 
 the fanega, or measure for grain, is equivalent to 165 Winchester quarters. 
 
 BILL OF EXCHANGE. See Exchange. 
 
 BILL OF HEALTH, a certificate or instrument signed by consuls or other proper 
 authorities, delivered to the masters of ships at the time of their clearing out from all 
 ports or places suspected of being particularly subject to infectious disorders, certifying 
 the state of health at the time that such ships sailed. A clean bill imports, that at the 
 time that the ship sailed no infectious disorder was known to exist. A suspected bill, 
 commonly called a touched patent or bill, imports that there were rumours of an infec- 
 tious disorder, but that it had not actually appeared. A foul bill, or the absence of clean 
 bills, imports that the place was infected when the vessel sailed. — (See Quarantine.) 
 
 BILL OF LADING, is a formal receipt subscribed by the master of a ship in his 
 capacity of carrier, acknowledging that he has received the goods specified in it on 
 board his ship, and binding himself (under certain exceptions) to deliver them, in the 
 like good order as received, at the place, and to the individual named in the bill, or his 
 assigns, on his or their paying him the stipulated freight, &c. When goods are sent by 
 a ship hired by a charterparty, the bills of lading are delivered by the master to the 
 merchant by whom the ship is chartered ; but when they are sent by a general ship, — that 
 is, by a ship not hired by charterparty, but employed as a general carrier, — each indivi- 
 dual who sends goods on board, receives a bill of lading for tiie same. In all cases, 
 therefore, the bill of lading is the evidence of and title to the goods shipped. 
 
 The liability of a carrier, at common law to deliver the goods intrusted to his care, is 
 cancelled only by " the act of God and the king's enemies." But to limit this respon- 
 sibility, the following exception is now, invariably almost, introduced into the clause in 
 bills of lading, binding the master to the delivery of the goods : — " The act of God, the 
 hinges enemies, fire, and all and every other dangers and accidents of the seas^ rivers, and 
 navigation, of whatever nature and kind soever, excepted.^* 
 
 Bills of lading are not, in general, immediately given by the master on receiving the 
 goods. The usual practice is for the master or his deputy to give a common receipt 
 
130 
 
 BILL OF SALE. -BILL OF SIGHT. 
 
 for the goods, which is delivered up on receiving the bill of lading. The latter should 
 always be required within 24 hours after the goods are received on board. 
 
 Three sets of all bills of lading are made out on stamped paper : one of these should 
 be remitted by the first post to the person to whom the goods are consigned, a second 
 being sent to him by the ship ; the third is retained by the shipper of the goods. The 
 master ought always to retain copies of the bills of lading for his government. A 
 stamp duty of 3s. is charged on all bills of lading, whether for goods exported or carried 
 coastwise. 
 
 The usual form of a bill of lading is as follows : — 
 
 W. B. IN-JB. — SHIPPED, in good order and well conditioned, by A. B. merchant, in and upon the 
 No. 1. a. 10. 3 good ship called whereof C. D. is master, now in the river Thames, and bound 
 
 for , the goods following, viz. \_here describe the goods,^ marked and Humbered 
 
 as per margin, to be delivered, in the like good order and condition, at 
 aforesaid, {the act of God, the king's enemies, fire, and all and every other dangers and 
 accidents of the seas, rivers, and navigation, of whatever nature and kind soever, excepted,) 
 unto the said A. B. or his assigns, he or they paying for the said goods at the rate of 
 per piece freight, with primage and average accustomed. In witness whereof, I the 
 said master of the said ship, have affirmed to three bills of lading, of this tenour and date ; 
 any one of which bills being accomplished, the other two are to be void. 
 
 London, this day of , 1834. C. D., Master. 
 
 But in the case of ships homeward bound from the West Indies, which send their 
 boats to fetch the cargo from the shore, the exception in the bill of lading is usually 
 expressed as follows : " The act of God, the king's enemies, fire, and all and every 
 other dangers and accidents of the seas, rivers, and navigation, of whatever nature and 
 kind soever, save risk of boats, so far as ships are liable thereto, excepted." Other excep- 
 tions may be and are sometimes introduced ; but the above is the general form. 
 
 Transfer of Bills of Lading. — Bills of lading are transferable either by blank or 
 special indorsement, like bills of exchange. And whatever may be the character of the 
 person to whom the goods are consigned, whether he be a buyer, or merely the factor, 
 agent, or broker of the consignor, the bond fide holder of a bill of lading indorsed by 
 the consignee, is entitled to the goods, and may claim them from the master, if he can 
 prove that he has purchased the bill for a good consideration ; but unless he can do this, 
 he is not entitled to the goods. — (Holt, Law of Shipping, 2d ed. p. 363.) 
 
 Formerly, a factor, though he might sell, could not pledge the goods of his principal. 
 But the hardship and inconvenience arising from this rule were such, that it was set 
 aside by the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 94. The second section of this act declares, that any person 
 in possession of a bill of lading shall be deemed the true owner of the goods specified 
 in it, so as to make a sale or pledge by him of such goods or biU of lading valid, unless 
 the person to whom the goods are sold or pledged has notice that the seller or pledger is 
 not the actual and bond fide owner of the goods. — (See Factor.) 
 
 Delivery under Bill of Lading. — It being usual to sign and deliver three bills of 
 lading, it is possible that there may be conflicting demands upon the captain by the dif- 
 ferent holders. Nothing, however, is, in such a case, required of him, except that he 
 act with good faith, and to the best of his judgment ; and that he make delivery of the 
 goods to the person who first demands them of him, upon presentment of the bill of 
 lading, provided the circumstances be not such as to justify a suspicion of his having unfairly 
 got possession of it. If he act differently, he is answerable, according to the peculiar- 
 ities of the case, to the person injured by his negligence ; the bill of lading being not 
 only the instructions of the merchant to him, as his carrier or servant, but his own 
 especial agreement to deliver according to its conditions. 
 
 Where several bills of lading of a different import have been signed, no regard is to 
 be paid to the time when they were first signed by the master ; but the person who 
 first gets legal possession of one of them from the owner or shipper, has a right to the 
 consignment ; and where such bills of lading, though different upon the face of them, are 
 constructively the same, and the master has acted bond fide, a delivery according to such 
 legal title will discharge him from all. — {Holt, p. 375. and 377.) 
 
 BILL OF SALE, a contract under seal, by which an individual conveys or passes 
 away the right and interest he has in the goods or chattels named in the bill. The 
 property of ships is transferred by bill of sale. — ( See Registry. ) 
 
 BILL OF SIGHT. When a merchant is ignorant of the real quantities or qualities 
 of any goods assigned to him, so that he is unable to make a perfect entry of them, he 
 must acquaint the collector or comptroller of the circumstance ; and they are authorised, 
 upon the importer or his agent making oath that he cannot, for want of full information, 
 make a perfect entry, to receive an entry by bill of sight, for the packages, by the best 
 description which can be given, and to grant warrant that the same may be landed and 
 examined by the importer in presence of the officers ; and within 3 days after any 
 goods shall have been so landed, the importer sliall make a perfect entry, and shall either 
 pay down the duties, or shall duly warehouse the same. — (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52. § 24.) 
 
 In default of perfect entry within 3 days, such goods are to be taken to the king's 
 
BILL OF STORE.— BIRDLIME. 
 
 131 
 
 warehouse ; and if the importer shall not, within 1 month, make perfect entry, and 
 pay the duties thereon, or on such purls as can be entered for home use, togetlier with 
 charges of moving and warehouse rent, such goods shall be sold for payment of the 
 duties. — § 25. 
 
 The East India Company are authorised, without the proof before-mentioned, to 
 enter goods by bill of sight, and to make perfect entry, and pay the duties within 3 
 months. — § 26. 
 
 BILL OF STORE, is a licence granted by the Custom-house, to merchants, to 
 carry such stores and provisions as are necessary for a voyage, free of duty. 
 
 By the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52., returned goods may be entered by bill of store, as 
 follows : — 
 
 From 5th January, 1826, it shall be lawful to re-import into the United Kingdom, from any place, in a 
 ship of any country, any goods (except as herein-after excepted) which shall have been legally exported 
 from the United Kingdom, and to enter the same by bill of store, referring to the entry outwards, and 
 exportation thereof; provided the property in such goods continue in tlie person by whom or on whose 
 account the same have been exported ; and if tiie goods so returned be foreign goods which had before 
 been legally imported into the United Kingdom, the same duties shall be payable thereon as would, at the 
 time of such re-importation, be payable on the like goods, under the same circumstances of importation 
 as those under which such goods had been originally imported ; or such goods may be warehoused upon a 
 first importation thereof : provided always, that the several sorts of goods enumerated or described in the 
 list following shall not be re-imported into the United Kingdom for /lofne use, upon the ground that the 
 same had been legally exported from thence, but that the same shall be deemed to be foreien goods, 
 whether originally such or not, and shall also be deemed to be imported for tiie first time into the United 
 Kingdom; viz. 
 
 Goods exported, which may not be rc-importedfor Home Use. 
 Corn, grain, meal, flour, and malt ; hops, tobacco, tea. 
 
 Goods for which any bounty or any drawback of excise had been received on exportation, unless by 
 special permission of the commissioners of customs, and on repayment of such bounty or such 
 drawback. 
 
 All goods for which bill of store cannot be issued in manner herein-after directed, except small remnants 
 of British goods, by special permission of the commissioners of customs, upon proof to their satis, 
 faction that the same are British, and had not been sold. — \ S3. 
 The person in whose name any goods so re-imported were entered for exportation, shall deliver to the 
 searcher, at the port of exportation, an exact account signed by him of the particulars of such goods, re- 
 ferring to the entry and clearance outwards, and to the return inwards of the same, with the marks and 
 numbers of the packages both inwards and outwards ; and thereupon the searcher, finding that such 
 goods had been legally exported, shall grant a bill of store for the same; and if the person in whose name 
 the goods were entered for exportation was not the proprietor thereof, but his agent, he shall declare upon 
 oath on such bill of store the name of the person by whom he was employed as such agent ; and if the 
 person to whom such returns are consigned shall not be such proprietor and exporter, he shall declare 
 upon oath on such bill of store the name of the person for whose use such goods have been consigned to 
 him ; and the real proprietor, ascertained to be such, shall make oath upon such bill of store to the identity 
 of the goods so exported and so returned, and that he was at the time of exportation and of re-importation 
 the proprietor of such goods, and that the same had not during such time been sold or disposed of to any 
 other person ; and such affidavits shall be made before the collectors or comptrollers at the ports of ex- 
 portation and of importation respectively, and thereupon the collector and comptroller shall admit such 
 goods to entry by bill of store, and grant their warrant accordingly. — \ 34. 
 
 BILLINGSGATE, a market for fish, contiguous to the Custom-house in London. 
 It is held every lawful day, and was established in 1G99 by stat. 10 & 11 Will. 3. c. 24. 
 Every person buying fish in Billingsgate market, may sell the same in any other market- 
 place or places within the city of London or elsewhere, by retail, with this condition, 
 that none out fishmongers be permitted to sell in fixed shops or houses. No person or 
 persons shall purchase at Billingsgate any quantity of fish, to be divided by lots or in 
 shares amongst any fishmongers or other persons, in order to be afterwards put to sale by 
 retail or otherwise ; nor shall any fishmonger engross, or buy in the said market, any 
 quantity of fish, but what shall be for his own sale or use, under the penalty of 20/. No 
 person is to have in his possession, or expose to sale, any spawn of fish, or fi.sh unsizeable, 
 or out of season. — (36 Geo. 3. c. 118.) The minimum size of the lobsters to be sold 
 at Billingsgate is fixed by statute. — ( See Lobster. ) 
 
 No fish of foreign taking or curing, or in foreign vessels, is to be imported into the 
 United Kingdom, under penalty of forfeiture, except turbots and lobsters, stock-fish, live 
 eels, anchovies, sturgeon, botargo, and caviare. Fresh fish of British taking, and im- 
 ported in British ships, and turbot, however taken or imported, may be landed without 
 report, entry, or warrant. — (6 Geo. 4. c. 107.) 
 
 For some further remarks with respect to this subject, see Fish. 
 
 BIRCH (Fr. Bouleau; Du. Berke ; Ger. Birke ; It. BetuUa ; Lat. Betula ; 
 Pol. Brzoza ; Rus. Bereza ; Sp. Ahedul, Behilld), a forest tree met with every where in 
 the north of Europe. It is applied to various purposes. In Lapland, Norway, and 
 Sweden, the long twigs of the birch are woven into mats and twisted into ropes ; the 
 outer bark forms an almost incorruptible covering for houses ; and the inner bark is used, 
 in periods of scarcity, as a substitute for bread. Russia leather is prepared by means of 
 the empyreumatic oil of the birch. It is an excellent wood for the turner, being light, 
 compact, and easily worked. Its durability is not very great. It is sometimes used in 
 the manufacture of herring barrels. 
 
 BIRDLIME (Ger. Vogelkim ; Fr. Glu ; It. Pania ; Sp. Lifja ; Rus. Ptitschei Klei) 
 exudes spontaneously from certain plants, and is obtained artificially from tlie middle 
 
 K 2 
 
132 
 
 BIRDS' NESTS. — BISMUTH. 
 
 Jark of the holly. Its colour is greenish, its flavour sour, and it is gluey, shining, and 
 tenacious. The natural is more adhesive than the artificial birdlime. — ( Thomson's 
 Chemistry. ) 
 
 BIRDS' NESTS (Ger. Indianische Vogelnester ; Du. Indiaansehe Vogelnestjes ; 
 Fr. Nids de Tunkin ; It. Nidi di Tunchino ; Sp. Nidos de la China; Java. Susu ; 
 Malay, Sarunghurung), the nests of a species of swallow peculiar to the Indian islands 
 (Hirutido esculenta), very much esteemed in China. In shape this nest resembles that of 
 other swallows ; it is formed of a viscid substance ; and in external appearance, as well as 
 consistence, is not unlike fibrous, ill-concocted isinglass. Esculent nests are principally 
 found in Java, in caverns that are most frequently, though not always, situated on the 
 sea-coast. Many conflicting statements have been made as to the substance of nests ; 
 some contending that they are formed of sea-foam or other marine products, and others 
 that they are elaborated from the food of the bird, &c. But these are points as to which 
 nothing satisfactory is known. 
 
 We borrow from Mr. Crawfurd's valuable work on the Eastern Archipelago (vol. iii. pp. 432—437.), the 
 following authentic and curious details as to the traffic in this singular production: — "The best nests 
 are those obtained in deep damp caves, and oUch as are taken before the birds have laid their eggs. The 
 coarsest are those obtained after the young are fledged. The finest nests are the whitest, that is, 
 those taken before the nest has been rendered impure by the food and fa:ces of the young birds. They are 
 taken twice a-year, and, if regularly collected, and no unusual injury be offered to the caverns, will pro- 
 duce very equally, the quantity being very little, if at all, improved by the caves being left altogether 
 unmolested for a year or two. Some of tfie caverns are extremely difficult of access, and the nests can 
 only be collected by persons accustomed from their youth to the office. The most remarkable and pro- 
 ductive caves in Java, of which I superintended a moiety of the collection for several years, are those of 
 Karang-bolang, in the province of Baglen, on the south coast of the island. Here the caves are only to 
 be approached by a perpendicular descent of many hundred feet, by ladders of bamboo and rattan, over a 
 sea rolling violently against the rocks. When the mouth of the cavern is attained, the perilous office of 
 taking the nests must often be performed by torch-light, by penetrating into recesses of the rock where 
 the slightest trip would be instantly fatal to the adventurers, who see nothing below them but the turbu. 
 lent surf making its way into the chasms of the rock. 
 
 " The only preparation which the birds' nests undergo is that of simple drying, without direct exposure 
 to the sun, after which they are packed in small boxes, usually of half a picul. They are assorted for the 
 Chinese market into three kinds, according to their qualities, distinguished '\x\to first or hesty second, and 
 third qualities. Caverns that are regularly managed, will afford, in 100 parts, 53'3 parts of those of the first 
 quality, 35 parts of those of the second, U*? parts of those of the third. 
 
 " The common prices for birds' nests at Canton are, for the first sort, no less than 3,500 Spanish dollars 
 the picul, or 5/. 185. 1|<?. per lb. ; for the second, 2,800 Spanish dollars per picul ; and for the third, 
 1,600 Spanish dollars. From these prices it is sufficiently evident, that the birds' nests are no more than 
 an article of expensive luxury. They are consumed only by the great ; and, indeed, the best part is sent 
 to the capital for the consumption of the court. The sensual Chinese use them, under the imagination 
 that they are powerfully stimulating and tonic ; but it is probable that their most valuable quality is their 
 being perfectly harmless. The people of Japan, who so much resemble the Chinese in many of their 
 habits, have no taste for the edible nests ; and how the latter acquired a taste for this foreign commodity 
 is no less singular than their persevering in it. Among the western nations there is nothing parallel to 
 it, unless we except the whimsical estimation in which the Romans held some articles of luxury, remark, 
 able for their scarcity rather than for any qualities ascribed to them." 
 
 Mr. Crawfurd estimates the whole quantity of birds' nests exported from the Archipelago at 242,400 lbs. 
 worth 284,290/. " The value," he observes, " of this immense property to the country which produces it, 
 rests upon the capricious wants of a singlepeople. It is claimed as the exclusive property of the sovereign, 
 and every where forms a valuable branch of his income, or of the revenue of the state. This value, how- 
 ever, is of course not equal, and depends upon the situation and the circumstances connected with the 
 caverns in which the nests are found. Being often in remote and sequestered situations, in a country so 
 lawless, a property so valuable and exposed is subject to the perpetual depredation of freebooters, and it 
 not unfrequently happens that an attack vpon it is the principal object of the warfare committed by one 
 petty state against another. In such situations, the expcMse of affording them protection is so heavy, that 
 they are necessarily of little value. In situations where the caverns are difficult of access to strangers, 
 and where there reigns enough of order and tranquillity to secure them from internal depredation, and to 
 admit of the nests being obtained without other expense than the simple labour of collecting them, the 
 value of the property is very great. The caverns of Karang-bolang, in Java, are of this description. 
 These annually afford 6,810 lbs. of nests, which are worth, at the Batavia prices of 3,200, 2,500, and 1,200 
 Spanish dollars the picul, for the respective kinds, nearly 139,000 Spanish dollars; and the whole expense 
 of collecting, curing, and packir j, amounts to no more than 11 per cent, on this amount. The price of 
 birds' nests is of course a monopoly price, the quantity produced being by nature limited, and incapable 
 of augmentation. The value of the labour expended in bringing birds' nests to market is but a trifling 
 portion of their price, which consists of the highest sum that the luxurious Chinese will afford to pay for 
 them, and which is a tax paid by that nation to the inhabitants of the Indian islands. There is, perhaps, 
 no production upon which human industry is exerted, of which the cost of production bears so small a 
 proportion to the market price." — (See also the valuable work of Count Hogendorp, Coup d'CEil sur Vile 
 de Java, p. 201.) 
 
 BISMUTH (Ger. Wismuth; Du. Bismuth, Bergsteen; Fr. Bismuth; It. Bismuife: 
 Sp. Bismuth, Piedra inga; llus. Wismut; Lat. Bismuthum), a metal of a reddish white 
 colour, and almost destitute of taste and smell. It is softer than copper ; its specific 
 gravity is 9-822. When hammered cautiously, its density is considerably incrca.sed ; it 
 breaks, however, when struck smartly by a hammer, and, consequently, is not malleable, 
 neither can it be drawn out into wire; it melts at the temperature of 476°. — {^Thom- 
 son's Chemistry.) 
 
 " Bismuth is used in the composition of pewter, in the fabrication of printers' types, and in various 
 other metallic mixtures. With an equal weight of lead, it forms a brilliant white alloy, mi"-h harder 
 than lead, and more malleable than bismuth, though not ductile; and if the proportion oi" lead be 
 increased, it is rendered still more malleable. Eight parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin, con- 
 stitute the fusible met,.';, sometimes called Newton's, from its discoverer, which melts at the heat of 
 boiling water, and may bo fused over a candle in a iiiece of stiff paper without burning the paper. Pew- 
 terers' solder is formed of one part of bismuth, with 5 of lead, and 3 of tin. It forms the basis of a 
 sympathetic hik." — {Urc.) 
 
BITUMEN. — BLACK-LEAD PENCILS. 
 
 BITUMEN (Ger. Judenpech; Du. Jodenhjm; It. Asfalto; Sp. Asfulto; Port. As- 
 phalto; Rus. Asfalt; Lat. Asphaltum, Bitumen Judaicum). This term includes a 
 considerable range of inflammable mineral substances, burning with flame in the open 
 air. They differ in consistency, from a tliin fluid to a solid ; but the solids are for the 
 most part liquefiable at a moderate heat. They are, — 1. Naphtha; a fine, white, thin, 
 fragrant, colourless oil, which issues out of white, yellow, or black clays in Persia and 
 Media. This is highly inflammable. Near the village of Amiano, in the state of Parma, 
 there exists a spring which yields this substance in sufficient quantity to illuminate the 
 city of Genoa, for which purpose it is employed. With certain vegetable oils, naphtha 
 is said to form a good varnish. — 2. Petroleum is much thicker than naphtha, resembling 
 in consistence common tar. It has a strong disagreeable odour, and a blackish or reddish 
 brown colour. During combustion, it emits a thick black smoke, and leaves a little 
 residue in the form of black coal. It is more abundant than the first-mentioned variety, 
 from which it does not seem to diflTer, except in being more inspissated. It occurs, 
 oozing out of rocks, in the vicinity of beds of coal, or floating upon the surface of springs. 
 In the Birman empire, near Rainanghong, is a hill containing coal, into which 520 pits 
 have been sunk for the collection of petroleum, the annual produce of the hill being about 
 400,000 hogsheads. It is used by the inhabitants of that country as a lamp oil, and, 
 when mingled with earth or ashes, as fuel. In the United States it is found abundantly 
 in Kentucky, Ohio, and New York, where it is known by the name of Seneca or Genesee. 
 oil. It is also obtained from wells in the island of Zante. Herodotus tells us, that he 
 had seen these wells — (lib. iv. c. 195.) ; and the description he has given of them, and of 
 the mode of obtaining the petroleum, corresponds, in all respects, with the accounts of 
 the best modern travellers. The average annual produce of the Zante springs is about 
 100 barrels. — (^Chandler's Travels in Greece^ 4to ed. p. 301. ; Holland's Travels in Greece, 
 4to ed. p. 18.) Petroleum is particularly abundant in Persia. " When taken from the 
 pit, it is a thick liquid resembling pitch. The bottoms of most vessels which navigate 
 the Euphrates and Tigris are covered with it, and it is also used in lamps, instead of oil, 
 by the natives. The most productive fountains are those of Kerkook, Mendali, and 
 Badku. The wells in the neighbourhood of the latter seem to be quite inexhaustible, 
 being no sooner emptied than they again begin to fill. Some of them have been found 
 to yield from 1,000 to 1,500 lbs. a day ! " — (Kinneir's Persian Empire, p. 39. and 359.) 
 — 3. Maltha, or Sea-wax, is a solid whitish substance, not unlike tallow. It melts when 
 heated, and in cooling assumes the consistence of white cerate. This is, most probably, the 
 bitumen candidum of Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxv. c. 15.). It is not used as pitch; 
 but it affords a better light than petroleum, and emits a less disagreeable smell. It is 
 found on the surface of the Baikal Lake in Siberia, at the foot of the mountains of 
 Bucktiari in Persia, and in some other places. — 4. Elastic Bitumen yields easily to 
 pressure ; is flexible and elastic. It emits a strong bituminous odour, and is about the 
 weight of water. On exposure to the air it hardens, and loses its elasticity. It takes 
 up the traces of crayons in the same manner as caoutchouc, or Indian rubber, whence it 
 has obtained the name of mineral caoutchouc. It has hitherto been found only in the 
 lead mines of Derbyshire. — 5. Compact Bitumen, or Asphaltum, is of a shining black 
 colour, solid, and brittle, with a conchoidal fracture. Its specific gravity varies from 1 
 to 1 -6. Like the former varieties, it burns freely, and leaves but little residuum. It is 
 found in India, on the shores of the Dead Sea, in France, in Switzerland, and in large 
 deposits in sandstone in Albania ; but nowhere so largely as in the island of Trinidad, 
 where it forms a lake three miles in circumference, and of a thickness unknown. A 
 gentle heat renders it ductile, and, when mixed with grease or common pitch, it is used 
 for paying the bottoms of ships, and is said to protect them from the teredo of the West 
 Indian seas. The ancients employed bitumen in the construction of their buildings. 
 The bricks of which the walls of Babylon were built were, it is said (Herodotus, lib. i. 
 § 179.), cemented with hot bitumen, which gave them unusual solidity. 
 
 BLACKING (Ger. Schuhschwarze, Wichse,- Fr. Noir (de cordonnier) ; It. Nero da 
 ugner le scarpe; Sp. Negro de zapatos). A factitious article, prepared in various ways, 
 used in the blacking of shoes. It is in very extensive demand. 
 
 BLACK-LEAD, OR PLUMBAGO (Du. Potloot; Fr. Mine de plomb noir, Plomh 
 de mine, Potelot; Ger. Pottloth, Reisshley; It. Miniera di piombo, Piomhaggine, Corezolo; 
 Lat. Plumbago; Sp. Piedra mineral de plomo), a mineral of a dark steel grey colour, and 
 a metallic lustre ; it is soft, and has a greasy feel ; it leaves a dark coloured line when 
 drawn along paper. It is principally employed in the making of pencils ; it is also em- 
 ployed in the making of crucibles, in rubbing bright the surface of cast-iron utensils, and 
 in diminishing friction, when interposed between rubbing surfaces. The finest specimens 
 of this mineral are found in the celebrated mine of Borrowdale, in Cumberland, worked 
 since the days of Queen Elizabeth. — ( Thomson's Chemistry. ) Recently, plumbago, of 
 a very good quality, has been imported from Ceylon. 
 
 BLACK-LEAD PENCILS (Du. Potlootpennen ; Fr. Crayons noirs; Ger. Bley- 
 
 K 3 
 
134 
 
 BLOOD-STONE. — BOATS. 
 
 stifte; II. Lapis nero; Port. Lapis negro; Rus. KaranaschU ; Sp. Lapiz negroi), are 
 formed of black-lead encircled Avith cedar. 
 
 BLOOD-STONE (Ger. Blutstein; Vr. Pierre sanguine a crayon; It. Sanguiga ; 
 Sp. Piedra sanguinaria ; Lat. Hccmatites), or the Lapis hanmatites, a species of calcedony, 
 is a mineral of a reddish colour, hard, ponderous, with long pointed needles. It is found 
 among iron ore in great abundance. These stones are to be chosen of the highest colour, 
 with fine strias or needles, and as much like cinnabar as possible. Goldsmiths and 
 gilders use it to polish their work. It is also used for trinkets. 
 
 BLUBBER (Ger. Thran, Fischtran ; Du. Thraan; It. Oliodipesce; Sp. Grassa, 
 Aceite de pescado; Rus. Salo worwannoe, Worwan; Lat. Oleum piscinum), the fat of 
 whales and other large sea-animals, of which train oil is made. The blubber is the adeps 
 of the animal : it lies under the skin, and over the muscular flesh : it is about 6 inches 
 in thickness, but about the under lip it is 2 or 3 feet thick. The whole quantity yielded 
 by one of these animals ordinarily amounts to 40 or 50, but sometimes to 80 or more ' 
 cwt. Formerly train oil was manufactured from the blubber in the seas round Spitz- 
 bergen, and other places where whales were caught ; but the practice is now to bring 
 the blubber home in casks, and to prepare the oil afterwards. 
 
 It is enacted by the 6 Geo. 4. c. 107. § 44., that before any blubber, train oil, spermaceti oil, head matter, 
 or whale fins, shall be entered as being entirely the produce of sea-animals caught by the crews of ships 
 fitted out in the United Kingdom, or the islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Sark, and Man, the master of the ship 
 importing such goods shall make oath, and the importer also shall make oath, to the best of his knowledge 
 and belief, that the same are the produce of fish or creatures living in the sea, taken and caught wholly 
 by the crew of such ship, or by the crew of some other ship (naming it) fitted out in the United King- 
 dom, or in one of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Man (naming which). 
 
 Before blubber, train oil, &c. can be entered as from a British possession, a certificate must be obtained 
 from the Custom-house oflScer at such British possession, or in default of such ofiicer being there, from 
 two principal inhabitants, notifying that oath had been made before him or them that such blubber, &c, 
 was the produce of fish or creatures living in the sea, and had been taken by British subjects usually 
 residing in some part of his Majesty's dominions ; and the importer is to make oath, to the best of his 
 Knowledge and belief, to the same effect. 
 
 The gauging of casks of oil and blubber is dispensed with since 1825. They are to be passed at the rate 
 of 126 gallons the pipe, and 63 gallons the hogshead. 
 
 BOATS are open vessels, commonly wrought by oars, and of an endless variety of 
 shapes, according to the purposes to wliich they are to be applied. 
 
 It is ordered by stat. 6 Geo. 4. c. 108., that every boat belonging to or attached to any other vessel, 
 shall have painted on the outside of the stern of such boat, the name of the vessel and place to which she 
 belongs, and the master's name within side of the transom, in white or yellow Roman letters, 2 inches 
 long, on a black ground, under pain of forfeiture. Boats not belonging to vessels, are to be painted with 
 the name of the owner and place to which they belong, under penalty of forfeiture. All boats having 
 double sides or bottoms, or secret places for the purpose of concealing goods, or having any hole, pipe, or 
 other device for the purpose of running goods, are to be forfeited. 
 
 Regulations of Watertnen on the Thames. — From Chelsea Bridge towards Windsor, 3d. per half mile 
 for scullers. 
 
 Over the water directly between Windsor and Crawley's Wharf, Greenwich (excepting the Sunday 
 ferries), for one person, 3d. ; two persons, Isd. each ; exceeding two persons, Irf. each. 
 
 To or from ships westward of Greenwich," for one person, 2d. ; exceeding one person. Id. each ; and, 
 where the distance to the ship does not exceed the distance across the river, the fare across the river 
 shall be taken. 
 
 To or from ships eastward of Greenwich, at the rate of 6d. per half mile. 
 
 To or from vessels for passengers, for one person, 4d. ; exceeding one person, 3d. each, with not exceed- 
 ing 56 lbs. of luggage for each. After this at the rate of Is. per cwt. 
 
 Watermen detained by passengers to be paid for time or distance, at the option of the watermen. 
 
 s. d. I s. d. 
 
 By Time for a Pair of Oars. — First hour - 2 0 Each succeeding hour - _ - 1 0 
 
 Second hour - - - . 1 6 1 For the day - . . . 12 0 
 
 To last from 7 a. m. to 5 p. M. between Michaelmas and Lady Day j and from 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. from 
 Lady Day to Michaelmas. 
 
 Sculler's Fares. 
 The Bridges, 4'C. stand in the following order. 
 
 Nine Elms 
 
 Red House, Battersca 
 Swan Stairs, Chelsea 
 Chelsea Bridge 
 Iron Gate 
 Union Stairs 
 King Edward ditto 
 
 The fare from either of the above places to the next is 3d., and so on in proportion. 
 
 Passage Boats. — Oars' Fare 8 Passengers. Sculler's Fare 6 Passengers. 
 
 London Bridge 
 Southwark Bridge 
 Blackfriars Bridge 
 Waterloo Bridge 
 Westminster Bridge 
 Lambeth Stairs 
 Vauxhail Bridge 
 
 ShadwcU Dock Stairs 
 Kidney ditto 
 Limehouse Hole ditto 
 Ditto, Torrington Arms 
 Deptford, George Stairs 
 Ditto, Low- Water Gate 
 Greenwich, Crawley's Wharf. 
 
 J>ondon Bridge to 
 (Uielsea bridge - 
 Wandsworth 
 Putney 
 ]'ulham 
 Barn's Elms 
 Hammersmith 
 Chiswick 
 Barnes 
 Mortlake 
 
 Dei)tford 
 Greenwich 
 
 each 
 
 
 each 
 
 
 each 
 
 s. d. 
 
 London Bridge to 
 
 s. d. 
 
 London Bridge to 
 
 d. 
 
 . 0 6 
 
 Brentford 
 
 . 1 3 
 
 Walton-upon-Thames 
 
 . 1 9 
 
 - 0 7 
 
 Isl'!Worth 
 
 - 1 3 
 
 Shepperton 
 
 - 2 0 
 
 -08 
 
 Richmond 
 
 - 1 3 
 
 Weyi)ridgc 
 
 . 2 0 
 
 - 0 8 
 
 Twickenham 
 
 - 1 6 
 
 Laleham 
 
 - 2 0 
 
 - 0 8 
 
 Tide- end Town 
 
 - 1 fi 
 
 Chertsey 
 
 . 2 0 
 
 - 0 9 
 
 Kingston 
 
 - 1 6 
 
 Staines 
 
 - 2 6 
 
 . 0 9 
 
 Hampton Court - 
 
 - 1 9 
 
 Datchet 
 
 . 3 0 
 
 - 1 0 
 
 Hampton Town 
 
 - 1 <) 
 
 Windsor 
 
 - 3 0 
 
 - 1 0 
 
 Sunbury 
 
 - 1 9 
 
 
 
 - 0 6 
 
 Blackwall - 
 
 - 0 y 
 
 Gravescnd 
 
 - 1 fi 
 
 - 0 6 1 
 
 Woolwich 
 
 1 0 
 
 
 
BOLE.— BOMBAY. 
 
 135 
 
 For a full boat load of luggage, same as for 8 passengers. 
 
 For half a load, same as for i passengers. 
 
 Penalties. — Taking more than fare, not exceeding 11. 
 
 Waterman to have a list of fares in his boat, and on not permitting the passenger to examine it, the 
 passenger is discharged from paying his fare, and the waterman inay be fined not exceeding Cd. 
 
 Refusing to take a passenger, or not answering when called by the number of his boat, not exceeding bl. 
 Unnecessarily delaying a passenger, not exceeding 51. 
 
 Refusing to permit any person to read the name and number of his boat, or to tell his Christian or sur- 
 name, or the number of his boat, on being paid his fare, or making use of any abusive language, not 
 exceeding 51. 
 
 Rules and By-latvs made by the Court of Aldermen, 15/h of April, 1828. — Letting his boat remain at any 
 stairs, while wilfully absent, or not being ready to take a passenger into his boat, not exceeding It. 
 
 Refusing to give his name or number, or that of any other waterman, not exceeding 1/. 
 
 Obstructing any other waterman in taking in or landing a passenger, or obstructing a passenger, not 
 exceeding U. 
 
 Towing or being towed by any other boat without the consent of all the passengers, not exceeding 31. 
 
 Agreeing to take any less sum than the rate allowed, and afterwards demanding more than the sum 
 agreed for, not exceeding 21. 
 
 Only two boats to be placed aboard any steam-boat at the same time in turn. Waterman, previous to 
 taking turn as aforesaid, to lie with his boat upon his oars at least one boat's length distant from any other 
 boat lying alongside, and shall not approach nearer, until after the former boat shall have proceeded two 
 boats' length, not exceeding 51. 
 
 The offices of Harbour-masters are in Little Thames Street, St. Catharine's ; and Canal Office, Black- 
 wall. 
 
 BOLE, a friable earthy substance, a species of the soapstone family. Specific gravity 
 1 '4 to 2. It is found in the island of Lemnos, whence it is sometimes called Lemnian 
 earth ; and in Armenia, Italy, France, Silesia, various parts of South America, &c. Ar- 
 menian and French boles were at one time not uncommon in this country, being used in 
 the materia medica, but they are now entirely, or almost entirely, discarded. In India, 
 however, Armenian bole still continues to be in extensive demand. It is brought to 
 Bombay from the Persian Gulf. It is soft, feels greasy to the touch, adheres strongly to 
 the tongue, and is very frangible : it is generally of a yellowish brown colour ; though 
 sometimes it is seen of a fine flesh red, which is the variety held in the highest estimation. 
 Some savage nations, such as the Ottomaques, described by M. Humboldt, are in the 
 habit of allaying the pains of hunger by eating boles. The Javanese, when they wish to 
 become thin, eat cakes, called tanaampo, made of bole. — (^Lewis, Mat. Medica; Thom- 
 son'' s Chemistry ; Ainslie's Mat. Indica.) 
 
 BOHEA, a species of tea. See Tea. 
 
 BOMBAY, a sea-port on the western coast of British India, being, after Calcutta 
 and Canton, the greatest commercial emporium in the East; lat. 18° 56' N., long. 
 72° 57' E. It is situated on the south-eastern extremity of a small island of the same 
 name, separated from the main land by an arm of the sea, forming, with the contiguous 
 islands of Colabah, Salsette, Butcher's Island, and Caranjah, one of the best har- 
 bours in India. Bombay Island was ceded by the Portuguese to the English in 1661, 
 as the dower of Queen Catherine, wife of Charles II., and was taken possession 
 of in 1664; so that it has been in our occupation about 170 years, being by far the 
 oldest of our possessions in the East. In 1668, it was transferred by the crown to the 
 East India Company, by letters patent, in free and common soccage, on payment of the 
 annual rent of 101. But, by the present charter, it has reverted to the crown, with the 
 rest of the Company's assets, being held by the Company in trust merely. On its 
 cession to the crown of England, in 1661, its population did not exceed 15,000 souls, 
 the outcasts of the natives of India. It now contains 15,474 houses, valued at 3,606,424/., 
 and a population exceeding 229,000. The following statement of the population of 
 Bombay, at different periods, will show its progress : — 
 
 1664, when taken po.vession of , 15,000 I 1816 - - - 161,550 
 
 1716 . . . . 16,000 I 1830 - - - 229,000 
 
 The census of 1816 exhibits the proportion of the different classes of inhabitants as 
 follows : — 
 
 British, not military - . 1,840 Hindoos - . - - 103,800 
 
 Ilitto, military and marine - - 2,460 Parsees - - . - - 13,550 
 
 Native Christians, Armenians, and de- 
 
 scendants of Portuguese - - 11,500 Total 161,550 
 
 Jews - - - . 800 
 
 Mohammedans - - - 28,000 
 
 The fort stands on the south-east extremity of the island, on a narrow neck of land, im- 
 mediately over the harbour. The fortifications are extensive, and on the sea side very 
 strong. 
 
 Bombay Harbour is one of the safest and most commodious in India. It is bounded on the west and 
 north by the island of Colabah, or Old Woman's Island, Bombay Island, and the island of Salsette. The 
 first two are separated only by a narrow creek fordable at low water, and Bombay Island was joined to 
 Salsette by a causeway constructed in 1805. On the east side of the harbour, between it and the main 
 land is Butcher's Island, distant about 4 miles from Bombay ; and immediately behind Butcher's Island 
 is the famous island of Elephanta. About 3 miles south from Butcher's Island is the island of Caranjah, 
 on the western side of which, next the harbour, is an extensive shoal. S. W. from Caranjah, distant 
 about 5 miles, is Tull Point; between which and Colabah, or Old Woman's Island, is the entrance to 
 the harbour. There is a light-house on the southern extremity of Colabah Island, elevated about 150 
 feet above the level of the sea, which in clear weather may be seen at the distance of 7 leagues. The 
 
 K 4 
 
136 
 
 BOMBAY. 
 
 point on which the light-house stands is surrounded on all sides by .in extensive reef of rocks divltled 
 into prongs: of these, the most dangerous is the prong stretching S.W. about 3 miles from the light- 
 house, and forming the northern boundary of the entrance into the harbour. The reef stretching W.N.W. 
 from TuU Point about 3i miles, forms the southern boundary of the entrance ; the breadth of the channel 
 between them being about 3 miles, with a depth of from 7 to 8 fathoms. In going into the harbour, it is 
 necessary to clear a sunken rock, lying almost due east from the light-house, at about 1^ mile distant ; 
 and also a bank, called the middle ground, lying nearly opposite to and about li mile from the southern 
 extremity of the town. — ( See Nicholson and Watson's Plan of Bombay Harbour.) 
 
 Docks. — Bombay is the only port of consequence in British India in which the rise 
 and fall of the tide are so considerable as to admit of the formation of extensive wet docks. 
 At ordinary spring tides, the rise is about 14 feet, but occasionally as high as 17. 
 The capacious docks constructed by the East India Company are their property, and are 
 for the most part under the direction of Parsees, who, excepting the Chinese, are the 
 most industrious and intelligent people of the Efist. The expense of repairing ships in 
 them is enormous. Merchant vessels of great size, or from 1,300 to 1,400 tons burden, 
 for the cotton trade to China, have been built in these docks. Frigates and line-of-battle 
 ships have also been occasionally constructed in them, sometimes under the exclusive 
 direction of Parsee artificers. Ships built at Bombay, on account of the timber being 
 brought from a great distance, are very costly ; but being, contrary to the practice in 
 other parts of India, entirely constructed of teak, they are the most durable vessels in the 
 world, requiring little repair, and often running 50 or 60 years. Being for the most 
 part built by natives, without any very strict application of the rules of art, they are 
 commonly, though not always, heavy sailers. 
 
 Monies. - Accounts are here kept in rupees; each rupee 
 
 being divided into 4 quarters, and each quarter into 100 reas. 
 The rupee is also divided into 16 annas, or 50 pice. An urd^e 
 is 2 reas ; a doreea, 6 reas ; a dooganev, or single pice, 4 reas ; 
 a fuddea, or double pice, 8 reas ; a paunchea is 5 rupees; and 
 a" gold mohur, 15 rupees. Of these, the annas and re;is only 
 are imaginary moniei. The coins of Bombay are the mohur, 
 or gold rupee, the silver or Company's rupee, and their divi- 
 sions ; also the double and single pice, the urdee, and doreea, 
 which are copper coins with a mixture of tin or lead. The 
 following LS the assay and sterling value of the present gold and 
 lilvcr coinage of Bombay : — 
 
 Gross Wt. Pure Metal. Sterling Value- 
 prs. grs. 3. 
 
 Gold Mohur - 180 - 165 - 29 2 
 Company's rupee (silver) ISO - 165 - l-ll if sil- 
 ver be taken at 5s. 'id. an oz., and 2i. 0\d. if silver be taken 
 at bs. 6d. an oz. . ■, ^ 
 
 The Companv's rupee has only been corned since the 1st of 
 September, 1835 ; hut it is almost identical in respect of value 
 with the rupees previously in circulation. 
 
 The charge for coinage in the Bombay Mint is 2} per cent, 
 for gold, and S per cent, for silver, including the charges for 
 refining. The machinery for this mint was sent out from 
 England a few vears ago, and is complete, but very costly. 
 At Bombay there are no banks, as at Madras and Calcutta, 
 and paper money is unknown in mercantile transactions. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The weighU and measures used at 
 Bombay are as follow : — 
 
 Gvld and Silver Weight 
 
 40 Walls = 
 
 Pearl Weight. 
 
 1 Tucka 
 
 l.?! Tuckas = 1 Ruttee 
 24 lluttees = 1 Tank 
 
 Commercial Weight. 
 
 Avoirdnpois. 
 lbs. oz. dr. 
 1 Tank = 0 0 2-48S 
 72 Tanks = 1 Seer = 0 1 1 3-2 
 40 Seers = 1 Maund = 28 0 0 
 
 These weights are used for all heavy goods, excej)ting salt. 
 Grain Measure. 
 
 lbs. oz. dr. 
 
 2Tipprees = 1 Seer = 0 U 5 2 
 4 Seers = 1 Paily = 2 12 12-8 
 
 7 Pailies = 1 Parah = 19 9 9-6 
 
 8 Parahs = 1 Candy = 156 12 12-8 
 
 Salt Measure. 
 
 cubic inchet. 
 — 1 Parah = 1607-61 
 = lAnna = 160761 
 = 1 Rash = 2572176 
 
 lOJ Adowlies 
 10(1 Parahs 
 16 Annas 
 
 The anna weighs 2i tons, and the rash 40 tons. 
 
 Liquor Measure. 
 (Spirits and Country Arrack.) 
 The seer weighs 60 Bombay rupees, and equals 1 lb. 8 oz. 
 ■k dr. ; and 50 seers make the maund. 
 
 Long Measure, 
 
 16 Tussoos = 1 Hath 
 24 Tussoos = 1 Guz. 
 
 English inchei. 
 = 18 
 = 27 
 
 All the foregoing standards are likewise divided into halves, 
 quarters, &c. The preceding weights and measures are gene- 
 rally used in Bombay ; but it sometimes occurs in mercantile 
 transactions, that calculations are made in pounds and maunds, 
 which last weight is reckoned at 40, 40J, 41, 43^, and 44 seers j 
 and sometimes in Sural candies of 20 21, and 22 maunds. 
 
 Shipping. — At Bombay there is an insurance society with a capital of 20 lacs of rupees, or about 
 2(X),000/. sterling; and there are also private underwriters who insure separately on ships. In 183G-37, 
 28 ships, of the aggregate burden of 20,800 tons, mostly owned by native merchants resident in Bombay, 
 were employed in the China trade ; and there are besides a considerable number of large ships engaged 
 in the trade to England and other places. They are for the most part navigated by Indian seamen 
 or Lascars, those of Bombay being accounted by far the best in India; the master and superior 
 •jfficers only, and not alwavs, being Englishmen. Besides these large vessels, there is a numerous class 
 of native craft, under various forms and names, computed to amount in all to near 50,000 tons, of 
 from 2 to 175 tons each. These vessels, besides furnishing the town with firewood, hay, straw, &c. from 
 the neighbouring continent, navigate coastways from Cape Comorin to the Gulf of Cutch, and some- 
 times cross the sea to Muscat and the Arabian Gulf. During the eight fair months, that is, from 
 f)ctober to May, the largest sized vessels perform five or six trips to Damaun, Surat, Cambay, Broach, 
 Jumbosier, and Cutch, bringing from these ports, where they sometimes winter, and where many of 
 their owners reside, cotton, ghee, oil, pulse, wheat, cotton cloths, timber, firewood, putchok, mawah, 
 &c. ; and return to the northern ports laden with the produce of Europe, Bengal, and China. The 
 capital employed in this trade, in the minor articles of commerce, exclusive of cotton, has been estimated 
 to amount to 1,500,000/. sterling. In 183G-37, there arrived at Bombay 253 ships (222 under British 
 colours), of the aggregate burden of 104,913 tons. 
 
 Commerce, §-c. — The small and sterile island of Bombay affords no produce for exporta- 
 tion ; indeed, hardly yields a week's consumption of corn for its inhabitants. Nor does the 
 whole presidency of Bombay, although estimated to contain about 70,000 square miles, 
 and from 10,000,000 to 1 1 ,000,000 inhabitants, yield,with the exception of catton and rice, 
 any of the great colonial staples, such as coffee, sugar, and indigo ; a circumstance that 
 seems mainly ascribablc to the impolitic restraints upon the employment of Briti.sh 
 settlers and capital that were long imposed by law, and acted upon with peculiar 
 rigour in this and the sister presidency of Madra.s, in contradistinction to the greater 
 latitude afforded in Bengal. Bombay is also much less favourably situated, in respect 
 of internal communications, than Calcutta. The Ganges and its tributary streams 
 intersect the richest provinces of India, and give Calcutta a vat5t command of inland 
 navigation ; whereas alj the inland trade of Bombay has to be carried on by means olf 
 
BOMBAY. 
 
 137 
 
 roads, that are seldom available for carriages, and which can be used only by pack-bullocks 
 and camels. The transit duties, by which the inland trade has been grievously oppressed, 
 were abolished in Bengal in 183G ; and they either have been, or are, immediately to be 
 abolished in Bombay. And were this judicious measure followed up by the formation 
 of lines of road to the principal markets in the interior, a great increase of the trade 
 of the town and improvement of the presidency would be the result. 
 
 The principal trade of Bombay is carried on -with China, Great Britain, the 
 countries on the Persian and Arabian gulfs, Calcutta, Cutch and Sinde, the Malabar 
 coast, foreign Europe, &c. The imports from China consist principally of raw silk, 
 sugar, and sugar-candy, silk piece goods, treasure, &c. The principal articles of export 
 to China are, raw cotton (44,464,364 lbs., in 1836-37.), opium (20,882^ chests, in 
 1836-37.), principally from Malwa, pearls, sharks' fins and fish maws, sandal- wood, &c. 
 The exports to China being much gi-eater than the imports, the returns for several years 
 past have been made to a large extent in bills on London, drawn by American and other 
 houses in China, and in bills on the Indian governments, drawn by the agents of the 
 East India Company in China. 
 
 The trade with the United Kingdom has been regularly increasing since the abolition 
 of the restrictive system. The chief articles of import from Great Britain are, cotton 
 and woollen stuffs, cotton yarn, hardware, copper, iron and lead, glass, apparel, fur, 
 stationery, wine, &c. The principal articles of export to Britain are raw cotton 
 (68,163,901 lbs. in 1836-37.), raw silk, from China and Persia, ivory, pepper and spices, 
 piece goods, coffee, and wool. The export of the last-mentioned article has increased 
 with extraordinary rapidity, the quantity shipped for England in 1 833-34 being only 
 69,944 lbs.; whereas the shipments for England in 1836-37 amounted to 2,444,019 lbs. ! 
 At present the principal supply of the article is drawn from Cutch and Sinde, and from 
 Marwar, via Guzerat ; but active measures have been taken by government for im- 
 proving the flocks in the pastoral country of the Deccan, so that a further and very con- 
 siderable increase of this new and important trade may be anticipated. 
 
 The trade betAveen Bombay and the ports on the Persian Gulf has materially varied 
 of late years. A large portion of the articles of British produce and manufacture that 
 were formerly exported to Persia, by wa-y of Bombay and Bushire, being now sent 
 through Trebisond and ports in the Levant; and a considerable portion of the raw silk 
 that used to be exported from Persia, via Bombay, being now also sent through the ports 
 referred to. On the other hand, however, there is a considerable increase in the exports 
 and imports of other articles; so that, on the whole, the amount of the trade has not 
 materially varied. 
 
 The trade between Bombay and Calcutta is not so great now as it was formerly ; the abolition of the 
 restrictive system in 1815 having given Bombay the means of bringing various articles direct from foreign 
 ports which she was previously obliged to import at second-hand from Calcutta, and of exporting directly 
 
 Account of the total Value of the Imports into, and of the Exports from Bombay, in the official years 1816-17, 
 
 1826-27, and 1836-37. 
 
 Great Britain 
 France 
 Alatleira 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 Brazil 
 
 Coast of Africa 
 isle of France 
 A merica 
 China 
 
 lanilla 
 I'enanif, Singapoie, 
 and the Straits - 
 Calcutta 
 
 Coast of Coromandel 
 (Ceylon 
 \rabian (lul 
 Persian Gulf 
 i\falabarand Canara 
 Cutch and Sinde - 
 ,Demaun,&Diu* 
 Hamburgh - 
 St. Helena - 
 
 Total Rupees 
 Suliordinale Ports. 
 Panwell & Concan|- 
 Surat - - . 
 
 Guzerat - - • 
 
 Rupees 
 
 Total Rupees 
 
 1,90,236 
 2,250 
 7-i,4M 
 2,41,70.> 
 41,!)71 
 2,71,495 
 37,SG,172 
 3,67,433 
 
 6,91,808 
 31,79,602 
 62,989 
 79,098 
 .';,0ti,838 
 10,110,287 
 27,!I0,<I71 
 4,00,449 
 26,73,652 
 
 3,97,971 
 
 16,43,602 
 23,906 
 38,197 
 1,68,413 
 3,03,170 
 
 1,100 
 
 21,000 
 
 15,71,231 
 17,27,021 
 75,171 
 48,195 
 4,05,645 
 
 .93,40,339 64,87,625 
 
 1,99,236 
 2,230 
 17,18,03 
 2,68,60 
 80,16 
 4,39,908 
 41,49,64 
 3,67,433 
 
 6,92,968 
 34,79,602, 
 76,98!) 
 79,098 
 20,78,072 
 28,17,308 
 28,66,14 
 4,48,644 
 30,79,297 
 
 2,36,473 
 13,22,573 
 46,99,397 
 
 62,58,443 
 
 48,116 
 1,92,761 
 1 ,06,535 
 
 49.54,124 
 2,71,774 
 36,715 
 2,232 
 9,893 
 ' 4,04,883 
 2,24,275 
 10,736 
 45,70,306 
 
 4,01 
 19,52 
 45,22 
 8,64 
 2,89 
 2,03 
 
 9,720 
 3.3,770 
 
 5,4 6,( 
 14,69,( 
 
 Total. 
 
 49,55,872 
 2,87, 
 57,715 
 2,232 
 19,61 
 4,,38,65 
 2,24,27 
 10,736 
 1,1 1,97,086 
 
 5,17 
 
 22,58 
 1,72 
 55 
 9,47 
 31,22 
 45,63 
 
 2,16,46,047 88,26,! 09 
 
 36,40,072 
 16,51,'J95 
 78,52,026 
 
 1 1,31,24,095 21,68,832 
 
 9,46,418 
 12,13,391 
 9,023 
 
 3,05,758' 
 
 45,86,190 
 28,65,386 
 78,41,041 
 
 1,.32,41,910 
 5,25,855 
 2 4,- - 
 9,752 
 92,490 
 3,49,558 
 l,.39,S6r 
 46,289 
 40,05,669 
 51,410 
 
 7,17,721 
 25,38,101 
 
 1,11,648 
 55,340 
 
 7,8 i, 40 1 
 15,48,657 
 75,80,673 
 15,71,090 
 
 3,94,030 
 
 3,37,67,20; 
 
 l,20,54i 
 
 21,2S,.'>S9 
 2,57,82,236 
 
 91 
 
 ,00,74,283 
 
 53,000 
 11,02,29(» 
 20,10,892 
 
 5,S'2,702 
 1,82,975 
 11.000 
 
 1,26,.'57,657 
 23,11.564 
 
 2,57,93,23<i 
 
 * At this period called Goa and the Concan. 
 
 t At this period called Bassein and sunclrv ports. 
 
138 BOMBAY. 
 
 Account of the Value of Imports, Exports, &c. — (Continued.) 
 
 
 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1816—1817. 
 
 1826-27. 
 
 1836—37. 
 
 Merchan- 
 dise. 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Merchan- 
 dise. 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Merchan- 
 dise. 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Great Uritain - Rupea 
 France - - — 
 Cape of Good Hope — 
 Brazil - - ^ 
 Coast of A firica - — 
 Isle of France - — 
 America - - — 
 China - - — 
 Manilla - - — 
 Penans, Singapore, 
 
 and the Straits - — 
 Calcutta - • — 
 Coast of Coromandel — 
 Ceylon - - — 
 Arabian Gulf - — 
 Persian Gulf - — 
 Malabar and Canara — 
 Cutch and Sinde - — 
 Goa,DemaCin,v<cDiu* — 
 
 St. Helena - - — 
 
 20,18,463 
 
 16,579 
 l,2j,8i9 
 2,45,379 
 2,75,5! 8 
 50,51,393 
 6.100 
 
 2,31,975 
 8,20,169 
 81,456 
 69,673 
 13,74,623 
 15,02,819 
 827,112 
 12,24,598 
 35,45,755 
 
 9,040 
 
 57,954 
 
 3,960 
 2,47,965 
 1 1,500 
 9,07,499 
 
 20,18,463 
 
 16,379 
 1,25,819 
 2,45,379 
 2,73,518 
 50,60,433 
 6,100 
 
 2,31,975 
 8,78,123 
 81,45.6 
 69,673 
 13,74,623 
 15,06,779 
 10,75,077 
 12,36,098 
 44,53,254 
 
 38,33,740 
 63,663 
 
 22,730 
 3,09,868 
 65,692 
 
 1 ,07,76,011 
 
 4,41,860 
 8,41,079 
 2,44,532 
 1,03,867 
 7,40,305 
 41,81,021 
 10,68,737 
 16,54,880 
 2,41,225 
 1,49,617 
 3,634 
 
 1,05,077 
 
 8,560 
 1,16,875 
 
 ' 6,480 
 
 17,600 
 1,01,500 
 32,186 
 
 800 
 "10,800 
 5,40,600 
 .30,928 
 36,612 
 
 39,58,817 
 63,663 
 
 22,730 
 3,18,428 
 1,82 567 
 
 1,07,82,491 
 
 4,59,460 
 9,42,579 
 2,76,718 
 1,03,867 
 7,41,105 
 41,91,821 
 14,09,337 
 16,65,808 
 2,77,837 
 1,49,617 
 3,634 
 
 1,35,29,317 
 2,37,443 
 612 
 
 5,93,331 
 26,771 
 2,31,756 
 3,26,66,247 
 
 6,85,737 
 11,16,784 
 
 2,95,749 
 52,818 
 12,47,340 
 34,57,341 
 12,07,047 
 23,27,347 
 
 1,61,259 
 
 35,000 
 
 80 900 
 56i|50 
 
 19,720 
 10,200 
 5,65,000 
 48,658 
 17,790 
 42,900 
 11,11,581 
 2,0()(l 
 67,280 
 
 1,35,29,517 
 2,37,443 
 612 
 
 6,18,331 
 
 2)91 1006 
 3^26}^ 0^047 
 
 7,05,457 
 11,36,984 
 
 8,60,719 
 
 1,01,475 
 12,65,130 
 30,00,241 
 23,18,628 
 23,29,347 
 
 2,28,539 
 
 
 1,74,15,328 
 
 12,37,918 
 
 
 2,47,22,461 
 
 8,08,018 
 
 5,78,49,899 
 
 20,56,079 
 
 
 Total Rupees - 
 
 - ! - - ' l,86,5.->,2t6 
 
 
 - 2,55,30,479 
 
 - 
 
 - 15,99,05,978 
 
 Subordinate Ports. 
 Panwell & Concan f — 
 Surat - - — 
 Gu^erat - - — 
 
 3,25,167 
 23,76,202 
 40,85,915 
 
 21,192 
 7,20,503 
 3,42,785 
 
 3,46,35S 
 51,02,-05 
 44,28,710 
 
 54,94,473 
 22,F2,01l 
 73,47,696 
 
 24,19,037 
 .3,89,414 
 
 39,24,626 
 
 79,1.1,51C 
 26,51,426 
 1,12,72,322 
 
 55,33,682 
 15,09,845 
 81,50,010 
 
 49,89,236ll,05,22,918 
 7,30,6151 22,41,460 
 17,51,811 98,61,821 
 
 
 67,87,193 10,90,480 
 
 
 1,51,04,181 
 
 67,33,0771 
 
 1,51,24,533 
 
 74,51,662 
 
 
 Total Rupees • 
 
 
 78,77,747 
 
 
 
 2,18,37,258 
 
 
 - 12,26,26,199 
 
 At this period called Goa and the Concan. + At this period called Bassein and sundry ports. 
 
 PORT CHARGES. 
 
 limy and Anchorage Dues. — All Ships and Vessels or Boats 
 not receiving Pilots 
 
 From 10 to 20 tons Rps. 3 0 
 
 Above 20 to under 30 tons 
 From 30 to 50 tons 
 
 Above 50 to 100 ditto 
 _ 100 to 150 ditto 
 _ 150 to 200 ditto 
 _ 200 to 250 ditto 
 
 Charges for Pilotage. — A Ship 
 of the Line or of 50 Guns 
 
 A frigate or sloop of war 
 
 — 10 0 
 :L- 20 0 
 
 — 25 0 
 _ 30 3 
 
 — 35 0 
 
 Pair Season. 
 - Rj.s. 100 
 . ditto 75 
 
 0 per Ann 
 
 0 do. 
 
 0 do. 
 
 0 do. 
 
 0 do. 
 
 0 do. 
 
 0 do. 
 
 Monsoon. 
 
 Foreign ships of war are to pay, in addition to the above rates, 
 rupees 40. 
 
 N.B. There are no port charRes of any 
 
 Square-rifjged Vessels of all 
 
 descriptions : 
 Above 50 to 300 tons. Rps. 
 
 — 300 to 400 — 
 
 — 400 to 500 — 
 
 — 500 to 600 — 
 -- 600 to 700 — 
 
 — 700 to 800 — 
 -- 800 to 900 — 
 ~ 900 to 1000 — 
 
 — 1000 to 1100 — 
 ■ — 1100 to 1200 _ 
 
 — 1200 and upwards — 
 
 Light-house Dues All ships and vessels down to 20 tons^ 
 
 at rupees 15 per 100 tons per annum. 
 
 All vessels under 29 tons burden, at 2 rupees per annum, 
 sort at Bombay other than the above. 
 
 Fair Season 
 
 
 Monsoon. 
 
 . 50 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 75 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 55 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 80 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 60 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 85 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 65 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 70 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 95 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 75 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 80 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 105 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 85 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 110 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 115 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 95 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 120 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 125 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 General Rates of Commission in Bombay. — On the sale 
 or purchase of goods of all denominations (except as 
 under) - - - Per Cent. - 
 
 Purchases of all kinds with the proceeds of goods sold, and 
 on which acommissionof 5 per cent, has been previously 
 
 The^^eor purchase of ships, houses, and lands 
 
 The sale or purchase of opium - - - 
 
 U'he sale or purchase of diamonds, pearls, and jewellery 
 
 of all descriptions - ,„.",. c 
 
 The sale or purchase of treasure or bullion, exclusive ot 
 
 1 per cent, on receipt of the proceeds 
 Procuring freight , . 
 
 Shipping goods of every descrintion 
 
 Shipping treasure, bullion, and jewellery " , : 
 
 Ships disbursements when no commission has been charged 
 
 on freight or cargo 
 Ett'ecting insurances - - ■ 
 
 Settling insurance losses, whether partial or total ; also on 
 
 procuring return of preniium,,exclusive of commission 
 
 on receipt of cash - ./. 
 
 Delcredere or guaranteeing the responsibility 6f persons 
 
 to whom goods are sold, on the amount of sales 
 't he sale or purchase of cattle 
 
 Collecting house rent - , , , " , . . " 
 
 Ettecting remittances by bills of exchange [not being the 
 proceeds of goods sold) - , . ; 
 
 Taking up interest bills from the Company (exclusive of 
 
 1 per cent, on remitting) - . , ' 
 Sale of purchase of public or private bdls of exchange 
 exchanging Companies* securities of all descni>tions, or 
 
 investing money therein, and on transferring government 
 
 uaner from one constituent to another 
 Surrendering, or depositing in the treasury. Company s 
 
 security of all descriptions - 
 I'rocuring money on respondentia or on loan - • 
 ilecovery oftionds or bills for absentees, over due at the 
 
 period of their lieing placed in the possession of the agent 
 Debts, when a process at law or by arbitration is necessary, 
 
 2 4 i>tr rent. ; and if recovered by such means 
 Managing the aftairs of an estate for an executor or ad- 
 Guaranteeing hills, bonds, or debts in general, by endorse- 
 Auending "the \u;U very of contract goods to the Company 
 (;omu"iwI''lgntHl, and afterwards withdrawn, on Invoice 
 
 Bills of exchange returned noted or protested, &c. Per cent 1 
 lieceipt of payment (at the option of the agent) of all 
 monies not arising from proceeds of goods on which 
 commission has been previously charged - -I 
 
 All cases where the debtor side of the account exceeds the 
 credit side, including the balance of interest, commis- 
 sion chargeable on the debtor side, at the rate of - - 1 
 Granting letters of credit - - - 2J- 
 
 Becoming security to government, or public bodies, in any 
 
 case - - - 2i 
 
 Goods consigned, which are disposed of by outcry or sent 
 
 to a shop, on net proceeds - - - 2J 
 
 Depositing government paper as security for constituents - 1 
 Memorandum. — Sales of European goods, when made at an 
 advance on invoice cost, the amount to be converted into 
 Bombay currency at the exchange of two shillings and six- 
 pence per rupee. 
 
 Dock Regulations. — At daylight the wickets of the- gates are 
 opened, and at 7 o'clock the sentry gate. Half an hour after 
 sunset the gates are shut, the wicket of the centre gate being 
 left open till the evening gun be fired. No boats, saving those 
 belonging to the Company's marine department, or her 
 Majesty's navy, are permitted to come to the dock-yard 
 stairs; but must use the piers expressly conMructed for their 
 accommodation. No meat, stores, or baggage for the mer- 
 chant ship|)ing, of any descrii)fion, are to he passed'through 
 the dock-yards. After the firing of the evening gun, nobody 
 belonging to the ships in the harbour, below the rank of a 
 commissioned officer, is to be allowed to land or enter the 
 dock-yard, without the exjiress permission of the master 
 attendant, or other constituted authorities. 
 
 Boats' crews are not to be permitted to quit their boat at 
 the stairs, after the hour of shutting the gates. Small craft 
 are not to deliver firewood or any other lading within the 
 limits of the yard, without the siijierintendenfs sanction. 
 The ships and vessels in dock are not to land any lumber 
 whatever on the pier. Wo cargo of any description is to be 
 landed in or passed through the yard, from or to any ship in 
 dock, without the superintendent's permission in writing. 
 No fire or light is allowed on board any ship or vessel in dock, 
 without the authority of-the superintendent, to whom the pur- 
 poses for which either may be required, must be stated in 
 writing. 
 
 (See Milbum's Oriental Commerce ; Hamilton's East India 
 Gnxelleer, 1828; Bombay Calendar and Register ; Kelly's Cam- 
 bist ; Report on the Commerce (f Bombaij in the Year 1836-37t. 
 \c.) 
 
BOMBAZINE. — BOOK. 
 
 139 
 
 BOMBAZINE, a kind of silk stufF, originally manufactured at Milan, and thence 
 sent into France and other countries. Now, however, it is nowhere manufactured 
 better, or in larger quantities, than in this kingdom. 
 
 BONES of cattle and other animals are extensively used in the arts, in forming 
 handles for knives, and various other purposes. So long as bones are preserved fresh, a 
 highly nutritious jelly may be obtained from them. 
 
 Bones have latterly been employed, particularly in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, as a manure for dry 
 soils, with the very best effect. They are commonly ground and drilled in, in the form of powder, with 
 turnip seed. Their effect is considerably increased when they have undergone the process of fermenta- 
 tion. The quantities employed are usually about 25 bushels of dust, or 40 bushels of large, to the acre. 
 Besides the immense supplies collected at home, they have begun, within these few years, to be largely 
 imi)orted from the Continent, principally from the Netherlands and Germany. They occupy about 
 40,UOO tons of small vessels belonging to these countries. Mr. Huskisson estimated the real value of those 
 annually imported for the purpose of being used as manure at 100,000Z. ; and he contended, that it was 
 not too much to suppose, that an advance of between 100,000/. and 200,000/. expended on this article, 
 occasioned 500,000 additional quarters of corn to be brought to market — {Loudon's Encyclopcediaqf 
 Agriculture ; Mr. Huskisson' s Speech, May 7. 1827.) 
 
 Account of the Declared Value of the Bones imported into Great Britain during each of the 12 Years 
 ending Jan. 5. 1833 ; and of the Amount of Duty charged on the same. — ( Pari. Pap. No. 708. Sess. 18.33.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 1S21 
 1822 
 1823 
 1821 
 1825 
 1826 
 18.^7 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Imports into 
 
 England. 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 L. 
 
 15,898 
 9,438 
 H,.'?95 
 43,940 
 86,571 
 9t,747 
 77,956 
 59,782 
 59,741 
 68,233 
 65,623 
 77,847 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 52 
 82 
 82 
 139 
 2t5 
 1,798 
 2,H74 
 12,322 
 8,529 
 7,073 
 13,908 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 L. g. d. 
 
 15,968 9 11 
 
 9,490 12 5 
 
 14,477 15 8 
 
 44,023 11 11 
 
 86,710 10 2 
 
 94,993 14 4 
 
 79.754 U 2 
 62,{5-)6 ^5 6 
 72,063 16 7 
 66,763 10 1 
 72,697 6 0 
 
 91.755 5 5 
 
 Duty. 
 
 L. 
 
 159 
 94 
 144 
 
 440 
 
 867 
 995 
 835 
 G54 
 748 
 CS8 
 749 
 910 
 
 There are no means of distinguishing between the bones imported for manure and 
 for other purposes. 
 
 BOOK, BOOKS (Ger. BUcTier ; Du. Boeken ; Da. Boger ; Sw. Backer; Fr. 
 Livres ; It. Lihri ; Sp. Lihros ; Port. Livros ; Bus. Knigi ; Pol. Ksiaslii, Ksiegi ; 
 Lat. Libri), a written or printed treatise or treatises on any branch of science, art, or 
 literature, composed in the view of instructing, amusing, or persuading the reader. 
 
 Copyright is the right which the authors of books or treatises claim to the exclusive 
 privilege of printing, publishing, and selling them. 
 
 Books are sometimes blank, as account books; but these enjoy no peculiar privileges, 
 and do not come within the scope of our inquiries. 
 
 Books are divided into the following classes, according to the mode in which the sheets 
 of the paper on which they are printed or written are folded ; viz. folio, when the sheet 
 is folded into two leaves ; quarto, when folded vtxto four ; octavo, when folded into eight ; 
 duodecimo, when the sheet is folded into twelve, &c. In making these classifications, no 
 attention is paid to the size of the sheet. 
 
 I. Progress and present State of the Law as to the Copyright of Books. — It has been 
 doubted whether, in antiquity, an author had any exclusive right to a work, or whether, 
 having once published it, he could restrain others from copying it, and selling copies. 
 We incline to think that he could. The public sale of copies of works is often referred 
 to in the classics ; and in such a way as warrants the inference that they were productive 
 to the author, which could not have been the case had every one been permitted to copy 
 them at pleasure. Terence, in one of his plays {Prol. in Eunuch. 1. 20.), says, Fuhulam, 
 quam nunc acturi sumus, postquam cediles emerunt ; but why should the magistrates have 
 bought it, had it been free to every one to copy it ? Martial, in one of his epigrams, 
 says — 
 
 Sunt quidam, qui me dicunt non esse poetam : 
 
 Sed qui me vendif, bibliopola, putat. Mart. lib. xiv. Ep. 1^4. 
 
 This evidently conveys the idea that he had assigned the right to sell his book to a single 
 person, who profited by it. Passages to the same effect may be found in Horace (i)e 
 Arte Poeticd, line 345.), Juvenal {Sat. 7. line 8.3.), &c. 
 
 It would have been singular, indeed, had it been otherwise. Of all the species of 
 property a man can possess, the fruits of his mental labours seem to be most peculiarly 
 liis own. And though it may, we think, be shown, that many serious inconveniences 
 would result from giving the same absolute and interminable property over ideas that is 
 given over material objects, these inconveniences could hardly have been perceived in 
 antiquity. 
 
 It will^ also be observed, that in antiquity a copyright was of much less value than in 
 modern times. Books could then only be multiplied by copying them with the pen ; 
 and if any one chose privately to copy a work, or to buy it of another, it must have been 
 very difficult to hinder him : but when piinting had been introduced, the greater cheap- 
 
uo 
 
 BOOK, BOOKS. 
 
 ness of books not only extended the demand for tliem in far greater proportion, and 
 consequently rendered copyrights more valuable, but it also afforded the means of pre- 
 venting their piracy. Printing is not a device by which a few copies of a book can be 
 obtained at a cheap rate. It is productive of cheapness only when it is employed upon a 
 large scale, or when a considerable impression is to be thi-own off. And hence, after its 
 invention, piracy could hardly be committed in secret : the pirated book had to be 
 brought to market ; the fraud was thus sure to be detected, and the offending party might 
 be prosecuted and punished. 
 
 For a considerable time after the invention of printing, no questions seem to have 
 occurred with respect to copyrights. This was occasioned by the early adoption of the 
 licensing system. Governments soon perceived the vast importance of the powerful 
 engine that had been brought into the field ; and they endeavoured to avail themselves 
 of its energies by interdicting the publication of all works not previously licensed by 
 authority. During the continuation of this system, piracy was effectually prevented. 
 The licensing act (13 & 14 Chas. 2. c. 2.) and the previous acts and proclamations to 
 the same effect, prohibited the printing of any book without consent of the owner, as well 
 as without a licence. In 1 694, the licensing act finally expired, and the press then be- 
 came really free. Instead, however, of the summary methods for obtaining redress for 
 any invasion of their property enjoyed by them under the licensing acts, authors were 
 now left to defend their rights at common law ; and as no author or bookseller could 
 procure any redress for a piracy at common law, except in so far as he could prove 
 damage, property in books was virtually annihilated ; it being in most cases impossible 
 to prove the sale of one printed copy out of a hundred. Under these circumstances, 
 applications were made to parliament for an act to protect literary property, by granting 
 some speedy and effectual method of preventing the sale of spurious copies. In con- 
 sequence, the statute 8 Anne, c. 1 9. was passed, securing to authors and their assignees 
 the exclusive right of printing their books for 14 years certain, from the day of pub- 
 lication, with a contingent 14 years, provided the author were alive at the expiration of 
 the first term. Persons printing books protected by this act, without the consent of the 
 authors or their assignees, were to forfeit the pirated copies, and \d. for every sheet of 
 the same. Such books as were not entered at Stationers' Hall were excluded from the 
 benefit of this act. 
 
 It had been customary, for some time previous to this period, for the libraries of the 
 Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, &c. to get a copy of most books entered at 
 Stationers' Hall ; and the act of Anne made it imperative that one copy of all works 
 entitled to its protection should be delivered to the following libraries : viz. the Royal 
 Library, now transferred to the British Museum ; the Libraries of Oxford and Cambridge ; 
 the Libraries of the four Scotch Universities ; the Library of Sion College, London ; and 
 that of the Faculty of Advocates in Edinburgh ; — in all, nine copies. 
 
 The act of Anne did not put to rest the questions as to copyrights. The authors con- 
 tended that it did not affect their natural ownership ; and that they or their assignees 
 were entitled to proceed at common law against those who pirated their works after the 
 period mentioned in the statute had expired. The publishers of spurious editions 
 resisted these pretensions, and contended that there was either no right of property at 
 common law in the productions of the mind ; or that, supposing such a right to have 
 existed, it was superseded by the statute of Anne. There was some difference of opinion 
 in the courts as to these points ; but Lord Mansfield, Mr. Justice Blackstone, and the 
 most eminent Judges, were favourable to the claims of the authors. However, it was 
 finally decided, upon an appeal to the House of Lords in 1774, that an action could not 
 be maintained for pirating a copyright after the term specified in the statute. — ( Godson 
 on the Law of Patents and Copyrights, p. 205.) 
 
 The act of Queen Anne referred only to Great Britain; but in 1801, its provisions 
 were extended to Ireland ; the penalty, exclusive of forfeiture, on printing or importing 
 books without consent of the proprietor, was also increased from Id. to 3d. a sheet. In 
 return for this concession, two additional copies of all works entered at Stationers' Hall 
 were to be delivered; one to Trinity College, Dublin, and one to the King's Inns, 
 Dublin. 
 
 Every one must be satisfied that 14 years' exclusive possession is far too short a 
 period to indemnify the author of a work, the composition of which has required 
 any considerable amount of labour and research ; tliough 28 years is, perhaps, all 
 things considered, as proper a period as could be fixed upon. Now, the grand defect of 
 the statute of Anne consisted in its making the right to the exclusive possession for 
 28 years contingent on the fact of a person having lived a day more or less than 
 14 years after the publication of his work. This was making the enjoyment of an 
 important right dependent on a more accidental circumstance over which man has 
 no control. Could any thing be more oppressive and unjust tlian to hinder an autlior 
 from bequeath)))'' that property to his widow and childroi, that would have belonged to 
 
BOOK, BOOKS. 
 
 141 
 
 himself had he been alive ? Nothing, indeed, as it appears to us, can be more obvious 
 than the justice of extending all copyrights to the same period, whether the authors be 
 dead or not. 
 
 But though the extreme hardship, not to say injustice, of the act of Queen Anne had 
 been repeatedly pointed out, its provisions were continued down to 1814, when the 
 existing copyright act, 54 Geo. 3. c. 156., was passed. This act extended the duration 
 of all copyrights, whether the authors were dead or alive, to 28 years certain ; with 
 the further provision, that if the author should be alive at the end of that period, 
 he should enjoy the copyright during the residue of his life. We subjoin the principal 
 clauses of this statute. 
 
 Having recited the acts 8 Anne, c. 19. and 41 Geo. 3. c. 107., it enacts, that so much of the said several 
 recitpd acts as requires that any copies of any books which shall be printed or published, or repriuted and 
 published with additions, shall be delivered by the prin"ters thereof to the warehouse-keeper of the said 
 Company of Stationers, for the use of any of the libraries in the said act mentioned, and as requires the 
 delivery of the said copies by the warehouse-keeper for the use of the said libraries, and as imposes any 
 penalty on such printer or warehouse.keeper for not delivering the said copies, shall be repealed. 
 
 And that 11 printed copies of the whole of every book, and of every volume thereof, upon the 
 paper upon which the largest number or impression of such book shall be jjrinted for sale, together with 
 all maps and prints belonging thereto, which from and after the passing of tliis act shall be printed and 
 published, on demand thereof being made in writing to or left at the place of abode of the publisher or 
 publishers thereof, at any time within 12 months next after the publication thereof, under the hand of 
 the warehouse-keeper of the Company of Stationers, or the librarian or other person thereto authorised 
 by the persons or bpdy politic and corporate, proprietors or managers of tlie libraries following ; videlicet, 
 the British Museum, Sion College, the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the Public Library at Cambridge, 
 the Library of the Faculty of Advocates at Edinburgh, the Libraries of the Four Universities of Scotland, 
 Trinity College Library and the King's Inns Library at Dublin, or so many of such 11 copies as 
 shall be respectively demanded, shall be delivered by the publishers thereof respectively, within 1 month 
 after demand made thereof in writing as aforesaid, to the warehouse-keeper of the said Company of 
 Stationers ; which copies the said warehouse-keeper shall receive for the use of the library for which such 
 demand shall be so made; and he is hereby required, within 1 month after any such book or volume 
 shall be so delivered to him, to deliver the same for the use of such library. And if any such publisher or 
 warehouse-keeper shall not observe the directions of this act, he and they so making default shall forfeit, 
 besides the value of the said printed copies, the sum of 51. for each copy not so delivered or received, 
 together with the full costs of suit ; to be recovered by action in any court of record in the United 
 Kingdom. — J 2. 
 
 Provided always, that no such copy shall be so demanded or delivered, &c. of the second, or of any 
 subsequent edition of any such book, unless the same shall contain additions or alterations; and in case 
 any edition after the first shall contain any addition or alteration, no printed copy thereof, shall be 
 demanded or delivered, if a printed copy of such additions or alterations only, printed in an uniform 
 manner with the former edition of such book, be delivered to each of the libraries aforesaid : provided 
 also, that the copy of every book that shall be demanded by the British Museum shall be delivered of the 
 best paper on which such work shall be printed. — ^3. 
 
 And whereas by the said recited acts it is enacted, that the author of any book, and the assigns of such 
 author, should have the sole liberty of printing and reprinting such book for the term of 14 years, &c. ; 
 and it was provided, that after the expiration of the said term of 14 years, the right of printing or dis- 
 posing of copies should return to the authors thereof, if they were then living, for another term of 14 
 years : and whereas it will afford further encouragement to literature, if the duration of such copyright 
 were extended ; be it enacted, that the author of any book or books composed, and not printed and 
 published, or which shall hereafter be composed, and be printed and published, and his assigns, shall have 
 the sole liberty of printing and reprinting such book or books, for the full term of ttvcnty-eight years, 
 lo commence from the day of first publishing the same ; and also, if the author shall be living at the end 
 of that period, for the residue of his natural life ; and if any bookseller or printer, or other person what- 
 soever, in any part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in the Isles of Man, Jersey, or 
 Guernsey, or in any other part of the British dominions, shall, from and after the passing of this act, 
 within the times granted and limited by this act, print, reprint, or impm-t, or shall cause to be printed, &c. 
 any siich book, without the consent of the author, or other proprietor of the copyright, first had in writing ; 
 or knowing the same to be so printed, &c. without such consent, shall sell, publish, or expose to sale, 
 or cause to be sold, &c., or shall have in his possession for sale, any such book, without such consent 
 first had and obtained ; such offender shall be liable to a special action at the suit of the. author or other 
 proprietor of such copyright ; and every such author or other proprietor may, in such special action, 
 recover damages, with double costs ; and every such offender shall also forfeit such book, and every 
 sheet of such book, and shall dehver the same to the author or other proprietor, to be made waste paper 
 of, and shall also forfeit the sum of M. for every sheet thereof either printed or printing, or publishetl or 
 exposed to sale ; the one moiety thereof to any person who shall sue for the same. — § 4. 
 
 And in order to ascertain what books shall be from time to time published, the publishers of every 
 book demandable under this act shall, within 1 calendar month after the day on which any such book 
 shall be first sold, published, advertised, or offered for sale, within the bills of mortality, or within 
 '3 calendar months in any other part of the United Kingdom, enter the title to the copy of every such book, 
 and the names and place of abode of the publisher, in the register book of the Company of Stationers in 
 London (for every of which several entries the sum of 2s. shall be paid, and no more), under a penalty of 
 the sum of 5/,, together with eleven times the price at which such book shall be sold or advertised ; to be 
 recovered, together with full costs of^uit, by persons authorised to sue, and who shall first sue for the 
 same : provided, that in the case of magazines, reviews, or other periodical publications, it shall be sutti. 
 cient to make such entry in the register book of the said Company within 1 month next after the public- 
 ation of the first number or volume : provided, that no failure in making any such entry shall in any 
 manner affect any copyright, but shall only subject the person making default to the penalty aforesaid 
 under this act. — \ 5. 
 
 Provided always, that if any publisher shall be desirous of delivering the copy of such book or volumf s 
 on behalf of any of the said libraries, at such library, it shall and may be lawful for him to deliver the 
 same at such library ; and such delivery shall be held as equivalent to a delivery to the said warehouse- 
 keeper. 
 
 And if the author of any book, which shall not have been published 14 years at the time of passing 
 this act, shall be living at the said tmie, and if such author shall afterwards die before the expiration of 
 the said 14 years, then the personal representative of the said author, and the assigns of such personal 
 representative, shall have the sole right of printing and publishing the said book lor the further term of 
 14 years after the expiration of the first 14. 
 
 And if the author of any book which has been already published shall be living at the end of 28 years 
 after the first publication, he or she shall, for the remainder of his or her life, have the sole right oi 
 printing and publishing the same. 
 
142 
 
 BOOK, BOOKS. 
 
 Actions and suits shall be commenced within I'-Z months next after such offence committed, or be void 
 and of no effect. — H 7, 8, 9, 10. 
 
 Musical compositions, engravings, maps, sculptures, models, &c. enjoy a similar 
 protection. 
 
 The great practical difficulty in interpreting the copyright acts, is in distinguishing 
 between an original work and a copy made, animo furandi, from one already in exist- 
 ence. The following is a summary of Mr. Godson's remarks on this subject : — 
 
 " The identity of a literary work consists entirely in the sentiments and language. The same con- 
 ceptions, clothed in the same words, must necessarily be the same composition ; and whatever method is 
 taken of exhibiting that composition to the ear or the eye, by recttaly or by writing, or by printing, in 
 any number of copies, or at any period of time, the property of another person has been violated ; for 
 the new book is still the identical work of the real author. 
 
 " Thus, therefore, a transcript of nearly all the sentiments and language of a book is a glaring piracy. 
 To copy part of a book, either by taking a few pages verbatim, when the sentiments are not new, or by 
 imitation of the principal ideas, although the treatises in other respects are different, is also considered to 
 be illegal. 
 
 " Although it was held by Ellenborough C. J. that a variance in form and manner is a variance 
 in substat.ce, and that any material alteration which is a melioration cannot be considered as a piracy; 
 yet a piracy is committed, whether the author attempt an original work, or call his book an abridgment, 
 if the principal parts of a book are servilely copied or unfairly varied. 
 
 " But if the main design be not copied, the circumstance that part of the composition of one author is 
 found in another is not of itself piracy sufficient to support an action. A man may fairly adopt part of 
 the work of another ; he may so make use of another's labours for the promotion of science, and the 
 benefit of the public : but having done so, the question will be, Was the matter so taken used fairly with 
 that view, and without what may be termed the animus furandi ? 
 
 " In judging of a quotation, whether it is fair and candid, or whether the person who quotes has been 
 swayed by the animus furandi, the quantity taken, and the manner in which it is adopted, of course, 
 must be considered. 
 
 " If the work complained of be in substance a copy, then it is not necessary to show the intention to 
 pirate ; for the greater part of the matter of the book having been purloined, the intention is apparent, 
 and other proof is superfluous. A piracy has undoubtedly been committed. 
 
 " But if only a smallportion of the work is quoted, then it becomes necessary to show that it was done 
 animo furandi, with the intention of depriving the author of his just reward, by giving his work to the 
 public in a cheaper form. And then the mode of doing it becomes a subject of inquiry; for it is not 
 sufficient to constitute a piracy, that part of one author's book is found in that of another, unless it be 
 nearly the whole, or so much as will show (being a question of fact for the jury) that it was done 
 with a bad intent, and that the matter which accompanies it has been colourably introduced." — 
 (pp. 215—217.) 
 
 " If a work be of such a libellous or mischievous nature as to affect the piiUic morals, and that the 
 author cannot maintain an action at law upon it, a court of equity will not interpose with an injunction 
 to protect that which cannot be called property. Even if there be a doubt as to its evil tendency, the 
 Lord Chancellor will not interfere." — [^Godson, p. 212.) 
 
 II. Expedienaj of limiting Copyrights to Twenty-eight Years. — It is argued by many 
 that copyrights should be made perpetual; that were this done, men of talent and 
 learning would devote themselves much more readily than at present to the composition 
 of works requiring great labour ; inasmuch as the copyright of such works, were it per- 
 petual, would be an adequate provision for a family. But we doubt much whether these 
 anticipations would be realised. Most books or manuscripts are purchased by the book- 
 sellers, or published upon the presumption that there will immediately be a considerable 
 demand for them ; and we apprehend that when copyrights are secured for 28 years 
 certain, very little more would be given for them were they made perpetual. When 
 an annuity, or the rent or profit arising out of any fixed and tangible property, with 
 respect to which there can be no risk, is sold, if the number of years for which it is 
 to continue be considerable, the price which it is worth, and which it fetches, does not 
 differ materially from what it would bring were it perpetual. But the copyright of 
 an unpublished work is, of all descriptions of property in which to speculate, the most 
 hazardous ; and the chances of reaping contingent advantages from it, at the distance 
 of 28 years, would be worth very little indeed. 
 
 Those who write books, and those who publish them, calculate on their obtaining a 
 ready and extensive sale, and on their being indemnified in a few years. Very few 
 authors, and still fewer booksellers, are disposed to look forward to so distant a pei*iod as 
 28 years for remxmeration. They are mostly all sanguine enough to suppose that a 
 much shorter term will enable them to reap a full harvest of fame and profit from the 
 publication ; and we doubt much whether there be one case in a hundred, in which 
 an author would obtain a larger sum for a perpetual copyright, than for one that is to 
 continue for the period stipulated in the late act. 
 
 But while the making of copyrights perpetual would not, as it appears to us, be of 
 any material advantage to the authors, there are good grounds for thinking that it would 
 be disadvantageous to the public. Suppose an individual calculates a table of logarithms 
 to five or seven places ; if his computations be correct, no improvement can be made upon 
 them, to the extent at least to which they go ; but is he or his assignees to be entitled, 
 in all time to come, to prevent other individuals from publishing similar tables, on tlie 
 ground of an invasion of private property ? Such a pretension could not be admitted 
 without leading to the most misghicvous consequences ; and yet there is no real ground 
 (though the courts have attempted to make one) on which the claim in question and 
 others of the same description could be resisted, were copyrights made perpetual, and 
 
BOOK, BOOKS. 
 
 143 
 
 placed in all respects on the same footing as other property. We therefore, are clearly 
 of opinion that good policy suggests the limitation of the exclusive right of printing and 
 publishing literary works to such a reasonable period as may secure to authors the greater 
 part of the profit to be derived from their works j and that this period being expired, 
 they should become public property. 
 
 Perhaps the period of 28 years might be advantageously extended to 35 or 40 ; 
 but we are satisfied that more injury than benefit would result to literature, by extend- 
 ing it beyond that term. In France, copyrights continue for 20 years after the death 
 of the author. In most of the German states they are perpetual ; this, however, until 
 very recently, hardly indemnified the authors for the ease with which spurious copies 
 might be obtained from other states. But by a late resolution of the Diet, a copyright 
 secured in one state is good in all. 
 
 III. Taxes on Literature. — These taxes have been carried to such an extent in 
 England as to be in the highest degree injurious. They are at once impolitic, oppres- 
 sive, and unjust : impolitic, because they tend to obstruct the growth and diffusion of 
 knowledge ; oppressive, because they very frequently swallow up the entire reward of 
 the labours of the most deserving persons ; and unjust, because they are not propor- 
 tioned to the value of the article on which they are laid, and are, indeed, much oftener 
 paid out of capital than out of profit. 
 
 These taxes consist of the duty on paper — (see Paper), the duty on advertisements 
 : — (see Advertisements), and the 1 1 copies given to the public libraries. The fol- 
 lowing statements, drawn up by a very competent authority (Mr. Rees, of the firm of 
 Longman, Rees, and Co.), show the mode in which they operate. They refer to an 
 octavo volume of 500 pages, the paper such as this, with the ordinary quantity of matter 
 on the page, and sold by retail for 1 2s. a copy. 
 
 Estimate of the cost of such a volume, when 500, 750, and 1,000 copies are printed, 
 showing what part of this cost consists of taxes. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Five Htmdred Copies. 
 Printing End corrections - - - 
 Paper . . . - . 
 Boarding .... 
 Advertising . - - - 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 88 18 
 38 10 
 10 0 
 SO 0 
 
 d. 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 0 0 0 
 
 8 12 10 
 3 3 8 
 
 9 0 0 
 
 11 copies to public libraries. 
 14 copies (say) to author. 
 
 475 copies for sale at 8s. 5d. - - 
 Deduct cost - - - 
 
 £ s. d. 
 15)9 17 11 
 167 8 0 
 
 107 8 
 
 0 
 
 20 16 6 
 
 Profit to author and publisher, commission, and interest \ 
 on capital, when all are sold - . -J 
 
 32 9 11 
 
 
 
 
 Seven Hundred and Fifty Copies. 
 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 Printing and corrections - - 
 Paper - - 
 Boarding - 
 Advertising i - 
 
 
 95 6 
 57 15 
 15 0 
 37 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 0 0 
 12 19 4 
 
 4 15 7 
 11 5 0 
 
 11 copies to public libraries. 
 14 copies to author. 
 
 725 copies for sale at 8s. 5<f. - 
 
 Deduct cost - . . 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 3u5 2 5 
 205 1 0 
 
 205 1 
 
 0 
 
 28 19 11 
 
 Profit to author and publisher, commission, and interest 7 
 on capital, when all are sold - . .J 
 
 100 1 5 
 
 
 
 
 One Thousand Copies. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Printing and corrections - _ . 
 Paper - ... 
 Boarding - - - 
 Advertising - . 
 
 
 102 14 
 77 0 
 20 0 
 45 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 0 0 
 17 5 9 
 
 6 7 5 
 13 10 0 
 
 11 copies to public libraries. 
 14 copies to author. 
 
 975 copies for sale at 8s. 5d. - . 
 Deduct cost - - 
 
 £ s. d. 
 410 G 3 
 244 14 0 
 
 244 14 
 
 0 
 
 37 3 2 
 
 Profit to author and publisher, commission, and interest 7 
 on capital, when all are sold - - - J 
 
 _ 16.3J2_3_ 
 
 
 
 
 The following statement shows the operation of the duties on a pamphlet of 5 sheets, 
 or 80 pages, of which 500 copies are printed : — 
 
BOOK, BOOKS. 
 
 Pamphlet, Five Hundred Number. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 14 14 0 7 
 5 5 05 
 
 Printing 
 
 Extras 
 
 Paper 
 
 Stitching 
 
 Advertising (say) 
 
 25 copies for author and public libraries. 
 
 475 copies for sale, 25 for 21. 14s. - - . 51 6 0 
 
 Profit to author and puhVisher, interest, &c. after all are sold £1112 6 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Duly. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 19 19 0 
 
 6 0 0 
 0 12 6 
 
 7 2 0 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 0 0 0 
 
 10 0 
 0 0 0 
 2 3 6 
 
 33 13 6 
 
 3 3 0 
 
 These statements set the oppressive operation of the taxes on literature in a very 
 striking point of view. Where the edition is an average one of 750 copies, the duties 
 amount to about a seventh, or 1 4| per cent, of the cost of the edition. If the edition consist 
 of 500 or 750 copies, the duties amount to more than the entire remuneration of the 
 author ; and if it consist of 1,000 copies, they amount to about as much ! 
 
 It is essential, however, to bear in mind that the previous statements show only how 
 the duties affect books when the entire impression is sold off at the full publication price ; 
 but this seldom happens. Excluding pamphlets, it may be truly aflSrmed, that, at an 
 average, the original impression of half the books printed is hardly ever sold off, except 
 at a ruinous reduction of price. Now, if we suppose, in the previous example of an 
 edition of 750 copies, that only 625 instead of 725 were sold, the result would be that 
 only 57Z. 19s. would remain as profit to the author and publisher, and as a compen- 
 sation for interest, the risk of bad debts, &c. Were only 500 copies sold, the cost would 
 not be more than balanced ; and there would be nothing whatever to remunerate the 
 author for his labour, or the bookseller for the use of his capital. Were only 400 copies 
 sold, government would have received 28/. 19s. 11c?. of duty from a speculation by 
 which the author had lost all his labour, and the bookseller 36/. 15s. of his capital ! The 
 mere possibility of such a supposition being realised, would be a sufficient ground for a 
 revision of the duties ; but, in point of fact, such cases, instead of being merely possible 
 or rare, are of every day occurrence ! 
 
 There is a radical difference between the demand for books, or of food for the mind, and 
 food for the body. The latter is always sure, under any circumstances, to command a 
 sale. The demand for it is comparatively constant ; it cannot be dispensed with. If a 
 tax be laid on malt, hats, or shoes, it will, perhaps, somewhat lessen the demand for 
 tliese articles ; but the quantities of them brought to market, in future, will sell for such 
 an advanced price as will leave the customary rate of profit to their producers. But 
 with books the case is altogether different. The taste for them is proverbially capri- 
 cious ; so much so, that the most sagacious individuals are every day deceived in their 
 anticipations as to the success of new works, and even as to the sale of new editions. 
 But if a book do not take, it is so very ruinous an affair, that a publisher is glad to 
 dispose of the greater part of an impression at a fourth or fifth part of its regular 
 price ; and is often, indeed, obliged to sell it as waste paper to the trunk-maker or the 
 tobacconist. 
 
 On a late investigation into the affairs of an extensive publishing concern, it was found, 
 that of 130 works published by it in a given time, fifty had not paid their expenses. Of 
 the 80 that did pay, 13 only had arrived at a second edition ; but, in most in- 
 stances, these second editions had not been profitable. In general it may be estimated, 
 that of the books published, a fourth do not pay their expenses ; and that only one in 
 eight or ten can he reprinted with advantage. As respects pamphlets, we know we are 
 within the mark, when we affirm that not one in fifty pays the expenses of its pub- 
 lication ! 
 
 Now, when such is the fact, can any thing be more glaringly unjust than to impose 
 the same duty on all works before they are published ? In a very few cases, such duty 
 may fall principally on the buyers, and be only a reasonable deduction from the profits 
 of the author and publisher ; but in a vast number more it swallows them up entirely ; 
 and in very many cases there are no profits for the duty to absorb, so that it falls wholly 
 on the capital of the unfortunate author or publisher. Were the judges of the courts of 
 law to decide cases by a throw of the dice, there would be quite as much of reason and 
 justice in their decisions, as there has been in the proceedings of our finance ministers as 
 to taxes on literature. If books must be taxed, let publishers be put under the surveil- 
 lance of the excise ; let them be obliged to keep an account of the books they sell, and 
 let them be taxed accordingly ; but do not let the loss arising from an unsuccessful lite- 
 rary speculation — and more than half such speculations are unsuccessful — be aggra- 
 vated to a ruinous degree by the pressure of a system of taxation, than which there is 
 nothing, even in Algiers, more une(|ual or oppressive. 
 
 The reduction of the advertisement duty has done something to lessen this injustice. 
 
BOOK, BOOKS. 
 
 145 
 
 But the above statements, which apply to the reduced duty, show that the relief is most 
 inadequate. It acknowledges, without correcting, the evil. Instead of being reduced, 
 tliis duty ought to have been entirely repealed. Before the reduction it only amounted 
 to about 1 70,000/. a year ; and there cannot be a doubt that the loss of revenue occasioned 
 by its repeal, and by the repeal of half the paper duty, would, at no distant period, be 
 made up by the greater productiveness of the remaining duty on paper, resulting from its 
 greater consumption. The advertisement duty presses very severely on all sorts of 
 works, but particularly on pamphlets : it may, indeed, be said to have utterly destroyed 
 the latter class of publications, in so far at least as they are a source of profit. 
 
 But we object altogether to the imposition of taxes on books previously to their being 
 published. It is not possible, for the reasons already stated, that such taxes can be 
 otherwise than unjust. This objection to them might, indeed, be removed by imposing 
 the duties according to the number and value of the copies actually sold. Still such 
 duties must, however imposed, by raising the price of books, and preventing the diffusion 
 of knowledge among the poorer and least instructed classes, be in the utmost degree 
 injurious ; at the same time that they can never be rendered considerably productive. 
 They seem, in fact, to have every quality that taxes ought not to have, and hardly one 
 iJiat they should have. 
 
 The delivery of eleven copies to public libraries is exceedingly burdensome upon the 
 more expensive class of works, of which small impressions only can be printed ; eleven 
 copies of such works would in many instances be a very fair profit for the author ; and 
 the obligation to make such a sacrifice has frequently, indeed, caused their publication 
 to be abandoned. A tax of this sort would not be tolerable, even were it imposed for a 
 public purpose ; but such is not the object of its imposition. Though called public, the 
 libraries which receive the eleven copies are, with the exception of the British Museum, 
 private establishments, belonging to particular corporations or institutions, and accessible 
 only to their members. Why, when an author produces a book, should he be compelled 
 to bestow copies of it on the lawyers of Edinburgh and Dublin, and on the Universities? 
 On what principle can these bodies pretend to demand from him a portion of his property ? 
 Perhaps it might be expedient, in order to insure the preservation of every work, that 
 copies of it should be deposited, one in London, one in Edinburgh, and one in Dublin. 
 Even this would be calling upon authors to make a considerable sacrifice for the public 
 advantage. But to call upon them to sacrifice teyi copies, exclusive of that given to the 
 British Museum, for the benefit of so many private institutions, is a proceeding utterly at 
 variance with every principle of justice. 
 
 The law of other countries is, in this respect, far preferable to ours. In America, 
 Prussia, Saxony, and Bavaria, only one copy of any work is required from the author ; 
 in France and Austria, two copies are required ; and in the Netherlands, three. The 
 governments of the most despotical states treat authors better than they have hitherto 
 been treated by the legislature of England. 
 
 IV. Book Trade of Great Britain. — London is the great centre of the British book 
 trade ; the number of new publications that issue from its presses being far greater than 
 all that appear in the rest of the empire. Within the course of the last forty years, 
 however, many very important works have been published at Edinburgh ; but the latter, 
 as well as those that appear at Oxford, Cambridge, Glasgow, &c., are principally dis- 
 posed of by the London trade. The booksellers of Edinburgh, and of all the provincial 
 towns, have agents in London to whom they consign a certain number of copies of every 
 work they publish ; and to whom, also, they address their orders for copies of such new 
 or old works as they have occasion for. The London booksellers, who act as agents for 
 those in the country, are in the habit of regularly despatching parcels to their corre- 
 spondents on the last day of each month, with the magazines and other monthly publica- 
 tions ; but if any new work of interest appears in the interim, or orders be received 
 from the country that cannot be conveniently deferred to the end of the month, a parcel 
 is immediately forwarded by coach. The booksellers of Edinburgh and Dublin act as 
 agents for those of London, and supply the Scotch and Irish country trade with the 
 metropolitan publications. 
 
 The price of new works is fixed by the publishers, who grant a deduction to the 
 retail dealers of from 20 to 25 per cent, on the price of quartos, and from 25 to SO per 
 cent, on that of octavos, and those of smaller size. The credit given by the publishers to 
 the retailers varies from seven to twelve months ; a discount being allowed for prompt 
 payment at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum. 
 
 From inquiries we have made, we believe it may be laid down that about 1,500 
 volumes of new publications (exclusive of reprints, pamphlets, and periodical publications 
 not in volumes) are annually produced in Great Britain : and, estimating the average 
 impression of each volume at 750 copies, we have a grand total of 1,125,000 volumes; 
 the value of which, if sold at an average publication price of 9s. a volume, would be 
 506,250/. The number of reprinted volumes, particularly of school-books, is very great j 
 
146 
 
 BOOK, BOOKS. 
 
 and if to these we add the reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, 
 exclusive of newspapers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and 
 new copies of old works, that are annually produced, may be estimated at about 
 750,OOOZ. At an average of the three years ending with 1831, l.,176 new works were 
 annually entered in Stationers' Hall ; but, as no account is kept of the size or price of 
 these works, this return furnishes no clue by which to judge of the number of volumes, 
 their magnitude, or value. This deficiency might easily be supplied either by the 
 Stationers' Hall or the British Museum keeping an account of the size and price of all 
 the new books coming into their hands, and making an annual abstract of the same. 
 
 The old book trade carried on in Great Britain is very extensive, and employs many 
 dealers. The price of old books depends very much on their condition ; but, independ- 
 ently of this circumstance, it is very fluctuating and capricious ; equally good copies of 
 the same works being frequently to be had in some shops for a half or a third of what they 
 can be bought for in others. 
 
 V. Regulations as to Importation of Works. — For the duties, see Tariff. To prevent 
 foreign books and maps, the property of individuals, from being charged with duty more 
 than once, the proprietor shall, on each importation subsequent to the original one, make 
 oath that the duties were paid when they were first imported, or that he purchased them 
 in this country in a fair way of trade ; that they are the identical books or maps he 
 exported from this kingdom, and that they are now brought back for his private use, 
 and not for sale. — ( Treasury Order, 3d, and Customs Order, 8th of October, 1818.) 
 
 No books, first composed, written, or printed in the United Kingdom, imported for 
 sale, except books not reprinted in the United Kingdom within 20 years, or being parts of 
 collections, the greater part of which had been composed or written abroad, shall be im- 
 ported into the United Kingdom, under forfeiture thereof. — (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52. § 58.) 
 
 Books first composed or written, or printed and published, in the United Kingdom, and 
 reprinted in any other country or place, may not be entered to be warehoused. — § 59. 
 
 The permission to import English works reprinted abroad for private use, is limited 
 to a single copy of each work, brought as a part of a passenger's baggage, for the private 
 use of the parties themselves. — ( Treasury Order, 29th of June, 1830.) 
 
 Account of the Amount of Duty paid upon the Foreign Books imported into the United Kingdom during 
 each of the Ten Years ending with 1830. — (Par/. Paper, No. 146. Sess. 1832.) 
 
 Ytar. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 12,987 8 9 
 13,035 7 11 
 15,339 1 5 
 17,237 17 3 
 
 ill 
 
 £ s. d. 
 17,095 18 6 
 10,785 3 8 
 11,133 2 5 
 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 
 £ s. d. 
 11,026 18 1 
 11,400 8 2 
 ll,8fij 4 4 
 
 VI. Book Trade of France. — The activity of the French press has been very greatly 
 increased since the downfall of Napoleon. The Count Daru, in a very instructive work 
 (Notions Statistiques surla Z^ftrain'e) published in 1827, estimated the number of printed 
 sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French press in 1816, at 66,852,883; 
 and in 1825, at 128,011,483 ! and we believe that the increase from 1825 down to the 
 present period has been little if any thing inferior. The quality of many of the works 
 that have recently issued from the French press is also very superior ; and it may be 
 doubted whether such works as the Biographie UniverseUe, the new and enlarged edition 
 of the Art de verifier les Dates, in 38 vols, octavo, and the two octavo editions of Boyle's 
 Dictionary, could have been published in any other country. The greater number of 
 new French works of merit, or which it is supposed will command a considerable sale, 
 are immediately reprinted in the Netherlands or Switzerland, but principally in the 
 former. To such an extent has this piratical practice been carried, that it is stated in 
 the Requete presented by the French booksellers to government in 1828, that a single 
 bookseller in Brussels had, in 1825 and 1826, and the first six months of 1827, reprinted 
 318,615 volumes of French works ! Having nothing to pay for copyright, these coun- 
 terfeit editions can be afforded at a lower price than those that are genuine. This is a 
 very serious injury to French authors and publishers, not only by preventing the sale of 
 their works in foreign countries, but from the ease with which spurious copies may be 
 introduced into France. 
 
 All the French booksellers arc hrevetcs, that is, licensed, and sworn to abide by certain 
 prescribed rules. This regulation is justly complained of by the publishers, as being 
 vexatious and oppressive ; and as tending to lessen the number of retail booksellers in 
 the country, and to prevent that competition wliich is so advantageous. 
 
 The discount allowed by the French publishers to the retail dealers is not regulated, 
 as in England, by the size of the volumes, but by the subjects. The discount on the 
 sale of books of history, criticism, and general literature, is usually about 25 per cent. ; 
 in the case of mathematical and strictly scientific work.s, it is seldom more than 10 or 15 
 per cent. ; while upon romances, talcs, &c. it is often as high as 50 or 60 per cent. 
 
BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 U7 
 
 VII. German Book Trade. — " This tiUde is very much facilitated by the book fairs 
 at Leipsic ; the Easter fair being frequented by all the booksellers of Germany, and by 
 those of some of the neighbouring countries, as of France, Switzerland, Denmark, 
 Livonia, &c., in order to settle their mutual accounts, and to form new connections. 
 The German publisher sends his publications to the keeper of assortments d condition, 
 that is, on commission, for a certain time, after which the latter pays for what have been 
 sold, and may return the remainder. This is not so favourable for the publisher as the 
 custom in the French and English book trades, where the keepers of assortments take 
 the quantity they want at a fixed rate. In the German book trade, it is the custom for 
 almost every house, either in the country or abroad, which publishes or sells German 
 books, to have its agent at Leipsic, who receives and distributes its publications. A., of 
 Riga, who publishes a book calculated for the German trade, has his agent B., in Leipsic, 
 to whom he sends, free of expense, a number of copies of his publication, that he may 
 distribute the new work to all the booksellers with whom he is connected, from Vienna 
 to Hamburgh, and from Strasburgh to Konigsberg, each of whom has his agent in 
 Leipsic. Instructions are also given as to the number of copies to be sent to each. B. 
 delivers those copies in Leipsic to the agents, who send them every week, or more or 
 less frequently, by the post or by carriers, at the expense of the receiver. C, of 
 Strasburgh, who finds that he has not received copies enough, writes for an additional 
 number of copies to his agent D., of Leipsic: D. gives this order to B., who delivers 
 the number wanted to D., to be transmitted to C. This arrangement is advantageous 
 to the German book trade, as well as to Leipsic. The dealer receives every thing from 
 Leipsic ; and as a great number of packets, with books from all parts of Germany, 
 arrive there for him every week, he can have them packed together and sent at once. 
 The carriage is thus much less than if the packets were sent to him separately from the 
 different places ; and the whole business is simplified. The booksellers are also enabled 
 to agree with ease on a certain discount per cent. No such intimate connection of the 
 booksellers has yet been formed in any other country. The German booksellers rarely 
 unite, as is the practice in England, in undertaking the publication of extensive works." 
 — (German Conversations- Lexicon, American edition.) 
 
 The literary deluge which commenced in Germany in 1814 still continues to 
 increase. For the 2,000 works which were then about the annual complement, we have 
 now about 6,000. The catalogue of the Leipsic fair for Michaelmas, 1830, contains 
 3,444 articles, of which 2,764 are actually published ; and if these are added to the 3,162 
 announced in the Easter catalogue, the number of books published in 1830 will amount 
 to 5,926. The number published in 1829 was 5,314; in 1828, 5,654; in 1827, 5,108; 
 previously to which, the number had never exceeded 5,000. Magazines and popular 
 Encyclopaedias have increased in the same proportion ; and the public has shown as 
 great a desire to read, as the learned have to write. Private libraries are diminishing, 
 while the public ones are daily increasing. — (Foreign Quarterly Eevieiv, No. XIV. p.551.) 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING, the art of keeping the accounts and books of a merchant. 
 Book-keeping by double entry means that mode or system in which every entry is 
 double, that is, has both a debtor and a creditor. It is called also the Italian method, 
 because it was first practised in Venice, Genoa, and other towns in Italy, where trade 
 was conducted on an extensive scale at a much earlier date than in England, France, oi 
 other parts of Europe. This method, however familiar to merchants and book-keepers, 
 seems intricate to almost all who have not practised it ; nor is the dryness and difficulty 
 of the task much lessened by the printed works on the subject, which, having been com- 
 piled more by teachers than by practical merchants, contain a number of obsolete rules 
 and unnecessary details. The most effectual mode of giving clearness and interest to our 
 remarks will be, first, to state a few mercantile transactions, and then to exj)lain the 
 nature of the accounts and entries which result from them. 
 
 The Journal of a mercantile house ought to open, at the beginning of each year, with 
 an enumeration of their assets and debts, as follows : — 
 
 Folio of 
 ledger. 
 
 SUNDRIES Drs. to STOCK. 
 
 For the following, being the assets of the house. 
 
 Cash ; amount at the bankers' this day (1st Jan.) - - - 
 ExcHEQiiER Bills ; amount in hand • - 
 
 Bills Receivable ; in hand, as per bill book . _ - 
 Three and a half per Cent. Stock, 6,000/., valued at 90/. per 100/. stock 
 Debeni L'RE Account ; drawbacks receivable at the Custom-house 
 Ship Amelia ; our three eighths of that vessel - . _ 
 Adventure in Irish Linen ; amount in hand, computed at co.^t price 
 James Bailev & Co., Liverpool ; due by them . _ . 
 Thomas Watson & Co., Dublin ; do. 
 
 William Spence & Co., Plymouth; do. - - - 
 
 .£ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1 
 1 
 7 
 1 
 
 8 
 f5 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 
 2.550 0 0 
 5,310 0 0 
 7,300 15 0 
 5,400 0 0 
 
 513 0 0 
 3,000 0 0 
 2,467 0 0 
 1,350 10 0 
 3,530 12 0 
 
 970 0 10 
 
 
 
 .^•32,391 17 
 
 10 
 
 L2 
 
148 BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 FoUo of 
 Ledger. 
 
 STOCK Dr. to SUNDRIES. 
 For the debts of the house, as follows : — 
 
 To Bills Payable ; amount of acceptances at this date 
 
 To Insurance ; amount of premiums due to underwriters 
 
 To Morris Pitman, Trinidad; balance due to him 
 
 To James Forbes, Demerara ; do. 
 
 To Simon Frazer, London ; do. 
 
 To James Allan & Co., Kingston, Jamaica ; do. 
 
 To George and William Fox, Falmouth j do. 
 
 Balance, being the present capital of the house 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 2,350 10 
 
 0 
 
 1,8S0 15 
 
 0 
 
 1,370 5 
 
 0 
 
 720 5 
 
 0 
 
 960 15 
 
 0 
 
 1,150 10 
 
 0 
 
 320 15 
 
 0 
 
 8,753 15 
 
 0 
 
 23,638 2 10 
 
 .£'32,391 17 
 
 10 
 
 Let the transaction to be first explained be an order for goods from a correspondent 
 abroad. A house in Jamaica sends instructions to the house at home to buy and ship a 
 quantity of manufactured articles, suited to the Jamaica market, as follows : — 
 
 J. A. 
 
 & Co 
 
 Order from James Allan & Co., of Kingston, Jamaica, to Henry Barclay & Co., of London. 
 Linen 
 
 Lint Strelitz Osnaburgs, 14 bales, about fid. ^ yard. 
 Best tow Strelitz do., 9 bales, 4rf. or 'l^d. 
 Best white Platillas, 1 case. 
 
 Linen tick assorted, fths width, 9d., Is., Is. 3d ; 10 pieces each, cut up in 22-yard 
 lengths. 
 
 Woollens ; 5 bales Penistones, fths wide, best indigo blue. Is. a yard. 
 Cottons ; 50 pieces stout calico, 28 yards each, fths wide, id. a yard. 
 
 50 do. do. do. |ths, superior, 5d. a yard. 
 
 100 do. stout calico shirting, |ths wide, superior, 6d. a yard. 
 Hats ; 4 dozen gentlemen's superfine black, 20s. each. 
 2 do. do. drab, 20s. each. 
 
 1 do. youths' do. black, 15s. each. 
 
 20 do. felt hats, for negroes, 22s. ^ dozen. 
 Shoes; 10 dozen prime calf-skin shoes, full size, 65s. ^ dozen. 
 10 do. youths' do. 52s. ^ dozen. 
 5 do. gentlemen's dress do. 72s. ^ dozen. 
 
 This order the London merchant divides among six, seven, or more wholesale dealers, 
 according to their respective lines of business. Each dealer, or tradesman, as he is 
 commonly called, provides his portion of the order in the course of the fortnight, three 
 weeks, or month, allowed him by the merchant ; and when the goods are packed and 
 ready to ship, he sends in his account, or bill of parcels, thus : — 
 
 J. A. 
 & Co. 
 No. 8. 
 
 Messrs. Henry Barclay & Co. 
 
 London, mh February, 1831. 
 Bought of Simon Frazer. 
 
 10 pieces best tow Strelitz Osnaburgs, 146 yards each, at 4«/. ^ yard 
 Inside wrapper, 16 yards, at 3<f. 
 
 Cord, bale, and press packing - , - - - 
 
 Then follow, stated in like manner, the particulars of 8 bales. No. 9. to 16. both 
 inclusive, amounting to - - - « 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 24 6 
 
 8 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 25 0 
 
 8 
 
 212 4 
 
 2 
 
 .£■237 T 
 
 10 
 
 J, A. 
 
 & Co. 
 39. 
 
 40. 
 
 Messrs. Henry Barclay & Co. 
 
 London, 20th February, 1831. 
 
 Bought of J. BORRADAILE & Co. 
 
 Case, 1 dozen and 2 youths' hats and bands, at 15s. each 
 Case i^small) - - - _ 
 
 Case, 9 dozen felt hats for negroes, at 22s. ^P' dozen 
 Case (large) - 
 
 Do. the same - - - - 
 
 £ s. d. 
 10 10 0 
 0 4 0 
 
 9 18 0 
 0 16 0 
 
 £ s. d. 
 • 10 14 0 
 
 10 14 0 
 10 H 0 
 
 The merchant, having received the whole of the bills of parcels, fixed on a vessel, and 
 agreed for the freight, proceeds to make an entry at the Custom-house, and to ship the 
 goods. That done, the next step is to prepare the Invoice, or general account of the 
 shipment, as follows : — 
 
BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS 
 
 H9 
 
 Invoice of Goods shipped by Henry Barclay & Co, in the Rawlins, J.Thomson, from London to 
 Kingston in Jamaica, on account and risk of Messrs. James Allan & Co. of Kingston. 
 
 J. A. 
 
 & Co. 
 No. 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 4, 5, 6. 
 7. 
 
 8. to 16. 
 
 17. 
 l'^. to 24. 
 to 38. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Puncheon strong calf-skin shoes, •If J. Johnson's bill of 
 
 parcels - - - - - -P3 70 
 
 Do. do. ^ Ao. - - 94 16 4 
 
 French calf-skin shoes, ^ do. - - 23 9 0 
 
 3 trunks do. - ^p* do, - - 67 3 7 
 
 Case linen tick assorted, ^ J. Wilson's bill of parcels 
 9 bales best tow Osnaburgs, 10 pieces each, ^ Simon Frazer'a bill of 
 parcels - - - . - - - 
 
 1 case white Platillas, Moiling & Co.'s bill of parcels 
 7 cases the same, ^i* do. 
 
 14 bales lint Osnaburgs, ^ J. Mackenzie's bill of parcels 
 
 1 case youths' hats and bands, ^ J. Borradaile & Co.'s bill of parcels 
 
 2 cases felt hats, do. ^ do. 
 
 Entry ; duty on part at | per. cent. ; bond and debenture 
 Cartage, wharfage, and shipping charges 
 Freight and primage 38/. 7a. ; bills of lading os. 6d. 
 Insurance on 1,500/. at 40*. ^ 100/. - ^£"30 0 0 
 
 Policy duty - - - 3 18 9 
 
 Commission, 5 cent, on l,f535/. - 
 Do. I W cent, on 1,500/. insured 
 
 Errors exceptetl. 
 
 At 6 months' credit ; due 6th of September. 
 London, 6t/i of March, 1830. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 278 15 11 
 
 42 0 0 
 
 236 5 0 
 
 41 0 8 
 
 287 4 8 
 
 367 10 0 
 
 10 14 0 
 
 21 8 0 
 
 1,284 18 3 
 
 158 11 9 
 
 ^1,443 10 0 
 
 Henry Barclay & Co. 
 
 This invoice, being sent out by the vessel to Messrs. Allan & Co., conveys to them a 
 number of particulars in a short space; viz. the mark, the numbers, the value, and the 
 contents of each package. In former times it was the practice to make an invoice 
 very long, inserting in it a literal copy of each bill of parcels, but it has now become 
 usual to make each tradesman deliver a duplicate of his account, to be sent abroad with 
 the goods ; in which case the invoice may be, like the above, little more than a summary 
 of the bills of parcels. This method has two advantages : it saves time at the counting- 
 house of the exporter ; and it affords to his correspondent an assurance that no more is 
 charged to him than has been actually paid for the articles. 
 
 An invoice ought to be made out with the utmost care, for it is a document of great 
 importance in several respects : first, between the exporting merchant and his corre- 
 spondent abroad ; and next, when in the hands of the latter, it may and generally does 
 form a voucher for calculating the import duty, as well as for the sales eflPected to 
 retailers or other dealers. 
 
 The sum insured by the exporting merchant generally exceeds the amount of the 
 invoice by 2 per cent., because the recovery of a loss from insurers involves a charge 
 of fully that amount. It is thus necessary to cover not only the price of the goods, and 
 the charges of shipping, insurance, and freight, but such further sum as may enable the 
 shipper, in case of loss, to carry to the credit of his correspondent the amount of the 
 invoice, clear of any deduction. 
 
 Journal Entries resulting from the foregoing Invoice. 
 
 Folio of 
 Ledger. 
 
 James Allan & Co. Drs. to Sundries, 
 For goods shipped to them in the Rawlins, Thomson, for Jamaica. 
 To James Johnson ; amount of shoes, ^ his bills of parcels 
 To John Wilson ; linen tick do. 
 To Simon Frazer; tow Osnaburgs ^ do. 
 
 To John Mackenzie ; lint Osnaburgs ^ do. 
 
 To James Borradaile & Co. ; hats ^ do. 
 
 To MoLLiNG & Co. ; for Platillas <tp do. 
 
 To Freight Account ; freight, primage, and bills of lading 
 To Insurance ; premium, and policy 
 To Charges ; entry outward, duty, and shipping charges 
 To Profit and Loss ; for commission 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 278 15 11 
 
 42 0 0 
 
 236 5 0 
 
 367 10 0 
 
 32 2 0 
 3i?8 5 4 
 
 38 10 6 
 
 33 18 9 
 11 17 6 
 74 5 0 
 
 ,£"1.443 10 0 
 
 The preceding invoice, being for account of a mercantile house, who sell again to 
 <Jealers, comprises a variety of articles : as a further specimen, we subjoin two short 
 invoices, for account of sugar planters, and confined to articles consumed on their 
 estates. 
 
 L 3 
 
150 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 Invoice of Plantation Stores, shipped by Henry BARCLAy & Co. in the Adventure, J. Williamson, 
 Master, for Kingston, Jamaica, by order of Mr. James Thomson, Planter, and for his account and 
 risk. 
 
 J. T. 
 1. to 6. 
 
 6 bales lint Osnaburgs, ^ bill of parcels from James Ander- 
 son - ... - ^240 
 
 0 0 
 
 Then follow, in like manner, the mark, number, and contents of 
 various other packages of plantation stores (hats, shoes, nails, &c.), com- 
 posing the shipment; amounting in all to - - - 
 
 CHARGES. 
 
 Custom-house entry, and shipping charges 
 Freight, primage, and bills of lading 
 Commission on 2,314:1. at 2^ W cent. 
 
 Insurance on 2,550/. at 21. ^ cent. 
 
 Policy duty 
 Commission, | ^ cent. 
 
 London, M of October, 1830. 
 
 jff 5. d. 
 
 2 12 6 
 
 18' 7 6 
 
 59 7 0 
 
 51 0 0 
 
 6 10 0 
 
 12 15 0 
 
 Errors excepted. 
 
 Henry Barclay & Co 
 
 Invoice of 60 Barrels of Herrings, shipped by Henry Barclay & Co. of London, in the ^arctoy, James 
 Ferrier, bound to Barbadoes, by order, and for account and risk of John Henderson, Esq., Planter, 
 and consigned to him at Bridgetown, Barbadoes. 
 
 London, 18th of Feb. 1824. 
 J. H. I 60 barrels prime white herrings, deliverable at Bridgetown, Barbadoes, free 
 
 I of charges, at 21s. ^ barrel - - . -^63 00 
 
 This invoice is very short ; 
 price, all charges included. 
 
 the agreement having been, that the herrings should be delivered at a fixed 
 
 Account OF Sales. — We G©me now to a transaction of a different kind; to the sale 
 of goods imported from abroad. A merchant in England receives from a correspondent, 
 wliether in India, the West Indies, or North America, notice of a shipment of sugar, 
 coffee, rice, or other produce, about to be made to England, with instructions to effect 
 insurance on the computed value. This is the first step in the transaction ; on the arrival 
 of the vessel the goods are entered, landed, and warehoused ; and a broker is instructed 
 to report on the state and prospects of the market. On a sale taking place, an account 
 is made out and forwarded to the correspondent abroad, as follows : — 
 
 Account Sale of 7 Hhds. Sugar, by the Ceres, from Trinidad, for Account of Morris Pittman, Esq. 
 
 of Trinidad. 
 
 je s. 
 
 d. 
 
 5 15 
 
 6 
 
 23 15 
 
 4 
 
 0 9 
 
 7 
 
 106 19 
 
 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 12 
 
 10 
 
 0 16 
 
 0 
 
 1 15 
 
 2 
 
 0 3 
 
 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 12 
 
 3 
 
 2 6 
 
 9 
 
 4 13 
 
 4 
 
 0 17 
 
 6 
 
 152 8 
 
 9 
 
 81 11 
 
 3 
 
 £234, 0 
 
 0 
 
 Insurance on 175/. at 60*. 
 
 5^-100/. - - jes 5 
 
 Policy - - 0 10 
 
 Freight of 79 cwt. 25 lbs. at 6s. W cwt. 
 Primage, pierage, and trade - 
 Duty on 79 cwt. 25 lbs. at 27s. ^ cwt. 
 
 Entry - . . . 
 Dock dues - - - 
 
 Landwaiters and entry 
 Warehouse rent, 19 weeks 
 Sampling 
 
 Insurance from fire 
 Interest on freight and duty 
 Brokerage, 1 ^ cent. 
 Commission, 2 ^ cent. 
 I ^ cent, on 175/. insured 
 
 Nett proceeds, due 2d of May, 1830 
 
 London, 2d of April, 1831. 
 
 M.P. 
 1. to7. 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 7 Hhds. weighing 87 3 21 
 Deduct draft - 0 0 14 
 
 Deduct tare 
 
 87 3 
 9 3 
 
 Nett 78 0 0 
 at 60.V. ^ cwt. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 234 0 0 
 
 ^234 0 0 
 
 Errors excepted. 
 
 Henry Barclay & Co. 
 
 We have here, on one side of the account, the quantity and value of the goods sold ; 
 on the other, the various charges attending the bringing home, the warehousing, and the 
 sale of the articles. 
 
 The quantity of goods accounted for in an account sale must be the same as in the 
 invoice ; if it be less, whether through damage at sea, through waste, or any other cause, 
 the extent of the deficiency should be explicitly stated. By the " overtaker" in the fol- 
 lowing sale is meant the additional barrel or package required for the coffee taken out of 
 such of the tierces as have been opened on account of breakage or other damage. 
 
BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 151 
 
 Allowances of Weight. — The tare is the weight of the cask, and differs, of course, in 
 almost every package : but trett (see the following sale) is a fixed allowance of 5 lbs. per 
 tierce in the case of coffee, intended, like draft in the case of sugar, to insure good 
 weight to the buyer, and to enable him to do the same to those who purchase again 
 from him. 
 
 Account Sale of 20 Tierces Coffee,^ Vittoria, from Demerara, for Account of James Forbes, 
 
 Demerara. 
 
 Esq. 
 
 CHARGES. 
 
 Insurance on 20 tierces at 35/. a 
 tierce, 700/. at 50s. ; policy, 
 
 36*. 9rf. - - - 
 
 Freight on 114 cwt. at 
 
 . 7s. 6d. ^ cwt. - j£'42 15 0 
 
 Primage, pierage, and 
 
 trade - - 17 6 
 
 Dock dues - 
 
 Landwaiters, entry, and part of 
 
 bond - - 
 Insurance from fire 
 Public sale charges 
 Brokerage, 1 ^ cent. 
 Commission, 2| ^ cent, on 676/. 
 Commission, | ^ cent, on 700/. 
 
 insured 
 
 Nett proceeds, due 3d of May, 1831 
 
 £ s. 
 
 19 6 9 
 
 44 2 
 10 9 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 19 
 
 1 7 
 6 16 
 
 16 18 
 
 3 10 0 
 
 104 12 5 
 571 13 1 
 
 .^676 5 6 
 
 J. F. 
 No. 
 I.to20. 
 
 Gross Weight. Tare. 
 
 Crvt. qrs. Hit, Cmt.qrt.lbt 
 
 5 tierces SO 1 7 3 2 15 
 
 5 <io. 32 2 5 4 0 5 
 
 4 do. 24 2 4 2 3 16 
 
 87 1 16 10 2 8 
 Trett 0 2 14 
 
 11 0 22 
 
 Deduct 11 0 22 
 
 Nett 76 0 22 at 121s. 6d. ") 
 ?^cwt.j 
 
 Gross Weight. Tare. 
 
 Crvt. qrs. lbs. Cnt-qra.ths. 
 
 3 tierces 17 1 1 2 0 9 
 
 3 do. 19 3 15 2 1 15 
 
 37 0 16 4 1 24 
 
 Trett Oil 
 
 Deduct 4 2 25 
 
 Nett 32 1 19atl20s.lP'cwt. 
 Gross Weight. Tare. 
 
 Crvl. qrs. lbs. C>*t.qrs.lbs. 
 
 Overtaker 5 1 9 0 3 9 
 
 Trett 0 0 11 
 
 0 3 20 
 
 Deduct 0 3 20 
 
 Nett 4 1 17 at 1 17s. ^ cwt. 
 
 Discount, 1 ^ cent. 
 Gross proceeds 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 462 17 9 
 
 25 15 0 
 
 6 
 
 ^676 
 
 London, Sd ofAptil, 1831. 
 
 Errors excepted. 
 
 Henry Barclay & Co. 
 
 2 1 
 16 7 
 
 5 6 
 
 Freight is charged on the weight of the produce only ; not of the produce and pack- 
 ages together. This allowance is of old standing, and is to be traced less to the reason 
 of the case, than to the competition prevailing among shipmasters. 
 
 Journal Entries resulting from the preceding Accounts of Sale. 
 
 Folio of 
 Ledger. 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 June 1831. 
 
 Thomas Kemble & Co. Drs. to Sundries. 
 To Sugar ^ Ceres. 
 Proceeds of 7 hhds., M. P. 1, to 7., sold by them at one month's credit, from 
 2d of April . . . . . . 
 
 To Coffee ^ Vittoria. 
 Proceeds of 20 tierces, J, F. 1. to 20., sold at one month's credit, from 3d of 
 April - . - . _ . - 
 
 Sugar ^ Ceres Dr. to Sundries. 
 To Insurance Account ; for premium and policy 
 To Freight Account ; for freight, primage, and pierage 
 To Customs Inward ; duty and entry 
 Charges ; dock dues, 52s. \0d. ; warehouse rent, 35s. M. 
 
 sampling, 3s. 6d. ; and fire insurance, 6s. 
 To Thomas Kemble & Co. ; brokerage, 1 ^ cent. 
 To Profit and Loss ; for commissions 
 Interest on freight and duty 
 
 landwaiters, 16s. 
 
 £5 10 10 
 1 12 3 
 
 To Morris Pittman j proceeds due 2d of May, 1831 
 
 £ s. 
 
 234 0 0 
 
 7 3 1 
 81 11 3 
 
 234 0 0 
 
152 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 Journal Entries — continued. 
 
 Folio of 
 Ledger. 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 June 1851. — continued. 
 
 Coffee ^ Vittoria Dr. to Sundries. 
 To Insurance ; for premium and policy - - . . 
 
 To Freight Account ; freight, primage, and pierage - - 
 To Charges; dock dues, landwaiters, insurance from fire, and public sale 
 charges 
 
 To Thomas Kemble & Co. ; brokerage - - - 
 
 To Profit and Loss ; for commissions .... 
 
 To James Forbes ; nett proceeds due 3d of June, 1830 
 
 19 6 9 
 44 2 6 
 
 13 18 7 
 
 6 16 7 
 
 20 8 1 
 571 13 1 
 
 We have thus given an example of the transactions which form a great part of the 
 business of our merchants ; the export of manufactured goods, and the import and sale 
 of produce received in return. Our next illustration shall be of a merchant's Cash- 
 book : the following is an example of the entries for a month : — 
 
 CASH. 
 
 1830. 
 Mar.l 
 
 To balance at the banker's 
 
 To ship Amelia, received of 
 James Jacobs, for freight 
 
 To bills receivable, received 
 payment of -No. 251. on 
 J. Henderson 
 
 To James Bailey & Co., re- 
 ceived payment of their 
 draft at sight on J. Bain- 
 bridge - 
 
 To William Spence & Co., 
 received balance of their 
 account - - - 
 
 To debenture account, re- 
 ceived drawback on to- 
 bacco shipped by the 
 Plover 
 
 To bills receivable, dis- 
 counted at the bankers, 
 Harrison & Co., due 15— 
 18 March 
 To profit and loss, received 
 5 W cent, discount, on 
 paying with ready money, 
 the accounts per contra, 
 not due till six months 
 hence, from 
 James Johnson j£'13 19 0 
 John Wilson -220 
 Simon Frazer 11 16 0 
 John Mackenzie 18 7 6 
 James Borradaile 
 
 & Co. - - 0 16 0 
 Moiling & Co. 16 8 3 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 2,550 0 0 
 
 175 3 0 
 
 200 0 0 
 
 152 10 0 
 
 970 0 10 
 
 15 8 0 
 
 730 10 0 
 
 63 8 9 
 
 4,857 0 7 
 
 PAID. 
 
 Cr. 
 
 1830. 
 Mar.S 
 
 By bills payable, paid No. 
 261. to James Harding - 
 
 By Cieorge and William 
 Fox, paid their balance 
 of account - 
 
 By John Smith & Sons, paid 
 J. Jackson for their ac- 
 count - . . 
 
 By bills payable, paid No. 
 269. to J. Stewart . 
 
 By interest paid, discount on 
 Harrison & Co., 2 months 
 
 By J. Johnson, paid his bill 
 of parcels - 
 
 By John Wilson do. 
 
 By Simon Frazer do. 
 
 By John Mackenzie do. - 
 
 By James Borradaile 
 &Co. . . do. - 
 
 By Moiling & Co. do. - 
 
 By charges paid, postage, 
 and petty disbursements 
 this month, per petty cash 
 book . - - 
 
 By balance, carried to next 
 month . _ - 
 
 £ s. d. 
 145 10 0 
 
 300 0 0 
 
 6 1 10 
 
 27S 15 11 
 
 42 0 0 
 
 236 5 0 
 
 36? 10 0 
 
 32 2 0 
 
 328 5 4 
 
 15 2 6 
 2,686 13 0 
 
 ^4,8.>7 0 7 
 
 These transactions, when put into the Journal form, stand thus ; — 
 
 Folio of 
 
 March, 1830. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ledger. 
 
 CASH Dr. to SUNDRIES. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Received this month. 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 To Ship .\melia. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3d. Freight from James Jacobs ... 
 
 
 175 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 To Bills Receivable. 
 
 
 
 
 6th. Received payment of J. Anderson, due this day jff200 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 18th. Discounted Harrison and Co., due 9th May - 730 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 To James Bailey & Co. 
 
 
 930 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 9th. Received their draft on Bainbridge, due 
 
 
 152 10 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 To William Spence & Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15th. Received balance of their account 
 
 
 970 
 
 0 10 
 
 8 
 
 To Debenture Account. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15th. Drawback on tobacco by the P/owr 
 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 To Profit and Loss. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18th. Received discount on sundry accounts, per cash book 
 
 
 63 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 £i,m 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 153 
 
 F'olio of 
 l.ed>;er. 
 
 SUNDRIES Drs. to CASH. 
 
 
 
 
 
 "did tnis montn lollows • 
 
 
 
 £ #. (i. 
 
 5 
 
 Bills Payable. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2il. Paid No. 261. - - 
 
 £ 145 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 7th. Do. 26J). . : . - 
 
 192 15 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 338 5 0 
 
 4 
 
 Customs Inward. 
 
 
 
 
 
 23d. Paid duty on sugar, ^ Ceres, 79 cwt. 25 lbs. at 27*. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ cwt. - . . - 
 
 106 19 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 Entry - - . - . 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 107 5 0 
 
 8 
 
 Simon Frazer. 
 
 
 
 
 18th. Paid his bill of parcels ... 
 
 236 5 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 2ijth. Paid J. Jackson lor kis account 
 
 98 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 334 5 J 
 
 8 
 
 Interest Account. 
 
 
 
 
 
 18th. Paid discount on Harrison & Co. 
 
 
 
 6 1 10 
 
 1 
 
 James Johnson. 
 
 
 
 
 
 18th. Paid his bill of parcels 
 
 
 
 278 15 11 
 
 1 
 
 John Wilson. 
 
 
 
 
 
 18th. Paid his bill of parcels . - - 
 
 
 
 42 0 0 
 
 1 
 
 John Mackenzie. 
 
 
 
 
 
 18th. Paid his bill of parcels 
 
 - ■ 
 
 - 
 
 367 10 0 
 
 2 
 
 James Borrauaile & Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 18th. Paid their bill of parcels 
 
 • 
 
 - 
 
 32 2 0 
 
 ii 
 
 JMoLLING Sc Oo. 
 
 
 
 
 
 18th. Paid their balance of account 
 
 
 
 328 5 4 
 
 8 
 
 George and William Fox. 
 
 
 
 
 
 24th. Paid their balance of account 
 
 
 
 320 15 0 
 
 3 
 
 Charges. 
 
 
 
 
 
 31st. Paid postage, and petty disbursements this month 
 
 
 
 15 2 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^2,170 7 7 
 
 The above shows, that for all sums received, the account of cash is made debtor, and 
 the parties paying the same are made creditors ; while for all sums paid, the cash is 
 credited, and the parties receiving them are made debtors. 
 
 We are next to state the mode of entering bill transactions. 
 
 Bills Receivable. — We have seen by the Balance sheet that several correspondents 
 are indebted to the house. The debts of correspondents abroad may be reduced by 
 remitting either bills, specie, or merchandise for sale : from correspondents in England, 
 bills are almost the only mode of remitting. When bills come to hand, the rule is to 
 enter each in the bill book, with a minute statement of the date, term, sum, and other 
 particulars thus : — 
 
 No. 
 
 Received 
 
 From rvhom. Drawn by 
 
 Date. • 
 
 Term. 
 
 Drawn on 
 
 To order <\f 
 
 Due. 
 
 Sum 
 
 How disp. of. 
 
 630 
 631 
 632 
 
 8 Mar. 
 10 do. 
 12 do. 
 
 Bailey & Co. 
 Watson&Co. 
 Spcnce & Co. 
 
 W. Adams 
 J. Jacobs 
 T. Johnson 
 
 Belfast,lMar. 
 Cork, 3 do. 
 Falmo. 5 do. 
 
 2 mths. 
 
 1 do. 
 
 2 do. 
 
 T. Jones, Dublin A.Williams 
 J. Adams, London G. Wilson 
 T. Allan, LiverpoorD. Jones 
 
 1- 4 May 
 3-6April 
 5-8 May 
 
 L. 
 
 350 
 135 
 260 
 
 Rainier & Co. 
 Smith & Co. 
 Overend&Co. 
 
 The Journal Entries for these bills are as follows : — 
 
 Folio of 
 Ledger. 
 
 BILLS RECEIVABLE Dr. to SUNDRIES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 For the following remitted this month : 
 
 j£ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 7 
 
 To James Bailey fi Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 630. on T. Jones, Dublin, due 4th of May ... 
 
 350 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 To T. Watson & Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 631. on J. Adams, London, due 6th of April 
 
 135 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 To William Spence & Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 632. on T. Allan, Liverpool, due 8th of May - - . 
 
 260 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 .^745 
 
 0 
 
 "o~ 
 
 Bills Payable. — The entries under this head are, of course, wholly different fron 
 the preceding, being for acceptances of the house given on account of sums owing b; 
 it to correspondents. Each acceptance is entered in the book of bills payable* 
 thus : — 
 
 No. 
 
 Drawn bjf 
 
 Place and Dale. 
 
 To Order of\ On Account of 
 
 Term. 
 
 When accepted. 
 
 Due. 
 
 Sum. 
 
 151 
 162 
 153 
 
 J. Allan & Co. 
 G. & W. Fox 
 J. Clark 
 
 Jamaica, 15 Jan. 
 Falmouth, 7 Mar. 
 Hull, 5 Mar. 
 
 J. Jones Lt. Allan & Co. 
 J. Thomson G. & W. Fox 
 G.Barclay | J. Smith & Sons 
 
 90 days' sight 
 15 days' date 
 1 month's date 
 
 12 March 
 14 do. 
 16 do. 
 
 10-1 3 June 
 22-25 Mar. 
 5—8 ditto 
 
 L.175 10 0 
 73 15 0 
 132 10 0 
 
 The Journal entries for these bills are as follows : — 
 
BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 Folio of 
 Ledger. 
 
 SUNDRIES Dr3. to BILLS PAYABLE. 
 For the following bills accepted. 
 
 
 
 
 j£ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 8 
 1 
 
 James Allan & Co. No. 151. their draft, due 13th of June 
 
 G. & VV. Fox. No. 152. their draft, due 25th of March 
 
 SiMO.v Frazek, J. Clark's draft on his account, due 8th of March 
 
 
 - 
 
 175 10 
 73 15 
 132 10 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 
 May, 1830. 
 
 
 
 
 ^381 15 
 
 0 
 
 
 CASH Dr. to THOMAS KEMBLE & CO. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 27th. Received from them proceeds of sugar ^ Ceres 
 
 Less their brokerage - . _ 
 
 234 
 2 
 
 0 
 6 
 
 0 
 9 
 
 231 13 
 669 8 
 
 3 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 30th. Received coffee W Vittoria - . . 
 
 Less brokerage - , - 
 
 676 5 
 6 16 
 
 6 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £901 2 
 
 2 
 
 The preceding entries, few as they are compared to the monthly transactions of a 
 house of business, are sufficient to show the nature of a Journal as well as of the subsidiary 
 books, (for cash, bills, invoices, and account sales,) from which it is composed. The 
 Journal, being a complete record of the business of the house, is very varied and com- 
 prehensive in its nature, and may be termed an index to every book of consequence in 
 the counting-house. But while in the cash book every payment or receipt is entered 
 on the day it takes place, and in the bill books every bill is registered on the day it 
 comes to hand, or is accepted, the Journal entries, being completed only at the end of 
 the month, admit of being combined to a considerable extent, so as to exhibit a number 
 of transactions in collective sums. Thus all the acceptances of the house paid in the 
 course of the month appear in the Journal entry of Bills Payable Dr. to Cash : they are 
 arranged in this entry as they fall due, after which the whole are added into one sum, 
 which sum alone needs be carried to the Ledger. In like manner, all bills receivable, 
 whether discounted, or kept by the house till they fall due, are collected under the head 
 of Bills Receivable Dr. to Cash, summed up together, and carried to the Ledger in one 
 line ; a point of great importance, as we shall see presently, in facilitating the balance 
 of the Ledger. 
 
 We proceed to give a specimen of the Ledger : the whole of the Journal entries in the 
 preceding pages, when posted into the Ledger, vdll stand thus : — 
 
 Dr. Stock. Cr. 
 
 1831. 
 Jan. 1 
 
 Fo. 
 
 1 
 
 To sundries 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 8,753 15 0 
 
 1831. 
 Jan. 1 
 
 Fo. 
 1 
 
 By sundries 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 32,391 17 10 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Cash. 
 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Jan. 1 
 Mar. 1 
 
 May SO 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 To stock 
 To sundries 
 ToT.Kemblei 
 
 ?cCo. 
 
 2,550 0 0 
 2,307 0 7 
 901 2 2 
 
 Mar. 31 
 
 
 By sundries 
 
 1 
 
 2,170 7 7 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Exchequer Bills. 
 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 1 
 
 To stock 
 
 5,310 0 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 Three and a half ^ Cent. Stock. 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 1 
 
 To stock 
 
 5,400 0 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 James Johnson, London. 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 4 
 
 To cash 
 
 278 15 11 
 
 Mar. 6 
 
 
 By J Allan & Co. 
 
 278 15 11 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 John Wilson, London. 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 4 
 
 To cash 
 
 42 0 0 
 
 Mar. G 
 
 9 
 
 By J. Allan & Ca 
 
 42 0 0 
 
BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 155 
 
 Dr. Simon Frazer, London, Cr. 
 
 Mar. 26 
 31 
 
 4 
 
 To cash 
 
 To bills payable 
 
 
 331 5 0 
 1S2 10 0 
 
 Jan. 1 
 Jan. 6 
 
 2 
 9 
 
 By stock 
 
 By J. Allan & Co. 
 
 mo ir, 0 
 
 1:6 5 0 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 John Mackenzie, London. 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 aiar. 8. 
 
 4 
 
 To cash - - 1 
 
 337 10 0 
 
 Mar. 6 
 
 9 
 
 By J. Allan & Co. 
 
 367 10 0 
 
 Drs. 
 
 
 
 James Borradaile & Co., London. 
 
 Crs. 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 4 
 
 To cash 
 
 32 2 0 
 
 Mar. 6 
 
 9 
 
 By J. Allan & Co. 
 
 32 2 0 
 
 Drs. 
 
 
 
 
 MoLLiNo & Co., London. 
 
 
 Crs. 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 4 
 
 To cash 
 
 328 5 4 
 
 Mar. 6 
 
 9 
 
 By J. Allan & Co. 
 
 328 5 4 
 
 Drs. 
 
 
 
 J. Allan & Co., Kingston, Jamaica. 
 
 Crs. 
 
 Mar. 6 
 31 
 
 9 
 11 
 
 To sundries 
 To bills payable 
 
 
 1,443 10 0 
 175 10 0 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 2 
 
 By stock 
 
 1,150 10 0 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Sugar by the Ceres. 
 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 April 2 
 
 11 
 
 To sundries 
 
 234 0 0 
 
 April 2 
 
 11 
 
 ByT.Kemble&Co. 
 
 234 0 0 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Freight Account. 
 
 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mar. 6 
 April 2 
 May 3 
 
 9 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 By J. Allan & Co. 
 Bv sugar ^ Ceres 
 By coffee ^ Vittoria 
 
 38 10 6 
 24 11 11 
 44 2 6 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Insurance Account. 
 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 1 
 Mar. 6 
 April 2 
 
 Mays 
 
 2 
 9 
 11 
 13 
 
 By stock 
 
 By J. Allan & Co. 
 By sugar ^ Ceres 
 By coffee^ Vittoria 
 
 1,880 15 0 
 33 18 9 
 5 16 6 
 19 6 9 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Charges. 
 
 
 
 Cr 
 
 Mar. 3 
 
 4 
 
 To cash 
 
 - 15 2 6 
 
 Mar. 6 
 April 2 
 Mays 
 
 9 
 11 
 13 
 
 By J. Allan & Co. 
 
 By sugar W Ceres 
 By coffee W Vittoria 
 
 11 17 6 
 5 13 6 
 13 18 7 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Profit and Loss. 
 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mar. 6 
 Mar. 8 
 April 2 
 May 3 
 
 9 
 4 
 11 
 13 
 
 By J. Allan & Co. 
 By cash 
 
 By sugar ^ Ceres 
 By coffee W Vittorio 
 
 74 5 0 
 63 8 9 
 7 3 1 
 20 8 1 
 
 Drs. 
 
 
 
 
 Customs Inward. 
 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 April 2 
 
 4 
 
 To cash 
 
 107 5 0 
 
 1 April 2 
 
 11 
 
 By sugar ^ Ceres 
 
 107 5 0 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Coffee per Vittoria. 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 April 3 
 
 13 
 
 To sundries 
 
 676 5 6 
 
 April 3 
 
 11 
 
 ByT,Keinble& Co 
 
 676 5 6 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Morris Pittman, Trinidad. 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 1 
 April 2 
 
 2 
 11 
 
 By stock 
 
 By sugar ^ Ceres 
 
 1,370 5 0 
 81 11 3 
 
156 BOOK-KEEPING AND i\CCOUNTS. 
 
 Dr. James Forbes, Demerara. Cr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 1 
 May 3 
 
 2 
 13 
 
 By stock 
 1 By coffee ^ / ittoria 
 
 720 5 0 
 571 13 1 
 
 Drs. 
 
 
 
 
 Thomas Kemble & Co., London. 
 
 Crs. 
 
 April 3 
 
 11 
 
 To sundries 
 
 910 5 6 
 
 April 7 
 
 30 
 
 May 30 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 15 
 
 By sugar ^ Ceres 
 By coffee W y ittoria 
 By cash 
 
 2 6 9 
 6 16 7 
 901 2 2 
 
 910 5 6 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Bills Receivable. 
 
 
 
 Cr 
 
 Jan. 1 
 Mar. 3 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 To stock 
 To sundries 
 
 7,300 15 0 
 745 0 0 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 930 10 0 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Bills Payable. 
 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Mar. 7 
 
 4 
 
 To cash 
 
 
 338 5 0 
 
 Jan. 1 
 Mar. 3 
 
 2 
 5 
 
 By stock • - 
 By sundries 
 
 2 S'lQ 10 n 
 
 ^y^'Jj XV/ \J 
 
 381 15 0 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Ship Amelia. 
 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 1 
 
 To stock 
 
 3,000 0 0 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 4 
 
 By cash * » 
 
 175 3 0 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Adventure in Irish Linen. 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 1 
 
 To stock 
 
 2,467 0 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 Drs. 
 
 
 
 James Bailey & 
 
 Co., Liverpool. 
 
 
 Crs. 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 1 
 
 To stock 
 
 1,350 10 0 
 
 Mar. 3 
 Mar. 9 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 By cash 
 
 By bills receivable 
 
 152 10 0 
 350 0 0 
 
 Drs, 
 
 
 
 Thomas Watson & Co., Dublin. 
 
 
 Crs. 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 1 
 
 To stock 
 
 3,530 12 0 
 
 1 Mar. 3 
 
 5 
 
 By bills receivable 
 
 135 0 0 
 
 Drs. 
 
 
 
 William Spence & Co., Plymouth. 
 
 Crs. 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 1^ 
 
 To stock 
 
 970 0 10 
 
 Mar. 3 
 Mar. 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 By cash 
 
 By bills receivable 
 
 070 0 10 
 260 0 0 
 
 Drs. 
 
 
 
 George and William Fox, Falmouth. 
 
 Crs, 
 
 Man 6 
 
 4 
 
 To cash 
 
 To bills payable - 
 
 320 15 C 1 
 73 15 0 1 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 2 
 
 By stock 
 
 
 Dr.. 
 
 
 
 
 Debenture Account. 
 
 
 Cr, 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 1 
 
 To stock 
 
 513 0 0 
 
 Mar. 5 
 
 4 
 
 By cash 
 
 15 8 0 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 Interest Account. 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Mar. 8 
 
 4 
 
 To cash 
 
 6 1 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Ledger is thus a register of all the entries in the Journal ; and a register so 
 arranged as to exhibit on one side all the sums at Debtor ; on the other all those at 
 Creditor. It is kept in the most concise form, the insertions in it hardly ever exceeding 
 a line each, or containing more than the title of the entry in the Journal. On opening 
 a page in the Ledger, a person unacquainted with book-keeping is apt to consider this 
 brevity unsatisfactory ; and it was formerly the practice to and in each line a few 
 
BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 157 
 
 explanatory words. Thus the entries in the account of Simon Frazer, whioh In our 
 preceding page are briefly 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 March 26. To cash . - - . 33* 5 0 
 
 31. To bills payable - . - 132 10 0 
 
 would, at an earlier date in the practice of book-keeping, have been expanded to 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 March 18. To cash paid for goods per Rawlins - - 236 5 0 
 
 26. To ditto paid J. Jackson for his account - - 98 0 0 
 
 31. To bills payable, paid J. Clark's draft for his account 132 10 0 
 
 This method is still followed in some counting-houses, and such explanatory additions 
 are certainly conducive to clearness ; but they are practicable only in a house of limited 
 business : wherever the transactions are numerous and varied, they should be left out of 
 the Ledger, for two reasons ; they increase greatly the labour of the book-keeper, and 
 they never can be so full or circumstantial as to supersede the account current book. 
 
 The same Ledger may continue in use from one to five years, according to the size of 
 the book, or the extent of the transactions of the house. On opening a new Ledger, it is 
 proper to place in succession accounts of the same class, or character: thus — Stock 
 account ought to be followed by that of the Three per cent, consols, Exchequer bills, or 
 other property belonging to the house ; and if the business be with the West Indies, 
 it is fit that accounts with Jamaica should be placed near those with Demerai-a, Trini- 
 dad, and other sugar colonies. 
 
 Balancing the Ledger. — This important operation is performed by adding up the 
 Debtor and Creditor side of every account in the Ledger, ascertaining the difference or 
 balance in each, and carrying such balance, as the case may be, to the Debtor or Cre- 
 ditor column in the balance sheet. On closing, for example, a few of the preceding 
 Ledger accounts, we find them to stand thus : — 
 
 Debtors. Creditors. 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Cash 
 
 3,587 15 
 
 2 
 
 Simon Frazer - - 
 
 730 5 0 
 
 James Allan & Ca 
 
 468 10 
 
 0 
 
 Freight account . - - 
 
 107 4 11 
 
 And so on with every account except Stock, which, having no entries in the current year, 
 is put in the balance sheet exactly as it was in the beginning of the year. Including Stock, 
 the total at the Debtor side of the balance sheet ought to agree exactly with the total at the 
 Creditor side ; and if it do not, it is a rule in all well-regulated counting-houses to follow 
 up the examination perseveringly, until they are made to agree. The apparent difference 
 may not exceed a few shillings or a few pence ; still the search is continued, because the 
 smallest discrepancy shows the existence of error, and to an extent perhaps greatly beyond 
 .the fraction in question. It often happens, indeed, that, as the examination proceeds, the 
 difference undergoes a change from a smaller to a larger amount, and without increasing 
 the diflSculty of discovering the error, which is as likely to have occurred in the case of a 
 large as of a small sum. Differences, when in round sums, such as lOZ., 100/., or 1,000?., 
 generally lie in the addition ; fractional sums frequently in the posting. All this, how- 
 ever, is uncertain ; for the error or errors may be in any month in the year, and in any 
 one of the thousand entries and upwards which have been made in the course of it. 
 Hence the necessity of examining the whole ; and young book-keepers are often obliged 
 to pass week after week in the tedious labour of revising, adding, and subtracting. On 
 the other hand, there are sometimes examples of the balance being found on the first 
 trial ; but such cases are rare, and occur only to careful and experienced book-keepers. 
 The only effectual means of lessening the labour and perplexity of balancing the Ledger, 
 is to exercise great care in every stage of the book-keeping process ; as well in making 
 the additions in the Journal, as in posting from the Journal into the Ledger, and casting 
 up the Ledger accounts ; and, lastly, in adding up the balance sheet, which is generally 
 of formidable length. 
 
 Accuracy in addition is one of the main requisites in a clerk, and particularly in a 
 book-keeper. Of the extent to which it may be attained by continued practice, those 
 only can judge who have experienced it themselves, or have marked the ease and correct- 
 ness with which clerks in banking-houses perform such operations. They are in the 
 habit of striking a daily balance which comes within small compass ; but a merchant's 
 balance, comprising the transactions of a year, extends commonly over, a number of folio 
 pages. It is advisable, therefore, to divide each page into portions of ten lines each, 
 adding such portions separately. This lessens the risk of error, as it is evidently easier 
 to add five or six such portions in succession, than to do at once a whole folio containing 
 fifty or sixty sums. 
 
 Another important point towards agreeing a balance, is to limit carefully the number 
 of Ledger entries j in other words, to Qomprise as much as possible in those aggregate 
 
158 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 sums in the Journal which are posted in the Ledger. Thus, in the case of the monthly 
 entries for bills, whether receivable or payable, while the inner column of the Journal 
 contains the amount of each specific bill — the final column, that which is carried to the 
 Ledger — should, and generally does, comprise a number of bills in one sum. Entries 
 in the cash book, which generally form so large a proportion of the transactions of the 
 month, are carried by some book-keepers directly from the cash book into the Ledger, 
 without an intermediate arrangement in the Journal form. In some lines of business 
 this plan may answer ; but as a general rule it is better to take the trouble of jour- 
 nalising the cash, thereby comprising in 30 or 40 Ledger entries the transactions of the 
 month, which, when posted separately, would exceed 100. The time required for re- 
 writing or rather re-casting them, will, in most cases, be amply made good, by exhibit- 
 ing the cash in a proper form, and by facilitating the balance of the Ledger at the close 
 of the year. 
 
 We have said the close of the year, because, in nine mercantile houses out of ten, that 
 is the period for striking a balance. In some branches of trade, however, the case is 
 otherwise. Thus, among West India merchants, the 30th of April is the time of ba- 
 lancing, because at that season the sales of the preceding crop are, in general, completed, 
 and those of the current year not yet begun. 
 
 Arrears in book-keeping ought to be most carefully avoided — calculated as they are 
 to engender mistakes, and to produce loss from delay in adjusting accounts. The prac- 
 tice of balancing the Ledger every six months, and of transmitting as often accounts 
 current to the correspondents and connections of merchants, will, it is to be hoped, 
 become general. It is, however, hardly practicable in cases where, as too often happens 
 in the lesser mercantile establishments, the book-keeper is charged with a share of the 
 active management. Exemption from interruption, and removal from the bustle of 
 current business, are main requisites to accuracy and despatch in accounts. In examin- 
 ing, or, as it is called, collating the books, the book-keeper requires not only a retired 
 apartment, but the assistance of a clerk for the purpose of calling them over. A similar 
 arrangement for another purpose — we mean for composing the Journal, the book-keeper 
 dictating from the subsidiary books to a clerk whose writing forms the draught or rough 
 copy of the Journal, has as yet been seldom adopted ; although, when properly applied, 
 it is highly conducive both to accuracy and expedition. 
 
 A Ledger must, of course, have an index ; but it is very brief, containing merely the 
 titles of the accounts and a reference to the page, as follows : — 
 
 Folio I Folio 
 Allan & Co., James - - * ^ Bailey & Co., James - . - 7 
 
 Amelia, ship - - - 6 | Bills payable - - . 6 
 
 The Subsidiary Boohs. — In former times, when business in this country was con- 
 ducted by most persons on a very limited scale, the accounts of a number of merchants, 
 or rather of those dealers whom we should now think it a compliment to call merchants, 
 were often kept on a plan somewhat like that at present followed by our shopkeepers. 
 The merchant or his chief clerk kept a daily record of transactions, whether sales, pur- 
 chases, receipts, or payments, in a diary, which was called a Waste-book, from the rude 
 manner in which the entries or rather notices in it were written, being inserted, one by 
 one, soon after the transactions in question took place. From this diary the Journal 
 and Ledger were posted ; and book-keeping by double entry being in those days under- 
 stood by few, one person frequently kept the books of several merchants, passing one or 
 two days in the week at the house of each, and reducing these rough materials into the 
 form of regular entries. In process of time, as transactions multiplied and mercantile 
 busniess took a wider range, separate books were more generally required for particular 
 departments, such as a bill- book for all bills of exchange, and a cash book for all ready 
 money transactions. This had long been the case in the large mercantile towns of Italy 
 and Holland ; and above a century ago it became a general practice in London and 
 Bristol, which were then the only places of extensive business in England. But in 
 English, as in foreign counting-houses, the bill book and even the cash book were long 
 considered as little more than memoranda of details ; not as books of authority, or as fit 
 docmnents for Journal entries : for that purpose the diary only was used. In time, 
 however, the mode of keeping these subsidiary books improved, and merchants became 
 aware that, when cash or bill transactions were properly entered in them, the Journal 
 might be posted from them as well as from the diary. 
 
 Similar observations are apj)licablc to the other subsidiary books, viz. an invoice book 
 for goods sliipped, and an account of sales book for goods received and sold. When 
 from the gradual improvement in the management of coimting-houses these books were 
 kept in a manner to supply all that was wanted for Journal entries, the use of the diary 
 was dispensed with for such entries also. And at last it was found, that in all well- 
 regulated counting-houses the books kept for sci)arate departments of the business were 
 sufficient for the composition of the Journal, with the exception of a few transactions out 
 
[BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 159 
 
 of the regular course, which might be easily noticed in a supplementary book called a 
 Petty Journal, or a book for occasional entries. The consequence was,, that the diary 
 or waste book, formerly the groundwork of the Journal and Ledger, became excluded 
 from every well-regulated counting-house. This has long been the case, and the name 
 of waste book would have been forgotten, were it not found in the printed treatises on 
 book-keeping which have appeared from time to time, and have been generally composed 
 by teachers in schools or academies, who, unacquainted with the actual practice of mer- 
 chants, were content to copy and reprint what they found laid down in old systems of 
 book-keeping. 
 
 The subsidiary books required in a counting-house are, the Cash book ; 
 Book of Acceptances of the house, or Bills Payable ; 
 
 Book of Bills Receivable, or bills on other merchants which are or have been in pos- 
 session of the house ; 
 
 Bought book, or book for bills of parcels ; 
 
 Invoice book, or register of goods sold or exported ; 
 
 Account of Sales book ; 
 
 Insurance Policy book, containing copies of all policies of insurance ; 
 Petty Journal, or book for such occasional entries as do not belong to any of the 
 preceding. 
 
 Such are the authorities from which it is now customary, in every well-regulated 
 house, to compose the Journal. Their number indicates a repartition or subdivision, to 
 a considerable extent, of counting-house work, and nowhere is such repartition pro- 
 ductive of greater advantage. How much better is it to enter all bills receivable in one 
 book, all bills payable in another, and all cash transactions in a third, than in any way 
 to blend these very distinct entries ! The effect of this subdivision is to simplify the 
 Journal entries in a manner highly conducive to accuracy and despatch ; and to present 
 such means of checking or examining them, that many transactions may be stated, and 
 an account extended over a number of folios, without a single error. 
 
 The use of most of the subsidiary books is sufficiently pointed out by their names ; 
 but it may be well to add a few remarks on the " Bought book," or receptacle for the 
 accounts of goods purchased. A bill of parcels is the name given to the account of 
 goods supplied by a manufacturer, tradesman, or dealer, to a merchant. Such accounts 
 soon become numerous, and it is evidently of consequence to adopt the best method of 
 keeping them. In former times it was the practice to fold them up in a uniform size, 
 and after writing on the back the names of the respective furnishers, to put them away 
 in bundles. But wherever the purchases of a merchant are extensive, and the bills of 
 parcels numerous, the better mode, after arranging them alphabetically, is to paste them 
 in a large book, generally a folio, made of blue or sugar-loaf paper : this book to have 
 its pages numbered, and to have an alphabetical index. Any single bill of parcels 
 may thus be referred to with the same ease as we turn to an account in a ledger ; and 
 one of these folios may be made to hold a very great quantity of bills of parcels ; as 
 many as would form a number of large bundles whon tied up on the plan of former 
 times. 
 
 Book of Bills Payable. — The notice, or, as it is termed, advice of bills payable after 
 sight, generally comes to hand before the bills themselves. As tlie time of the arrival 
 of the latter is uncertain, the better plan is not to enter them from the advice among 
 the other bills payable, but to appropriate a space of ten or twelve pages at the beginning 
 or end of the book of bills payable, and to insert there the substance of the advice 
 received. 
 
 There are a few books in every counting-house which do not form part of the vouchers 
 or materials for the Journal; viz., the Account Current book, containing duplicates of 
 the accounts furnished by the house to their different correspondents and connections ; 
 
 The Letter-book, containing copies of all letters written to the correspondents or 
 connections of the house ; 
 
 The Petty Cash book, or account of petty disbursements, the sum of which is entered 
 once a month in the cash book ; 
 
 The Order book, containing copies of all orders received ; 
 ' The Debenture book, or register of drawbacks payable by the Custom-house. 
 
 It was formerly a practice in some houses for the book-keeper to go over the letter 
 book at the end of each month, that he might take note of any entries not supplied by 
 the subsidiary books. This, however, is now unnecessary ; these books, when carefully 
 kept, containing, in one shajie or other, every transaction of the house. 
 
 The Princijile of Double Entry. — From these explanations of the practice of book- 
 keeping, we must call the attention of our readei's to a topic of more intricacy — the 
 origin of the present system, and the manner in which it was adopted. To record the 
 transactions of a merchant in a Journal or day book was an obvious arrangement, and 
 to keep a Ledger or systematic register of the contents of the Journal was a natural 
 
160 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 result of his business, particularly when conducted on credit. Such, in a rude form, are 
 the books of our shopkeepers, who enter their sales and purchases in a day book, and in 
 their Ledger carry the former to the Dr. of their customers, the latter to the Cr. of the 
 wholesale dealers who supply them with goods. By making at the end of the year a 
 list of the sums due to him by his customers, and of those due by him to wholesale 
 dealers, a shopkeeper may, after adding to the former the value of his stock on hand, 
 make out an approximative statement of his debts and assets. Now, that which in this 
 manner is done indirectly and imperfectly, it is the object of double entry to do with 
 method and certainty. The shopkeeper makes out a list of debtors on one side and of 
 creditors on the other, but he cannot make them balance, because his entries have been 
 single ; that is, they have had no counterpart. On making a purchase of cottons from 
 Messrs. Peel of Manchester, or of woollens from Messrs. Gott of Leeds, he merely 
 enters the amount to their credit, but he makes no one Dr. to them, because the goods 
 are not sold ; and to introduce an imaginary account would be too great a refinement 
 for a plain, practical man. But a person accustomed to double entry would, without 
 any effort of thought, make " Printed Calicoes " Dr. to Messrs. Peel, and " Kersey- 
 meres " Dr. to Messrs. Gott, for the respective amounts ; after which, as the sales pro- 
 ceeded, he would make the buyers Drs. to these accounts for the amount of their 
 purchases. 
 
 We thus perceive that the intricacy in the application of double entry was not with 
 the personal so much as with the nominal accounts. Let us refer to the country where 
 book-keeping was first studied, and take as an example the case of Doria, a merchant 
 in Genoa, shipping, in a former age, silk, of the value of 200Z., bought from Flori, in 
 Piedmont, to Henderson & Co., silk manufacturers, in England, on the terms of 
 charging, not an additional price, but a commission of 5 per cent, with interest until 
 reimbursed his advance. In entering the transaction, Doria's book-keeper would, as a 
 matter of course, make Hendersons debtors to Flori 200Z. for the cost of the silk ; but 
 he might not so readily find a creditor for the lOZ. commission, or the 11. interest 
 eventually due on the advance. The custom in this primitive era. of book-keeping 
 probably was, to introduce the firm of the house into their books, making Hendersons 
 debtors to Doria for the 10?. and 11. • but as the practice of book-keeping improved, it 
 was found preferable to avoid inserting, on any occasion, the firm of the house, and to 
 substitute nominal accounts, such as, commission, interest, bills payable, bills receivable. 
 These, attention and practice rendered in time familiar to the book-keeper, who learned 
 to open his Journal at the beginning of a year by making the parties who owed 
 balances to the house debtors, not to the firm by name, but to Stock; and those to 
 whom the house was indebted, creditors by Stock. As the transactions of the year 
 proceeded, he made those to whom money was paid debtors, not to the firm of the 
 house, but to Cash ; and those for whose account bills were accepted debtors to Bills pay- 
 able; so that book-keeping by double entry assumed its present form gradually and 
 almost imperceptibly. 
 
 What are the advantages of this method compared to that of single entry ? First, it 
 supplies a test of accuracy, inasmuch as, the entries on the debtor side of the Ledger 
 being equal to those on the creditor side, their respective totals ought, as a matter of 
 course, to balance. After going through this proof, personal accounts of whatever 
 length may be settled with confidence ; while in a general account, such as kerseymeres 
 or printed calicoes, the value sold and the value remaining on hand may be ascertained 
 by merely balancing the account in the Ledger, without the repeated references to the 
 sales book that would otherwise be required. Without double entry, a dealer could 
 hardly estimate his property unless he took stock ; but with it an extraction of the 
 Ledger balances fulfils that object, and stock-taking, however proper as a test of the 
 honesty of servants, becomes quite unnecessary as a means of calculation. In short, in 
 regard to any person in trade, whether merchant, dealer, or manufacturer, double entry 
 forms the connecting link of his accounts, and affords a ready solution of any inquiry as 
 to the appropriation, increase, or diminution of his capital. 
 
 This advantage may fortunately be obtained without any great sacrifice of time or 
 labour. Of the books of dealers, manufacturers, and retailers, nine parts in ten may 
 continue to be kept by single entry ; for the addition of a few pages of double entry in 
 the form of a summary, at the e^d of the month or quarter, will be sufficient to exhibit 
 the result of a great extent of transactions. 
 
 Nominal Accounts. — Of tliese our limits permit us to notice only two ; Profit and 
 Loss, and Merchandise. The former contains on the creditor side all the entries of 
 commissions earned, and gains obtained on particular adventures ; while the debtor side 
 exhibits the losses incurred, whether by bad debts or by unsuccessful purchases. Every 
 house keeping regular books must have a profit and loss account, but a merchandise 
 account is altogether optional. Those who have such a head in their Ledger are accus- 
 tomed to make it Dr. to the dealers or furnishers from whom they make purchases, 
 
 I 
 
BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 161 
 
 •and to credit it in return by the correspondents or connections to wliom they make sales. 
 In many houses, however, there is no such intenncdiate account ; the parties to whom the 
 goods are sent being made Drs. at once to the furnishers of the goods, as in the case 
 of the shipment to Jamaica stated in our preceding pages. 
 
 A merchant, before estimating his profits, ought to charge interest on each head of 
 investment. His clear profit cannot be ascertained without it ; and the practice of 
 charging it is a lesson to him to hold no property that does not afford, at least, interest 
 on his advances. 
 
 Mercantile books and accounts must be kept in the money of the country in which 
 the partners reside. A house in Rotterdam composed of English partners necessarily 
 keep their accounts in Dutch money, although their transactions may be chiefly with 
 England. Further, books, it is obvious, can be kept in only one kind of money ; and 
 when a merchan in England receives from a distant country, accounts which cannot at 
 the time be entered in sterling for want of a fixed exchange, these accounts should be 
 noted in a separate book, until, the exchange being ascertained, they can be entered in 
 the Journal in sterling. 
 
 A book-keeper will do well to avoid all such puzzling distinctions, as " J. Johnson, 
 my account with him ;" and " J. Johnson, his account proper ;" on the plain ground 
 that every account in the Ledger ought to be the general account of the person whose 
 name it bears. 
 
 Errors excepted. — This expression is merely a proviso, that if any mistakes be dis- 
 covered in the account in question, they shall be open to correction. 
 
 Accounts Current. — An account current generally contains all the transactions of the 
 house with one of its correspondents during a given time, generally oix or twelve months. 
 The following is an example : — 
 
 Messrs. James Allan & Co., Jamaica, in Account Current with Henry Barclay & Co., London, 
 
 1831. 
 June 30 
 
 Julys 
 
 July 9 
 
 Oct 10 
 
 Dec. 31 
 
 To balance of last ac- 
 count 
 
 To your draft to J. 
 Smith, due Aug. 13. 
 
 To invoice of goods 
 ^ Amelia, due 
 Oct. 9. 
 
 To cash paid J. Har- 
 vey on your "account 
 
 To insurance on pro- 
 duce shipped by you 
 in the Ann, Nokes, 
 .^^ 1,400, at iJ guineas 
 per cent. ^"29 8 0 
 Policy 3 10 0 
 
 Postage and petty 
 charges during this 
 half year 
 
 To commission, 1 ^ 
 cent, on .^£"203 paid, 
 Do.on ^260 received 
 on your account 
 
 To balance of interest 
 this half year, 1,276 
 divided by 73, is 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 867 10 0 
 
 128 0 0 
 
 752 0 0 
 
 75 10 0 
 
 32 18 0 
 
 1 15 0 
 
 4 6 0 
 
 17 9 7 
 
 1,879 8 7 
 
 Days 
 to 31 
 Dec. 
 
 1,595 
 179 
 
 London, 5\st of December, 1831. 
 
 2,460 
 
 Errors excepted. 
 
 Crs. 
 
 1831 
 
 Aug.lOBy proceeds of 
 20 tierces cof- 
 fee ^ Louisa, 
 due Sept. 10. - 
 By your remit, 
 tance on J. 
 Austin, due 
 Oct. 10. 
 By proceeds of 
 17hhds. sugar, 
 ^ Hercules, 
 due Oct. 15. - 
 By cash received 
 from J. John- 
 son on your 
 account 
 Balance of in- 
 terest carried 
 to Dr. - 
 Balance of ac- 
 count carried 
 to your Dr. in 
 new account - 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 
 621 8 7 
 
 1,879 8 7 
 
 Days 
 to 31 
 Dec 
 
 459 
 
 287 
 
 173 
 265 
 
 1,276 
 
 2,460 
 
 Henry Barclay & Co. 
 
 We have here on the Dr. side all the payments made or responsibilities incurred for the 
 correspondents in question, and on the Cr. side the different receipts on their account. 
 The interest for the half year, the commission on receipts and payments, the postage and 
 petty charges, being then added, the account may be closed and the balance carried to 
 next year. Copies of accounts current ought to be serit off" as soon as possible after 
 the day to which they are brought down ; and with that view they ought to be written 
 out from the Ledger before the close of the year or half year, particularly as the entries 
 for interest and commission can be made only after they are written out. The whole 
 ought then to be copied into the account current book. 
 
 But in some counting-houses the account current book, instead of being copied from 
 the Ledger and Journal, is posted, like the latter, from the bill book, the cash book, the 
 invoice book, and the account of sales book. It is then considered a check on the 
 Journal and Ledger ; and from the comparative ease with which it is posted, may be 
 
 ]\1 
 
162 
 
 BOOTS. — BORDEAUX. 
 
 completed and made use of before the latter are fully brought up. This is certainly an 
 advantage in houses where, from pressure on the book-keeper, the Journal and Ledger 
 are in arrear, but such ought never to be the case for any length of time ; while as to 
 the former point — that of forming a check on the Journal and Ledger — the fact is, that 
 these books, from the mode in which they are kept, are much more likely to be correct 
 tlian the account current book. 
 
 Printed Works on Book-keeping. — To the publications of old date by teachers have 
 succeeded, in the present age, several treatises on book-keeping by accountants. Some 
 of these are of very limited use, being directed more to recommend a favourite practice 
 of the author in some particular branch of book-keeping, than to convey a comprehen- 
 sive view of the system. The only works on the subject entitled to that character are 
 two : one by the late Benjamin Booth, published above thirty years ago ; the other by 
 Mr. Jones, an accountant in London, printed so lately as the year 1831. Booth was 
 a man of ability, who had expei'ience both as a merchant and: a book-keeper, having 
 passed one part of his life in London, the other in New York. The reader of his 
 work finds a great deal of information in short compass, without being perplexed either 
 by superfluous detail or by fanciful theory.* 
 
 The form of Mr. Booth's Journal and Ledger is similar to what we have given in the 
 preceding pages, and to the practice of our merchants for more than a century : it was 
 by much the best work on book-keeping, until Mr. Jones devised several improvements 
 calculated to lessen the risk of error in both Journal and Ledger. One of these improve- 
 ments is the use of two columns for figures in each i>age of the Journal, one for the 
 I>rs., the other for the Crs. : by inserting each sum twice, the book-keeper obtains the 
 means of proving the Journal additions page by page. The posting from the Journal 
 to the Ledger is also simplified and rendered less subject to error by the use of these 
 columns. In regard to the great task of balancing the Ledger, Mr. Jones's plan is to 
 do it quarter by quarter, making use of a separate book, called a balance book, in which 
 are inserted the totals on each side of the Ledger accounts at the end of three months. 
 By these means, the agreement of the general balance is made a matter of certainty 
 after completing the additions. Other parts of Mr. Jones's book, viz. his formulcB for 
 books on the single entry plan, and for the accounts of bankers, contain suggestions 
 of evident utility. His volume consists of two parts: the printed part (120 pp.) con- 
 taining the treatise, with directions; and the lithographed part (140 pp.) giving copious 
 examples in two sets of books, one kept by single, the other by double entry. If, on a 
 reimpression, the author were to divide the work, and to sell the single entry part 
 separately from the double entry, the price of each might be moderate, and a great 
 service would be rendered to the mercantile public. 
 
 BOOTS AND SHOES, the external covering for the legs and feet, too well known to 
 require any description. — (For an account of the value of the boots and shoes annually 
 produced in Great Britain, see Leather.^ 
 
 BORAX, OR TINCAL (Arab. Buruk ; Pers. Tunkar), one of the salts of soda. 
 Tliis salt is obtained in a crystallised state from the bottom of certain lakes in Thibet. 
 It is found dissolved in many springs in Persia, and may be procured of a superior 
 quality in China. It is also said to be found in Saxony and South America ; but it is 
 more abundant in Thibet than any where else. When dug up it is in an impure state, 
 being enveloped in a kind of fatty matter. It is then denominated tincal ; and it is not 
 till it has been purified in Europe that it takes the name of borax. The process followed 
 in its purification was for a long time known only to the Venetians and Hollanders. 
 Borax is white, transparent, rather greasy in its fracture, its taste is styptic, and it con- 
 verts syrup of violets to a green. It readily dissolves in hot water, and swells and 
 bubbles in the tire. It is of great use as a flux for metals. — ( Thomson's Chemistry, lire's 
 Dictionary, Sfc.) 
 
 The borax entered for home consumption amounted, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1831, to 
 151,5(59 lbs. a year ; the total imports during the 3 years ending with 18'>2 having been 170,392 lbs. a year. 
 Previously to 1832, it was subject, refined, to a duty of SGs., and unrefined, to a duty of 28*. a cwt. In 
 1832, however, these duties were reduced, the former to 10.9., and the latter to 4s. a cwt. Their produce 
 in that year amounted to 882/. 15s. Id. Borax is worth, in bond, unrefined, 3/. 15s. to 4/. ; refined, 4/. 10s, 
 to 51. a cwt. 
 
 BORDEAUX, a large and opulent commercial city of France, situated on the 
 Garonne, about 75 miles from its mouth, in lat. 44° 50^ N., long. 0° 34' W. Popu- 
 lation 110,000. The commerce of Bordeaux is very extensive. The Garonne is 
 a noble river, with depth of water sufficient to enable large ships to come up to the city, 
 laying oi)cn, in conjunction with the Dordogne and their tributary streams, a large 
 extent of country. The commerce of Bordeaux is greatly promoted by the famous canal 
 
 * The title of the book is " A Complete System of Hook-keopmg, by Benjamin Rooth." London, 1799, 
 thin 4to. Printed for Grosvenor and Chater, and for the late J. .lohiison, St. Paul's Churchyard. 
 Mr. Jones's book is entitled " The Science of liook-kocping exemplified." 4to. London, 1831. 4/. 4*. 
 
BOIiDEAUX. 
 
 of Languedoc, which communicates with the Mediterranean. By its means Bordeaux is 
 tnahled to furnish the south of France with colonial products at nearly as cheap a rate a* 
 Marseilles. Wines, brandies, and fruits are the staple articles of export ; but the merchants 
 apply themselves more particularly to the wine trade. Most part of their other business 
 is confined to dealing upon commission ; but this they conduct almost invariably on their 
 own account. The reason they assign for this is, that the difficulties attending the pur- 
 chase, racking, fining, and proper care of wines, so as to render them fit for exportation, 
 are so very great, as to make it almost impossible to conduct tlie business on any thing 
 like the ordinary terms so as to satisfy their employers. Colonial products, cotton, &c. 
 form the principal articles of importation. 
 
 Money is the same at Bordeaux as in other parts of France. All accounts are kept in francs, tlic par of 
 exchange beihg 25 fr. 20 cent, the pound sterling. — (See Exchange.) 
 
 Weights and Measures. — With the exception of wines and brandies, the new or decimal system 
 is of general application in Bordeaux, both in wholesale and retail operations. — (See Weights and 
 Measures.) 
 
 Wine is still sold by the tun of 4 hogsheads. The hogshead contains 30 veltes. 
 Brandy by the .GO veltes. 
 Spirits of wine by the velte. 
 
 The velte is an old measure of which 50 arc equal to 3'8 hectolitres. 
 
 Oil is sold by weight (per 50 kilog.) .'iO — 81| imperial gallons. 
 
 Entrance to the River. — This lies between Toint de la Coubre on the north, and Point de Grave on the 
 south, bearing from each other nearly S.E. and N.W., distant about 4 leagues. There are lights on 
 both these points, but neither of them is elevated to any great height above the level of the sea. The 
 middle part of the entrance to the river is encumbered with extensive sand banks and rocks. On one of 
 the latter, in lat. 45° 35^' N., long. 1° 10' W., stands the Tour de Cordouan, one of the most celebrated 
 light-houses in Europe. It was erected in 1610; but has been materially improved since. It is 206 feet 
 high. The light, which is revolving, exhibits in succession a brilliant light, a feeble light, and an eclipse, 
 the changes following each other every half minute. It may be distinguished at the distance of 8 or 9 
 leagues. The Point de la Coubre is 2^ leagues N. | W., and the Point de Grave ]| league S.E. by E. 
 5 E., from the Tour de Cordouan. There are two main channels for entering the river, — the Passe du 
 Nord, and the Passe de Grave. The former lies between the north side of the river and the banks in the 
 middle, about 1^ mile south from the Point de la Coubre; the water, where shallowest, being about 4| 
 fathoms. The course hence is nearly S.E. | E. The other principal passage lies between the Tour de 
 Cordouan and the Point de Grave, nearly in a N.N.E. and S.S.W. direction. In some places it has not 
 more than 13 feet water; and is in all respects very inferior to the other passage, which is always to be 
 preferred, especially with a large ship. The tides, both ebb and flood, set through the channels with great 
 rapidity, so that a good deal of caution is required on making the river; but having once entered, 
 there is no further danger. Spring tides rise from 14 to 15 feet, and neaps from 7 to 8 ; but they depend 
 a good deal on the direction of the wind. All vessels, except French coasters under 80 tons burden, and 
 small craft from the north of Spain, entering the Garonne, are obliged to take a pilot on board as soon as 
 one offers himself. In summer, pilots are not unfrequently met with 30 or 40 miles west of the Tour de 
 Cordouan ; but in winter they seldom venture far beyond the banks, and sometimes cannot proceed even 
 thus far. — (See Laurie's Plan of the Bay of Biscay, with the Sailing Directions, ^c.) 
 
 Shipping. — In 1831, the arrivals at Bordeaux were — 
 
 Ships. Tons. 
 
 French from French colonies - - 103 24,722 
 
 — foreign countries - - 146 27,226 
 
 _ fisherv - - - 234 9,165 
 
 _■ coasting trade - - 2,341 108,370 
 
 Foreign ships from foreign countries - 114 16,453 
 
 Total - 2,938 185,936 
 
 — (Administration des Douanes, p. 342.) It is stated in the Resume Annuel, published at Bordeaux, that 
 of the 114 foreign ships entering the port in 18.31, 50 were English. In 1832, there were 95 arrivals from 
 England ; and there was also a considerable increase in the arrivals from the north. The entire produce 
 of the customs duties at Bordeaux in 1831, was 10,415,682 francs. 
 
 Port Charges. — Account of Port Charges, Brokerage, and other public Disbursements, payable in Bor- 
 deaux on account of a French or English Vessel of 300 Tons Burden, from a Port of England to Bor- 
 deaux, or from Bordeaux to a Port of England, or from or to any other British Possession in Europe. 
 
 
 On a Fr. or Brit. Vessel. 
 
 On a Foreign Vessel. 
 
 Nature of Charges. 
 
 In French 
 IMoney. 
 
 In Sterling 
 IMoney. 
 
 In French 
 Money. 
 
 In Sterling 
 Money. 
 
 Report and pilotage from r.ea to Bordeaux, for a vessel drawing 14 J 
 Frenchfeetwater(15ft. 3-9 in. British) - -\ 
 Lazaretto dues ....... 
 
 Moving vessel up and mooring her - - - . 
 Entering vessel at Custom-house, and brokerage inwards 
 Advertisements for freight and passengers, 6 fr. \0d.) to each news- 
 
 Fr. c. 
 
 218 93 
 f.l 0 
 10 0 
 
 100 0 
 
 L. s. d. 
 8 15 2 
 2 IS 10 
 0 S 0 
 4 0 0 
 
 Fr. c. 
 
 247 50 
 61 0 
 10 0 
 
 100 0 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 9 18 0 
 2 IS 10 
 0 8 0 
 4 0 0 
 
 paper. 
 
 Tonnage money and navigation dues on 300 tons ... 
 Visiting offirers, clearances, harbour-master, &c. - . . 
 Manifest and freight list ... . . 
 n.nllast taken in or out, 1 fr. 25 c. per ton (\s.). 
 Consul's bill. Usual fees (English vessels), 17 fr. 25 c. (\5s.). 
 I'ilotage from Bordeaux to sea - - - . 
 Broker's commission outwards, care and attendance for expediting the 
 vessel 
 
 In ballast, 50 c. per ton {5d.), say 120 fr. at most (4/. 16s.) -1 
 Loaded per charter or on owner's account, 1 fr. (lOd.) per ton Vaverage 
 Loaded in freight, 1 fr. 50 c. (1». Zd.) per ton • . j 
 
 495 0 
 
 14 75 
 
 15 0 
 
 220 0 
 
 19 Ifi 0 
 0 11 10 
 0 12 0 
 
 8 16 0 
 
 1,239 0 
 
 14 75 
 
 15 0 
 
 245 54 
 
 49 11 2 
 0 11 10 
 0 12 0 
 
 9 16 3 
 
 300 0 
 
 12 0 0 
 
 300 0 
 
 12 0 0 
 
 
 1,434 6ii 
 
 57 7 10 
 
 2,232 59 
 
 89 6 1 
 
 N. B. — No regard paid to the nature of the cargo, as all goods are importable either for consumption 
 or exportation, which does not expose vessels to pay more or less charges. 
 
 British vessels are on a perfect equality with French vessels when they come from British ports in 
 Europe, otherwise they pay pilotage and tonnage dues like all other foreign vessels, as stated in the 
 foreign column. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 
 
 BORDEAUX. 
 
 Imports. — The following is a note of the leading articles iniported, by the ships 
 and 1828, since which they have not materially varied. They are taken from the 
 no official account being published by the Customs. 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Cocoa 
 
 Pimento 
 Pepper 
 
 Cinnamon 
 
 1827. 
 16,094 
 
 5^73 
 312 
 1»540 
 5,717 
 2,273 
 4^800 
 736 
 
 38,661 
 
 m 
 
 1,202 
 34,424 
 1,996 
 
 149 
 
 1828. 
 22,748 
 4,783 
 346 
 1,608 
 39,317 
 1,949 
 3,490 
 663 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Do. bruised 
 
 Vanilla 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Lac dye 
 
 Campeachy andl 
 otiier dye > 
 woods - 3 
 
 Cochineal 
 
 Annotto 
 
 Gums (different 7 
 kinds) -J 
 Quercitron 
 Quino 
 £ablap 
 Jalap 
 
 Sarsaparilla 
 Saltpetre 
 
 543 
 2,997 
 
 614 
 52 
 4,144 
 1,143 
 
 a 
 
 118 
 
 1,243 
 680 
 9,423 
 
 340 
 4,793 
 512 
 252 
 290 
 9.467 
 
 hogsheads 
 boxes 
 tierces 
 casks 
 sacks 
 hogsheads 
 casks 
 tierces 
 
 51 hogsheads 
 525 casks 
 12,229 sacks 
 342 bales 
 of do., sacks, 
 
 (_ and packages 
 Q f cases an*d 
 X serons 
 o on f bundles 3 to 
 ^'"''^iSlbs. 
 323 casks 
 bales 
 do. 
 
 chests 
 do. 
 
 21 
 
 227 
 434 
 45 
 
 1,568 
 210 
 
 serons 
 chests 
 r parcels, 
 ]52-< quantities 
 (.unknown 
 2,926 serons 
 casks 
 do., bales, 
 and sacks 
 116 casks 
 250 serons 
 208 bales 
 serons 
 
 do. and bales 
 sacks 
 
 15,151 
 
 717 
 
 230 
 ;,7J3 
 
 Saffron 
 
 Tea 
 
 Rice 
 
 White and yel-7 
 low wax - y 
 Curcuma 
 Ivory 
 
 Mother of pearl 
 Cotton 
 
 Raw silk 
 
 Wool, Cashmere 
 Do. Peru - 
 
 Tufia (new rum) 
 
 Guinea blue > 
 cloth -j 
 
 American hides 
 
 1827. 
 0 
 670 
 2,520 
 
 1,130 
 
 28 
 602 
 
 9,429 
 
 46 
 
 & 
 
 S 
 
 1,031 
 
 Ox horns 
 Chinchilla 
 Raw skins 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Cigars 
 
 Rattans 
 Quicksilver 
 Tin, Peru a»d7 
 
 Banea 
 Lead 
 Copper 
 Platina 
 Gold 
 
 Silver 
 
 122 
 
 47,116 
 
 109 
 10,000 
 216 
 55 
 
 4^94 
 
 170,000 
 466 
 1,604 
 2,739 
 
 9,759 
 
 0 
 
 4,400 
 5 
 735 
 8,250 
 105 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 1,559,569 3, 
 
 not of Europe, in 1827 
 ship brokers' reports, 
 
 1828. 
 
 110 bales 
 
 99 chests 
 
 4,306 casks 
 
 680[^'^;^3<'^» 
 
 2,034 sacks 
 70 teeth, &c 
 0 canisters 
 n nfi« S bales and 
 serons 
 n f cases ancf 
 
 bales 
 0 bales 
 616 do. 
 460 puncheons 
 490 balea 
 
 15,738 single 
 
 0 bales 
 21,700 
 
 0 dozens 
 
 80 bales 
 
 *'^^^iand bales 
 80,000 
 
 685 boxes 
 10,370 packets. 
 1,990 bottles 
 804 bars 
 
 11,583 salon ers 
 3,240 do. or bars 
 10 packages 
 29 ingots 
 2,517 doubloons 
 51 chests 
 40 ingots 
 , 1 (" boxes or 
 sacks 
 784,231 dollars 
 
 In addition to the articles above specified, there were' also received for re-exportation considerable 
 quantities of bar iron, utensils, and tools from England, Spain, and Sweden; zinc from Germany; and 
 linens from England, Holland, and Germany : for consumption, lead, tin plates, coal (as ballast), arsenic 
 litharge, minium, &c. from England ; lead, steel, olive oil, liquorice, paste, saffron, and saffrarum frorn 
 Spain ; steel from Germany ; olive oil from Italy ; fish, glue, and tallow from Russia ; timber from Baltic 
 ports ; cheese, stock-fish, &c. from Holland. 
 
 Exports. — It is impossible to procure even approximate information regarding the quantities of the 
 several articles of exportation. No reports are published by the Customs, nor do they allow extracts of 
 the entries outwards to be taken. 
 
 The following is a list of the species of articles exported from Bordeaux to the diffferent parts of the 
 world : — 
 
 To Martiniqiie and Guadaloupe. — Provisions, flour, wine, brandy, and a small quantity of manufactured 
 goods. 
 
 To Bourbon Wines, provisions, cattle, furniture, coarse and fine hardwares, perfumery, silk, cotton 
 
 and linen stuffs, stationery, fashionable articles, &c. 
 
 To the United States. — Wines, brandy, almonds, prunes, verdigris, and a trifling quantity of manu. 
 factured goods. 
 
 To Spanish America, Cuba, Sic. — Wines, brandy, silks, cloths, stationery, fashions, jewellery, per- 
 fumery, saddlerv, &c. 
 
 To the South Seas. — Wines, brandy, liqueurs, and all sorts of manufactured articles. 
 To the East Indies and China. — Wines, brandy, furniture, silver, &c. 
 
 To England. — Wines, brandy, liqueurs, fruits, tartar, cream of tartar, plums, chesnuts, walnuts, loaf- 
 sugar to Guernsey and Jersey, clover seed, armotto, corn, flour, skins raw and dressed, cork wood and corks 
 vinegar, turpentine, resins, &c. * 
 
 To the North of Europe. — Wines, brandy, spirits of wine, tartar, cream of tartar, colonial produce, 
 loaf-sugar, molasses, &c. 
 
 fVine — This forms the great article of export from Bordeaux. The estimated produce of the depart- 
 ment of the Gironde in wines of all kinds, and one year with another, is from 220,000 to 250,000 tuns; the 
 disposal of which is, approximately, as follows : — 
 
 Consumed in the department - - about 
 
 Expedited to the different parts of France 
 
 Converted into brandy - - - - 
 
 Exported to foreign countries ... 
 
 The exports to foreign countries are as follow : — 
 To England 
 Holland 
 
 The north of Europe 
 America and India 
 
 50,000 tuns. 
 125,000 — 
 25,000 — 
 50,000 — 
 250,000 tuns. 
 
 1,500 to 2,000 tuns, 
 
 12,000 . 15,000 — 
 
 27,000 - 34,000 — 
 
 1,000 - 1,200 — 
 
 41.500 to 52,200 tuns. 
 
 The red wines are divided into three great classes, each of which is subdivided into several sorts. 
 
 Class 1. embraces the Medoc wines, 
 
 2. — Grave, and St. Emilion, 
 
 3. — common, or cargo wines. 
 
BORDEAUX. 
 
 165 
 
 Theirs* class is composed of the " grands crus," the " crus bourgeois," and the " crus ordinalres." 
 The "grands crus" are further distinguished as firsts, seconds, and thirds. 
 
 The fij-sts are the wines of Chateau Margaux, Lafitte, Latour, and Haut-Brion. The latter is properly 
 a Grave wine, but it is always classed amongst ihe first Medocs. 
 The seconds are the wines of Rauzan, Lecvilie, I^arose, Mouton, Gersc, &c. 
 
 The thirds, wines which are produced by the vineyards touching those above named, and which ditfer 
 little in quality from them. 
 
 The quantity of " grands crus" wine of the above description does not exceed 3,000 tuns, and sells at 
 from IjfiliO fr. to 3,500 fr. per tun on the lees. 
 
 The " crus l)ourgeois " consists of the superior Margaux, St. Julien, Pauillac, St. Estephe, &c. : quantity 
 estimatetl about 2,000 tuns, and prices on the lees 800 fr. to 1,800 fr. per tun. 
 
 The " crus ordinaires," sell at 300 fr. to 700 fr. according to the year and the quality. Quantity, 
 25,000 to 35,000 tuns. 
 
 The whole produce of Medoc is therefore about 40,000 tuns. 
 
 The " grands crus" and " crus bourgeois" require 4years' care and preparation, before delivery for use 
 or for exportation ; and this augments their price from 30 to 35 i)cr cent. 
 
 The second class is composed of the red wines of Grave and St. Emil/on, which are in greater quantity, 
 and amongst them some of a very superior quality, that are generally bought for mixing with Medoc. 
 The first quality of these wines sells from 800 Ir. to 1,800 fr. per tun. The second qualities — Queyries, 
 Montferrand, Bassans, — 300 fr. to 600 fr. 
 
 The third class consists of the common or cargo wines, the greater part of which is consumed in the 
 country, or converted into brandy. The portion exported is sent off" the year of its growth. Prices from 
 160 fr. to 250 fr. per tun. 
 
 The white wines of the first "crus," such as Haut-Barsac, Preignac, Beaumes, Sauterne, &c., are only 
 fit for use at the end of 4 or 6 years, and for exportation at the end of 1 or 2 years more. Prices on th* 
 lees vary from 800 fr. to 1,500 fr. per tun. 
 
 The " grand crus," of white Grave, St. Bries, Carbonieux, Dulamon, &c., sell, in good years, from 
 500 fr. to 800 fr. 
 
 Inferior white wines 130 fr. to 400 fr. per tun. 
 
 The expenses of all kinds to the wine-grower of Medoc, for the cultivation, gathering, and making his 
 wine, and the cask, are estimated to amount, in the most favourable years, to 50 fr. per hogshead, or 
 200 fr. per tun. 
 
 The merchants in general purchase up the finest crus as soon as sufficiently advanced to judge of their 
 character; or more frequently they are bought up for a series of years, whether good or bad. They are 
 transported to their cellars or " chays," in Bordeaux, so situated and protected by surrounding houses, as 
 to preserve a tolerably equable temperature throughout the year; and in these they ripen, and undergo 
 all the different processes of fining, racking, mixing, &c. considered necessary to adapt them to the 
 different tastes of the foreign consumers. 
 
 It is pretty generally the practice to adapt the wines for the English market by a plentiful dose of the 
 strong, full-bodied, and high-flavoured wines of the Rhone ; such as Hermitage, Cote Rotie, and Croze — 
 especially the first, by which means they are hardly cognisable by the Medoc flavour. Perhaps the 
 principal reason for keeping these wines so long before they are used, is to give them time to acquire a 
 homogeneous flavour, destroyed by the mixture of several different qualities. The wines shipped under 
 the titles of Chateau Margaux, Lafitte, and Latour, are also mixed with the wines of the surrounding 
 vineyards, which, from the nature of the soil, and proximity, cannot be greatly different. Other good 
 wines are also said to enter largely into the composition of these celebrated crus j and those of a superior 
 year are employed to bring up the quality of one or two bad years, so that it is easy to conceive, that the 
 famous wines of 1811 and of the years 1815, 1819, and 1825, are not speedily exhausted. Some houses 
 pretend to keep their wines pure ; but the practice of mixing is, at any rate, very general. 
 
 The purchase of the wines, whether from the grower or merchant, is always effected through a broker. 
 There are a few of them who have acquired a reputation for accuracy in dissecting the different flavours, 
 and in tracing the results of the wines by certain measures of training, or treatment. 
 
 England takes off" nearly half the highest priced wines, and very little of any other quality. Except in 
 Bordeaux itself, there is but a very moderate portion of the superior Medoc consumed in France. The 
 capital even demands only second, third, and fourth rate wines. 
 
 The Dutch, who are large consumers of Bordeaux wine, go more economically to work. They send 
 vessels to the river in the wine season, with skilful supercargoes, who go amongst the growers, and 
 purchase the wines themselves, cheaper even than a broker would do. They live on board the ship, take 
 their own time to select, and wait often for months before their cargo is completed; but they attain thejr 
 object, getting a supply of good sound wine, and at as low a rate, with all charges of shipping included, as 
 the wine merchants can deliver it into their stores in Bordeaux. They never purchase old wine ; they 
 take only that newly made, which, being without the support of stronger bodied wines, must be consumed 
 in the course of 2 or 3 years. They follow the same system at Bayonne, where 2 or 3 ships go annually 
 for the white wines of Jurangon, &c. 
 
 The cargo wines are so manufactured that it is hardly possible to know of what they are composed. 
 They are put free on board for 21. per hogshead and upwards, according as they are demanded. They are 
 such as will not bear exposure in a glass when shipping : the tasters have a small flat silver cup expressly 
 for them. These wines are principally shipped to America and India, and some at a higher price to the 
 north of Europe. 
 
 The principal wine merchants have agents in London, whose business is more particularly to introduce 
 their wines to family use ; and it is to that end they pay them from 300/. to 800/. for travelling expenses 
 and entertainments, besides allowing 3 per cent, or more, on the amount of sales. They generally look 
 out for individuals for ti.eir agents of good address, and some connection amongst the upper classes. 
 
 Brandies, and Spirits of Wine. — The quantity distilled in the neighbourhood of Bordeaux is estimated 
 at about 18,000 pieces, of 50 veltes each. 
 
 Ditto, in the Armagnac - 20,000 ditto 
 Ditto, in the Marmauduis - 8,000 ditto 
 
 46,000 pieces, ordinary proof. 
 
 Of this quantity, France takes off" about 23,000 pieces for consumption; England, 2,500; United States, 
 10,000; India, 2,500; north of Europe, 5,000; in all, 43,000 pieces. 
 
 Languedoc produces annually about 40,000 pieces, of 8J veltes each, the greater part of which comes to 
 Bordeaux to be forwarded to the different ports of the north of France, or to foreign countries. 
 
 France consumes about two thirds of the above quantity ; the remaining one third goes to the north of 
 Europe. 
 
 The prices of brandy are from 130 fr. to 150 fr. per 50 veltes, ordinary proof; spirits of wine, from 4 fr. 
 to 5 fr. per veltc. 
 
 It is at the port of Formay, on the Charente, that the greatest shipments of brandy take place to 
 England. Cognac, from which the brandy takes its name, and where there are large distilleries, is a few 
 leagues up the river. The quantity exported is far greater than what is made at Cognac — the two 
 leading distillers there (Martel, and Henessey) buying great quantities from the small cultivators. The 
 greater part of the wines made about Angoulemc, and thence down toward the sea, are of inll-rior quality, 
 
 M 3 
 
166 
 
 BORDEAUX. 
 
 and fit only for making brandy; and so little do the prices vary, that the proprietors look upon it nearly in 
 the same light as gold. When they augment their capital by savings or profits, it is employed in .keeping 
 a larger stock of brandy, which has the further advantage of paying the interest of their capital by its 
 improved vahie from age. England is said to receive upwards of 6,000 pieces annually from Charente. 
 
 At Bordeaux, as at Paris and Marseilles, there is a constant gambling business in time bargains of 
 spirits of wine. It is in the form of spirits of wine that nearly all the brandy consumed in France is expe- 
 dited ; as in this form there is a great saving in carriage. — (For an official account of the exports of wine 
 and brandy from France, see Wine.) 
 
 The fruits exported consist almost entirely of prunes and almonds. The latter come principally from 
 Languedoc. 
 
 The policy of the Spanish government toward her American colonies during the last 10 years has been 
 the cause of a great many very wealthy Spaniards settling in Bordeaux ; and their number has been still 
 further increased by the Spaniards expelled from Mexico, who do not choose to employ their fortunes in 
 their native country, or find greater facilities for employing them in Bordeaux. These are in possession 
 of the greater part of. the Spanish American trade of this port, and are viewed with a very jealous eye 
 by the old merchants. They have also contributed greatly to beautify the city, by employing their wealth 
 in building, which they have done to a considerable extent. They have also reduced the rate of interest, 
 and contributed to the facilities of discounting bills : the Spanish houses generally discount long bills at 
 1| or 2 per cent, lower tlian the Bank. 
 
 Bordeaux possesses some iron founderies, cotton factories, sugar refineries, glass works,. &c., but labour 
 and living are too high to admit of its becoming a considerable manufacturing city. 
 
 Banking Establishments. — There is only one banking company in Bordeaux — the *' Bordeaux Bank." 
 It has a capital of 3,000,000 fr., in shares of 1,000 fr. each. It issues notes for 1,000 and 500 fr. (40/. 
 and 9.01.) payable in specie on demand. Its affairs are managed by a Board of directors, named by the 
 50 principal shareholders. This Board fixes the rate of discount, and the number of names that ought to 
 guarantee each bill ; it being left to tiie discount committee to judge of the responsibility of the signatures 
 on the bills presented. At present the bank discounts bills on Bordeaux, having 3 months to run, and 
 guaranteed by 3 signatures, at 5 per cent., and those on Paris at 41 per cent. 
 
 When bills are presented, not having the required number of names, or these deemed suspicious, they 
 take, in guarantee, public stock bonds or other effects — advancing to the extent of 9-lOths of their cur- 
 rent value. 
 
 The bank advances f ths of the value of gold and silver in ingots, or in foreign money, deposited with 
 them, at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum. It also accepts in deposit, diamonds, plate, and every kind of 
 valuable property, engaging to redeliver the same in the state received, for ^ per cent, per quarter, or 
 1 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Those who have accounts current with the bank may have all their payments made, and money 
 received, by the bank, without fee. It allows no interest on balances, ana never makes advances either 
 on personal security or on mortgage. 
 
 On the 31st of December, 1832, the bank notes in circulation amounted to 12,650,000 fr. (506,000/.) 
 
 The affairs of the bank are subject to the inspection of the Prefect, to whcm half yearly reports of its 
 situation are made. These are printed entire, and distributed to the 50 principal shareholders ; an abstract 
 being, at the same time, published in the Bordeaux journals. 
 
 After the revolution of July, 1830, there was a severe run on the bank; and owing to the difliculty ot 
 procuring gold from Paris, the directors were obliged to limit their deliveries in specie to 500 fr. (20/.) 
 in a single payment ; but notwithstanding this circumstance, no notes were protested ; and the moment 
 supplies of gold could be obtained from Paris, the operations of the bank resumed their usual course ; and 
 her affairs have been, during the last 3 years, uncommonly prosperous. Exclusive of the dividend of 
 5 per cent., the bank accumulated, in 1831, a surplus profit of 72,000 fr. ; and, in 1832, her surplus 
 profits were 250,000 fr., or 10,000/. 
 
 Brokers. — No one is allowed to act as a mercantile broker in France, who is not 25 years of age, and 
 who has not served 4 years in a commercial house, or with a broker, or a notary public. They are nomi- 
 nated by the king, after their qualifications have been ascertained by the Chamber of Commerce. All 
 brokers must deposit the sum of 8,000 fr. in the treasury, as a guarantee for their conduct, for which 
 they are allowed interest at the rate of 4 per cent. At present there are in Bordeaux 21 ship brokers, 24 
 merchandise do., 20 wine and spirit do., 7 insurance do., and 20 money and exchange do. : the lat<^er form 
 a separate class. 
 
 All foreigners are obliged to employ ship brokers to transact their business at the Custom-house ; and 
 although masters and owners of French vessels might sometimes dispense with their services, they never 
 do so, finding it to be, in all cases, most advantageous to use their intervention. All duties outward on 
 vessels and cargoes are paid by the ship brokers, who invariably clear out all vessels, French as well as 
 
 ^^^Rates of Commission. — 1. Ship brokers : —Vessel in ballast, 50 cents (5rf.) per ton ; vessel loaded per 
 charter or on owners' account, 1 fr. (]0(i.) per ton. 2. Merchandise brokers: — ! percent, on colonial 
 produce, and other goods. 3. Wine and spirit brokers:— 2 per cent, on wine. Sec. 4. Insurance 
 brokers- — i per cent. 5. Money brokers : — f per cent, on Paris and foreign paper; i per cent, on 
 Bordeaux do. 6. Merchants : — 2 per cent, on all sorts of operations between natives ; 2| per cent, 
 on all sorts of operations between strangers; 5 per cent, on litigious affairs; 1 per cent, on goods in 
 transitu, when the constituent is present ; 1 per cent, on banking affairs. 
 
 Insurance of ships, houses, and lives is effected at Bordeaux. The first is carried on partly by mdivi- 
 duals, and partly by companies ; the last two by companies only. The partners in these associations are 
 generally liable only to the amount of the shares they respectively hold. 
 
 For statements as to the Warehousing Si/stem^ Smuggling, &c., the reader is referred to the article 
 
 'Quarantine is performed at Trompeloup, where a spacious lazaretto has been constructed. Bordeaux 
 is a favourable place for repairing and careening ships, and for obtaining supplies of all sorts of stores. 
 
 The exchange or money brokers of Bordeaux follow a kind of business pretty similar to the London 
 private bankers. They receive, negotiate, and pay bills and orders, of such houses as have accounts open 
 with them, charging and allowing an interest on balances, which varies from 3^ to 4| per cent, according 
 to circumstances. They charge ^ per cent, for negotiating bills, and a per cent, on all the payments they 
 
 '^There are, besides, numerous capitalists who employ their spare funds in discountingbills. They prefer 
 bills at long dates, and take from 3 to 6 per cent, discount, according to the confidence they have in the 
 i)ai)er presented. 
 
 There are not wanting individuals who guarantee, with their names, every sort of paper presented 
 takiPig from 5 to 60 per cent, for the risk. , ^ , 
 
 Customary Mode of I'aijment, and Length of Credit. — QoXomaX produce, spices, dye stufis, and metals 
 are usually "sold for cash, with 3 per cent, discount. Corn, flour, brandy, and several other articles, are 
 sold for nett cash, without discount. . ^ ^ ^- ^ 
 
 Wines arc generally bought of the cultivators at 12 and 15 months' credit, or 6 per cent, discount 
 When they change hands amongst the merchants, the practice is to sell for cash, allowing 3 or 5 per cent 
 
 **'The'usage is generally established in Bordeaux, to consider all paper having less than 30 days to run 
 as cash ; and with such all payments are made, where there is not an express stipulation to be paid in com. 
 
BORDEAUX. 
 
 167 
 
 Tares. The tares allowed in Bordeaux are as follows : — 
 
 At Custom-house. 
 Cotton in bales, 6 per 
 
 cent. 
 
 15 per 
 
 Sugar in llhd^ 
 cent. 
 
 Do. in cases,Havannah, 
 ice, 15 per cent. 
 
 Do. in bales from bour- 
 bon, Mauritius, Ma- 
 nilla, &c., nett. 
 
 Do. clayed, in hhds., 
 white and brown, 12 
 per cent. 
 
 Rice,froiTi all countries, 
 none. 
 
 Coffee in bags, tare 
 nett, or 2 per cent. 
 
 Pepper in bags, 2 per 
 cent. 
 
 In Commerce^ 
 Large square bales, 6 per cent. 
 Smaller do., 8 per cent. 
 Round do., 4 per cent. 
 In hhd"., 17 per cent. 
 
 Tret per hhd., 1 kil. (2-24 lbs.) 
 In cases, Havannah, &c., 14 per cent. 
 
 Tret per case, 1 kil. (2-24 Ihs.) 
 In bales trom Bourbon, &c., real. 
 
 Mauritius, Manilla, &c., 8 per 
 cent. 
 
 Clayed, in hhds. white, 12 per cent. 
 
 Tret per hhd., 1 kil. 
 Clayed do., brown, 13 per cent. 
 
 Tret per hhd.. 1 kil. 
 Tare nett, or 12 per cent. 
 
 lbs.), 
 
 Do.from GOJ to 75 kil. ( 1.55 to 168 lbs.), 
 Ukil. 
 
 Do. above 75 kil. (168 lbs.), 2 kil. 
 In bags weighing 60 kil. (134 lbs.), 
 1 kil. 
 
 Do. 60^ kil. to 75 kil. (135 to 168 lbs.), 
 li kil. 
 
 Do. above 75 kil. (168 lbs.), 2 kil. 
 
 In bags weighing 60 kil. (134 lbs.), 
 
 1 kil. 
 
 Do. from 60.J to 75 kil. (135 to 168 
 
 lbs.,) IJ kil. 
 In bales, 130 to 150 kil. (291 to 336 
 
 lbs.), 2 kil. 
 In serous, 50 to 60 kil.(112 to 134 lbs.), 
 
 2 kil. 
 
 At Cu-elom house. 
 Indigo, in chests, real 
 
 AsVies, pot and pearl, 
 
 12 per cent. 
 Quercitron bark, real 
 
 tare. 
 
 bark, real 
 
 Cinnamon in chests, 12 
 
 per cent. 
 Do. in bales, 2 per cent. 
 Cloves, real tare. 
 
 Cochineal, real tare. 
 Gum in casks, do. 
 Mace and nutmegs, do. 
 Annotto, none. 
 
 Sarsaparilla, real tare, 
 or 2 per cent. 
 
 In Commerce. 
 In che.sts, veal tare. 
 In serons weighing from 45 to 55 kl!. 
 
 (101 to 123 lbs.), 7 kil. 
 Do. ,Wi to 65 kil. (102 to 146 ll)S.), 8 kil. 
 Do. 65i to 75 kil. (103 to ItiS ll)8.),'J kil. 
 I)o.75i to 95 kil.( 169 to213 ll)s.),10 kii. 
 Do. 954 to 107 kil. (214 to 240 lb».;, 
 
 11 kil. 
 
 I'ot and pearl, 12 per cent. 
 
 In casks of 200 kil. and above (448 
 
 U.S.), 12 per cent. 
 Do. from 1504 to 200 kil. (337 to 448 
 
 lbs.), 15 per cent. 
 Do. from 120 to 130 kil. (269 to 33o 
 
 lbs.), 20 per cent. 
 In chLSts, tare nett. 
 In serons weighing from 45 to 57i HI. 
 
 (101 to 129 Ibs.j, 8 kil. 
 Do. 60 to 75 kil. (134 to 168 lbs.),10 kil. 
 Ceylon, in serons, or single bales, 3 ki!. 
 Do. m double bales, 6 kil. 
 China, in chests, re^l tare. 
 In casks, real tare. 
 
 In bales weighing from 30^ to 50 kil. 
 
 (68 to 112 lbs.), real tare, or 2 kil. 
 In bags, sing e, 1 kil. 
 Real tare. 
 Real tare. 
 Real tare. 
 
 In casks, 4 per cent, for leaves, and 
 
 6 per cent. tare. 
 In bales, 5 kil. 
 
 ***The instructive details with respect to the trade of Bordeaux given above, so very superior to what are 
 to be found in any other publication, have been principally derived from a communication of Mr. Buciiaiiaii, 
 of the house of James Morrison and Co., who acquired his information on the s])ot ; but some particujaxs 
 have been learned fiom the carefully drawn-up answers made by the Consul to the Circular Qik ries. 
 
 Operation of the French commercial System on the Trade of Bordeaux, 8^c. — The trade 
 of this great city has suffered severely from the short-sighted, anti-social policy of the 
 French government. This policy was first broadly laid down, and systematically acted 
 upon, by Napoleon ; and we believe it would not be difficult to show that the privations, 
 it entailed on the people of the Continent powerfully contributed to accelerate his 
 downfall. But those by whom he has been succeeded, have not hitherto seen the expe- 
 diency of returning to a sounder system ; on the contrary, they have carried, in some 
 respects at least, the " continental system" to an extent not contemplated by Napoleon. 
 Notwithstanding the vast importance to a country like France, of supplies of iron and 
 hardware at a cheap rate, that which is produced by foreigners is excluded, though it 
 might be obtained for half the price of that which is manufactured at home. A similar 
 line of policy has been followed as to cotton yarn, earthenware, &c. And in order to 
 force the manufacture of sugar from the beet-root, oppressive duties have been laid, not 
 only on foreign sugar, but even on that imported from the French colonies. The oper- 
 ation of this system on the commerce and industry of the country has been most mis- 
 chievous. By forcing France to raise, at home, articles for the production of which she 
 has no natural or acquired capabilities, the exportation, and consequently the growth, of 
 those articles in the production of which she is superior to every other country, has been 
 very greatly narrowed. All commerce being bottomed on a fair principle of reciprocity, 
 a country that refuses to import must cease to export. By excluding foreign produce — 
 by refusing to admit the sugar of Brazil, the cottons and hardware of England, the 
 iron of Sweden, the linens of Germany, and the cattle of Switzerland and Wirtemberg — 
 France has done all that was in her power to drive the merchants of those countries from 
 her markets. They are not less anxious than formerly to obtain Jier wines, brandies, 
 and silks ; inasmuch, however, as commerce is merely an exchange of products, and as 
 France will accept very few of the products belonging to others, they cannot, how 
 anxious soever, maintain that extensive and mutually beneficial intercourse with her 
 they would otherwise carry on : they sell little to her, and their purchases are, of course, 
 proportionally diminished. 
 
 This, indeed, is in all cases the necessary and inevitable effect of the prohibitive 
 system. It never fails to lessen exportation to the same extent that it lessens importation; 
 so that, when least injurious, it merely substitutes one sort of industry for another — the 
 production of the article that had been obtained from the foreigner, in the place of the 
 production of that which had been sent to him as an equivalent. — (See Commerce.) 
 
 France is not only extremely well situated for carrying on an extensive intercourse 
 with foreign countries, but she is largely supplied with several productions, which, were 
 she to adopt a liberal commercial system, would meet with a ready and advantageous 
 sale abroad, and enable her to furnish equivalents for the largest amount of imjwrts. 
 The superiority enjoyed by Amboyna in the production of cloves is not more decided 
 than that enjoyed by France in the production of wine. Her claret, burgundy, cham- 
 pagne, and brandy, are unrivalled ; and furnish, of themselves, the materials of a vast 
 commerce. Indeed, the production of wine is, next to the ordinary business of agri- 
 
 INI 4 
 
168 
 
 BORDEAUX. 
 
 culture, by far the most extensive and valuable branch of industry in France. It is 
 estimated by the landholders and merchants of the department of the Gironde, in the 
 admirable Petition et Memoire d VAppui, presented by them to the Chamber of Deputies 
 in 1828, that the quantity of wine annually produced in France amounts, at an average, 
 to about 40,000,000 hectolitres, or 1,060,000,000 gallons ; that its value is not less than 
 from 800,000,000 to 1,000,000,000 francs, or from 32,000,000^. to 40,000,000Z. sterling; 
 and that upwards of three millions of individuals are employed in its production. In 
 some of the southern departments, it is of paramount importance. The population of 
 the Gironde, exclusive of Bordeaux, amounts to 432,839 individuals, of whom no fewer 
 than 226,000 are supposed to be directly engaged in the cultivation of the vine. 
 
 Here, then, is a branch of industry in which France has no competitor, which even 
 now affords employment for about a tenth part of her population, and which is suscepti- 
 ble of indefinite extension. The value of the wines, brandies, vinegars, &c. exported 
 from France, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1790, amounted to about 
 51,000,000 francs, or upwards of two millions sterling. The annual exports of wine 
 from Bordeaux only, exceeded 100,000 tuns; and as the supply of wine might be 
 increased to almost any amount, France has, in this single article, the means of carrying 
 on the most extensive and lucrative commerce. " Le gouvernement Fran9ais/' says 
 M. Chaptal, in his work Sur V Industrie Frangaise, " doit les plus grands encouragements 
 a la culture des vignes, soit qu'il considere ses produits relativement a la consommation 
 interieure, soit qu'il les envisage sous le rapport de notre commerce avec I'etranger, dont 
 il est en effet la base essentielle" 
 
 But instead of labouring to extend this great branch of industry, government has 
 consented to sacrifice it to the interests of the iron-founders, and the planters of Marti- 
 nique and Guadaloupe ! We do not, indeed, imagine that they were at all aware that 
 such v/ould be the effect of their policy. Theirs is only one instance, among myriads 
 that may be specified, to prove that ignorance in a ministry is quite as pernicious as bad 
 intentions. The consideration, apparently not a very recondite one, that, notwithstand- 
 ing the bounty of nature, wine was not gratuitously produced in France, and could not, 
 therefore, be exported except for an equivalent, would seem never to have occurred to 
 the ministers of Louis and Charles X. But those whose interests were at stake, did 
 not fail to apprise them of the hoUowness of their system of policy. In 1822, when the 
 project for raising the duties on sugar, iron, linens, &c. was under discussion, the mer- 
 chants of Bordeaux, Nantes, Marseilles, and other great commercial cities, and the wine- 
 growers of the Gironde, and some other departments, presented petitions to the Chambers, 
 in which they truly stated, that it was a contradiction and an absurdity to attempt 
 selling to the foreigner, without, at the same time, buying from him ; and expressed 
 their conviction, that the imposition of the duties in question would be fatal to the com- 
 merce of France, and would consequently inflict a very serious injury on the wine- 
 growers and silk manufacturers. These representations did not, however, meet with a 
 very courteous reception. They were stigmatised as the work of ignorant and interested 
 persons. The Chambers approved the policy of ministers ; and in their ardour to extend 
 and perfect it, did not hesitate deeply to injure branches of industry on which several 
 millions of persons are dependent, in order that a few comparatively insignificant 
 businesses, nowise suited to France, and supporting 100,000 persons, might be bolstered 
 up and protected ! 
 
 The event has shown that tiie anticipations of the merchants were but too well founded. 
 There is a discrepancy in the accounts laid before the late Commission d^Enquete by 
 government, and those given in the above-mentioned Petition et Memoire d VAppui from 
 the Gironde. According to the tables printed by the Commission, the export of wine 
 from France is, at this moment, almost exactly the same as in 1789. It is, however, 
 plain that, had there not been some powerful counteracting cause in operation, the 
 export of wine ought to have been very greatly augmented. The United States, Russia, 
 England, Prussia, and all those countries that have at all times been the great importers 
 of French wines, liave made prodigious advances in wealth and population since 1789; 
 and, had the commerce with them not been subjected to injurious restrictions, there is 
 every reason to think that their imports of French wine would have been much greater 
 now than at any former period. 
 
 But the truth is, that the accounts laid before the Commission are entitled to ex- 
 tremely little credit. In so far as respects the export of wine from Bordeaux, which 
 has always been the great market for this species of produce, the statements in the 
 Memoire d VAppui are taken from the Custom-house returns. Their accuracy may, 
 therefore, be depended upon, and they show an extraordinary falling off. Previously to 
 the Revolution, the exports amounted to 100,000 tuns a year — (Peuchet, Statistique 
 Elementaire, p. 138.) ; but since 1820, they have only been as follows: — 
 
 Tuns. T Tun.". | Tuns. I Tuns. 
 
 1820, f)l,110. 1822, r)9,[)55. 1824, S9fi'25. 182fi, 48,464. 
 
 1S21, (i3,'2n. I 1823, 51,52!). | 1825, 46,514. | 1827 54,492. 
 
BORDEAUX. 
 
 169 
 
 It is also stated (Memoire, p. 33.), that a large proportion of these exports has been 
 made on speculation ; and that the markets of Russia, the Netherlands, Hamburgh, &c. 
 are glutted with French wines, for which there is no demand. " Dans ce moment," 
 (25th April, 1828,) it is said in the Memoire, " il existe en consignation, a Hambourg, 
 12,000 a 15,000 barriques de vin pour compte des proprietaires du departement de la 
 Gironde, qui seront trop heureux s'ils ne perdent que leur capital." 
 
 This extraordinary decline in the foreign demand has been accompanied by a corre- 
 sponding glut of the home market, a heavy fall of prices, and the ruin of a great number 
 of merchants and agriculturists. It is estimated, that there were, in April, 1828, no 
 fewer than 600,000 tons of wine in the Gironde, for. which no outlet could be found ; 
 and the glut, in the other departments, is said to have been proportionally great. The 
 fall in the price of wine has reacted on the vineyards, most of which have become quite 
 unsaleable ; and a total stop has been put to every sort of improvement. Nor have 
 matters been in the least amended during the current year : on the contrary, they seem 
 to be gradually getting worse. Such is the poverty of the proprietors, that wine is now 
 frequently seized, and sold by the revenue oflficers in payment of arrears of taxes ; and it 
 appears, from some late statements in the Memorial Bordelais (a newspaper published at 
 Bordeaux), that the wine so sold has not recently fetched more, at an average, than 
 about two thirds of the cost of its production ! 
 
 The following official account of the exports of wine from the Gironde, during the 3 
 years ending with 1831, sets the extraordinary decline of this important trade in the most 
 striking point of view : — 
 
 Year. Litres. Imp. Gal. | Year. Litres. Imp. Gal. 1 Year. Litres. Imp. Gal. 
 
 1829 43,832,064 = 9,643,053 | 1830 28,551,863 = 6,281,412 | 1831 24,409,604 = 5,370,110 
 
 The exports of brandy have declined in about the same degree ; and the foreign 
 shipping frequenting the port has been diminished nearly a half. 
 
 Such are the effects that the restrictive system of policy has had on the wine trade of 
 France, — on a branch of industry which, as we have already seen, employs three millions 
 of people. It is satisfactory, however, to observe, that the landowners and merchants 
 are fully aware of the source of the misery in which they have been involved. They 
 know that they are not suffering from hostile or vindictive measures on the part of 
 foreigners, but from the blind and senseless policy of their own government ; that they 
 are victims of an attempt to counteract the most obvious principles — to make France 
 produce articles directly at home, which she might obtain from the foreigner in exchange 
 for wine, brandy, &c. at a third or a fourth part of the expense they now cost. They 
 cannot export, because they are not allowed to import. Hence they do not ask for bounties 
 and prohibitions ; on the contrary, they disclaim all such quack nostrums ; and demand 
 what can alone be useful to them, and beneficial to the country, — a free commercial 
 system. 
 
 " Consid^r^ en lui-meme," say the landowners and merchants of the Gironde, " le systfeme prohibitif 
 est la plus deplorable des erreurs. La nature, dans sa varitt^ infinie, a d^parti k chaque contr^e ses 
 attributs particuliers.; elle a imprim6 sur chaque sol sa veritable destination, et c'est par la diversite des 
 produits et des besoins, qu'elle a voulu unir les hommes par un lien universel, et op^rer entre eux ces 
 rapprochements, qui ont produit le commerce et la civihsation. 
 
 " Quelle est la base du systeme prohibitif:-' Une veritable chimere, qui consiste k essayer de vendre k 
 r^tranger sans acheter de lui. 
 
 " Quelle est done la consequence la plus immediate du systeme prohibitif, ou, en d'autres termes, du 
 TOonopole ? C'est que le pays qui est placid sous son empire ne pent vendre ses produits k I'etranger. Le 
 voilk done refoul^ dans lui-meme ; et k I'impossibilit^ de vendre ce qu'il a de trop, vient se joindre la 
 n^cessitt' de payer plus cher ce qui lai manque. 
 
 " Notre Industrie ne demandoit, pour fructifier, ni la faveur d"un monopole, ni cette foule d'artifices et 
 des secours dont bien d'autres ont impose le fardeau au pays. Une sage liberie commerciale, une ^conomie 
 politique fondee sur la nature, en rapport avec la civilisation, en harmonic avec tons les interets veri- 
 taUes ; telle ttoit son seiil besoin. Livr^e k son essor naturel, elle se seroit ^tendue d'elle-meme sur la 
 France de 1814, comme sur cellede 1789; elle auroit form^ la plus riche branche de son agriculture ; elle 
 auroit fait circuler, et dans son sol natal, et dans tout le sol du royaume, une seve de vie et de richesse ; 
 elle auroit encore attire sur nos plages le commerce du monde ; et la France, au lieu de s'^riger avec 
 effort en pays manufacturier, auroit reconquis, par la force des choses, une superiority incontestable 
 comme pays agricole. 
 
 " Le systeme contraire a prevalu. 
 
 " .^^ ruine d'un des plus importants d^partements de la France ; la dt^tresse des dt'partements circon- 
 voisins ; le d^perissement gen(5ral du Midi ; une immense population attaqu^e dans ses moyens d'exis- 
 tence ; un capital enormecompromis ; la perspective de ne pouvoir prelever I'impot sur notre sol appauvri 
 etdepouill^; un prt^-judice immense pour tons les d<!partements dont nous somme tributaires; un d^. 
 iToissement rapide dans celles de nos consommations qui profitent au Nord ; la stagnation g(5n(?rale du 
 commerce, avec tons les d(5sastres qu'elle entraine, toutes les pertes qu'elle produit, et tous les dommages 
 ou matC-riels, ou politiques ou moraux, qui en sent I'int^vitable suite ; enfin, I'aneantissement de plus en 
 Olus irreparable de tous nos anciens rapports commerciaux ; les autres peuples s'enrichissant de nos pertes 
 et d^yeloppant leur systeme commercial sur les debris du notre ; 
 
 " Tels sont les fruits amers du systeme dont nous avons it€ les principales victimes." 
 Such is the well authenticated account, laid before the Chamber of Deputies by 12,563 
 landowners and merchants of the Gironde, of the practical operation and real effect of that 
 very system of policy, which, extraordinary as it may seem, has been held up for imitatior 
 to the parliament of England ! 
 
 The effect of this system upon the silk trade of France, the most important branch 
 
170 
 
 BOSTON. 
 
 of her manufacturing industry, and one in which she had long the superiority, is similar, 
 and hardly less destructive. Her prohibitions have forced others to manufacture for 
 themselves, so that the foreign demand for silks is rapidly diminishing. It is stated, in 
 Observations addressees d la Commission d'Enquete, by the delegate of the Chamber of 
 Commerce of Lyons, that the silk manufacture is in the worst possible state. " Ce qui 
 doit surtout exciter," he observes, " la sollicitude du gouvernement, et le decider a 
 entrer dans nos vues, c'est I'e'tat deplorable, alarmant, de la fabrique de Lyon : les quatre 
 annees de 1824 a 1827 offrent sur les quatre annees precedentes un deficit qui excede 
 150 mille kilog. pour les seules expeditions d'Allemagne; I'annee 1828, et I'annee 
 courante, 1829, nous donnent une progression decroissante plus efFray ante encore." — 
 (p. 11.) It is further stated, in a Report by the manufacturers of Lyons, that there 
 were 26,000 looms employed in that city in 1824, while at present there are not more 
 than 15,000. The competition of Switzerland and England has been chiefly instru- 
 mental in producing these effects. At Zurich, where there were only 3,000 looms em- 
 ployed in 1815, there were, in 1830, more than 5,000 ; and at Eberfeld, where there were 
 none in 1815, there were then above 1,000. Switzerland is said to have, in all, 11,000 
 looms employed at this moment (1833) in the manufacture of plain broad silks. 
 
 Besides the injury done to the wine trade of France by her anti-commercial system, 
 it has been much injured by the octrois, and other duties laid on wine when used for 
 home consumption. These, however, have been modified since the accession of Louis- 
 Philippe ; and it is reasonable to suppose, that the experience that has been afforded of 
 the ruinous effects of the prohibitive system, and the more general diffusion of correct 
 ideas with respect to the real sources of wealth, Avill at no distant period cause the 
 adoption of such changes in the commercial legislation of France, as may render it 
 more conducive to her interest, and more in accordance with the spirit of the age. It 
 we were hostile to France, we should wish her to continue the present system; blit we 
 disclaim being actuated by any such feelings. We are truly anxious for her prosperity, for 
 her sake and our own ; for, unless she be surrounded by Bishop Berkeley's wall of brass, 
 whatever contributes to her prosperity must, in some degree, redound to the advantage 
 of her neighbours. 
 
 " Were such narrow and malignant politics to m.eet with success," said Mr. Hume, 
 writing in the middle of the last century, and when the prosperity of others was generally 
 regarded with an evil eye, " we should reduce all our neighbouring nations to the same 
 state of sloth and ignorance that prevails in Morocco and the coast of Barbary. But 
 what would be the consequence ? They could send us no commodities ; they could take 
 none from us : our domestic commerce itself would languish for want of emulation, 
 example, and instruction ; and we om-selves should soon fall into the same abject con- 
 dition to which we had reduced them. I shall, therefore, venture to acknowledge, that 
 not only as a man, but as a British subject, I pray for the flourishing commerce of Ger- 
 many, Spain, Italy, and even France itself. I am, at least, certain that Great Britain, 
 and all those nations, would flourish more, did their sovereigns and ministers adopt 
 such enlarged and benevolent sentiments towards each other." — (Essat/ on the Jealousy 
 of Trade.) 
 
 For a more ample exposition of the nature and effects of the French commercial 
 system, the reader is referred to an article in the 99th Number of the Edinburgh Re- 
 view, contributed by the author of this work. Most of the foregoing statements are 
 taken from that article. 
 
 BOSTON, a commercial city of the United States, the capital of Massachusetts, and 
 the largest tov/n of New England, in lat. 42° 23' N., long. 71° 4' W. Population, in 
 1830, 62,000. The city is situated on a peninsxila near the bottom of a large and deep 
 bay, being surrounded on all sides by water, except on the south, where it is joined to 
 the main land by the narrow isthmus called Boston Neck. But it communicates, by 
 means of extensive wooden bridges, with Charleston on the north side of the bay, and 
 with Dorchester on the south. Boston Bay is of great extent, and is studded witli 
 many islands. The plan, on the opposite side, will give a better idea of it than could 
 be derived from any description. 
 
 References to Plan. — A, outer light house, 65 feet high, having a revolving light, alternately brilliant 
 4n and obscured 20 seconds. B, huoy on the outward edge of the shoal, off Alderton Point. C, D, E, 
 Great, Middle, and Outward lirewster's Islands. F, George's Island. The passage for ships, lying between 
 this island and the rocks on the opposite side of Lovell's Island (G\ being very narrow, it is, in effect, 
 the key of the harbour; and large sums have recently been expended on its fortification. To the south 
 of George's Island, and Hospital Island (II), is Nantasket road, where there is good anchorage. 'I'he 
 outer harbour lies to the west of Novell's ((i) and George's (F) Islands, being separated from the inner 
 harbour by Castle Island (M), and Governor's Island (Nj. On the north end of Long Island (I) is a har- 
 bour fixed light, 27 feet high. K, Deer Island, L, Spectacle Island. O, Middle Ground, dry at J ebb. 
 P, Upper and Middle Ground having, at ebb, only 5 feet water. Q, Thomson's Island. II, Dorchester 
 peninsula. S, Noodle Island. T, (Charleston. Governor's Island (N), Castle Island (M), and Noodle's 
 Island (S), are all fortified. The course that a ship ought to steer is marked l)y the dotted line, leading 
 between the light-house and Alderton Point, and between George's Island (F) and Lovell's Island (G). 
 The soundings are laid down ui fathoms at low water. 
 
172 
 
 BOSTON. 
 
 Shipping. — According to the official accounts laid before Congress, 15th of February, 1833, the 
 registered, enrolled, and licensed tonnage belonging to Boston in 1831 amounted to 138,174 tons, of which 
 21,084 tons were employed in the coasting trade, and 17,784 in the fisheries.* 
 
 In 1831, there arrived from foreign parts 76fi ships, of the burden of 126,980 tons. Of these were, 
 American, 671 ships, tonnage 115,780 ; and British, 86 ships, tonnage 9,350. With the exception of 
 Sweden, which sent 3, there was not more than 1 ship from any other country ! In 1832, the foreign 
 arrivals were 1,064 ships, tonnage not stated : of these, 842 were American, and 211 British. 
 
 The arrivals coastwise in 1832 were 3,536 ; of these were 62 ships, 514 brigs, 2,332 schooners, and 628 
 sloops. 
 
 Shipping Charges. — For an accoinit of these, see New York. 
 
 How to enter the Port. — In coming from the Atlantic, a ship should bring the light^house to bear W. 
 by N. to W.N. W., and run direct for it. The largest ships may pass it at within less than a cable's 
 length. If there be no pilot on board, or the master be unacquainted with the harbour, or the wind be 
 north-westerly, which is the most unfavourable for entering, she had better steer W. by S. for Nantasket 
 roads, where she may anchor, and get a pilot. 
 
 Mooring, S(C. — Generally speaking, there is sufficient depth of water to enable the largest ships to come 
 up to town at all times of the tide. They usually moor alongside quays or wharfs, where they lie in 
 perfect safety. There are in all about 60 wharfs; which, for the most part, are built on piles, with a 
 superstructure of stone and earth. The two principal are " Long Wharf," 550 yards in length; and 
 " Central Wharf," 413 yards long by 50 in breadth, having a range of lofty brick stores and warehouses 
 along its whole length. 
 
 Pilotage. — No particular place is specified at which vessels must heave to for a pilot. But all vessels, 
 with the exception of coasters under 200 tons, and American vessels laden with plaster of Paris from 
 British America, if hailed by a pilot within about 1| mile of the outer light, must take him on board, 
 under a penalty of 50 dollars. If they have got within this distance before being hailed, the obligation 
 to take a pilot on board ceases. This regulation has obviously been dictated by a wish to have the pilots 
 constantly on the alert ; it being supposed that masters not well acquainted with the bay will heave to to 
 take one on board, though they have got within the free limits. 
 
 Table of the Rates of Pilotage on Outward and Inward bound Vessels in the Port of Boston. * 
 
 Outward. 
 
 Inward. 
 
 From Nov. 1. to May 1. 
 
 From May 1. to Nov. 2. 
 
 From Nov. 1. to May 1. 
 
 From May 1. to Nov. 1. 
 
 Ships Dol. 
 drwg. per 
 Water. Foot. 
 
 7 ft. 0-90 
 
 8 0-90 
 
 9 0-90 
 
 10 0-95 
 
 11 1-00 
 
 12 1-05 
 
 13 1-10 
 
 14 110 
 
 15 rio 
 
 16 1 10 
 
 Ships Dol. 
 drwg. per 
 Water. Foot. 
 
 17 ft. 110 
 
 18 1-20 
 
 19 1-30 
 
 20 1-50 
 
 21 2-()0 
 
 22 2-50 
 
 23 2 75 
 
 24 2-75 
 
 25 2-75 
 
 Ships Dol. 
 drwg. per 
 Water. Foot. 
 
 7 ft. 0-75 
 
 8 0-75 
 
 9 075 
 
 10 0-80 
 
 11 0-85 
 
 12 0-90 
 
 13 0-95 
 
 14 0-95 
 
 15 0-95 
 
 16 0 95 
 
 Ships Del. 
 drwg. per 
 Water. Foot. 
 
 17 ft. 1-00 
 
 18 1-00 
 
 19 1-25 
 
 20 1-50 
 
 21 175 
 
 22 2-00 
 
 23 225 
 
 24 2-25 
 
 25 2.25 
 
 Ships Dol. 
 drwg. per 
 Water. Foot. 
 
 7 ft. 1-45 
 
 8 1-45 
 
 9 1-45 
 
 10 1-56 
 
 11 172 
 
 12 177 
 
 13 177 
 
 14 1-87 
 
 15 1-87 
 
 16 1-87 
 
 Ships ; Dol. 
 drwg. per 
 Water. Foot. 
 
 17 ft. 1-87 
 
 18 2-50 
 
 19 275 
 
 20 3 00 
 
 21 4-00 
 
 22 4-00 
 
 23 4-00 
 
 24 4-00 
 
 25 4-00 
 
 Ships Dol. 
 drwg. per 
 Water. 1" oot. 
 
 7 ft. 1-10 
 
 8 1-10 
 
 9 rio 
 
 10 1-20 
 
 11 1-25 
 
 12 1-30 
 
 13 1-35 
 
 14 1-3 J 
 
 15 1-35 
 
 16 1-35 
 
 Ships Dol. . 
 drwg. per 
 Water. Foot 
 
 17 ft. 1-35 
 
 18 1-88 
 
 19 1-88 
 
 20 1-88 
 
 21 2-80 
 
 22 3-00 
 
 23 3-00 
 
 24 3-00 
 
 25 300 
 
 Careening, Stores, — Boston is a very favourable place for careening and repairing ships. All 
 kinds of supplies may be had of the best quality and at moderate prices. 
 
 Customs Revenue. — The amount collected at Boston in 1831 was 5,227,592 dollars = 1,176,208/, 4*. 
 — (For an account of the American warehousing system, see New York.) 
 
 Immigration. — The number of immigrants arriving at Boston is not great, seldom exceeding 1,600 in a 
 year. A city ordinance directs that the masters of vessels bringing immigrants shall enter into a bond 
 with sureties to the amount of 200 dollars for each immigrant, that he shall not become a charge upon the 
 state for 3 years, or pay a commutation of 5 dollars on account of each individual. But this regulation 
 does not apply to immigrants having a reasonable amount of property ; the declaration of the foreign con- 
 suls as to this point is commonly acted upon. 
 
 Trade of Boston, ^c. — Boston has a very extensive trade with the southern states 
 and with foreign countries, and is also one of the principal seats of the American 
 fisheries. She is wholly indebted to her southern neighbours, and principally to New 
 York, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, for supplies of flour and wheat, and for large 
 quantities of barley, maize, oatmeal, oats, &c., as well as for cotton, tobacco, staves, rice, 
 &c. Of these, the imports of flour may amount, at an average, to about 400,000 barrels 
 a year ; all sorts of grain to about 2,000,000 bushels ; cotton, 1 60,000 bales ; staves, 
 3,000,000, &c. Her returns are made, partly in native raw produce, as beef, pork, 
 lard, &c. ; partly and principally in the produce of her manufacturing industry, in 
 which Massachusetts is decidedly superior to every other state in the Union ; and partly 
 in the produce of her fisheries and foreign trade. At an average, Boston annually sends 
 to the southern ports of the Union about 45,000 barrels of beef and pork; 165,000 
 barrels of mackarel, herrings, alewives, &c. ; 20,000 quintals of dried and smoked 
 fish ; 3,500,000 pairs of boots and shoes ; 600,000 bundles of paper ; besides a very large 
 amount of cotton and woollen manufactured goods, nails, furniture, cordage, &c. ; so as 
 to leave a large balance in her favour. Her exports of native produce to foreign 
 countries consist principally of the same articles she sends to the southern states ; but 
 she also exports a large amount of the foreign produce she had previously imported. 
 The imports from abroad consist principally of cotton and woollen goods; linens, 
 canvas, &c. ; hardware, silks, sugar, tea, coffee, wines and brandy, spices, hides, 
 
 • By comparing this return with that for 1828, given in the former edition of this work, there would 
 appear to have been a considerable falling off in the interim in the amount of shipping; this however, ia 
 "ot really the case. For an exi)lanation of the discrepancy, sec art. New York. 
 
BOSTON. 
 
 173 
 
 indigo, dye woods, &c. The total imports from foreign countries into the state of 
 Massachusetts in the year ending 30tli of September, 1832, amounted to 18,1 18,900 
 dollars ; while the exports of native produce, during the same year, amounted to only 
 4,656,635 dollars, and of native and foreign produce together, to 1 1,993,763 dollars ^ 
 the balance against Massachusetts being paid off by bills upon the southern states, to 
 which she exports much more than she imports. New York alone is, in fact, supposed 
 to be at all times Indebted to Boston about 5,000,000 dollars. We subjoin a summary 
 
 Account of the Trade of Boston and Massachusetts with Foreign Countries in 1831. 
 
 Imports from 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden and Denmark 
 
 Brazil 
 
 England 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 Do. West Indies 
 
 Do. American provinces 
 Cuba and Spanish West Indies 
 China 
 
 From other places to Boston 
 
 Total value of imports to Boston 
 To other ports m Massachusetts 7 
 from various places - -J 
 
 Total value of imports into Mas- 7 
 sachusetts - -J 
 
 nollars. 
 
 1,606,300 
 322,800 
 398,.500 
 6,030,000 
 685,000 
 92,000 
 92,100 
 1,991,300 
 762,000 
 
 12,278,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 13,278,000 
 991,056 
 
 14,269,056 
 
 14,269,056 dollars = 3,210,527/. 12s. sterling. 
 
 Exports to 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden and Denmark 
 
 Brazil 
 
 England 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 Do. West Indies 
 
 Do. American provinces 
 Cuba and Spanish West Indies 
 China 
 
 To other places from Boston 
 
 Total value of exports from Boston 
 To various places from other ports ? 
 in Massachusetts - -J 
 
 Total value of exports from") 
 Massachusetts - -3 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 176,400 
 285,fi00 
 428,500 
 200,(jOO 
 426,000 
 80,500 
 531,000 
 1,077,000 
 325,000 
 
 3,530,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 5,530,000 
 2,203,763 
 
 7,733,763 
 
 7,733,763 dollars = 1,740,096/. 13s. 6rf. sterling. 
 
 Banks. — In January, 1833, there were 84 banks in the state of Massachusetts, of which 24 were in 
 Boston. Of the latter, 4 or 5 were only recently established. We subjoin a detailed statement of the 
 principal circumstances in the condition of the Boston banks in 1830 ; and for further particulars the 
 reader is referred to the article Banks (Foreign). 
 
 U. S. Branch 
 
 American 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 New England 
 
 State Bank 
 
 Washington 
 
 Commonwealth 
 
 Eagle 
 
 Globe 
 
 Union 
 
 Boston 
 
 City 
 
 Columbian 
 
 Franklin 
 
 Tremont 
 
 North Bank 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 15,000 
 7,500 
 3,200 
 10,000 
 30,000 
 5,000 
 5,000 
 5,000 
 10,000 
 8,000 
 12,000 
 10,000 
 5,000 
 1,000 
 5,000 
 5,000 
 7,500 
 5,000 
 
 Totals 
 
 I 149,200 
 
 100 
 100 
 250 
 100 
 
 60 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 75 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1,500,000 
 750,000 
 800,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,800,000 
 500,000 
 500,000 
 500,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 800,000 
 900,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 500,000 
 100,000 
 500,000 
 500,000 
 750,000 
 500,000 
 
 i 13,900,000 
 
 Jan. 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 3|— July 3| 
 
 1 —Oct. 2 
 
 2 —Oct. 2| 
 
 3 —Oct. 3 
 2|— Oct. 2i 
 1|— Oct. 2i 
 3 —Oct. 3 
 3 —Oct. 3 
 2|— Oct. 3 
 2 —Oct. 2J 
 0 —Oct. 3 
 ]|— Oct 3 
 
 2 —Oct. 2i 
 
 3 —Oct. 3i 
 0 —Oct. 2i 
 3|— Oct. 3i 
 3 —Oct. 3 
 2i— Oct. li 
 
 Dollars. 
 105,000 
 
 22,500 
 36,000 
 60,000 
 90,000 
 18,750 
 30,000 
 30,000 
 55,000 
 44,000 
 27,000 
 45,000 
 22,500 
 6,500 
 12,500 
 33,750 
 45,000 
 20,000 
 
 I 703,500 
 
 So that there were in 1830, in Boston, 18 banks with a capital of 13,900,000 dollars. The dividends on 
 this sum for the same year amounted to 703,500 dollars, being at the rate of 5 06 per cent. The paper 
 under discount is estimated to have exceeded 70,000,000 dollars. — (Statement bv J. H. Goddard New 
 York Advertiser, 29th of January, 1831.) " ' 
 
 Insurance Companies. — Insurance, both fire and marine, is carried on to a great extent by joint stock 
 companies, and to some extent also by individuals. The stocks of the different insurance companies 
 amounted in January, 1833, to 6,675,000 dollars. Only one company is established for insurance upon lives. 
 The stocks of the different insurance companies produced, in 1830, an average dividend of 5-113 per cent. 
 
 Credit. — Foreign goods are frequently sold for ready money, but more usually at a credit of from 3 to 
 12 months : average length of credit, 6 months ; but on iron and some other articles, 12 months' credit is 
 given. Discount for ready money at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Commission. — The rates of commission are arbitrary, varying from 2 to 5, and sometimes (del credere 
 included) to 7| per cent. On small accounts, and West India goods, 5 per cent, is usually charged. The 
 ordinary rate may be taken at 2| per cent. ; but competition is so great, that commission merchants may 
 be found who will transact business on almost any terms. Sometimes whole cargoes are sold by brokers 
 on an agreement to receive a specific sum in lieu of commission and brokerage. 
 
 Bankruptcy. — The law as to bankruptcy in Massachusetts seems to be in a most disgraceful state. 
 Preferences are very frequently given ; and property is in many instances conveyed, for behoof of the 
 bankrupt's family, to persons said to be creditors to a corresponding amount, without their having any 
 real claim to such character. It is true that these conveyances may be cancelled ; but the difficulties 
 in the way are so great, that they are seldom set aside. The safest course that a foreigner, or one not 
 thoroughly acquainted with the city, can pursue, is to deal only for ready money : and to employ none but 
 the most respectable agents. 
 
174? 
 
 BOIARGO. — BOTTOMRY. 
 
 Money. — In Massachusetts, and throughout New England, the dollar passes at 6s. ; so that the pound 
 sterling = 1/. 6a-. M. Boston currency. — (For further particulars as to Money, Weights, Measures, &c. see 
 New York.) 
 
 We have derived these details partly from the authorities referred to, partly from private information, 
 and partly from the elaborate Answers of the Consul to the Circular Queries. 
 
 BOTARGO, called in Provence Bouargues, a sausage made on the shores of the 
 Mediterranean and the Black Sea, of the roe of the mullet. The best comes from Tunis 
 and Alexandria. 
 
 BOTTLES (Fr. Bouteilles ; Gqy. Bouteillen ; It. Bottiglie s Fiaschi ; 'Rns. Buldlki ; 
 Sp. Botellas), glass vessels for holding liquids, too well known to require any description. 
 They are exported in considerable quantities. The duty of 8s. a cwt. on bottle glass, 
 like the duties on other descriptions of glass, is both oppressive in amount, and is imposed 
 and collected in the most vexatious manner. The manufacture has declined considerably 
 since 1826. — (For further details, see Glass.) 
 
 BOTTOMRY and RESPONDENTIA. — Bottomry, in commercial navigation, is 
 a mortgage of the ship. The owner or captain of a ship is, under certain circumstances, 
 authorised to borrow money, either to fit her out so as to enable her to proceed on her 
 voyage, or to purchase a cargo for the voyage, pledging the keel, or bottom of the ship 
 (a part for the Avhole), in security for payment. In bottomry contracts it is stipulated, 
 that if the ship be lost in the course of the voyage, the lender shall lose his whole 
 money ; but if the ship arrive in safety at her destination, the lender is then entitled to 
 get back his principal, and the interest agreed upon, however much that interest may 
 exceed the legal rate. — ( Black. Com. book ii. c. 30. ) The extraordinary hazard run 
 by the lenders of money on bottomry, who, in fact, become adventurers in the voyage, 
 has been held, in all countries, as justifying them in stipulating for the highest rate 
 of interest. 
 
 When the loan is not on the ship, but on the goods laden on board, which, from their 
 nature, must be sold or exchanged in the course of the voyage, the borrower's personal 
 responsibility is then the principal security for the performance of the contract, which is 
 therefore called respondentia. In this consists the principal difference between bottomry 
 and respondentia. The one is a loan upon the ship, the other upon the goods. The 
 money is to be repaid to the lender, with the marine interest, upon the safe arrival of 
 the ship, in the one case ; and of the goods, in the other. In all other respects, these 
 contracts are nearly the same, and are governed by the same principles. In the former, 
 the ship and tackle, being hypothecated, are liable, as well as the person of the bor- 
 rower; in the latter, the lender has, in general, only the personal security of- the 
 borrower. 
 
 This contract, which miist alivays he in writing, is sometimes made in the form of a 
 deed poll, called a bill of bottomry, executed by the borrower ; sometimes in the form of 
 a bond or obligation, with a penalty. But whatever may be its form, it must contain 
 the names of the lender and the borrower, those of the ship and the master ; the sum lent, 
 with the stipulated marine interest ; the voyage proposed, with the commencement and 
 duration of the risk which the lender is to run. It must show v/hether the money is 
 lent upon the ship, or upon goods on board, or on both ; and every other stipulation and 
 agreement which the parties may think proper to introduce into the contract. — (See 
 the Forms at the end of this article.) 
 
 « It is obvious," says Lord Tenterden, " that a loan of money upon bottomry, while 
 it relieves the owner from many of the perils of a maritime adventure, deprives him also 
 of a great part of the profits of a successful voyage ; and, therefore, in the place of the 
 owners^ residence, where they may exercise their own judgment upon the propriety of 
 borrowing money in this manner, the master of the ship is, by the maritime law of all 
 states, precluded from doing it, so as to bind the interest of his owners without their 
 consent. With regard to a foreign country, the rule appears to be, that "f the master of 
 a vessel has occasion for money to repair or victual his ship, or for any other purpose 
 necessary to enable him to complete the enterprise in which she is engaged ; whether the 
 occasion arises from any extraordinary peril or misfortune, or from the ordinary course 
 of the adventure ; he may, if he cannot otherwise obtain it, borrow money on bottomry 
 at marine interest, and pledge the ship, and the freight to be earned in the voyage, for 
 repayment at the termination of the voyage. When this is done, the owners are never 
 personally responsible. The remedy of the lender is against the master of the ship." 
 — {Law of Shipping, part ii. c. 3.) 
 
 In bottomry and respondentia bonds, the lender receives the whole of his principal 
 and interest, or nothing; he is not aiisiccrable for general or pai'iicular average * ; nor will 
 any loss by capture, if subsequently recaptured, affect liis claim. In this respect our 
 
 * Mr. Serjeant Marshall doubts this ; but it was so decided by the Court of King's Bench in Joyce v. 
 Williamson, B. R. Mich. 23 Geo. 3. 
 
BOTTOMRY. 
 
 175 
 
 law differs from that of France ( Code de Commerce, art. 330.) and most other countries : 
 the lenders on bottomry bonds being there subject to average, as our underwriters upon 
 policies of insurance. No loss can void a bottomry contract, unless a total loss, proceed- 
 ing from a peril of the sea, during the voyage, and within the time specified by the con- 
 tract. If the loss happen through any default or act of the owners or master, to which 
 the lender was not privy, he may still recover. 
 
 There is no restriction by the law of England as to the persons to whom money may 
 be lent on bottomry or at respondentia, except in the single case of loans on the ships 
 of foreigners trading to the East Indies, which are forbidden by the 7 Geo. 1. stat. 1. 
 c. 21. § 2. 
 
 It does not, however, appear to be necessary, in order to enable the master of a 
 ship in a foreign port to obtain money for her repair, outfit, &c., that the contract 
 pledging the vessel in security of the debt should be in the nature of a bottomry bond. 
 Provided the person who advances the money do not choose to take upon himself the 
 risk of the ship's return, and do 7iot stipidate for maritime interest, " there seems," says 
 Lord Tenterden, " to be no reason why the master should not pledge both the ship and 
 the personal credit of the owner." And in the case of mofiey advanced in this way to 
 refit a ship in distress at Jamaica, which was captured on the voyage home, the lender 
 recovered. — (Law of Shipping, part ii. c. 3.) 
 
 Bottomry contracts were well known to the ancients. At Athens, the rate of interest 
 was not fixed by law; but the customary rate seems to have been about 12 per cent. 
 But when money was lent for a voyage, upon the security of the ship and cargo, the 
 interest, on account of the superior risk encountered by the lender, Avas in most cases 
 much higher. In voyages to the Taurica Chersonesus and Sicily, it was sometimes as 
 high as 30 per cent. — (Anacharsis's Travels, vol. iv. p. 369. Eng. trans.) By the 
 Rhodian law, the exaction of such high interest as is usual in bottomry was declared to 
 be illegal, unless the principal was really exposed to the dangers of the sea. — {BoecklCs 
 Public Economy of Athens, vol. i. p. 177. Eng. ti ans.) This principle was adopted by 
 the Romans, who gave to bottomry interest the name of nauticum fcenus ; and has been 
 transferred from the Roman law into all modern codes. 
 
 '* Formerly," says Mr. Serjeant Marshall, " the practice of borrowing money on bot- 
 tomry and respondentia was more general in this country than it is at present. The im- 
 mense capitals now engaged in every branch of commerce render such loans unnecessary ; 
 and money is now seldom bon-owed in this manner, but by the masters of foreign ships 
 who put into our ports in need of pecuniary assistance to refit, to pay their men, to pur- 
 chase provisions, &c. Sometimes oflScers and others belonging to ships engaged in long 
 voyages, who have the liberty of trading to a certain extent, with the prospect of great 
 profit, but without capitals of their own to employ in such trade, take up money on 
 respondentia to make their investments ; but even this, as I am informed, is now not very 
 frequently done in this country." 
 
 The term bottomry has sometimes been incorrectly applied to designate a contract, by 
 the terms of which the ship is not pledged as a security, but the repayment of money, 
 with a high premium for the risk, is made to depend upon the success of the voyage. 
 This, however, is plainly a loan upon a particular adventure, to be made by a particular 
 ship, and not a loan upon the ship, and, of course, the lender has only the personal se- 
 curity of the borrower for the due performance of the contract. And it seems that loans 
 have sometimes been made in this manner, and probably also with a pledge of the ship 
 itself, to an amount exceeding the value of the borroAver's interest in the ship ; and such 
 a contract is still legal in this country in all cases, except the case of ships belonging to 
 British subjects bound to or from the East Indies ; as to which it is enacted (19 Geo. 2. 
 c. 37. § 5.), 
 
 " That all sums of money lent on bottomry or at respondentia upon any ship or ships belonging to his 
 Majesty's subjects, bound to or from the East Indies, shall be lent only on the ship, or on the merchandise 
 or effects laden, or to be laden, on board of such ship, and shall be so expressed in the condition of the 
 bond, and the benefit of salva ;e shall be allowed to the lender, his agents or assigns, who alone shall have 
 a right to make assurance on the money so lent; and no borrower of money on bottomry or at respon. 
 dentia as aforesaid, shall recover more on any assurance than the value of his interest on the ship, or in 
 tlie merchandises and effects laden on board of such ship, exclusive of the money so borrowed ; and in 
 case it shall appear that the value of his share in the ship, or in the merchandises and effects laden on 
 board, doth not amount to the full sum or sums he hath borrowed as aforesaid, such borrower shall be 
 resi)onsible to the lender for so much of the money borrowed as he hath not laid out on the ship, or 
 merchandises laden thereon, in the proportion the money not laid out shall bear to the whole money lent, 
 notwithstanding the ship and merchandises be totally lost" 
 
 Lord Tenterden says that this statute Avas introduced for the protection of the trade of 
 the East India Company ; and its rules must be complied with in the case of bottomry 
 by the masters of ships trading to the East Indies. 
 
 For a further discussion of this subject, see Abbott on the Laic of Shipping, part ii. 
 c. S. ; Marshall on Insurance, book ii. ; and Park on Insurance, c. 21. 
 
176 
 
 BOUNTY. 
 
 I. Form of a Bottomry Bond. 
 
 KNOW ALL MEN by these presents, That I, A. B. commander and two-thirds ownsr of the ship 
 Exeter, for myself and C. D., remaining third-owner of the said ship, am held and firmly bound unto 
 E. F. in the penal sum of two thousand pounds sterling, for the payment of which well and truly to be 
 made unto the said E. F, his heirs, executors, administrators, or assigns, I hereby bind myself, my heirs, 
 executors, and administrators, firmly by these presents. In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand 
 and seal, this 14th day of December, in the year of our Lord 1796. 
 
 Whereas the above bound A. B. hath taken up and received of the said E. F. the full and just sum of 
 one thousand pounds sterling, which sum is to run at respondentia on the block and freight of the ship 
 Exeter., whereof the said A. B. is now master, from the port or road of Bombay on a voyage to the port 
 of London, having permission to touch, stay at, and proceed to all ports and places within the limits of 
 the voyage, at the rate or premium of twenty.five per cent. (25 per cent.) for the voyage. In consideration 
 whereof usual risks of the seas, rivers, enemies, fires, pirates, &c. are to be on account of the said E. F. 
 And for the further security of the said E. F. the said A. B. doth by these presents mortgage and assign 
 over to the said E. F., his heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns, the said ship Exeter, and her 
 freight, together with all her tackle, apparel, &c. And it is hereby declared, that the said ship Exeter 
 and her freight is thus assigned over for the security of the respondentia taken up by the said A. B., and 
 shall be delivered to no other use or purpose whatever, until payment of this bond is first made, with the 
 premium that may become due thereon. 
 
 Now THE Condition of this obligation is such, that if the above bound A. B., his heirs, executors, or 
 administrators, shall and do well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, unto the said E. F. or his attorneys in 
 Lmdon legally authorised to receive the same, their executors, administrators, or assigns, the full and 
 just sum of 1,000/. sterling, being the principal of this bond, together with the premium which shall be- 
 come due thereupon, at or before the expiration of ninety days after the safe arrival of the said ship 
 Exeter at her moorings in the river Thames, or in case of the loss of the said ship Exeter, such an aver, 
 age as by custom shall have become due on the salvage, then this obligation to be void and of no effect, 
 otherwise to remain in full force and virtue. Having signed to three bonds of the same tenor and date, 
 the one of which being accomplished, the other two to be void and of no effect. 
 
 and C. D* 
 
 paper is to be had, in the presence of J /. K. 
 
 Signed, sealed, and delivered, where no stamped | G. H. 
 
 ^. 5. for self j 
 
 * In this bond the occasion of borrowing the money is not expressed, but the money was in reality 
 borrowed to refit the ship which being on a voyage from Bengal to London was obliged to put back to 
 Bombay to repair. See The Exeter, Whifford, 1 Rob. A. R. 176. The occasion therefore of borrowing 
 the money gave the lender the security of the entire interest of the ship. But this bond, although ex- 
 pressed to be executed by the master for himself and the other part-owner, would not bind the other part, 
 owner personally, unless he had by a previous deed authorised the master to execute such a bond for him. 
 — {Abbott on the Law of Shipping, part iii. c. 1. § 2.) 
 
 II. Form of a Bottomry Bill. 
 
 TO ALL MEN TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME. I, A. B. of Bengal, mariner, 
 part-owner and master of the ship called the Exeter, of the burthen of five hundred tons and upwards, 
 now riding at anchor in Table Bay, at the Cape of Good Hope, send greeting : 
 
 Whereas I, the said A. B., part-owner and master of the aforesaid ship, called the Exeter, now in pro- 
 secution of a voyage from Bengal to the port of London, having put into Table Bay for the purpose of 
 procuring provision and other supplies necessary for the continuation and performance of the voyage 
 aforesaid, am at this time necessitated to take up upon the adventure of the said ship, called the Exeter, 
 the sum of one thousand pounds sterling monies of Great Britain, for setting the said ship to sea, and 
 furnishing her with provisions and necessaries for the said voyage, which sum C. D. of the Cape of Good 
 Hope, master attendant, hath at my request lent unto me, and supplied me with, at the rate of tivelve 
 hundred and twenty pounds sterling for the said one thousand pounds, being at the rate of one hundred 
 and twenty. two pounds foreverv hundred pounds advanced as aforesaid, during the voyage of the said 
 ship from Table Bay to London.' Now know ye, that I, the said A. B., by these presents, do, for me, my 
 executors and administrators, covenant and grant to and with the said C. D. that the said ship shall, with 
 the first convoy which shall offer for England after the date of these presents, sail and depart for the port of 
 London, there to finish the voyage aforesaid. And I, the said A. B., in consideration of the sum of one 
 thousand pounds sterling to me in hand paid by the said C. D. at and before the sealing and delivery of 
 these presents, do hereby bind myself, iny heirs, executors, and administrators, my goods and chattels, and 
 particularly the said ship, the tackle and apparel of the same, and also the freight of the said ship, which 
 is or shall become due for the aforesaid voyage from Bengal to the port of London, to pay unto the said 
 C. D., his executors, administrators, or assigns, the sum of twelve hundred and twenty pounds of lawful 
 British money, within thirty days next after the safe arrival of the said ship at the port of London from 
 the same intended voyage. 
 
 And I, the said A. B., do, for me, my executors and administrators, covenant and grant to and with the 
 said C. D., his executors and administrators, by these presents, that I, the said A. B., at the time of sealing 
 and delivering of these presents, am a true and lawful part-owner and master of the said ship, and have 
 power and authority to charge and engage the said ship with her freight as aforesaid, and that the said 
 ship, with her freight, shall, at all times after the said voyage, be liable and chargeable for the payment of 
 the said tivelve hundred and twenty pounds, according to the true intent and meaning of these presents. 
 
 And lastly, it is hereby declared and agreed by and between the said parties to these presents, that in 
 case the said ship shall be lost, miscarry, or be cast away before her arrival at the said port of London 
 from the said intended voyage, that then the payment of the said twelve hundred and twenty pounds shall 
 not be demanded, or be recoverable by the said C. D., his executors, administrators, or assigns, but shall 
 cease and determine, and the loss thereby be wholly borne and sustained by the said C. D., his executors 
 and administrators, and that then and from thenceforth every act, matter, and thing herein mentioned 
 on the part and behalf of the said A. B. shall be void ; any thing herein contained to the contrary not- 
 withstanding. 
 
 In witness whereof the- parties have interchangeably set their hands and seals to four 
 bonds of this tenor and date, one of which being paid, the others to be null and void. 
 
 At the Cape of Good Hope, this ir>th day of November, in the year of our Lord 
 one thousand eight hundred and thirty. 
 
 Witness, 5 G. H. A. B. (l. s.) 
 
 Llk. 
 
 BOUNTY, a term used in commerce and the arts, to signify a premium paid by 
 government to the producers, exporters, or importers of certain articles, or to those who 
 employ ships in certain trades. 
 
BOX-WOOD. 
 
 177 
 
 1. Bounties on Production are most commonly given in the view of encouraging the 
 establishment of some new branch of industry ; or tlicy are intended to foster and extend 
 a branch that is believed to be of paramount importance. In neither case, however, is 
 their utility very obvious.' In all old settled and wealthy countries, numbers of indi- 
 viduals are always ready to embark in every new undertaking, if it promise to be really 
 advantageous, without any stimulus from government : and if a branch of industry, 
 already established, be really important and suitable for the country, it will assuredly be 
 prosecuted to the necessary extent, without any encouragement other than the natural 
 demand for its produce. 
 
 2. Bounties on Exportation and Importatioru — It is enacted by the 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52., that a mercliant 
 or exporter claiming a bounty or drawback on goods exported, must make oath that they have been actually 
 exported, and have not been relandcd, and are not intended to be relanded, in any part of the United 
 Kingdom, or in the Isle of Man (unless entered for the Isle of Man), or in the islands of Faro or Ferro : 
 and it is further enacted, that if any goods cleared to be exported for a bounty or drawback, shall not be 
 duly exported to parts beyond the seas, or shall be relanded in any part of the United Kingdom, or in the 
 islands of Faro or Ferro, or shall be carried to the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Alan, 
 (not having been duly entered, cleared, and shipped for exportation to such islands,) such goods shall be 
 forfeited, together with the ship or ships employed in relanding or carrying them ; and any person by 
 whom or by whose orders or means such goods shall have been cleared, relanded, or carried, shall forfeit 
 a sum equal to treble the value of such goods. — \ \ 87—95. 
 
 3. Policy of Bounties. — It was formerly customary to grant bounties on the export- 
 ation of various articles ; but the impolicy of such practice is now very generally admitted. 
 It is universally allowed that bounties, if they be given at all, should be given only to 
 the exporters of such commodities as could not be exported without them. But it is 
 plain that, by granting a bounty in such cases, we really tax the public, in order to supply 
 the foreigner with commodities at less than they cost. A. has a parcel of goods which 
 he cannot dispose of abroad for less than llOZ. ; but they will fetch only 100/. in the 
 foreign market; and he claims and gets a bounty of lOZ. to enable him to export them. 
 Such is the mode in which bounties on exportation uniformly operate ; and to suppose 
 that they can be a means of enriching the public, is equivalent to supposing that a shop- 
 keeper may be enriched by selling his goods for less than they cost ! 
 
 But however injurious to the state, it has been pretty generally supposed that bounties 
 on exportation are advantageous to those who produce and export the articles on which 
 they are paid. But the fact is not so. A trade that cannot be carried on withont the 
 aid of a bounty, must be a naturally disadvantageous one. Hence, by granting it, 
 individuals are tempted to engage or continue in businesses which are necessarily very 
 insecure, and are rarely capable of being rendered lucrative ; at the same time that they 
 are prevented, by trusting to the bounty, from making those exertions they naturally 
 would have made, had they been obliged to depend entirely on superior skill and industry 
 for the sale of their produce. The history of all businesses carried on in this country by 
 the aid of bounties, proves that they are hardly less disadvantageous to those engaged in 
 them than to the public. 
 
 The truth of these remarks has been acknowledged by government. The bounty on 
 the exportation of corn was repealed in 1815; and the bounties on the exportation of 
 linen and several other articles ceased in 1 830.^ 
 
 4. Bounties on Shipping have principally been paid to tlie owners of vessels engaged 
 in the fishery, and their influence will be treated of xmder the articles Herring Fishert 
 and Whale Fishery. 
 
 For an account of the bounties that still exist, see the article Tariff. 
 
 BOX-WOOD (Ger. Buchshaum; Du. Palmhout; Fr. Buis; It. Busso, Bosso, Bos- 
 solo), the wood of the box tree (^Buxus sempei'virens), growing wild in several places in 
 Great Britain. This tree was greatly admired by the ancient Romans, and has been 
 much cultivated m modern times, on account of the facility with which it is fashioned 
 into different forms. Box is a very valuable wood. It is of a yellowish colour, close- 
 grained, very hard, and heavy ; it cuts better than any other wood, is susceptible of a 
 very fine polish, and is very durable. In consequence, it is much used by turners, and 
 mathematical and musical instrument makers. It is too heavy for furniture. It is the 
 onli/ wood used by the engravers of wood-cuts for books ; and provided due care be ex- 
 ercised, the number of impressions that may be taken from a box-wood cut is very great. 
 In France, box-wood is extensively used for combs, knife-handles, and button-moulds ; 
 and sometimes, it has been said, as a substitute for hops in the manufacture of beer. The 
 value of the box-wood sent from Spain to Paris is reported to amount to about 10,000 fr. 
 a year. In 1815, the box trees cut down on Box-hill, near Dorking, in Surrey, pro- 
 duced upwards of 10,000/. They are now, however, become very scarce in England. 
 The duty on box-wood is quite oppressive, being 51. a ton if brought from a foreign 
 country, and IZ. a ton if from a British possession. At an average of the 3 years 
 ending with 1831, the entries of box-wood for home consumption amounted to 382 tons 
 a year. In 1832, the duty produced 1,867Z. 17s. 4cZ. Turkey box-wood sells in the 
 London market for from 71. to 14Z. a ton, duty included. 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 BRAN. — BRANDY. 
 
 BRAN, the thin skins or husks of corn, particularly wheat, ground, and separated 
 from the corn by a sieve or boulter. 
 
 BRANDY (Ger. Brantewein; Du. Brandewyn; Fr. Eau de vie, Brandevin; It. 
 Aquarzente ; Sp. Aguardiente; Port. Aguardente; Rus. Wino; Lat. Vinum adusturn), a 
 spirituous and inflammable liquor, obtained by distillation from wine and the husks of 
 grapes. It is prepared in most of the wine countries of Europe ; but the superiority of 
 French brandy is imiversally admitted. The latter is principally distilled at Bordeaux, 
 Rochelle, Cognac, the Isle de Rhe, Orleans, Nantes, and in Poitou, Touraine, and 
 Anjou. That of Cognac is in the highest estimation. 
 
 Wines of all descriptions, but cliiefly those that are strong and harsh (pousses), are 
 used in the manufacture of brandy. The superior vintages, and those that have most 
 flavour, are said to make the worst brandy. It is naturally clear and colourless. The 
 different shades of colour which it has in commerce, arise partly from the casks in which 
 it is kept, but chiefly from the burnt sugar, saunders wood, and other colouring matter 
 intentionally added to it by the dealers. It is said that the burnt sugar gives mellowness 
 to the flavour of the liquor, and renders it more palatable. 
 
 The art of distillation is believed to have been first discovered by the Arabians. From 
 a passage in the Testamentum Novissimum of the famous Raymond Lull^, who flourished 
 in the thirteenth century, it would appear that the production of brandy and alcohol from 
 ■wine was familiar to his contemporax-ies. — (p. 2. edit. Argent. 1571.) But the practice 
 does not appear to have been introduced into France till 1313. — (ie Grand d'Aussi Vie 
 prive de Francois, t. ii'i. ^. 64.) When first introduced, brandy or burnt wine (vinum 
 adusturn) appears to have been used principally as an antiseptic and restorative medicine ; 
 and the most extravagant panegyrics were bestowed on its virtues. It was described as 
 a sovereign remedy in almost all the disorders of the human frame ; it was commended 
 for its efficacy in comforting the memory, and strengthening the reasoning powers ; it 
 was extolled, in short, as the elixir of life, and an infallible preservative of youth and 
 beauty !■ — (Henderson's Hist, of Wine, p. 24.) Dr. Henderson says that the experience 
 of later times has shown how little this eulogy was merited ; but in this he is contradicted 
 by Burke, who maintains, with equal eloquence and ingenuity, that " the alembic has 
 been a vast benefit and blessing." — ( Thoughts and Details on Scarcity, p. 41.) 
 
 Brandy has always formed a very prominent article in the exports of Franco ; few ships 
 sailing from Bordeaux, Rochelle, or Nantes, without taking a certain quantity of it on 
 board. The following is an account of the exportation of brandy from France during 
 the 3 years ending with 1789, and the 14 years ending with 1828. — (Enquete sur les 
 Fers, p. 39.) 
 
 Years. Hectolitres. 
 
 1787 - - - 305,638 
 
 1788 - . - 221,499 
 
 1789 - - - 234,500 
 
 1815 - - - 154,160 
 
 1816 - - - 137,398 
 
 Years. Hectolitres. 
 
 1817 - - 61,697 
 
 1818 - - 99,402 
 
 1819 - - - 231,652 
 
 1820 - - 253,349 
 
 1821 - - - 153,408" 
 
 1822 - - 230,186' 
 
 Years. Hectolitres. 
 
 1823 - . . 310,059 
 
 1824 - ^ - 317,347 
 
 1825 - - - 250,937 
 
 1826 - ; - 194,110 
 
 1827 - - - 273,574 
 
 1828 - - - 403,207 
 
 Which, as the hectolitre is equal to 26'42 wine gallons, shows that the exportation in 1828 was equiva- 
 lent to 10,252,728 gallons j but it has since declined considerably. 
 
 Duties on Brandy in Great Britain and Ireland. Quantities consumed. — In nothing, 
 perhaps, has the injurious operation of oppressive duties been so strikingly exemplified 
 as in the case of brandy. At the latter end of the seventeenth century, when the duty 
 on brandy did not exceed 9l. a tun, the imports into England amounted to about 6,000 
 tuns, or 1,512,000 gallons — (Historical and Political Remarks on the Tariff of the late 
 Treaty, 178G, p. 113.); whereas at present, notwithstanding our vast increase in wealth 
 and population since the period referred to, we do not import more brandy than we did 
 then ! Nor is this extraordinary circumstance to be ascribed to any preference on the 
 part of the public to other beverages, but is wholly owing to the exorbitant duties with 
 which brandy is loaded. The price of brandy in bond varies,, at this moment, accord- 
 ing to quality, from 3s. to 5s. a gallon (Imperial measure), while the duty is no less than 
 22s. 6d. Had the imposition of such a duty taken away the taste for bi-andy, it would 
 have been comparatively innocuous. But it has done no such thing. Its only effect 
 has been to convert a trade, that might otherwise have been productive of the most ad- 
 vantageous results, into a most prolific source of crime and demoralisation. The tempt- 
 ation to smuggle, occasioned by the exorbitancy of the duty, is too overpowering to be 
 counteracted by the utmost penalties of the law. All along the coasts of Kent and 
 Sussex, and the districts most favourably situated for running spirits, almost the whole 
 of the labouring population are every now and then withdrawn from their ordinary em- 
 ployments, to engage in smuggling adventures. The eflbrts of the revenue officers to 
 seize foreign brandy and geneva have in innumerable instances been repelled by force. 
 Bloody and desperate contests have, in consc(iuence, taken ])lace. Many individuals who, 
 but for this fiscal scourge, would have been industrious and virtuous, have become idle, 
 
BRANDY. 
 
 179 
 
 predatory, and ferocious; they have learned to despise the law, to execute Kummary 
 vengeance on its officers ; and are influenced by a spirit that has been, and may be, 
 turned to the most dangerous purposes. 
 
 Neither can it be truly said that this miserable system is upheld for the sake of re- 
 venue. On the contrary, it is easy to show that, besides the other mischievous effects it 
 entails on the public, it occasions the loss of at least 1,000,000/. a year. In 1786, Mr. Pitt, 
 by a wise and politic measure, took 50 per cent, from the duty on brandy and geneva ; 
 (the duty on the latter has been for a lengthened period the same as that on brandy ;) 
 and instead of being diminished, the revenue was increased. In 1790, when the duty 
 on brandy and geneva was 5s. the wine gallon, the quantity retained for home consump»- 
 tion was 2,225,590 gallons. During the 3 years ending with 1803, when the duty 
 was 9s. 2d., the quantities of brandy and geneva retained for home consumption 
 amounted, at an average, to about 2,700,000 gallons ; but during the 3 years 
 ending with 1818, when the duty had been increased to 18s. 10c?. the wine gallon, the 
 quantities retained did not exceed 850,000 gallons, while the quantities actually 
 entered for home consumption were considerably less ! Since then the consumption 
 has increased with the increasing wealth of the coimtry ; but, at this moment, the 
 quantity consumed in Great Britain is fully 635,000 gallons less than in 1 790 ! Nothing, 
 therefore, can be more palpably erroneous than to contend that the revenue is improved by 
 the present system. Have we not seen the revenue derived from coffee trebled, by reducing 
 the duty from Is. 7d. to 6d. ? Have we not seen the revenue derived from British 
 spirits greatly increased, by reducing the duty from 5s. 6d. to 2s. the wine gallon ? 
 And where is the ground for supposing that the result would be different, were the 
 duties on brandy equally reduced ? But the experience afforded by Mr. Pitt's measure, 
 in 1786, is decisive as to this point. He quadrupled the consumption and increased the 
 revenue, by taking a half from the duty when it was a good deal less oppressive than 
 now ? Were a similar reduction made at present, does any one doubt that a similar re- 
 sult would follow? Smuggling and adulteration would immediately cease ; our trade 
 with France would be very greatly extended ; and the revenue would gain, not merely 
 by a direct increase of duty, but indirectly by a very great diminution of the expense of 
 collection. 
 
 But the effect of the increase of the duties on brandy in Ireland has been still more 
 extraordinary. At an average of the 3 years ending with 1802, when the duty was 
 7«. Sjd. the wine gallon, the average annual consumption of brandy in Ireland amounted 
 to 208,064 gallons, producing a nett revenue of 77,714/. Now, mark the consequence 
 of trebling the duties. The consumption during the last 2 years, notwithstanding 
 the population is more than doubled, only amounted, at an average, to 20,199 gallons, 
 producing about 22,500?. a year revenue ! Dr. Swift has shrewdly remarked, that in the 
 arithmetic of the customs two and two do not always make four, but sometimes only one. 
 But here we have threefold duties, with little more than a fourth part of the revenue, 
 and less than a tenth part of the consumption ! 
 
 It is surely impossible that such a system — a system evincing in every part a degree 
 of ignorant rapacity, to be paralleled only by that of the savages, who to get at the fruit 
 cut down the tree — should be permitted for a much longer period to disgrace our fiscal 
 code. Those only who are anxious for the continuance of smuggling, with all its con- 
 sequent crime and misery, can be hostile to a reduction of the dvity on brandy. By fixing 
 it at 10s. the gallon, neither the consumption of British spirits nor rum would be sensibly 
 affected. The middle classes would, however, be able to use brandy, on occasions 
 when, perhaps, at present, they use nothing ; its clandestine importation would be pre- 
 vented ; those engaged in smuggling would be obliged to have recourse to industrious 
 pursuits; and the manufacture of the abominable compounds, that are now so frequently 
 substituted in its stead, would be put an end to. It is not easy, indeed, to suggest any 
 measure that would be productive of so much advantage, and be attended with fewer 
 inconveniences. 
 
 Regulations as to Importation, Sgc. — Brandy, geneva, and other foreign spirits, must be imported, if 
 in casks, in casks containing not less than 40 gallons, under penalty of forfeiture. — (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52.) 
 They must also be imported in ships of 70 tons burden or upwards, and are not to be exported from a 
 bonded warehouse except in a vessel of like tonnage, under pain of forfeiture. — {Ibid.) 
 
 Brandy is not to be imported except in British sliips, or in ships of the country or place of which it is 
 the product, or from which it is imported, on pain of forfeiture thereof, and 100/. by the master of the 
 ship. _ (3 & 4 Witt. 4. 0. 54.) 
 
 Brandy may be exported to Mexico, Chili, or Peru, in casks containing not less than 15 gallons each. 
 — {Treas. Ord. 17th of December, 18'27.) 
 
 Brandy and geneva may be bottled in bonded warehouses, for exportation to British possessions in the 
 East Indies, under the same conditions as wine and rum. — (See Spiiuts.) 
 
 In most of the public .accounts, the imports of brandy and geneva are blended together. It would 
 appear, too, from the note to tlie following account, that there are no means of accurately distinguishing 
 tliem, except since 1814. The reader will find, in the article Spirits, an account of the quantities of 
 brandy and geneva entered for home consumption, and the rates of duty upon them, in each year since 
 1789. Tlie following account shows the consumption of brandy, and rates of duty on it, since 1814 : — 
 
 N 2 
 
180 
 
 BRASS. — BRAZIL NUTS. 
 
 An Account of the Number of Gallons (Imperial Measure) of Foreign Brandy entered for Home Con- 
 sumption in Great Britain and Ireland, tlie Rates of Duty affecting the same, and the entire nett 
 Produce of the Duty, each Year since 1814. — (Obtained from the CUstom-house.) 
 
 Quantities entered for Home 
 Consumption. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Nett Produce of Duty (Customs and Excise). 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Rates of Duty 
 per Imperial 
 Gallon (Customs 
 and Kicise). 
 
 Imp. gal. 
 500,592 
 656,555 
 657,062 
 634,017 
 531,583 
 787,422 
 842,864 
 914,630 
 1,001,607 
 1,083,104 
 1,226,715 
 1,321,327 
 1,473,243 
 1,313,217 
 1,327,929 
 1,301,450 
 (See Note 
 1,226,280 
 1,570,075 
 
 Imp. gal. 
 7,169 
 5,160 
 5,215 
 3,875 
 6,232 
 7,080 
 6,025 
 6,001 
 7.308 
 
 17,118 
 984 
 3,550 
 7,371 
 7,271 
 7,556 
 8,529 
 below.) 
 8,821 
 
 31,577 
 
 Imp. gal. 
 507,761 
 661,715 
 662,337 
 637,892 
 537,815 
 794,502 
 848,889 
 920,631 
 1,008,915 
 1,100,222 
 1,227,699 
 1,324,877 
 1,480,614 
 1,320,488 
 1,335,485 
 1,309,979 
 1,285,967 
 1,235,101 
 1,601,652 
 
 581,056 
 740,747 
 742,304 
 716,734 
 599,586 
 890,068 
 956,275 
 1,034,327 
 1,132,416 
 1,225,481 
 1,387,204 
 1,489,768 
 1,636,499 
 1,471,501 
 1,490,793 
 1,460,764 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 19 8 
 
 16 9 
 
 17 0 
 
 11 4 
 6 7 
 
 12 4 
 4 2 
 
 17 6 
 
 1,378,244 0 0 
 1,765,889 0 0 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 6,618 12 4 
 
 4,702 6 1 
 
 4,124 19 5 
 
 3,248 4 4 
 
 5,287 10 1 
 
 6,090 17 10 
 
 5,219 8 6 
 
 5,173 19 2 
 
 6,414 1 10 
 
 14,330 1 8 
 
 1,207 9 8 
 
 4,177 3 9 
 
 8,397 15 3 
 
 8,232 5 0 
 
 8,629 19 10 
 
 9,686 17 8 
 
 9,923 0 0 
 35,511 0 0 
 
 587,674 
 745,449 
 746,429 
 719,982 
 604,873 
 896,159 
 961,495 
 1,039,501 
 1,138,830 
 1,239,812 
 1,388,411 
 1,493,945 
 1,464,897 
 1,479,733 
 1,499,423 
 1,470,451 
 1,443,018 
 1,388,167 
 1,801,400 
 
 13 5 
 18 2 
 7 5 
 4 10 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1 2 61 
 
 1 2 71 
 
 1 2 6 
 
 d 
 
 17 3i 
 
 2 8 
 2 6 
 
 17 4 
 
 4 0 
 15 2 
 
 5 8 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 
 Note. — In consequence of the destruction of the official records by fire, no separate account can be 
 rendered of the consumption of brandy and geneva, or the revenue derived therefrom, for the years prior 
 to 1814. 
 
 The trade accounts of Great Britain and Ireland having been incorporated during 1830, the particulars 
 for that year are stated for the United Kingdom only. 
 
 BRASS (Ger. Messing; Du. Messing, Missing, Geelkoper ; Fr. Cuivre jaune, Laiton; 
 It. Ottone; Sp. Laton, Azofar; Rus. Selenoi mjed; Lat. Orichaleum, Aurichalcum) is a 
 factitious metal, made of copper and zinc in certain proportions. It is of a beautiful 
 yellow colour, more fusible than copper, and not so apt to tarnish. It is malleable, so 
 ductile that it may be drawn out into wire, and is much tougher than copper. Its 
 density is greater than the mean density of the two metals. By calculation it ought to 
 be 7*63 nearly, whereas it is actually 8 '39; so that its density is increased by about one 
 tenth. The ancients do not seem to have known accurately the difference between cop- 
 per, brass, and bronze. They considered brass as only a more valuable kind of copper, 
 and therefore used the word cbs to denote either. They called copper ces cyprium, after- 
 wards cyprium; and this in process of time was converted into cuprum. Dr. Watson has 
 proved that it was to brass they gave the name of orichaleum. Brass is malleable when 
 cold, unless the proportion of zinc be excessive; but when heated it becomes brittle. It 
 may be readily turned upon the lathe ; and, indeed, works more kindly than any other 
 metal. 
 
 There is a vast variety in the proportions of the different species of brass used in com- 
 merce ; nor is it easy to determine whether the perfection of this alloy depends on any 
 certain proportions of the two metals. In general, the extremes of the highest and 
 lowest proportions of zinc are from 12 to 25 parts in the 100. In some of the British 
 manufactories, the brass made contains one third its weight of zinc. In Germany and 
 Sweden the proportion of zinc varies from one fifth to one fourth of the copper. The 
 ductility of brass is not injured when the proportion of zinc is highest. This metal is 
 much used in the escapement wheels, and other nicer parts of watch-making : and bars 
 of brass, very carefully made, fetch for this purpose a high price. 
 
 The use of brass is of very considerable antiquity. Most of the ancient genuine relics 
 are composed of various mixtures of brass with tin and other metals, and are rather to be 
 denominated bronzes. The best proportion for brass guns is said to be 1,000 lbs. of 
 copper, 990 lbs. of tin, and 600 lbs. of brass, in 11 or 12 cwt. of metal. The best brass 
 guns axe made of malleable metal, not of pure copper and zinc alone ; but worse metals 
 are used to make it run closer and sounder, as lead and pot-metal. — ( Thomson's Che- 
 mistry, Encyc. Britannica, §*c.) 
 
 BRAZILETTO, an inferior species of Brazil wood brought from Jamaica. It is 
 one of the cheapest and least esteemed of the red dye woods. 
 
 BRAZIL NUTS, or Chesnuts of Brazil, the fruit of the Juvia (Bertholletia excelsa), 
 a majestic tree growing to the height of 100 or 120 feet, abounding on the banks of the 
 Orinoco, and in the northern parts of Brazil. The nuts are triangular, having a cunei- 
 form appearance, with sutures at each of the angles ; the shell is rough and hard, and of 
 a brownish ash colour. The kernel resembles that of an almond, but is larger, and tastes 
 more like a common hazel nut ; it contains a great deal of oil, that may be obtained by 
 
BRAZIL WOOD. — BREAD. 
 
 181 
 
 expression or otherwise. Those nuts do not grow separately, or in clusters, but are 
 contained, to the number of from 15 to 50 or more*, in great ligneous pericarps or outer 
 shells, generally of the size of a child's head. This outer shell is very hard and strong, 
 so that it is rather difficult to get at the nuts, which are closely packed in cells inside. 
 The natives are particularly fond of this fruit, and celebrate the harvest of the juvia with 
 rejoicings ; it is also very much esteemed in Europe. The nuts brought to this country 
 and the Continent are chiefly exported from Para, and form an article of considerable 
 commercial importance. — (Humboldt's Pers. Nar. vol. v. p. 538. Eng. trans.) 
 
 BRAZIL WOOD (Fr. Bois de Bresil; Ger. Brasilienholz ; Du. Brasilienhout ; It. 
 Legno del Brasile, Verzino; Sp. Madera del Bresil; Port. Pao Brasil). It has been 
 commonly supposed that this wood derived its name from the country in which it is 
 principally produced. But Dr. Bancroft has conclusively shown that woods yielding a 
 red dye were called Brazil woods long previously to the discovery of America ; and that 
 the early voyagers gave the name of Brazil to that part of that continent to which it is 
 still applied, from their having ascertained that it abounded in such woods. — {See the 
 learned and excell,ent work. Philosophy of Colour^, vol. ii. pp. 316 — 321.) 
 
 It is found in the greatest abundance, and is of the best quality, in the province of Pernambuco, where 
 it is called Pao da rainha, or Queen's wood ; but it is also found in many other parts of the "Western 
 Hemisphere. The tree is large, crooked, and knotty; the leaves are of a beautiful red, and exhale an 
 agreeable odour. Its botanical name is Ccesalpinia Brasiletto; but it is called by the natives ihirijntanga. 
 Notwithstanding its apparent bulk, the bark is so thick, that a tree as large as a man's body with the bark, 
 will not be so thick as the leg when peeled. When cut into chips, it loses the pale colour it before hatl, 
 and becomes red ; and when chewed, has a sweet taste. It is used for various purposes by cabinet-makers, 
 and admits of a beautiful varnish: but its principal use is in dyeing red; and though the colour is liable 
 to decay, yet, by mixing with it alum and tartar, it is easily made permanent; there is also made of it, by 
 means of acids, a sort of liquid lake or carmine, for painting in miniature. 
 
 Brazil wood has been for many years past a royal monopoly ; its exportation, except on account of 
 government, being prohibited under the severest penalties. Owing to the improvident manner in which 
 it has been cut down by the government agents, it is now rarely found within several leagues of the 
 coast. Indeed, we are assured that many of the planters have privately cut down the trees on their estates, 
 and used the timber as fire-wood, that they might not expose themselves to annoyance from the arbitrary 
 and vexatious proceedings of these functionaries. Thequantity of Brazil wood imported into this country 
 is but inconsiderable. Its price in the London market, exclusive of the duty (2/. per ton), varies from 
 60/. to 80/. per ton. — (Dr. Bancroft in loc. cit. Encyc. Metrop. Modern Traveller, vol. xxix. p. 87. ; Malte 
 Brun, vol v. p. 525. Eng. ed. ^c). 
 
 BREAD, the principal article in the food of most civilised nations, consists of a paste 
 or dough formed of the flour or meal of different sorts of grain mixed with water, and 
 baked. When stale dough or yeast is added to the fresh dough, to make it swell, it is 
 said to be leavened; when nothing of this sort is added, it is said to be unleavened. 
 
 1. Historical Sketch of Bread. — The President de Goguet has endeavoured, with his 
 usual sagacity and learning, to trace the successive steps by which it is probable men 
 were led to discover the art of making bread — ( Origin of Laws, Sec. vol. i. pp. 95 — 105. 
 Eng. trans. ) ; but nothing positive is known on the subject. It is certain, however, 
 from the statements in the sacred writings, that the use of unleavened bread was common 
 in the days of Abraham — {Gen. xviii. 8.); and that leavened bread was used in 
 the time of Moses, for he prohibits eating the Paschal lamb with such bread. — (Exod. 
 xii. 15.) Tlie Greeks affirmed that Pan had instructed them in the art of making 
 bread ; but they, no doubt, were indebted for this art, as well as for their knowledge of 
 agriculture, to the Egyptians and Phoenicians, who had early settled in their country. 
 The method of grinding corn by hand mills was practised in Egypt and Greece from a 
 very remote epoch ; but for a lengthened period the Romans had no other method of 
 making flour, than by beating roasted corn in mortars. The Macedonian war helped to 
 make the Romans acquainted with the arts and refinements, of Greece; and Pliny men- 
 tions, that public bakers were then, for the first time, established in Rome — (Hist. 
 Nat. lib. xviii. c. 1 1.). The conquests of the Romans diffused, amongst many other useful 
 discoveries, a knowledge of the art of preparing bread, as practised in Rome, through the 
 whole south of Europe. 
 
 The use of yeast in the raising of bread seems, however, from a passage of Pliny 
 (lib. xviii. c. 7. ), to have been practised by the Germans and Gauls before it was practised 
 by the Romans ; the latter, like the Greeks, having leavened their bread by intermixing 
 the fresh dough with that which had become stale. The Roman practice seems to have 
 superseded that which was previously in use in France and Spain ; for the art of raising 
 bread by an admixture of yeast was not practised in France in modern times, till towards 
 the end of the seventeenth century. It deserves to be mentioned, that though the bread 
 made in this way was decidedly superior to that previously in use, it was declared, by the 
 faculty of medicine in Paris, to be prejudicial to health ; and the use of yeast was pro- 
 hibited under the severest penalties ! Luckily, however, the taste of the public concur- 
 ring with the interest of the bakers, proved too powerful for these absurd regulations, 
 
 • Humboldt says he had most frequently found from 15 to 22 nuts in each pericarp ; but De Laet, who 
 gave the first and most accurate description of this fruit, says that the pericarp is divided into six com- 
 partments, each of which incloses from 8 to 12 nuts. — (See Humboldt in loc. cit.) 
 
 N 3 
 
182 
 
 BREAD, 
 
 which fell gradually into disuse ; and yeast has long been, almost every where, used in 
 preference to any thing else in the manufacture of bread, to the wholesomeness and ex- 
 cellence of which it has not a little contributed. 
 
 The species of bread in common use in a country depends partly on the taste of the 
 inhabitants, but more on the sort of grain suitable for its soil. But the superiority of 
 ■wheat to all other farinaceous plants in the manufacture of bread is so very -great, that 
 wherever it is easily and successfully cultivated, wheaten bread is used, to the nearly total 
 exclusion of most others. Where, however, the soil or climate is less favourable to its 
 growth, rye, oats, &c. are used in its stead. A very great change for the better has, in 
 this respect, taken place in Great Britain within the last century. It is mentioned by 
 Harrison, in his description of England (p. 168.), that in the reign of Henry VIII. the 
 gentry had wheat sufficient for their own tables, but that their household and poor neigh- 
 bours were usually obliged to content themselves with rye, barley, and oats. It appears 
 from the household book of Sir Edward Coke, that, in 1596, rye bread and oatmeal formed 
 a considerable part of the diet of servants, even in great families, in the southern counties. 
 Barley bread is stated in the grant of a monopoly by Charles I., in 1626, to be the usual 
 food of the ordinary sort of people. — {Sir F. M. Eden on the Poor, vol. i. p. 561.) At 
 the Revolution, the wheat produced in England and Wales was estimated by Mr. King 
 and Dr. Davenant to amount to 1,750,000 quarters. — {Davenant's Works, vol. ii. 
 p. 217.) Mr. Charles Smith, the very well informed author of the Tracts on the Corn 
 Trade, originally published in 1758, states, that in his time wheat had become much 
 more generally the food of the common people than it had been in 1689; but he adds 
 (2d ed. p. 182. Lond. 1766.), that notwithstanding this increase, some very intelligent 
 inquirers were of opinion that even then not more than half the people of England fed 
 on wheat. Mr. Smith's own estimate, which is very carefully drawn up, is a little 
 higher; for taking the population of England and Wales, in 1760, at 6,000,000, he 
 supposed that 3,750,000 were consumers of wheat ; 739,000, of barley ; 888,000, of 
 rye ; and 623,000, of oats. Mr. Smith further supposed that they individually con- 
 sumed, the first class, 1 quarter of wheat ; the second, 1 quarter and 3 bushels of 
 barley ; the third, 1 quarter and 1 bushel of rye ; and the fourth, 2 quarters and 
 7 bushels of oats. 
 
 About the middle of last century, hardly any wheat was used in the northern counties 
 of England. In Cumberland, the principal families used only a small quantity about 
 Christmas. The crust of the goose pie, with which almost every table in the county is 
 then supplied, was, at the period referred to, almost uniformly made of barley meal. — 
 (^Eden on the Poor, vol. i. p. 564.) 
 
 Every one knows how inapplicable these statements are to the condition of the people 
 of England at the present time. Wheaten bread is now universally made use of in towns 
 and villages, and almost every where in the country. Barley is no longer used, except in 
 the distilleries and in brewing; oats are employed only in the feeding of horses; and 
 the consumption of rye bread is comparatively inconsiderable. The produce of the 
 wheat crops has been, at the very least, trebled since 1760- And if to this immense 
 increase in the supply of Avheat, we add the still more extraordinary increase in the 
 supply of butchers' meat — (see art. Cattle), the fact of a very signal improvement having 
 taken place in the condition of the population, in respect of food, will be obvious. 
 
 But great as has been the improvement in the condition of the people of England 
 since 1760, it is but trifling compared to the improvement that has taken place, since the 
 same period, in the condition of the people of Scotland. At the middle of last century, 
 Scotch agriculture was in the most depressed state ; the tenants were destitute alike of 
 capital and skill ; green crops were almost wholly unknown ; and the quantity of wheat 
 that was raised was quite inconsiderable. A field of 8 acres sown with this grain, in 
 the vicinity of Edinburgh, in 1727, was reckoned so great a curiosity that it excited the 
 attention of the whole neighbourhood! — {Pobertson's Rural Recollections, p. 267.) But 
 even so late as the American war, the wheat raised in the Lothians and Benvickshire did 
 not exceed a third part of what is now grown in them ; and taking the whole country 
 at an average, it will be a moderate estimate, to say that the cultivation of wheat has 
 increased in a tenfold proportion since 1780. At that period no wheaten bread was to 
 be met with in the country places and villages of Scotland ; oat cahcs and barley bannocks 
 being imiversally made use of But at present the case is widely different. The upper 
 and also the middle and lower classes in towns and villages use only wheaten bread, and 
 even in farmhouses it is very extensively consumed. There is, at this moment, hardly a 
 village to be met with, however limited its extent, that has not a public baker. 
 
 In many parts of England it is the custom for private families to bake their own 
 bread. This is particularly the case in Kent, and in some parts of Lancashire. In 
 1804, there was not a single public baker in Manchester; and their number is still very 
 limited. 
 
 2. Regulations as to the Manufacture of Bread. — Owing to the vast importance of 
 
BREAD. 
 
 18.S 
 
 bread, its manufacture has been subjected in most countries to various regulations, some 
 of which liave had a beneficial and others an injurious operation. 
 
 a. Assize of Bread. — From the year 12G6, in the reign of Henry III., down to our 
 own days, it has been customary to regulate the price at which bread should be sold 
 according to the price of wheat or flour at the time. An interference of this sort was 
 supposed to be necessary, to prevent that monopoly on the part of the bakers which it was 
 feared might otherwise take place. But it is needless, perhaps, to say that this appre- 
 hension was of the most futile description. The trade of a baker is one that may be 
 easily learned, and it requires no considerable capital to carry it on ; so that were those 
 engaged in the business in any particular town to attempt to force up prices to an arti- 
 ficial elevation, the combination would be immediately defeated by the competition of 
 others ; and even though this were not the case, the facility with which bread may be 
 baked at home would of itself serve to nullify the efforts of any combination. But the 
 assize regulations were not merely useless ; they were in many respects exceedingly injuri- 
 ous : they rendered the price of flour a matter of comparative indifference to the baker ; 
 and they obliged the baker who used the finest flour, and made the best bread, to sell at 
 the same rate as those who used inferior flour, and whose bread was decidedly of a worse 
 quality. But these considerations, how obvious soever they may now appear, were for 
 a long time entirely overlooked. According, however, as the use of wheaten bread was 
 extended, it was found to be impracticable to set assizes in small towns and villages ; 
 and notwithstanding the fewness of the bakers in such places gave them greater facilities 
 for combining together, the price of bread was almost uniformly lower in them than in 
 places where assizes were set. In consequence, partly of this circumstance, but still more 
 of the increase of intelligence as to such matters, the practice of setting an assize was 
 gradually relinquished in most places; and in 1815 it was expressly abolished, by an act 
 of the legislature (55 Geo. 3. c. 99.), in London and its environs. In other places, 
 though the power to set an assize still subsists, it is seldom acted upon, and has fallen into 
 comparative disuse. 
 
 6. Regulatio7is as to the Weight, and Ingredients to he used in making Bread. ■ — Accord- 
 ing to the assize acts, a sack of flour weighing 280 lbs. is supposed capable of being 
 baked into 80 quartern loaves ; one fifth of the loaf being supposed to consist of water 
 and salt, and four fifths of flour. But the number of loaves that may be made from a 
 sack of flour depends entirely on its goodness. Good flour requires more water than 
 bad flour, and old flour than new flour. Sometimes 82, 83, and even 86 loaves have been 
 made from a sack of flour, and sometimes hardly 80. 
 
 Under the assize acts, bakers are restricted to bake only three kinds of bread, viz. wheaten, standard 
 wheaten, and household ; the first being made of the finest flour, the second of the whole flour mixed, 
 and the third of the coarser flour. The loaves are divided into peck, half-peck, and quartern loaves ; 
 the legal weight of each, when baked, being, the peck loaf 17 lbs. 6oz., the half-jieck bibs. 11 oz., and 
 the quartern 4 lbs. 5| oz. avoirdupois. 
 
 Now, however, it is enacted, that within the city of London, and in those places in the country where 
 an assize is not set, it shall be lawful for the bakers to make and sell bread made of wheat, barley, rye, 
 oats, buckwheat, Indian corn, peas, beans, rice, or potatoes, or any of them, along with common salt, pure 
 water, eggs, milk, barm, leaven, potato or other yeast, and mixed in such proportions as they shall think 
 J[it. — (3 Geo. 4. c. 106. § 2., and 1 & 2 Geo. 4. c. 50. ^ 2.) 
 
 It is also enacted, by the same statutes, that bakers in London, and in the country, that is, in all places 
 10 miles from the Royal Exchange where an assize is not set, may make and sell bread of such weight 
 and size as they think Jit, any law or assize to the contrary notwithstanding. But it is at the same time 
 enacted, that such bread shall always be sold by avoirdupois weight of 16 ounces to the pound, and in no 
 other manner, under a penalty for every ofTence of not more than 40s. ; except, however, French or fancy 
 bread, or rolls, which may be sold without previously weighing the same. 
 
 Bakers or sellers of bread are bound to have fixed, in some conspicuous part of their shop, a beam and 
 scales, with proper weights for weighing bread ; and a person purchasing bread may require it to be 
 weighed in his presence. Bakers and others sending out bread in carts, are to supply them with beams, 
 scales, &c., and to weigh the bread if required, under a penalty of not more than 51. — (3 Geo. 4. 
 c. 106. ^ 8.) 
 
 Bakers, either journeymen or masters, using alum or any other unwholesome ingredient, and convicted 
 on their own confession, or on the oath of one or more witnesses, to forfeit not exceeding 20/. and not less 
 than 51. if beyond the environs of London, and not exceeding 10/. nor less than 51. if within London or its 
 environs. Justices are allowed to publish the names of offenders. The adulteration of meal or flour is 
 punishable by a like penalty. Loaves made of any other grain than wheat, without the city and its 
 liberties, or beyond 10 miles of the Royal Exchange, to be marked with a large Roman M. ; and every 
 person exposing such loaves without such mark shall forfeit not more than 40s. nor less than 10s, for every 
 »rv»f so exposed. — (1 & 2 Geo. 4. c. 50. § 6.) 
 
 Any ingredient or mixture found within the house, mill, stall, shop, &c. of any miller, mealman, or 
 baker, which after due examination shall be adjudged to have been placed there for the purpose of 
 adulteration, shall be forfeited ; and the person within whose premises it is found punished, if within tho 
 city of London and its environs, by a penalty not exceeding 10/. nor less than 40s. for the first offence, 
 5/. for the second offence, and 10/. for every subsequent offence. — (3 Geo. 4. c. 106. ^ 14.) And if without 
 London and its environs, the party in whose house or premises ingredients for adulteration shall be found, 
 »hall forfeit for every such ofl'ence not less than 51. and not more than 20/. — (1 & 2 Geo. 4. c. 5. § 8.) 
 
 Bakers in London and its environs are not to sell, or expose to sale, any bread, rolls, or cakes, nor bake 
 or deliver any meat, pudding, pie, tart, or victuals of any sort, on Sundays, except between the hours of 
 nine in the morning and 07ie in the afternoon, under penalty of 10s. for the first offence, 2Cs. for the second 
 ofTence, and 40s. for every subsequent ofl'ence. — (3 Geo. 4. c. 106. § 16.) 
 
 Bakers in tlie country are prohibited from selling, &c. any bread, &c., or baking or delivering any 
 meat, &c., on Sundays, any time after half past 1 o'clock of the afternoon of that day, or during the time 
 of divine service, under penalty of 5s. for the first offence, 10s. for the second, and 2Us. for the third and 
 every subsequent offence. — (.59 Geo. 3. c. 36. ^ 12.) 
 
 N 4 
 
184 
 
 BREMEN. 
 
 Thei e are several regulations n the acts now in force with respec^ to the sale, &c. of bread where an 
 assize is set ; but as the practice of setting an assize is nearly relinquished, it seems unnecessary to reca- 
 pitulate'them. The weight of the assize bread has already been mentioned, and the principle on which 
 its price is fixed. 
 
 Notwithstanding the prohibition against the use of alum, it is believed to be very generally employed, 
 particularly by the bakers of London. — " In the metropolis," says Dr. Thomson {Suppl. to Encyc. Brit., 
 art. Baking), " where the goodness of bread is estimated entirely by its whiteness, it is usual with those 
 bakers who employ flour of an inferior quality, to add as much alum as common salt to the dough ; or, in 
 other words, the quantity of salt added is diminished a half, and the deficiency supplied by an equal weight 
 of alum. This improves the look of the bread, rendering it much whiter and firmer." 
 
 There are believed to be about 1,700 bakers in London, Westminster, &c. The trade which they carry 
 on is in general but limited, and it is not reckoned a very advantageous line of business, 
 
 BREMEN, one of the free Hanseatic cities, situated on the river Weser, about 50 
 miles from its mouth, in lat. 53'^ 4f' N., long 8° 48' E. Population about 46,000. 
 Its situation on the Weser renders Bremen the principal emporium of Hanover, Bruns- 
 wick, Hesse, and other countries traversed by that river. The charges on the buying 
 selling, and shipping of goods, are very moderate. The principal exports are linens, 
 grain, oak bark, glass, smalts, hams, hides, rapeseed, beef and pork, rags, wool and woollen 
 goods, wine, &c. The wheat and barley shipped here are mostly very inferior ; but the 
 oats are useful common feed ; beans are good. The linens are mostly the same as 
 those from Hamburgh. The imports consist of coffee, sugar, and other colonial pro- 
 ducts ; tobacco, whale oil, iron, rice, hides, wines, raw cotton, cotton stuffs and yarn, 
 earthenware, brandy, butter, tar, tea, dyewoods, timber, hemp, &c. 
 
 Entrance to Bremen. — The entrance to the Weser lies between the Mellum and other sands on the 
 south-western, and the Teglers Plaat, &c. on the north-eastern side. Its course from Bremerlehe to its 
 mouth is nearly S.E. and N W. It is buoyed throughout. The buoys on the right or starboard side when 
 entering being black and marked with letters, while those on the left or larboard are white and numbered. 
 The first or outer black buoy has a gilt key upon it, and is, therefore, called the schlussel or key buoy ; it 
 lies in 10| fathoms, bearing N.E, 5 miles from Wrangeroog light. This is an intermitting light, having 
 replaced, in 1830, the old coal-fire beacon on the island of Wrangeroog, opposite to the northern extremity 
 of East Friesland. It is, according to the most authentic statements, in lat. 53° 47|' N., long. 7° 51' 55'' K ; 
 is elevated 63^ feet above high water mark, being alternately visible and invisible for the space of a 
 minute. A light vessel is moored in the lair. way of the Weser, between the black buoys E and F, and 
 the white buoys 2 and 3. She has two masts : during day, 'a red flag, with a white cross upon it, is kept 
 flying at the main-mast; and at night she exhibits 7 lantern lights, 28 feet above deck. This vessel is on 
 no account to leave her station, unles.s compelled by the ice. Large vessels do not now generally ascend 
 further than Bremerlehe, on the east side of the river, about 38 miles below Bremen, where a new and 
 spacious harbour, called "Bremen Haven," has been constructed. But vessels not drawing more than 7 
 feet water come up to town ; and those drawing from 13 to 14 feet may come up to Vegesack, about 13 
 miles from Bremen. — (See the Sailing Directions for the North Sea, published by Mr. Norrie.) 
 
 A Statement of the Quantities and Value of the principal Articles of Merchandize imported into Bremen, 
 in the year 1835. — {Consular Return). 
 
 Description, 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Imports 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Barilla 
 Brandy 
 Butter - 
 Coals 
 Coffee 
 Copper 
 Copperas - 
 Cotton 
 Currants - 
 Earthenware 
 Fustic - 
 Indigo 
 Iron 
 Linseed 
 Hides 
 
 Logwood - 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 Oil, Greenland 
 — , Newfoundland 
 — , Norwegian 
 — , Archangel 
 — , South Sea 
 
 Pepper 
 
 Pimento - 
 
 Pitch 
 
 cwts. 
 hhds. 
 cwts. 
 lasts 
 
 - lbs. 
 . cwts. 
 
 do. 
 
 - lbs. 
 cwts. 
 
 cwts. 
 lbs. 
 tons, 
 brls. 
 No. 
 cwts. 
 
 br'ls. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 lbs. 
 do. 
 brls. 
 
 5,277 
 1,284 
 10,377 
 
 234 
 
 10,103,000 
 1,107 
 8,268 
 753,700 
 3,241 
 
 11,607 
 
 20,800 
 2,817 
 11,300 
 27,100 
 12,080 
 
 3,400 
 4,500 
 5,760 
 600 
 22,000 
 320,900 
 381,360 
 501 
 
 £ 
 
 2,216 
 6,741 
 23,003 
 842 
 263,138 
 5,700 
 2,220 
 31,404 
 6,518 
 6,087 
 1,980 
 5,190 
 47,325 
 22,878 
 52,205 
 3,252 
 3,705 
 
 106,440 
 
 5,347 
 7,150 
 324 
 
 Raisins 
 Rice 
 Resin 
 Rnm - 
 Salt - 
 Saltpetre 
 iSugar, raw, 
 
 , refined 
 
 Syrup - 
 Tallow 
 Tar 
 Tea 
 
 Tinplates - 
 Tobacco, leaf - 
 
 , roll . 
 
 , stems 
 
 egars 
 
 cwts. 
 
 - do. 
 
 - do. 
 casks 
 
 • lasts 
 cwts. 
 do. 
 
 - do. 
 . do. 
 
 - do. 
 brls. 
 
 . lbs. 
 boxes 
 
 - lbs. 
 - do. 
 
 do. 
 . No. 
 
 7,990 
 33,655 
 3,816 
 852 
 684 
 4,670 
 108,691 
 17,931 
 9,675 
 1,157 
 6,449 
 415,860 
 1,886 
 24,170,870 
 605,634 
 4,8^^3,447 
 1,633,000 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total 
 
 Further imports by water from the 
 small towns situated between Bre- 
 men and the mouth of the river 
 Weser ... 
 
 Total imports 
 
 £ 
 
 7,383 
 33,924 
 961 
 1.5,720 
 
 2,118 
 
 215,571 
 35,564 
 8,340 
 1,944 
 4,033 
 46,785 
 3,394 
 478,380 
 27,947 
 55,051 
 3,840 
 271,647 
 
 1,802,553 
 32,553 
 
 1,835,106 
 
 Exports. —Linens are one of the most important articles of export from Bremen. They are mostly sold 
 by the piece. The dimensions of the pieces, and their prices, are similar to those of Hamburgh, which 
 see. The Westphalia hams are mostly shipped from this port. 
 
 Duties. — An export duty of i per cent., ad valorem, is charged on all merchandise shipped from 
 Bremen. 
 
 The import duty is | per cent, ad valorem, on all articles ; having been increased a third per cent, by the 
 ordinance of 18.30. 
 
 The value of the imports is calculated according to the invoice price, adding thereto the freight and the 
 rate of insurance current in Bremen ; the value of the exports is estimated from the invoice price only. 
 Should there be no invoice of ur,port8, it is the duty of the importer to make a correct estimate of the 
 
BRIBE. — BRICKS AND TILES. 
 
 185 
 
 ▼alue upon his oath as a citizen ; but the Custom House has power to institute a stricter examination, if 
 the estimate appears too low. 
 
 Emigration. — Bremen has become the most considerable "port on the Continent for the shipment of 
 emigrants to the United States, and other parts in America. In 1832 the number of emigrants amounted 
 to between 9,000 and 10,000; and their conveyance has become an object of much importance, par- 
 ticularly to the American ship-owners. A large |)r()portion of the emigrants are from Hesse. 
 
 Ship-brokers are licensed officers, and give security, to the amount of 2,000 rix-dollars, for the faithful 
 discharge of their duties. These arc to engage freights, to sell vessels by auction, to enter vessels, and 
 collect freights. They are not permitted to have partners, to transact any commercial business on their 
 own account, to accept commissions or consignments, to sell or purchase bills of exchange, or to engage 
 in any mercantile concerns. 
 
 None but appointed brokers of this class can undertake any of the duties assigned to them. Any person 
 employing a non-a|)pointcd broker, is deprived of legal redress against the unauthorised agent by whose 
 conduct he may sustain injury. 
 
 Ship-brokers are obliged to keep a register of all Vessels coming in or going out, of the names of the 
 captains who employed them, to procure manifests of cargoes, and to attend to the payment of duties and 
 other dues chargeable on vessel or cargo. 
 
 The fees allowed to them are, for cliartering a vessel in bulk, 18 grotes per grain last ; of this the owner 
 pays 12 grotes, and the freighter 6 grotes. 
 
 For outward-bound vessels, taking merchandise as it maybe ofFered, 2per cent, on the freight. 
 
 For entering a vessel from sea measuring 50 lasts, 5 rix-dollars j measuring 100 ditto, 7^ rix-doUars ; and 
 if she measure above 100 lasts, 10 rix-dollars. 
 
 Entry dues are to be paid by the consignees of foreign vessels out of the commission they may charge. 
 
 For the collection of freight money, the broker is entitled to receive 1 per cent., but the consignee of a 
 foreign vessel is to pay this sum. 
 
 Regulations of the Harbour of Bremen Haven. — All vessels entering the harbour are subject to the 
 superintendence of the harbour-masters, whose directions are to be obeyed by the captains and crews. 
 
 No ballast or rubbish is to be thrown overboard, under a penalty of 10 rix-dollars for the first offence, 
 which is increased in case of repetition ; the offender, too, is obliged to remove the articles he may have 
 so cast into the harbour. 
 
 It is not permitted to keep gunpowder on board, and any which may be in the vessel must be delivered 
 up within two hours after she has reached her berth : non-compliance with this subjects the party toa fine 
 of from 10 to 50 rix-dollars; nor is it permitted to discharge any fire-arms in port. 
 
 The use of all fire on board, from sunset to sunrise, is prohibited ; the captain, however, may have a 
 light, in a closed lantern, in his cabin. 
 
 The crews are not allowed to carry on shore any fire-arms, dirks, or other weapons. 
 
 Vessels passing in and out of the drawbridge, or which may remain in the harbour during two months, 
 are subject to the payment of the following rates, viz. : — 
 
 Of 
 
 Below 300 
 _ 250 
 
 .WO lasts and upwards 
 250 lasU 
 
 to 
 
 — to 150 — 
 
 150 — to 120 — 
 
 120 — to 100 — square-rigged 
 
 J 20 _ to 100 — Ralliots, &c. 
 
 100 — to 80 — square-rigged 
 
 100 — to 80 — galliots, &c. - 
 
 80 — to 60 — square-rigged 
 
 80 _ to 60 — galUots, &c. 
 
 Rx.D. Gr. 
 
 40 0 
 
 35 0 
 
 30 0 
 
 25 0 
 
 20 0 
 
 17 36 
 
 - 15 0 
 
 15 0 
 
 12 36 
 
 12 36 
 
 10 0 
 
 Below 60 lasts to 40 lasts 
 — 40 — to 30 — 
 
 Rx.D. Gr. 
 7 36 
 5 0 
 
 If vessels remain longer than two months, they are to pay for 
 every additional month, calculating the entrance on a new 
 month as a full month. 
 
 5 0 
 4 36 
 3 36 
 2 36 
 1 36 
 
 of 300 lasts and upwards 
 Below 300 — to 250 lasts 
 
 — 250 — to 200 — 
 _ 200 — to 100 — 
 
 — 100 — to 60 — 
 
 Arrivals. — During the year 1834, 1,006 ships entered the port of Bremen. Of these, 194 were from 
 Hanover ; 1 11 from Great Britain ; 103 from the United States ; 44 from France ; and the remainder from 
 the Netherlands, Russia, South America, Spain, Sweden, &c. The shipping charges at Bremen are par- 
 ticularly low. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept in thalers, or rix-dollars, of 72 grootes or grotes ; the grote being divided 
 into 5 swares. The Bremen rix-dollar current is worth 3s. Id. sterling; and the par of exchange is 1/. 
 sterling = 6 rix-dollars 22 grotes 4 swares. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The commercial pound=2 marks=16 ounces— 32 loths=i 7,690 English grains. 
 Hence, 100 lbs. of Bremen = 109 8 avoirdupois, or 49 825 kilog. A load of pfundschwer = 300 lbs., but 
 carriers reckon it at 308 lbs. A centner 116 lbs. ; a shippound = 2i centners, or 290 lbs. ; a waage of 
 iron = 120 lbs. ; a stone of flax - 20 lbs. ; a stone of wool = 10 lbs. A ton of butter great measure = 
 300 lbs. ; and a ton of do. small measure =: 220 lbs. 
 
 The dry measures are, 4 spints = 1 viertel : 4 viertels = I scheffel ; 10 scheffels =1 quart ; 4 quarts = 
 
 1 last; the last = 8070 bushels Winchester measure, or 10087 quarters; that is, 10 quarters and 07 
 bushel A barrel of salt = 3| scheffels. A last of coals = 2 chaldrons Newcastle measure. 
 
 The liquid measures are, 8-8 quarts = 1 viertel ; 5 viertels = 1 anker ; 4 ankers = 1 tierce ; 1| tierce 
 = oxhoft ; the oxhoft = 58 English wine gallons. Wine is sometimes sold by the ahm of 4 ankers =: 
 37f Eng. wine gallons. A barrel of whale oil = 6 steckan, or 216 lbs. nett = 31^ Eng. wine gallons. A ship 
 last of herrings, salt, and coals = 12 barrels. 
 
 The Bremeu foot = 11-38 Eng. inches : hence, 100 JBremen feet = 94-8 Eng. ditto. The Bremen ell is 
 
 2 feet ; and 100 ells of Bremen = 63-2 Eng. yards. 
 
 Tares. —The usual tares are, on sugar in casks and Brazil chests, 17 per cent. ; on Havannah boxes, 
 70 lbs. ; Maryland tobacco, 90 lbs. per hogshead; ditto Virginia and Kentucky, 110 lbs. per hogshead; 
 cotton, round, bales, 4 per cent. ; square ditto, 6 per cent. ; tea (green), 20 lbs. per quarter chest ; ditto 
 (black), 22 lbs. per quarter chest. Most other articles, such as East India indigo, rice, coffee, spices, &c. 
 real tare. — (Drawn up principally from the communications of Bremen merchants; and from the Digest 
 of Customs' Laws printed by order of the American Congress, vol. i. p. 434. &c.) 
 
 BRIBE. Any person giving or offering a bribe, recompence, or reward, to any 
 officer of the customs, to induce him to neglect his duty, to forfeit 200Z. — (3 & 4 
 Will. 4. C.53. §38.) 
 
 BRICKS AND TILES, well known articles used in the building and covering of 
 houses. They are made of baked clay and sand. Until last year (1833) an excise 
 duty was charged both on bricks and tiles, their manufacture being, in consequence, 
 placed under surveillance. It is ordered by 17 Geo. 3. c. 42. that all bricks made in 
 England for sale shall be 8§ inches long, 2§ inches thick, and 4 wide ; and all pantiles 
 13§ inches long, 9§ inches wide, and ^ an inch thick ; on pain of forfeiting, for bricks 
 or tiles made of less dimensions when burnt, as follows, viz. 20s. for every 1,000 of bricks, 
 and 10s. for every 1,000 of pantiles, and proportionally for a greater or less number. 
 
186 
 
 BRIMSTONE. — BRISTLES. 
 
 It is also provided, that the size of the sieves or screens for sifting or screening sea-coal 
 ashes to he mixed with brick earth in making bricks, shall not exceed of an inch 
 between the meshes. Makers of bi'icks and tiles must give notice, under a penalty of 
 100/., to the excise, of their intention to begin the manufacture. Tiles used in draining 
 land were exempted from the duties. But in so far as respects tiles, these regulations 
 are no longer of importance, the duty on them having been abolished in 1 833. The 
 revenue derived from it was but trilling. It was, howevei-, very prejudicial to the 
 manufacture, particularly after the repeal of the duty on slates. It were to be wished 
 that the state of the revenue was such as to admit of the repeal of the duty on bricks. 
 
 Account of the Rates of Duty on, and Quantities of, the different Species of Bricks produced in 
 England and Wales in 1827, 1828, and 1829. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Rates of Duty. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Common 
 
 Large 
 
 Polished 
 
 Large polished - 
 
 5s. l0d. per 1,000 
 lOs. per do. 
 UsAOd. per do. 
 2s. 5d. per 100 
 
 Totals 
 
 1827. 
 1,092,447,058 
 2,683,04S 
 8,150,750 
 98,550 
 
 1828. 
 1,068,400,330 
 2,645,425 
 7,769,075 
 122,810 
 
 1829. 
 1,099,744,701 
 2,540,360 
 7,295,366 
 110,275 
 
 1,103,379,404 
 
 1,078,937,640 
 
 1,109,690,702 
 
 Account of the Rates of Duty on, and Quantities of, the different Species of Bricks produced in 
 Scotland in 1827, 1828, and 1829. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Rates of Duty. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Common 
 
 Large 
 
 Polished 
 
 Ss.lOd. per 1,000 
 10s. per do. 
 125. lOrf. per do. 
 
 Totals 
 
 1827. 
 20,071,337 
 255,850 
 3,375 
 
 1828. 
 24,281,032 
 406,439 
 1,850 
 
 1829. 
 24,741,582 
 
 396,187 
 6,522 
 
 20,350,562 | 24,689,321 
 
 25,144,291 
 
 England 
 
 Nett Produce of the Duties on Bricks and Tiles in 1829. 
 
 s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 f Bricks 319,051 14 5 I Q^^M.n.i C Bricks 6,714 0 0 
 
 Tiles 34,830 7 5 »couana - - ^ ^^j^^ 1,922 12 0 
 
 Total nett amount of revenue from bricks and tiles in Great Britain, 362,518^. 13s. lOd. 
 
 There were, in 1830, 5,369 brick and tile manufacturers in England and Wales, and 104 in Scotland.* 
 
 The entire duties o'n bricks and tiles are drawn back upon exportation. Sufficient security must bg 
 given before their shipment, that they shall be shipped and exported, and not relanded in Great Britain. 
 (24 G(?o. 3. sess. 2. c. 24. §16.) 
 
 If bricks or tiles shipped for drawback be relanded, the bricks or tiles so relanded shall, over and above 
 the penalty in the bond, be forfeited. — (§ 17.) 
 
 Return of the Number of Tiles made in the Year 1830, in Great Britain ; stating the Number of each 
 Kind, and the Rate of Duty charged per Thousand on each ; also, the Gross Amount of Duty for the 
 Year, and Amount paid for Drawback on Tiles exported ; distinguishing each Country, and the Num- 
 ber of Tiles exported. 
 
 England - 
 Scotland - 
 
 Plain. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty. 
 
 Pan or 
 Ridge. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty. 
 
 Small 
 Paving. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty. 
 
 Large 
 Paving. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty. 
 
 All 
 other. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty. 
 
 Gross Amount 
 of Duly. 
 
 41,707,915 
 3,250 
 
 s. d. 
 
 5 8 
 
 20,603,450 
 2,638,942 
 
 S. d. 
 
 12 10 
 
 3,972,507 
 57,330 
 
 s. d 
 
 2 5 
 
 <5f 100 
 
 1,036,300 
 19,370 
 
 s. d. 
 4 10 
 
 WlOO 
 
 ~ 
 
 399,675 
 1,750 
 40j,425 
 
 s. d. 
 4 10 
 
 V^'IOOO 
 
 £ S. d. 
 32,438 19 5 
 
 1,810 15 0 
 
 Gt.Britain 
 
 41,711,1651 — 
 
 23,242,392 
 
 
 4,029,837 
 
 
 1,055,670 — 
 
 
 34,249 14 5 
 
 Number of Tiles exported. 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 
 Pan or Ridge. Small Paving. Large Paving. 
 
 17,000 
 
 734,742 
 52,000 
 
 126,909 
 7,900 
 
 143,073 
 750 
 
 1,424 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 975 9 5 
 44 14 6 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 17,000 
 
 786,742 
 
 134,809 
 
 143.8'-'3 
 
 1,424 
 
 1,020 3 11 
 
 Note. — Bricks and tiles made in Ireland are not subject to excise duty. 
 BRIMSTONE. See Sulphur. 
 
 BRISTLES (Fr. Sotes ; Ger. Borsten ; Du. Borstels ; It. Setolc ; Sp. Cerdas, Setas ; 
 Pol. Szezeciny ; Rus. Schtschetina ; Lat. Setts), the strong glossy hairs growing on the 
 back of the hog and the wild boar. These are very cxteii.sivcly used by brushmaker.s, 
 shoemakers, saddler.s, &c., and form a considerable article of import. Russia is the great 
 mart for bristles ; those of the Ukraine being held in the highest estimation. Of the 
 total quantity imported in 1831, amounting to 2,070,306 lbs., Russia furnished 1,867,096 
 
 * (Compiled (Vom the Parliamentary I'.ipcrs, No. 194. Sess. 1830, and No. 354. Ses.s. 1831.) 
 
BROCADE. — BROKERS. 
 
 187 
 
 lbs., and Prussia (Koiiigsbcrg) 136,721 lbs. At an average of the 3 years ending 
 with 1831, the entries for home consumption amounted to 1,789,801 lbs. a year. The 
 duty, which varies from 2^jd. to 3^</. a pound, produced, in 1832, 25,G13/. 2s. \0d. nett. 
 
 BROCADE (Du. Brokade ; Fr. Brocade; Ger. Brohal ; It. Broccalo ; Ilus. 
 Purtscha ; Sp. Brocado), a stuff made of silk variegated with gold and silver. 
 
 BROKERS, persons employed as middlemen to transact business or negotiate bar- 
 gains between different merchants or individuals. They are sometimes licensed by public 
 authority, and sometimes not. 
 
 Brokers are divided into different classes ; as bill or exchange brokers, stockbrokers, 
 ship and insurance brokers, pawnbrokers, and brokers simply so called, or those who sell 
 or appraise household furniture distrained for rent. Exclusive, too, of the classes now 
 mentioned, the brokers who negotiate sales of produce between different merchants usually 
 confine themselves to some one department or line of business ; and by attending to it 
 exclusively, they acquire a more intimate knowledge of its various details, and of tllo 
 credit of those engaged in it, than could be looked for on the part of a general merchant ; 
 and are consequently able, for the most part, to buy on cheaper and to sell on dearer 
 terms than those less familiar with the business. It is to these circumstances — to a 
 sense of the advantages to be derived from using their intervention in the transacting of 
 business — that the extensive employment of brokers in London and all other large com- 
 mercial cities is wholly to be ascribed. 
 
 The number of brokers in London is unlimited ; but by the statute 8 & 9 Will. 3. 
 c. 20. they are to be licensed by the lord mayor and aldermen, under such resti ictions 
 and limitations as they may think fit to enact. By tlie 57 Geo. 3. c. 60., brokers acting 
 without being duly admitted are made liable in a penalty of lOOZ. The fee on admission 
 is fixed by the same act at 51. ; and there is, besides, an annual payment also of 51. 
 
 The following are some of the regulations established by the mayor and aldermen 
 pursuant to the act of Will. 3. : — That every person shall, upon his admission, take a-n 
 oath truly and faithfully to execute and perform the office of broker between party and 
 party, in all things pertaining to the duty of the said office, without fraud or collusion, 
 to the best and utmost of his skill and knowledge ; — that he shall in all cases reveal the 
 name of his principal ; and neither deal in goods on his own account, nor barter and 
 .sell again, nor make any gain in goods beyond the usual brokerage ; and that he shall 
 regularly register all the contracts, &c. into which he enters. 
 
 Brokers grant a bond under a penalty of 500/. for the faithful performance of the 
 duties SAVorn to in the oath of admission. 
 
 A medal is delivered to the broker, with his name engraved thereon, which he may 
 produce, if required, as evidence of his qualification. 
 
 Twelve persons professing the Jewish religion are permitted to act as brokers within 
 the city, under the same regulations, and receive the silver medal accordingly. This 
 medal is transferable ; and is «old generally at from 800Z. to 1,500Z., exclusive of the 
 expense of transfer, which is uncertain. Upon the decease of any of the holders of the 
 medal without its having been transferred, the appointment falls to the lord mayor for 
 the time being; and for it the sum of 1,500Z. has not unfrequently been given. — 
 {Montefiore's Com. Diet. art. BroJm'S.) 
 
 If goods in the city of London be sold by a broker, to be paid for by a bill of exchange, 
 the vendor has a right, within a reasonable time, if he be not satisfied with the sufficiency 
 of the purchaser, to annul the contract, provided he intimate his dissent as soon as he 
 has an opportunity of inquiring into the solvency of the purchaser. In a case of this 
 sort (Hodg son \. Duties, 2 Camp. N. P. C. 536.), Lord Ellenborough was, at first, rather 
 inclined to think that the contract concluded by a broker must be absolute, unless his 
 authority were limited by writing, of which the purchaser had notice. But the special 
 jury said, that " unless the name of the purchaser has been previously communicated to 
 the seller, if the payment is to be by bill, the seller is always understood to reserve to 
 himself the power of disapproving of the sufficiency of the purchaser, and annulling the 
 contract." Lord Ellenborough allowed that this usage was reasonable and valid. But he 
 clearly thought that the rejection must be intimated as soon as the seller has had time 
 to inquire into the solvency of the purchaser. The jury found, in the case in question, 
 that five days was not too long a period for making the necessary inquiries. 
 
 Brokers, Bill, — propose and conclude bargains between merchants and others in 
 matters of bills and exchange. They make it their business to know the state of the 
 exchange, and the circumstances likely to elevate or depress it. They sell bills for those 
 drawing on foreign countries, and buy bills for those remitting to them: and, from their 
 knowledge of the mutual wants of the one class as compared with those of the other, a 
 few of the principal brokers are able to fix the rate of exchange at a fair average, which 
 it would not be possible to do if the merchants directly transacted with each otlier. 
 Their charge as brokerage is 2s. per cent. 
 
 " Those," says Mr. Windliam Beawes, " who exercise the function of bill bfokcrs. 
 
188 
 
 BROKERAGE. 
 
 ought to be men of honour and capable of their business ; and the more so, as both the 
 credit and fortune of those who employ them may, in some measure, be said to be in 
 their hands ; and, therefore, they should avoid babbling, and be prudent in their office, 
 which consists in one sole point, that is, to hear all and say nothing ; so that they ought 
 never to speak of the negotiations transacted by means of their intervention, or relate 
 any ill report which they may have heard against a drawer, nor offer his bills to those 
 who have spread it." 
 
 Brokers, Stock, — are employed to buy and sell stock in the public funds, or in the 
 funds of joint stock companies. Their business is regulated by certain acts of parlia- 
 ment, by which, among other things, it is enacted, that contracts in the nature oi 
 wagers, or contracts apparently framed for the sale or purchase of stock, but really 
 intended only to enable the parties to speculate on contingent fluctuations of the market, 
 without any stock being actually sold, shall be void, and those engaging in them sub- 
 jected to a penalty of 5001. — (7 Geo. 2. c. 8., made perpetual by 10 Geo. 2. c. 8.) 
 And by the same act, any one contracting to sell stock of which he is not actually 
 possessed, or to which he is not entitled, forfeits 5001. Brokers not keeping a book in 
 which all contracts are regularly inserted, are liable in a penalty of 501. for each omission ; 
 half to the king, and half to those who sue for it. The charge for brokerage on all 
 public funds, except Exchequer bills and India bonds, is 2s. 6d. per cent. ; on these it is 
 Is. per cent. No transaction with respect to the purchase and sale of stock in the public 
 funds can be concluded except by the intervention of a licensed broker, unless by the 
 parties themselves. 
 
 Brokers, Ship and Insurance. — The chief employment of this class of brokers is in 
 the buying and selling of ships, in procuring cargoes on freight, and adjusting the terms 
 of charterparties, settling with the master for his salary and disbursements, &c. Their 
 charge as ship brokers is about 2 per cent, on the gross receipts. When they act as 
 insurance brokers, they charge 5 per cent, on the premium, exclusive of a discount 
 allowed them on settling with the underwriter. The merchant looks to the broker for 
 the regularity of the contract, and a proper selection of underwriters. To him also the 
 imdervvriters look for a fair and candid disclosure of all material circumstances affecting 
 the risk, and for payment of their premiums. From the importance of their employ- 
 ment, ship and insurance brokers ought to be, and indeed generally are, persons of 
 respectability and honour, in whom full confidence may be reposed. A ship broker Is 
 not within the various acts for the regulation and admission of brokers. — ( Gibbons v. 
 Bule, C. P. 27th of June, 1827.) 
 
 Brokers, Custom-house. — It is enacted by the 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52., that no person 
 shall be authorised to act as an agent for transacting business at the Custom-house in the 
 port of London, relative to the entry or clearance of any ship, &c., unless authorised by 
 licence of the commissioners of customs, who are to require bond with one surety for 
 1,000/., for the faithful conduct of such person and his clerks. This regulation does not, 
 however, apply to the clerk or servant of any person or persons transacting business at 
 the Custom-house on his or their account. The commissioners may extend this regula- 
 tion to other ports. — §§ 144. & 148. 
 
 Brokers, Pawn. See Pawnbrokers. 
 
 Brokers, simply so called, in their character of appraisers and sellers of goods dis- 
 trained for rent, are regulated by 57 Geo. 3. c. 93., which enacts, that no such person 
 making any distress for rent, where the sum due .does not exceed 201, shall take more 
 than the following sums ; viz. 
 
 £ s. If. 
 
 For levying - - - 0 3 0 
 
 For men keeping possession, per day - - - 0 2 0 
 
 Advertisements, if any - - - - '-GIOO 
 
 Catalogues, sale, commission, &c. in the pound on the nett produce - 0 1 0 
 Stamp duty, lawful amount. 
 
 Appraisements, whether by one broker or more, 6d. per pound on the value of the 
 goods, under a penalty of treble the amount of the money unlawfully taken, with costs, 
 to be recovered summarily before a justice of the peace. 
 
 In France, the brokers who deal in money, exchange, merchandise, insurance, and 
 stock, are called agents de change, and their number, at Paris, is limited to sixty. The 
 company of agents de change is directed by a chamber of syndics (cliambre syndicate) 
 chosen annually by the company. They are severally obliged to give bonds to the 
 amount of 125,000 fr. for the prevention of abuses. They are also obliged to keep 
 books ; are restricted to a charge of from ^ to ^ per cent. ; and are interdicted from 
 carrying on, or having any interest in, any commercial or banking operations. — (See 
 Code de Commerce, § 74. &c. ; and art. Bordeaux, in this Dictionary.) 
 
 In the United States, brokers are not licensed, nor do they give bonds. 
 
 BROKERAGE, the commission, or percentage, paid to brokers on the sale or 
 purchase of bills, funds, goods, &c (See Factorage.) 
 
BRONZE. — BUENOS AYRES. 
 
 189 
 
 BRONZE (Ger. StUchgut, StUhnetall ; T>u. StUckgoed ; It. Bronzo ; Sp. Metal dg 
 Canones ; Lat. Metallum tormentorum), " a mixed metal, consisting chiefly of copper, 
 with a small proportion of tin, and sometimes other metals. It is used for casting 
 statues, cannon, bells, and other articles, in all of which the proportions of the in- 
 gredients vary." — Ure.) 
 
 BROOMS (Ger. Besen; Fr. Balais ; It. Scope, Granate ; Sp. Escobas ; Rus. 
 Metlii) are principally made of birch or heath. Vast quantities are manufactured in 
 Southwark, for the supply of the London market. 
 
 BRUSHES (Ger. BUrsten; Fr. Brasses; It. Setole, Spazzole j Sp. Brozas, Cepillos, 
 EscobiUas; Rus. Schtschetki), well-known implements, made of bristles, and manu- 
 factured of various forms. 
 
 BUBBLES, a familiar name applied generally to fraudulent or unsubstantial com- 
 mercial projects, which hold out hopes of rapid gain, for the purpose of enriching the 
 projectors at the expense of sanguine and ignorant adventurers ; and particularly used 
 to designate those projects, the funds for which are raised by the sale of shares or sub- 
 scription to a transferable stock. In consequence of the mischief produced by the 
 gambling in transferable shares of bubble companies at the time of the South Sea pro- 
 ject, 1719 and 1720, the stat. 6 Geo. 1. c. 18., reciting that several undertakings or 
 projects had been contrived and practised, which " manifestly tended to the common 
 grievance, prejudice, and inconvenience of great numbers of his Majesty's subjects in 
 their trade and commerce," and describing, among other practices of the time, the 
 ordinary mode of raising money by shares and subscriptions to a pretended transferable 
 stock, enacted, that the undertakings and attempts so described, and public subscriptions, 
 assignments, and transfers for furthering them, and particularly the raising or pretend- 
 ing to raise transferable stocks without authority of charter or act of parliament, should 
 be deemed illegal and void, and prohibited them under severe penalties. Some decisions 
 limited the operation of, and finally the stat. 6 Geo. 4. c. 91. altogether repealed, these 
 enactments and prohibitions. The projectors of bubbles, therefore, are now punishable 
 only when they can be deemed guilty of frauds or conspiracies at common law ; and 
 there is no other check on the adventurers than the loss and troublesome liabilities under 
 the law of partnership, in which participation in these projects often involves them. 
 
 BUCKRAM (Fr. Bougran Ger. Schettre, Steife Leinwand ; It. Tela collata o 
 gommata ; Rus. Kleanka ; Sp. Bucaran), a sort of coarse cloth made of hemp, gummed, 
 calendered, and dyed several colours. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT (Fr. BU Sarrasin, Ble noir ; Ger. Buchwetzen, Heidekorn ; It. 
 Grano Saraceno, Faggina, Fraina ; Sp. Trigo Saraceno, Trigo negro ; Pol. Tatarca, 
 Gryka, Pohanca ■ Rus. Gretscha • Lat. Fagopyrurri) is principally cultivated, in order 
 that it may be cut when young and green, and employed as fodder for cattle ; when 
 allowed to ripen, the grain is usually employed to feed pigeons and poultry. "When ripe 
 it is of a deep yellow colour, the seeds bearing a great resemblance to beech-mast : it 
 will grow on the poorest soils. Buckwheat has been cultivated in this country from the 
 latter part of the sixteenth century. Its native country is unknown, but supposed to be 
 A«ia. Beckman?! has a very learned dissertation on its introduction and early culture 
 in Europe. — (See Hist, of Invent, vol. i. art. Buckwheat.) The average quantity of 
 buckwheat iinported, is about 10,000 quarters. The duty is the same as on barley. 
 — (See Corn Laws.) 
 
 BUENOS AYRES, a city of South America, on the south side of the La Plata, 
 about 200 miles from its junction with the sea, in lat. 34° 36^' S., long. 58° 22' W. 
 Population very differently estimated ; but said (^Bulletin des Sciences Geographiques, 
 vol. XX. p. 152.) to amount to 81,000. The La Plata is one of the largest rivers of 
 the world, traversing a vast extent of country, of which it is the great outlet. Un- 
 luckily, however, it is of very difficult navigation, being shallow, infested with rocks and 
 sand-banks, and exposed to sudden and violent gusts of wind. There is no harbour at 
 Buenos Ayres, or none worthy of the name. Ships can only come within 2 or 3 
 leagues of the town : there they unload their goods into boats ; from which they are 
 received at the landing places into carts that convey them to the town, which is about 
 ^ of a league distant. Ships that want careening repair to the bay of Barragon, a kind 
 of port about 10 leagues to the S. E. of the city ; and there also the outward bound 
 ships wait for their cargoes. All the timber used in the construction of houses, and in 
 the building and repairing of vessels, comes down the river from Paraguay in rafts. 
 The principal articles of export consist of hides and tallow, of which vast quantities are 
 sent to England, the United States, Holland, Germany, &c. ; besides these, there are 
 exported bullion and viccunna wool from Peru, copper from Chili, salt beef, nutria 
 skins, &c. The imports principally consist of cotton and woollen goods from England, 
 hardware and earthenware from ditto, linens from Germany, flour from the United 
 States, spices, wines, salt fish, machinery, furniture, &c. : the finest tobacco, sugars, 
 wax, &c. are brought from the interior ; as is Paraguay tea, an article in considerable 
 
190 
 
 BUFF. — BUOYS. 
 
 demand in South America. The inland trade carried on between Buenos Ayres, and 
 Peru, and Chili, is very considerable ; and its trade by sea with foreign countries is 
 daily becoming of more importance. 
 
 During the year 1832, there were exported from Buenos Ayres, dry hides, 877,132 ; ditto salted, 48,378 '» 
 horse hides, 40,076 ; jerked beef, 105,780 quintals ; horns, 2,049,017; tips, 101,8.51; wool, 33,052 arrobas ; 
 hair, 31,257 ditto ; nutria skins, 14,562 dozen, &c. The trade from this country to Buenos Ayres is con- 
 founded in our Custom-house accounts with that to Monte Video, under the general name of the States 
 of the Rio de la Plata ; but by far the largest share belongs to Buenos Ayres. In 1831, we imported frora 
 these states, exclusive of bullion, of which no account is kept, 429,966 nutna skins — (,see Jnutrijv), 
 146,008 cwt. hides, 2,470 cwt. tallow, 12,244 lbs. sheep's wool, &c. The declared value of tlie articles of 
 British produce and manufacture exported to these states during the same year, was 339,870/. ; of which 
 cottons, woollens, hardware, and linens made more than three fourths. In 1828, 64 British ships, of the 
 burden of 12,746 tons, entered the port ; the total number of foreign vessels that annually enter it being 
 from 300 to 400. The commerce of Buenos Ayres will no doubt continue to increase according as the vast 
 countries situated on the La Plata, now in a great degree unoccupied, are settled. 
 Monies, Weights, Measures, S^c. same as those of Spain ; for which, see Cadiz. 
 
 BUFF (Ger. B'dffel, Biiffelh'dute ; Fr. Buffie, Peau de huffles, et Peaux passees en 
 buffles ; It. Bufalo, Cuojo di hufalo), a sort of leather prepared from the skin of the 
 buffalo, dressed with oil, after the manner of chamois. The skin of elks, oxen, and 
 other like animals, when prepared after the same manner as that of the buffalo, is like- 
 wise called buff. It is vised in making sword-belts and other articles, where great 
 thickness and firmness are required. 
 
 BUGLES, small glass beads of different colours. They are in considerable demand 
 in Africa, to which they are mostly exported. 
 
 BULLION, uncoined gold and silver in the mass. See Gold and Silver. 
 
 BUOYS, pieces of wood, cork, or some light substance, moored and floating on 
 the water. Those of wood are sometimes solid, and sometimes hollow, like a cask, and 
 strongly hooped ; they are made of various shapes and sizes ; and are either private or 
 public. 
 
 Subjoined is an 
 
 Account specifying the Buoys and Beacons under the Control of the Trinity House, Deptford Strond, 
 with the Rates of Charge on account of the same on British and Foreign Ships, and the Produce of 
 the Rates in each of the Three Years ending with m22. — {Parl. Paper, No. 315. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 Rates of Charge. 
 
 British and 
 Foreign pri- 
 vileged Ves- 
 sels Oversea, 
 pe) Ton. 
 
 Foreign Ves- 
 sels not pri- 
 vileged Over- 
 sea, per Ton. 
 
 For the buoys and In the port of London the following 
 beacons in the rates are payable for the inward pas- 
 channels leading- sage only ; viz. — 
 to the river The rates 
 Thames and port vary from -1 
 of London, includ- penny to 1 far- 
 ing loadsmanage thing per ton, 
 and primage, also according to 
 
 includingthedues thede.«^ription 1 penny . 2 pence - 
 formerly returned of the vessels' 
 vmder the head of cargoes, and 
 Trinity House du- the placesfrom 
 ties from stran- whence they 
 gers' ships. arrive. 
 
 These dues are also received at the 
 ports of Gravesend, Sheerness, Rochester, Faversham, 
 Leigh, Maldon, Colchester, Ipswich, Woodbridge, 
 Harwich, and Aldborough, at which they are pay- 
 able for the inward passage only. The rate on fo- 
 reign vessels not privileged, is 2 pence per ton, but in 
 other respeets the rates are determined by the ancient 
 usage of the respective places, and are generally one 
 half tlxe amount of those in the port of London. 
 
 Buoys off Yarmouth 
 
 Buoys and beacons 
 in the river Tees 
 Exeter buoys 
 
 Conway buoys 
 
 Carmarthen buoys 
 Aberdovey buoys - 
 
 i farthing per I | farthing | i farthing 
 
 ton. I I 
 
 4 pence per vessel under 40 tons, 6 
 
 pence on all others. 
 Stone boats, 5 1 1 penny - 1 2 pence - 
 
 shillings per 
 
 annum. I I 
 3 farthings per ton, each and every 
 
 time of passing. 
 3 farth. per ton, each time of passing. 
 1 halfpenny | 1 penny - I 1 penny - 
 per ton. | | 
 
 Total 
 
 Amounts collected. 
 
 1830. 
 
 ,623 7 5 
 
 1,806 10 2| 
 
 462 7 8 
 
 305 14 0 
 
 48 18 n 
 
 110 12 91 
 
 9,313 16 5i 
 
 1,835 11 ^ 
 452 17 2 
 296 5 10 
 
 49 2 lli 
 
 105 14 115 
 31 14 lOi 
 
 1832. 
 
 ?,449 16 9i 
 
 1,802 8 U 
 
 465 7 6 
 
 3:0 19 7 
 
 45 8 4| 
 
 107 7 3 
 
 40 9 2 
 
 ^ 11,357 10 3 J 12,085 3 71:11,261 16 Pj, 
 
 Trinity House, London, 9th of March, 1833. (Errors excepted.) J. Herbert, Secretary. 
 Private Buoys are so called from their belonging to private individuals. They are 
 principally employed to mark the place of the ship's anchor, being fastened to it by a 
 
BURDEN. — BUSHIRE. 
 
 191 
 
 jope or chain, so tliat the men who go in the boat to weigh it may readily find out 
 where it is. 
 
 By the 1 & 2 Geo. 4. c, 75. § 11. it is enacted, that if any person or persons shall wilfully cut away, cast 
 adrift, remove, alter, deface, sink, or destroy, or in any way injure or conceal, any buoy, buoy-rope, or 
 mark belonging to any ship or vessel, or which may be attached to any anchor or cable belonging to any 
 ship or vessel, whether in distress or otherwise, such person or persons so offending shall upon conviction 
 be adjudged guilty of felony, and shall be liable to be transported for any terra not exceeding 7 years, 
 or to be imprisoned for any number of years, at the discretion of the court. 
 
 Public Buoys, being intended for the public service, cannot be placed, altered, or 
 removed, except by competent authority. They are generally of a pretty large size ; 
 and are firmly moored by chains or cables to rocks, large stones, anchors, &c. By float- 
 ing on the surface of the water, they serve at once to mark the channels through which 
 it is safe to steer, and to point out dangers to be avoided, such as sunken rocks, shoals, 
 wrecks of vessels, &c. The places in, and the purposes for, which buoys are exhibited, 
 are always specified in good charts : and as the leading buo^s are generally of a peculiar 
 figure or colour, which is also indicated in the chart, the navigator, as soon as he recog- 
 nises them, shapes his course accordingly. Hence the great importance of having buoys 
 properly placed, and of their being carefully marked in charts. 
 
 The 6 Geo. 4. c. 125. \ 91. enacts, that every person who shall ride by, make fast to, remove, or wil- 
 fully run down or run foul of any vessel placed to exhibit lights, or any buoy or beacon belonging to the 
 corporation of the Trinity House of Deptford Strond, or to any other corporation having authority to 
 place such vessel, buoy, or beacon, shall, besides making good all damage occasioned thereby, forfeit, for 
 every such offence, any sum not exceeding 50/. nor less than 10/. 
 
 BURDEN of a ship. See Tonnage. 
 BURGUNDY. See Wine. 
 
 BURGUNDY PITCH, a resin, the produce of the Pinus Abies, or spruce fir. It 
 is obtained by making incisions in the bark down to the wood, whence it flows thickly 
 and languidly, immediately concreting into flakes that adhere firmly to the tree. These 
 being taken oflf are melted in boiling water, and strained through coarse cloths. It is of 
 a close consistence, rather soft, has a reddish brown colour, and a not unpleasant smell ; 
 it is very adhesive. The greatest quantity is collected in the neighbourhood of Neuf- 
 chatel, whence it is brought to us packed in casks. A fictitious sort is made in England, 
 and found in the shops under the title of common Burgundy pitch ; it may be distinguished 
 by its friability, want of viscidity and of the odour which characterises the genuine sort. 
 
 A species of Burgundy pitch exudes spontaneously from the Norway spruce fir. 
 Tliis, which undergoes no preparation, is the resin or thus of the old London Pharma- 
 copoeias. It is imported in the form of tears or small masses, packed in casks, each con- 
 taining from 1 to 2 cwt. It fetches about half the price of that which is strained. — 
 ( Gray^s Supplement to the Pharmacopoeias, Thomson's Dispensatory. ) 
 
 BUSHEL, a measure of capacity for dry goods, as grain, fruit, dry pulse, &c., con- 
 taining 4 pecks, or 8 gallons, or i of a quarter. 
 
 The Winchester bushel contains 2150-42 cubic inches, while the Imperial bushel con- 
 tains 2218*192. Hence, to convert Winchester bushels into Imperial, multiply by the 
 fraction ^I'^^-rI '969447, or approximately deduct ^th, and g^th ; and if great 
 accuracy be required, 2(Hjo' soiJoo iTf^o^e. To convert prices per Winchester bushel 
 into prices per Imperial bushel, multiply by the fraction ^li^.'fa^ oi* 1*0315157. 
 
 By the 5 Geo. 4. c. 74. § 7. the bushel shall be the standard measure of capacity for 
 coals, culm, lime, fish, potatoes, or fruit, and all other goods and things commonly sold by- 
 heaped measure. The bushel shall contain 80 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water, being 
 made round, with a plain and even bottom, and being 1 9\ inches from outside to outside. 
 Sections 7. and 8. direct the mode in which the bushel shall be used for heaped meastire. 
 — (See Weights and Measures.) 
 
 The standard measure of capacity, by this act, as well for liquids as for dry goods 
 not measured by heaped measure, shall be the gallon, containing 10 lbs. avoirdupois 
 weight of distilled water weighed in air at the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit's ther- 
 mometer, the barometer being at 30 inches; and such measure shall be the Imperial 
 standard gallon (containing 277*274 cubic inches); and all measures shall be taken in 
 parts or multiples, or certain proportions, of the said Imperial standard gallon ; and the 
 quart shall be the fourth part, and the pint shall be an eighth of such standard gallon ; 
 and 2 such gallons shall be a peck, and 8 such gallons shall be a bushel, and 8 such 
 bushels a quarter of corn or other dry goods not measured by heaped measure. 
 
 BUSHIRE, OR ABUSHIRE, a sea-port town of Persia^ in the province of Pars, on 
 the north-east coast of the Persian Gulf, in lat. 29° N., 1 ^ng. 50° 50' E. Population 
 uncertain, but estimated by Major Wilson at from 15,000 to 20,000. Bushire is situated 
 at the northern extremity of a sandy peninsula, to the north and east of which is the. bay. 
 There is a convenient anchorage for large ships due west from the town, 3 or 4 iniles 
 distant, in from 25 to 28 feet water ; but ships of 300 tons burden or thereby lie in 
 the inner roads, to the north, about 6 miles from shore ; the anchorage is pretty good ; 
 but during violent north-westerly gales, they are sometimes obliged to cut their cables 
 
192 
 
 BUSHIRE. 
 
 and bear up for Karak, a small island about 15 leagues W. N.W. of Bushire. The 
 water immediately to the east of the town is deep, but the passage to it is obstructed by 
 a bar, which cannot be passed by vessels drawing more than 8 or 9 feet water, except 
 at spring tides, when there is a rise of from 8 to 10 feet. The variation in 1811 waf 
 4° 43' W. — (Chart of the Persian Gulf, by Captain Ritchie, &c.) The climate here, 
 as in aU the other ports of the Persian Gulf, is extremely hot, particularly in June, July, 
 and August. The unhealthy season is in the fall of the year. 
 
 Trade, 8fc. — Bushire has a good deal of trade, particularly with Calcutta, Bombay, 
 and Madras. Its merchants supply almost all Persia with Indian commodities ; as, 
 also, with a good many of those brought from Europe. Of the imports from India, 
 indigo, sugar, sugar candy, and spices are the most important; the steel of India is 
 preferred in Persia to every other, and is made into excellent sabres : tin is brought from 
 Banca ; and coffee is principally supplied by Mocha and other ports on the Arabian 
 Gulf. English cotton goods, notwithstanding the admitted inferiority of our red dyes, — 
 a colour in great esteem in Persia, — have already gone far to supersede those that were 
 formerly brought from Hindostan ; and the demand for them is rapidly extending, and 
 is susceptible of an almost indefinite increase. Besides those imported at Busliire, a 
 good many are introduced through Bussorah, and some through Turkey and Russia ; 
 the latter by way of the Black Sea, the former of Smyrna and Constantinople. Hi- 
 therto, indeed, a considerable part of the cottons imported through the last mentioned 
 channels have been supplied by Switzerland and Germany, — their fabrics having been, 
 in some respects, better fitted than ours for the Turkish and Persian markets ; but 
 they seem to have lost this advantage, as our exports of cottons to Turkey are now 
 rapidly increasing. Woollen goods, cutlery, watches, &c., sent to India from England, 
 are thence exported to Bushire. Imitation shawls, of the proper size and pattern, are 
 said to meet with a^ fair sale. The exports principally consist of raw silk, Kerman wool, 
 Kerman and Cashmere shawls, carpets, horses, silk goods, dried fruits, wine, grain, 
 copper, turquoises, asafoetida, gall-nuts, pearls, and other articles of minor importance. 
 Turkey annually supplies Persia with a very considerable amount of bullion, most part of 
 which is sent to India. 
 
 Of the Persian exports, raw silk is the most important. It is produced to some 
 extent in every province ; but Gheelan and Mazunderan are those which are most cele- 
 brated for its growth. In the former, about 900,000 lbs. are annually raised. Russia is 
 a large customer for this article. Dried fruits and dates are sent in considerable quan- 
 tities to India. Horses are largely exported to India both by sea and land ; they serve 
 for mounting our Indian cavalry, and for supplying the large private demand that always 
 obtains in Hindostan for this noble animal. Though neither so swift nor so beautiful as 
 those of Arabia, the Persian horses are large, more powerful, and, all things considered, 
 better for cavalry. They are capable of supporting an extraordinary degree of fatigue. 
 Wine of Shiraz enjoys a degree of celebrity, to which, judging from the few samples we 
 have seen, it seems but ill entitled. Mr. Fraser says that it is made in so careless a 
 manner, that, in choosing it, not more than 1 bottle in 4 or 5 can be made use of. 
 Persian tobacco and yellow dye berries are highly esteemed : the former enters to a con- 
 siderable extent 'into the trade to Turkey as well as to India; the berries bring a very 
 high price in our markets, but the imports hitherto have been inconsiderable. Tur- 
 quoises, asafoetida, and various sorts of drugs, rose water, with other minor articles, form 
 part of the exports. Sheep's and goats' wool is also exported. The best is tliat of 
 Kerman. The down furnished by the goats of this province is almost as fine as that of 
 the Thibet or shawl goats. Cotton is extensively produced in Persia ; the Russians 
 carry away some, but the greater part is used in the country. Grain is sent to Muscat, 
 but not in large quantities. The pearl trade is now principally centered at Muscat. 
 The imports of copper into Calcutta from Bushire, Bussorah, and other ports of the 
 Persian Gulf, during the 7 years ending with 1827-28, were valued at about 
 30,000/. a year. This copper is principally the produce of the Persian mines, mixed, 
 however, with some Russian copper from Georgia. Of manufactured articles, the 
 principal are carpets of the most beautiful fabric ; shawls, partly native, and partly 
 brought from Cashmere; velvets, silk goods, gold and silver brocades, and a few other 
 articles. The trade between Persia and Russia by the Caspian Sea is very considerable. 
 Most part of the paper used in the former is supplied by the latter. The furs of Russia 
 find a ready market in Persia ; but it is a fact worth mentioning, that Persian merchants 
 have recently been seen at the Leipsic fairs, carrying gold thither for American furs ! — 
 (Urquhart on the Resources of Turkey, p. 155.) The Russian provinces on the Caspian 
 derive their supplies of indigo from Persia by way of Bushire. 
 
 The official returns show that the total value of the entire trade, imports as well as exports, carried 
 on between British India and the Persian Gulf, at an average of the 7 years ending with 1828, was 
 (taking the rupee at 2s.) 1,337,163Z. a year. Of this amount, Calcutta i>articipatcd to the extent of 
 .'5."'9,684/., Madras of 54,981/., and Bombay of 722,497/. This, liowevcr, includes the trade to Muscat and 
 Qussorali, as well as to Bushire, and we nave no means of discriminating the separate amount of each. 
 
BUSS. — BUSSORAH. 
 
 193 
 
 It appears, inclepd, from an account in tho same paper whence these statements are taken, that of Si 
 ships belonginf; to the I'ersian Gulf that arrived at Jiombay during the 7 years referred to, 2S l)elonged 
 to Muscat, and only 7 to Bushire. lJut it must not be supposed that the trade to these places i» in this 
 proportion, inasmuch as most of the Arabian ships trading to IJussorah belong to Muscat. It may, how. 
 ever, be fairly presumed, that the arrivals of Gulf ships at Calcutta and Madras would be in al)out the 
 same proportion as those at Bombay j but the destination of the British ships trading to the Gulf not 
 being given, and it being customary for most ships to visjt both Bushire and Bussorah, it is impossible to say 
 whether the value of the trade to the former, as compared with that to the latter and Muscat, corresponds 
 with the number of ships they respectively send to India. 
 
 Water at Bushire is excessively bad and dear ; but excellent water, and in great abundance, may be 
 had at Karak. The anchorage at this island is safe at all times; and ships may lie close to the beach. 
 Sir John Malcolm suggested, that the permanent possession of Karak would be an object of considerable 
 importance ; and we are rather inclined to agree with him. It is of no value to the Persians, and there 
 seems little doubt that they would be glad to cede it for a trifling consideration. Its possession would not 
 only enable us to command tho navigation of the I'ersian Gulf: but it would form a depot where goods 
 destined for Bushire, Bussorah, &c. might be kept in perfect safety, and in a situation the most conve- 
 nient, being readily accessible to all sorts of Arabian vessels. A tasie for British cottons and woollens is 
 now forming in all the vast countries watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris, or which derive their 
 supplies from the emporia erected on their banks: and it is of the greatest consequence that nothing be 
 omitted that may serve to facilitate tne dinusion of this taste, and the means of gratifying it. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept in tomans of 50 abasses, or 100 mamoodis. The toman is a Persian goUl 
 coin, containing, according to the report of the. JJombay mint, from 715 to fiV gr. pure metal, 
 being consequently equal to from Vis. l%d. to lis. \\d. sterling. The toman of Bussorah is worth about 
 36«. ; and that of Goml)roon about 9.\s. These, with Persian and foreign silver coins of all denomina- 
 tions, are found at Bushire ; but the rates of the foreign coins are perpetually varying, and the weight of 
 the native coins is also subject to frequent changes. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — Gold and silveif are weighed by the miscal of 2 dwt. 23 7-12 gr., or 3 dwt, 
 very nearly. 
 
 The commercial weights vary according to the commodities sold, and the places where they are used. 
 The maund tabree weighs 6J lbs. avoirdupois at the Custom-house, but only 65 lbs. at the bazaar. This 
 weight is used by dealers in sugar, coffee, copper, and all sorts of drugs. The maund copra is 7f lbs. at 
 the Custom-house, and from 1\ to lbs. at the bazaar. Dealers in rice and other articles of provision 
 use this weight. The maund shaw is double the maund tabree, or ISg lbs. 
 
 Pearls are weighed by the abbas = 2 25 gr. Troy. 
 
 There are various sorts of guz's or cubits. One called the royal guz = 37| Eng. inches ; the common 
 guz is two thirds of the former, or 25 inches. 
 
 The Persian league or parasang is l-20th of a degree of the equator, and should, therefore, be equal 
 to 3 miles 3 furlongs and 25 poles English. 
 
 The artaba, or principal corn measure, is equivalent to about 2 Winch, quarters. 
 
 For further particulars, see Niebiihr, Voyage en Arable, tome ii. p. 75. ; Kinneir's Metnoir of the 
 Persian Empire, p. 70. ; Eraser's Travels on the Shores of the Caspian, Appen. pp. 352 — 384. ; Pari. 
 Paper, No. 735. — II. Sess. 1832. pp. 632— 638. j Kelly's Oriental Metrology; Thornton's East Indian 
 Calculator, S^c. 
 
 BUSS, a small sea-vessel, used by us and the Dutch in the herring fishery, commonly 
 from 50 to 60 tons burden, and sometimes more. A Imss has two small sheds or cabins ; 
 one at the prow, and the other at the stern ; that at the prow serves for a kitchen. — (See 
 Fishery. ) 
 
 BUSSORAH, OR BASRAH, a city of Arabia, on the western bank of the Shat-el- 
 Arab (the name given to the river formed by the junction of the Tigris and the 
 Euphrates), above 70 miles from its mouth, lat. 30° 30' N., long. 47° 32' E. Popu- 
 lation about 60,000, consisting of Arabs, Turks, Persians, Armenians, Jews, &c. The 
 houses and streets are mean and filthy. There is a vast area within the walls, occupied 
 principally by gardens and plantations of date trees, and intersected by canals, on which 
 are numerous small craft. 
 
 The bar at the mouth of the Shat-el-Arab has only about 12 feet water, but the 
 channel within is deep, so that ships of 500 tons burden, provided they cross the bar at 
 the springs, may without difficulty ascend the river as far as the city ; and both its 
 grand branches may be navigated to a great distance by smaller vessels. Bussorah is 
 the principal inlet on the east, through which Indian and other Eastern products find 
 their way into the Turkish empire. Its commerce is, therefore, even at present, pretty 
 considerable ; and were the rich and extensive countries traversed by the Tigris and the 
 Euphrates occupied by a civilised and industrious people, it would be very great. Its 
 imports from India and Europe are similar to those at Bushire (which see) ; from 
 Persia it imports shawls, pearls from Bahrein, &c., and coffee from Mocha. At an 
 average, 6 or 8 British ships arrive in the course of the year from India ; but the prin- 
 cipal part of the trade is carried on in Arabian bottoms, the merchants of Muscat being 
 the owners of some of the finest ships that are to be met with in the Indian seas. Its 
 exports are principally bullion, pearls, dates, copper, raw silk, horses, gall nuts, and 
 drugs. Captain Hamilton mentions, that in the early part of last century, the exports 
 of dates from Bussorah exceeded 10,000 tons a year. — (New Account of the East 
 Indies, vol. i. p. 78.) The commerce with the interior is conducted by means of cara- 
 vans to Aleppo and Bagdad ; but it might be carried on to much more advantage by 
 means of steam-boats. It has been proposed to forward mails from India by steam by 
 the Shat-el-Arab and the Euphrates to Bir, thence by land to Scanderoon, and again 
 by steam to Gibraltar and England. 
 
 Money. — All sorts of coins circulate here, but their values are constantly fluctuating. Accounts ar© 
 \ie\)\. \n mamoodies o( 10 danims, or lOO floose ; \W mamoodies make a <07«a7?, which may be valued at 
 about 15 sicca rupees, or 36s. sterling. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — Go\d. and silver are weighed by the chfki of 100 miscals, or 7,200 Eng. 
 grains. 
 
 o 
 
BUTLERAGE. — BUTTER. 
 
 The commercial weights are the maund atteree, the mound sqfy or sesse, and the oke of Bagdad, 
 1 vakia — 19 oz. avoirdupois ; 2| vakias := 1 oke of Bagdad ^ 47| oz. avoir. ; 1 maund atteree = 28 Iba, 
 % oz. avoir ; 1 maund sofy = 9U lbs. 4 oz. avoir. ; 1 cutra of indigo = 138 lbs. 15 oz. avoir. 
 
 Tliese are the weights used by the Europeans settled at Bussorah ; those used by the Arabians differ 
 a little from the above, and frequently also among themselves, — a circumstance to which the merchant 
 must pay particular attention. 
 
 The long measures are the Alej^o yard for silks and woollens = 2 feet 2 4 inches ; the Hadded do. for 
 cottons and linens — 2 feet 10 2 inches ; the Bagdad do. for all purposes = 2 feet 7'6 inches. 
 
 For further details as to the commerce of Bussorah, Kinneir's Memoir on the Persian Empire, 
 p. 283. ; the art. Bushire in this Dictionary ; Kelly's Oriental Metrology ; Thornton's East Indian Cal- 
 culator, p. 424. Niebuhr has given a plan of Bussorah, Voyage en Arable, tome ii. p. 170. 
 
 BUTLERAGE. See Prisage. 
 
 BUTT, a vessel or measure for \rine, containing 2 hogsheads, or 126 wine gallons. 
 
 BUTTER (Da. Smor ; Du. Boter ; Fr. Beurre ; Ger. Butter,- It. Burro, Butiro; 
 Lat. Butyrum Pol. Maslo Port. Manteiga ; Rus. Masslo Korowe Sp. Manteca ; 
 Sw. Smor), as every one knows, is a fat, unctuous, and, in temperate climates, a pretty- 
 firm substance, obtained from milk, or rather from cream, by the process of churning. 
 
 The various circumstances attending the introduction and use of butter in antiquity 
 have been investigated by Beckmann with great learning and industry. The conchision 
 at which he arrives is, " that butter was not used either by the Greeks or Romans in 
 cooking or the preparation of food, nor was it brought upon their tables by way of 
 dessert, as is every where customary at present. We never find it mentioned by Galen 
 and others as a food, though they have spoken of it as applicable to other purposes. No 
 notice is taken of it by Apicius ; nor is there any thing said of it in that respect by the 
 authors who treat of agriculture, though they have given us very particular information 
 witli respect to milk, cheese, and oil. This, as has been remarked by others, may be 
 easily accounted for, by the ancients having accustomed themselves to the use of good 
 oil ; and in the like manner butter is very little employed at present in Italy, Spain, 
 Portugal, and the southern parts of France." — {History of Inventions, vol. ii. p. 413. 
 Eng. ed.) 
 
 Butter is very extensively used in this and most other northern countries ; that of 
 England and Holland is reckoned the best. In London, the butter of Epping and 
 Cambridge is in the highest repute ; the cows which produce the former, feed during 
 summer in the shrubby pastures of Epping Forest ; and the leaves of the trees, and 
 numei'ous wild plants which there abound, are supposed to improve the flavour of the 
 butter. It is brought to market in rolls from one to two feet long, weighing a pound 
 each. Hie Cambridgeshire butter is produced from cows tliat feed one part of the year on 
 chalky uplands, and the other on rich meadows or fens : it is made up into long rolls 
 like the Epping butter, and generally salted or cured before being brought to market ; 
 the London dealers, having washed it, and wrought the salt out of it, frequently sell it 
 for Epping butter. 
 
 The butter of Suffolk and Yorkshire is often sold for that of Cambridgeshire, to 
 which it is little inferior. The butter of Somersetshire is thought to equal that of 
 Epping : it is brought to market in dishes containing half a pound each ; out of which 
 it is taken, washed, and put into different forms, by the dealers of Bath and Bristol. 
 The butter of Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire is very good ; it is made up in half- 
 pound packs or prints, packed up in square baskets, and sent to the London market by 
 wagon. The butter of the mountains of Wales and Scotland, and the moors, com- 
 mons, and heaths of England, is of excellent quality when it is properly managed ; and, 
 though not equal in quantity, it often is confessedly superior, to that produced by the 
 richest meadows. — ( Loudon's Ency. of Agriculture. ) 
 
 Considerable quantities of butter are made in Ireland, and it forms a prominent arti- 
 cle in the exports of that country : generally, it is very inferior to that of Britain ; but 
 this is a consequence rather of the want of cleanliness and attention, than of any infe- 
 riority in the milk. Some of the best Ii-ish butter brought to London, after being 
 washed and repacked, is sold as Dorsetshire and Cambridge butter. 
 
 The salt butter of Holland is superior to that of every other country ; large quanti- 
 ties of it are annually exported. It forms about three fourths of all the foreign butter 
 we import. 
 
 The production and consumption of butter in Great Britain is very great. The consumption in the 
 Metropolis may, it is believed, be averaged at about one half pound per week for each individual, being 
 at the rate of 26 lbs. a year ; and supposing the population to amount to 1,450,000, the total annual con- 
 sumption would, on this hypothesis, be 37,700,000 lbs., or 16,830 tons : but to this may be added 4,000 tons, 
 for the butter required for the victuallinf of ships and other purposes; making the total consumption, in 
 round numbers, 21,000 tons, or 47,040,000 lbs., which at lOrf. per lb. would be worth 1,960,000/. 
 
 The average produce per cow of the butter dairies is estimated by Mr. Marshall at l^S lbs. a year ; 
 so that, supposing we are nearly right in the above estimates, about 280,000 cows will be required 
 to produce an adequate supply of butter for the London market. 
 
 The consumption of butter in London has sometimes been estimated at 50,000 tons ; which, ac- 
 cording to Mr. Marshall's statement, of the accuracy of which no doubt can be entertained, would 
 require for its supply upwards of 666,000 cows! Further commentary on such a statement would be 
 superfluous. 
 
BUTTER. 
 
 195 
 
 An Account of the Total Quantity (in Hundred Weights) of Butter imported into Great Britain from 
 Foreign Countries and Ireland, in each Year, from .0th of January, 18(H, to 5111 of January, 18.'f2 ; dis- 
 tinguishing tlie Quantity from Ireland, from the Isles of Jersey, (Juerusey, and Man, from Holland 
 and the Netherlands, and from all other Foreign Countries j and stating the Hate and Amount of Duty 
 in each Year paid thereon. 
 
 1801 
 1S02 
 
 1803 
 1801 
 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 1808 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 1813 
 18U 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 J819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1821 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 SOU 
 Oca 
 
 .§ 
 
 Ctots. 
 186,821 
 
 25f,248 
 
 246,388 
 196,037 
 212,441 
 261,911 
 314,386 
 312,408 
 317,676 
 311,551 
 353,791 
 311,475 
 351,832 
 315,421 
 320,655 
 280,586 
 305,662 
 352,538 
 429,614 
 457,730 
 413,088 
 377,651 
 466,834 
 431,174 
 425,670 
 t- - 
 
 Quantities of Butter importeil into Great 
 Britain from all Parts (exceirt Ireland). 
 
 CwU. 
 
 339 
 
 59 
 56 
 143 
 61 
 46 
 36 
 611 
 359 
 27 
 
 1,864 
 944 
 327 
 258 
 1,917 
 1,256 
 275 
 190 
 291 
 387 
 305 
 394 
 131 
 366 
 493 
 445 
 585 
 622 
 331 
 
 1^ 
 
 CrvU. 
 71,206 
 
 81,100 
 
 53,682 
 100,685 
 64,616 
 66,544 
 68,315 
 73,727 
 44,061 
 5,956 
 
 "22,415 
 
 o ocj 
 
 Cnitt, 
 43,583 
 
 8,819 
 
 50,411 
 25,989 
 32,169 
 18,968 
 18,970 
 5,816 
 32,185 
 26,676 
 2,451 
 3,451 
 
 11^ 
 
 Cwtt. 
 115,130 
 
 93,018 
 
 104,120 
 
 1£6,734 
 96,813 
 85,6.57 
 87,346 
 79,590 
 76,283 
 33,241 
 2,810 
 25,894 
 
 Amount of 
 Duty received 
 in Oreat Britain 
 on Forei)jn 
 Butter. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 4 7 
 
 3 II 
 
 960 10 
 
 4 10 
 244 12 
 
 2 12 
 0 0 
 0 19 
 
 the records were destroyed 
 
 98,560 
 106,885 
 61,753 
 20,279 
 66,232 
 62,498 
 65,986 
 99,345 
 108,.501 
 101,549 
 132,093 
 160,048 
 136,779 
 142,658 
 145,617 
 116,233 
 77,025 
 80,900 
 92,409 
 
 17,373 
 17,470 
 
 2,062 
 152 
 15,544 
 
 2,295 
 
 2,295 
 16,291 
 
 9,627 
 20,394 
 28,2.55 
 118,975 
 59,288 
 68,117 
 55,532 
 31,485 
 31,222 
 42,147 
 38,460 
 
 115,798 
 125,300 
 64,113 
 20,690 
 83,694 
 66,050 
 68,557 
 115,827 
 118,420 
 122,331 
 160,654 
 279,418 
 196,200 
 211,141 
 201,673 
 148,164 
 108,854 
 123,670 
 131,202 
 
 196 4 
 by fire. 
 
 ,397 13 
 ,301 10 
 ,737 11 
 ,540 10 
 ,550 10 
 ,836 16 
 ,578 15 
 ,980 12 
 ,263 13 
 164 14 
 854 10 
 ,S61 19 
 ,130 8 
 427 1 
 ,850 7 
 ,997 4 
 ,881 15 
 ,336 12 
 ,330 9 
 
 HatCB of Duty on Fordgn Butter 
 
 2 9 1/^ cwt, and 31. ^ centum"^ 
 ad valorem. 
 
 2 9 cwt. and 3/. 12s. <^ cen- 
 
 turn ad valorem (from 
 12th of May). 
 
 3 6f ^ cwt. (from 5th of July) 
 5 cwt. (from 1st of June) 
 
 4 0-45^cwt.(from5th of April) 
 4 3 61 'D^'cwt. (from 10th of May) / 
 
 4 4 ^ cwt. (from 5th of July) 
 
 5 If^f cwt. (from 15th of April) 
 £1 W cwt. (from 5th of April) 
 
 N. B. — We have omitted g-rs. and /6s. from this account; but they are allowed for in the column 
 of totals. 
 
 Custom House, London, 5th of October, 1833. 
 
 The average contract prices of the butter furnished to Greenwich Hospital from 1730 to 1832, have 
 been as follows: — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Prices per lb. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Prices per lb. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Prices per lb. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Prices per lb. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1730 
 
 0 5 
 
 1795 
 
 0 8i 
 0 lU 
 
 1813 
 
 1 3 
 
 1823 
 
 0 7i 
 
 1740 
 
 0 5 
 
 1800 
 
 1814 
 
 1 2 
 
 1824 
 
 0 8i 
 
 1750 
 
 0 51 
 
 1805 
 
 0 llf 
 
 0 Hi 
 
 1 0| 
 
 1815 
 
 1 2 
 
 1825 
 
 0 lOi 
 
 1755 
 
 0 5| 
 
 1806 
 
 1816 
 
 0 91 
 
 1826 
 
 0 9i 
 0 8i 
 
 1760 
 
 0 5| 
 
 1807 
 
 1817 
 
 0 8| 
 
 1827 
 
 1765 
 
 0 5i 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1818 
 
 0 11 
 
 1828 
 
 0 8i 
 
 1770 
 
 0 6i 
 0 6f 
 0 6i 
 
 1809 
 
 1 2* 
 
 1819 
 
 0 11 
 
 1829 
 
 0 8 
 
 1775 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1820 
 
 0 91 
 0 8f 
 
 1830 
 
 0 6i 
 
 1780 
 
 1811 
 
 ! 
 
 1821 
 
 1831 
 
 0 9f 
 
 1785 
 
 0 6i 
 0 6| 
 
 1812 
 
 1 Si 
 
 1822 
 
 0 7i 
 
 1832 
 
 0 8f 
 
 1790 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (See art. Prices.) 
 
 In order to obviate the practice of fraud in the weighing and packing of butter, different statutes have 
 been passed, particularly the 36 Geo. 3. c. 86., and 38 Geo. 3. c. 73., the principal regulations of which are 
 subjoined. It is very doubtful, however, whether they have been productive of any good effect. It 
 might be proper, perhaps, to order the weight of the butter, exclusive of the vessel, and the dairyman's 
 or seller's name, to be branded on the inside and outside of each vessel ; but most of the other regula- 
 
 ♦ Butter imported in British shipping, or in shipping of states in amity with his Majesty, was admitted 
 free of duty under the authority cf Orders in Council, by virtue of the act 39 Geo. 3. c. 87., from 12th 
 of July, 1799, continued by subsequent acts until 6 months after the ratification of the definitive treaty 
 of peace, and further continued, by Order in Council, until 25th of September, 1814. 
 
 •f No account can be furnished oi' the quantities of butter imported from Ireland for the years subse- 
 quent to 1825, the records of the trade between Great Britain and Ireland liaving been discontinued, in 
 consequence of the regulations adopted for the purpose of giving effect to the law which placed the 
 intercourse between the two countries on the footing of a coasting traffic. 
 
 O 2 
 
196 
 
 BUTTONS. 
 
 ^ions, especially those as to the tliickness of the staves, and the weight of the vessels, seem to be at one* 
 vexatious and useless. 
 
 Every cooper or other person who shall make any vessel for the packing of butter, shall make the same 
 of good well-seasoned timber, tight and not leaky, and shall groove in the heads and bottoms thereof • 
 and every vessel made for the F'acking of butter shall be a tub, firkin, or half-firkin, and no other. 
 
 Every tub shall weigh of itself, including the top and bottom, not less than 11 lbs. nor more than 15 lbs 
 avoirdupois ; and neither the top nor the bottom of any such tub siiall exceed in any part five eighths of 
 an inch in thickness. 
 
 Every firkin shall weigh at least 7 lbs. including the top and the bottom, which shall not exceed four 
 eighths of an inch thick in any part. 
 
 Half firkins to weigh not less than 4 lbs. nor more than 6 lbs. including the top and the bottom, which 
 shall not exceed the thickness of three eighths of an inch in any part ; upon pain that the cooper or every 
 other person making any such vessel, in any respect contrary to the preceding directions, shall forfeit 
 every such vessel and lOi. 
 
 Every cooper, &c. shall brand every cask or vessel before going out of his possession, on the outside, 
 with his name, in legible and permanent letters, under penalty of 10s , together with the exact v. eight or 
 tare thereof 
 
 Every dairyman, farmer, or seller of butter, or other person packing the same for sale, shall pack it in 
 vessels made and marked as aforesaid, and in no other, and shall properly soak and season every such 
 vessel; and on the inside, and on the top on the outside, shall brand nis name at length, in permanent 
 and legible letters; and shall also, with an iron, brand on the top on the outside, and on the bouge or 
 body of every such cask, the true weight or tare of every such vessel, when it shall have been soaked and 
 seasoned ; and also shall brand his name at length, on the bouge or body of every such vessel, across two 
 different staves at least, and shall distinctly, and at length, imprint his Christian and surname upon the 
 top of the butter in such vessel when filled, on pain of f orfeiting .6/. for every default thereof. 
 
 Every tub of butter shall contain, exclusive of the tare, of good and merchantable butter, 8ilbs. ; every 
 firkin 56 lbs; every half-firkin 28 lbs. ; and no old or corrupt butter shall be mixed, or packed in and 
 vessel whatever, with any butter that is new and sound ; nor shall any butter made of whey be packed or 
 mixed with butter made of cream, but the respective sorts shall be packed separately, and the whole 
 vessel shall, throughout, be of one sort and goodness ; and no butter shall be salted with any great salt 
 but all butter shall be salted with small salt ; nor shall more salt be intermixed with the butter than is 
 needful for its preservation, under penalty of 51. for offending against any of these regulations. 
 
 No change, alteration, fraud, or deceit, shall be practised by any dealers or packers of butter, either 
 with respect to the vessel or the butter so packef!, whether in respect to quantity or otherwise, under a 
 penalty of 30/. to be imposed on every person engaged in the offence. 
 
 Every cheesemonger, dealer in butter, or other person, who shall sell any tubs, firkins, or half-firkins 
 of butter, shall deliver, in every such cask or vessel respectively, the full quantity appointed by this act, 
 or, in default thereof, shall be liable to make satisfaction to the person who shall buy the same for what^ 
 shall be wanting, according to the price for which it was sold, and shall be liable to an action for recovery 
 of the same, with full costs of suit. 
 
 No cheesemonger, dealer in butter, &c. shall repack for sale any butter, under penalty of 5/. for every 
 tub, firkin, or half-firkin, so repacked. 
 
 Nothing in this act shall extend to make any cheesemonger, dealer in butter, or other person, liable to 
 any penalties for using any of the tubs, firkins, or half-firkins, after the British butter used in such 
 vessels shall have been taken thereout, for the repacking for sale of any foreign butter, who shall, before 
 he so repack such foreign buttw, eiitirely cut or efface the several names of the original dairyman, farmer, 
 or seller of butter, from every such vessel, leaving the name and tare of the cooper, and the tare of the 
 original dairyman, farnior, or seller, thereon ; and, after the names are so effaced, shall, with an iron, 
 brand his Christian anii surname, and the words foreign butter, upon the bouge of every such vessel, 
 across two staves at least, to denote that such butter is foreign butter. 
 
 Persons counterfeiting or forging any such names or marks, shall for every such offence forfeit 40/. 
 
 Penalties not exceeding 51. to be determined by one justice, upon the evidence of one witness, and the 
 whole shall go to the informer. 
 
 Penalties above 51. to be recovered by action of debt, or information, in the courts at Westminster, and 
 the whole to the informer. 
 
 Nothing to extend to the packing of butter in any pot or vessel which shall not be capable of containing 
 more than 14 lbs. . 
 
 Previously to 1S26, no butter could be sold in any public market in Ireland, or exported from it, with- 
 out being previously examined and branded by a public inspector; but compliance with this regulation is 
 no longer compulsory, but is left to the discretion of the parties. 
 
 It is enacted by statute 4 Will. 3. c. 7., that every warehouse-keeper, weigher, searcher, or shipper of 
 butter and cheese, shall receive all butter and cheese that shall be brought to him for the I^ondon cheese- 
 mongers, and ship the same without undue preference; and shall have for his pains 2j. 6rf. for every 
 load ; and if he shall make default, he shall, on conviction before one justice, on oath of one witness, or 
 confession, forfeit for every firkin of butter 10s., and for every weigh of cheese 5s., half for the use of the 
 poor, and half to the informer. 
 
 And every such person shall keep a book of entry of receiving and shipping the goods, on pain of 2s. 6d. 
 for every firkin of butter and weigh of cheese. 
 
 The master of a ship refusing to take in butter or cheese before he is full laden (except it be a cheese- 
 monster's own ship sent for his own goods) shall forfeit for every firkin of butter refused 5s., and for every 
 weigh of cheese 2s. 6d. 
 
 This act does not extend to any warehouse in Cheshire or Lancashire. 
 
 Butter made in hot countries is generally liquid. In India it is denominated ghee, 
 and is mostly prepared from the milk of buffaloes ; it is usually conveyed in duppers, 
 or bottles made of hide, each of which contains from 10 to 40 gallons. Ghee is an 
 article of considerable commercial importance in many parts of India. 
 
 The Arabs are the greatest consumers of butter in the world. Burckhardt tells us, 
 that it is a common practice among all classes to drink every morning a coffee cup full 
 of melted butter or ghee ! and they use it in an infinite variety of other ways. The 
 taste for it is universal ; and the poorest individuals will expend half their daily income 
 that tliey may have butter for dinner, and butter in the morning. Large quantities are 
 annually shipped from Cosseir, Souakin, and Massouah, on the west coast of the Red 
 fSea, for Djidda and other Arabian ports. — (^Burckhardt's Travels in Nicbia, p. 440. ; 
 Travels in Arabia, vol. i. p. 52. ) 
 
 BUTTONS (Du. Knoopen ; Fr. Bouton ; Ger. KnUpfe ; It. Bottoni Rus. Pogo- 
 wizii ; Sp. B atones) axe wqW known articles, serving to fasten clothes, &c. They arc 
 manufactured of an endless variety of materials and forms. 
 
CABBAGE. — CABLES. 
 
 197 
 
 It might have been supposed, tliat the manufacture of such an article as this would have been left fo 
 bo carried on according to tlie views and interests of those concerned, individuals being allowed to select 
 any sort of button they pleased. Such, however, has not been the case ; and various statutes have been 
 passed, pointing out the kind of buttons to be worn, and the way in which they are to be made ! Most of 
 these regulations have luckily fallen into disuse, but they still occupy a place in the statute book, and 
 may be enforced. The following are amongst the more prominent of these regulations : — 
 
 No i)erson shall make, sell, or set upon any clothes, or wearing garments whatsoever, any buttons made 
 of cloth, serge, drugget, frieze, camblet, or any other stuff" of which clothes or wearing garments are 
 made, or any buttons made of wood only, and turned in imitation of other buttons, on pain of forfeiting 
 40*. per dozen for all such buttons. — (4 Geo. 1. c. 7.) 
 
 No tailor shall set on any buttons, or button-holes, of serge, drugget, &c., under penalty of 40*. for 
 every dozen of buttons or button-holes so made or set on. 
 
 No person shall use or wear, on any clothes, garments, or apparel whatsoever, except velvet, any 
 buttons or button-holes made of or bound with cloth, serge, drugget, frieze, camblet, or other stuffs 
 whereof clothes or woollen garments are usually made, on penalty of forfeiting 40s. per dozen, under a 
 similar penalty. — (7 Geo. 1. c. '22.) 
 
 To prevent tho frauds which it is alleged had taken place in the manufacture of gilt and plated 
 buttons, an act, 36 Geo. 3. c. 6., was passed, which regulates what shall be deemed gilt and what plated 
 buttons; and imposes penalties on those who order as well as on those who make any buttons with the 
 words " gilt " or " plated " marked upon them, except they be gilt and plated as the act directs. Inas- 
 much as this statute goes to obviate a fraud, it is, perhaps, expedient ; but no apology can be made for 
 the regulations previously alluded to, which are at once vexatious arid absurd. 
 
 The importation of buttons from abroad was prohibited in the reign of Charles II. But the 6 Geo. 4. 
 c. 107. § 52. repealed this prohibition, and they may now be imported, for home consumption, on paying 
 an ad valorem duty. 
 
 c. 
 
 CABBAGE, a biennial plant (Brassica Lin.), of which there are many varieties. 
 It is too well known to require any particular description ; it is extensively cultivated 
 in the vicinity of London. Sour crout, or properly sauer kraut, is a very favourite 
 dish in Germany ; it consists of a fermented mass of salted cabbage. 
 
 CABLES are strong ropes or chains, principally used in the anchoring or mooring 
 of ships. 
 
 1. Hope Cables are, in Europe, principally manufactured of hemp; but in the East 
 they are very frequently made of coir, or the fibrous part of the coco nut, and in some 
 places, particularly on the Red Sea, of the coating of the branches of the date-tree. Hemp 
 cables are formed of three principal strands, every strand of three ropes, and every rope 
 ot three twists. The twists have more or fewer threads according to the greater or less 
 thickness of the cable. All vessels have ready for service three cables, which are usually 
 designated the sheet cable, the best bower cable, and the small bower cable ; but besides 
 these, most ships have some spare cables. The ordinary length of a cable i$ from 100 
 to 120 fathoms. The following are the existing regulations as to the manufacture of 
 hemp cables and cordage : — 
 
 No person shall make or sell any cordage for shipping in which any hemp is used, called short chucking, 
 half clean, whale line, or other toppings, codilla, or any damaged hemp, on pain of forfeiting the aame, 
 and also treble the value thereof 
 
 Cables, hawsers, or ropes, made of materials not prohibited by this act, and whose quality shall be 
 inferior to clean Petersburgh hemp, shall be deemed inferior cordage, and the same shall be distinguished 
 by marking on the tally, staple or inferior. Manufacturers making default herein forfeit for every 
 hundred weight of cordage, 10s. 
 
 Manufacturers are to affix their names and manufactory to new cordage before sold, under the like 
 forfeiture; and putting a false name is a forfeiture of 20/. 
 
 Persons making cables of old and overworn stuff, containing above 7 inches in compass, shall forfeit 
 four times the value. 
 
 Vessels belonging to British subjects, having on board foreign-made cordage, are to make entry thereof, 
 on entering into any British port, on penalty of 20s. for every hundred weight. But this is not to extend 
 to cordage brought from the East Indies, nor to materials at present used by any vessels built abroad 
 before this act — C25 Geo. 3. c. 56.) 
 
 2. Iron Cables. — The application of strong iron chains or cables to the purposes of 
 navigation is a late and an important discovery, for which we are indebted to Captain 
 Samuel Brown, R.N. It is singular, indeed, that this application should not have been 
 made at a much earlier period. On rocky bottoms, or where coral is abundant, a 
 hempen cable speedily chafes, and is often quite destroyed in a few months, or perhaps 
 days. A striking instance of this occurred in the voyage of discovery under the orders 
 of M. Bougainville, who lost six anchors in the space of nine days, and narrowly escaped 
 shipwreck ; a result, says that able seaman, which would not have happened, " si nous 
 evssions ete munis des quelques chaines de fer. Cest une precaution que Jie doivent jamais 
 oublier tous les navigateurs destines d de pareils voyages." — ( Voyage auioiir du Monde, 
 p. 207. 4toed.) The work from which this extract is taken was published in 1771 ; 
 and yet it was not till nearly forty years after, that any attempt was made practically to 
 profit by so judicious a suggestion. The difficulties in the way of importing hemp from 
 1808 to 1814, and its consequent high price, gave the first great stimulus to the manu- 
 facture of iron cables. 
 
 Iron cables are constructed in diflfarent ways — (see Encyc. Metrop.) ; but they are 
 uniformly tried by a machine, which sti.iins them by a force gieater than the absolute 
 
 O 3 
 
198 
 
 CACAO.— CADIZ. 
 
 strength of the hempen cable they are intended to replace. By this means the risk of 
 accident from defective links is effectually obviated ; and there are exceedingly few 
 instances in which an iron cable has broken at sea. Their great weight also contri- 
 butes to their strength, inasmuch as the impulse of the ship is checked before the cable 
 is brought nearly to a straight line, or that the strain approaches to a maximum. Bolts 
 and shackles are provided at every fathom or two fathoms, by striking out which the ship 
 may, if necessary, be detached from her anchors with less difficulty than a hempen cable 
 can be cut. 
 
 Even in their most defective form, iron cables are a great deal "stronger than those of 
 hemp ; and as to durability, no sort of comparison can be made. No wonder, therefore, 
 that they should be rapidly superseding the latter ; which are now almost wholly laid 
 aside in the navy, and, to a great extent, also, in the merchant service. 
 
 CACAO, or, as it is commonly, but incorrectly, written in this country. Cocoa (Fr. 
 and Sp. Cacao ; Ger. Kakao), the seed, or nuts, of the cacao tree ( Theobroma cacao), 
 growing in the West Indies, and in many parts of South America. It is said, by 
 Mr. Bryan Edwards, to bear some resemblance, both in size and shape, to a young 
 hlackheart cherry. The nuts are contained in pods, much like a cucumber, that proceed 
 immediately from all parts of the body and larger branches ; each pod contains from 20 
 to 30 nuts, of the size of large almonds, very compactly set. The shell of the nut is of 
 a dark brown colour, brittle, and thin ; the kernel is, both internally and externally, 
 brownish, divided into several unequal portions, adhering together, but separating with- 
 out much difficulty ; it has a light agreeable smell, and an unctuous, bitterish, rather 
 rough and peculiar, but not ungrateful taste. The nuts should be chosen full, plump, 
 and shining, without any mustiness, and not worm-eaten. They yield, by expression, a 
 great deal of oil ; but they are cultivated only that they may be employed in the prepar- 
 ation of the excellent beverage cacao, and the manufacture of chocolate, of which they 
 form the principal ingredient. The finest cacao is said to be that of Socomusco. The 
 pi-incipal importations are, however, derived from the Caraccas and Guayaquil, particu- 
 larly the former. The price of the cacao of the Caraccas is, also, at an average, from 30 
 to 40 per cent, higher than that of Guayaquil. 
 
 M. Humboldt estimated the consumption of cacao in Europe, in 1806, at 23,000,000 lbs., 
 of which from 6,000,000 to 9,000,000 were supposed to be consumed in Spain. The 
 production of cacao had been languishing in the Caraccas for several years previously to 
 the commencement of the disturbances in South America ; and latterly the cultivation 
 of one or other of the great staples of cotton, sugar, and coffee, seems to have been every 
 where gaining the ascendancy. — (^Humboldt, Pers. Narrative, vol. iv. pp. 236 — 247. 
 Eng. trans.) 
 
 Duties. Very little cacao is consumed in England ; a result which we are inclined to ascribe to the 
 
 oppressiveness of the duties with which it has hitherto been loaded, and not to its being unsuitable to the 
 public taste. It is now many years since Mr. Bryan Edwards declared that the ruin of the cacao plant- 
 ations, with which Jamaica once abounded, was the effect of" the heavy hand of rninisterial exaction." —' 
 {Hist, of West Indies, vol. ii. p. 363.) And, unaccountable as it may seem, this pressure was not materially 
 abated till 1832, when the duties on cacao from a British plantation were reduced from 565. to 18*. M. 
 a cwt. Foreign cacao is still subject to the oppressive duty of Sfis. a cwt. The entries of cacao for home 
 consumption, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1831, were 440,578 lbs. a year. In 1832, the entries 
 were 502,817 lbs. ; and there can be little doubt that the reduction in the rate of duty will occasion a con- 
 siderable increase of consumption. Exclusive of the above, 470,000 lbs. of cacao were taken off in 1832 
 for tlie use of the navy ; this, not being liable to the duty, was entirely foreign. The high discriminating 
 duty on the latter is the greatest defect in the new arrangements. Had the duty on foreign cacao been 
 fixed at 285. per cwt., it is pretty certain that a good deal of it would have been taken for consumption. 
 Even on this footing, there would have been a discriminating duty of no less than 50 per cent, in favour of 
 British cacao ; and, unless our object be to exclude tke foreign article altogether, this is surely an ample 
 preference. The duties on cacao produced, in 1832, 12,224/. 125. British cacao is worth, at present 
 (August, 1833), from 645. to 76s. a cwt. in bond. 
 
 Cacao nut husks and shells are allowed to be imported under a duty of 95. 'id. a cwt. None of them are 
 imported into Great Britain ; but, in 1832, 336,551 lbs. were imported into Ireland. They are brought 
 not only from the West Indies, but from Gibraltar and other places, being the refuse of the chocolate 
 manufactories carried on in them. 
 
 Cacao cannot be entered as being the produce of some British possession in America, or of the Mauritius, 
 until the master of the ship by which it is imported delivers to the collector or comptroller a certificate.^ 
 and makes oath that the goods are the produce of such places. — (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52. \ 37.) Neither shall 
 they be deemed to be the produce of such places, unless imported direct from thence. — (7 Geo. 4. c. 48.) 
 Permits are no longer rr uired for the removal of cacao. — (9 Geo. 4. c. 44. \ 5.) 
 
 CADIZ, the principal commercial city and sea-port of Spain. It is situated on its 
 south-western coast, on the rocky and elevated extremity of a narrow, low peninsula, or 
 tongue of land, projecting from the Isla de Leon, N. N. W. about A\ nautical miles. 
 It is surrounded on all sides, except the south, where it joins the land, by the sea, and 
 is very strongly fortified. Pr^ijulation from 60,000 to 70,000. It is well built, and has, 
 at a distance, a very striking appearance. The tower or lighthouse of St. Sebastian 
 stands on the western side of the city, being, according to Tofu'io, in lat. 36° 31' 7" N. 
 long. 6" 18' 52'' W. It is a mo.st cons])icuous object to vessels npproaching from the 
 Atlantic. The light, which is 172 feet high, is of great brilliancy, revolves once a 
 minute, and in fair weather may be seen more than 6 leagues off. 
 
 i 
 
CADIZ. 
 
 199 
 
 Bay of Cadiz. — The entrance to this noble basin lies between the city and the town and promontory of 
 Rota, bearing N. W. by N., distant about If league. The bay is of very great extent, affording, in most 
 places, good anchorage. The port is on tiie eastern side of the city, where a mole of considerable dimen- 
 sions has been constructed ; but the water is not sufficiently deep to allow large vessels to approach nearer 
 than within about | of a mile, where they anchor in from 5 to 7 fathoms. The rocks called the Cochincs, 
 the Puercas, and the Diamante, lie to the north of the city in the entrance to the bay ; the first two at 
 about 3-5ths of a mile distant, and the Diamante at rather more tlian 1| mile from the city. Vessels may 
 enter between the Puercas and the Diamante; but none, except those not drawing more than ir) feet 
 water, and well acquainted with the channel, ought to attempt entering between the Cochinos and 
 Puercas and the city. The town of St. Mary's, on the opposite side of the bay, is famous for being the 
 depot of the wines of Xeres. The outer bay, or that of Cadiz properly so called, is separated from the 
 inner bay by the promontory having at its extremity the castle of Matagorda, which approaches wiOiin 
 about f of a mile of the Puntales castle on the Isia de Leon. Within the inner bay is the famous arsenal 
 of the Caraccas, the town of San Carlos, the canal of 'I'rocadero, &c. At spring tides the water in the 
 bay rises 10 or 11 feet, but at neajjs the rise does not exceed 6 feet. — (For further particidars see the 
 excellent Chart of the Bay qf Cadix, by Tofiflo ; Malham's I^aval Gazetteer s and I'urdy s Sailing 
 Directions for the Bay of Biscay, 8[c.) 
 
 History, T'rade, 8fc. — Cadiz is a very ancient city, having been founded by the 
 Phoenicians about 1,200 years before the Christian era. The temple, which they 
 erected in it in honour of Hercules was one of the most celebrated in antiquity — 
 (Sainte Croix, Des Anciennes Colonies, p. 14. ; Pomp. Mela, lib. iii. cap. 6.) Its excellent 
 port, and its situation, favourable alike for commerce and security, have made it, whether 
 possessed by Carthaginians, Romans, Moors, or Christians, and under every vicis- 
 situde, a place of considerable commercial and political importance. It lias long been 
 one of the principal stations of the Spanish naval force. In 1720, the commerce with 
 Spanish America, which had previously been exclusively carried on from Seville, was 
 transferred to Cadiz. It enjoyed this valuable monopoly till 1 76"5, when it was partially 
 relaxed by the trade to Cuba, St. Domingo, Porto Rico, and the other islands being 
 opened to all the greater ports of Spain. The benefits resulting from this relaxation 
 were so very great, that in 1778 the trade to all parts of America was opened to ships 
 from every considerable Spanish port, except those of Biscay, which, not being subjected 
 to the general laws of the kingdom, were not allowed to participate in this privilege. 
 In consequence, however, of her situation, the great capital of her merchants, and their 
 established connections, Cadiz continued, notwithstanding the abolition of the monopoly, 
 to preserve the largest share of the American trade. But since the colonies achieved 
 their independence, her commerce has been contracted within comparatively narrow- 
 limits ; nor is there much prospect of its being materially improved, without a total 
 change of policy on the part of the Spanish government. — ( Robertson's America, b. viii. 
 passim; Townsend's Travels in Spain, vol. ii. pp. 395 — 401. 2d edit.) 
 
 The white wines of Xeres in its vicinity form by far the principal article of export 
 from Cadiz. The quantity exported may amount to about 20,000 pipes a year. 
 The prices vary from 12Z. to 651. per pipe; but, as the lower qualities predominate, the 
 price may be taken, at a medium, at about 251., making the total value of the exports 
 500,000/. More than |tlis of the whole comes to England. The other articles of 
 export are brandy, oranges, and other frvtits, olive oil, wool, quicksilver, &c. The 
 imports consist principally of sugar and coffee from the Havannah and Porto Rico, 
 cacao, hemp, flax, linens, dried fish, hides, cotton wool, and cotton manufactures, rice, 
 spices, indigo, &c. 
 
 In 1826, the Spanish government published what they termed the Balanza Mercantil, or an account of 
 the commodities imported into, and exported from, Spain during that year. It is a very defective docu- 
 ment ; but as it is the best that can he obtained, it is subjoined. The values of the articles only are given. 
 We have converted the sums into English money. 
 
 Note of the most considerable Articles of Importation into Spain in 1826. 
 
 
 
 From 
 
 From Spa- 
 
 
 
 From 
 
 From Spa- 
 
 
 
 Europe, 
 Asia, Africa, 
 
 nish Ameri- 
 
 
 
 Eurojie, 
 
 nish Ameri- 
 
 
 
 can Colonies, 
 
 
 
 Asia, Africa, 
 
 can Colonies, 
 
 Articles. 
 
 
 and United 
 States of 
 America. 
 
 inclusive of 
 the Philip- 
 pines. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 
 and United 
 States of 
 America. 
 
 inclusive of 
 the Philip, 
 pines. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 4 
 
 £ 
 
 Sugar 
 
 
 7,640 
 
 ^131,550 
 
 Hides 
 
 
 120,600 
 
 4,910 
 
 Cocoa 
 
 
 104,400 
 
 90,425 
 69,030 
 
 Cotton wool 
 
 
 166,970 
 
 7,820 
 
 Indigo 
 
 
 4,770 
 
 Ditto yarn - 
 
 
 63,660 
 
 
 Spices, Cinnamon 
 
 jf95,420 
 
 
 
 Ditto manufactures 
 
 
 430,080 
 
 
 Cloves 
 
 - 40,100 
 
 - 67,500 
 
 
 
 Woollen ditto 
 
 
 91,030 
 
 
 Pepper 
 
 203,020 
 
 
 Hemp and flax 
 Linen manufactures 
 
 
 165,760 
 222,870 
 
 
 Wood of kinds 
 
 
 167,560 
 
 21,440 
 
 Ditto thread 
 
 
 12,970 
 
 
 Uice 
 
 • 102,270 
 
 Silk manufactures - 
 
 
 106,170 
 108,700 
 
 
 Wheat - 
 
 8,110 
 
 
 
 Iron and brass ditto - 
 
 
 
 
 
 110,380 
 
 
 Gold and silver, in coin and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Salt fish 
 
 
 200,560 
 
 
 bars 
 
 
 81,880 
 
 15,280 
 
 Coffee 
 
 
 
 75,830 
 
 Earthenware 
 
 
 19,700 
 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 
 " 18,1 so' 
 
 Copper 
 Tin 
 
 
 12,4CO 
 
 2,200 
 
 K utter 
 
 - 57,.'5G0 
 
 
 
 11,630 
 
 Cheese 
 
 - 17,660 
 
 
 
 Crystal and glass ware 
 
 
 37,000 
 
 
 
 75,220 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 4 
 
200 CADIZ. 
 
 Note of the most considerable Articles of Exportation from Spain in 1826. 
 
 
 To Europe, 
 
 To Spanish 
 
 
 To Europe, 
 
 To Spanislt 
 
 
 Asia, Africa, 
 
 American 
 
 
 Asia J Africa, 
 
 American 
 
 
 and United 
 
 Colonies, in- 
 
 Articles 
 
 and United 
 
 Colonies, in- 
 
 Articles. 
 
 States of 
 
 elusive ot tilt 
 
 States of 
 
 clusive Oftili' 
 
 
 America* 
 
 Piiilippines. 
 
 
 America* 
 
 Plulippines* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^Tines - * * 
 
 137,550 
 
 51,790 
 
 Raw silk - - 
 
 28,890 
 
 
 Fruits Almonds j£24:,355 
 
 
 
 Indigo - - - 
 
 11,240 
 
 
 Filberts - - 29,165 
 
 - 
 
 3,030 
 
 Silk manufactures 
 
 218,930 
 
 74,590 
 
 Lemons & oranges 36,240 
 
 
 
 Wool . - - 
 
 161,650 
 
 Raisins - - 59,905 
 
 
 
 ^Voollen manufactures - 
 
 12,020 
 34,640 
 
 
 OrapeSj olives, and 
 
 
 
 Cork-wood and corks • 
 
 
 figs ' - ' - 2,410 
 
 
 
 Leeches - 
 
 19,080 
 
 
 
 152,075 
 
 2,645 
 
 Paper of all kinds 
 
 20,220 
 
 17,500 
 
 Brandy - - - 
 
 107,715 
 
 13,156 
 
 Gut, fishing - j£^18,480 
 
 Olive oil - - - 
 
 7,170 
 
 6,030 
 
 for guitars - 2,500 
 
 
 
 Saffron 
 
 Lead - - - 
 
 14,610 
 215,360 
 
 2,800 
 
 20,980 
 10,285 
 
 16,905 
 
 Thread lace 
 
 Ditto ore - 
 
 7,765 
 
 
 Cast iron - 
 
 16,626 
 
 
 Quicksilver . - - 
 
 66,300 
 79,290 
 
 
 Garbanzos, beans, & wheat 
 
 3,980 
 
 3,600 
 
 Barilla 
 
 
 Flour - - - 
 
 
 49,290 
 
 Shipping. — In 1831 there arrived at Cadiz from foreign ecu itries 475 ships, of the burden of 38,582 tons ; 
 and from the Spanish colonies, that is, from Cuba, Porto Rico, the Philippine Islands, &c., 103 ships, of 
 the burden of 17,812 tons. The arrivals from England are not siJecified ; but, in 1828, 184 British ships 
 entered Cadiz. The coasting trade is verj' considerable. 
 
 Monet/. — The monies, weights, and measures, used at Cadiz, are those of Castile. Accounts are kept 
 by the real (of old plate), of which there are 10| in the peso duro, or hard dollar : and as the dollar 
 is. 3f rf. the real = 4|rf. A real is divided into 16 qtuntos^ or 34 niarauedis. The ducado de plaia, or ducat 
 of plate, is worth 11 reals* 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The ordinary quintal is divided into 4 arrohas, or 100 lbs. of 2 marcs each : 
 100 lbs. Castile = 101| lbs. avoirdupois. The yard, or vara — -927 English yard, or 100 varas = 92f English 
 yards. The cahix, or measure for corn, is divided into 12 fanegas, or 144 celeminas, or 576 quartillas ; 
 100 cahiz's = 19 7 Winch, quarters, and 5 fanegas = 1 quarter. The caritaro, or arroba, the measure for 
 liquids, is divided into 8 azumbres, and 32 quartillos. There are two sorts of arrobas, the greater and the 
 lesser : they are to each other as 32 to 25 ; the former being equal to 4; English wine gallons, the latter 
 to 3f do. A Twoyo of wine = 16 arrobas. The io^to = 30 arrobas of wine, or 38| of oil. A p/pe = 27 arrobas 
 of wine, or 34^ of oil. Hence the botta — 127^ English wine gallons, and the pipe 114f do. 
 
 British Trade with Spain. — Notwithstanding the anti-commercial influence of prohibitions and oppres- 
 sive duties, we carry on a very considerable trade with Spain. In 1831 we imported from her 61,921 cwt. 
 barilla, 78,067 cwt. oak and cork bark, 146,234 quarters wheat — (see Bilbao), 769 cwt. figs, 972 tons lead, 
 about 28,000 packages oranges and lemons, 1,243,686 gallons olive oil, 269,558 lbs. quicksilver, 105,066 cwL 
 raisins, 3,700 cwt. sumach, 14,184 lbs. silk, 69,319 gallons brandy, 3,474,823 lbs. wool, and 2,537,968 gallons 
 wine. No account of the declared or 7-cal value of the imports is kept at the Custom-house ; but the 
 official value of the imports from Spain in 1831, exclusive of those from the Canaries, was above 1,000,000/ 
 sterling. 
 
 During the same year thereal value of the various articles of British produce and manufacture cleared 
 out from our ports for Spain was 597,848/. Of these articles linen was the principal, its value being 
 estimated at 222,838/. Cottons amounted to above 148,000/* The other articles were hardware, iron and 
 steel, tin, &c. — {Pari. Paper, No. 550* Sess. 1833.) 
 
 Smuggling, §-c. — In 1829 Cadiz was made a free port, that is, a port whei-e goods 
 may be con.sumed and bonded without paying duty. This boon would have been of 
 comparatively little consequence but for the opportunity of smuggling afforded by the 
 oppressively high duties laid on most foreign articles imported into Spain. These, 
 as such duties wherever imposed never fail to do, have given birth to a very extensive 
 contraband trade; and under the free regime Cadiz became the grand focus of this 
 traffic. The government having seen this efiect of the franchise, it was withdrawn on 
 the 22d of December, 1 832. This, however, is but a very trifling inconvenience to the 
 smuggler. Nothing, fortunately, but the repeal of prohibitions, and the reduction of 
 oppressive duties to a reasonable amount, can ever materially diminish the field of his 
 exel tions. It would appear, however, that the experience of a couple of centuries has 
 been as unable to impress the Spanish government with a conviction of this unquestion- 
 able truth, as it has been to open their eyes to the enormous abuses that infect every part 
 of the public administration. 
 
 Mr. Townsend, the author of by far the best English work on Spain, which he 
 visited in 1786 and 1787, has the following admirable remarks on this subject, in his 
 chapter on Cadiz : — 
 
 " The Spanish government has never yet acquired any liberal ideas respecting trade; and even at the 
 present moment, some of their best political writers resemble lag hounds hunting the stale scent, whilst 
 the fleetest are already in possefjsion of the game. Instead of throwing down every obstacle to commerce, 
 they labour to contract its limits, under the vain hope of establishing a monopoly, without considering 
 either their own want of capital, of industry, and of an enterprising spirit, or the utter impossibility of 
 preventing smuggling, whilst other nations, with greater advantages for trade, can undersell them in the 
 market. Until they shall be more enlightened, until they shall have banished their inquisitors, and until 
 the happy period shall arrive when, under the protection of a free government, they shall have restored 
 public credit, and placed it on a firm foundation ; all their prohibitions, all their severities exercised on 
 the property and persons of the illicit traders, all their commercial treaties, and all their commercial 
 wars, into which ambition may betray them, will be frivolous and vain ; because no efforts will ever 
 I)revail against the united interests of their own subjects, and of all surrounding nations. 
 
 " Even at home, the watchfulness and energy of government have never been able to enforce its pro. 
 hibitions; for, notwithstanding these, when 1 was travelling through S()ain, all the men appeared in 
 Manchester cotton goods, and no woman was seen without her muslin veil. In Spain, as throughout 
 Europe, it is found that when the price of insurance is less than the duties imposed on th,' commodity, 
 110 laws are sufficient to control the operations of illicit traders." — (Vol* ii. p. 394.) 
 
CAGLIARI. 
 
 201 
 
 But the Spanish government lias been proof against sucli considerations. Instead of 
 diminisliing, they have materially increased, the number of prohibitions and the pressure 
 of the duties ; and the consequence is, that, in many extensive provinces, there is no 
 regular trade, and that every thing is carried on by the agency of the smugglers, partly 
 in defiance, but principally through the connivance, of the revenue officers. Notwith- 
 standing their exclusion, English cotton goods may, at this moment, be bought in 
 Madrid, and generally throughout Spain, at from 20 to 30 per cent, above their price 
 in Gibraltar, where they are about as cheap as in Manchester ! While Cadiz was a free 
 port, about 6,000 persons are said to have been employed in it twisting cigars, which, a« 
 soon as finished, were forthwith smuggled into the interior. Three fourths of the 
 foreign trade of Spain may, in fact, be said to bo carried on in defiance of the law. 
 And where such is the case, need we wonder at the low state of industry, or at the pre- 
 valence of those predatory and ferocious habits that uniformly mark the character of 
 the smuggler? 
 
 In the valuable work of Mr. Ingliss, entitled " Spain in 1830," we find the following 
 statement under the head Cadiz. Though written more than 40 years after the para- 
 graph previously quoted from Mr. Townsend, it shows that not one of the flagrant 
 abuses denounced by the latter has been eradicated ; but that, on the contrary, they all 
 continue to flourish in still ranker luxuriance. 
 
 " The whole cotnmercial system of Spain is most erroneously conceived. The prohibitory system is 
 carried to a length absolutely ruinous to the fair trader, and highly injurious to the revenue. The 
 immense duties upon admissible articles, and the total prohibition of others, has occasioned a most 
 extensive contraband trade, both externally with the various ports, along the coast of Spain, and 
 internally, throughout the whole of the kingdom; and by this trade admissible articles are intro- 
 duced into the interior, at from lOG to 300 per cent, below the duties imposed. Government could 
 not fail to be benefited by permitting the importation of articles of general use, upon payment of 
 such a duty as would allow the sale of the article at a lower price than is now paid by the consumer 
 to the smuggler. As one example of the impolicy of the system, I may cite a fact respecting the trade 
 in salted fish, the returns of which I have before me. The import of this article into Cadiz in one 
 year, before that city was made a free port, amounted to 4 vessels, whose cargoes reached 4,092 cwt. j 
 while at the free port of Gibraltar, in the same year, 41 vessels entered with 89,106 cwt., the whole of which 
 was intended for the illicit trade, and passed into Spain through the hands of the smugglers. The duty 
 upon this article is more than 100 per cent. ; the smuggler considers himself remunerated by a gain of 25 
 per cent. ; so that the article which finds its way into the market through the contraband trade is sold 
 75 per cent. chea])er than that which is admitted upon payment of the regular duties. 
 
 " 'I'he duties upon British manufactured goods amount almost to a prohibition ; they often reach 100 
 per cent, and this trade is therefore also in the hands of the smugglers, who obtain the profit, which, 
 under a more wholesome systern, might go into the treasury of the kingdom. The fraudulent dealer is 
 also greatly assisted by the custom of granting a royal licence to individuals to import a certain limited 
 quantity of prohibited goods ; an expedient resorted to in order to meet the exigencies of the state : and 
 under the licence to enter 100 tons of merchandise, the merchant enters perhaps 1,000 tons ; a deception 
 easily practised in a country where, among the public officers, a scale of bribery is perfectly understood 
 and acted upon." — (Vol. ii. pp. 132 — 13b.) 
 
 But for the system of misrule to which Spain has been subjected, there can be no 
 reasonable doubt that her commerce would have been about the most extensive of any 
 European state. Her natural advantages, superior to most, and not inferior to those 
 enjoyed by any other kingdom ; her wines, brandies, fruits, &c. ; her wheat, of which she 
 might produce the largest supplies ; her wool ; her iron, which is of the best quality ; 
 Jier lead and quicksilver mines, respectively the most productive in the world; the 
 number and excellence of her harbours ; the enterprising and adventurous character of 
 her inhabitants, and her favourable situation ; would, were she permitted to avail her- 
 elf of them, raise her to a very high rank among commercial nations. Let the govern- 
 ment cease to counteract the intentions of nature ; let moderate duties take the place 
 of prohibitions, and freedom of regulation ; and all sorts of industrious pursuits wiU 
 speedily revive from the deadly lethargy in which they have been so long sunk. 
 
 CAGLIARI, the capital of Sardinia, situated on the north-east shore of a spacious 
 day on the south coast of the island, lat. 39° 12' 13" N., long. 9° 6' 44" E. Population 
 26,000. The city stands on a rising ground, and has an imposing effect from the sea. 
 The public buildings and churches are numerous, and some of them splendid ; but the 
 streets are, for the most part, narrow, steep, and filthy. 
 
 The Gulf of Cagliari extends from Pula on the west to Cape Carbonara on the east, a dtstance of about 
 24 miles across, and about 12 in depth, with good anchorage every where after getting into soundings. A 
 mole projects from the Pratique office, and ships usually lie about 1 mile S.W. by S. from it, in or 8 
 fathoms water, on an excellent bottom of mud. There is a very convenient pier harbour at the south 
 angle of the tower wall, capable of containing 14 or 16 vessels of a tolerable size, besides small craft. 
 Altogether, Cagliari is one of the best and safest ports in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Imports and Exports. — Almost all the trade of Sardinia is carried on by strangers; and even the fish 
 on its coast and in its harbours is caught by Sicilians, Neapolitans, Tuscans, and Genoese. Corn is the 
 principal article of export. In good vears, the exports from the whole island may amount to 400,000 
 starelli, or about 500,0C0 bushels, of wheat, 200,000 starelli of barley, 6,000 ditto of maize, 100,000 ditto of 
 beans, 200,000 of peas, and 1,000 ditto of lentils. The culture of vines is gradually becoming of more 
 importance ; and about 3,500 Catalan pipes are exported, principally from Alghero and Ogliastra. Cheese 
 is an important object in the rural economy of Sardinia, and considerable quantities are exported. Salt 
 is a royal monopoly, and affords a considerable revenue. Until recently, Sweden drew almost all her 
 supplies of this important necessary from Sardinia, and it continues to be exported in considerable quan- 
 tities. Flax, linseed, hides, oil, saffron, rags, alquifoux, &c. are among the articles of export. The tunny 
 and coral fisheries employ a good many hands ; but, as already observed, they are almost wholly managed 
 by foreigners. 
 
202 
 
 CAJEPUT OIL. 
 
 Almost every article of dress, whether for the gentry or the peasantry, is imported. Soap, stationery, 
 glass, earthenware, and furniture, as well as sugar, coffee, drugs, spices, &c., are also supplied by 
 foreigners ; and notwithstanding the Sards possess many rich mines, several of which were successfully 
 wrought in antiquity, they import all their iron and steel. The only manufactures carried on in the 
 island are those of gunpowder, salt, tobacco, and woollen caps. In 1831, there entered the ports of Sar- 
 dinia 166 foreign vessels, of the burden of 6,925 tons. Of these, the greater number were French ; and 
 next to them were Neapolitans, Austrians, Tuscans, &c. 
 
 Money, Weights, and Measures. — Accounts are kept in lire, reali, and soldi. 5 soldi = 1 reale = \^d. ; 
 
 4 reali = 1 lira = Is. Qd. ; 10 reali = 1 scudo = 2s. 9d. The paper money consists of notes for 5, 10, and 
 20 scudi. 
 
 Farm produce and the coarser metals are weighed by the pesi diferro : 12 Sard. oz. = 1 lb. = 14 oz. 
 
 5 dr. avoirdupois ; 26 lbs. = 1 rubbo ; 4 rubbi = 1 cantaro = 93 lbs. 0 oz. 8 dr. avoirdupois. 
 
 The starello, or corn measure, is equivalent to 1 bush. 1^ peck Eng. The palm = 10^ Eng. inches. 
 
 Causes of the depressed State of Sardinia. — The above statements sufficiently show 
 that the commerce of Sardinia is very far from being what might naturally be expected 
 from its extent, fertility, admirable situation, and the excellence of its many harbours. 
 It contains an area of about 9,500 square miles, being, in^point of size, but little inferior 
 to Sicily ; and in antiquity it was hardly less celebrated for its productiveness : — 
 
 " Non opimas 
 Sardinia segetes feracis." — Ilor. lib. i. Od, 31. 
 
 But a long series of wars and revolutions, followed by the establishment of the feudal 
 system in its worst form, and the subjection of the island, first to Spain, and more 
 recently to the house of Savoy, have been attended by the most ruinous consequences. 
 The Romans encouraged the exportation of corn and other produce from the provinces 
 to Rome, where it always met with a ready and advantageous sale. But the modern 
 rulers of Sardinia have followed quite an opposite policy ; they have prevented the occu- 
 piers of the land from carrying their productions abroad ; and as, owing to the want of 
 a commercial and manufacturing population, there was little or no demand for it at 
 home, no surplus was raised ; so that the wish, as well as the means, of emerging from 
 poverty and barbarism has been well-nigh eradicated. It is to this impolitic conduct 
 on the part of government, and to the insecurity arising from the want of police and 
 of occupation under the worst sort of feudal tenures, that we are inclined principally 
 to attribute that habitual idleness, and indifference to the future, that distinguish the 
 modern Sards. 
 
 We are glad, however, to have to state, that some improvements have been made 
 within these few years. A good road has been formed from Cagliari to Sassari, and 
 cross roads are being carried from it to some of the most considerable places in the 
 island. The population, which, in 1816, amounted to only 352,000, is now estimated 
 at 480,000 or 500,000 * ; and some meliorations have been introduced into various 
 departments of industry. But without the establishment of an effective system for the 
 administration of justice and the prevention and punishment of crime, the introduction 
 of a better system of letting land, and the total abolition of the existing restraints on 
 the exportation of corn and other produce from the island, it will be in vain to expect 
 that its capacities should ever be fully developed. At present, it is usual to hire land, 
 for the purposes of tillage, by the year ; no corn can be exported if its price exceed 30 
 reals the starello ; and a heavy duty is laid on all that is exported, as a substitute for a 
 general land-tax. Nothing can be more preposterously absurd than such regulations. 
 They have paralysed the exertions of the husbandman to such an extent, that this 
 *' benignant nurse" of ancient Romef is sometimes, notwithstanding its scanty popula- 
 tion, under the necessity of importing a portion of its supplies ! Most other articles of 
 export have been loaded with similar duties ; so that the industry of the island has been, 
 in effect, completely sacrificed to a short-sighted rapacity, of which, fortunately, there 
 are not many examples. Let this disgraceful system, which, if possible, is even more 
 injurious to the government than to the people, be put an end to, — let the freedom of 
 exportation, with reasonable duties on imports, and the security of property, be established, 
 — and we venture to predict that Sardinia will, at no very remote period, recover her 
 ancient prosperity ; that the revenues of the crown will be increased in a tenfold pro- 
 portion ; and that the population will cease to be conspicuous only for ferocity, idleness 
 and contempt of innovation. 
 
 In compiling this article, we have consulted Captain Smyth's valuable work on Sardinia, particularly 
 pp. 106 — 128. But the most complete work on the island is that of Marmara, already referred to. It, 
 however, touches very gently on the gross and scandalous abuses that infect every part of the adminis- 
 tration. We have horrowed some details from the Annates du CoTnmerce Maritime for 1833, p. 302, &c 
 
 CAJEPUT OIL, the volatile oil obtained from the leaves of the cajeput tree {Me- 
 Mleuca Leucadendron Lin.). The name is a corruption of the native term cayu-putij 
 that is, white-wood oil ; because the bark of the tree which yields it has a whitish ap- 
 
 * Sec Marmara, Voyage en Sardaignc, p. 176., and the Foreign Quarterly Revietv, No. 23. p. 256. 
 Captain Smyth reckons the population, at an average of the 10 years ending with 1^25, at about 400," lOa 
 -(p. 128.) 
 
 f " Siciliam et Sardiniam, beni'gnisst'mas urbis nostras nutrices." — Val. Maximus, lib. vi. c. G. 
 
CALABAR SKIN.— CALCUTTA 
 
 203 
 
 pearance, like our birch. This tree is common in Amboyna and other Eastern islands. 
 The oil is obtained by distillation from the dried leaves of the smaller of two varieties. 
 It is prepared in great quantities in Banda, and sent to Holland in copper flasks. As 
 it comes to us it is of a green colour, very limpid, lighter than water, of a strong smell 
 resembling camphor, and a strong pungent taste. It burns entirely away without leaving 
 any residuum. It is often adulterated with other essential oils, coloured with resin of 
 milfoil. In the genuine oil, the green colour depends on the presence of copper ; for, 
 when rectified, it is colourless. — ( Thomson's Dispensatory.^ 
 
 Cajeput oil not being used except in the materia medica, only small quantities are imported. In July, 
 1831, it sold in bond at about 7d. an ounce ; but an idea having tlicn got abroad that it was one of the 
 most efficient remedies in cases of cholera, its price rose in November, 1831 , to no less than lis. an ounce ! 
 But it soon after fell into discredit with the faculty, and additional supplies having been obtained from 
 Holland, its price declined almost as fast as it had risen. It is not at present (September, 1833) worth 
 more, in bond, than from Ad. to Sid. an ounce. 
 
 CALABAR SKIN (Fr. Fetit-gris; Ger. Grauwerk ; It. Vaor, Vajo ; Rus. Bjelka ; 
 Sp. Gris pequeno), the Siberian squirrel skin, of various colours, used in making muiTs, 
 tippets, and trimmings for clothes. 
 
 CALABASH, a light kind of vessel formed of the shell of a gourd, emptied and dried. 
 The Indians both of the North and South Sea put the pearls they have fished in cala- 
 bashes, and the natives of Africa do the same by their gold dust. They also are used as 
 a measure in Africa. 
 
 CALAMANCO (Du. Kallemink, Kalmink ; Fr. Calmande, Calmandre ; It. Durante; 
 Rus. Kolomenka Sp. Calmaco ; Sw. Kalmink'), a sort of woollen stuff, manufactured 
 in England and the Netherlands; it has a fine gloss; and being chequered in the warp, 
 the checks appear only on the right side. 
 
 CALAMANDER WOOD, a beautiful species of timber brought from Ceylon. 
 
 It IS so hard that common edge-tools cannot work it, so that it must be rasped and almost ground into 
 shape. It is singularly remarkable for the variety and admixture of colours. The most prevailing is a 
 fine chocolate, now deepening almost into absolute black, now fading into a medium between fawn and 
 cream colours. It arrests the eye from the rich beauty of the intermingled tints, not from any undue 
 showiness. It takes a very high polish ; and is wrought into chairs, and particularly into tables. Sir 
 Robert Brownrigg, late governor of Ceylon, had the doors of the dining-room of his seat in Monmouth- 
 shire made of calamander. It is scarce in Ceylon, and is not regularly imported ; all that is in Great 
 Britain has been imported by private gentlemen, returning from the colony, for their own use. It is by 
 far the most beautiful of all the fancy woods. The nearer it is taken from the root of the tree, the finer 
 it is. — iMilburn's Orient. Com. ; Lib. of Entertaining Knowledge, Vegetable Substances, p. 179.) 
 
 CALCUTTA, the principal city of the pi"ovinceof Bengal, the capital of the British 
 dominions in India, and, with the exception perhaps of Canton, the greatest emporium 
 to the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope. Its citadel is in lat. 22° 33' 54' N., long. 88^* 
 20' 17" E. It is about 100 miles distant from the sea, being situated on the eastern bank of 
 the western branch of the Ganges, denominated by Europeans the Hooghly River, which 
 is the only arm of the Ganges navigable to any considerable distance by large ships. At 
 high water the river opposite to the town is about a mile in breadth ; but during the ebb 
 the side opposite to Calcutta exposes a long range of dry sand banks. Owing to the 
 length and intricacy of the navigation from the sea, it cannot be undertaken without a 
 pilot ; so that, even if it did not exceed our limits, it would be useless to attempt any 
 description of it in this place. — ( See the reduced Plan of the Months of the Hooghly 
 River, in the Mercator's Chart in this work. ) 
 
 In 1717, Calcutta was a petty native village of paltry huts, with a few hundred inhabitants. Little more 
 than a century later, or in 1822, the following were the returns of the population ; viz. Christians, 13,138; 
 Mohammedans, 48,162 ; Hindoos, 118,203 ; Chinese, 414 ; making in all, 179,917. 
 
 A great part, however, of what may be fairly considered the population of Calcutta, consisting of 
 labourers, mechanics, and persons engaged in trade, reside at night in the suburbs, or neighbouring 
 villages ; coming into town early in the morning to their respective emplojinents. These have been 
 estimated by the magistrates, on tolerably good data, at 100,000 ; and allowing for the increase of 
 inhabitants which is admitted to have taken place within the last dozen years, the existing population 
 may be estimated at about 300,000. The town, excluding suburbs, extends to about 4| miles along the 
 bank of the river, with an average breadth inland of about 1^ mile. Fort William, the citadel, lies on 
 the same side of the river, a little lower down. It is a strong regular fortification ; but so extensive that 
 it would require a garrison of 10,000 men for its effectual defence. Calcutta possesses great natural 
 advantages for inland navigation ; all sorts of foreign produce being transported with great facility on the 
 Ganges and its subsidiary streams to the north-western quarters of Hindostan, over a distance of at least 
 1,000 miles, while the productions of the interior are received by the same easy channels. 
 
 The principal merchants and traders of Calcutta consist of the following classes ; viz. British and other 
 Europeans, Portuguese born in India, Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Persians from the coast of the Persian 
 Gulf commonly called Parsees, Moguls, Mohammedans of Hindostan, and Hindoos ; the latter usually 
 either of the Brahminical or mercantile castes, and natives of Bengal. In 1813, the total number of adult 
 male British subjects, in the Bengal provinces (the great majority being in Calcutta), engaged in trade or 
 agriculture, was 1,225 ; in 1830, it was 1,707. This is the statement given by the printed register ; but it 
 is probably much underrated, particularly for the last year. The native Portuguese and Armenian mer- 
 chants have of late greatly declined in wealth and importance. On the other hand, the Persian merchants 
 have increased in numbers and wealth, several of them being worth 250,000/. sterling. The large fortunes 
 of the Hindoo merchants have been much broken down of late years by litigation in the courts, and 
 naturally through the law of equal coparcenary among brothers. To counterbalance this, there has 
 been, since the opening of the free trade in 1814, a vast augmentation of the number of inferior merchants, 
 worth from 20,000/. to 50,000/. sterling. There are but few Hindoo merchants at present whose wealth 
 exceeds 200,000/. sterling. 
 
 The principal foreign business is conducted by the English merchants ; but the other parties also, either 
 in partnership with the English, or on their own account, speculate largely to Europe, America, and 
 
204 
 
 CALCUTTA. 
 
 2i do. 
 
 especially to China. The brokers known under the 
 general rates of agency commission are as follow : — 
 
 1. On the sale or purchase of ships, vessels, 
 
 houses and lands - - - 2J per cent. 
 
 2. On the sale, purchase, or shipment of 
 
 bullion - - - - - i do. 
 
 Do. of jewellery, diamonds, or other pre- 
 cious stones - - - - 2 do. 
 
 Do. of indipo, lac-dye, country piece goods, 
 silk, opium, cochineal, coral, spices, 
 coffee, copper, tin, and tutenague - 2J do. 
 
 Do. of all other kinds of goods - - 5 do. 
 
 3. On goods or treasure, &c. consigned, and 
 
 afterwards withdrawn or sent to auction ; 
 and on goods consigned for conditional 
 delivery to others - . . J commission 
 
 4. On all advances of money for the purposes 
 
 of trade, whether the goods are consigned 
 to the agent or not, and where a com- 
 mission of 5 per cent, is not charged - 2i per cent. 
 
 5. On ordering goods, or superintending the 
 
 fulfilment of contracts, where no other 
 commission is derived - - - 2i do. 
 
 6. On guaranteeing bills, bonds, or other en- 
 
 gagements, and on becoming security for 
 administrations of estates, or to govern- 
 ment or individuals for contracts, agree- 
 ments, &c. - - - - - 24 do. 
 
 7. On del credere, or guaranteeing the re-T 
 
 sponsibility of persons to whom goods are > per'm^nsem 
 
 8. On acting for the estates of persons de- 
 
 ceased, as executors or administrators - 5 vet cent. 
 
 9. On the management of estates for others, 
 
 on the amount received - - - 
 
 10. On procuring freight, or advertising as the 
 
 agent of owners or commanders : on the 
 amount of freiirht, whether the same 
 passes through the hands of the agent or 
 not .... 
 
 11. On chartering ships for other parties 
 
 12. On making insurance, or writing orders 
 
 for insurance .... 
 
 13. On settling insurance losses, total or partial, 
 
 and on procuring returns of premium . 
 11. On effecting remittances, by bills of the 
 agent or otherwise, or purchasing, sell 
 ine, or negotiating bills of exchange 
 
 15. On debts, when a process at law or arbi 
 
 tration is necessary ... 
 And if recovered by such means 
 
 16. On bills of exchange returned, noted, or 
 
 protested . . ... 
 
 17. On the collecting of house-rent 
 
 18. On ships' disbursements - . . 
 
 19. On negotiating loans on respondentia • . 
 
 20. On letters of credit granted for mercantile 
 
 purposes - - ... 
 
 21. On purchasing or selling government secu- 
 
 rities, and on each exchange of the same, 
 in the transfer from one loan to another | do. 
 
 22. On delivering up government securities, or 
 
 depositing the same in the treasury . ^ do. 
 
 23. On all advances not punctually liquidated, 
 
 the agent to have the option of charging 
 a second commission, as upon a fresh 
 advance, provided the charge does not 
 occur twice in the same year. 
 4. At the option of the agent, on the amount 
 debited or credited within the year, in- 
 cluding interest, and excepting only items 
 on which a commission of 5 per cent, has 
 been charged - • - - 1 do. 
 
 N. B. — This charge not to apply to paying 
 over a balance due on an account made up to a 
 particular period, unless where such balance is 
 ■wit'hdrawn without reasonable notice. 
 
 Money — Accounts are kept here in imaginary money called 
 rupees, either current or sicca, with their subdivisions, annas 
 and pice : 12 pice make 1 anna ; 16 annas 1 rupee ; and 16 ru- 
 pees 1 gold mohur. To this currency must all the real specie 
 be converted, before any sum can be regularly entered in a 
 merchant's books. The Company keep their accounts in sicca 
 rupees, which bear a batta (premium) of 16 per cent, over the 
 current. The coins current are gold mohurs, with their sub- 
 divisions—halves and quarters; sicca rupees, halves and 
 quarters; annas, pice, and half pice. The two last are of copper. 
 There are two mints under the Bengal presidency : that at 
 Calcutta ; and that of Ferruckabad, in the north-western pro- 
 vinces. The first is probably the most splendid establishment 
 of the kind in the world ; the original cost of the machinery, 
 supplied by Messrs. Bolton and Watt of Birmingham, having 
 exceeded 500,000/. Gold money is coined at Calcutta only ; 
 but silver, which is now, and has always been, the standard of 
 India, equally at both mints. The following statement shows 
 the present weight, fineness, and sterling value of the coins, 
 reckoning the value of gold at 51. 11 3. \0\d. per standard 
 ounce, and silver at bs. 2d. : — 
 
 - 1 
 
 Coins. 
 
 Grains 
 pure. 
 
 Grains 
 Alloy. 
 
 Grains 
 (Jross 
 Weight. 
 
 Value. 
 
 (Jold moh'ir 
 
 Sicca rupee 
 Ferruckabad rupee 
 
 187-651 
 175-92.3 
 165-215 
 
 ill 
 
 woo 
 
 204-710 
 191-916 
 180-2.'5'1 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 1 13 2i 2-25 
 
 0 '2. 0\ 6-25 
 0 1 8-25 
 
 The charge for coining silver at the Calcutta mint Is 2 per 
 cent, if the bullion be the standard fineness ; but where it (lif- 
 ters, a proportional charge of from i to * per cent, is made for 
 refining. 
 
 name of Sircars a;nd Baboos are all Hindoos. The 
 
 The course of exchange by winch the customs of Calcutta 
 are at present regulated is as follows : — 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Pound sterling 
 
 
 Sic.rup. An.l 
 • 10 0 
 
 'ice. 
 0 
 
 Cape of Good 1 
 Hope S 
 
 Rix-doUar (2*.) 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Madras 
 
 100 rupees 
 
 
 93 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Bombay 
 
 100 _ 
 
 
 94 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Rix-doUar 
 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 China - - 
 
 1 tale 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Burmah 
 
 125 tickals 
 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Manilla 
 
 Spanish dollar 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 Portugal 
 
 1 ,000 reas 
 24 francs 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 France 
 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Holland . 
 
 2J florins 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 Hamburgh and Co- ) 
 penhagen - J 
 
 14 marc banco 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Leghorn 
 
 100 pez'i?as , 
 
 
 202 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 Other sorts of rupees are met with in Bengal, differing in 
 fineness and weight, though their denominations be the same, 
 trom this, and from the natives frequently punching holes in 
 the rupees, and filling them up with base metal, and their 
 fraudulently diminishing the weight of the coin after cominir 
 from the mint, the currencies of the different provinces are of 
 different values. This defect has introduced the custom of 
 employmg shiqffi, or money-changers, whose business is to set 
 a value upon the different currencies, according to every cir. 
 cumstance, either in their favour or their prejudice. When a 
 sum ot rupees is brought to one of these shrcifrs, he examines 
 them piece by piece, and arranges them according to their 
 fineness ; then, by their weight ; he then allows for the dif- 
 ferent legal battas upon siccas and sounats ; and this done, he 
 values in gross, by the rupees current, what the whole are 
 worth ; so that the rupee current is the only thing fixed, by 
 which coin is valued. 
 
 A current rupee is reckoned at 2j., and a sicca rupee of ac 
 count commonly at 2s. 6d. A lac, means 100,000 ; and a crore 
 100 lacs, or 10,000,000. The following are the monies of 
 accotmt, premising that the lowest denomination is represented 
 by a small smooth shell, a species of cypraea, chiefly imported 
 as an article of trade from the Laccadive and Maldive islands, 
 and current as long as they continue entire ; — 
 
 4 Cowries 
 2,560 do. 
 20 Gundas 
 4 Punns, or 12 pice 
 4 Annas 
 4 Cahauns 
 16 Sicca rupees 
 
 = 1 Gunda. 
 
 = 1 Current rupee. 
 
 = 1 Punn. 
 
 = 1 Anna. 
 
 = 1 Cahaun. 
 
 = 1 Sicca rupee. 
 
 = 1 Gold mohur. 
 
 Weights. — The great -nreights are maunds, seers, chittacks, 
 and siccas or rupee weights, thus divided : — 
 
 5 Siccas 
 16 Chittacks 
 40 .Seers 
 
 = 1 Chittack. 
 = 1 Seer. 
 = 1 Maund. 
 
 There are two maunds in use, viz. thefactory maund, which 
 IS 74 lbs. 10 oz. 10-666 drs. avoirdupois ; and the bazaar 
 maund, which is 10 per cent, better, viz. 82 lbs. 2 02. 2-133 
 drs. 
 
 80 Sicca weight 
 60 Ditto 
 82 Ditto 
 84 Ditto 
 96 Ditto 
 
 A Calcutta factory 
 2 puns, 10 gundas, 3. 
 
 4 Punkhos 
 4 Dhans 
 61 Rutties 
 8 Rutties 
 
 10 Massas 
 
 100 Rutties 
 
 12h Massas 
 
 16 Annas 
 166^ Rutties 
 
 13-28 Massas) 
 
 17 Annas 
 
 The lolah is equal ( 
 
 5 Sicca weight 
 4 Chittacks 
 
 4 Pouahs 
 40 Seers 
 
 5 Seers 
 
 8 Measures 
 
 4 Khaonks 
 
 4 Raiks 
 20 Pallies 
 16 Soallies 
 
 = a Calcutta bazaar seer. 
 = a Serampore seer. 
 = a Hooghly seer. 
 = a Benares Mirzapore seer. 
 __ran Allahabad and Lucknow 
 1 seer. 
 
 seer is equal to 72sicca weight, 11 annas, 
 63 cowries. 
 
 Gold and Silver. 
 
 = 1 Dhan, or grain. 
 = 1 Rutty. 
 = 1 Anna. 
 = 1 Massa. 
 
 { 1 Sicca weight = 179-7 grs. 
 =< Troy, or 6-5705 drs. avoir* 
 
 L dupois. 
 = 1 Tolah. 
 = 1 Tolah. 
 = 1 Tolah. 
 = 1 Mohur. 
 = 1 Mohur. 
 = 1 Mohur. 
 to 224-588 grs. Troy. 
 
 Liquid Measure, 
 
 = 1 Chittack. 
 = 1 Pouah, or pice. 
 = 1 Seer. 
 = 1 Maund. 
 
 = 1 Pussaree, or measure. 
 = 1 Bazaar maund. 
 
 Grain Measure. 
 = 1 Raik. 
 
 = 1 Pallie = 9-08 lbs. avoird. 
 = 1 Soallic. 
 
 = 1 Khahoon = 30 bz. mds. 
 
 liong Measure. 
 Barleycorns, or jowsl_ , 
 (barley) j= ^ Finger. 
 
 4 Fingers 
 
 3 Hands 
 2 Spans 
 
 4 Cubits 
 1,000 Fathoms 
 
 1 Hand. 
 = 1 Span. 
 
 = 1 Cubit, or arm — 18 inches. 
 = 1 Fathom. 
 
 _ f 1 Coss = 1 mile 1 furlong 3 
 L poles 3J yards. 
 
CALCUTTA. 
 
 205 
 
 Sguare Mrasvre. 
 5CubiU,orliauls,mlengthl_ fl Chittack, or LI feot (Eng. 
 X 4 In breadth S~ i square). 
 
 16 Chittacks = 1 Cottah. 
 
 ao Cottahs = 1 BigKah = 14,410 sq. ft. 
 
 3i Biggalu = 1 English statute acre. 
 
 Ctulh Weasure. 
 3.rorbe» = 1 AnguHa. 
 
 .3 Angullas = 1 (itieriah. 
 
 8 (ilierialis = 1 Haut or cubit = 18 Inchei, 
 
 2 Hauls = 1 gu/ =. 1 yard. 
 
 For Goodi reckoned Inj Tale. 
 5 Particulars = 1 (Jund^. 
 
 4 gundas, or 20 particulars = 1 Koorje, or 1 corge. 
 
 Commercial Weights and Measures of India, with their equivalents i 
 Factory, Madras, and Bombay Weights. 
 
 English Avoirdupois, Bengal 
 
 Commercial Measures, &c. 
 
 Avoirdi 
 
 . 
 
 pois. 
 
 Bengal Factory. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 dr. 
 
 Mds 
 
 
 Ch. 
 
 Mds. 
 
 Vis 
 
 Pol. 
 
 Mds 
 
 S. 
 
 Pice. 
 
 A cheen bahar of 200 catties 
 
 423 
 
 c, 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 guncha of 10 nelly 
 
 220 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 13-7 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 8-6 
 
 Anjengo candy of 20 maunds 
 Batavia pecul of 100 catties 
 
 560 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 
 0 
 
 135 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 22-4 
 
 
 560 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Bengal factory maund 
 
 74 
 
 10 
 
 10-7 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 35-7 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 bazaar maund ... 
 
 82 
 
 2 
 
 2-1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 11-3 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 Bombay candy of 20 maunds - 
 
 560 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Bussorah maund of 76 vakias 
 
 90 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 
 8 
 
 5-6 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 35-2 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 27-9 
 
 of 24 ditto - 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 4-3 
 
 
 1 
 
 4-8 
 
 
 0 
 
 21-4 
 
 Calicut maund of 100 pools 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 1-1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 25-7 
 
 China pecul of 100 catties - 
 
 133 
 
 5 
 
 5-3 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 14-3 
 
 Cochin candy of 20 maunds 
 
 543 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 U 
 
 2-6 
 
 21 
 
 
 36-8 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 12-9 
 
 Gombroon bazaar candy ... 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 21.4 
 
 Goa candy of 20 maunds 
 
 495 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 2-9 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 V~ 
 
 4-3 
 
 Jonkceylon bahar of 8 capius - 
 
 485 
 
 5 
 
 5-3 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 
 10 
 
 Madras candy of 20 maunds 
 
 500 
 
 0 
 
 0 • 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 34 
 
 8-6 
 
 Malacca bahar of 3 peculs - 
 
 405 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 171 
 
 Mocha bahar of 15 frazils 
 
 450 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 25-7 
 
 Muscat Custom-house maund 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 32 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 Mysore candy of 7 morahs 
 
 5C0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Pegu candy of 150 vis - . - 
 
 500 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 34 
 
 8-6 
 
 Pen ang pecul of 100 catties . 
 
 133 
 
 5 
 
 5-3 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 37-9 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 14-3 
 
 Sural maund of 40 seers ... 
 
 37 
 
 5 
 
 5-3 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 J 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 Pucca maund - - 
 
 74 
 
 10 
 
 10.7 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 35.7 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 Tellicherry candy of 20 maunds 
 
 600 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 4-3 
 
 Banks, Banking. — The paper currency of Calcutta is supplied by the following banks : — 
 Bank of Bengal. — This is the only bank in Calcutta that has a charter. Its capital is 50 lacs, divided 
 into 500 shares of 10,000 sicca rupees each, of which the East India Company hold 100 shares. The shares 
 are now at a premium of 5,000 to 6,000 rupees. It is managed by nine directors ; three appointed by 
 government, and six elected by the proprietors : time of service, for the latter, three years. The secretary 
 to government in the financial department, the accountant-general, and the sub-treasurer, are the ex officio 
 government directors. The bank secretary and treasurer is also a civil servant. This bank possesses 
 peculiar advantages, but has not been so useful to the public as it might have been. Its notes are 
 received at all the public offices, in payment of revenue, by the collectors in all the districts below 
 Benares ; and, consequently, its circulation, averagmg 80 to 100 lacs, extends over a very large and the 
 wealthiest portion of our Indian territory. The government being such considerable shareholders, too, 
 it is generally supposed by the natives that the Bengal Bank is part and parcel thereof ; and it enjoys, 
 therefore, the same credit. But other circumstances have operated against the usefulness which, with 
 the advantages alluded to, it might have been supposed, would have certainly attended it. 
 
 1. The government required a deposit in their treasury of 20 lacs of rupees in Company's paper, as 
 security for the notes received at the public offices and the district treasuries. To this extent, therefore, 
 their means applicable to commercial purposes, or rather to the assistance of the commercial community, 
 were crippled. 
 
 2. By their charter, they were required to issue their notes in the proportion of one third of specie, to 
 two thirds of paper, — in other words, for every 90 rupees of notes issued, they kept 30 rupees of cash in 
 their strong box. 
 
 3. Their rules for granting accommodation on personal credit were so severe, that the public rather 
 avoided ajiplications to them, if they could obtain discounts elsewhere ; and, consequently, the business 
 of the Bengal Bank was almost entirely confined to the granting of loans on the security of the Com- 
 pany's paper. In 1826, 1827, and 1828, when the Burmese war, and the financial arrangements of the 
 government, occasioned a great demand for money, the amount of discounts of mercantile paper in 
 Calcutta did not exceed 10 or 12 lacs of rupees, whilst loans secured by Company's paper rose to 60 and 
 70 lacs. 
 
 The inconvenience of this system having been felt, the government of Calcutta has recommended an 
 alteration : and we understand the capital is to be increased to 75 lacs ; the proportion of a third specie to 
 be reduced to a fourth ; the deposit of 20 lacs of Company's paper at the treasury to be done away ; and 
 greater facilities to be afforded to the mercantile community in obtaining accommodation. 
 
 As soon as this alteration is carried into effect, there will unquestionably be a great improvement in the 
 money market in Calcutta. 
 
 The Union Bank. — This establishment was founded in 1829. It is the only private bank at present 
 (18.3+) existing in Bengal ; for the Bank of Hindostan, the Commercial Bank, and the Calcutta Bank, 
 noticed in the former edition of this work, have all, though solvent, been discontinued. The capital of 
 the Union Bank is 50 lacs of rupees, consisfing of 1,000 shares of 5,000 each, held by all classes of the com- 
 munity. Its notes circulate only in Calcutta and its immediate neighbourhood ; no private notes being 
 received at the collectors' treasuries in the provinces. The main object of this establishment was to fill 
 up the space in the money market, occasioned by the restrictions imposed on the Bank of Bengal by its 
 charter ; but it has not yet been able to effect its intentions to their full extent, from its notes not being 
 generally circulated; and it is possible that the proposed alterations in the Bengal Bank may, in some 
 measure, limit its operations. There is no doubt, however, but that it will be a favourite establishment; 
 and should it obtain a charter, it will probably get most of the banking business of Calcutta ; its rules 
 being well adapted for facilitating commercial transactions, and sustaining commercial credit and 
 confidence. 
 
 The rates of discount vary, from time to time, with the state of the money market. The last rates 
 quoted were, at the Union Bank, 6 per cent, per annum on notes at 3 months , 5 ditto, at 2 ditto ; 4 ditto, 
 at 1 ditto : the Bank of Bengal, discount on private bills at 3 months, 6 per cent, per annum ; ditto govern- 
 ment bills*, ditto, 4 ditto; interest on loans, on deposit, ditto, 5 ditto. 
 
 Indian Funds — The public debt contracted by the Indian government., on the security of the territory, 
 is under the management of the treasury department at Calcutta. This debt is of two descriptions ; that 
 bearitig no interest, and that which bears interest. The last is again divided into three parts ; viz. monies 
 deposited by public bodies for specific purposes ; treasury notes, of the same character as our Exchequer 
 bills ; and the actual funded or registered debt. The latter, on the 30th of April, 1830, was as follows ; 
 for Bengal. 
 
 • This partiality to the government bills is objected to. The Union Bank makes no distinction. 
 
206 
 
 CALCUTTA. 
 
 statement 
 
 the Amount standing on the general Registers of the Presidency of Bengal, in the Names 
 of Europeans and Natives. 
 
 Debt. 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 Total. 
 
 6 percent, loan of 1822 - - 
 
 5 — — 1823 ... 
 
 5 — — 1825-26 ... 
 
 5 _ — 1829-30 
 
 4 — 1824-25 
 
 4 — — 1828-29 
 
 Sicca rupees 
 
 Sicca rupees. 
 703,43,500 
 709,87,800 
 532,74,800 
 19,51,700 
 3.13,000 
 6,63,600 
 
 Sicca rupees. 
 43,68,700 
 206,39,700 
 408,79,500 
 7,01,300 
 6,86,200 
 5,84,100 
 
 Sicca rupees. 
 747,12,200 
 916,27,500 
 941,54,300 
 26,53,000 
 8,99,200 
 12,47,700 
 
 1,975,34,400 
 
 677,59,500 
 
 2,652,93,900 
 
 The 6 per cent, loan of 1822 is irredeemable until the expiration of the Company's present charter, and 
 then 15 months' notice to be given previously to discharge: the interest on this loan is payable either half- 
 yearly in India, or, if the proprietor be resident in Europe, he has the option, as a matter of right, of 
 demanding a bill upon the court of directors for the interest, payable at 12 months' date, at 25. Id. the 
 sicca rupee. The 5 per cent, loan of 1823 was not payable, in any part, until after the 31st of March, 1825, 
 and then only U crore in any one year, after 60 days' notice, the interest is payable upon the same terms 
 as that on the 6 per cent, loan, with this important difterence, that the privilege which the residents in 
 Europe possess of receiving interest in England belongs as of right to the holders of the G per cent, loan, 
 and is only enjoyed by the holders of this loan during the pleasure of the home authorities. Of the 5 per 
 cent, loan of 1825, no part was dischargeable till after the 30th of April, 1832, and then previous notice of 
 3 months to be given ; the interest upon this loan is payable to all the holders, whether resident in Europe 
 or not, either in cash in India, or by bills upon England, at 2*. the rupee. In this case, also, the option of 
 remittance to England may be withdrawn by the home authorities at pleasure. Of the two 4 per cent, 
 loans, no part of the first was dischargeable till after the .30th of April, 1830, nor of the second till the 30th 
 of April, 1832; and, in both cases, previous notice of 3 months to be given. From the favourable con- 
 ditions of the 6 per cent, loan, it has, of late years, borne a premium of from 30 to 40 per cent. The 5 per 
 cent, loans have generally borne a premium of about 5 per cent. ; and even the 4 per cent, securities have 
 been at little more than a nominal discount. We have been thus particular in describing the nature of 
 the Indian national funds, because, in a country where Europeans have been hitherto precluded from 
 holding property in land beyond the narrow boundaries of the principal cities, and where the principal 
 holders reside in Europe, they have been justly considered as a very desirable security. 
 
 Pilotage. — The navigation of the river Hooghly from the 
 Sand Heads to Calcutta, a distance of about 130 miles =- 
 
 from April to October inclusive ; 12 branch pilots, 24 masters, 
 24 first mates, 24 second mates, and between 7C and 80 
 volunteers. Each branch pilot has a salary of 70/. a month ; 
 each master 27/. ; first mates 15/. ; and second mates and 
 volunteers 6/. each. The following table exhibits the rates of 
 pilotage : — 
 
 naturally dangerous ar<l intricate ; but rendered compara- 
 tively safe by a skilful Eiid excellent, though very costly, pilot 
 establishment. This consists of twelve vessels, being brigs of 
 between 150 and 200 tons burthen, capable of mamtaining 
 their stations in the most boisterous season, which extends 
 
 Table of Rates of full and broken Pilotage, chargeable to Ships and Vessels, inward and outward of the 
 
 River Hooghly. 
 
 Draught of 
 Water. 
 
 Full Pilotage 
 inward. 
 
 Additional 
 Pilotage 
 outward. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 9 to 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10 11 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 11 12 
 
 14 
 
 J 
 
 
 12 13 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 13 14 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 14 15 
 
 21 
 
 
 2 
 
 15 16 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 16 17 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 17 18 
 
 35 
 
 
 . 4 
 
 18 19 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 19 20 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 !iO 21 
 
 50 
 
 
 . 6 
 
 21 22 
 
 
 
 
 22 23 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 Inward Proportion. 
 
 From Sea. 
 
 To Saugor - - 4 12ths 
 
 To Kedgeree - - 6 12ths 
 
 To Culpee - . . 8 12ths 
 
 To Culpee harbour - 9 12ths 
 
 To Fulta, or Moyapore - 10 12ths 
 To Calcutta, full pilotage 
 
 Outward Proportion. 
 
 From Calcutta. 
 
 To Moyapore or Fulta - 2 12ths 
 
 To Fulta harbour - 3 12ths 
 
 To Culpee - . .4 12ths 
 
 To Kedgeree - - 6 12ths 
 
 To Saugor - - - 8 12ths 
 To Sea, full pilotage. 
 
 ^o/e. —All foreign vessels pay the same pilotage as those 
 under British colours. By broken pilotage is meant the pro- 
 portion of full pilotage between the different stages or places of 
 anchorage. AH ships, the property of foreigners, as well 
 Asiatic as European, are subject to the charge termed " lead 
 money ; " it being indispensably necessary that the pilot should 
 have with him a leadsman in whom he can confide. 
 
 Detention money, at the rate of 4*. per diem, from British 
 and foreign vessels, is charged by persons of the pilot service 
 kept on board ships at anchor by desire of the commander or 
 owner. 
 
 In the river before Calcutta, and in other parts, there are 
 chain moorings, of which thL charges are as follow : — 
 
 Burthen of Ships. 
 
 April to October, 7 months. 
 
 November to March, 6 Months. 
 
 500 tons and upwards 
 
 Under 500 tons - - 
 
 L. ». d. 
 
 Per diem - - 0 16 0 
 Ditto - - - 0 14 0 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 Per diem - - - 0 12 0 
 Ditto - - - 0 10 0 
 
 Hire of the chain moorings at Diamond Harbour, 1/. per diem. 
 The lowest charge to a ship requiring the accommodation of 
 t*ie chain moorings at either of the places above mentioned, is 
 for 10 days; and using them longer, a further charge is made 
 at the established rate per diem for every day exceeding 10. 
 The charge for transporting a ship from her moorings into any 
 of the docks at Kidderpore, Howrah, or Sulkea, or from any 
 of the docks to her moorings, is fixed at 50 rupees ; and no 
 higher charge for such service is authorised. Besides pilotage, 
 every ship is chargeable with the hire of a row-boat to accom- 
 pany her ; viz. for a boat of the first class, 24*. ; of the second 
 class, 18*. ; and of the third class, lis. Of late years a light- 
 house has been erected at Kedgeree, for which the charge on 
 British or American flags is at the rate of 3d. per ton i>er an- 
 num. Ships proceeding to Calcutta must land their gunpowder 
 at the powder magazine at Movapore ; the charge is at the rate 
 of l.^rf. per ton tor each voyage. The whole pilot establishment 
 and the care of the navigation of the Hooghly is under the ma- 
 nagement of government, and is directed by a marine broad, 
 with a master attendant and harbour master. 
 
 There are several dry docks at Calcutta, in which vessels of 
 any size may be built or repaired. Ships built at Calcutta are 
 of inferior durability to those constructed at Bombay, in con- 
 
 sequence of the framework being always of the inferior woods 
 of the country ; and the planks, sheathing, upj>er works, and 
 decks, alone, of teak ; which last is furnished almost entirely 
 from Pegu. 
 
 In 1824, the number of registered ships belonging to the 
 port of Calcutta was 120, of the burthen of 44,366 tons; being 
 at an average of about 370 tons for each. 1 he largest class of 
 vessels carry nearly 800 tons ; but ships drawing so much water 
 are unfit for the navigation of the Hooghly. Not being able to 
 load at Calcutta, they are obliged to receive part of their cargo 
 at Diamond Harbour, about 34 miles farther down the river. 
 The most convenient-sized ship for trade between Calcutta, 
 and Europe, and America, is from 300 to 400 tons. 
 
 Duties, <51-c — At Calcutta there are two distinct Custom- 
 houses ; the one for the sea, and the other for the inland 
 duties. Our business is with the first only. The export and 
 import duties and drawbacks are regulated by an ordinance of 
 the year 1825, and are the same for every port under the 
 government of Bengal ; or, as it is technically called, the Pre- 
 sidency of Fort William. The tariff is regulated by three 
 schedules, stating respectively the rates of duty chargeable on 
 goods imported by sea, the drawbacks allowed on re-exports, 
 and the rates of duty chargeable and drawbacks allowed aa 
 
CALCUTTA. 
 
 207 
 
 exported articles being the produce and manufacture of the 
 country. The duty on goods and niirchandise imported by 
 sea is imposed ad vatmretn, or according to their market value 
 at the time of importation, except when otherwise specially 
 provided. The value of all such goods and merchamlise must 
 be stated on the face of the application to clear the same from 
 the Custom-house presented by the importer, consignee, or 
 proprietor of such goods, or his known agent or factor, who 
 must subjoin to such ap])lication a declaration of the truth of 
 the same, according to a prescribed form. 
 
 The following table contains the import duties on goods 
 produced or manufactured in the United Kingdom, foieign 
 
 Rates of Duty chargeable on Goods, the Produce or Manufacture of the United Kingdom, Foreign 
 Europe, antl the United States, imported by Sea into Calcutta, or any Port or Place belonging to the 
 Presidency of Fort William. 
 
 Europe, or the United States No duty U charged on any 
 article the produce or manufaLture of the country, if ex- 
 ported in a British vessel, and very rarely when exported in a 
 foreign vessel. 'I'he inland duties vary from 10 to SJ^ per cent., 
 a drawback of /wo thirds of which is usually allowed when the 
 articles on which they are charged are exported in British ves- 
 sels, and of one third when they are exported in foreign vessels. 
 The drawbacks allowed on re exports of foreign articles im- 
 ported in liritish vessels vary from half to two thirds and 
 three fourths of the import duty ; on re-exports in a foreign 
 vessel, they are commonly from half to two thirds and seven 
 eighths. 
 
 Imported on a 
 British Bottom. 
 
 Imported on 
 F'oreignBottou 
 
 7.i ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 7i ditto 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto - 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 7^ ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 5 ditto 
 
 10 ditto. 
 
 Free 
 10 per cent. 
 
 Free. 
 20 per cent. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto " 
 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 5 ditto 
 
 10 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 74 ditto 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto 
 15 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 ih ditto - 
 
 15 di t 
 
 74 dit'to'^^'''- 
 3 ditto 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ercent 
 15 Sitto 
 10 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 
 30 ditto 
 
 60 ditto. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 20 per cent. 
 
 Free 
 
 Free. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 20 per cent. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 Free 
 
 Free. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 20 per cent. 
 
 Free 
 74 per cent. 
 
 Free. 
 15 per cent. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 tUtto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 74 ditto 
 10 ditto 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 10 ditto 
 74 ditto 
 74 ditto 
 74 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 5 ditto 
 
 10 ditto. 
 
 Enumeration of Goods. 
 
 Imported on a Imported on a 
 British Bottom. Foreign Bottom 
 
 Free 
 Free 
 Free 
 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 2J per cent. 
 
 Free 
 
 24 ditto. 
 
 24 rs. a seer of ) 
 80 sa. wt. -S 
 
 48 rs. a seer ol 
 80 sa. wt. 
 
 Free 
 
 Free. 
 
 3 rs. a md. of 7 
 82 sa. wt.V 
 per scei -J 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 4 annas a md.7 
 of 80 sa.wt. V 
 per seer - J 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 6 rs. a maund 
 
 of 82 sa. wt. 
 
 per seer. 
 20 per cent. 
 8 annas a md. 
 
 of 80 sa. wt. 
 
 per seer. 
 2 per cent. 
 2 4 ditto. 
 
 24 per cent. 
 
 5 ditto. 
 
 of the Vnited 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 20 per cent. 
 
 Free 
 Free 
 24 rs. a seer"} 
 ofSOsa. wt.J 
 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 
 48 rs. a seer of 
 80 sa. wt. 
 
 Free 
 
 Free. 
 
 3 rs. a md. of 7 
 82 sa. wt.J. 
 per seer S 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 4 annas a md. ) 
 of 80sa. wt.V 
 per seer - j 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 6 rs. a maund 
 of 82 sa. wt. 
 per seer. 
 20 per cent. 
 8 annas a md. 
 of 80 sa. wt. 
 per seer. 
 20 per cent. 
 
 5 ditto 
 
 10 ditto. 
 
 I I St. Goods, the Prmluce or Manvfacture of the Vnited 
 i Kingdom. 
 I 1. Bullion and coin 
 
 2. Horses 
 
 3. Marine stores 
 
 4. Metals, wrought and" 
 
 un wrought 
 
 5. Opiuna 
 
 6. Precious stones and' 
 
 pearls 
 
 7. Salt • ^ 
 
 8. Spirituous liquors 
 
 9. Tobacco • 
 
 10. Wines 
 
 11. Woollens 
 All articles not in-7 
 
 eluded in the above V 
 eleven items - - j 
 
 "id. Goods, the Produce of Foreign Europe, , 
 States of America. 
 
 1. Arrack at a fixed valu-' 
 
 ation of 30/. per cask 
 of 126 gallons -J 
 
 2. Bullion and coin 
 
 3. Horses ... 
 
 4. Opium - .1 
 
 5. Precious stones and' 
 
 pearls 
 
 6. Salt 
 
 7. Spirits 
 
 8. Tobacco 
 
 9. Wines - 
 All articles not in-7 
 
 eluded in the above V- 
 nine items - - J 
 
 3i. Goods, the Produce or Manufacture qf Places other than the 
 United Kingdom, Foreign Europe, or the United States of 
 America. 
 
 1. Allspice 
 
 2. Aloe wood 
 
 3. Altah 
 
 4. Alum ... 
 
 5. Ambergris 
 
 6. Arrack, BaUvia 
 
 7. Arrack, from foreign"! 
 
 territories in Asia -j 
 
 8. Arsenic, white, red, orT 
 
 yellow - -C 
 0. Asafoetida 
 
 10. Awl root, or morinda - 
 
 11. Beads, malas, or ro-T 
 
 saries - -j 
 
 12. Betel nut (customs) 
 Ditto (town duty) 
 
 13. Benjamin, or loban - 
 
 14. Brandy, from foreign! 
 
 territories in Asia -J 
 
 15. Brass, wrought and! 
 
 unwrought - -j 
 
 16. Brimstone 
 
 17 Brocades, and embroi-1 
 dered goods -J 
 
 18 Buhera, or myrobalan 
 19. Buckum, or sapanl 
 
 wood . J 
 
 20 Bullion and coin 
 
 21 Calizeerah, or Nigellah 
 
 22. Camphire 
 
 23. Canvas, — excepting, 
 canvas mad^ of sunn 
 or hemp, or other 
 material, the growth 
 or manufacture of 
 places subject to the 
 government of the 
 East India Com- 
 pany, which is ex- 
 empted from charge 
 of duty on import- 
 ation by sea 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 20 per cent. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 55 sa. rs. perl 
 
 110 sa. rs. per 
 
 leager -J 
 
 leage* 
 
 30 sa. rs. perl 
 
 60 sa. 14. per 
 
 leager -J 
 
 leeiger. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 20 per cent. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 5 ditto 
 
 10 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 30 ditto 
 
 60 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto « 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 Free 
 
 Free. 
 
 74 per ceBt. 
 
 15 per cent. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 5 ditto 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 Enumeration of Goods. 
 
 •m- V 
 
 Cardamums 
 
 Carriages and convey- ? 
 
 ances - - i 
 
 Cassia - 
 Chanks 
 Cherayta 
 
 China goods, or goods 1 
 from China, not f 
 otherwise enumer- f 
 ated in this table - J 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Cochineal, or crim-1 
 danah - - 1 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Coir, the produce 
 places not subject 
 the government 
 the East India Com 
 pany in India 
 
 Coin and bullion 
 
 Columbo root 
 
 Coosoom fool, or saf-l 
 flower - -J 
 
 Copal, or kahroba 
 
 Copper, wrought and") 
 unwrought - -J 
 
 Coral 
 
 Cordage, — excepting-, 
 cordage made of 1 
 sunn, hemp, or other 
 material, the pro- 
 duce of places sub- 
 ject to the govern- 
 ment of the East In- 
 dia Company, which 
 shall be exempt from 
 the charge of duty 
 on importation by 
 sea . . - 
 
 Crimdanah, or cochineal 
 
 Dhye flower 
 
 Elephants' teeth 
 
 Embroidered goods and "J 
 brocades - -J 
 
 Frankincense, or gun-1 
 diberoza - -j" 
 
 Galbanum 
 
 Galingall 
 
 Ghee (customs) 
 
 Ditto (town duty) 
 
 Gin, from foreign ter-") 
 ritories in Asia . J 
 
 Goopee muttee, orl 
 yellow ochre -J 
 
 Goomootoo, sunn, andl 
 hemp - -J 
 
 Gum Arabic 
 
 Gundiberoza, or frank-") 
 incense - -J 
 
 Hemp, sunn, or goo-l 
 mootoo - -J 
 
 Hurrah, or myroba- 
 lan . - - 
 
 Horses 
 
 Hurshinghar flower - 
 Hurtaul, or orpiment,") 
 
 or yellow arsenic - J 
 Iron, wrought or un-1 
 
 wrought - -J 
 Ivory ... 
 Juttamunsee, or spike."} 
 
 nard . -J 
 
 KuUiniun 
 
 Lead, pig, sheet.milled, \ 
 and small shot - J 
 Loadh 
 
 Loban, or benjamin . 
 Mace 
 
 Madder, or munjeet - 
 Mahogany, and all ) 
 other sorts of wood V 
 used in cabinet-work j 
 Mastick 
 
 Minium, or red lead - 
 Morinda, or awl root . 
 Munjeet, or madder - 
 Must 
 
 Myrobalans, viz. bu-l 
 hera, hurrah, and J. 
 ownia - - ) 
 
 Myrrh - . - 
 
 Nutmegs 
 
 Oils, vegetable or ani-") 
 mal (customs) -/ 
 Ditto, ditto (town duty) 
 
208 
 
 CALCUTTA. 
 
 Rates of Duties — continued. 
 
 Enumeration of Goods. 
 
 78. Oil seeds (customs) 
 Ditto (town duty) 
 
 79. Oils, perfumed or es-1 
 
 sential, or otter and 
 foolejl teyl 
 
 80. Opium, foreign -< 
 
 Orpiment, or yellow 1 
 arsenic, or hurtaul -J 
 Otter, or essential oils 
 Ownia, or myrohalan • 
 Pepper.black and white 
 Piece goods, — cotton,! 
 silk, and partly cot- 
 ton and partly silk, | 
 the manufacture ofj- 
 theHonourablcCom- 1 
 pany's territories in | 
 India - -J 
 Ditto, ditto, ditto.whenT 
 not the manufacture | 
 of the Honourable }• 
 Company's territories 
 in India - -J 
 Pimento, or allspic e - 
 Pipe staves 
 
 Precious stones and 1 
 pearls - -J 
 
 Prussian blue 
 Putcha paut 
 Quicksilver 
 Rattans 
 
 Red sandal wood 
 Red lead, or minium - 
 Rose-water 
 
 Rum, from foreign ter- 1 
 ritories in Asia -J 
 Saffron 
 
 Safflower, or coosooml 
 fool - • -J 
 I. Sago - 
 
 Salt, foreign 
 
 Sandal wood, red,! 
 
 white, or yellow - J 
 Sapan, or buckumi 
 wood - -i 
 
 Imported on a Imported on 
 British Bottom. ForeignBottom 
 
 7.i ditto 
 
 21 rs. per seer . 
 
 of SO Cal. 
 
 sa. wt. - ; 
 10 per cent. 
 7i ditto 
 10 ditto 
 
 7^ ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 7.J ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 
 Free 
 
 Free. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 7-^ ditto 
 Id ditto 
 7i ditto 
 7i ditto 
 10 ditto 
 7i ditto 
 
 20 per cent. 
 15 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 
 30 ditto 
 
 60 ditto. 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 74 ditto 
 
 3 rs. per md. 1 
 of 82 sa. |> 
 wt- per seer \ 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 6 rs. per md. 
 
 of 82 sa. wt. 
 
 per seer. 
 
 7^ per cent. 
 
 15 per cent. 
 
 7i ditto 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 48 rs. per seer 
 of 80 Cal. 
 sa. wt. 
 
 20 per cent. 
 
 15 ditto. 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 Enumeration of Goods. 
 
 104. Senna 
 
 105. Soonamookey leaf 
 
 106. Spikenard, or jutta-l 
 
 munsee - -J 
 
 107. Spirituous liquors, not 1 
 
 otherwise described > 
 in this table - - j 
 
 108. Steel, wrought or un-1 
 
 wrought - -J 
 
 109. Storax 
 
 110. Stones (precious) and! 
 
 pearls - -J 
 
 111. Sugar, wet or dry, in-l 
 
 eluding jaggery and )■ 
 molasses' i,cusiomsj - j 
 Ditto,ditto(town duty ) 
 
 112. Sulphur, or brimstone 
 
 113. Sunn, hemp, and goo- 1 
 
 114. Tape ° - * 3 
 
 115. Taizepaut, or mala-1 
 
 bathrum leaf -J 
 
 116. Tea 
 
 117. Teak timber 
 
 118. Thread 
 
 119. Tin and tin ware 
 
 120. Tobacco (customs) --^ 
 
 Ditto (town duty) 
 
 121. Toond flower 
 
 122. Tuggerwood 
 
 123. Turmeric (customs) - 
 Ditto (town duty) 
 
 121. Tutenague 
 
 125. Upger, or aloe wood 
 
 126. Vermilion 
 
 127. Verdigris 
 
 128. Wax and wax candles 
 
 129. Wines and spirits, not ■> 
 
 otherwise provided > 
 for - - \ 
 
 130. AVood of all sorts used 
 
 in cabinet-work 
 
 131. Yellow ochre, or goo- 
 pee mutee 
 
 132. Articles not enumer- 
 ated above 
 
 Imported on a I Imported an a 
 British Bottom. ForeignBottom. 
 
 10 ditto 
 10 ditto 
 10 ditto 
 
 10 ditto 
 10 ditto 
 Free 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 Free. 
 7^ per cent. 
 10 ditto 
 10 ditto 
 Free 
 7\ per cent. 
 10 ditto 
 4 as. per md. 
 ofSOsa.wt. 
 
 per seer - 
 10 per cent. 
 7i per cent. 
 7S ditto 
 
 S ditto 
 
 5 ditto 
 10 ditto 
 7V ditto 
 10 ditto 
 10 ditto 
 10 ditto 
 
 10 ditto 
 
 7J ditto 
 10 ditto 
 5 ditto 
 
 20 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 
 20 ditt;\ 
 20 ditt<-. 
 Free. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 10 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 
 Free. 
 15 per cent. 
 20 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 
 Free. 
 15 per cent. 
 20 ditto. 
 8 as. per md. 
 
 of80sa. wt. 
 
 per seei . 
 20 per cent. 
 15 per cent. 
 15 ditto. 
 10 ditto. 
 10 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 15 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 20 ditto- 
 20 ditto. 
 
 20 ditto. 
 
 15 ditto. 
 20 ditto. 
 10 ditto. 
 
 Trade of Calcutta. — Exports. — During the last 20 years tlie trade of Calcutta has experienced some 
 very striking vicissitudes. Previously to the opening of the trade in 1814-15, cotton piece goods formed . 
 the principal article of export from India ; the value of those exported from Calcutta, at an average of 
 the 5 years from 1814-15 to 1818-19, being (at 2s. per sicca rupee) 1,260,736^ a year. The extreme cheap- 
 ness of labour in India, and the excellence to which the natives had long attained in several departments 
 of the manufacture, would, it might have been supposed, have sufficed to place this important department 
 beyond the reach of foreign competition. But the wonderful genius of our mechanists, the admirable 
 skill of our workmen, and our immense capital, have far more than countervailed the apparently insuper- 
 able drawback of high wages, and the expense of bringing the raw material of the manufacture from 
 America, and even India itself; and have enabled our manufacturers to bear down all opposition, and to 
 triumph over the cheaper labour, contiguous material, and traditional art of the Hindoos. The imports 
 of British cottons and twist into India have increased since 1814-15, with a rapidity unexampled in the 
 annals of commerce ; and the native manufacture has sustained a shock from which it is not very likely 
 it will ever recover. — (See post, p. 539.) The influence of these circumstances on the trade in piece goods 
 has been very striking. During the year 1833-34, the value of those exported from Bengal was no more 
 than 77,175^., being only about one sixteenth or one seventeenth part of what it amounted to 16 or 18 years 
 previously ! 
 
 An extraordinary change has also taken place in the trade in bullion at Calcutta. At no distant period 
 it was one of the principal articles of export from Europe to India; and in 1818-19, there were im- 
 ported into Calcutta from England only 1,216,115/. of gold and silver ! But the current began soon after 
 to change ; and now sets so strongly in the opposite direction, that in 1832-33 the exports of the precious 
 metals from Calcutta for England amounted to 516,419/. 
 
 The export of bullion from England to India at the former period, though influenced by other causes, 
 was mainly occasioned by the difficulty under which we were then placed, of providing articles of mer- 
 chandise suitable for the Indian markets, sufficient to balance our imports. The astonishing increase of 
 our exports of cotton goods, besides completely obviating this difficulty, has actually, as we have just seen, 
 produced an importation of large quantities of bullion from India. But it should be observed, that India 
 derives most part of the bullion sent to Europe from China and Singapore, in payment of opium and 
 other articles, so that the drain upon her is by no means so heavy as has been represented ; and it may 
 well be doubted, notwithstanding the numerous allegations to the contrary, whether it has had any 
 injurious influence. Undoubtedly, however, it were much to be wished that the returns made by India to 
 Europe in articles of native produce and manufacture, should be materially increased. The taste for British 
 produce is already widely difl'used over most parts of Hindostan ; and it will, no doubt, continue to gain 
 ground according as the natives become better acquainted with our language, arts, and habits. The dif- 
 ficulty of procuring return cargoes is now, in fact, almost the only obstacle to the rapid and indefinite 
 extension of the trade with India. And it may be reasonably presumed, that this difficulty will pro- 
 gressively diminish, by the adoption of a course of policy and of measures calculated to dcvelope the vast 
 resources and dormant energies of the country. The repeal of the injudicious restrictions that formerly 
 hindered Europeans from acquiring land, and from applying their capital and skill to most sorts of 
 industry, carried on in the interior, with the exception of the culture of mdigo, will doubtless be of con- 
 siderable advantage. But the exorbitant amount of the land revenue, and the restrictions and duties 
 imposed on the transit trade and internal commerce of the country, are unquestionably the principal 
 causes of the depressed state of agriculture, as well as of the poverty of the inhabitants, and tlicir inability 
 to furnish equivalents for foreign products. The former should, if possible, be materially reduced ; and it 
 is not easy to see why the latter should not be wholly abolished. The soil and climate of Bengal are both 
 lulmirably suited for the production of grain, indigo, sugar, opium, silk, cotton, saltpetre, and a vast 
 variety of other desirable articles: the inhabitants are not deficient in industry, nor in a desire to improve 
 
 .4 
 
CALCUTTA. 
 
 209 
 
 their condition ; and there wants only the adoption of a sound and liberal system, to render the country 
 prosperous and flourishing, and to lay the foundations of an immense commerce. 
 
 At present the principal articles oi export from Calcutta are, opium, indigo, rice, and other species of 
 grain, silk and silk goods, sugar, saltpetre, cotton and cotton piece goods, lac-dye and shell lac, gunnies 
 and gunny bags, &c. We subjoin a statement of the 
 
 Quantity and Value (taking the Sicca Rupee at 25.) of the principal Articles of native Produce, exported 
 from Calcutta during the Years 1832-33, and 1833-34. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1832-33. 
 
 1833-34. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Opium - - - chests 
 Indigo - - - - Fy. mds. 
 Rice ... - Bz. mds. 
 Raw silk - - . . _ 
 Silk piece goods ... pieces 
 Sugar - . - - Bz. mds. 
 Saltpetre - - - — 
 Raw cotton . - • — 
 Cotton piece goods ... pieces 
 Lac dye ... . Bz. mds. 
 Shell lac - - . . _ 
 Stick lac - - - — 
 Gunnies and gunny bags - . No. 
 Skins and hides ... — 
 Safflower - - Bz. mds. 
 Ginger - - - - — 
 
 131,01(! 
 1,630,146 
 12,4404 
 450,973 
 229,347 
 354,853i 
 126,943 
 478,189 
 6,0824 
 19,063.i 
 1,272 
 3,528,628 
 1,013,348 
 6,973i 
 21,488 
 
 L. 1,177,559 
 1,310,160 
 240,632 
 343,121 
 210,061 
 182,400 
 190,813 
 127,038 
 82,289 
 10,956 
 3.^,114 
 1,249 
 24,577 
 57,238 
 17,339 
 7,053 
 
 12,006 
 90,2174 
 2,667,465 
 13,550i 
 479,578 
 290,363^ 
 490,554 
 143,555 
 477,571 
 9,590 
 26,056i 
 104 
 2,615,975 
 1,251,577 
 7,630i 
 
 L. 1,240,382 
 902,175 
 461,463 
 376,919 
 247,951 
 230,822 
 254,801 
 143,250 
 
 77,174 
 
 22,416 
 
 60,412 
 199 
 
 19,567 
 
 66,004 1 
 
 18,763 
 
 13,624 
 
 It appears from the following table that the total value of the merchandise exported from Calcutta by 
 private traders in 1833-34 was 4,045,720/. and of treasure, 242,573Z. The value of the Company's exports 
 of merchandise during the same year was .552,252/. ; but their exports of treasure have not been stated. 
 In these statements indigo and raw silk are valued at the Custom-house rates, which are considerably 
 below their real value. Alogether, the exports from Calcutta in 1833-34 cannot have been much under 
 6,500,000/. 
 
 Destination of Exports. — From 40 to 50 per cent, of the exports from Calcutta are for the United 
 Kingdom, from 20 to 25 for China, 6 or 7 for Singapore and Penang, 7 for France, 4| for North ana 
 South America, the residue being for the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, Pegu, the Arabian and 
 Persian Gulfs, the Mauritius, &c. We subjoin a 
 
 Statement exhibiting the "Value of the Merchandise, and the Value of the Treasure, exported from 
 Calcutta on private Account, in 1832-33 and 1833-34, specifying the Shipments for each Country. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1832-53. 
 
 1833-34. 
 
 Merchandi?. 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 1,27,15,094 
 
 51,64,189 
 
 1,78,79,283 
 
 1,18,88,475 
 
 19,68,257 
 
 1,38,56,732 
 
 France ... 
 
 29,97,422 
 
 500 
 
 29,97,922 
 
 35,54,237 
 
 
 36,54,237 
 
 Sweden ... 
 
 
 
 
 90,064 
 
 
 90,064 
 
 Portugal .... 
 
 " 1,60,814 
 
 
 "l,60,814 
 
 
 
 
 North America 
 
 20,16,903 
 
 5,500 
 
 20,22,403 
 
 28,46,361 
 
 
 28,46,361 
 
 Coast pf Coromandel - 
 
 13,29,198 
 
 12,000 
 
 13,41,198 
 
 28,22,372 
 
 200 
 
 28,22,572 
 
 Ceylon - - - 
 
 29,645 
 
 
 29,645 
 
 38,588 
 
 30,000 
 
 68,588 
 
 Maldives and Laccadives - 
 
 60,610 
 
 
 60,610 
 
 53,241 
 
 
 53,241 
 
 Coast of Malabar . - . 
 
 17,84,330 
 
 
 17,84,330 
 
 22,92,998 
 
 
 22,92,998 
 
 Arabian and Persian Gulfs 
 
 9,77,629 
 
 
 9,77,629 
 
 9,68,577 
 
 
 9,68,577 
 
 Singapore 
 
 24,22,202 
 
 33,100 
 
 24,55,502 
 
 20,99,168 
 
 2,025 
 
 21,01,193 
 
 Penang and Malacca - 
 
 5,13,151 
 
 
 6,13,151 
 
 2,39,237 
 
 
 3,36,237 
 
 China . - . - 
 
 97,63,511 
 
 32,000 
 
 97,95,511 
 
 1,09,08,120 
 
 37,427 
 
 1,09,45,547 
 
 New Holland - 
 
 10,684 
 
 
 10,684 
 
 87,031 
 
 6,975 
 
 94,306 
 
 Sumatra and Java - 
 
 29,460 
 
 
 29,460 
 
 98,189 
 
 
 98,189 
 
 Pegu 
 
 8,44,982 
 
 
 8,44.982 
 
 9,67,574 
 
 4,655 
 
 9,72,229 
 
 Mauritius ... 
 
 7,61,121 
 
 6,49,7781 
 
 14,00,899? 
 
 12,07,598 
 
 3,76,188 
 
 15,83,786 
 
 Bourbon - - 
 
 1,13,331 
 
 
 1,13,331 
 
 2,17,371 
 
 
 2,17,371 
 
 Cape and St. Helena 
 
 58,816 
 
 
 58,816 
 
 78,003 
 
 
 78,003 
 
 Total sicca rupees 
 or at 2*. per sicca rupee L. 
 
 3,65,68,903 
 3,656,890 
 
 68,97,0671 
 589,707 
 
 4,24,65,9701 
 4,246,597 
 
 4,04,67,204 
 4,045,720 
 
 24,25,727 
 242,573 j 
 
 4,28,82,931 
 4,288,293 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 
 Total amount, merchandise and treasure, exported in 1833-34 - 4,28,82,931 
 Total amount, merchandise and treasure, exported in 1832-33 - 4,24,65,970f 
 
 Difference in favour of 1833-34 ... 4,16,960i 
 
 The Company's exports, in 1832-53, were, merchandise and treasure together, 1,00,14,430 sicca rupees, 
 or 1,001,443/. 
 
 Remarks on Exports. — The reader will elsewhere find (see post, p. 239., and the Article Opium) 
 pretty ample information in relation to the trade in Opium. It is suflficient here to state, that it is rapidly 
 growing in magnitude and importance. At an average of the 5 years ending with 1828-29, the exports 
 from Calcutta were 6,369 chests, worth 944,071/. a year; but at an average of the 5 years ending with 
 1833-34, the exports had increased to 9,0141 chests, worth 1,163,809/. a year, being an annual increase of 
 2,645| chests, and of 219,738/. of value. China is not the principal merely, but almost the only market 
 for opium ; so that the trade between Calcutta and her, is now second only to that between the former 
 and England. Some opium is shipped for Singapore, but China is its ultimate destination. — {Bell's 
 Review for 1833-34, p. 45.) 
 
 Previously to the close of the American war, the exports of indigo from Calcutta were comparatively 
 trifling. But about that period Europeans began to engage in the business; and the culture of the 
 plant has since been so much extended, and the preparation of the drug so much improved, that it has 
 now become an article of primary commercial importance — (See Indigo.) Next to Great Britain, France 
 is the principal market for indigo. 
 
 The crop of indigo in Bengal, which had, at an average of the 4 years ending with 1832-33, amounted to 
 about 126,000 maunds a year, fell off in 1833-34 to 93,802 maunds. This great decline was occasioned 
 partly by the unfavourableness of the season, but more by the diminished cultivation occasioned by the 
 previous low prices, and the failure of some of the principal parties engaged in the trade — (See post.) 
 
 P 
 
210 
 
 CALCUTTA. 
 
 But notwithstanding this decrease of the crop, and the great reduction in the imports into England in 
 1834 as compared with previous years, prices have not sustained any very material advance. The con- 
 sumption of indigo in England has fallen off considerably since 1830, the effect, as is supposed, of the 
 aecreasing use of blue cloth. Subjoined is a statement of the 
 
 Exports of Indigo from Calcutta during the Five Years ending with 1833-34, specifying the Countries for 
 which it has been exported, and the Quantities sent to each. 
 
 Years. 
 
 \ 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 N. America. 
 
 Hamburgh, 
 Sweden, and 
 Portugal. 
 
 Arabian and 
 Persian Gulfs. 
 
 Other Places. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1829- 30 
 
 1830- 51 
 
 1831- 32 
 
 1832- 33 
 
 1833- 34 
 
 Total 
 
 Fac. Mds. 
 104,724 
 85,741 
 
 85,330.3; 
 
 93,929 
 
 51,906| 
 
 Fac. Mds. 
 16,451 
 23,151 
 15,219 
 26,319 
 30,212 
 
 Fac Mds. 
 4,737 
 
 10,488 
 6,625| 
 5,4814 
 
 Fac. Mds. 
 
 ' 244 
 
 ' 235 
 257 
 
 Fac. Mds. 
 6,024 
 
 10,939 
 7,110 
 2,991 J 
 
 12,114 
 
 Fac. Mds. 
 319 
 583 
 903| 
 915J 
 1,145| 
 
 Fac. Mdt. 
 132,235 
 126,556 
 119,0514 
 131,016 
 90,217 
 
 421,63U 
 
 111,352 
 
 33,23 1^ 
 
 736 1 2S,27fti 
 
 3,866| 
 
 599,0951 
 
 Average total annual exports, 1829-30 to 1833-34 
 Average total annual exports, 1824-25 to 1828-29 
 
 Fac. Mds. 
 119,819 
 115,846 
 
 Of the various articles exported from Bengal, sugar is that of which a large increase may, perhaps, be 
 most reasonably anticipated. The processes followed in its culture and production have hitherto been 
 of the rudest description; but, now that Europeans may engage in the business, it is probable they will 
 be materially improved. The excess of 55. a cwt. of duty laid on East India sugar, imported for home 
 consumption, over that which is laid on West India sugar, ought to be repealed. There neither is nor 
 can be any good reason why similar products, from different dependencies of the empire, should not be 
 allowed to ^ome into our markets on the same footing. Should any considerable decline take place in the 
 production of sugar in our West India colonies, the expediency of equalising the duties on sugars of the 
 East and West Indies, would be as obvious as its justice. 
 
 Cotton is another article of export which might, it is believed, be very greatly increased in quantity, 
 and, probably also, improved in quality, by giving greater attention to its culture and preparation. Re- 
 cently, however, the trade has been declining. The exports of cotton from Calcutta, at an average of the 
 3 years ending with 1833-34, did not exceed half the quantity exported during the 3 years ending with 
 1826 -27. Bombay and Surat are, however, the great shipping ports for Indian cotton. 
 
 The exports of rice from Bengal fluctuate very greatly. This is not caused so much by variations in 
 the crops of the country, as hy variations in those of other countries; for, when a scarcity occurs in most 
 parts of continental Asia, or in any of its islands, recourse is almost invariably had to Bengal to supply 
 the deficiency ; and the demands thence arising have been sometimes enormous. In 1831-32, for example, 
 the exports of rice from Calcutta to the coast of Coromandel amounted to only 16,545 maunds, whereas 
 in 1833-34, they amounted to 1,252,056 maunds. — (J^f-Z/'s Comparative View o/1832-33, and 1833-34, p.41.) 
 It is worthy of remark, that while Bengal is shipping immense supplies of rice and other grain to distant 
 parts, a large part of her own population is frequently in a state of great want and suffering. Ireland is 
 not, therefore, the only country in which the most abject poverty and wretchedness on the part of the in- 
 habitants, are found combined with great fertility of soil, and a large exportation of food. 
 
 The exports of saltpetre from Calcutta have increased materially during the last dozen years, and were 
 greater in 1833-34 than they have been for a lengthened period. It is doubtful, however, owing to the 
 competition of nitrate of soda from South America, whether this increase will be maintained. France i8 
 now principally supplied from America. — (See Saltpetre.) 
 
 Besides the articles of native Indian produce exported from Calcutta, she re-exports pretty considerable 
 quantities of various articles brought from other parts. The value of the British cotton goods re-exported, 
 amounts to about 90,000/. a year. They are principally bartered with the Burmese for silver. The convey- 
 ance of the latter out of the Burmese dominions is strictly prohibited ; but in Burma, as in England 
 and elsewhere, the ingenuity of the smuggler is too much for the vigilance of the government, and the 
 trade is carried on without much difficulty. 
 
 Imports. — The great articles of import into Calcutta are, British cotton manufactures and cotton twist ; 
 bullion : copper w'th spelter, tin, lead, iron, and other metals ; woollens ; wines and spirits ; ale and 
 beer ; haberdashery, millhiery, &c. ; coffee ; hardware and cutlery ; pepper ; coral, glass, and bottles ; plate, 
 jewellery, watches, &c. ; books and stationery ; tea, &c. 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Quantity and Value of the Principal Articles (classed in Alphabetical Order) 
 imported into Calcutta during the Years 1832-33, and 1833-34. 
 
 Species of Merchandise. 
 
 Petelnut .... 
 Bottles, empty - • - 
 
 Books and pamphlets 
 Buffalo horns - - 
 Camphor .... 
 Coffee .... 
 Coals - - - - 
 
 Coral, real ... 
 Glass - - - - 
 
 Guns and pistols - - 
 Haberdaslieiy, millinery and apparel - 
 Hardware and cutlery 
 Lametta . . - 
 Wetals : 
 Copper 
 
 Sjielter 
 
 in, block 
 Tin plates 
 Lead 
 
 Lead shot 
 
 No. 
 Bz. mds. 
 
 corge 
 Bz. mds. 
 
 Bz. mds. 
 
 bags 
 Bz. mds. 
 
 Steel 
 
 Quicksilver - - — 
 
 Brass, ingot - - - — 
 
 Metal, sheathing - - — 
 ^ Ironmongery, machinery, and anchors 
 
 Oilman's stores and grocery - Bz. mds. 
 
 Pepper, black - - - _ 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 990,001 
 793J 
 13,530^ 
 64,642 
 
 115,630 
 
 84,640* 
 30,7 lOj 
 12,545| 
 
 890 
 28,121.J 
 6,554 
 150,173 
 9,049 
 1,321 
 419 
 338 
 
 e9,273J 
 
 Value. 
 
 L. 5,574 
 9,454 
 22,700 
 6,766 
 3,085 
 22,047 
 2,942 
 8,197 
 12,447 
 6,1.V2 
 31,569 
 26,548 
 13,881 
 
 292,907 
 13,095 
 21,283 
 
 1,355 
 14,920 
 
 1,636 
 41,965 
 
 6,841 
 11,275 
 
 1,075 
 499 
 15,893 
 15,103 
 56,451 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 12,602 
 109,785 
 
 1,166,905 
 1,393| 
 17,954^ 
 140,717 
 288,804 
 
 56,976 
 
 89,189 
 
 24,941 
 9,476 
 2,017 
 
 12,407 
 3,296 
 135,141 
 
 12,757* 
 l,234f 
 1,182 
 
 Value. 
 
 L. 5,504 
 10,833 
 16,725 
 7,090 
 6,428 
 26,020 
 44,100 
 14.117 
 13,577 
 4,318 
 34,565 
 16,882 
 15,356 
 
 285,187 
 9,631 
 
 16,973 
 3,825 
 5,842 
 991 
 
 43,584 
 6,987 
 
 10,088 
 2,512 
 
 20,215 
 19,071 
 28,389 
 
CALCUTTA. 
 
 statement — continued 
 
 211 
 
 Species of Merchandise. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Coloured cotton 
 
 Silk and mixed eoods 
 Plate, jewellery, ajid watches 
 Salt 
 
 Spices, mace and nutmegs 
 Segars and cheroots • 
 Stationery and cards 
 SpiriU 
 
 Ale, beer, and porter 
 
 Twist and yam 
 Tea 
 
 Vermilion 
 Wines 
 Wood 
 Woollens 
 
 pieces 
 yards 
 
 dozens 
 pieces 
 yards 
 
 dozens 
 
 hogsheads 
 dozens 
 lbs. 
 
 273,235 
 
 153,237 
 
 36,694 
 20,800 
 2,-168 
 6,813 
 2,823 
 12,283 
 
 1,036,227 
 4,630 
 492 
 174,320 
 
 8 
 36 
 
 26,624 
 
 ,3207 
 .953$ 
 
 8,011 J. 
 2,293 i 
 2,993,715 
 
 42,483 
 
 238,781 
 19,831 
 4,430 
 81,805 
 22.609 
 80,370 
 
 322 ^ 
 7,193 
 2,082 
 3,036,621 
 
 1,941 
 
 89,150 
 
 70,848 
 12,948 
 3.659 
 8,787 
 5,329 
 14.626 
 30,536 
 
 26,972 
 
 251,649 
 18,850 
 16,555 
 61,391 
 14,475 
 
 115,173 
 
 The total amount of all sorts 
 1,956,627/., exclusive of 586,394/. 
 90,325/. 
 
 of merchandise imported into Calcutta by private traders in 1833-34 was 
 of treasure. The Company's imports, during the same year, amounted ta 
 
 Sources of Imports. — These differ in different years, but, speaking generally, Great Britain furnishes 
 about 60 per cent, of the whole ; France, about 3 per cent. ; North America, 2| ; China, from 12 to 15; 
 Singapore, from 6 to 8 ; coast of Coromandel, from 3 to 4 ; Malabar, from 3 to 4 ; Pegu, from 3 to 4, &c. 
 
 We subjoin a 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Value of the Merchandise, and the Value of the Treasure, imported into 
 Calcutta on private Account, in 1832-33 and 1833-34, specifying the Imports from each Country. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Great Britain - 
 France 
 
 Sweden - . . - 
 
 South America - 
 
 North America 
 
 Coast of Coromcindel • 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Maldives and Laccadives 
 Coast of Malabar 
 Arabian and Persian Gulfs 
 Singapore - • 
 Penang and Malacca • 
 China - . 
 I New Holland - 
 Sumatra and JaTa 
 
 Mauritius • 
 Bourbon 
 
 Cape and St. Helena 
 
 Total sicca rupees 
 at 2s. per sicca rupee 
 
 Sicca Rupees, 
 1,40,26,707 
 7,9C,283 
 
 20,831 
 3,69,677 
 6,58,328 
 6,975 
 
 98,659 
 7,92,430 
 3,28,050 
 5,81,595 
 2,65,906 
 9,34,228 
 5,347 
 
 34,441 
 2,56,471 
 
 34,522 
 
 73,775 
 6,974 
 
 Sicca Rupee», 
 
 1,24,875 
 2,08,7864 
 1,88,8621 
 
 3,000 
 16,400 
 12,65,725i 
 1,62,175 
 22,12,431 
 
 4,89,444 
 24,864 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 1,40,26,707 
 7,96,283 
 
 1,45,706 
 5,78,4631 
 8,47,190| 
 6,975 
 98,659 
 7,95,430 
 3,44,450 
 18,47,320i 
 4,28,081 
 31,46,659 
 5,347 
 31,441 
 7,45,915 
 59,386 
 73,775 
 6,974 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 1,39,91,801 
 10,04,133 
 57,625 
 19,004 
 3,0.-),807 
 7,18,013 
 25,991 
 91,698 
 7,23,750 
 4,39,462 
 5,59,383 
 2,28,337 
 10,18,170 
 20,892 
 28,501 
 2,06,389 
 30,967 
 95,100 
 3,247 
 
 Sicca Rupees. Sicca Rupees, 
 2,900 1,39,94,701 
 
 3,825 
 
 23,900 
 9,99,906 
 1,51,173 
 37,58,524i 
 
 24,215 
 2,86,2981 
 90,S70j 
 
 10,07,958 
 57,625 
 19,004 
 6,44,231 
 8,99,9 18i 
 25,991 
 91,698 
 7,23,750 
 4,63,,-62 
 15,59,289 
 3,79,510 
 47,76,694^ 
 20,892 
 52,716 
 4,92,687.^ 
 1,21,837 s 
 95,100' 
 3,247 
 
 58,63,942 2,54,30,212 
 586,394 I 2,543,021 
 
 Total amount, merchandise and treasure, imported in 1833-34 
 Total amount, merchandise and treasure, imported in 1832-33 
 
 Difference in favour of 1833-34 
 
 The Company's imports in 1833-34 were 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 2,54,30,212 
 2,.S9,87,762A 
 
 14,42,4491 
 
 8,00,221 
 
 Account of the Value (in Sicca Rupees) of the private Trade between Great Britain and Bengal, from the 
 1st of May 1813 to 30th of April 1834. — {BeWs Comparative View for 1832-33 and 1833-34, p. 53) 
 
 Imports into Calcutta. 
 
 Exports from Calcutta. 
 
 1813- 14 
 
 1814- 15 
 
 1815- 16 
 
 1816- 17 
 
 1817- 18 
 J818-19 
 1819-20 
 1820 -21 
 
 1821- 22 
 
 1822- 23 
 
 1823- 24 
 
 1824— 25 
 
 1825- 26 
 
 1826— 27 
 
 1827— 28 
 
 1828- 29 
 
 1829- 30 
 
 1830— 31 
 
 1831— 32 
 
 1832— 33 
 '833-34 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 53,76,775 
 40,99,165 
 57,52,886 
 80,51,112 
 1,35,62,962 
 1,59,44,490 
 66,80,873 
 87,19.664 
 1.25,68,218 
 1,67,98,082 
 1,37,67,035 
 1,61,84,454 
 1,24,93,958 
 1,26,26,147 
 1,86,43,444 
 2,20,29,791 
 1,61,25,841 
 2,00,73.354 
 1,73,72,762 
 1,40,26,707 
 1,39,91,801 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 32,750 
 5,25,127 
 11,42,596 
 18,59,853 
 61,57,981 
 1,21,61,159 
 63,07,519 
 14,89,017 
 1,64.758 
 1,70.758 
 5,24,032 
 13,250 
 1,26,978 
 20,180 
 73,620 
 1,687 
 
 1,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 54,09,525 
 46,24,292 
 68,95,482 
 9!i,10,965 
 1,97,20,943 
 2,81,05,654 
 1,29,88,392 
 1,02,08,681 
 1,42,15,676 
 1,69,68.840 
 1,42,91,067 
 1,61,97,704 
 1,26,50,936 
 1,26,46,327 
 1,87,17,064 
 2,20.31,478 
 1,61,25,841 
 2,00,74,354 
 1,73,72,762 
 1,40,26,707 
 1 ,39,94 ,701 
 
 P 2 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 1,19.63,405 
 1,21,42,283 
 1,64,44,208 
 1,38,06,966 
 1,69,12,905 
 1,38,72,325 
 1,25,64,391 
 2,07,98,860 
 94,10,405 
 1,27,10,960 
 1,35,64,851 
 1,39.30,093 
 1,71,31,915 
 99,61,591 
 1,28,83.130 
 1.16,40,299 
 1,08,40,687 
 1,18,40,971 
 1,18,10,761 
 1,27,15,094 
 1,18,88,475 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 
 4,106 
 13,500 
 5,460 
 2,23,767 
 2,69,466 
 48 
 
 3,78,032 
 7,06,979 
 12,41,443 
 12,20,257 
 30,16,384 
 .37,06,397 
 51,64,189 
 19,68,257 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sicca Rupees. 
 I 19,63,405 
 1,21,42,283 
 1,64,44,208 
 1,.38,06,<166 
 1,69,12,905 
 1,-38,72,325 
 1,25,64,.391 
 2,08,02.966 
 94,23,905 
 1,27,16,420 
 1,.37,S8,618 
 1,41,99,559 
 1,71,31,963 
 1,03,39,623 
 1,35,90,109 
 1,28,81,742 
 1,20,60,944 
 1,48.57,355 
 1,55.17,158 
 1,78.79,283 
 1,38,56,732 
 
212 
 
 CALCUTTA. 
 
 Account of Ships and Tonnage, arrived at and departed from Calcutta, during the Years 1832-33, and 
 
 Arrivals. 
 
 Departures. 
 
 British ImDort?. 
 
 1832-33. 
 
 1833-34. 
 
 British Exports. 
 
 1832-33. 
 
 1833-34. 
 
 Sh. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Sh. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Sh. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Sh. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Honourable Company's re-l 
 gular ships - - J 
 
 Honourable Company's char- ( 
 tered ships - - V 
 
 Ships from the U. Kingdom 
 from Asiatic ports 
 
 Dhonies - - - 
 
 Vessels laden with coast salt 
 
 Arab and Turkish 
 
 Burmese ... 
 
 7 
 7 
 77 
 137 
 54 
 153 
 4 
 9 
 
 9,383 
 3,545 
 33,379 
 39,264 
 4,445 
 15,339 
 1,389 
 3,825 
 
 8 
 9 
 95 
 158 
 172 
 319 
 11 
 10 
 2 
 
 10,587 
 5,106 
 38,297 
 46,050 
 21,042 
 35,793 
 3,486 
 4,445 
 490 
 
 Hon. Company's reg. ships 
 Hon. Company's chart, ships 
 Ships cleared for England,! 
 
 via Madras, &c. - -J 
 Ships cleared for Africa (Cape) 
 for Asiatic ports 
 Dhonies ... 
 Ships laden with prain 
 
 Arab and '1 urkish 
 
 in ballast 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 111 
 
 27 
 169 
 8 
 48 
 
 9,391 
 4,082 
 
 29,716 
 591 
 
 33,560 
 2,805 
 
 22,386 
 3,250 
 4,569 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 87 
 
 166 
 58 
 
 357 
 10 
 
 102 
 1 
 
 9,918 
 3,418 
 
 52,096 
 5,235 
 
 46,072 
 4,444 
 9,672 
 400 
 
 Total 
 
 448 
 
 110,571 
 
 784 
 
 165,299 
 
 Total 
 
 448 
 
 110,550 
 
 795 
 
 168,523 
 
 Foreign Imports. 
 Ships from forei^m Europe - 
 from North America - 
 from Asiatic ports 
 
 15 
 15 
 8 
 
 4,942 
 4,484 
 2,894 
 
 J 
 
 22 
 9 
 3 
 
 7,708 
 7,353 
 3,131 
 992 
 
 Foreign Exports. 
 Ships cleared for foreign Eu-l 
 rope - - -J 
 Ships cleared for NorthAmerica 
 for Asiatic ports - 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 12 
 
 5,399 
 5,103 
 3,905 
 
 17 
 18 
 16 
 
 5,852 
 5,932 
 4,983 
 
 Total 
 
 38 
 
 12,321 
 
 57 
 
 19,185 
 
 Total - 
 
 44 
 
 14,407 
 
 
 16,767 
 
 Grand total 
 
 486 
 
 122,8^ 
 
 841 
 
 184,485 
 
 Grand total - 
 
 492 
 
 124,957 1846 
 
 185,290 
 
 Duties — Account of the Gross Amount of Duties collected on 
 Merchandise imported at Calcutta by Sea. 
 
 1832-33. 1833-34. 
 • i. L. 
 
 Under British colours (including town 
 duty) .... 57,150 
 
 Foreign colours (ditto) - - 14,786 
 
 Duties — Account of the Gross Amount of Duties collected on 
 Merchandise exported from Calcutta by Sea. 
 
 1832-33. 
 
 Total 
 
 i. 71,936 
 
 54,267 
 13,037 I 
 
 67,304 ! 
 
 Under British colours 
 Foreign colours 
 
 L. 
 
 • 3,918 
 - 1,308 
 
 r. 5,226 
 
 1833-34. 
 L. 
 
 ■Number and Tonnage of Vessels cleared out at Calcutta for Great Britain, Foreign Europe, and the 
 
 Years. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 ■Foreign Europe. 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 yessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 9,277 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 3,378 
 911 
 
 1822-23 
 
 59 
 
 34,832 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 1823-24 
 
 66 
 
 34,122 
 
 3 
 
 1,165 
 
 3 
 
 1824-25 
 
 49 
 
 26,843 
 
 10 
 
 3,897 
 
 10 
 
 3,449 
 
 1825-26 
 
 65 
 
 35,446 
 
 12 
 
 4,296 
 
 17 
 
 5,021 
 
 1826-27 
 
 86 
 
 41,124 
 
 13 
 
 4,941 
 
 6 
 
 1,823 
 
 1827-28 
 
 72 
 
 35,201 
 
 18 
 
 5,855 
 
 13 
 
 3,269 
 
 1828-29 
 
 80 
 
 37,802 
 
 29 
 
 8,906 
 
 13 
 
 4,297 
 
 1829-30 
 
 64 
 
 32,816 
 
 15 
 
 5,475 
 
 13 
 
 4,068 
 
 1830-31 
 
 79 
 
 36,351 
 
 17 
 
 6,220 
 
 15 
 
 4,716 
 
 1831-32 
 
 74 
 
 34,931 
 
 7 
 
 2,648 
 
 25 
 
 7,414 
 
 1832-33 
 
 79 
 
 35,240 
 
 15 
 
 5,399 
 
 17 
 
 5,013 
 
 Failures at Calcutta. — Within the 3 years ending with 1833, some of the principal mercantile estab. 
 lishments in this city failed for immense sums. To examine minutely into the origin of these disasters 
 would lead us into inquiries foreign to the object of this work, and with respect to which it is difficult 
 to acquire accurate information. We believe, however, that the main source of the evil was the com- 
 bination, by most of the principal houses, of the business of merchants with that of bankers. Their 
 credit being high, at the end of the war large sums were deposited in their hands, for which they engaged 
 to pay a high rate of interest. But instead of employing these deposits, as bankers in England would have 
 ione, in the discount of bills at short dates, or in the purchase of government securities readily con- 
 vertible into money, they employed them, probably because they could with difficulty dispose of them 
 otherwise, in all manner of mercantile speculations, — advancing very large sums to the indigo planters, 
 exporting goods to Europe, either directly on their own account, or indirectly by lending to those who 
 did, — becoming owners of Indian shipping, &c. Most of those speculations turned out exceedingly ill 
 The production of indigo was so much increased, partly in consequence of the large capitals turned to 
 the business, and partly of the high prices in England, that " fine blue violet," which had brought, in 
 the London market, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1827, from 12s. \Qd. to \Ss. id. per lb., fell, 
 at an average of the 3 years ending with 1832, to from 5s. M. to 6*. id. per lb., and other sorts in pro. 
 portion. At these prices the production would not pay ; and very heavy losses were sustained, and much 
 capital sunk, by the planters and those who had supplied them with funds to extend their undertakings. 
 The investments in Indian shipping turned out even worse than those in the indigo plantations, tlie 
 shipping of England having nearly driven that of India out of the field. The embarrassment occasioned 
 by this locking up of their capital, and by the ruinous nature of the adventures in which they were 
 embarked, began to manifest itself simultaneously with the scarcity of money occasioned by the drains 
 on .iccount of the Burmese war. The greatmcrcantile houses began then to find that they were entangled 
 in difficulties from which they have been wholly unable to extricate themselves. After struggling on, 
 some for a longer and some for a shorter period, most of them have since failed, the greater number for 
 very large sums. 
 
 But, however distressing in the mean time, the embarrassment and want of confidence arising from 
 the failures alluded to could not be of long continuance. In the end they will, no doubt, be pro- 
 ductive of a better order of things. It is of the utmost consequence that the vicious combination of the 
 business of a merchant with that of a banker should be put an end to. It is singular, indeed, that indi- 
 viduals should be found willing to intrust large sums in the hands of tliose who, they are aware, are 
 employing them in the most hazardous adventures. The higher the interest promised by such persons, 
 the greater ought to be the caution of the public in dealing with them. 
 
 Some, perhaps most, branches of the import trade of Calcutta seem also to liave been completely over- 
 done. That of cotton twist is an instance. In 1829-30, the imports were 1,(12,0,333 lbs. ; in 1830-31, they 
 were 3,4*9,0+4' lbs. ; and in 1831-32, .'5,433,323 lbs. Such a supply was far beyond the wants of the 
 country ; and the returns were so very inadequate, that the imports were reduced in 1832-33 to 
 2,993,715 lbs. In 1833-34, tlie imports amounted to 3,036,()21 lbs., and the trade is now comparatively 
 fiteady. The imports of copper were also carried to an excess ; but the greatest excess was in the article 
 spelter, which has for some time past been almost unsaleable at Calcutta. — (Sec Spklteh.) (For farther 
 details as to the jjoints now touched upon, the reader is referred to the clear and able evidence of G. G. de 
 H. Larpent, Esq. before the Committee of the House of Commons on Manufactures, Commerce, &c) 
 
CALICO. 
 
 213 
 
 This article has been compiled from the following authorities: — Milbtirn^s Oriental Commerce; A 
 Reviexu qf the external Commerce of Bengal, by Horace llayman Wilson, Esq. 1830 ; Bell's Comparative 
 View (if the external Commerce qf Bengal, for the years lK.'>2-33, and 18.'53-34; The Bengal Directory ; 
 Thornton's East Indian Calculator ; Parliamentary Papers relating to the Finances of India and the 
 Trade of India and China 1830 — 1833 ; and vrivate communications. 
 
 CALICO (Ger. Kuttun ; Du. Kutoen ; Dan. Kattun ; Sw. Cattun ; Fr. Coton, 
 Toile de Cotori ; It. Tela Bumhac/inu, Tela dipinta ; Sp. Tela de Algodon ; Port. Pano 
 de Algodao ; Rus. Wiihoika ; Pol. Bawelnika), cloth made of cotton; so called from 
 Calicut, -on the Malabar coast, whence it was first imported. In England, all white or 
 unprinted cotton cloths are denominated calicoes j but in the United States this term is 
 applied to those only that are printed. 
 
 Historical Notice of the Art of Calico Printing. — This art, though apparently one of 
 the most difficult, has been practised from a very remote era. Herodotus mentions 
 (lib. 1. § 202.), that a nation on the shores of the Caspian were in the habit of painting 
 the figures of animals .on their clothes, with a colour formed from the leaves of trees 
 bruised and soaked in water ; and he adds, that this colour was not eflfaceable, and was 
 as durable as the clothes themselves. It is difficult to imagine that the colours could 
 have been so permanent, had not those using them been acquainted with the use of 
 mordants. There is, however, a passage in Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxv. § 11.), which, 
 though in some respects obscure, shows that the ancient Egyptians were fully acquainted 
 with the principle of calico printing. " They paint," says he, " the clothes, not with 
 colours, but with drugs (sorbentibus medicamentis) that have no colour. This being 
 done, they immerse them in a vat full of boiling dye, and leave them there for a little : 
 when they take them out, they are painted of various colours. It is extraordinary, 
 seeing that there is only one colour in the vat (unus in cortina color), that a variety of 
 colours should be produced by the operation of the drugs." Pliny further states, that 
 the colours were so adhesive they could not be washed out ; and that clothes were the 
 strc'nger for being dyed. A similar process is known to have been followed in India 
 from the earliest times. The chemical and mechanical inventions of modern ages have 
 been the cause of vast improvements in this ingenious and beautiful art ; but the passage 
 now quoted shows distinctly that we have, in this instance, been only perfecting and 
 improving processes practised in the remotest antiquity. 
 
 Calico Printing in this Country. Duties on Calicoes. — In Great Britain the print- 
 ing of cottons has formed, for a considerable period, a very important and valuable 
 business. It has been calculated that there are not less than 230,000 individuals em- 
 ployed in, and dependent upon, the print trade for subsistence, receiving the annual sum 
 of 2,400,000/. in wages. 
 
 This important and valuable business may be truly said to have grown up amongst us 
 in despite of repeated efforts for its suppression. To prevent the use of calicoes from 
 interfering with the demand for linen and woollen stuffs, a statute was passed in 1721, 
 imposing a penalty of 51. upon the weaver, and of 20Z. upon the seller, of a piece of 
 calico ! Fifteen years after, this extraordiiiary statute was so far modified, that calicoes 
 manufactured in Great Britain were allowed to be worn, " provided the warp thereof 
 was entirely of linen yarn." This was the law with respect to calicoes till after the 
 invention of Sir Richard Arkwright introduced a new era into the history of the 
 cotton manufacture, when its impolicy became obvious to every one. In 1774, a statute 
 was passed, allowing printed goods, wholly made of cotton, to be used, after paying a 
 duty of 3d. a yard (raised to 3^d. in 1806); and enacting some regulations as to the 
 marks to be affixed to the ends of the pieces, the stripes, &c. 
 
 This act continued in force down to 1831 ; but, though an improvement upon the old law, it was 
 much, and justly, complained of. Its injustice and injurious operation were very forcibly pointed out by 
 Mr. Poulett 'J'hompson, in his excellent speech on taxation. " It is a matter of surprise to me," said the 
 Right Kon. gent., " that this most impolitic impost should have been allowed to continue, especially 
 when it was declared by the committee of 1818 to be ' partial and oppressive, and that its repeal was 
 most desirable : ' who, indeed, can examine it, and not feel the truth of this observation ? Is it credible, 
 that in order to raise a nett revenue of 599,669/., a gross tax should be imposed of 2,019,737/. ? and yet 
 this was the return, according to the paper on your table, for 1828. And these figures are still far from 
 showing the real cost of the collection of this tax ; — that must be taken upon the gross produce ; and 
 supposing the rate of the .collection for the excise to be 5 per cent., which is less than it really is, you 
 have a cost of 20 j>er cent, on the nett produce of this tax, for charges. In addition to this, from all the 
 inquiry I have been able to make, the increased cost to the manufacturer is fully 5 per cent, upon the 
 whole quantity made ; so that you have thus two sums, each of 100,000/., levied on the public, for 
 the sake of exacting a duty of 600,000/. But the revenue is again, in this case, far from being the measure 
 of the injury you inflict. The inequality of the tax constitutes its chief objection. The duty is levied 
 upon the square yard, at 3|r/. per yard. Thus, the piece of calico which sells for 6d., duty paid, con- 
 tributes equally with that which is worth 5s. a yard. You levy an onerous and oppressive tax of 100 or 
 150 per cent, upon the poor, who are the purchasers of inferior cottons ; whilst the rich, who buy only 
 the finest kinds, pay but 10 or 15 per cent." 
 
 It is due to Mr. Thompson to state, that, not satisfied with giving this forcible exposition of the inequa- 
 lity and injurious operation of the duty on printed goods, one of his first measures, on coming into office, 
 was to propose its repeal. 
 
 The following tables exhibit the quantity of printed cloths produced in Great Britain, the quantity 
 exported, and the amount of revenue and drawback thereon, during the year ended 5th of January. 
 1830. 
 
 P 3 
 
214 C ALOMEL. — CAMEL. 
 
 I. Return of the Number of Square Yards of Calicoes, Muslins, Linens, and Stuflft. made either of Cotton 
 or Linen, printed, painted, stained, or dyed, in Great Britain (except such as shall have been dyed of 
 one Colour throughout), with the Amount of Excise Duties collected thereon in England and Scotland, 
 in the Year ended 5th of January, 1830 ; distinguishing the Number of Square Yards and Amount of 
 Duty collected thereon. — {Pari. Paper, No. 335. Sess. 1830.) 
 
 
 Number of Yards. 
 
 
 
 Foreign Ca- 
 
 Linens and 
 
 Calicoes and 
 
 Amount of Duty. 
 
 
 licoes. 
 
 Stuffs. 
 
 Muslins. 
 
 
 England 
 
 22,338 
 
 1,704,761 
 
 102,234,454 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1,516,431 14 10 
 
 Scotland 
 
 
 8,755 
 
 26,105,550 
 
 380,833 12 3 
 
 Year ended 7 
 5th of January, 18303 
 
 22,338 
 
 1,713,516 
 
 128,340,004 
 
 1,897,265 7 1 
 
 II. Return of the Total Numoer of Square Yards of printed Calicoes, Muslins, Linens, and Stufft, ex- 
 ported from England and Scotland, in the Year ended 5th of January, 1830 ; the Amount of Drawbacks 
 paid or allowed thereon ; distinguishing the Quantities and Amount of Drawbacks allowed to Foreign 
 Parts from the Quantities and Drawbacks paid or allowed on the like Articles on the Removal coast- 
 wise to Ireland. 
 
 England - - - . 
 Year ended 5th of Jan. 1830 - 
 
 Exported to Foreign Countries. 
 
 Exported to Ireland. 
 
 Number of Yards. 
 
 Amount of 
 Drawback. 
 
 No. of Yards. 
 
 Amount oS 
 Drawback. 
 
 Foreign 
 Calicoes. 
 
 Linens, Stuifs, 
 Calicoes, and 
 Muslins. 
 
 Linens, Stuffs, 
 Calicoes, and 
 Muslins. 
 
 3,672 
 
 81,445,424 
 8,417,009 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1,187,852 17 4 
 122,748 0 11 
 
 5,169,683 
 869,358 
 
 £ s. d. 
 75,391 4 2 
 12,678 2 9 
 
 3,672 
 
 89,862,433 1 1,310,600 18 3 
 
 6,039,041 
 
 88,069 6 11 
 
 By the 34 Geo. 3. c. 23. it is enacted, that the inventor, designer, or printer of any new and original 
 pattern for printing linens, cottons, calicoes, or muslins, shall have the sole right of printing and reprinting 
 the same for 3 months, to commence from the day of first publishing. 
 
 CALOMEL. Chloride of mercury ; frequently called mild muriate of mercury ; 
 and sometimes, but less properly, submuriate of mercury. 
 
 CAMBRIC, OR CAMBRICK (Ger. Kammertuch ; Du. Kameryhsdoek ; Fr. Cam- 
 hray Batiste; It. Cambraja j Sp. Cambrai ; Port. Cambraia ; Rus. Kamertug), a 
 species of very fine white linen, first made at Cambray, in French Flanders, whence it 
 derives its appellation. It is now produced, of an equally good quality, in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 CAMEL (Fr. Chameau ; It. and Sp. Camelo ; Ger. Kameel; Arab. Djimel ; Lat. 
 Camelus ; Greek, KajitTjAos), is indigenous to Arabia, and we only mention it in this place 
 on account of its extreme importance in the commerce of the East. 
 
 The camel is one of the most useful of the animals over which the inhabitants 
 of Asia and Africa have acquired dominion. These continents are intersected by vast 
 tracts of burning sand, the seats of desolation and drought, so as, apparently, to 
 exclude the possibility of any intercourse taking place between the countries that they 
 separate. " But as the ocean, which appears at first view to be placed as an insuperable 
 barrier between different regions of the earth, has been rendered, by navigation, subser- 
 vient to their mutual intercourse; so, by means of the camel, which the Arabians 
 emphatically call the Ship of the Desert, the most dreary wastes are traversed, and the 
 nations which they disjoin are enabled to trade with one another. Those painful jour- 
 neys, impracticable by any other animal, the camel performs with astonishing despatch. 
 Under heavy burdens of 600, 700, and 800 lbs. weight, they can continue their 
 march during a long period of time, with little food or rest, and sometimes without 
 tasting water for 8 or 9 days. By the wise economy of Providence, the camel 
 seems formed of purpose to be the beast of burden in those regions where he is placed, 
 and where his service is most wanted. In all the districts of Asia and Africa, where 
 deserts are most frequent and extensive, the camel abounds. This is his proper station, 
 and beyond tnis the sphere of his activity does not extend far. He dreads alike the 
 excesses of heat and cold, and does not agree even with the mild climate of our temperate 
 zone." — (Robertsori's Disquisition on Ancient India, Note 53.) 
 
 The first trade in Indian commodities of which we have any account (Genesis xxxvii. 
 25. ) was carried on by camels ; and they still continue to be the instruments employed 
 in the conveyance of merchants and merchandise throughout Turkey, Persia, Arabia, 
 Egypt, Barbary, and many contiguous countries. The merchants assemble in consider- 
 able numbers, forming themselves into an association or caravan — (see Caravan), for 
 their mutual protection against the attacks of robbers, and the dangers incident to a 
 journey through such rude and inhospitable countries. These, caravans are often very large 
 and usually consist of more camels than men. The capacity of the camel to endure 
 fatigue, and the small supply of provisions that he requires, is almost incredible. 
 
CAMELS' HAIR. — CAMPHOR. 
 
 ** His ordinary burden," says Volney, " is 750 lbs. ; his food, whatever is given him — 
 straw, thistles, the stones of dates, beans, barley, &c. With a pound of food a day, 
 and as much water, he will travel for weeks. In the journey from Cairo to Suez, which 
 is 40 or 46 hours, they neither eat nor drink ; but these long fasts, if often 
 repeated, wear them out. Their usual rate of travelling is very slow, hardly above 2 
 miles an hour : it is in vain to push them ; they will not quicken their pace ; but, if 
 allowed some short rest, they will travel 15 or 18 hours a day." — (^Voyage en Syrie, 
 torn. ii. p. 383.) 
 
 The Arabians regard the camel as a sacred animal, the gift of Heaven, without whose 
 aid they could neither subsist, nor trade, nor travel. Its milk is their ordinary food ; 
 they also eat its flesh, especially that of the young camel, which they reckon excellent; 
 its hair, which is renewed every year, is partly manufactured into stuffs for their clothes 
 and furniture, and partly sent abroad as a valuable article of merchandise ; and even its 
 faeces serve them for fuel. Blest with their camels, the Arabs want nothing, and fear 
 nothing. In a single day they can traverse 40 or 50 miles of the desert, and interpose 
 its trackless sands as an impenetrable rampart between them and their foes. — ( See 
 the admirable description of tiie camel, in BufFon. ) 
 
 But, however useful to the inhabitants of parched, sandy deserts, it may be worth while, 
 perhaps, to observe, that the camel is of very little service elsewhere. He cannot walk 
 100 yards on wet or slippery ground without stumbling. He is totally unknown in all 
 hilly or woody countries ; and, with few exceptions, may be said to be as great a stranger 
 in the Eastern Islands, Japan, the southern parts of China, the whole country lying be- 
 tween China and India, and all the southern parts of the latter, including Bengal, as he 
 is in Europe. In all those vast countries the ox is the most useful of the lower animals. 
 It is used for draught (for which the camel is totally unfit,) in the cart and plough, in the 
 carrying of burdens, in treading corn, in the oil press, &c., and finally as food. 
 
 CAMELS' HAIR (Ger. Kameelhaar ; Fr. Foil de chameau, Laine de chevron; 
 It. Pelo di camello ; Sp. Pelo 6 lana de cdmello). The hair of the camel imported into 
 this country is principally used in the manufacture of fine pencils for drawing and 
 painting. In the East, however, it is an important article of commerce, and is exten- 
 sively used in the arts. It serves for the fabrication of the tents and carpets of the 
 Arabs, and for their wearing apparel. Cloth is also manufactured of it in Persia and 
 other places. The most esteemed hair comes from Persia. It is divided into three 
 qualities ; black, red, and grey. The Mack is the dearest, and the grey is only worth 
 half the red. Considerable quantities of camels' hair are exported from Smyrna, Con- 
 stantinople, and Alexandria. It is used in the manufacture of hats, particularly by 
 the French. — ( Bees' s Cyclopcedia, art. Camelus. ) 
 
 CAMLET, OR CAMBLET (Ger. and Du. ^amefo^; Fr. Camelot ; It. Ciambellotto ; 
 Sp. Camehte ; Rus. Kamlot), a plain stuff, manufactured on a loom, with two treadles, 
 as linens are. There are camlets of various colours and sorts : some wholly of goats* 
 hair ; others, in which the warp is of hair, and the woof half hair and half silk ; others, 
 again, in which both the warp and the woof are of wool j and, lastly, some, of which the 
 warp is of wool and the woof of thread : some are striped, some watered, and some 
 figured. 
 
 CAMOMILE (Fr. CamomtUe ; It. Camomilla ; Sp. Manzanilla ; Lat. Chamomilla ; 
 a well known plant, whose flowers are used for medical purposes. Most of what is 
 brought to the London market is grown about Mitcham, in Surrey. 
 
 CAMPHOR, OR CAMPHIRE (Ger. Kampfer ; Du. Kamfer ; Fr. CampJire ; 
 It. Canfora ; Sp. Alcanfor ; Rus. Kamfora ; Lat. Camphora ; Arab, and Pers. Kafoor 
 Mai. Kaafur). There are two descriptions of this valuable article, which must not be 
 confounded. 
 
 1. Camphor of Commerce, or that met with in Europe, is obtained by boiling the 
 timber of a species of laurel (Laurus Camphora), a tree found in the forests of Fokien, in 
 China, near the city of Chinchew, where there is annually produced from 2,500 to 3,000, 
 and sometimes as much as 4,000 piculs. Most of the camphor imported into Europe 
 comes from China ; but a small quantity, considered of superior quality, comes from 
 Japan by way of Batavia. The exports from Canton in 1830 and 1831 were respectively 
 3,452 and 2,043 piculs, being, at an average, 366,266 lbs. ; if to this we add the exports 
 from Batavia of Japan camphor, amounting to 489 piculs, the total annual produce of 
 China and Japan for exf ortation will be 432,770 lbs. It is brought to this country in 
 chests, drums, and casks; and is in small, granular, friable masses, of a dirty white or 
 greyish colour, very much resembling half-refined sugar. When pure, the camphor of 
 commerce has a strong, peculiar, fragrant, penetrating odour, and a bitter, pungent, 
 aromatic taste. It is in reality a concrete essential oil. Camphor, when refined, is in 
 thin hollow cakes of a beautiful virgin whiteness, and, if exposed to the air, totally 
 evaporates. Great care is therefore requisite in packing camphor, to prevent serious 
 
216 
 
 CAMPHOR OIL. — CANALS. 
 
 2. Camphor, Malay, commonly called, to ilistinguish it from the last, camphor of 
 Barus, from the port of Sumatra, where it is mostly shipped. It is a product of 
 the Dryohalanops Camphora, a forest tree confined to Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay 
 peninsula. It is found in concrete masses in the fissures of the wood : there are, 
 however, but very few trees that afford it ; and those that do, only in small quantities. 
 This species of camphor is more fragrant and less biting and pungent than that yielded 
 by the laurel, and is in high repute among the Chinese, by whom it is almost wholly 
 consumed. There is an immense disparity in the prices of the two species in China. 
 In a price current recently published at Canton, the finest Chinese camphor is quoted at 
 30 dollars per picul, while the Malay camphor is quoted at 30 dollars per catty, making 
 the price of the latter 100 times greater than that of the former ! Malay camphor is 
 wholly unknown in Europe as an article of trade. — {Private information.^ 
 
 CAMPHOR OIL (Malay, Minyak), a fragrant essential oil, obtained in large 
 quantities by heating the wood of the Dryohalanops Camphora. It is nearly as cheap as 
 spirits of turpentine, but is not held in any esteem by the Chinese. It might, perhaps, 
 be profitably imported into England as a substitute for spirits of turpentine in the arts, 
 and for medicinal purposes. We may add, that the timber of the Dryohalanops Camphora 
 is not inferior to any produced in the countries where it grows, for the purposes of house 
 and ship building. — (^Private information, and Crawfurd^s Indian Archipelago, vol. i. 
 p. 516.) 
 
 CAMWOOD, a red dye wood, first brought to Europe from Africa by the Portu- 
 guese. It is principally obtained from the vicinity of Sierra Leone. The colouring 
 matter which it affords differs but little from that of ordinary Nicaragua wood, either in 
 quality or quantity; and it may be employed with similar mordants. — {Bancroft on 
 Colours. See also Dampier, vol. ii. part ii. p. 58. ) Camwood is at present worth, in 
 the London market, from 161. to 18Z. a ton, duty (5s. a ton) included. In 1828, 475 
 tons of camwood were imported; but the imports in 1829 only amounted to 119 tons. 
 — (Pari. Paper, No. 661. Sess. 1830.) 
 
 CANAL, CANALS. A canal is an artificial channel, filled with water kept at 
 the desired level by means of locks or sluices, forming a communication between two 
 or more places. 
 
 (1.) Historical Sketch of Canals. Ancient Canals. — The comparative cheapness and 
 facility with which goods may be conveyed by sea, or by means of navigable rivers, 
 seem to have suggested, at a very early period, the formation of canals. The best 
 authenticated accounts of ancient Egypt represent that country as intersected by canals 
 conveying the waters of the Nile to the more distant parts of the country, partly for the 
 purpose of irrigation, and partly for that of internal navigation. The efforts made by 
 the old Egyptian monarchs, and by the Ptolemies, to construct a canal between the 
 Red Sea and the Nile are well known ; and evince the high sense which they enter 
 tained of the importance of this species of communication. — (Ameilhon, Commerce des 
 Egyptiens, p. 76.) 
 
 Greece was too small a territory, too much intersected by arms of the sea, and sub- 
 divided into too many independent states, to afford much scope for inland navigation. 
 Attempts were, however, made to cut a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth ; but they 
 did not succeed. 
 
 The Romans did not distinguish themselves in canal navigation. Their aqueducts^ 
 the stupendous ruins of which attest the wealth and power of their founders, were intended 
 to furnish supplies of water to some adjoining city, and not for the conveyance of vessels 
 or produce. 
 
 (2. ) Chinese Canals. — In China, canals, partly for irrigation, and partly for navigation, 
 have existed from a very early period. The most celebrated amongst them is the Im- 
 perial or Grand Canal, forming a communication between Pekin an Canton, said to be 
 about 1,660 miles long. But there can be no doubt that this is a very great exagger- 
 ation ; and that it includes the various rivers which really form the greater part of the 
 navigation, the excavated portion being of comparatively limited dimensions. The canal 
 is said not to have, at any time, more than from 5 to 6 feet water ; and in dry seasons, 
 its depth is frequently reduced to 3 feet. (De la Lande, Canaux de Navigation, p. 52a 
 The locks are constructed with very little skill ; and as the vessels are generally dragged 
 by men, the navigation is extremely slow. The canals are mostly faced with stone ; and 
 the bridges across them are said to be very ingeniously contrived. 
 
 (3.) Italian Canals. — The Italians were the first people in modern Europe that at- 
 tempted to plan and execute canals. They were principally, however, undertaken for tlie 
 purpose of irrigation ; and the works of this sort executed in the Milanese and other 
 parts of Lombardy, in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, are still regarded 
 as models, and excite the warm admiration of every one capable of ajjpreciating them. Jn 
 1271, the Navilio Grande, or canal leading from Milan to Abbiate Grasso and the 
 Tesino, was rendered navigable. — (Young's Travels in France, §-c. vol. ii. p. 170.^ 
 
"I — ^ 
 
 r 
 
CANALS. 
 
 217 
 
 (4.) Dzctch Canals. — No country in Europe contains, in proportion to its size, so many 
 navigable canals as the kingdom of tlie Netherlands, and particularly the province of 
 Holland. The construction of these canals commenced as early as the twelftli century, 
 when, owing to its central and convenient situation, Flanders began to be the entrepoi of 
 the commerce between the north and south of Europe. Their number has since been 
 astonishingly increased. " Holland," says Mr. Phillips, in his History of Inland Navi- 
 gation, '* is intersected with innumerable canals. They may be compared in number and 
 size to our public roads and highways : and as the latter with us are continually full of 
 coaches, chaises, wagons, carts, and horsemen, going from and to the different cities, 
 towns, and villages; so, on the former, the Hollanders, in their boats and pleasure 
 barges, their treckschuyts and vessels of burden, are continually journeying and convey- 
 ing commodities for consumption or exportation from the interior of the country to the 
 great cities and rivers. An inhabitant of Rotterdam may, by means of these canals, 
 breakfast at Delft or the Hague, dine at Leyden, and sup at Amsterdam, or return 
 home again before night. By them, also, a most prodigious inland trade is carried on 
 between Holland and every part of France, Flanders, and Germany. When the canals 
 are frozen over, they travel on them with skaits, and perform long journeys in a very 
 short time; while heavy burdens are conveyed in carts and sledges, which are then as 
 much used on the canals as on our streets. 
 
 " The yearly profits produced by these canals are almost beyond belief; but it is cer- 
 tain, and has been proved, that they amount to more than 250,000Z. for about 400 miles 
 of inland navigation, which is 6251. per mile, the square surface of which mile does not 
 exceed two acres of ground ; a profit so amazing, that it is no wonder other nations 
 should imitate what has been found so advantageous. 
 
 " The canals of Holland are generally 60 feet wide and 6 deep, and are carefully 
 kept clean ; the mud, as manure, is very profitable ; the canals are generally levels ; of 
 course, locks are not wanted. From Rotterdam to Delft, the Hague, and Leyden, the 
 canal is quite level, but is sometimes affected by strong winds. For the most part, the 
 canals are elevated above the fields or the country, to enable them to carry off the water, 
 which in winter inundates the land. To drain the water from Delftland, a province not 
 more than 60 miles long, they employ 200 windmills in spring time to raise it into the 
 canals. All the canals of Holland are bordered with dams or banks of immense thick- 
 ness, and on these depends the security of the country from inundation; of course it .is 
 of great moment to keep them in the best repair ; to effect which there is a kind of 
 militia, and in every village is a magazine of proper stores and men, whose business it 
 is to convey stones and rubbish in carts to any damaged place. When a certain bell 
 rings, or the waters are at a fixed height, every man repairs to his post. To every house 
 or family there is assigned a certain part of the bank, in the repair of which they are to 
 assist. When a breach is apprehended, they cover the banks all over with cloth and 
 stones." 
 
 (5. ) Canal from Amsterdam to Niewdiep, near the Ilelder. — The object of this canal, 
 which is the greatest work of its kind in Holland, and probably in the world, is to afford 
 a safe and easy passage for large vessels from Amsterdam to the German Ocean. This 
 city has 40 feet of water in the road in front of its port, but the pampus or bar at the 
 junction of the Y with the Zuyder Zee, 7 miles below, has only a depth of 10 feet ; and 
 hence all ships of any considerable burden entering or leaving the port must unload and 
 load part of their cargoes without the bar. As the Zuyder Zee is every where full of 
 shallows, all ordinary means of improving the access to Amsterdam were necessarily in- 
 effectual ; and the resolution was, therefore, at length adopted, of cutting a canal from 
 the city to the Helder, the most northern point of the province of Holland. The 
 distance between these extreme points is 41 English miles, but the length of the canal is 
 about 50^. The breadth at the surface of the water is 124^ English feet (120 Rhinland 
 feet) ; the breadth at bottom 36 ; the depth 20 feet 9 inches. Like the Dutch canals 
 generally, its level is that of the highest tides, and it receives its supply of water from 
 the sea. The only locks it requires are, of course, two tide-locks at the extremities ; but 
 there are, besides, two sluices with floodgates in the intermediate space. It is crossed 
 by about 18 drawbridges. The locks and sluices are double, — that is, there are two in 
 the breadth of the canal ; and their construction and workmanship are said to be ex- 
 cellent. They are built of brick, for economy ; but bands of limestone are interposed at 
 intervals, and these project about an inch beyond the brick, to protect it from abrasion 
 by the sides of vessels. There is a broad towing path on each side, and the canal is wide 
 enough to admit of two fi-igates passing. — (For the expense of towing, see Amsteiu 
 
 DAM, ) 
 
 The line which the canal follows may be easily traced on a map of Holland. From 
 the Y at Amsterdam it proceeds north to Purmereud ; thence west to Alkmaar Lake; again 
 north by Alkmaar to a point within 2 miles of the coast, near Petten; whence it runs 
 nearly parallel to the coast till it joins the sea a little to the east of the Helder, at th« 
 
218 
 
 CANALS. 
 
 fine harbour of Niewdiep, formed within the last 30 years. At the latter place there is 
 a powerful steam-engine for supplying the canal with water during neap tides, and other 
 purposes. The time spent in towing vessels from Niewdiep to Amsterdam is 18 hours. 
 The Helder is the only spot on the shores of Holland that has deep water ; and it owes 
 this advantage to its being opposite to the Texel, which, by contracting the commu- 
 nication between the German Ocean and the Zuyder Zee to a breadth of about a mile, 
 produces a current which scours and deepens the channel. Immediately opposite the 
 Helder there are 100 feet water at high tides, and at the shallowest part of the bar to 
 the westward there are 27 feet. In the same way, the artificial mound which runs into 
 the Y opposite Amsterdam, by contracting the water-way to about 1,000 feet, keeps a depth 
 of 40 feet in the port (at high water), while above and below there is only 10 or 12. 
 
 The canal was begun in 1819, and finished in 1825. The cost was estimated at 
 10,000,000 or 12,000,000 florins, or about 1,000,000/. sterling. If we compute tlie 
 magnitude of this canal by the cubic contents of its bed, it is the greatest, we believe, in 
 the world, unless some of the Chinese canals be exceptions. The volume of water 
 which it contains, or the prisme de remplissage, is twice as great as that of the New York 
 Canal, or the Canal of Languedoc, and two and a half times as great as that of the 
 artificial part of the Caledonian Canal. In consequence, however, of the facility with 
 which the Dutch canal was dug, and of the evenness of the ground through which it 
 passes, the difficulties with which the engineer had to contend in making it were trifling 
 compared to those which had to be overcome in constructing the canals now mentioned. 
 We have not learned what returns this canal yields ; most probably it is not, at least in 
 a direct point of view, a profitable concern. Even in Holland, notwithstanding the 
 lowness of interest, it would require tolls to the amount of 40,000Z. a year to cover in- 
 terest and expenses ; and so large a sum can hardly, we should think, be raised by the 
 very moderate tolls laid on the ships passing through it. — (See Amsterdam.) This, 
 however, is not the only consideration to be attended to in estimating the value of a 
 work of this sort. Its influence in promoting the trade of Amsterdam, and, indeed, of 
 Holland, may far more than compensate for its cost. It is evident, too, that the im- 
 position of oppressive tolls would have effectually counteracted this advantage ; that is, 
 they would have defeated the very object for which the canal was constructed. — - (We 
 have derived these details, partly from an able article in the Scotsman^ and partly from 
 private information. ) 
 
 (6.) Danish Canals. — The Holstein Canal, in Denmark, is of very considerable im- 
 portance. It joins the river Eyder with Kiel Bay on the north-east coast of Holstein, 
 forming a navigable communication between the North Sea, a little to the north of 
 Heligoland, and the Baltic ; enabling vessels to pass from the one to the other by a short 
 cut of about 100 miles, instead of the lengthened and difficult voyage round Jutland, and 
 through the Cattegat and the Sound. The Eyder is navigable for vessels not drawing 
 more than 9 feet water, from Tonningen, near its mouth, to Rendsburg, where it is 
 joined by the canal, which communicates with the Baltic at Holtenau, about 3 miles 
 north of Kiel. The canal is about 26 English miles in length, including about 6 miles 
 of what is principally river navigation. The excavated portion is 95 feet wide at top, 
 51 feet 6 inches at bottom, and 9 feet 6 inches deep (Eng. meas.). Its highest ele- 
 vation above the level of the sea is 24 feet 4 inches ; to which height vessels are raided 
 and let down by 6 locks or sluices. It is navigable by vessels of 120 tons burthen, or 
 more, provided they are constructed in that view. The total cost of the canal was about 
 500,000/. It was opened in 1785, and has so far realised the views of its projectors, 
 as to enable coasting vessels from the Danish islands in the Baltic and the east 
 coast of Holstein, Jutland, &c., to proceed to Hamburgh, Holland, England, &c. in 
 less time and with much less risk, than, in the ordinary course of navigation, they 
 could have cleared the point of the Skaw ; and conversely with ships from the west. 
 The smaller class of foreign vessels, particularly those under the Dutch and Hanseatic 
 flags, navigating the Baltic and North Seas, have largely availed themselves of the faci- 
 lities afforded by this canal. During the 5 years ending with 1831, no fewer than 
 2,786 vessels passed each year, at an average, through the canal. This is a sufficient 
 evidence of its utility. It would, however, be much more frequented, were it not for the 
 difficult navigation of the Eyder from the sea to Rendsburg. The dues are moderate. 
 — {Coxes Travels in the North of Europe, 5th ed. vol. v. p. 239., where there is a 
 plan of the canal ; Catteau, Tableau des Etats Danois, tom. ii. pp. 300 — 304. ; and 
 private information. ) 
 
 (7- ) Swedish Canals. — The formation of an internal navigation connecting the Cattegat 
 and the Baltic has long engaged the attention, and occupied the efforts, of the people 
 and government of Sweden. Various motives conspired to make them embark in tliis 
 arduous undertaking. The Sound and other channels to the Baltic being commanded by 
 the Danes, they were able, when at war with the Swedes, greatly to annoy the latter, by 
 cutting off all communication by sea between the eastern and western provinces of the 
 
CANALS. 
 
 219 
 
 kingdom. And hence, in the view, partly of obviating this annoyance and partly of 
 facilitating the conveyance of iron, timber, and other bulky products, from the interior 
 to the coast, it was determined to attempt forming an internal navigation, by means of 
 the river Gotha, and the lakes Wener, Wetter, &c., from Gottenburgh to Soderka-ping 
 on the Baltic. The first and most difficult part of this enterprise was the perfecting of 
 the communication from Gottenburgh to the lake Wener. The Gotha, which flows 
 from the latter to the former, is navigable, through by far the greater part of its course, 
 for vessels of considerable burden ; but, besides others less difficult to overcome, the 
 navigation at the point called Trollhsetta is interrupted by a series of cataracts about 
 112 feet in height. Owing to the rapidity of the river, and the stubborn red granite 
 rocks over which it flows, and by perpendicular banks of which it is bounded, the 
 attempt to cut a lateral canal, and still more to render it directly navigable, presented 
 the most formidable obstacles. But, undismayed by these, on which it is, indeed, most 
 probable he had not sufficiently reflected, Polhem, a native engineer, undertook, about 
 the middle of last century, the Herculean task of constructing locks in the channel of 
 the river, and rendering it navigable ! Whether, however, it were owing to the all but 
 insuperable obstacles opposed to such a olan, to the defective execution, or deficient 
 strength of the works, they were wholly swept away, after being considerably advanced, 
 and after vast sums had been expended upon them. From this period, down to 1793, 
 the undertaking was abandoned ; but in that year, the plan was proposed, which should 
 have been adopted at first, of cutting a lateral canal through the solid rock, about 1§ 
 mile from the river. This new enterprise was begun under the auspices of a company 
 incorporated for the purpose in 1794, and was successfully completed in 1800. The 
 canal is about 3 miles in length, and has about 6^ feet water.* It has 8 sluices, and 
 admits vessels of above 100 tons. In one part it is cut through the solid rock to the 
 depth of 72 feet. The expense was a good deal less than might have been expected, 
 being only about 80,000/. The lake Wener, the navigation of which was thus opened 
 with Gottenburgh, is very large, deep, and encircled by some of the richest of the 
 Swedish provinces, which now possess the inestimable advantage of a convenient and ready 
 outlet for their products. 
 
 As soon as the TroUhsetta canal had been completed, there could be no room for 
 doubt as to the practicability of extending the navigation to Soderkoeping. In fur- 
 therance of this object, the lake Wener has been joined to the lake Wetter by the 
 Gotha Canal, which admits vessels of the same size as that of Trollhaetta; and the 
 .prolongation of the navigation to the Baltic from the Wetter, partly by 2 canals of 
 equal magnitude with the above, and partly by lakes, is now, we believe, about com- 
 pleted. The entire undertaking is called the Gotha Navigation, and deservedly ranks 
 among the very first of the kind in Europe. 
 
 Besides the above, the canal of Arboga unites the lake Hielmar to the lake Maelar ; 
 and since 1819, a canal has been constructed from the latter to the Baltic at Sbdertelge. 
 The canal of Stroemsholm, so called from its passing near the castle of that name, has 
 effected a navigable communication between the province of Dalecarlia and the lake 
 Maelar, &c. — ( For further details, see, besides the authorities already referred to. Cozens 
 Travels in the North of Europe, 5th ed. vol. iv. pp. 253 — 266., and vol. v. pp. 58 — 66. ; 
 Thomson's Travels in Sweden, p. 35, &c. ) 
 
 (8.) French Canals. — The first canal executed in France was that of Briare, 34i En- 
 glish miles in length, intended to form a communication between the Seine and Loire. It 
 was commenced in 1605, in the reign of Henry IV., and was completed in 1642, under 
 his successor, Louis XIII. The canal of Orleans, which joins the above, was com- 
 menced in 1675. But the most stupendous undertaking of this sort that has been 
 executed in France, or indeed on the Continent, is the canal of Languedoc. It was 
 projected under Francis I. ; but was begun and completed in the reign of Louis XIV. 
 It reaches from Narbonne to Toulouse ; and was intended to form a safe and speedy 
 means of communication between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean. It is 64 
 French leagues long, and 6 feet deep; and has, in all, 114 locks and sluices. In its 
 highest part it is 600 feet above the level of the sea. In some places it is conveyed, by 
 bridges of great length and strength, over large rivers. It cost upwards of 1,300,000/. ; 
 and reflects infinite credit on the engineer, Riquet, by whom it was planned and 
 executed. 
 
 Besides this great work, France possesses several magnificent canals, such as that of 
 The Centre, connecting the Loire with the Saone ; of St. Quentin, joining the Scheldt 
 and the Somme ; of Besan9on, joining the Saone, and consequently the Rhone, to the 
 Rhine ; of Burgundy, joining the Rhone to the Seine, &c. Some of these are of very 
 considerable magnitude. The canal of the Centre is about 72 English miles in length. 
 
 * This is the statement of Cattcau, Tableau dela Mer Baltique, tome ii. p. 77. ; Oddv, in his European 
 Commerce, p. 306., and Balbi, Abrege dc la Gtfographte, p. 385., say that the depth of water is 10 feet 
 
220 
 
 CANALS. 
 
 It was completed in 1791, at an expense of about 11,000,000 francs. Its summit level 
 is about 240 feet above the level of the Loire at Digoin ; the breadth at the water's edge 
 is about 48 feet, and at bottom 30 feet ; depth of water 5j feet; number of locks 81. 
 The canal of St. Quentin, 28 English miles in length, was completed in 1810. The 
 canal joining the Rhone to the Rhine is the most extensive of any. It stretches from 
 the Saone, a little above St. Jean de Losne, by Dole, Besan9on, and Mulhouse, to 
 Strasburg, where it joins the Rhine, — a distance of about 200 English miles. From 
 Dole to Vogeaucourt, near Montbeliard, the canal is principally excavated in the 
 bed of the Doubs. It is not quite finished. The canal of Burgundy will, when 
 completed, be about 242 kilom., or 150 English miles, in length ; but at present it is 
 only navigable to the distance of about 95 kilom. In addition to these, a great many 
 other canals have been finished, while several ai-e in progress, and others projected. 
 There is an excellent account of the French canals completed, in progress, and pro- 
 jected, in the work of M. Dutens, entitled Histoire de la Navigation Interieure de la 
 France, 2 vols. 4to, and to it we beg to refer the reader for further details. He will 
 find, at the end of the second volume, a very beautiful map of the rivers and canals of 
 France. 
 
 It is probable, however, that the railroad projects now set on foot in France may 
 tend, for a while at least, to check the progress of canalisation. We may observe, too, 
 that the state of the law in France is very unfavourable to the undertaking and success 
 of all great public works ; and we are inclined to attribute the comparative fewness of 
 canals in France, and the recent period at which most of them have been constructed, 
 to its influence. In that country, canals, docks, and such like works, are mostly carried 
 on at the expense and for behoof of government, under the control of its agents. 
 No scope has been given to the enterprise of individuals or associations. Before either 
 a road or a canal can be constructed, plans and estimates must be made out and laid 
 before the minister of the interior, by whom they are referred to the prefect of the 
 department, and then to the Bureau des Fonts et des Chausses ; and supposing the 
 project to be approved by these, and the other functionaries consulted with respect to it, 
 the work must after all be carried on under the superintendence of some public officer. 
 In consequence of this preposterous system, very few works of this description have been 
 undertaken as private speculations. And while not a few of those begun by government 
 remain unfinished and comparatively useless, those that are completed have, as was to be 
 expected, rarely proved profitable. There are some good remarks on this subject in 
 the useful work of M. Dupin, on the Forces Commerciales of Great Britain. 
 
 (9.) Prussian Canals. — The Prussian states are traversed by the great navigable rivers 
 the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula ; the first having its embouchure in the North Sea, 
 and the others in the Baltic. The formation of an internal navigation, that should join 
 those great water-ways, excited the attention o*" government at a distant period ; and this 
 object has been successfully accomplished, partly by the aid of the secondary rivers fall- 
 ing into the above, and partly by canals. In 1662, the canal of Muhlrose was undertaken, 
 uniting the Oder and the Spree ; the latter being a navigable river falling into the 
 Havel, also a navigable river joining the Elbe near Havelburg. But the navigation from 
 the Oder to the Elbe by this channel was difficult and liable to frequent interruption ; 
 and to obviate these defects, Frederick the Great constructed, towards the middle of 
 last century, the Finnow Canal, stretching from the Oder at Oderberg, to the Havel, 
 near Liebenwalde ; the communication is thence continued by the latter and a chain of 
 lakes to Plauen ; from which point a canal has been opened, joining the Elbe near 
 Magdeburg. The Elbe being in this way connected with the Oder by a comparatively 
 easy navigation, the latter has been united to the Vistula, partly by the river Netze, 
 and partly by a canal joining that river to the Brahe, which falls into the Vistula neaf 
 Bromberg. A vast inland navigation has thus been completed ; barks passing freely 
 through the whole extent of country from Hamburgh to Dantzic ; aflPording the means 
 of shipping the products of the interior, and of importing those of foreign countries, 
 eitlier by the North Sea or the Baltic, as may be found most advantageous. — ( Catteau, 
 Tableau de la Mer Baltique, tome ii. p. 11 — 18. ) 
 
 (10.) Russian Canals. — The inland navigation of Russia is of vast extent, and very 
 considerable importance. The reader will find some details with respect to it undei 
 the article Peteksburgh. 
 
 (11.) Austrian Canals. — The Austrian empire is traversed in its whole extent by the 
 Danube ; but the advantages that might result to the foreign trade of the empire fxo\\\ 
 so great a command of river navigation, have been materially abridged by the jealousy 
 of -tiie Turks, who command the embouchure of the river, and by the diflSculties that are 
 in some places incident to its navigation. Two pretty extensive canals have been con- 
 structed in Hungary. That called the Bega Canal is 73 English miles in length : it 
 fctretches fi-wn Fascct through the Bannat by Temeswar to Bccskcrek, whence vessels 
 pass by the Bega into the Theiss, a little above its junction with the Danube. The 
 
CANALS. 
 
 221 
 
 other Hungarian canal is called after the Emperor Francis. It stretches from tiie 
 Danube by Zambor to the Theiss, which it joins near Ftildvar, being 62 English miles 
 in length : its elevation, where highest, does not exceed 27 feet. Besides the above, the 
 canal of Vienna establishes a communication between that city and Neustadt. It is said 
 to be the intention to continue this canal to Trieste ; but, however desirable, we doubt 
 much whether this be practicable. A railroad is at present being made from Munt- 
 hausen on the Danube to Budweiss on the Moldau, a navigable river that falls into 
 the Elbe. This promises to be a highly useful communication. — {liriyhVs Travels in 
 Hungary, p. 246. ; Balbi, Ahrcge de la Geogruphie, p. 216.) 
 
 (12.) Spanish Canals. — No where are canals more necessary, both for the purposes of 
 navigation and irrigation, than in Spain ; but the nature of the soil, and the poverty and 
 ignorance of the government as well as of the people, oppose formidable obstacles to their 
 construction. During the reign of Charles II., a company of Dutch contractors offered 
 to render the Man9anares navigable from Madrid to where it falls into the Tagus, and 
 the latter from that point to Lisbon, provided they were allowed to levy a duty for a 
 certain number of years on the goods conveyed by this channel. The Council of 
 Castile took this proposal into their serious consideration, and after maturely weighing 
 it, pronounced the singular decision — " That if it had pleased God that these two rivers 
 should have been navigable, he would not have wanted human assistance to have made 
 them such ; but that, as he has not done it, it is plain he did not think it proper that 
 it should be done. To attempt it, therefore, would be to violate the decrees of his pro- 
 vidence, and to mend the imperfections which he designedly left in his works ! " — 
 ( Clarke's Letters on the Spanish Nation, p. 284. ) But such undertakings are no longer 
 looked upon as sinful ; and many have been projected since the accession of the Bourbon 
 dynasty, though few have been perfected. The canal of the Ebro, begun under the 
 Emperor Charles V., is the most important of the Spanish canals ; but it is only partially 
 completed, and during dry seasons it suffers from want of water. It runs parallel to 
 the right bank of the Ebro, from Tudela in Navarre to below Saragossa ; the intention 
 being to carry it to Sastago, where it is to unite with the Ebro. The canal of Castile is 
 intended to lay open the country between the Douro and Reynosa, and to facilitate the 
 conveyance of grain from the interior to Santander and Bilbao. It passes by Valladolid, 
 Palencia, and Aguilar del Campos ; a small part has been executed, and is now in 
 operation. A company has recently undertaken, what the Dutch contractors formerly 
 offered, to render the Tagus navigable from Aranjuez to Lisbon ; the free navigation of 
 the river having been stipulated at the Congress of Vienna. A project for deepening the 
 Guadalquivir, and some others, are also on foot. — {Foreign Quarterly Review, No. 9. 
 p. 85. ; Balbi, Ahrege de la Geographie, p. 349.) 
 
 (13.) British Canals. — Owing partly to the late rise of extensive manufactures and 
 commerce in Great Britain, but more, perhaps, to the insular situation of the country, 
 no part of which is very distant from the sea, or from a navigable river, no attempt was 
 made, in England, to construct canals till a comparatively recent period. The efforts of 
 those who first began to improve the means of internal navigation, were limited to 
 attempts to deepen the beds of rivers, and to render them better fitted for the conveyance 
 of vessels. So early as 1635, a Mr. Sandys, of Flatbury, Worcestershire, formed a 
 project for rendering the Avon navigable from the Severn, near Tewkesbury, through 
 the counties of Warwick, Worcester, and Gloucester, " that the towns and country 
 might be better supplied with wood, iron, pit-coal, and other commodities." This scheme 
 was approved by the principal nobility and landowners in the adjoining counties ; but 
 the civil war having broken out soon after, the project was abandoned, and does not 
 seem to have been revived. After the Restoration, and during the earlier part of last 
 century, various acts were at different times obtained for cheapening and improving river 
 navigation. For the most part, however, these attempts were not very successful. The 
 cur»-ent of the rivers gradually changed the form of their channels ; the dykes and other 
 artificial constructions were apt to be destroyed by inundations ; alluvial sand banks 
 were formed below the weirs; in summer, the channels were frequently too dry to admit 
 of being navigated, while at other periods the current was so strong as to render it quite 
 impossible to ascend the river, which at all times, indeed, was a laborious and expensive 
 undertaking. These difficulties in the way of river navigation seem to have suggested 
 the expediency of abandoning the channels of most rivers, and of digging parallel to 
 them artificial channels, in which the water might be kept at the proper level by means 
 of locks. The act passed by the legislature in 1755, for improving the navigation of 
 Sankey Brook on the Mersey, gave rise to a lateral canal of this description, about 11:|- 
 miles in length, which deserves to be mentioned as the earliest effort of the sort in 
 England. 
 
 But before this canal had been completed, the celebrated Duke of Bridgewater*, and 
 
 * This truly noble person expended a princely fortune in the prosecution of bis great designs; and, tc 
 increase his resources, is said to have restricted his own personal expenses to 400/. a year! But his pro- 
 
222 
 
 CANALS. 
 
 his equally celebrated engineer, the self-instructed James Brindley, had conceived a plan 
 of canalisation independent altogether of natural channels, and intended to afford the 
 greatest facilities to commerce, by carrying canals across rivers and through mountains, 
 wherever it was practicable to construct them.* 
 
 The Duke was proprietor of a large estate at Worsley, 7 miles from Manchester, in 
 which were some very rich coal-mines, that had hitherto been in a great measure useless, 
 owing to the cost of carrying coal to market. Being desirous of turning his mines to 
 some account, it occurred to his Grace that his purpose would be best accomplished by 
 cutting a canal from Worsley to Manchester. Mr. Brindley, having been consulted, 
 declared that the scheme was practicable ; and an act having been obtained, the work was 
 immediately commenced. " The principle," says Mr. Phillips, " laid down at the 
 commencement of this business, reflects as much honour on the noble undertaker as 
 it does upon his engineer. It was resolved that the canal should be perfect in its kind ; 
 and that, in order to preserve the level of the water, it should be free from the usual con- 
 struction of locks. But in accomplishing this end many difficulties were deemed insur- 
 mountable. It was necessary that the canal should be carried over rivers, and many large 
 and deep valleys, where it was evident that such stupendous mounds of earth must be 
 raised, as would scarcely, it was thought by numbers, be completed by the labour of 
 ages ; and, above all, it was not known from what source so large a supply of water could 
 be drawn, even on this improved plan, as would supply the navigation. But Mr. Brindley, 
 with a strength of mind peculiar to himself, and being possessed of the confidence of his 
 great patron, contrived such admirable machines, and took such methods to facilitate the 
 progress of the work, that the world soon began to wonder how it could be thought so 
 difficult. 
 
 " When the canal was completed as far as Barton, where the Irwell is navigable for 
 large vessels, Mr. Brindley proposed to carry it over that river by an aqueduct 39 feet 
 above the surface of the water in the river. This, however, being considered as a wild 
 and extravagant project, he desired, in order to justify his conduct towards his noble em- 
 ployer, that the opinion of another engineer might be taken, believing that he could easily 
 convince an intelligent person of the practicability of the design. A gentleman of 
 eminence was accordingly called, who, being conducted to the place where it was intended 
 that the aqueduct should be made, ridiculed the attempt ; and, when the height and 
 dimensions were communicated to him, he exclaimed — ' I have often heard of castles in 
 the air, but never was shown before where any of them were to be erected.* This un- 
 favourable verdict did not deter the Duke from following the opinion of his own engineer. 
 The aqueduct was immediately begun ; and it was carried on with such rapidity and 
 success as astonished those who, but a little before, thought it impossible." 
 
 Before the canal from Worsley to Manchester had been completed, it occurred to 
 the Duke and his engineer that it might be practicable to extend it by a branch, which, 
 running through Chester parallel to the river Mersey, should at length terminate in that 
 ri\ver, below the limits of its artificial navigation ; and thus affi)rd a new, safer, and 
 cheaper means of communication between Manchester and its vicinity and Liverpool. 
 The execution of this plan was authorised by an act passed in 1761. This canal, which 
 is above 29 miles in length, was finished in about 5 years. It was constructed in the 
 best manner, and has proved equally advantageous to its noble proprietor and the 
 public. 
 
 " When the Duke of Bridgewater," says Dr. Aikiu, *' undertook this great design, 
 the price of carriage on the river navigation was 12s. the ton from Manchester to Liver- 
 pool, while that of land carriage was 40i-. the ton. The Duke's charge on his canal was 
 limited, by statute, to six shillings ; and together with this vast superiority in cheapness, 
 it had all the speed and regularity of land carriage. The articles conveyed by it were, 
 likewise, much more numerous than those by the river navigation ; besides manufactured 
 goods and their raw materials, coals from the Duke's own pits were deposited in yards 
 at various parts of the canal, for the supply of Cheshire ; lime, manure, and building 
 materials were carried from place to place ; and the markets of Manchester obtained a 
 supply of provisions from districts too remote for the ordinary land conveyances. A 
 branch of useful and profitable carriage, hitherto scarcely known in England, was also 
 undertaken, which was that of passengers. Boats, on the model of the Dutch treck- 
 schuyts, but more agreeable and capacious, were set up, which, at very reasonable rates, 
 and with great convenience, carried numbers of persons daily to and from Manchester 
 along the line of the canal." — (^Aikiri's Description of the Country round Manchestevy 
 p. 116.) 
 
 jects were productive of great wealth to himself and his successors; and have promoted, in no ordinary 
 degree, the wealth and prosperity of his country, I^e died in 1823. 
 
 • Thero ia a good account of Brindley in Aikin's Biographical Biciionary. His intense application, and 
 the anxiety of mind inseparable from the great enterprises in which he was engaged, tcArminatcd his 
 valuable life at the early age of 56. 
 
CANALS. 
 
 223 
 
 The success that attended the Duke of Bridgewater's canals stimulated public-spirited 
 individuals in other districts to undertake similar works. Mr. Brindley had early formed 
 the magnificent scheme of joining the great ports of London, Liverpool, Bristol, and 
 Hull, by a system of internal navigation : and, though he died in 1772, at the early age 
 of 56, he had the satisfaction to see his grand project in a fair way of being realised. 
 The Trent and Mersey, or, as it has been more commonly termed, the Grand Trunk 
 Canal, 96 miles in length, was begun in 1766 and completed in 1777. It stretches from 
 near Runcorn on the Mersey, where it communicates with the Duke of Bridgewaters 
 Canal, to Newcastle-under-Line ; thence southwards to near Titchfield ; and then north- 
 westerly, till it joins the Trent at Wilden Ferry, at the north-western extremity of 
 Leicestershire. A water communication between Hull and Liverpool was thus com- 
 pleted ; and by means of the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal, which joins the 
 G rand Trunk near Haywood in the former, and the Severn near Stourport in the latter, 
 the same means of communication was extended to Bristol. During the time that the 
 Grand Trunk Canal was being made, a canal was imdertaken from Liverpool to Leeds, 
 130 miles in length; another from Birmingham to the Staffordshire and Worcestershire 
 Canal, joining it near Wolverhampton ; and one from Birmingham to Fazeley and thence 
 to Coventry. By canals subsequently undertaken, a communication was formed between 
 the Grand Trunk Canal and Oxford, and consequently with London, completing Brind- 
 ley's magnificent scheme. In 1792, the Grand Junction Canal was begun, which runs 
 in a pretty straight line from Brentford, on the Thames, a little above the metropolis, to 
 Braunston in Northamptonshire, where it unites with the Oxford and other central 
 canals. It is about 90 miles in length. There is a^so a direct water communication, by 
 means of the river Lea navigation, the Cambridge Junction Canal, &c., between London 
 and the Wash. In addition to these, an immense number of other canals, some of them 
 of very great magnitude and importance, have been constructed in different parts of the 
 country ; so that a command of internal navigation has been obtained, unparalleled in 
 any European country, with the exception of Holland. 
 
 In Scotland, the great canal to join the Forth and Clyde was begun in 1768, but it 
 was suspended in 1777, and was not resumed till after the close of the American war. 
 It was finally completed in 1790. Its total length, including the collateral cuts to 
 Glasgow and the Monkland Canal, is 38| miles. Where highest it is 150 feet above the 
 level of the sea. It is on a larger scale than any of the English canals. Its medium 
 width at the surface is 56, and at the bottom 27 feet. Originally it was about 8 feet 6 
 inches deep ; but recently its banks have been raised so that the depth of water is now 
 about 10 feet. It has, in all, 39 locks. In completing this canal, many serious difficulties 
 had to be encountered. These, however, were all successfully overcome ; and though 
 improfitable for a while, it has, for many years past, yielded a handsome return to its 
 proprietors. Swift boats, on the plan of those subsequently described, were established 
 on this canal in 1832. — (See Cleland's Statistics of Glasgow, p. 170. &c.) 
 
 The Union Canal joins the Forth and Clyde Canal near Falkirk, and stretches thence 
 to Edinburgh, being Sl^ miles in length. It is 40 feet wide at the top, 20 at bottom, 
 and 5 deep. It was completed in 1822; but has been, in all respects, a most un- 
 profitable undertaking. Hitherto the proprietors have not received any dividend ; and 
 their prospects, we understand, are little, if ariy thing, improved. 
 
 A canal intended to form a communication between Glasgow, Paisley, and Ardrossan, 
 was commenced in 1807; but only that portion connecting Glasgow with Paisley and 
 the village of Johnstoun, has hitherto been finished. This part is about 12 miles long; 
 the canal being 30 feet broad at top, 1 8 at bottom, and deep. It was here that the 
 important experiments were originally made on quick travelling by canals, which demon- 
 strated that it was quite practicable to impel a properly constructed boat, carrying 
 passengers and goods, along a canal at the rate of 9 or 10 miles an hour, without injury 
 to the banks ! — ( See post!) 
 
 The^ Crinan Canal, across the peninsula of Kintyre, is 9 miles long, and 12 feet deep, 
 admitting vessels of 160 tons burden. 
 
 The Caledonian Canal is the greatest undertaking of the sort attempted in the empire. 
 It stretches S.W. and N.E. across the island from a point near Inverness to another 
 near Fort William. It is chiefly formed by Loch Ness, Loch Oich, and Loch Lochy. 
 The total length of the canal, including the lakes, is 58f miles ; but the excavated part 
 is only 21 1^ miles. At the summit it is 96^ feet above the level of the Western Ocean. 
 It has been constructed upon a very grand scale, being 20 feet deep, 50 feet wide at bot- 
 tom, and 122 at top; the locks are 20 feet deep, 172 long, and 40 broad. Frigates 
 of 32 guns and merchant ships of 1,000 tons burden may pass through it. This 
 canal was opened in 1822. It was executed entirely at the expense of government, from 
 the designs and under the superintendence of Thomas Telford, Esq., on whose skill and 
 talents as an engineer it reflects the highest credit. The entire cost has been 986,924/. 
 tt would, however, appear to have been projected without due consideration, and promises 
 
224. 
 
 CANALS. 
 
 to be a very unprofitable speculation. During the year 1829, the total revenue of the 
 canal, arising from tonnage dues and all other sources, amounted to only 2,5151. 6s. 4d.^ 
 while the ordinary expenditure, during the same year, amounted to 4,5731. Os. l^d. ! It 
 is, therefore, very doubtful vi^hether the revenue derived from it will ever be able to defray 
 the expense of keeping it in repair, without allowing any thing for interest of capital. 
 
 The following is a detailed account of the various items of expenditure on account of thet^laledonian 
 Canal, from 20th of October, 1803, to 1st of May, 1830 : — 
 
 S s. d. 
 
 Management and travelling expenses - - - - - 36,691 12 lOf 
 
 Timber, and carriage thereof - . - . . . 72,317 1 10^ 
 
 Machinery, cast-iron works, tools, and materials - - - . 128,886 4 7| 
 
 Quarries and masonry - - - - - . 200,014 4 lOf 
 
 Shipping ... ..... 11J19 i g 
 
 Houses and other buildings - - - - - . 5,539 10 6 
 
 Labour and workmanship (day-work) . - . 54,209 1 If 
 
 Labour and workmanship (measure-work) ... . . 418,551 16 8| 
 
 Purchase of land, and payments on account of damages - - - 47,956 12 9f 
 
 Purchase and hire of horses and provender - - . . 3,638 12 2| 
 
 Incidental expenses - - - - . _ 2,820 18 10 
 
 Roadmaking - - - - - . 4,579 3 6f 
 
 Total cost - - £ 986,924 1 6| 
 
 Some other canals have been projected and completed in different parts of Scotland. 
 Of these the Monkland Canal, for the supply of Glasgow with coal, has been the most 
 successful. 
 
 The following extract from the share list of Mr. Edmunds, Broker, (9. Change Alley, 
 Cornhill, 12th of October, 1833,) gives an account of the number of shares in the 
 prindpal British canals, the cost or sum actually expended upon each share, the dividend 
 payable upon it, its selling price at the abovementioned date, and the periods when the 
 dividends are payable : — 
 
 Number 
 of Shares. 
 
 Names of Canals. 
 
 Amount of 
 Share. 
 
 Average Cost 
 per Share. 
 
 Price per 
 Share. 
 
 Div. per 
 Annum. 
 
 Dividend 
 payable. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 5. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 1 482 
 
 AsnDy-ci&'ia"460ucn . . 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 113 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 74 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 Ap. Oct. 
 
 1 766 
 
 Ashton and Oldham . 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 113 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 136 
 
 0 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 A p. Oct. 
 
 720 
 
 Barnsley - . . 
 
 160 
 
 0 
 
 217 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 290 
 
 0 
 
 14 0 
 
 0 
 
 Feb. Aug. 
 
 1 260 
 
 Basingstoke . . _ 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto bonds ■ • — 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 000 
 
 Birmingham (|th sh.) 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 233 
 
 10 
 
 12 10 
 
 "o 
 
 A p. Oct. 
 
 4 000 
 
 Sirmiiigh3.ni Sc LivGrpooUunction 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 pd. 
 
 36 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 477 
 
 Bolton and Bury 
 
 250- 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 0 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 January. 
 Jan. July. 
 
 1,005 
 
 Brecknock and Abergavenny 
 
 150 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 600 
 
 Bridgewater and Taunton 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 pd. 
 
 70 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 Calder and Hebble 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 490 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 1,600 
 
 Carlisle - - 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 0 pd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 Chelmer and Blackwater 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 0 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 January. 
 
 1,500 
 
 Chesterfield - - - 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 176 
 
 0 
 
 8 0 
 
 0 
 
 500 
 
 Coventry - 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 0 
 
 32 0 
 
 0 
 
 May, Nov. 
 
 1,851 
 
 Crinan - - 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 460 
 
 Cromford - - - 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 0 
 
 18 0 
 
 0 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 4,546 
 
 Croydon ... 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 31 
 
 2 10 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 11,810/. 
 
 Ditto bonds 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 600/. 
 
 Derby - - . 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 110 
 
 0 
 
 0 ' 
 
 117 
 
 0 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 2,060 
 
 Dudley - - - 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 Mar. Sept. 
 
 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 15 
 
 
 3,575 
 
 EUesmere and Chester 
 
 133 
 
 0 
 
 133 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 80 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 September 
 
 231 
 
 Erewash - - - 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 750 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 705 
 
 0 
 
 47 0 
 
 0 
 
 May, Nov. 
 
 1,297 
 
 Forth and Clyde 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 400 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 545 
 
 0 
 
 25 0 
 
 0 
 
 June, Dec. 
 
 600 
 
 Glamorganshire 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 172 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 290 
 
 0 
 
 13 12 
 
 8 
 
 (■ Ma. Jun. 
 I Sep. Dec 
 
 1,187 
 
 Gloucester and Berkeley - . 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 899 
 
 Ditto (New) of 10 per cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 0 
 
 12 0 
 
 
 
 11,600 
 
 Grand Junction 
 
 100 
 
 6 
 
 224 
 
 10 
 
 0 " 
 
 245 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 1,521 
 
 Grand Surrey 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 Apr. Oct 
 
 120,000/. 
 
 Ditto loan - - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 "o 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 2,8491 
 
 Grand Union 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 1st Oct 
 
 3,096 
 
 Grand Western 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 pd. 
 
 21 
 
 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 
 
 749 
 
 Grantham - - - 
 
 150 
 
 0 
 
 150 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 200 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 May. 
 
 Hereford and Gloucester 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 6,238 
 
 Huddersfield - 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 57 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 September 
 
 148 
 
 Ivel and Ouse Beds ' - 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 pd. 
 
 115 
 
 10 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 25,328 
 
 Kennet and Avon 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 39 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 0 
 
 1 5 
 
 0 
 
 September. 
 
 150 
 
 Kensington - 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 lOO 
 
 0 
 
 0 pd. 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 11,699J 
 2,879f 
 18| 
 
 Lancaster - 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 47 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 26 
 
 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 April. 
 
 Leeds and Liverpool 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 470 
 
 0 
 
 20 0 
 
 0 
 
 May, Nov. 
 May, Nov. 
 
 Ditto (New) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 0 
 
 0 
 
 540 
 
 Leicester - - - 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 0 
 
 0 ' 
 
 175 
 
 6 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 5 
 
 Ditto - 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 80 
 
 0 
 
 13 10 
 
 0 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 1,897 
 
 Leicester and Northampton 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 83 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 80 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 1^4 0 
 
 0 
 
 .Ian. July. 
 
 70 
 
 Loughborough 
 
 
 
 142 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 1,820 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 3,000 
 
 Macclesfield 
 
 100 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 pd. 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 July. 
 
 2.50 
 
 Melton Mowbray 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 190 
 
 0 
 
 9 0 
 
 0 
 
 500 
 
 Mersey and Irwell 
 Monkland - ► 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 750 
 
 0 
 
 40 0 
 
 0 
 
 June. 
 
 101 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 2,409 
 
 Monmouthshire 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 ' 
 
 198 
 
 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
CANALS. 
 
 226 
 
 Number 
 of Shares. 
 
 700 
 600 
 247 
 500 
 130 
 52'-i 
 1,786 
 2,400 
 2,520 
 21,418 
 5,669 
 500 
 500 
 800 
 45,000 
 700 
 300 
 3,647 
 200 
 533 
 350 
 4,805 
 3,34 i 
 
 1,150 
 1,300 
 2,600 
 1,000 
 1,000| 
 
 980 
 
 905 
 20,000 
 
 126 
 6,000 
 
 800 
 
 Names of Canals. 
 
 Montgomeryshire 
 
 North Walsham and Dilham 
 
 Neath 
 
 Nottingham 
 
 Nutbrook 
 
 Oakham 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Peak Forest 
 
 Portsmouth and Arundel 
 
 Regent's 
 
 Rochdale 
 
 Shrewsbury 
 
 Shropshire 
 
 Somerset Coal 
 
 Ditto Lock Fund 
 
 Stafford and Worcester 
 
 Stourbridge 
 
 Stratford-on- A von 
 
 Stroudwater 
 
 Swansea 
 
 Tavistock 
 
 Thames and Medway 
 
 Ditto New 
 
 Ditto 1st loan 
 
 Ditto 2d loan 
 
 Ditto 3d loan 
 
 Ditto 4th loan 
 
 Thames and Severn, New 
 
 Ditto Original 
 
 Trent and Mersey (i) 
 
 j Warwick and Birmingham 
 Warwick and Napton 
 Wey and Arun 
 Wilts and Berks 
 Wisbeach 
 
 Worcester and Birmingham 
 Wyrley and Essington 
 
 Amount of 
 
 Averat 
 
 e Cost 
 
 Price per 
 
 IMv. JKT 
 
 Uivideud 
 
 hliare. 
 
 per Share. 
 
 Share. 
 
 Annum. 
 
 payable. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 JC S. 
 
 a. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 KjO 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 Mar. Aug. 
 
 50 
 
 Q 
 
 50 0 
 
 0 |id 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 January. 
 
 
 
 107 10 
 
 (J 
 
 2'jO 
 
 
 15 0 
 
 Q 
 
 Aug. Feb. 
 
 150 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 265 
 
 
 12 0 
 
 0 
 
 Apr. Oct. 
 
 109 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 2 
 
 0 
 
 130 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 May. 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 595 
 
 
 32 0 
 
 0 
 
 Mar. Sept. 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 48 0 
 
 0 
 
 77 
 
 0 
 
 3 10 
 
 0 
 
 June, Dec. j 
 
 50 
 
 Q 
 
 50 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 33 16 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 0 13 
 
 6 
 
 July. 
 
 100 
 
 Q 
 
 85 0 
 
 Q 
 
 111 
 
 0 
 
 4 6 
 
 0 
 
 May. 
 
 125 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 'J 
 
 11 0 
 
 0 
 
 May, Nov. 
 
 125 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 lo8 
 
 0 
 
 7 10 
 
 0 
 
 June, Doc. 
 
 50 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 170 
 
 
 10 10 
 
 0 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 5 10 p. ct. 
 
 June.Dec. 
 
 
 Q 
 
 140 0 
 
 Q 
 
 filO 
 
 
 U 0 
 
 0 
 
 I'eb. Aug. 
 
 145 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 0 
 
 9 0 
 
 0 
 
 Jan. July, 
 
 
 
 lu y 
 
 g 
 
 36 
 
 
 I 5 
 
 0 
 
 August. 
 
 ISO 
 
 Q 
 
 1 q7i n 
 
 „ " 
 
 
 
 23 0 
 
 0 
 
 May, Nov. 
 
 
 
 loU 0 
 
 
 2z0 
 
 0 
 
 12 0 
 
 0 
 
 November. 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 30 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 2 15 
 
 0 p.l. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 56 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 40 0 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 100 0 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 June. 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 Q 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 June, 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 June. 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 frlQ 
 
 0 
 
 37 10 
 
 0 
 
 May, Nov. 
 
 f 100 
 I 50 
 
 
 
 
 278 
 
 0 
 
 16 0 
 
 0 
 
 May, Nov. 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 210 
 
 0 
 
 12 0 
 
 0 
 
 May, Nov. 
 
 110 
 
 0 
 
 110 0 
 
 0 ' 
 
 32 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 May. 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 
 
 June. 
 
 105 
 
 0 
 
 105 0 
 
 0 
 
 40 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 February, 
 
 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 10 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 Feb. Aug, 
 
 125 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 February, 
 
 (14.) Irish Canals. — Various canals have been undertaken in Ireland, of which the 
 Grand Canal and the Royal Canal are the principal. The Grand Canal was begun in 1756, 
 by a body of subscribers ; but they could not have completed the work without very lai-ge 
 advances from government. The canal commences at Dublin, and stretches in a 
 westerly direction, inclining a little to the south, to the Shannon, with which it unites 
 near Banagher, a distance of 87 statute miles. But, exclusive of the main trunk, there 
 is a branch to Athy, where it joins the Barrow, a distance of about 26 miles ; and there 
 are branches to Portarlington, Mount Mellick, and some other places. There is also a 
 westerly branch, recently constructed, from the Shannon to Ballinasloe, about 14 miles 
 in length. The total length of the canal, with its various branches, is about 156 Eng. 
 miles. Its summit elevation is 278 feet above the level of the sea at Dublin. It is 40 
 feet wide at the surface, from 24 to 20 feet at bottom, and has 6 feet water. It cost, in 
 all, above 2,000,000/. In 1829, 191,774 tons of commodities were conveyed along the 
 canal to and from Dublin, and about 67,000 passengers. The tonnage dues on the 
 former amoimted to 31,435/., and the fares of the latter to 10,575/. In 1831, the pro- 
 duce conveyed by the canal had increased to 237,889 tons, and the tonnage dues to 
 36,736/. We have not learned the number of passengers for this year. 
 
 Two capital errors seem to have been committed in tlie formation of this canal, — it 
 was framed on too large a scale, and was carried too far north. Had it been 4 or 4§ 
 instead of 6 feet deep, its utility would have been but little impaired, while its expense 
 would have been very materially diminished. But the great error was in its direction. 
 Instead of joining the Shannon about 15 miles above Lough Derg, it should have joined 
 it below Limerick. By this means, barges and other vessels passing from Dublin to 
 Limerick, and conversely, would have avoided the difficult and dangerous navigation of 
 'the upper Shannon ; the canal would have passed through a comparatively fertile coun- 
 try ; and it would not have been necessary to carry it across the bog of Allen, in which, 
 says Mr. Wakefield, " the company have buried more money than would have cut a 
 spacious canal from Dublin to Limerick." — {Account of Ireland, vol. i. p. 642.) 
 
 The Royal Canal was undertaken in 1789. It stretches westward from Dublin 
 to the Shannon, which it joins at Tormanbury. Its entire length is about 83 miles ; 
 its highest elevation is 322 feet above the level of the sea. At bottom it is 24 
 feet wide, having 6 feet depth of water. It has cost, exclusive of interest on stock, 
 loans, &c. advanced by government, 1,421,954/. The tolls produced, in 1831, 
 12,729/. 6s. \d. — a sum hardly adequate to defray the ordinary wear and tear of the 
 
226 
 
 CANALS. 
 
 canal, and the wages of the persons employed upon it, without leaving any thing for 
 interest of capital ! 
 
 This canal seems to have been planned in the most injudicious manner. It has the 
 same defect as the Grand Canal, of being extravagantly large ; and throughout its whole 
 course it is nearly parallel to, and not very distant from, the latter. There are consequently 
 two immense canals, where there ought, perhaps, to be none. At all events, it is abun- 
 dantly certain that one canal of comparatively moderate dimensions would have been 
 quite enough for all the business of the district, though it were much greater than it is 
 at this moment, or than it is ever likely to become. 
 
 Besides the above, there are some other canals, as well as various river excavations, in 
 Ireland ; but hardly one of them yields a reasonable return for the capital expended 
 upon it. They have almost all been liberally assisted by grants of public money ; and 
 their history, and that of the two great canals now adverted to, strikingly corroborates 
 the caustic remark of Arthur Young, that " a history of public works in Ireland would 
 be a history of jobs." — ( Tour in Ireland, part ii. p. 66. 4to ed.) Those who wish to 
 make themselves fully acquainted with the history and state of the canals of Ireland, 
 may consult the valuable Report by Messrs. Henry, Mullins, and M^Mahon, in the Ap- 
 pendix to the Report of the Select Committee of 1830 on the State of Ireland. The pre- 
 vious statements have been derived principally from it, and from the evidence of 
 Nicholas Fleming, Esq. before the same committee. 
 
 (15.) American Canals. — The United States are pre-eminently distinguished by the 
 spirit with which they have undertaken, and the perseverance they have displayed in exe- 
 cuting the most magnificent plans for improving and extending internal navigation. Besides 
 many others of great, though inferior, magnitude, a canal has been formed connecting 
 the Hudson with Lake Erie. This immense work is 363 miles long, 40 feet wide at the 
 surface, 28 feet wide at the bottom, and 4 feet deep. The locks, 81 in number, exclu- 
 sive of guard locks, are 90 feet long and 14 feet wide, the average lift of each being S\ 
 feet ; they are constructed of stone, and finished, like the rest of the canal, in a substantial 
 and handsome manner. The rise and fall along the entire line is 661 feet. This 
 great work was opened on the 8th of October, 1823, but was not finally completed till 
 1825. It cost nearly 1,800,000/. sterling, and was executed at the expense of the state 
 of New York. It has completely answered the views of the projectors ; and will remain 
 an example to the other states ; fully justifying the encomiums that have been bestowed 
 upon it. 
 
 Besides Erie Canal, the state of New York has completed Champlain Canal, stretching 
 from the Hudson, near Albany, to the lake of that name, and two smaller ones. The 
 length, cost, and revenue of these canals are as follow : — 
 
 Canals. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Tolls, 1829. 
 
 Tolls, 1830. 
 
 Tolls, 1831. - 
 
 Erie 
 
 Champlain - - - 
 Oswego - - - 
 Cayuga and Seneca 
 
 Navigable feeders 
 
 Miles. 
 
 363 
 63 
 38 
 20 
 
 48i 
 8 
 
 Dollars. 
 9,027,4.'56-05 
 1,179,871 -95 
 525,115-37 
 214,000-31 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 707,883-49 
 87,171-03 
 9,439-44 
 8,643-49 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 954,328-05 
 78,148-63 
 12,335-18 
 11,987-81 
 
 Dollars. 
 1,091,714-26 
 • 102,896-23 
 16,271-10 
 12,920-39 
 
 492 
 
 10,946,443-68 
 
 813,137-45 
 
 1,056,799-67 
 
 1,222,801-90 I 
 
 The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal is the largest by far of those now in progress. This 
 truly gigantic work was commenced in 1828. It begins at the tide water of the Po- 
 tomac River above Georgetown, in the district of Columbia, and is to terminate at 
 Pittsburgh, in Pennsylvania, a distance of 341;|- miles. Its dimensions considerably 
 exceed those of the Erie Canal ; its breadth at the surface of the water being from 60 to 
 80 feet, do. at bottom 50 feet, with a depth of water varying from 6 to 7 feet. The locks 
 are of stone, 100 feet by 15; — amount of lockage required in the whole line, 3,215 
 feet. At the summit level on the Alleghany mountains, there is a tunnel 4 miles and 
 80 yards in length. The estimated cost of this vast work was 22,375,000 dollars ; but 
 it is believed that it will be finished for less. — {American Almanack for 1833.) 
 
 A great number of other canals have been completed in different parts of the Union, 
 and many new ones are now in progress. 
 
 (16.) Canada Canals. — The British government has expended a very large sum upon 
 the Rideau River and Canal, stretching from Kingston, on I^nke Ontario, to the Ottawa, 
 or Grand River ; but this work was undertaken as much in the view of improving the 
 military defences of Canada, as of promoting its commerce. Tlie expense has been 
 enormous, while the benefits arc contingent and doubtful. 
 
 (17.) Utility of Canals. — Tiie utility of canals, when judiciously contrivea, and opening 
 an easy communication between ])laces capable of maintaining an extensive intercourse 
 v/ith each other, has never been better set forth than iii a work published in 1765, en- 
 titled " A View of the Advantages of Inland Navigation," &c. But the following ex- 
 
CANALS. 
 
 227 
 
 tract from Macpherson's Annals of Commerce (anno 17G0) contains a brief, and at 
 the same time eloquent, summary of the jjrincijial advantages resulting from their 
 construction. — " They give fresh life to established manufactures, and they encourage 
 the establishment of nevv^ ones, by the ease of transjjorting the materials of manufacture 
 and provisions ; and thence we see new villages start up upon the borders of canals in 
 places formerly condemned to sterility and solitude. They invigorate, and in many 
 places create, internal trade, which, for its extent and value, is an object of still more 
 importance than foreign commerce, and is exempted from the many hardships and dan- 
 gers of a maritime life and changes of climate. And they greatly promote foreign 
 trade ; and consequently enrich the merchants of the ports where they, or the navigable 
 rivers they are connected with, terminate, by facilitating the exportation of produce from, 
 and the introduction of foreign merchandise into, the interior parts of the country, 
 which are thus placed nearly on a level with the maritime parts ; or, in other words, 
 the interior- parts become coasts, and enjoy the accommodations of shipping. The ])rice 
 of provisions is nearly equalised through the whole country ; the blessings of Providence 
 are more uniformly distributed ; and the monopolist is disappointed in his schemes of 
 iniquity and oppression, by the ease wherewith provisions are transported from a con- 
 siderable distance. The advantages to agriculture, which provides a great part of the 
 materials, and almost the whole of the subsistence, required in carrying on manufactures 
 and commerce, are pre-eminently great. Manure, marl, lime, and all other bulky 
 articles, which could not possibly bear the great expense of cartage, and also corn and 
 other produce, can be carried at a very light expense on canals; whereby poor lands 
 are enriched, and barren lands are brought into cultivation, to the great emolument of 
 the farmer and landholder, and the general advantage of the community, in an aug- 
 mented supply of the necessaries of life and materials of manufactures ; coals (the im- 
 portance of which to a manufacturing country, few people, not actually concerned in 
 manufactures, are capable of duly appreciating), stone, lime, iron ore, and minerals in 
 general, as well as many other articles of great bulk in proportion to their value, which 
 had hitherto lain useless to their proprietors by reason of the expense, and, in many cases, 
 impossibility, of carriage, are called into life, and rendered a fund of wealth, by the 
 vicinity of a canal ; which thus gives birth to a trade, whereby, in return, it is maintained. 
 The cheap, certain, and pleasant conveyance of travellers by the treckschuyts in Holland, 
 has been admired by all who have been in that country ; and it must be owing to the 
 universal desire in this country of flying over the ground with the greatest possible 
 rapidity, that a mode of travelling so exceedingly easy to the purse and the person is so 
 little used here. Neither ought we entirely to forget, among the advantages of canals, 
 the pleasure afforded to the eye and the mind by a beautiful moving landscape of boats, 
 men, horses, &c. busied in procuring subsistence to themselves, and in diffusing opu- 
 lence and convenience through the country. And, in a word, we have now the expe- 
 rience of about 40 years to establish as a certain truth, what was long ago said by 
 Dr. Adam Smith, that ' navigable canals are among the greatest of all improvements.' " 
 
 (18.) Increased Speed of Travelling by Canals. — Great, however, as have been the ad- 
 vantages derived from the formation of canals, it is not improbable that their further 
 progress may be in some degree checked by the formation of Railroads (which see). 
 We believe, however, that the proprietors of most of the existing canals have very little 
 to fear from this cause. The recent improvements in the art of constructing and propel- 
 ling canal vessels promise to be of very great national importance, and will enable the 
 canal owners still better to withstand the competition of the railroad companies. Tlie 
 new system was introduced on the Paisley and Glasgow Canal, by Mr. Houston, in June, 
 1831. The results are described in the following statements, to which it is unnecessary 
 to call the reader's attention. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Grahame, civil engineer, in his " Letter to Canal Proprietors and Traders " says, " The 
 experiments of great velocity have been tried and proved on the narrowest, shalloivcst, and most curved 
 canal in Scotland, viz. the Ardrossan or Paisley Canal, connecting the city of Glasgow with the town of 
 Paisley and village of Johnstoun, — a distance of 12 miles." The result has disproved every previous theory 
 as to difficulty and expense of attaining great velocity on canals; and as to the danger or damage to their 
 banks by great velocity in moving vessels along them. 
 
 " The ordinary speed for the conveyance of passengers on the Ardrossan Canal has, for nearly 2 
 years, been from nine to ten miles an hour ; and, although there are fourteen journeys alongthe canal 
 per day, at this rapid speed, its banks have sustained no injury. The boats are 70 feet in length, about 
 5 feet 6 inches broad, and, but for the extreme narrowness of the canal, might be made broader. They 
 carry easily from 70 to 80 passengers ; and when required, can and have carried upwards of 110 
 passengers. The entire cost of a boat and fittings up is about 1-25/. '1 he hulls are formed of light iron 
 Jilates and ribs, and the covering is of wood and light oiled cloth. They are more airy, light, and com- 
 fortable than any coach. They permit the passengers to move about from the outer to the inner cabin, 
 and the fares per mile are one penny in the first, and three farthings in the second cabiji. The passengers 
 are all carried under cover, having the privilege also of an uncovered space. These boats are drawn by 
 2 horses (the prices of which may be from 50/. to 60/. per pair), in stages of 4 miles in length, which are 
 done in from 22 to 25 minutes, including stoppages to let out and take in passengers, each set of horses 
 doing 3 or 4 stages alternately each day. In fact, the boats are drawn through this narrow and shallow 
 canal, at a velocity which many celebrated engineers had demonstrated, and u hich the public believed, to 
 be impossible. 
 
 ** The entire amount of the whole expenses of attendants and horses, and of running one of these bcata 
 
 Q 2 
 
'22S 
 
 CANARY SEED. — CANDLE. 
 
 4 trips of 12 miles each (the length of the canal), or 48 miles daily, including interest on the capital, and 
 20 per cent, laid aside annually for replacement of the boats, or loss on the capital therein vested, and a 
 considerable sum laid aside for accidents and replacement of the horses, is 700A some odd shillings ; or, 
 taking the number of working days to be 312 annually, something under 21. 2s. 4rf. per day, or about lid. 
 per mile. The actual cost of carrying from 80 to 100 persons a distance of 30 miles (the length of the 
 Liverpool railway), at a velocity of nearly 10 miles an hour, on the Paisley Canal, one of the most curved, 
 narrow, and shallow in Britain, is therefore just 1/. 7s. 6d. sterling. Such are the facts, and, incredible as 
 they may appear, they are facts which no one who inquires can possibly doubt." 
 
 The following statement by Mr. Macneill shows the gross expense of running old heavy boats on the 
 Paisley Canal at the rate of 4 miles per hour, and new light boats, on the same canal, at the rate of 10 
 miles per hour, and the comparative expense per mile ; also the number of passengers carried before and 
 after^the introduction of the new system. 
 
 
 1830.* 
 
 1831.t 
 
 1832. t 
 
 Speed, 10 hours - - miles 
 
 Number of passengers carried 
 
 Number of miles run each day . - - 
 
 Gross expense in the year - . - 
 Cost per mile, year taken at 312 days 
 
 4 
 
 32,831 
 48 
 
 £ s. d. 
 700 4 7 
 0 0 11 
 
 10 
 
 79,455 
 varying 
 £ s. d. 
 1,316 17 5 
 
 10 
 
 148,561 
 152 
 £ s. d. 
 218 5 11 
 0 0 10| 
 
 The power of conveyance thus established on the Paisley Canal may be judged of from the fact, that 
 on the 31st of December, 1832, and 31st of January, 1833, there were conveyed in these boats nearly 2,500 
 passengers. The increase still continues. The number carried in April, 1833, being 20,000, or at the rate 
 of 240,000 a year. — {Macneill on the Resistance of Water, 4'C. p. 5.) 
 
 (19.) Profits of Canals. — It is a Well-known fact, that canals, at an average, and allow- 
 ing for the length of time that nnust elapse from the first outlay of capital before they yield 
 any return, are not very productive. When, indeed, they connect places that have an 
 extensive intercourse, and when no very extraordinary difficulties have to be surmounted 
 in their construction, they most commonly yield very large profits; but, generally 
 speaking, this does not appear to be the case ; and, on the whole, they seem to have 
 been more heneficial to the public than to their projectors. 
 
 It is customary to insert clauses in the acts authorising canals to be cut, limiting the 
 charge which the proprietors shall be entitled to impose upon the goods conveyed by 
 them. But we think that the dividend ought also to be limited ; and that it should be 
 stipulated that whatever a moderate toll yielded over and above defraying this dividend, 
 and providing for the repair of the canal, should be accumulated as a fund in order to 
 buy up the stock of the canal, so that the toll may ultimately be reduced to such a sum 
 as may suffice merely to meet the necessary repairs. We are not aware that any good 
 objection could be made to a plan of this sort ; and had it been adopted in this country, 
 there are several instances in which it would have been very advantageous for the public. 
 
 When the canal of Languedoc was completed, the most likely method, it was found, 
 of keeping it in constant repair, was to make a present of the tolls to Riquet the en- 
 gineer. " These tolls constitute," says Dr. Smith, " a very large estate to the different 
 branches of the family of that gentleman ; who have, therefore, a great interest to keep 
 the work in constant repair. But had these tolls been put under the management of 
 commissioners, who had no such interest, they might, perhaps, have been dissipated in 
 ornamental and unnecessary expenses, while the most essential parts of the work were 
 allowed to go to ruin." Dr. Smith ought, however, to have mentioned that Riquet 
 advanced a fourth part of the entire sum laid out upon the canal (Duteyis, Navigation 
 Interievre de la France, tom. i. p. 119. &c.); an.d that officers were appointed by the 
 crown to see that the tolls were not rendered oppressive, and the canal kept in good 
 order. At the Revolution, most part of the property of the canal was confiscated ; but 
 at the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814, such parts of the confiscated property as 
 had not been sold were restored to the successors of M. Riquet, who have at this mo- 
 ment the principal management of the canal. 
 
 *^* The accompanying map of the canals, railroads, &c. of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 has been executed with great care and attention ; and will, we hope, be found to be a 
 valuable acquisition. Those who wish to see them laid down on a larger scale, are re- 
 ferred to the magnificent six sheet map, published by J. Walker, Esq. of Wakefield. This 
 rnap, which is equally correct and beautiful, is a truly national work, and well deserves 
 the public patronage. " An Historical Account of the Navigable Rivers and Canals, 
 &c. of Great Britain," in 4to, attached to it by way of Index, is both an accurate and a 
 useful publication. 
 
 CANARY SEED. See Seed. 
 
 CANDLE (Ger. Lichter, Kerzen ; Du. Kaarzen ; Fr. Chandelle ; It. Candelle ; 
 Sp. and Port. Velas ; Rus. Swjetschi ; Lat. Candeld), a taper of tallow, wax, or sper- 
 maceti, the wick of which is commonly of several threads of cotton spun and twisted 
 together. 
 
 * These charges are the bare outlays. 
 
 + These charges include loss on purchase and sale of additional horses, and 10 per cent, on cost of 
 horses and boats, deposited in a contingent fund. 
 
CANDLESTICKS. — CANNON. 
 
 229 
 
 Dr. Ure gives the following table, as containing tlie result of certain experiments he 
 had made, in order to determine the relative intensity of the light, and the duration of 
 different sorts of tallow candles : — 
 
 Number in a 
 I'ound. 
 
 Duration of a 
 Caudle. 
 
 Weight in 
 Grains. 
 
 Consumption 
 ])er Hour, 
 in Grains. 
 
 I'roportion of 
 Light. 
 
 Economy of 
 lAnht. 
 
 Candles wjual 
 one Argand. 
 
 10 mould. 
 
 5 h. i) m. 
 
 682 
 
 132 
 
 
 68 
 
 5-7 
 
 10 dipped, 
 
 4 36 
 
 672 
 
 WO 
 
 13 
 
 
 5-25 
 
 8 mould. 
 
 6 31 
 
 8.56 
 
 132 
 
 lOi 
 
 
 6-6 
 
 6 do. 
 
 7 n 
 
 1,160 
 
 163 
 
 14| 
 
 6(i 
 
 5 0 
 
 4 do. 
 
 9 36 
 
 1,787 
 
 186 
 
 2()i 
 
 80 
 
 3 5 
 
 Argand oil 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 flame. 
 
 
 
 .012 
 
 69-4 
 
 100 
 
 
 " A Scotch mutchkin," says Dr. Ure, " or |^ of a gallon of good seal oil, weighs 
 6,010 gr., or IS-j'^oz. avoirdupois, and lasts in a bright Argand lamp 11 hours 44 
 minutes. The weight of oil it consumes per hour is equal to 4 times the weight of 
 tallow in candles 8 to the pound, and 3^^ times the weight of tallow in candles 6 to the 
 pound. But its light being equal to that of 5 of the latter candles, it appears from the 
 above table, that 2 lbs. weight of oil, value 9d., in an Argand, are equivalent in illumin- 
 ating power to 3 lbs. of tallow candles, which cost about 2s. The larger the flame in the 
 above candle.s, the greater the economy of light." 
 
 Until 1831, when it was repealed, candles were, for a lengthened period, subject to an 
 excise duty ; and their consumption was, in consequence, pretty exactly ascertained. 
 
 An Account of the Rates of Duty separately charged on Tallow, Wax, and Spermaceti Candles, the 
 Number of Pounds' Weight of each Sort produced, and the Total atinual Nett Revenue derived from 
 Candles, in Great Britain, in each Year since 18'20. — {Pari. Paper, No. 468. Sess. 1830.) 
 
 Pounds' Weight of Candles. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty per lb. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty per lb. 
 
 Spermaceti. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty per lb. 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 18i.'8 
 1829 
 
 88,352,461 
 93,816,346 
 98,311,801 
 102,461,879 
 109,810,900 
 114,187,.'350 
 110,102,643 
 1 14,939,578 
 117,342,157 
 115,156,808 
 
 692,705 
 697,196 
 682,241 
 694,194 
 759,751 
 851,370 
 705,615 
 713,655 
 748,293 
 746,052 
 
 193,463 
 165,647 
 179,208 
 180,401 
 179,454 
 208,377 
 201,790 
 226,277 
 270,263 
 303,683 
 
 £ s. 
 
 373,455 14 
 395,911 8 
 415,609 15 
 433.537 15 
 466>12 16 
 485,014 8 
 467,069 12 
 487,318 3 
 497,770 2 
 489,059 1 
 
 Candle, Sale or Auction hy Inch of, is when a small piece of candle being lighted, the 
 bystanders are allowed to bid for the merchandise that is selling : but the moment the 
 candle is out, the commodity is adjudged to the last bidder. 
 
 CANDLESTICKS (Ger. Leuchter ; Du. Kandelaars ; Fr. Chandeliers; It. Can- 
 dellieri ; Sp. Candeleros ; Rus. PodsweschnikU) are of silver, brass, iron, bronze, tin 
 japanned, or copper plated, made of different patterns and sorts. The best plated can- 
 dlesticks are manufactured at Sheffield ; the common sort of plated ones, as also brass, 
 japanned, &c. are made at Birmingham. 
 
 CANELLA ALBA(Fr. Candle hlanche ; Ger. Weisser Zimmet ; It. Canella Uanca 
 Sp. Canella Uanca ; Lat. Canella alba), the inner bark of the Canella alba, a tree growing 
 in the West Indies. It is brought to this country packed in casks and cases, in long 
 pieces, some rolled in quills and others flat ; the quilled sort is considerably thicker than 
 cinnamon, and the flat nearly ^ of an inch in thickness. The quilled pieces are yellow 
 on both sides ; the flat pieces are yellow on the outside and pale brown within. The 
 odour of both kinds, when fresh broken, is aromatic, something like a mixture of cloves 
 and cinnamon ; and the taste slightly bitter, and extremely warm and pungent, 
 
 CANES. See Bamboo, Rattans. 
 
 CANNON, CANNONS (Du. Kanonen ; Fr. Canons; Ger. Kanonen ; It. Cannoni ; 
 Pal. Dziala ; For. Canhoes ; Rus. Puschki ; Sp. Canones ; Sv/. Kanon), a kind of long 
 hollow engines for throwing iron, lead, or stone balls by the foice of gunpowder. They 
 are commonly made of iron, but frequently also of a mixture of copper, tin, and brass. 
 They are either cast hollow, or solid and then bored ; those made in the latter way- 
 being very superior. Brass cannons, or cannons made of mixed metal, are said not ta 
 be so well calculated for hard service, or quick and continued firing, as those made of 
 iron. The proportions of the ingredients used in making the former do not diflfer 
 materially in different countries, though they rarely coincide. To 240 lbs. of metal fit 
 for casting, we commonly put 68 lbs. of copper, 52 lbs. of brass, and 12 lbs. of tin. To 
 4,200 lbs. of metal fit for casting, the Germans put 3,687,^^ lbs. of copper, 204^ lbs. of 
 
 Q 3 
 
230 
 
 CANTHARIDES. — CANTON. 
 
 brass, and 307f f lbs. of tin. Others, again, use 100 lbs. of copper, 6 lbs. of brass, and 
 9 lbs. of tin ; and others, 100 lbs. of copper, 10 lbs. of brass, and 15 lbs. of tin. 
 
 It seems to be the general opinion that cannon were first made use of in 1 336 or 
 1338; but Don Antonio de Capmany has produced some statements, which render it 
 almost certain that some sort of artillery was used by the Moors in Spain so early as 
 1312. — ( Questiones Criticas, p. 181. &c.) Cannons were certainly used by the English 
 in 1347 at the siege of Calais, and by the Venetians at Chioggia in 1366, and in their 
 wars with the Genoese in 1379 and 1380. The Turks employed them at the sieges of 
 Constantinople, in 1394 and 1453. When first introduced, they were for the most part 
 very heavy and unwieldy, and threw balls of an enormous size : they were, however, 
 owing to their frequently bursting, about as dangerous to those vising them as to their 
 opponents. There is a valuable article on the construction and history of cannons in 
 Mees's Cyclopcedia ; but it was published previously to the appearance of Capmany's work 
 referred to above. 
 
 CANTHARIDES, or SPANISH FLY (Fr. Canthandes, Mouches Espagne ; 
 Ger. Spanisclie Fliegen ; It. Cantarelle ; Lat. Cantharis ; Rus. Hischpanskie muchi ; 
 Sp. Cantaridas). This insect is found on a variety of shrubs in Spain, Italy, France, 
 &c. Those used in this country are imported partly from Sicily, but principally from 
 Astracan, packed in casks and small chests. The best are of a lively fresh colour, a small 
 size, and not mouldy. They are frequently adulterated with the Melolontha vitis ; but 
 this is distinguishable by its form, which is squarer than the cantharis, and by its black 
 feet. If they be properly dried and protected from the air, they may be kept for a very 
 long period. — ( Thomson's Dispensatory. ) 
 
 CANTON, one of the greatest emporiums in the East, ranking, as a' port of trade, 
 either before, or immediately after, Calcutta, situated in the province of Quantong, in China ; 
 being the only place in that empire frequented by European traders : lat. 23° 7' lO" N., 
 Ion. 113° 14' E. 
 
 Canton stands on the eastern bank of the Pekiang River, which flows from the interior 
 in a navigable stream of 300 miles to this city, where it is rather broader than the 
 Thames at London Bridge ; falling, after an additional course of 80 miles, into the 
 southern sea of China. Near its junction with the sea, it is called by foreigners Bocca 
 Tigris. The town is surrounded by a thick wall, built partly of stone and partly of 
 'orick, and is divided into 2 parts by another wall running east and west. The northern 
 division is called the Old, and the southern the New City. In the old city is the 
 Mantchou or Tartar general, with a garrison of Mantchou troops under his command. 
 The lieutenant-governor or Fooyuen's office is also in the old city, but the governor and 
 Hoppo (principal customs officer) reside in the new city, not far from the river. 
 
 All foreign commerce is conducted in the south-west suburb, where the foreign fac- 
 tories are situated ; and which, with the other suburbs, is probably not less populous 
 than the city itself. The residence of Europeans is confined to a very small space, on 
 the banks of the river ; Avhich might, however, be as pleasant as a crowded mercantile 
 place can well be, were it not for the great number of small dwelling boats, which cover 
 the face of the river. The people who occupy the larger portion of these boats are said 
 to have come originally from the south ; and being a foreign and despised race, were not, 
 at first, allowed to dwell on shore ; but most of the distinctions between them and the 
 rest of the people have been abolished. 
 
 Although Canton is situated nearly in the same parallel of latitude as Calcutta, there 
 is a considerable difference in their temperature ; the former being much the coolest, and 
 requiring fires during the winter months. The streets of Canton are very narrow, paved 
 with little round stones, and flagged close to the sides of the houses. The front of every 
 house is a shop, and those of particular streets are laid out for the supply of strangers ; 
 China-street is appropriated to Europeans ; and here the productions of almost every 
 part of the globe are to be found. One of the shopkeepers is always to be found sitting 
 on the counter, writing with a camel's hair brush, or calculating with his swanpan, on 
 which instrument a Chinese will perform operations in numbers with as much celerity as 
 the most expert European arithmefician. This part of Canton being much frequented 
 by the seamen, every artifice is used by the Chinese retailers to attract their attention ; 
 each of them having an English name for himself painted on the outside of his shop, be- 
 sides a number of advertisements composed for them by the sailors in their own peculiar 
 idiom. The latter, it may be supposed, are often duped by their Chinese friends, who 
 have, in general, picked up a few sea phrases, by which the seamen are induced to enter 
 their shoj)s : but they suit each other extremely well ; as the Chinese dealers possess an 
 imperturbable command of temper, laugh lioartily at their jokes without understanding 
 ihcm, and humour the seamen in all their sallies. 
 
 Ships only ascend the river as far as Whampoa, about 15 miles below Canton ; load- 
 ing and unloading by means of native boats. 
 
 The Chinese, considered as traders, are eminently active, persevering, and intelligent. 
 
CANTON. 
 
 231 
 
 They are, in fact, a highly commercial people; and the notion that was onco very gene- 
 rally entertained, of their being peculiarly characterised by a contempt of commerce and 
 of strangers, is as utterly unfounded as any notion can possibly l)e. Business is transacted 
 at Canton with great despatch ; and it is affirmed, by Mr. Milburn, and by most of the 
 witnesses examined before the late parliamentary committees, tliat there is no port in 
 tlie world, where cargoes may be sold and bought, unloaded and loaded, with more 
 business-like speed and activity. 
 
 The fears, whether real or pretended, of disturbances arising from a want of discipline 
 in the crews of private ships, have been proved to be in a great degree futile ; the 
 Americans and other private traders having rarely experienced the slightest inconvenience 
 from any tumults between their sailors and the natives. 
 
 Provisions and refreshments of all sorts are abundant at Canton, and, in general, of an 
 excellent quality ; nor is the price exorbitant. Every description of them, dead or alive, 
 is sold by weight. It is a curious fact, that the Chinese make no use of milk, either in 
 its liquid state, or in the shape of curds, butter, or cheese. Among the delicacies of a 
 Chinese market are to be seen horse flesh, dogs, cats, hawks, and owls. The country is 
 well supplied with fish from the numerous canals and rivers by which it is intersected. 
 
 Foreign Factories, — These extend for a considerable way along the banks of the 
 river, at the distance of about 100 yards. They are named, by the Chinese, hongs, 
 and resemble long courts, or closes, without a thoroughfare, which generally contain 4 
 or 5 separate houses. They are built on a broad quay, and have a parade in front. 
 This promenade is railed in, and is generally called Respondentia Walk ; and here the 
 European merchants, commanders, and officers of the ships, meet after dinner and enjoy 
 the cool of the evening. The English hong, or factory, far surpasses the others in elegance 
 and extent. This, with the American and Dutch hongs, are the only ones that keep 
 their national flags flying. The neighbourhood of the factories is occupied with warehouses 
 for the reception of European goods, or of Chinese productions, until they are shipped. 
 In 1822, during a dreadful conflagration that took place at Canton, the British factories 
 and above 10,000 other houses were destroyed ; on which occasion the East India Com- 
 pany's loss was estimated at 500,000Z. sterling, three fifths in woollens. 
 
 For the space of 4 or 5 miles opposite to Canton, the river resembles an extensive 
 floating city, consisting of boats and vessels ranged parallel to each other, leaving a narrow^ 
 passage for others to pass and repass. In these the owners reside with their families ; 
 the latter rarely visiting the shore. 
 
 All the business at Canton with Europeans is transacted in a jargon of the English 
 language. The sounds of such letters as B, D, R, and X, are utterly unknown in 
 China. Instead of these they substitute some other letter, such as L for R, which 
 occasions a Chinese dealer in rice to offer for sale in English a rather unmarketable 
 commodity. The name mandarin is unknown among the Chinese ; the woi'd used by 
 them to denote a person in authority being quart. Mandarin is a Portuguese word de- 
 rived from the verb mandar, to command. — {Hamilton'' s East India Gazetteer ; Milburn' s 
 Orient. Commerce ; Companion to Anglo- Chinese Calendar, Macao, 1832, §*c.) 
 
 Conduct of Chinese Government. — The only real difficulty in trading with China 
 originates in the despotism, pride, and jealousy of the government, and in the general 
 corruption of its officers. The former affects to treat all foreigners with contempt, and 
 is always exposing them to insult ; while the latter endeavour to multiply and enforce 
 vexatious regulations and demands, that they may profit by the douceurs given for their 
 evasion. Hitherto we have submitted with exemplary forbearance to every annoyance 
 the Chinese authorities have chosen to inflict ; but it is questioned by some whether this 
 be the most politic course. The imbecility and powerlessness of the government is at 
 least equal to its pride and presumption ; and in the event of its attempting to stop the 
 trade, or to subject those engaged in it to unmerited ill treatment, it is contended that 
 we ought, in the event of redress being refused on the presentation of a remonstrance, to 
 vindicate our rights by force. We are rather disposed to concur in tliis opinion. We 
 believe that little more than a demonstration would be necessary ; and that the appear- 
 ance of a single ship of the line in the Chinese seas would have more influence over the 
 court of Pekin than a dozen ambassadors. But it is essential, before employing this sort 
 of negociators, that we be well assured that we have jvistice on our side, and that our 
 own misconduct has not occasioned the interruptions and annoyances complained of. 
 The superintendents about to be sent to Canton — (see post) — should be vested with full 
 powers to prevent, if possible, and, at all events, suitably to punish, any British subject 
 who may act so as to give just cause of offence to the Chinese. We have a right to claim 
 fair treatjnent from them, as we have a right to claim it from the Americans, or any 
 other people ; but we have no right to expect that our claim should be regarded, imless 
 we respect the prejudices of the people, and the equitable rules and regulations of the 
 government. 
 
 Trade to the North of China. — At present, all foreign trade with China is confined to 
 
 Q 4 
 
232 
 
 CANTON. 
 
 the port of Canton ; but this was not the case foi- a long time after China was visited by 
 British ships, and it appears highly probable that it will be again extended towards the 
 north. The interesting details given in the account of the voyage of the ship Amherst 
 along the Chinese coasts show that the people are every whei'e most anxious for an inter- 
 course with foreigners, and that the law is the only obstacle to its being carried on to a 
 very great extent. But, where the people are so well disposed to trade, the officers so 
 corrupt, and the government so imbecile, it may, we think, be fairly anticipated that the 
 unalterable laws of the " Celestial Empire" will not prove a very serious obstacle to 
 such private individuals as may choose to engage in a clandestine trade with the northern 
 provinces. The smuggler is even more omnipotent in China than in Spain. The ex- 
 tent and perfect -regularity with which the trade in opium is carried on, in defiance of all 
 the efforts of government for its suppression, shows how unable it is to contend against 
 the inclinations of its subjects, which, fortunately, are all in favour of a free and liberal 
 intercourse with foreigners. 
 
 Monies. — Accounts are kept at Canton in taels, mace, candarines, and cash ; the tael being divided into 
 lOinace, 100 candarines, or l,000cash. Tlicre is but one kind of moneymade in China, called cash, which 
 is not coined but cast, and which is only used for small payments : it is"composed of 6 parts of copper and 
 4 of lead ; it is round, marked on one side, and rather raised at the edges, with a square hole in the 
 middle. These pieces are commonly carried, like beads, on a string of wire. A tael of fine silver sliould 
 be worth 1,000 cash ; but, on account of their convenience for common use, their price is sometimes so 
 much raised that only 750 casli are given for the tael. 
 
 Foreign coins, however, circulate here, particularly Spanish dollars; and for small change they are cut 
 into very exact proportions, but afterwards weighed ; for which purpose merchants generally carry scales, 
 called dotchin, made somewhat after the plan of the English steelyards. 
 
 The tael is reckoned at 6s. M. sterling in the books of the East India Company ; but its value varies, 
 and is generally computed according to the price paid per ounce for Spanish dollars in I>ondon. The tables 
 given for this proportional value may be calculated in pence sterling, by the multiplier r208. Thus, if 
 the price of the Spanish dollar be fiOr/. per ounce, the value of the tael will be 60 x 1208 = 72-48d. ; if at 
 66f/., the value of the tael will be 79-728rf. ; and for any other price in the same proportion. 
 
 Fineness of Gold and Silver. — The fineness of gold and silver is expressed by dividing the weight into 
 100 parts, called toques or touch ; similar to the modern practice of France. Thus, if an ingot be 93 touch, 
 it is understood to contain 7 parts of alloy and 93 of pure metal, making in the whole 100. 
 
 The fineness of the precious metals, expressed in these decimal proportions, may be converted into 
 English proportions by the following analogies : — Suppose gold is 91'66 touch, say, as 100 : 91"66 : : 12 : 11, 
 the standard, and vice versa ; and to convert standard silver into touch, say, as 240 : 222 :: 100 : 92"5, the 
 touch of sterling silver. Pure gold or silver without alloy is called by the Chinese sycee; and sometimes, 
 when of less purity, the metal is accepted as sycee. 
 
 Silver Ingots are used as money, and weigh from | a tael to 100 taels, their value being determined by 
 their weight. These ingots are of the best sort of silver ; that is, about 94 touch. • 
 
 Gold Ingots. — Gold is not considered as money, but as merchandise : it is sold in regular ingots of a 
 determined weight, which the English call shoes of gold : the largest of these weigh 10 taels each ; and 
 the gold is reckoned 94 touch, though it may be only 92 or 93. 
 
 Weights. — Gold and silver are weighed by the catty of 16 taels ; the tael is divided into 10 mace, 100 
 candarines, or 1,000 cash. 100 taels are reckoned to weigh 120 oz. 16dwts. Troy, which makes the tael 
 equal to 579 8 English grains, or 37 566 grammes. 
 
 The principal weights for merchandise are the picul, the catty, and the tael j the picul being divided 
 into 100 catties, or 1,600 taels. 
 
 Lbs. oz. dwts. 
 
 1 Tael weighs, avoirdupois - - - 0 1 5 333 = 1^ oz. 
 
 16 Taels, or 1 catty . . - 1 5 5-333 = li lb. 
 
 100 Catties, or 1 picul - . - 133 5 5-333 = 133.4 lbs. 
 
 Hence the picul weighs 60 472 kilogrammes, or 162 lbs. Ooz. 8 dwts. 13grs. Troy. 
 
 The above weights are sometimes otherwise denominated, especially by the natives : thus, the catty is 
 called gin ; the tael, lyang ; the mace, tchen ; the candarine, fivan ; and the cash, lis. 
 
 There are no commercial measures in China, as all dry goods and liquids are sold by weight. In de- 
 livering a cargo, English weights are used, and afterwards turned into Chinese piculs and catties. 
 
 I.mg Measure. — That used in China is the covid or cobre ; it is divided into 10 punts, and is equal to 
 0 3713 metres, or 14 625 English inches. 
 
 The Chinese have 4 different measures answering to the foot, viz. 
 
 Metres. Eng. inches. 
 The foot of the mathematical tribunal = 0-333 = 13 125 
 The builders' foot; called congpu - = 0-3228 = 12-7 
 The tailors' and tradesmen's foot - =: 0*3383 = 13*33 
 The foot used by engineers - . = 0-3211 = 12-65 
 
 The li contains 180 fathoms, each 10 feet of the last-mentioned length ; therefore the li = 1,897J English 
 feet; and 192^ lis measure a mean degree of the meridian nearly: but European missionaries in China 
 have divided the degree into 200 lis, each li making 1,826 Enghsh feet; which gives the degree 69-166 
 English miles, or 11 '131 French myriametres. 
 
 European Trade at Canton. — As soon as a vessel arrives among the islands which front the entrance 
 to the Canton river, she is generally boarded by a pilot, who conducts her into Macao roads. The 
 entrance is, however, so safe, that ships push on without waiting for the pilot, who, if the weather be 
 bad, is .sometimes long in coming on board. The pilots' names are registered at the Keun inin-foo's 
 office, near Macao ; and for a licence to act, the sum of 600 dollars is paid. The person who takes out the 
 licence sometimes knows nothing about ships or the river ; but employs fishermen to do the duty. On 
 the vessel's arrival in Macao roads, the pilot goes on shore, to report her at the office of the keun-min-foo, 
 who, when he has received answers to his inquiries, gives a permit for her to pass through the Bogue, and 
 orders a river pilot on board. This pilot seldom repairs on board the vessel before 24 hours have elai)sed. 
 "When arrived, the vessel ])roceeds through the Rogue, and up the Canton river, to Whampoa. 
 
 Every ship that enters the port is required to have a hong merchant as security for the duties, and a 
 linguist, and comprador, before slie can commence unloading. 'J'he master is required to give a written 
 declaration, in dui)Ucate, solemnly alRrniing that the ship has brought no opium. The East India Com- 
 pany's ships alone are excused giving this declaration. 
 
 The hong or security merchants (at present 10 in number) are the only individuals legally permitted to 
 trade with foreigners. To obtain this privilege, they have to pay largely; and when once become 
 merchants, they arc rarely allowed to retire, and are at all times subject to severe exactions from (he local 
 
CANTON. 
 
 233 
 
 govcrnmont. The linguists arc government interpreters, who procure permits for delivering and taking 
 in cargo, transact all the Custom-house business, and keep accounts of the duties. All the minor charges 
 of the government, also, arc paid by them ; in consideration of wliich they receive a fee of about 173 
 dollars, i)reviously to the vessel's departure. 
 
 When a vessel wishes to discharge or receive cargo, the linguist is informed, a day or two previously, 
 what kind of goods are to be received or discharged, and in what quantities. He then applies for a permit, 
 which being issued, the lighters or chop-boats proceed to Whampoa, where tl)ey usually arrive on the 
 evening of the second or morning of the third day. For a single boat the linguist receives a fee of 23 
 dollars ; but if a permit be obtained for from 2 to 6 boats at a time, the fee for each boat is only 11 taeli 
 2 mace 6 cand., or about dollars. 
 
 When the goods are ready to be landed from or sent to the ship, the hopp6 (principal Custom-house 
 officer) sends a domestic, a writer, and a police runner; the hong merchant who has secured the ship 
 sends a domestic, called a court going man (one who attends at the public offices, on ordinary occasions, 
 in behalf of his master) ; and the linguist sends an accountant and interpreter, to attend at the cxarnin- 
 atioJi of the goods. The hong merchants are always held responsible by the government for i)aying all 
 duties, whether on imports or exi)orts in foreign vessels ; and, therefore, when goods are purchased, it is 
 customary for the parties, before fixing the price, to arrange between themselves who is actually to pay 
 the duties. The hong merchants are required to consider the duties payable to government as the most 
 important part of their affairs. If a merchant fail to pay at the proper period, his hong, house, and all 
 his property are seized, and sold to pay the amount; and if all that he possesses be inadequate, he is sent 
 into banishment at Ele, in Western Tartary, which the Chinese call the " cold country ; " and the body 
 of hong merchants are commanded to pay in his stead. 
 
 Of an import cargo, each chop-boat, according to rule, which, however, is not rigidly enforced, should 
 contain, — of woollens, camlets, and long-ells, 140 bales ; tin, 500 bars ; lead, GOO pigs ; Bombay cotton, 
 5.J bales ; Bengal cotton, 80 bales ; betel nut, pepper, &c., 300 i)iculs. 
 
 Of export goods, a chop-boat should take, — of tea, 600 chests ; of other sorts of goods, .TOO piculs. 
 If more than this, the hong merchant gives to the chop-boat, for each additional picul, G| tlollars. 
 
 In calculating the duties on export goods, 90 catties are considered 100. The woollens, long-ells, and 
 camlets, are measured by the chang of 10 covids, without any deduction ; and single articles are 
 numbered. 
 
 Each ship may export, of silk, 88 piculs ; the duty on each picul is 10| dollars. Those ships that want 
 more, avail themselves of the names of ships which have exported none ; and the Custom-house connives 
 at this, on receiving a fee of 14^ dollars per picul. 
 
 If, after entering the port, any i)ersons tranship goods, it is considered that the one ship sold them to 
 the other ; and, in that case, the same duty has to be paid as if the goods were brought up to Canton, 
 Provisions are not included in this regulation. 
 
 Ships' boats are not allowed to carry up or down any thing chargeable with duty. 
 
 Gold, silver, copper, and iron are prohibited to be exported; a few culinary utensils are the only 
 exception. When it is desired to export treasure, the hong merchant must make an estimate of the 
 value of the import and export cargoes ; and whatever balance there may be in favour of the ship, may 
 then be shipped off as treasure. 
 
 The whole amount of tutenague that is allowed to be exported by foreign ships, including the Por- 
 tuguese at Macao, is 100,000 catties ; but regulations of this sort may be easily evaded. 
 
 If more cargo be sent to a ship than she can take on board, and she wishes it to be shipped on board 
 another, it must be done within 3 days after announcing the goods at the Custom-house, and a hong 
 merchant must state it to government ; if granted, a hong merchant and linguist are ordered to go to 
 Whampoa and take an account of such goods ; all which, with the expense of boats, runners, &c. at 
 Whampoa, costs 40 or 50 dollars. — {Companion to Anglo-Chinese Calendar for 1832, pp. 99—101.) 
 
 Hong, or Security Merchants. — It may be supposed, perhaps, from the previous state- 
 ments, that cUfEculties are occasionally experienced before a hong merchant can be pre- 
 vailed upon to become security for a ship ; but such is not the ^ase. None of them has 
 ever evinced any hesitation in this respect. The Americans, who have had as many as 
 forty ships in one year at Canton, have never met with a refusal. The captain of a mer- 
 chant ship may resort to any hong merchant he pleases, and, by way of making him 
 some return for his becoming security, he generally buys from him 100/. or 200Z. worth 
 of goods. Individuals are, however, at perfect liberty to deal with any hong merchant, 
 whether he has secured their ship or not, or with any outside merchant ; that is, 7oilh any 
 Chinese merchant not belonging to the hong. So that, though there are only 10 hong 
 merchants at Canton, there is, notwithstanding, quite as extensive a choice of merchan*.s 
 with whom to deal in lhat city, as in either Liverpool or New York. 
 
 Duties. — It is very difficult, or rather, perhaps, impossible, to get any accurate account 
 of the duties on goods exported and imported. They are almost always paid by the 
 Chinese, though they must, of course, frequently be borne by the foreigner. Imported 
 goods are weighed on board, and the duty paid by the purchaser ; the duty on those 
 exported is paid by the seller. The officers are notoriously corrupt ; and it is a common 
 practice to give them a douceur to under-rate the weight of the goods. 
 
 Foreign Merchants. — These consist of British, American, French, Dutch, Danish, 
 Swedish, Spanish, and Portuguese, with Persee and Indian Mohammedan British subjects, 
 and in 1832 amounted in number to above 110. The principal mercantile firms consisted 
 of 8 British establishments, 7 American establishments, and 1 joint French and Dutch 
 establishment. The Americans, French, and Dutch have each a consular ageiit ; and 
 though these functionaries be not publicly recognised by the Imperial government, all 
 public business is conducted with them by the provincial government, through the 
 agency of the hong merchants. 
 
 Newspapers and Public Accommodations. — At Canton, there are 2 English newspapers; viz the 
 " Canton Register," once a fortnight, with a Price Current ; and the " Chinese Courier," once a week. 
 There are 3 hotels, a billiard room, and 3 European shops or warehouses upon a large scale, with 
 surgeons, apothecaries, watch-makers, and boat-buildcis. 
 
234 
 
 CANTON. 
 
 General Rates of Agency/ Commission in China, agreed upon the 1st of November, 1831 ; in confirm, 
 ation of those fixed by a meeting of merchants on the 1st of March, 1825. 
 
 17. Effecting remittances by bills of the agent 
 or otherwise, on purchasing or negociat- 
 ing bills of exchange 
 
 - 5 per cent. 
 
 3 ditto. 
 2i ditto. 
 1 ditto. 
 1 ditto. 
 
 ^ commission. 
 
 2i per cent. 
 
 1. On all sales or pvirchases of goods, except 
 
 the following 
 
 2. On all sales or purchases of opium, cotton 
 
 cochineal, quicksilver, camphor-barroes, 
 birds' nests, diamonds and other precious 
 stones, or pearls, ships, and houses 
 
 3. On returns, if in goods 
 
 4. On ditto, if in treasure, bullion, or bills • 
 
 5. On sale, purchase, or shipment of bullion 
 
 6. On all goods, treasure, &c. consigned, 
 
 and afterwards withdrawn or sent to 
 auction, and on goods consigned for 
 conditional delivery to others 
 
 7. Ordering goods, or superintending the ful- 
 
 filment of contracts, where no other 
 commLssion is derived 
 
 8. On all advances of money for the purposes 
 
 of trade, whether the goods are con- 
 signed to the agent or not, and where a 
 commission of 6 per cent, is not charged 2 J ditto 
 
 9. Del creilere, or guaranteeing sales, when 
 
 specially required ... 
 
 10. Guaranteeing bills, bonds, or other en 
 
 gagements - ... 
 
 1 1 . Procuring freight, or advertising as agent 
 
 of owners or commanders, on the 
 amount of freight, whether the same 
 passes tlirough the hands of agents or 
 not .... 
 
 1 2. Receiving inward freight 
 
 13. Ships' disbursements - - - 
 
 14. Chartering ships for other parties 
 1 j. Effecting Insurance or writing orders for 
 
 insurance ... 
 16. Settling insurance losses, total or partial, 
 and on procuring return of premium - 
 
 2^ ditto. 
 - 2^ ditto. 
 
 5 ditto. 
 1 ditto. 
 ^ ditto. 
 2j ditto. 
 
 i. ditto. 
 
 1 ditto. 
 
 18. Bills' of exchange returned, noted, or pro- ''^"^ cent. 
 ,„ ^tested - - . .1 ditto. 
 
 19. Negociatmg loans on respondentia - 2 ditto. 
 
 20. Debts, where a process at law or arbitra- 
 
 tion is necessary, 2^ per cent. ; and if 
 recovered ... .5 ditto. 
 
 21. Collecting house-rent . . 2i ditto. 
 
 22. Letters of credit granted for mercantile 
 
 purposes - ... 2J ditto. 
 
 23. Acting for the estates of persons deceased, 
 
 as executors, or administrators - 5 ditto. 
 
 24. The management of the estates of others, 
 
 on the amount received - . 2.J ditto. 
 
 25. All cash receipts, not serving for the pur- 
 
 chase of gocKis, and not otherwise speci- 
 fied above - - -1 ditto. 
 
 26. Shroffing - . . . ^ per mil. 
 
 27. Transhipping goods . - 1 per cent. 
 
 28. Upon all advances not punctually liqui- 
 
 dated, the agent to have the option of 
 charging a second commission as upon 3 
 fresh advance, provided the charge do 
 not occur twice in the same year. 
 
 29. At the option of the agent, on the amount 
 
 debited or credited within the year, in- 
 cluding interest, and excepting only 
 items on which a commission of 5 per 
 cent, has been charged - -1 ditto. 
 
 N. D- — This charge not to apply to paying 
 over a balance due on an account made 
 up to a particular period, unless where 
 such balance is withdrawn without 
 reasonable notice. 
 
 Port Charges. — All foreign vessels trading to Canton have to pay a measurement charge, varying 
 according to the size of the vessel. For this purpose they are divided into 3 classes ; viz. 
 
 Taels. 
 
 1st. Vessels of 160 covids and upwards, pay - - - 7"874,755 per covid. 
 
 2d. — above 120 and under 160 covids - - . 7-221,091 — 
 
 3d. — of 120 covids and under . - - - 5-062,341 — 
 
 The dimensions are taken from the mizen to the foremast for the length, and between the gangways 
 for the breadth ; these two numbers multiplied together, and divided by 10, give the measurement in 
 covids ; and the quotient multiplied by the sum to be paid per covid, according to the vessel's size, gives 
 the whole amount of measurement charge, Of this amount, only 10-1 Iths are, properly speaking, the 
 measurement charge, the other 11th part being a fee of 10 per cent, on the Imperial dues. 
 
 Once a year the hoppo goes in person to superintend the measurement of vessels, on which occasion he 
 goes on board a Company's ship. At other times an officer is sent to represent him. 
 
 The item next in importance to the measurement charge, is what is called the cumshaw or present, 
 amounting, according to the reduced rate, to the sum of ],600'683 taels, or 2,233 dollars, except on 
 French, Austrian, and Prussian vessels, which are required to pay 80 taels more. This charge does not 
 vary with the size of the ship ;" but is the same whether she carry 100 or 1,000 tons. The cumshaw is 
 made up of the following sums : viz. 
 
 Taels. 
 
 The entrepot fees - - - - 810 691 
 
 Port clearance fee - - - - - 480 420 
 
 Difference of scales, carriage to Pekin, &c., 675 per cent, on the above - . 87150 
 
 Fee to the leang-taou, or superintendent of grain - . . _ 116 424 
 
 For difference in the leang.taou's scales, 11 per cent, on the last named fee - - 1-281 
 
 For making it into sycee, 7 per cent, on the whole - - - . 104-717 
 
 Taels 1.600-683 
 
 Vessels loaded with rice are exempted from the entrepot and leang-taou's fees, as also from the 
 measurement charge ; the latter by command of the reigning sovereign, in 1825 ; and the two former by 
 previous orders of the local government. They are likewise exempted from certain small monthly and 
 daily fees, so long as they are engaged in discharging the imported rice ; but these charges commence as 
 soon as the vessel begins to take in an export cargo ; and the port clearance fee, with the double per- 
 centage of 6f and 7 per cent, is levied alike on all vessels. A vessel importing rice, in common with 
 other" vessels, is required either to receive an export cargo, or to pay about 300 dollars in default 
 thereof. 
 
 Until the measurement charge, present, &c. have all been duly paid, no vessel can obtain her grand 
 cTiop, or port clearance from the hoppo's office. 
 
 The other fixed charges besides the above are, 120 dollars for pilotage, in and out; fees paid to boats 
 at second bar, and linguist's and comprador's fees. These last are intended to remunerate the expenses 
 incurred on account of various daily and monthly charges, and other petty fees, besides several unau- 
 thorised sums exacted by the inferior local officers. Lists of these charges have been printed ; but they 
 vary so much in particular instances, that it is next to impossible to attain any certainty with respect 
 to them. 
 
 The following is an example of a vessel of the 1st class subject to the highest rate of measurement 
 charge, from which an idea of the amount of port charges on other vessels may be obtained : — 
 The Glenelg, 867 tons. 
 
 Length from mizen to foremast, covids - - - - - 83-1 
 
 Which multiplied by the breadth, from gangway to gangway - - - 26 0 
 
 And divided by 10, gives the dimensions 
 Multiply that sum by 
 
 - Taels 
 
 The measurement charge will be 1,701-418 taels, which, at 72 taels per 100 dollars, 
 
 .Si)anish dollars - 
 Cumshaw, or present, taels 1,600-683, at 72 per 100 = - - 
 
 Pilotage in and out - - - - 
 
 JJar boats and other small charges, about - . - - 
 
 Linguist's fees, about ... 
 
 Comprador's fees, about , t , . 
 
 21606 
 7-874755 
 
 2,363 
 - 2,223 
 120 
 30 
 173 
 50 
 
 Sjianish dollars - 4,959 
 
CANTON. 
 
 235 
 
 Vessels of the 2d class arc charged in measurement from 1,200 to 1,600 dollars, and tliosc of the 3d size 
 from 600 to 800 dollars. The covid employed is equal to about 14J inches. 
 
 The consequence of this mode of imposing the port duties is, that while they are very moderate on 
 ships of 400 or 500 tons burden and upwards, they are very heavy on small shijjs : and hence stnall 
 coimtry ships frequently lie off Linting Flora, or Large Hay, till some of the large European ships come 
 in sight, when they shift their cargoes on board the latter. They are commonly carried up to Canton 
 for 1 per cent., by which means the duties and cumshaw are both saved, Chinese junks are exempted 
 from the port dues. 
 
 Captain Coffin, the commander of an American ship of about 400 tons register trading to China, 
 informed the late committee of the House of Commons, that the whole charges of every description 
 falling upon his ship, in entering and clearing out from Canton, including measurement duty, cumshaw, 
 pilotage, victualling of the ship, and consul's fee, amounted to between 7,000 and 8,000 dollars. — 
 (Companion to Anglo-Chinese Calendar, pp. 101-103. ; First Eeport, Evidence, p. 124.) 
 
 ' British Trade to Canton. — The trade between Great Britain and Canton ha.s 
 hitherto been entirely monopolised by the East India Company and its officers. Tea has 
 always been by far the principal article of import ; and it is mainly owing to the diffusion 
 of the taste for this article, and its consumption by all ranks and orders of the community, 
 that the trade has increased, notwithstanding the pernicious influence of the monopoly, to 
 the extent that it has done. Besides tea, the Company formerly imported from China 
 raw silk, silk piece goods, nankeens, mother-of-pearl shells, sandal wood, and a few other 
 articles ; but of late years the value of these articles has been quite inconsiderable. 
 
 The articles exported in the East India Company's ships from England to China 
 consisted principally of woollens, copper, iron, and lead, glass, earthenware, and jewel- 
 lery. Bullion used, formerly, to be largely exported; but recently the current has 
 begun to set in the opposite direction, and bullion has been imported from China into 
 England. 
 
 The invoice value of the Company's trade between China and England in the under-mentioned years 
 has been — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports into China from England. 
 
 Exports from China 
 to England. 
 
 Total Imports 
 and Exports. 
 
 Merchantlise. 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 1814- 15 
 
 1815- 16 
 
 1830- 31 
 
 1831- 32 
 
 860,093 
 926,920 
 593,755 
 398,475* 
 
 £ 
 
 127,695 
 1,127,518 
 
 £ 
 
 987,788 
 2,0.54,433 
 593,755 
 398,475 
 
 £ 
 
 1,967,978 
 2,231,366 
 1,861,980 
 1,814,043 
 
 £ 
 
 2,955,766 
 4,285,799 
 2,455,735 
 2,212,518 
 
 * Mem. — There is an apparent reduction in the value of exports of merchandise from England, arising 
 from cargoes to the amount of 192,310A of this season having been despatched after the 1st of May, 1832 : 
 allowing for the consignments so deferred, the imports into China from England would be augmented to 
 590,785/., and the total of imports and exports to 2,404,828/. 
 
 East India House, 25th of April, 1833. 
 
 It appears from this account, that the merchandise exported from England to China during the years 
 1814-15 and 1815-16 amounted, at an average, to 893,506/. a year, exclusive of above 600,000/. a year in 
 treasure; whereas, the exports of merchandise during the years 1830-31 and 1831-32 only amounted to 
 592,270/. a year, without any treasure! This extraordinary decline strikingly contrasts with the results of 
 the' free trade between Great Britain and India in the same years. 
 
 The following is a detailed Account of the Value of the Exports by the East India Company from 
 Great Britain to China during the Five Years ending the 5th of January, 1828. 
 
 Species of Goods. 
 
 1824. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1828. 
 
 Cotton manufactures 
 Iron in bars (British) 
 Lead and shot - - 
 Skins and furs 
 Woollens - - 
 • All other articles 
 
 £ 
 
 6,092] 
 13,482 
 8,793 
 
 '674,585* 
 
 5,095 
 
 £ 
 
 ' 15,502 
 22,430 
 33,516 
 
 532,221 
 8,467 
 
 £ 
 
 167 
 17,214 
 39,221 
 31,151 
 652,047 
 5,058 
 
 £ 
 
 11,995 
 36,067 
 41,918 
 
 756,968 
 5,0S2 
 
 £ 
 20,752 
 24,350 
 32,154 
 
 413,422 
 3,137 
 
 Total value of exports by the? 
 1 East India Company to China j 
 
 708,047 
 
 612,139 
 
 744,856 
 
 852,030 
 
 493,815 
 
 Account of the registered Tonnage employed by the East India Company, clearing out annually from the 
 Port of Canton for England, and of the Charges imposed by the Chinese on the Company's Ships in 
 Canton during the undermentioned Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Cleared out for 
 England. 
 
 Charges in Taels. 
 
 Rate per Tael. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 1829 
 
 3830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Tonnage, 
 27,904 
 29,037 
 27,431 
 21,852 
 
 91,518 
 92,967 
 85,691 
 95,184 
 
 5. d. 
 
 6 8 
 
 £ 
 
 30,506 
 38,0^^9 
 28,.6fi4 
 31,728 
 
236 
 
 CANTON. 
 
 The following is a detailed Account of the Quantities and Prices of the different Sorts of Teas exported 
 from China in 1824-25 and 1828-29 by the East India Company, to Great Britain and British America. 
 
 Teas. 
 
 Exported to England. 
 
 Exported to the North American 
 Colonies. 
 
 1824-1825. 
 
 1828-1829. 
 
 1824-1825. 
 
 1828--^1829. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Prime Sosl 
 per lb. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Average 
 Prime Cost 
 per lb. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Average 
 Prime Cost 
 per lb. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Average 
 Prime Cost 
 per lb. 
 
 Bohea 
 Congou 
 Campoi - 
 Souchong 
 Pekoe - 
 Twankay 
 Hyson skin - 
 Young hyson 
 Hyson - 
 Gunpowder - 
 
 Lbs. 
 3,589,804 
 18,773,989 
 214,153 
 269,456 
 33,973 
 3,791,405 
 178,596 
 
 666,562 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 9-301 
 
 1 3-397 
 1 6-427 
 1 10-501 
 1 11-569 
 1 4-460 
 
 1 5-526 
 
 2 7-094 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 4,198,964 
 16,951,171 
 507,881 
 183,498 
 
 5,471,633 
 154,767 
 
 1,149,371 
 
 S. d. 
 
 0 9-512 
 
 1 2-587 
 1 7-461 
 1 10-870 
 
 l" 3-810 
 1 4-238 
 
 2' 2-263 
 r 1824-25 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 87,340 
 
 «1,733 
 
 51,312 
 3,539 
 579,120 
 163,929 
 173,347 
 
 38,830 
 
 S. d. 
 
 0 9-301 
 
 1 3-600 
 
 1 3-067 
 
 2 0-594 
 1 3-831 
 
 1 3-309 
 
 2 2-038 
 2 4-730 
 
 Tn 
 
 1828-29 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 100,385 
 914,616 
 
 19,768 
 
 146,753 
 10,195 
 
 33,284 
 4,953 
 
 /. d. 
 
 0 9-404 
 
 1 0-349 
 
 1 9599 
 
 1 6-79;; 
 
 1 4-8U0 
 
 2 6-037 
 2 6-511 
 
 27,517,938 
 
 28,617,280 
 
 1,179,150 
 27,517,938 
 
 28,697,088 
 
 1,229,954 
 28,617,280 
 
 29,847,234 
 
 Whole exports to Britain and America in the yes 
 
 In 1831-32 the total exports of tea by the East India Company were, to England, 30,203,098 lbs. ; to North 
 American colonies, 1,276,856 lbs. ; being together 31,479,954 lbs. The aggregate prime cost (particulars not 
 stated) was 1,907,648/. — {N. 5. — For full details as to the tea trade, see art. Tea.) 
 
 The Company's business in China has been carried on by an establishment of public officers, consisting 
 of 12 supercargoes and as many writers, promoted according to seniority ; the former were paid by a com- 
 mission chiefly derived from the monopoly sales of tea in England, and the latter by fixed salaries ; both 
 being supplied with lodging and a public table at the Company's expense. The 3 senior supercargoes, 
 called the select committee, constituted the governing body, and had the whole control, not only of the 
 Company's trade, but politically of all British interests in China. The entire charges of the Company's 
 China establishment in 1828-29 were 138,526/. ; being 
 
 £ 
 
 Twelve supercargoes - - . . 53,121 
 
 Twelve writers .... 10,226 
 
 Persons filling professional and other distinct offices - 8,857 
 
 Rents and repairs of private apartments - . 16,782 
 
 Rent of factory, port charges, and other expenses - - 49,440 
 
 The Company's business was wholly conducted with the hong merchants, to the exclusion of the un- 
 licensed or outside merchants, as they are called. The select committee divided amongst such of the 
 solvent hong merchants as it pleased, the whole amount of the Company's export and import cargoes, and 
 the business was done by a kind of barter; a system long banished among the free traders. The ships 
 employed by the East India Company in the China trade were commonly from 1,000 to between 1,400 and 
 1,500 tons burden, the greater proportion being from 1,300 to 1,400 tons. 
 
 Trade hehveen British India and China. — This trade is of decidedly more value and 
 importance than that carried on between Great Britain and China ; a result -which seems 
 mainly ascribable to the circumstance of its being principally in the hands of private in- 
 dividuals. The greatest article of export from India to Canton used to be cotton -wool, 
 principally from Bombay ; but it is now far surpassed by opium, the imports of which 
 into China have sextupled since 1816-17, and are worth, at present, about 13,500,000 
 dollars ! This increase is the more extraordinary, seeing that opium is contraband in 
 China ; but the edicts of the emperors are as unable to prevent its introduction, as the 
 proclamations of James and Charles were to hinder the use of tobacco in England. It 
 is every where smuggled with ease and safety. The trade was at first principally con- 
 ducted at Whampoa ; but the exactions of the Chinese authorities drove it to Macao, 
 where it increased, but whence it was subsequently driven by the exactions of the Por- 
 tuguese. It is now principally carried on in the Bay of Lintin. Here the opium is 
 kej)t on board receiving ships, of which there are frequently not less than 12 quietly 
 lying at anchor, without danger or molestation of any sort. 
 
 The exports from China to India consist of sugar for Western India, tea, porcelain, 
 nankeens, cassia, camphor, &c. ; but the amount of these is not very considerable, and 
 the returns are principally made in bills and bullion. 
 
 The following tables give very full details as to the trade between Great Britain and 
 Canton, and the trade between the latter and British India, carried on under the British 
 flag, during the years ended the 31st of March, 1831 and 1832. 
 
 Most part of the trade between India and Canton is conducted by the outside merchants. The hong 
 merchants rarely adventure upon transactions in opium, of wiiich this trade principally consists. 
 
 We have obtained from Canton, the following corrected account of the British trade at that city, m 
 1831-32. It corresponds prett y closely with the succeeding account, derived from the Pari. Paper, No. '229. 
 Sees. 1833; but it is drawn up in a diflercnt form, and more in detail. Being anxious to afford all the 
 information in our power with respect to this great emporium, we did not think we should be warranted 
 in withholding it. 
 
CANTON. 237 
 
 Corrected Statement of the British Trade at the Port of Canton for the Year ending the Slst of March, 1832, 
 
 I iMl illltlllJ§lflpiiWIM IK 
 
 • ojooooi 
 
 ai O ^ to *C 00 'O TJ* CD C- - -- 
 C^O l~- ^l-^w 10 CD to *C O 
 
 § ^15=5 03 2 T)? i-T cToT: « « •> 
 
 ■ ■■•■•••■all 
 
 10 O 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 <NOOOCOOOOOt'5'-o?< 
 »'5CCC.O'OCO»<5 03^t£5o5-«< 
 
 ■ if 1 li iff ii| I 1 1 
 
 00000 000«0-;MOtO 
 CN C C^C^O >n^{0 (O ^ 
 
 ■O tdJl-Tj* rH^ OC 00 
 
 1 11 1 1 iJl I isa| 1 
 
 ^■C^tC t-. 
 
 .ice: 10,00 
 
 a.CiffiOt>. 
 
 d s I 1 
 
 p. >s 
 
 Jig 
 §s I 
 
 % I I I I I i 1 I 1« 1 ! I I 1 I I 
 
 00 01 i-t O O CO to to O'HO 00 
 .^1"?,'*''^<'^.S,°^ <N 10 C >0 •^■l 
 (C >o to to t-TcN lo" ' c^r^tO lO oJ<N 
 
 « I I 1 13 ! ^ • 
 
 c. e. »o O C or to 
 
 c S 5 
 
 I I I I I IS I I g I I I 1 p I I 1 I I E2 I 
 
 • ■•■ & . . . i • . 
 
 e^octo ito 
 
 : ^) — Ito 
 
 ■K _ -S o o 3 - 
 
 i 1 1 
 
 £■3 
 
 s" 
 
 o 
 
 i § 
 ^11 g « = sill fel-l Ills ill 
 
 c. .ceo 
 
 Black tea • • 
 
 Green lea 
 
 To England per 23 ships. 
 Dollars 
 
 Sjcee equal to dollars 
 
 24.754,266 lbs. 
 
 5,448,80 0 — 
 30,203,066 — 
 
 (d) Per country ships. 
 
 BlacV tea 
 Green tea 
 
 To England per 23 slups. 
 
 1,000,490 
 173,467 
 1,175,'J57 dollars. 
 
 1,709,466 lbs. 
 
 525,200 _ 
 2,032,666 _ 
 
 (e) To England, dollars - . 1,134,623 
 
 Sjcee, equal to dollars - _842,307 
 Calcutta, dollars . . 171,542 
 Sycee, equal to dolkurs - 16S,79S 
 Bombay, dollars . . I,0o3,326 
 
 S. American silver and 1 
 sycee equal to dollars -J 
 Sundry places, dollars 
 
 Dollars. 
 1,976,930 
 
 340,310 
 
 1,577,543 
 
 -^,000 
 
 Total export of bullion, sycee included. Dollars 3,971,815 
 
 N. n.-The sycee is calculated at 718, with 5 per cent, 
 premium added. 
 
238 
 
 CANTON. 
 
 Cotton Goods. 
 
 Dollars. 
 150,000 
 
 99,181 
 
 132,883 
 84,997 
 
 Pieces. 
 30,000 
 
 16,936 
 30,500 
 
 Woollens. 
 
 Dollars. 
 2,306,265 
 
 89,562 
 
 2,123,730 
 174,546 
 
 Pieces. 
 177,685 
 
 2,661 
 
 167,934 
 5,76G 
 
 3P il 
 
 5' 8 
 
 ° = 8 
 
 »0 .-1 ■V 
 
 si I ' 
 
 t« S. ^ 
 
 II 
 
 TjT CO 
 
 (NO 0> ICifl 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 silt 
 
 
 
 
 21 1 
 le of tl 
 I officen 
 impanj' 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 .ill 
 
 
 
 Mi 
 
 w O ISM 
 
 O 
 
 1. - 
 
 o ■* 
 
 lO 00 
 
 2 
 
 ders 
 the 
 
 ders- 
 the] 
 
 g.3 . 
 
 
 E o 
 
 
 O I 
 
 
 eofth 
 s can 
 
 e"oftl 
 
 ships 
 
 
 a 
 
 ^tp a 
 
 
 o. &,1 §. 
 
 a 
 
 
 1831 
 
 Privi 
 
 c"o 
 
 5 = 
 
 Total 
 Value of 
 Imports. 
 
 Dollars. 
 15,877,569 
 
 15 408 225 
 
 Value of 
 
 other 
 Articles. 
 
 Dollars. 
 640,055 
 
 1,04,'5,135 
 
 Total Val. 
 of Opium 
 andCotton. 
 
 m o 
 
 g in o 
 
 Sundries. 
 
 Dollars. 
 76,688 
 
 88,116 
 
 Rice. 
 
 1 Dolls. 
 60,805 
 
 128,740 
 
 "a K 5 
 
 ! Ivory, 
 &c. 
 Value. 
 
 Dolls. 
 6,020 
 
 26,913 
 
 Salt- 
 petre. 
 Value. 
 
 ■a o 
 
 Diam. 
 Pearls, 
 Corne- 
 
 Dollars. 
 30,680 
 
 212,475 
 
 Cotton 
 Yam. 
 Value. 
 
 Doll. 
 43,428 
 
 Cotton 
 Goods. 
 Value. 
 
 Dolls. 
 89,462 
 
 Wool- 
 lens. 
 Value. 
 
 Dollars, 
 81,010 
 
 138,517 
 
 Sandal 
 Wood, 
 
 &c. 
 Value. 
 
 Dolls. 
 '53,479 
 
 46,530 
 
 Drugs. 
 Value 
 
 Dolls. 
 10,918 
 
 9.962 
 
 Sharks' 
 Value. 
 
 \Dollars. 
 118,887 
 
 136,740 
 
 Put- 
 chuck. 
 Value. 
 
 Dolls. 
 960 
 
 .3,172 
 
 Betel 
 Nut. 
 value. 
 
 Dolls. 
 17,516 
 
 1,224 
 
 Rat- 
 tans. 
 Value. 
 
 Dolls. 
 10,161 
 
 
 Q M CO 
 
 Metals. 
 
 46.230 
 31,755 
 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Dollars. 
 5,014,989 
 
 3,061,072 
 
 . (O M 
 
 II 
 
 Opium. 
 
 2 0 0 
 4n ^-o 
 
 Ton- 
 nage. 
 
 29,127 
 28,485 
 
 ° o. 
 
 00 O) 
 
 >o >o 
 
 1 
 
 00 00 
 
 Total Value 
 of Exports. 
 
 li 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Dollars. 
 3,997,432 
 2.006.097 
 
 Total Value 
 of Goods. 
 
 Dollars. 
 4,651,854 
 4,117.069 
 
 Sundries. 
 
 Dollars. \ 
 
 155,956 
 
 164.807 
 
 Cottoii 
 V^ue. 
 
 Dollars. 
 "-3,536" 
 
 1 Cotton 
 Goods. 
 Value. 
 
 S=^"S 
 
 
 
 1 Copper. 
 
 SJOoc 
 ^0 
 
 a^M 
 
 Writing! 
 Paper, 
 
 &c. 
 Value. 
 
 ^Dollars. 
 150,620 
 83.840 
 
 China 
 War. 
 Value. 
 
 . to Ol 
 
 False 
 Pearls 
 
 &c. 
 Value. 
 
 Dolls. 
 56,643 
 48,094 
 
 ^ii ^ 
 
 Dolls. 
 25,466 
 
 Tor- 
 toise 
 
 Shell. 
 
 Value, 
 
 Dolls. 
 9,900 
 13,250 
 
 Silk 
 Piece 
 Goods, 
 Value. 
 
 lis 
 
 Drugs. 
 Value. 
 
 Dollars. 
 386,989 
 155,903 
 
 
 \ Dolls. 
 15,880 
 
 m 
 
 Dollars.] 
 111,803 
 1 57,040 
 
 i 
 
 \Pcls. Dollars.] 
 16,562 150,776| 
 18,726 212,783 
 
 ar and 
 ■ Candy. 
 
 
 Sug 
 
 OUgdl 
 
 Piculs 
 143,46 
 92,90 
 
 i 
 
 
 M 
 C 
 
 !5 
 
 ill 
 
 Raw Silk. 
 
 .00 
 
 m 
 
 0» 
 
 .>.- c 
 
 Tutenague. 
 
 
 
 *7 *? 
 
 
 OPTO 
 
CANTON. 
 
 239 
 
 TOTAL BRITISH TRADE WITH CHINA. 
 
 Trade by the Company and their Officers. 
 
 Trade by Individuals. 
 
 Total Value of the 
 Jlrilish Trade 
 with (jhina. 
 
 Season. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 1 ToUl. 
 
 1831-32 
 
 Dollars. 
 6,072,961 
 6,132,016 
 
 Dollars. 
 11,250,137 
 11,081,262 
 
 Dollars. 
 17,329,398 
 16,213,268 
 
 Dollars. 
 15,877,.'i69 
 15,408,225 
 
 Dollars. 1 Dollars. 
 8,619,286 24,526,8.'),'; 
 6,123,106 1 21,531,391 
 
 Dollars. 
 41,850,253 
 37,744,059 
 
 East India House, 25th of April, 1833. 
 
 Opium is sold by the resident European or American agents ; and, on an order from 
 these for its delivery, it is handed over to the smugglers, who come alongside the sliips 
 at night to receive it ; putting the naval force, Custom-house establishment, and police 
 of the empire at defiance. We subjoin an 
 
 Account of the Imports of the different Sorts of Opium into China from 1816-17 to 1830-31, both 
 
 inclusive. 
 
 1 
 
 \ Seasons. 
 
 i 
 
 Patna and Benares. 
 
 Malwa. 
 
 Total. 
 
 lurkey. 
 
 No. of 
 Chests. 
 
 Aver. 
 Price. 
 
 Total 
 Value. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Chests. 
 
 Aver. 
 Price. 
 
 Total 
 Value. 
 
 Dollars. 
 525,000 
 703,800 
 1,109,250 
 1,915,250 
 2,605,800 
 2,276,350 
 5,160,000 
 3,859,100 
 4,500,000 
 4,466,450 
 5,941,520 
 5,251,760 
 6,928,880 
 5,907,580 
 7,110,227 
 
 No. of 
 Chests. 
 
 Value. 
 
 No. of 
 Chests. 
 
 Aver. 
 Price. 
 
 Dollars. 
 300 
 filO 
 
 625 
 975 
 1,525 
 1,025 
 1,270 
 
 ccount 
 t of 
 im dur 
 rs. 
 
 Total 
 Value. 
 
 1816- 1817 
 
 1817- 1818 
 
 1818- 1819 
 
 1819- 1820 
 
 1820- 1821 
 
 1821- 1822 
 
 1822- 1823 
 
 1823- 182+ 
 
 1824- 1825 
 
 1825- 1826 
 
 1826- 1827 
 
 1827- 1828 
 
 1828- 1829 
 
 1829- 1830 
 
 1830- 1831 
 
 2,610 
 2,530 
 3,050 
 2,970 
 3,050 
 2,910 
 1,822 
 2,910 
 2,655 
 3,442 
 3,661 
 5,114 
 5,961 
 7,143 
 6,660 
 
 Dollars. 
 1,200 
 1,265 
 1,000 
 1,235 
 1,900 
 2,075 
 1,552 
 1,600 
 1,175 
 913 
 1,002 
 998 
 940 
 858 
 869 
 
 Dollars. 
 3,132,000 
 3,200,450 
 3,050,000 
 3,667,950 
 5,795,000 
 6,038,250 
 2,828,930 
 4,656,000 
 3,119,625 
 3,141,755 
 3,668,565 
 5,105,073 
 5,604,235 
 5,149.577 
 5,789,794 
 
 600 
 1,150 
 1,530 
 1,620 
 1,720 
 1,718 
 4,000 
 4,172 
 6,000 
 6,179 
 6,308 
 4,361 
 7,171 
 6,837 
 12,100 
 
 Dollars. 
 875 
 612 
 725 
 1,175 
 1,515 
 1,325 
 1,290 
 925 
 750 
 723 
 942 
 1,204 
 966 
 861 
 587 
 
 3,210 
 3,680 
 4,580 
 4,600 
 4,770 
 4,628 
 5,822 
 7,082 
 8,655 
 9,621 
 9,9fiP 
 9,475 
 13,132 
 14,000 
 18,760, 
 
 Dollars. 
 3,657,000 
 3,904,250 
 4,159,250 
 5,583,200 
 8,400,800 
 8,314,600 
 7,988,930 
 8,515,100 
 7,619,625 
 7,608,205 
 9,610,085 
 10,356,833 
 12,533,115 
 12,057,157 
 12,900,031 
 
 750 
 1,000 
 700 
 200 
 30 
 500 
 226 
 
 No a 
 , kep 
 1 ^P' 
 yea 
 
 J 
 
 Dollars. 
 375,000 
 610,000 
 437,500 
 195,000 
 45,750 
 512,500 
 287,080 
 
 has been 
 Turkey 
 ing these 
 
 1 Total - 
 
 56,488 
 
 
 64,997,204 
 
 65,496 
 
 
 58,260,977 
 
 121,984 
 
 123,208,181 
 
 3,406 
 
 
 2,462,770 
 
 In 1831-32, tjie total import of opium into China was 21,062 chests, of the value of 13,917,426 dollars. 
 The stock on hand, 1st of January, 1833, was 5,110 chests. Nine tenths of the opium trade is in the 
 hands of the British Indians. 
 
 The following tables exhibit the general results of our trade with China from 1814-15 
 downwards : — 
 
 Account of the Annual Value of the Trade between the Subjects of Great Britain and China, from 
 1814-15 to 1830-31, both inclusive, distinguishing the Trade of the East India Company from that of 
 Individuals. 
 
 Value of Exports and Im- 
 ports between India and China, 
 
 1814- 15 
 
 1815- 16 
 
 1816- 17 
 
 1817- 18 
 
 1818- 19 
 
 1819- 20 
 
 1820- 21 
 
 1821- 22 
 
 1822- 23 
 
 1823- 24 
 
 1824- 25 
 
 1825- 26 
 
 1826- 27 
 
 1827- 28 
 
 1828- 29 
 
 1829- 30 
 
 1830- 31 
 
 £ 
 
 2,573,940 
 2,379,026 
 3,034,031 
 3,327,770 
 3,516,332 
 2,190,137 
 3,328,039 
 3,011,010 
 3,047,792 
 2,734,509 
 2,832,191 
 3,943,729 
 3,764,404 
 4,951,678 
 3,795.966 
 
 On A ccoimt of 
 the Company. 
 
 £ 
 
 221,589 
 
 356,470 
 
 230,083 
 
 710,100 
 
 2m, 
 
 334,807 
 
 602,994 
 
 469,657 
 
 189,304 
 
 721,425 
 
 326,591 
 
 291,603 
 
 362,405 
 
 376,247 
 
 433,388 
 
 308,767 
 
 363,741 
 
 £ 
 
 2,195,5^9 
 2,735,496 
 3,264,114 
 4,037,870 
 3,880,875 
 2,524,944 
 3,931,033 
 3,480,667 
 3,237,096 
 3,455,934 
 3,158,782 
 4,235,332 
 4,126,809 
 5,527,925 
 4,229,354 
 
 Value of Im- 
 ports and Ex- 
 ports between 
 
 England and 
 China on 
 
 Account of 
 the Company. 
 
 £ 
 
 2,955,776 
 4,285,799 
 2,962,062 
 2,183,022 
 2,065,389 
 3,092,456 
 2,935,904 
 2,700,425 
 £,642,845 
 2,815,048 
 2,600,060 
 2,687,013 
 3,176,901 
 2,836,397 
 2,517,726 
 2,490,947 
 2,983,487 
 
 Total Value of 
 the British 
 Trade with 
 China. 
 
 £ 
 
 5,751,295 
 7,021,295 
 6,226,176 
 6,220,892 
 5,946,264 
 5,617,400 
 6,866,937 
 6,181,092 
 5,879,941 
 6,270,982 
 5,758,842 
 6,922,345 
 7,303,710 
 8,164,322 
 6,747,080 
 
 Value of Trad< 
 of Individuals 
 with China. 
 
 £ 
 
 2,573,940 
 2,379,026 
 3,034,031 
 3,327,770 
 3,516,352 
 2,190,137 
 3,328,059 
 3,011,010 
 3,047,792 
 2,734,509 
 2,832,191 
 3,943,729 
 3,764,404 
 4,951,678 
 3,795,966 
 
 The statements from Indi 
 
 lia for 1829-1830 and 1830-1831 are not y 
 
 yet received. 
 
240 
 
 CANTON. 
 
 Account of the Quantity of each Article of Chinese Produce imported into the United Kingdom, in each 
 ^ear, from 1793 to 1831, both inclusive. 
 
 1793 
 179+ 
 1795 
 1796 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 180i 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 1803 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 16,067,331 
 23,710,774 
 27,208,003 
 6,184,628 
 16,235,125 
 44,873,112 
 15,090,080 
 15,165,368 
 29,804,739 
 27,356,502 
 30,843,134 
 26,680,784 
 28,538,825 
 22,155,557 
 12,599,236 
 35,747,224 
 21,717,310 
 19,791,356 
 21,231,849 
 28,318,153 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 171,998 
 99,67 1 
 
 158,225 
 12,968 
 78,520 
 
 136,196 
 63,604 
 92,385 
 
 131,335 
 75,588 
 74,538 
 90,362 
 76,359 
 18,607 
 55,277 
 
 117,855 
 90,603 
 54,376 
 81,397 
 86,197 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 77,898 
 374,398 
 146,365 
 
 48,642 
 
 77,338 
 257,473 
 184,490 
 170,917 
 366,851 
 274,921 
 232,894 
 264,407 
 252,207 
 376,234 
 
 72,135 
 484,647 
 287,720 
 305,009 
 316,616 
 503,276 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 Articles 
 of Chinese 
 Produce. 
 
 Value L. 
 26,692 
 19,809 
 19,186 
 23,062 
 23,252 
 25,054 
 17,131 
 25,960 
 29,293 
 19,054 
 23,134 
 26,184 
 15,198 
 10,504 
 11,474 
 17,617 
 14,268 
 14,890 
 9,630 
 12,929 
 
 1813 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 18'21 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 records 
 110,550 
 602,214 
 234,380 
 467,073 
 ,065,728 
 750,413 
 .147,994 
 731,105 
 362,766 
 046,885 
 681,977 
 .315,699 
 ,840,401 
 ,746,147 
 ,678,546 
 ,544,582 
 ,897,546 
 ,648,922 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 Articles 
 of Chinese 
 I'rcduce. 
 
 Lhs 
 of this vear 
 150,629 
 216,129 
 88,987 
 103,367 
 146,878 
 141,325 
 271,115 
 275,110 
 222,673 
 392,717 
 293,014 
 142,676 
 405,185 
 208,287 
 288,916 
 606,444 
 456,991 
 476,692 
 
 PUcei. I Value L. 
 were destroyed by fire. 
 
 783,253 
 
 896,797 
 
 396,453 
 
 5&4,226 
 
 409,349 
 
 523,852 
 
 969,746 
 
 569,062 
 
 287,431 
 
 412,076 
 ,010,494 
 
 392,998 
 
 431,520 
 99,698 
 
 529,602 
 
 919,255 
 
 593,339 
 
 857,171 
 
 Account of the Number of Ships, and of their Tonnage, that entered Inwards in the United Kingdom 
 from China in each Year, from 1793-94 to 1831-32, both inclusive. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1793-4 
 
 18 
 
 17,436 
 
 18U6-7 
 
 9 
 
 11,083 
 
 1819-20 
 
 24 
 
 28,451 
 
 1794-5 
 
 21 
 
 20,234 
 
 1807-8 
 
 24 
 
 31,797 
 
 1S20-21 
 
 23 
 
 28,692 
 
 1795-6 
 
 5 
 
 4,856 
 
 1808-9 
 
 15 
 
 19,290 
 
 1821-22 
 
 19 
 
 24,975 
 
 1796-7 
 
 17 
 
 14,354 
 
 1809-10 
 
 13 
 
 17,272 
 
 1822-23 
 
 19 
 
 26,013 
 28,237 
 
 1797-8 
 
 32 
 
 37,682 
 
 1810-11 
 
 15 
 
 18,984 
 
 1823-24 
 
 21 
 
 1798-9 
 
 13 
 
 12,731 
 
 1811..12 
 
 19 
 
 25,324 
 
 1824-25 
 
 19 
 
 25,970 
 
 1799-1800 
 
 10 
 
 12,840 
 
 1812-13 
 
 21 
 
 27,227 
 
 1825-26 
 
 23 
 
 27,894 
 
 1800-1 
 
 22 
 
 27,407 
 
 1813-14 
 
 19 
 
 24,466 
 
 1825-27 
 
 29 
 
 35,969 
 
 18'Jl-2 
 
 21 
 
 24,531 
 
 1814-15 
 
 21 
 
 24,890 
 33,075 
 
 1827-28 
 
 25 
 
 29,833 
 
 1802-3 
 
 24 
 
 25,994 
 
 1815-16 
 
 26 
 
 1828-29 
 
 20 
 
 27,904 
 
 1803-4 
 
 17 
 
 22,279 
 
 1816-17 
 
 27 
 
 28,032 
 
 ' 1829-30 
 
 23 
 
 29,111 
 
 1804-5 
 
 18 
 
 24,191 
 
 1817-18 
 
 15 
 
 20,000 
 
 1830-31 
 
 21 
 
 27,879 
 
 1805-6 
 
 15 
 
 19,100 
 
 1818-19 
 
 16 
 
 21,210 
 
 1831-32 
 
 22 
 
 27,940 
 
 New Regulations as to the British Trade with Canton. — Notwithstanding the oppo- 
 sition made by the East India Company, the trade to China has, at length, been thrown 
 open to all classes of his Majesty's subjects; and British merchants may now freely trade 
 to all places, accessible to Europeans, to the east of the Straits of Malacca. We con- 
 gratulate our readers on the opening of this new and almost boundless field for tlie 
 display of commercial enterprise. It is not, indeed, a channel in which it would be 
 prudent for any one not possessed of adequate capital and the necessary skill to embark. 
 But the example of the Americans, and of the free traders from India to China, shows 
 conclusively that there is nothing in the nature of the trade to prevent its being as success- 
 fully prosecuted by individuals as that to any other country. We are satisfied that the 
 intercourse between the Eastern and Western worlds is as yet quite inconsiderable, com- 
 pared with what it is destined to become, now that the incubus of monopoly is removed. 
 The opening of the ports of Hindostan, in 1814, has more than trebled our trade with 
 India ; and a similar result may be fairly anticipated in the case of China. In making 
 these remarks, we are very far from meaning to throw any reflections on the conduct of 
 the East India Company. It is due to its directors to state that they have always 
 evinced the greatest anxiety to extend the trade with India and China, and to carry it 
 on in the most economical manner. But it was not in the nature of things that they 
 could succeed. The affairs of all great associations must necessarily be managed 
 according to a system of routine, by the intervention of salaried officers. And it were 
 an insult to common sense to suppose that such persons should display the same enter- 
 prise, or that they should manage the affairs intrusted to their care with tlie same 
 watchful attention to details, and the same regard to economy, as private individuals 
 trading on their own account, and reaping all the advantage of successful, as they must abide 
 all the loss resulting from unsuccessful, adventures. Speculations may be eminently 
 profitable to the latter, that would have been highly injurious liad they been attempted by 
 the former. It is true that the too great ardour of competitors may occasionally render 
 even the best business unprofitable to those engaged in it ; but if this be an evil, it is 
 one that is inseparable from all commercial imdertakings ; and there is no reason what- 
 ever for supposing that it will he oftener or more severely felt in the trade to Canton, 
 than in that to Potcrsburgh or any other port. 
 
CANTON. 
 
 24-1 
 
 In conducting an intercourse with the Chinese, — a people whose institutions and haliits 
 a'liYcr so very widely from those of Europeans, — it is essential that due circumspection 
 sliould be used, and that nothing should be done by any one to give them reasonable 
 grounds of offence. The experience of the Americans, and of the other foreigners, 
 besides the English, resorting to Canton, shows, we think, pretty clearly, that the 
 amount of danger from the circumstances just adverted to is not very considerable. It 
 is right, however, as already stated, that effectual measures should be taken for prevent- 
 ing any interruption to the trade from the ignorance or misconduct of any individual. 
 To accomplish this object, there are provisions in the act opening the trade, enabling his 
 Majesty to appoint superintendents of the trade to China, who are to be authorised to issue 
 regulations in regard to it, to which all individuals engaged therein are to be obliged to 
 submit. These regulations will, no doubt, be framed so as to prevent any just oflf'ence 
 being given to the natives, without unnecessarily interfering with the free action of the 
 traders. There is one very questionable clause in the act — that which authorises the 
 imposition of a tonnage duty on the shipping employed in the trade, for defraying the cost 
 of the establishments in China. We subjoin a full abstract of this important statute. 
 Act3&4 Will. 4. c. 93. for regulating the Trade to China and India. 
 
 itepeal of the Act 4G<?o. 4. c. 80. ^c. — Having stated that it is expedient that the trade to China 
 should be opened to all classes of his Majesty's subjects, it is enacted, that the ac^. 4 CJeo. 4. c. 80. should 
 be repealed, except such parts thereof as relate to Asiatic sailors, Lascars, being natives of the territories 
 under the government of the East India Coini)any ; and except also as to such voyages and adventures 
 as shall have been actually commenced under the authority of the said act ; and as ir any suits and pro- 
 ceedings which may have been commenced, and shall be depending on the 2'-zd day of April, 1834; and 
 from and after the said 22d day of April, 1834, the enactments herein-after contained shall come into 
 operation. — ^1. 
 
 Repeal of Frohibitions upon the Importation of Tea and Goods from China, imposed by 6 Geo. 4. c. 107. 
 and 6 Geo. 4. c. 114. — So much of the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 107., intituled " An Act for the general Regulation of 
 the Customs," as prohibits the importation of tea, unless from the place of its growth, and by the Ivist 
 India Companj-, and into the port of London ; and also so much of the said act as prohibits the import- 
 ation into the United Kingdom of goods from China, unless by the East India Company, and into the 
 port of London ; and also so much of the said act as requires that the manifests of ships departing from 
 I)laces in China shall be authenticated by the chief supercargo of the East India Company ; and also that 
 80 much of the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 11+., intituled " An Act to regulate the Trade of the British Possessions 
 abroad," as prohibits the importation of tea into any of the British possessions in America, and into the 
 island of Mauritius^ except from the United Kingdom, or from some other British possessions in 
 America, and unless by the East India Company, or with their licence ; shall be, from and after the 22d 
 day of April, 1834, repealed; and thenceforth (notwithstanding any provision, enactment, &c. to the 
 contrary) it shall be laAvful for any of his Majesty's subjects to carry on trade with any countries beyond 
 the Cape of Good Hope to the Streights of Magellan. — ^2. 
 
 List of Persons on board any Ship arriving in India to be delivered to Officers of Customs. — The person 
 in command of any ship or vessel arriving at any place in the- possession of or under the government of 
 the said Company shall make out, sign, and deliver to the principal officer of the customs, or other person 
 lawfully authorised, a true and perfect list, specifyinj; the names, capacities, and descriptions of all per- 
 sons who shall have been on board such ship or vessel at the time of its arrival ; and if any person having 
 the command of such ship or ves.':el shall not make out, sign, and deliver such list, he shall forfeit 100/., half 
 to such person or persons as shall inform or sue for the same, and the other half to the Company ; ,and if 
 the Company shall inform or sue for the same, then the whole penalty shall belong to the Company. — \3. 
 
 Penalties hoiv recoverable. — The penalties and forfeitures aforesaid to be recoverable by action of debt, 
 bill, &c. in any court of record in the United Kingdom, or in India, or elsewhere, to which jurisdiction 
 shall be afterwards given. — ^4. 
 
 Three Superintendents of the China Trade to be appointed. — Whereas it is expedient for the objects of 
 trade and amicable intercourse with the dominions of the emperor of China, that provision be made for 
 the establishment of a British authority in them ; be it enacted, that it -shall be lawful for his Majesty, 
 by any commission or warrant under his royal sign manual, to ajipoint 3 superintendents of the trade (f 
 his Majesty's subjects to and from the said dominions, for the purpose of protecting and promoting such 
 trade, and to appoint such othcers to assist them in the execution of their duties, and to grant such 
 salaries to such superintendents and officers, as his Majesty shall from time to time deem expedient. — ^ 5. 
 
 His Majesty 7nay issue Orders and Commissions to have force in China. — It shall be lawful for his 
 Majesty, by any such order or commission as to his Majesty in council shall appear expedient and salutary, 
 to give to tl\e said superintendents, or any of them, powers and authorities over and in respect of the trade 
 and commerce of his Majesty's subjects vithin any part of the said dominions; and to issue directions 
 and regulations touching the said trade and commerce, and for the government of his Majesty's subjects 
 within the said dominions ; and to impose penalties, forfeitures, or imprisonments, for the breach of any 
 such directions or regulations, to be enforced in such manner as in the said order shall be specified ; and 
 to create a>court of justice with criminal and admiraltyjurisdiction for the trial of offences committed by 
 his Majesty's subjects within the said dominions, and the ports and havens thereof, and on the high se-vs 
 within 100 miles of the coast of China ; and to appoint one of the superintendents herein-before men- 
 tioned to be the officer to hold such court, and other officers for executing the process thereof j and to 
 grant such salaries to such officers as may appear reasonable. — ^6. 
 
 Superintendents, S(C. not to accept Gifts. — No superintendent or commissioner appointed under this 
 act shall accept in regard to the discharge of his duties any gift, gratuity, or reward, other than the salar 
 granted to him as aforesaid, or be engaged in any trade or traffic for his own benefit, or for the benefit of 
 any other person or persons. — ^7. 
 
 A Tonnage Duty to, be ijnposed, to defray the Expense of Establishments in China. — It shall be lawful 
 for his Majesty in council, by any order or orders to be issued from time to time, to impose, and to 
 empower such persons as his Majesty in council shall think fit to collect and levy from or on account of 
 any ship or vessel belonging to any of the subjects of his Majesty entering any port or place where the 
 said superintendents or any of them shall be stationed, such duty on tonnage and goods as shall from time 
 to time be specified in such order or orders, not exceeding in respect of tonnage the sum of 5s. for every 
 ton, and not exceeding in respect of goods the sum of 10s. for every 100/. of the value of the same, the 
 fund arising from the.-collection of which duties shall be appropriated, in such manner as his Majesty 
 shall direct, towards defraying the expenses of the establishments by this act authorised within the said 
 dominions : provided always, that every order in council issued by authority of this act shall be published 
 in the London Gazette ; and that every such order in council, and the amount of expense incurred, and 
 of duties raised under this art, shall be annually laid before both houses of parliament. — § 8. 
 
 limitation of Actions. - The next and last clause contains the usual provisions as to the limitation of 
 actions, &c. — ^ 9. t> 
 
242 
 
 CANTON< 
 
 American Trade with China. — The American intercourse with China commenced 
 shortly after the termination of the revolutionary war, and speedily became one of the 
 most valuable branches of the trade of the United States. 
 
 We have obtained from the United States the subjoined account of the American trade at Canton in 
 1831-32. This interesting document exhibits in detail the quantity and value of each article imported by 
 the Americans into Canton, and of those exported ; the latter are divided according to their destination. 
 
 Statement of the American Import and Export Trade at the Port of Canton, during the Season of 1831-32. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Bills of exchange 
 Spanish dollars 
 
 Dol. 
 
 10,295 piculs Quicksilver, at 70 
 24,892 - Lead • - 4i 
 
 4,481 
 1,949 
 799 
 376 
 4,652 
 1,400 
 10,761 
 402 
 
 170 
 
 Iron - - 2| 
 
 Crude ginseng 54 
 Clarified do. 72j 
 Cochineal - 200 
 Copper - 20^ 
 Sandal wood - 5 
 Rice & paddy 2 
 Opium - 550 
 Taels. 
 
 Cotton - 
 
 Spelter 
 Cotton yam 
 Tobacco 
 Pearl shells 
 Tin - 
 boxes Tin plates 
 3,418 pieces Broad cloths 
 Camlets 
 
 2,510 
 2,286 
 601 
 770 
 1,072 
 
 Dol 
 • 4| 
 
 - 37 
 
 - 10 
 
 - & 
 
 - 16 
 
 - 7 
 
 - 30 
 
 - 23 
 
 2,880 
 56,178 
 19,802 
 
 6,492 
 10,334 
 
 LonR-ells 
 Long cloths 
 Chintz 
 Cambrics 
 Domestics 
 24,566 dozen Handkerchiefe 
 1 1,722 Land otter skins 
 1,591 Sea olter skins 
 9,369 Fox skins 
 1,868 Beaver skins 
 71 Seal skins 
 80,000 Cigars 
 Wine, value 
 Watches 
 Glass 
 
 Morocco skins 
 Sundry merchandise 
 
 720,650-00 
 
 112,014-00 
 12,332-75 
 
 105,246-00 
 54,302-50 
 75,200-00 
 95,366-00 
 7,000 00 
 21,342-00 
 
 221,100-00 
 
 11,922-50 
 84,582-00 
 6,01000 
 3,850-00 
 17,152-00 
 6,300-00 
 102,540-00 
 18,860-00 
 23,040-00 
 238,756-50 
 79,208-00 
 12,984-00 
 31,002-00 
 36,849-00 
 76,193-00 
 66,822-00 
 11,240-00 
 12,339 00 
 142-00 
 2,16000 
 2,300-00 
 10,000-00 
 2,000-00 
 500-00 
 
 Dollars 
 2,480,871 00 
 667,252-00 
 
 Exports. 
 
 To the United States. 
 
 Chests. Piculs. '. 
 
 12,182 Bohea - 7,309-20 i 
 37,151 Souchong - 24,147-85 
 3,212 Twankay - 1,991-40 
 17,671 Hyson skin - 8,835-50 
 40,065 Young hyson 26,042-25 
 
 9,346 Hyson 
 4,514 Imperial - 
 4,603 Gunpowder 
 2,245 Pouchong - 
 
 517 Pekoe 
 
 200 Congou 
 
 4,486-OS 
 3,15980 
 3,682-40 
 1,122-50 
 258-50 
 12000 
 
 81,155-52 
 
 - 24 
 
 - 44 
 
 - 46 
 
 - 54 
 
 - 58 
 
 - 20 
 . 50 
 
 - 16 
 
 "Taels. 
 
 80,401 2 0 
 434,661 5 0 
 
 47,794 5 5 
 212,052 0 0 
 1,145,859 0 0 
 206,359 6 8 
 170,629 2 0 
 213,579 2 0 
 
 22,450 0 0 
 
 12,925 0 0 
 1,920 0 0 
 
 2,548,631 1 4 
 
 34,822 Embroided crape shawls, 
 68,063 Damask do. do. 
 
 8,507 pieces Crape 
 23,157 - Handkerchiefs ■ 
 22,292 - Senshaws 
 28,986 - Black sarsnets ; ■ 
 
 8,459 - White do 
 
 7,998 - Levantines 
 
 5,645 - Do. satin 
 
 6,963 - Satins 
 276 • Satin damask 
 
 3,500 - Camlets 
 10,677 - White pongees • 
 33,901 - Sutchnendo. 
 
 4,417 - Mixed lutestrings • 
 
 11 
 
 f 
 400 
 370 
 
 54,700 pieces Blue Nankeens - 70 
 67,585 - Company ^Nankeens 50 
 
 3,541 piculs Cassia 
 
 130 
 14 
 30 
 15 
 4 
 
 38 - Cassia oil 
 25 - Camphor - 
 584 . Rhubarb 
 1,101 - Sweetmeats 
 2,318 - Sugar -{^'If, 
 15,915 boxes Crackers - • H 
 
 313 - VermiUon • 42 
 
 2,844 rolls Matting • 5 
 
 65,200 gross Pearl buttons - 17 
 China ware and grass cloth, in value 
 Sundry merchandise, in value - 
 
 5,999,731-97 
 
 To Europe. 
 
 Chests. 
 
 300 Bohea 
 720 Souchong . 
 1,550 CongDU 
 413Campoy 
 125 Twankay 
 321 Hyson skin 
 354 Young hyson 
 216 Hyson 
 
 74 Imperial 
 
 72 Gunpowder 
 294 Pekoe - . 
 
 4,485 
 
 30 piculs Sweetmeats. 
 150 - Cassia. 
 5 - Vermilion. 
 The above investments to Europe, 
 per invoices - - - 
 
 Piculs. 
 210-00 
 468-00 
 1,097-50 
 268-45 
 77-50 
 160-50 
 170-11 
 103-68 
 61-80 
 67-60 
 145-00 
 
 2,720-13 
 
 To South America and the 
 Sandwich Islands. 
 
 Brig Chilian's cargo, value - 
 
 - Bogeta's 
 
 - Diana's 
 
 Dollars. 
 121,877-00 
 119,11000 
 66,549-00 
 138,954-00 
 211,774-00 
 231,968-00 
 67,672-00 
 71,982-00 
 70,562-00 
 90,545-00 
 4,96800 
 31,500-00 
 117,447-00 
 152,554>50 
 30,919-00 
 140,00000 
 40,330-00 
 
 38,290-00 
 33,792-50 
 57,180-00 
 4,940-00 
 600-00 
 17,520-00 
 16,515-00 
 ■ 10,544-00 
 23,872-50 
 13,146-00 
 14,220-00 
 11,084-00 
 7,550-00 
 100,000 00 
 
 40,000-00 
 70,000-00 
 40,000-00 
 
 Disbursements of 22 vessels, at 6,000 
 fe Rice vessels 1,000 
 5 Lintin - 400 
 
 132,000-00 
 8,000-00 
 2,000-00 
 
 3,539,765-47 
 
 1,708,719-00 
 
 329,254-50 
 
 150,000-00 
 
 5,999,731-9: 
 
 It results from this statement, that the American trade at Canton, in 1831-32, amounted to about 
 12,000,000 dollars, being equal to three fourths of that carried on at Canton during the same year on 
 account of the East India Company. It is of importance to observe that the dealings of the Americans 
 are principally carried on with the outside merchants. Captain Collin, and otlier American gentlemen 
 examined by the late commiftee of tlie House of Commons on the China trade, speak in strong terms of 
 tiic facility and cxpcdihion with wh'cli business may be conducted at Canton. 
 
CANTON. 
 
 213 
 
 The following statement shows the amount of the American trade from lR29-r30 to 
 1831-32, according to the returns furnished to parliament by the East India Company. 
 
 An Account of the Value of Imports into, and Exports from, the Port of Canton by the Subjects of the 
 United States of America, in tlie Years 1829-30 to 1831-32. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports into China, 
 
 ICxports from China. 
 
 Tout Value Im- 
 Ijorts and ExiKirts. 
 
 Sale Value 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Total Value. 
 
 ToUl Value. 
 
 1829- 30 
 
 1830- 31 
 
 1831- 32 
 
 Dollars. 
 2,793,988 
 2,871,320 
 2.383,685 
 
 DoUurs. 
 1,123,644 
 183,655 
 667,252 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 3,917,632 
 3,054,975 
 3,050,937 
 
 Dollars. 
 4,108,611 
 4,263,551 
 5,857,732 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 8,026,243 
 7,3*8,526 
 8,908,669 
 
 Bills of exchange negotiated by the Americans in 1829-30, 393,6.50 dollars ; ditto in 1830-31, 1,168,500 
 dollars ; ditto in 1831-32, 2,480,871 dollars. — (Pari. Paper, No. 229. Sess. 1833, p. 13.) 
 
 7>ac!e of Portuguese, Spaniards, S(C. at Canton. — Respecting the extent of the Portuguese, Spanish, 
 French Swedish, Danish, and Dutch trades, we have no data to lay before the reader on which reliance 
 could be placed'; but they are inconsiderable and fluctuating, compared with the branches already 
 described. The Dutch trade is probably the largest ; but even with the assistance of protecting duties in 
 Holland the Dutch are unable to withstand the enterprise and activity of the Americans. The Portu- 
 guese trade, particularly that with the possessions of Portugal on the continent of India, was considerable 
 during the war, but has since greatly declined. A nation of more spirit than the Portuguese would, with 
 the advantage they enjoy in the possession of the convenient station of Macao, be able to carry on the 
 Chinese trade with superior success. There is a considerable intercourse, carried on in Spanish ships, 
 between Canton and Manilla. The Philippine Islands afford many commodities in demand in the 
 Chinese markets ; and the Spaniards are the only European people allowed openly to trade with the busy 
 and commercial port of Amoy, in the province of I'okicn ; unfortunately, however, they are deficient in 
 the skill and enterprise required fully to avail themselves of these advantages. It appears from the 
 official accounts, published by the French government, that in 1831, only 2 ships, of the burden of 585 tons, 
 cleared out from French ports for China. This, we believe, is principally to be ascribed to the trifling 
 extent to which the great article of Chinese produce, tea, is consumed in France. 
 
 Trade with the Indian Islands, S^c. — In his evidence before the select committee of 
 the House of Commons, Mr. Crawfurd gave the following instructive details with 
 respect to the native foreign trade of China : — 
 
 Native Foreign Trade of China. — " The principal part of the junk trade is carried on by the four con- 
 tiguous provinces of Canton, Fokien, Chekiang, and Kiannan. 
 
 "No foreign trade is permitted with the island of Formosa; and I have no means of describing the 
 extent of the traffic which may be conducted between China, Corea, and the Leechevv Islands. The 
 following are the countries with which China carries on a trade in junks : viz. Japan, the Philippines, the 
 Soo-loo Islands, Celebes, the Moluccas, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Singapore, Rhio, the east coast of the 
 Malayan peninsula, Siam, Cochin China, Cambodia, and Tonquin. The ports of China at which this 
 trade is conducted are Canton, Tchao-tcheou, Nomhong, Hoeitcheon, Suheng, Kongmoon, Chang-lim, 
 and Hainan, in the province of Canton ; Amoy and Chinchew, in the province of Fokien ; Ningpo and 
 Siang-hai, in the province of Chekiang ; and Soutcheon, in the province of Kiannan. The following 
 may be looked upon as an approximation to the number of junks carrying on trade with the different 
 places already enumerated j viz. 
 
 Japan 10 junks, two voyages - 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Soo-loo Islands 
 
 Borneo 13, Celebes 2 
 
 Java 
 
 Sumatra ... 
 
 Junks. 
 20 
 13 
 
 4 
 15 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 Singapore 8, Rhio 1 
 East coast of Malay peninsula 
 Siam . - - 
 
 Cochin China 
 Cambodia 
 Tonquin 
 
 Junks. 
 9 
 6 
 89 
 20 
 
 - 20 
 
 — Total 222. 
 
 " This statement does not include a great number of small junks belonging to the island of Hainan, 
 which carry on trade with Tonquin, Cochin China, Cambodia, Siam, and Singapore. Those for Siam 
 amount yearly to about 50, and for the Cochin Chinese dominions to about 43 ; these alone would bring 
 the total number of vessels carrying on a direct trade between China and foreign countries to 307. The 
 trade with Japan is confined to the port of Ningpo, in Chekiang, and expressly limited to 10 vessels ; but 
 as the distance from Nangasaki is a voyage of no more than 4 days, it is performed twice a year. 
 
 " With the exception of this branch of trade, the foreign intercourse of the two provinces'Cliekiang and 
 Kiannan, which are famous for the production of raw silk, teas, and nankeens, is confined to the Philip- 
 pine Islands, Tonquin, Cochin China, Cambodia, and Siam ; and none ol this class of vessels, that I am 
 aware of, have ever found their way to the western parts of the Indian Archipelago. The number of 
 these trading with Siam is 24, all of considerable size; those trading with the Cochin Chinese dominions 
 16, also of considerable size; and those trading with the Philippines 5 ; making in all 45, of which the 
 average burden does not fall short of 17,000 tons. I am the more particular in describing this branch of 
 the Chinese commerce, as we do not ourselves at present partake of it, and as we possess no direct means 
 of obtaining information in regard to it. All the junks carrying on this trade with Siam are owned in 
 the latter country and not in China; and I am not sure how far it may not also be so in the other cases. 
 I do not doubt but that a similar comiTierce will, in the event of a free trade, extend to Singajiore ; and 
 that through this channel may eventually be obtained the green teas of Kiannan, and the raw silks of 
 Chekiang. 
 
 " Besides the junks now described, there is another numerous class, which may be denominated the 
 colonial shipping of the Chinese. Wherever the Chinese are settled in any numbers, junks of this descrip- 
 tion are to be found ; such as in Java, Sumatra, the Straits of Malacca, &c. ; but the largest commerce ot 
 this description is conducted from the Cochin Chinese dominions, especially from Siam, where the 
 number was estimated to me at 200. Several junks of this description from the latter country come 
 aniuially to Singapore, of which the burden is not less than from 300 to 400 tons 
 
 " The junks which trade between China and the adjacent countries are some of them owned and built 
 in China; but a considerable number also in the latter countries, particularly in Siam and Cochin China. 
 Of those carrying on the Siamese trade, indeed, no less than 81 out of the 89, of considerable size, were 
 represented to me as being built and owned in Siam. The small junks, however, carrying on the trade of 
 Hainan, are all built and owned in China. 
 
 " The junks, whether colonial or trading direct with China, vary in burden from 2,000 piculs to 15,000, 
 or carry dead weight from 120 to 900 tons. Of those of the last size I have only seen 3 or 4, and these were 
 at Siam, and the same which were commonly employed in carrying a mission and tribute yearly from Siam 
 
 R 2 
 
CANTON. 
 
 to Canton. Of the whole of the large class of junks, I should think the average burden will not be over- 
 rated at 300 tons each, which would make the total tonnage employed in the native foreign trade of China 
 bfitween 60,000 and 70,000 tons, exclusive of the small junks of Hainan, which, estimated at 150 tons each 
 would make in all about 80,000 tons. ' 
 
 " The junks built in China are usually constructed of fir and other inferior woods. When they arrive 
 in Cambodia, Siam, and the Malayan islands, they commonly furnish themselves with masts, rudders, and 
 wooden anchors, of the superior timber of these countries. The junks built in Siam are a superior class 
 of vessels, the planks and upper works being invariably teak. The cost of ship-building is highest at the 
 port of Amoy in Fokien, and lowest in Siam. At these places, and at Chang-lim in Canton, the cost of a 
 junk of 8,000 piculs, or 476 tons burden, was stated to me, by several commanders of junks, to be as 
 follows : — 
 
 At Siam ...... 7,400 dollars. 
 
 Chang-lim ..... 16,000 — 
 
 Amoy 21,000 — . 
 
 A junk of the size just named has commonly a crew of 90 hands, consisting of the following officers, 
 besides the crew ; a commander, a pilot, an accountant, a captain of the helm, a captain of the anchor, and 
 a captain of the hold. The commander receives no pay, but has the advantage of the cabin accommodation 
 for passengers, reckoned on the voyage between Canton and Singapore worth 150 Spanish dollars. He is 
 also the agent of the owners, and receives a commission, commonly of 10 per cent, on the profits of such 
 share of the adventure, generally a considerable one, in which they are concerned. The pilot receives for 
 the voyage 200 dollars of wages, and 50 piculs of freight out and home. The helmsman has 15 piculs 
 of freight and no wages. The captains of the anchor and the hold have 9 piculs of freight each ; and the 
 seamen 7 piculs each. None of these have any wages. The officers and seamen of the colonial junks are 
 differently rewarded. In a Siamese junk, for example, trading between the Siamese capital and Singapore, 
 of 6,000 piculs burden, the commander and pilot had each 100 dollars for the voyage, with 12 piculs ol 
 freight apiece. The accountant and helmsman had half of this allowance, and each seaman had 13 dollars, 
 with 5 piculs of freight. 
 
 " In construction and outfit, Chinese junks are clumsy and awkward in the extreme. The Chinese are 
 quite unacquainted with navigation, saving the knowledge of the compass : notwithstanding this, astheur 
 pilots are expert, their voyages short, and as they hardly ever sail except at the height of the monsoons, 
 when a fair and steady 7 or 8 knots' breeze carries them directly from port to port, the sea risk is very 
 small. During 13 years' acquaintance with this branch of trade, I can recollect hearing of but 4 ship, 
 wrecks ; and in all these instances the crews were saved. 
 
 " The construction and rigging of a Chinese junk may be looked upon as her proper registry, and they 
 are a very effectual one ; for the least deviation from them would subject her at once to foreign charges 
 and foreign duties, and to all kinds of suspicion. The colonial junks, which are of a more commodious 
 form and outfit, if visiting China, are subjected to the same duties as foreign vessels. Junks built in Siam, 
 or any other adjacent country, if constructed and fitted out after the customary model, are admitted to 
 trade to China upon the same terms as those built and owned in the country. If any part of the crew 
 consist of Siamese, Cochin Chinese, or other foreigners, the latter are admitted only at the port of Canton ; 
 and if found in any other part of China, would b^; seized and taken up by the police exactly in the same 
 manner as if they were Europeans. The native trade of China conducted with foreign countries is not 
 a clandestine commerce, unacknowledged by the Chinese laws, but has in every case at least the express 
 sanction of the viceroy or governor of the province, who, on petition, decides the number of junks that 
 shall be allowed to engage in it ; and even enumerates the articles which it siiall be legal to export and 
 import. At every port, also, where such a foreign trade is sanctioned, there is a hong or body of security 
 merchants as at Canton ; a fact which shows clearly enough that this institution is parcel of the laws or 
 customs of China, and not a peculiar restraint imposed upon the intercourse with Europeans. 
 
 " The Chinese junks properly constructed pay no measurement duty, and no cumshaw or present ; 
 duties, however, are paid upon goods exported and imported, which seem to differ at the different 
 provinces. They are highest at Amoy, and lowest in the island of Hainan. The Chinese traders of 
 Siam informed me that tliey carried oil the fairest and easiest trade, subject to the fewest restrictions, 
 in the ports of Ningpo and Siang-hai in Chekiang, and Soutcheon in Kiannan. Great dexterity seems 
 every where to be exercised by the Chinese in evading the duties. One practice, which is very often 
 followed, will afford a good example of this. The coasting trade of China is nearly free from all duties 
 and other imposts. The merchant takes advantage of this; and intending in reality to proceed to Siam 
 or Cochin China, for example, clears a junk out for the island of Hainan, and thus avoids the ))ayment of 
 duties. When she returns she will lie 4 or 5 days off the mouth of the port, until a regular bargain 
 be made with the Custom-house officers for the reduction of duties. The threat held out in such 
 cases is to proceed to another port, and thus deprive the public officers of their customary perquisites. I 
 was assured of the frequency of this practice by Chinese merchants of Cochin China, as well as by several 
 commanders of junks at Singapore. From the last-named persons 1 had another fact of some consequence, 
 as connected with the Chinese trade ; viz. that a good many of the junks, carrying on trade with foreign 
 ports to the westward of China, often proceeded on voyages to the northward in the same season. In this 
 manner they stated that about 20 considerable junks, besides a great many small ones, proceeded annually 
 from Canton to Souchong, one of the capitals of Kiannan, and in wealth and commerce the rival ot 
 CantoU; where they sold about 200 chests of opium at an advance of SO per cent, beyond the Canton prices. 
 Another place where the Canton junks, to the number of 5 or 6, repair annually, is Chinchcw, in the 
 province of Canton, within the Gulf of Pecheley, or Yellow Sea, and as far north as the 37th degree oi 
 latitude." — (^Appendix, Report of 1S30, p. 298.) 
 
 A Chinese ship or junk is seldom the property of one individual. Sometimes 40, 50, 
 or even 100 different merchants purchase a vessel, and divide her into as many different 
 compartments as there are partners ; so that each knows his own particular part in the 
 ship, which he is at liberty to fit up and secure as he pleases. The bulk-heads, by which 
 these divisions are formed, consist of stout planks, so well caulked as to be completely 
 ■water-tight. A ship thus formed may strike on a rock, and yet sustain no serious 
 injury ; a leak springing in one division of the hold will not be attended with any 
 damage to articles placed in another ; and, from her firmness, she is qualified to resist 
 a more than ordinary shock. A considerable loss of rtowage is, of course, sustained ; 
 but the Chinese exports generally contain a considerable value in small bulk. It is only 
 the very largest class of junks that have so many owners; but even in the smallest class 
 the number is very considerable. 
 
 Population of China. — The most conflicting accounts have been given of the popu- 
 lation of the Chinese empire. According to the statement of the Chinese authorities, 
 it was found, by a census taken in 1813, to amount, for China Proper, to 367,821,000! 
 Vast as this number must certainly a])iiear, it does not, taking the prodigious extent of 
 
CANVAS. 
 
 territory over which it is spread into account, give more tlian 268 individuals to a 
 square mile, — a density inferior to that of several European countries. It is said 
 that the inhabitants arc in the practice of under-rating their numbers in their returns 
 to government. — (Companion to Anglo- Chinese Calendar, \i. 156.) We are, however, 
 wholly without the means of coming to any positive conclusion as to the degree of credit 
 to be attached to this census. 
 
 Price Current. —A perusal of the subjoined Price Current, published at Canton, the 1st of December, 
 1832, will give the reader a tolerable notion of the various articles and their prices in the Canton 
 market, at the very height of the shipping season. 
 
 Canton, 1st of December, 1832. 
 
 Tin, Banca 
 
 . Imports. 
 
 Amber . - • Sp. drs. 8 to 14 per catty. 
 
 Asafoetida • • - 4^ • per picul. 
 
 Biche de iner - • - 8 to 15 — 
 
 very superior - - 30 - 50 — 
 Bees' wax - - - 21 - 5J5 — 
 
 Hetel nut - - - .3^-4 — 
 
 Birds' nests . - - 26 - 40 per catty, 
 
 Camphor, Barus - - - 10 - 30 — 
 
 Cloves, Molucca - - - 30 - 32 per pica} 
 
 Mauritius 
 Cochineal, Europe, garbled 
 
 un;;arbled 
 Copper, South America 
 
 at Lintin for exportation 
 Japan - - - m - w 
 
 Coral fragments - - . oO - 60 
 
 Cotton, Bombay ... taels 8 - 10 4 
 Bengal - - - 8-5 to 10-5 
 
 Madias (old) 10-3: (new) - 11 
 Cotton goods, British, v 
 Chintzes 28 yd; 
 
 10 
 30 
 18 
 
 260 - 290 
 180 . 200 
 
 15 - IG 
 
 23-50 
 
 Sp. drs. 2| to 4^ per piece. 
 
 I.ongcloths 40 do, 
 Muslins 20 do 
 Cambrics 12 do 
 Monteith's bandannoes, scarlet 
 
 blue, &c. 
 
 Cotton yam. No. 16. to 20. 
 
 No. 20. to ,-0. 
 No. 30. to 40. 
 No. 40. to 70. 
 Cow bezoar ... 
 Cudbear ... 
 Cutch, Pegu ... 
 Ebony, Mauritius 
 
 Ceylon ... 
 Elephanu' teeth, 1st, 5 to 8 to a picul 
 2d,,12 to 15 do. 
 3d, 18 to 25 do. 
 cuttings 
 
 Fishmaws 
 Flints 
 Gambler 
 Ginseng, crude 
 
 clarified 
 Iron bar, 1 to 3 inch 
 
 rod, ^ inch and under 
 
 scrap 
 Lead, pig 
 
 Mace ... 
 Myrrh .... 
 Nutmegs - - 
 Olibanum, garbled, 10: ungarbled 
 Opium, Palna (nominal) 
 
 Benares do. 
 
 Bombay do. 
 
 Damaum do. 
 
 Turkey do. 
 Pepper, Malay ... 
 Putchuck 
 Quicksilver 
 
 Kattans ... 
 Rice 
 
 Rose, l\raloes ... 
 Saltpetre at Whampoa 
 
 Lintin 
 Sandal wood, Indian 
 
 Sandwich Island . 
 Sapan woo<I, ... 
 Sharks' fins 
 
 very fine 
 Skins, rabbit 
 seal 
 
 sea otter 
 land do. . 
 beaver 
 
 fox . . . . cts. 70 
 Smalts, (for a small sopply) Sp. drs. 20 
 Steel, English - . - 4A 
 
 Swedish, in kits . . 5 
 Stockfish 
 Spelter 
 
 1 hread, gold and silver 
 Tin plates 
 
 4i 
 
 per picul. 
 
 3.i^ 
 
 42 
 
 58 - — 
 not wanted. 
 50 - per catty. 
 25 to 26 perpicol. 
 4 - 4i _ 
 3 - 4 - 
 2 - 2J — 
 
 •.'4 
 
 70 
 70 
 
 - 50 to 70 
 - cts. 50 
 
 . Sp. drs. 1 to U 
 . 70 - SO 
 
 - SO 
 
 . : ^* - 
 
 . : 4\"!' 
 
 none. 
 . 4 to 18 
 
 none. 
 5 to 6 
 
 950 
 950 
 825 
 825 
 
 800 - 
 7|to 8 
 14 - 15 
 58 - CO 
 23 - 3i 
 2 - 2-C 
 38 - 
 
 per chest. 
 
 per picul. 
 
 none. 
 
 o 9 _ 
 
 - 16 — 
 
 - 7 — 
 80 to 2 _ 
 
 23 to 24 — 
 28 - 40 — 
 45 - 50 per 100. 
 
 1-80 to 2 each. 
 45 to 50 _ 
 5 . 6i _ 
 4 _ 
 
 8.J 
 10 
 14 
 
 4k 
 
 o • percwt. 
 
 5 to 6 per picul. 
 34 to 4 _ 
 
 32 - 35 per catty. 
 
 6 . per box. 
 
 Sp. drs. 1.5 . per picul. 
 - 14 to 14i - 
 1-40 - 1-50 per yard. 
 Camlets, English, 55 yds. by 30 ins. 14 - 15 per piece. 
 
 , Dutch, 40 do. I.y 28 do. 20 - 28 — 
 
 , do. broad, 40 do. by 53 do. 20 . 28 — 
 
 Long-ells - . . 7 . — 
 
 Scarlet cuttings - . 80 to 90 per picul. 
 
 Exjiorts. 
 
 Alum, at Macao, 1 1 to 2 here Sp. drs. 2-25 - per picnil 
 
 Aniseed, star 
 
 oil of 
 Bamboo canes 
 
 Brass leaf ... 
 Camphor, at Macao, none : at Canton 
 Cassia (shi|)ped outsidu], 9 : at do. 
 
 buds (new) 
 China root ... 
 ("Aibfbs ... 
 Dragon's blood ... 
 <.;alani;al 
 
 Gamboge ... 
 til ass heads 
 Hartall 
 
 Lead, white - . 
 red 
 
 Mother-of-pearl shells 
 Musk ..... 
 Nankeens, Company's 1st 
 
 2d, 1st sort 
 2d do, 
 3d, - 
 small ... 
 blue Nankin, small (9J yds. 12 ins.) do. 
 
 large, (10^ do. 13 do.) 85 to 90 — 
 Canton . - 62 - 63 — 
 
 Oil of cassia - . . - 1^ - per catty. 
 Rhubarb . - . • 52 to 55 per picul. 
 
 Silk, raw. Nankin, Taysaam . - 333 
 
 10 toll 
 1-50 - percattv. 
 
 14 to 16 per l.OOg. 
 45 - 46 per box.' 
 28 - 30 per picul. 
 12 - 13 i. 
 
 15 • — 
 3i . - 
 
 none. 
 80 to 100 — 
 4i - - 
 75 to 85 — 
 
 16 - 22 — 
 12 - 13 _ 
 
 10 - — 
 
 11 - — 
 20 to 22 — 
 70 to 110 l>er catty. 
 72 to 74 per 100. 
 52 - — 
 47 to 48 — 
 38-40 — 
 
 none. 
 
 Tsatle 
 Canton, No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 No. 5. 
 No. 4. 
 
 No. 5.^ 2 
 
 -3 
 
 Sugar, raw 
 
 I'ingfa 
 
 Sugar candy, Chinchew - 
 
 Canton, 1st sort 
 2d do. 
 
 Tea, Bohea 
 Congou 
 Campoy 
 Souchong 
 Peko 
 Ankoi ! 
 Hyson 
 
 skin 
 young 
 
 Gunpowder 
 
 I'wankay 
 
 Orange peko 
 
 Caper 
 Tortoiseshell 
 Turmeric 
 Tutenague 
 Vermilion 
 Whangees 
 
 - 352 
 
 taels 260 to 265 
 
 - 250 
 
 - 225 to 230 
 
 - 140 
 Sp. drs. 90 
 
 . 70 
 
 - 63 
 
 - taels 5-2 to 5-6 
 6-2 to 6-4 
 Sp. drs. U 
 taels 6-6 
 
 none. 
 
 chong 
 
 - 12 
 
 to 15 
 
 
 . ■ 20 
 
 - 28 
 
 
 . 28 
 
 - 30 
 
 
 - 19 
 
 - 35 
 
 
 - 38 
 . IS 
 
 - 60 
 
 - 20 
 
 
 . 55 
 
 - 70 
 
 
 - 26 
 
 - 55 
 
 
 . 45 
 
 - 50 
 
 
 . 61 
 
 - 66 
 
 
 - 30 
 
 - 32 
 
 
 . 20 
 
 - 21 
 
 
 - 20 
 
 - 22 
 
 
 - 20 
 
 . 22 
 
 
 Sp. drs. 5 
 
 - 
 
 
 . 13 
 
 
 
 54 to 35 per box. 
 22 . 25 per 1,000. 
 
 Bullim. 
 
 Gold . 98 touch - - drs. 23| per tael. 
 
 Syi ee silver at Lintin, 1 to 2 per cent, premium. 
 Spanish dollars, entire ... none. 
 Republican do. - . . do. 
 
 Exchanges. 
 
 Londo 
 
 , per Sp. dr., 6 months' sight. 
 
 I 4-5. 
 
 Bengal Co.'s 207 Sicca rupees, per 100 Sp. drs., 30 days* sight 
 Private bUls 210 do. - do. do. 
 
 Bombay 218 Bombay rupees do. do. 
 
 CANVAS (Fr. Toile a voile ; Ger. Segeltuch ; It. Canevazza, Lona ; 'Rns. Parussnoe 
 volotno, Parussina; Sp. Lona), unbleached cloth of hemp or flax, chiefly used for sails 
 for shipping. Masters of ships are required to make entry of all foreign-made sails 
 and cordage, not being standing or running rigging, in use on board their respective 
 ships, under a penalty of 100/. Sails in actual use, and fit and necessary for such ship, 
 are imported free ; but when otherwise disposed of, they are liable to an ad valorem duty 
 of 20 per cent. — (3 & 4 JFill. 4. c. 56.) It had been the practice for a considerable 
 period to grant bounties on the exportation of canvas or sail-cloth ; these, however 
 
 R 3 
 
24.6 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC. — CAPE-TOWN. 
 
 finally ceased on the 1st of January, 1832. By an act passed in the reign of Geo. 2., 
 new sails were ordered to be stamped with the maker's name and place of abode j but 
 this regulation was repealed by the 10 Geo. 4. c. 43. § 9. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC. " This substance, which has been improperly termed elastic gum, 
 and vulgarly, from its common application to rub out pencil marks on paper, India 
 rubber, is obtained from the milky juice of different plants in hot countries. The chief 
 of these are the Jafropha elastica, and Urceola elastica. The juice is applied in succes- 
 sive coatings on a mould of clay, and dried by the fire or in the sun ; and when of a 
 sufficient thickness, the mould is crushed, and the pieces shaken out. Acids separate 
 the caoutchouc from the thinner part, of the juice at once, by coagulating it. The juice 
 of old plants yields nearly two thirds of its weight ; that of younger plants less. Its 
 colour, when fresh, is yellowish white, but it grows darker by exposure to the air. The 
 elasticity of this substance is its most remarkable property ; when warmed, as by im- 
 mersion in hot water, slips of it may be drawn out to 7 or 8 times their original length, and 
 will return to their former dimensions nearly. Cold renders it stiff and rigid, but warmth 
 restores its original elasticity. Exposed to the fire, it softens, swells up, and burns with 
 a bright flame. In Cayenne it is used to give light as a candle." — ( lire's Dictionary.} 
 Caoutchouc promises to become an article of very considerable importance. M. de 
 la Coudamine, who was one of the first to commimicate authentic information with 
 respect to it, mentions, that, owing to its being impervious to water, it was made into 
 boots by the Indians. — ( Voyage de la' Riviere des Amazones, p. 76. ) It is now employed in 
 a similar way here. Means have, within these few years, been discovered of reducing it 
 to a state of solution ; and when thin filaments of it are spread over cloth or any other 
 substance, it is rendered impervious alike to air and water. Air cushions and pillows 
 are manufactured in this way ; as are water-proof cloaks, hats, boots, shoes, &c. It is 
 also extensively used in the manufacture of braces and other articles which it is desirable 
 should possess considerable elasticity ; and there can be little doubt that it will be em- 
 ployed still more extensively, and in a still greater variety of ways. 
 
 Previously to 18.30, the importations of caoutchouc were comparatively inconsiderable. In that year they 
 amounted to about 52,000 lbs. ; while, during the year ended the 5th of April, 1833, the quantity entered 
 for consumption amounted to 178,676 lbs. Its price varies from 6rf. to 2s. 6d, per lb. The duty has been 
 judiciously reduced from 5d, per lb. to Is. per cwt. 
 
 CAPERS (Fr. Capres ; Ger. Kappern ; Du. Kappers ; It. Cappart ; Sp. Alca^ 
 parras ; Rus. Kaperszii ; Lat. Capparis), the pickled buds of the Capparis spinosa, a 
 low shrub, generally growing out of the joints of old walls, and the fissures of rocks, in 
 most of the warm parts of Europe. Capers are imported into Great Britain from 
 different parts of the Mediterranean ; the best from Toulon in France. Some small 
 salt caperii come from Majorca, and a few flat ones from about Lyons. The duty of 6d. 
 per lb. on capers produced, in 1832, 1,553Z. 5s. 4d. nett, showing that 62,130 lbs. had 
 been entered for home consumption. 
 
 CAPE-TOWN, the capital of the British territory in South Africa ; lat. 33° 55' 56" S., 
 long. 18^' 21' E. It lies at the bottom of Table Bay, about 32 miles nortji from the 
 Cape of Good Hope ; and on the western side of the territory to which it gives its 
 name. The town was founded by the Dutch in 1650 ; and remained, with the territory 
 subject to it, in their possession, till it was taken by the Briti.sh in 1795. It was restored 
 to the Dutch by the treaty of Amiens; but being again captured by the British in 1806, 
 it was finally ceded to us in 1815. The .streets are laid out in straight lines, cro.ssing 
 each other at right angles ; many of them being watered by canals, and planted on each 
 side with oaks. The population in 1829-30 amounted, according to the statement in 
 the Cape Almanac, to 13,103 free persons and 5,838 slaves, making together 18,491. 
 The town is defended by a castle of considerable strength. Table Bay is capable of 
 containing any number of ships ; but it is exposed to the westerly winds, which, during 
 the months of June, July, and August, throw in a heavy swell, that has been productive 
 !)f many distressing accidents. This, in fact, is the great drawback upon Cape- Town, 
 ivhich in all other respects is most admirably fitted for a commercial station. At the 
 proper season, however, or during the prevalence of the easterly monsoon. Table Bay is 
 perfectly safe ; while the cheapness and abundance of provisions, the hccilthiness of the 
 climate, and above all its position, render it a peculiarly desirable resting place for ships 
 bound to or from India, China, Australia, &c. 
 
 Tlie subjoined plan of Table Bay is taken from the survey of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 executed by Lieut. Vidal and others, under the direction of Captain Owen. 
 
 References to the Plan. — A, light-house, furni.shed with double lights. They may be seen clearly off 
 dock at 16 miles' distance ; but they do not ai)pear double till within 6 or 7 miles to the westward ; from 
 the northward only one light is seen. 15, Lion's Rump. C, Table Mountain. D, Devil's Peak, in lat. 
 3.3" 57' 2". E, Hobbin Island. F, Salt lliver. The figures denote the soundings in fathoms. 
 
 Port Imttrnctions. — Art. 1. On the arrival of merchant vessels in Table Bay, a proper berth will be 
 pointed out to the masters thereof by the port captaiTi, when he boards them ; and no master of a merchant 
 vessel shall .shift his berth wit hout permission from the port cajitain, unless in case of extreme emergency, 
 when he must report his having done so as early asnossible at the Port-office. 
 
CAPE TOWN. 
 
 247 
 
 2. Should it be the intention of a master of a vessel to discharge or receive on board any considerable 
 quantity of merchandise, a berth will be pointed out to him as close to the jetty, or other landing place, 
 as the safety of the vessel and other circumstances will admit. And the master will then moor with two 
 bower anchors, with an open hawse to the N.N.E., taking especial care, in so mooring, not to overlay the 
 anchors of any other ship, or in any way to give the vessel near him a foul berth. Ships and vessels 
 touching in Table Bay for water and refreshments alone, may ride at single anchor in the outer anchor, 
 age ; but in this case it is particularly recommended to veer out 80 or 90 fathoms, if they ride by a chain 
 cable, as the liability of starting or fouling the anchor, or breaking the chain, will thereby be greatly 
 lessened ; and if riding by a rope or coir cable, to run out a stream or good kedge, to steady the ship ; and 
 in both cases the other bower anchor should be kept in perfect readiness to let go. When the vessel is 
 properly moored with bower anchors, or well secured with a bower and stream anchor, and with good 
 cables, buoys, and buoy-ropes, the master will then take the exact place of the ship by the bearings of 2 
 land-marks, and the depth of the water ; and should accident occur, by which the vessel may drift from, 
 this situation, or lose her anchors, a good bearing and depth of water must be taken at the time, and the 
 same must be notified in writing to the port captain. It is particularly recommended that vessels be kept 
 as snug as possible, to counteract the effects of the periodical winds, which at times blow with consider- 
 able violence. 
 
 R 4 
 
CAPE-TOWN. 
 
 The district subject to Cape Town is of very great extent, and contains every variety 
 of soil, from the richest level land to the wildest mountain, and tracts destitute of even 
 the appearance of vegetation. The climate fluctuates between the two extremes of rain 
 and drought. On the whole, its advantages and disadvantages seem to be pretty equally 
 balanced ; and the prospects which it holds out to the industrious emigrant, if not very 
 alluring, are certainly not discouraging. 
 
 Population. — According to the oflicial returns, the population of the Cape Colony, in 
 1834, consisted of — 
 
 Whites and Free Coloured. Negro Apprentices, formerly Slaves. 
 
 Male; Female. Male. Female. 
 
 60,440 56,418^ 19,580 16,589 Total 153,027. 
 
 Produce. — Large quantities of corn of a very good description are produced in the 
 immediate neighbourhood of Cape- Town ; but its free exportation is restrained ; none 
 being allowed to be sent abroad, except a specified quantity decided upon by government 
 after an investigation into the state of the crops ! This restriction, Mr Thompson tells 
 us ( Travels in Southern Africa, p. 395. ), has neither produced regular prices nor averted 
 scarcity. It has, however, been in no common degree injurious to the colony ; and it 
 is really surprising that systems of policy universally condemned in England should be 
 allowed to exert a pernicious influence over any of our colonies. The Mauritius and 
 Rio Janeiro are the principal markets for the corn of the Cape. 
 
 Large quantities of wine, and of what is called brandy, are produced at the Cape ; 
 but, with the exception of Constantia, they are very inferior. Objections have been 
 made to the duties recently imposed on Cape wines ; but, as it appears to us, without 
 any good foundation. 'The real effect of allowing their importation at a comparatively low 
 duty is not to occasion their direct consumption, but to cause th#m to be employed as a con- 
 venient means of adulterating others; so that, besides being injurious to the revenue, such 
 reduction of duty promotes fraudulent practices, and detracts from the comforts of the public. 
 
 Considerable quantities of hides, skins, and horns are exported. They are princi- 
 pally brought from Algoa Bay, on the eastern side of the colony ; and the trade has 
 increased very fast during the last 6 or 7 years. Horses, butter, beef, ivory, whale oil, 
 aloes, argol, and various other articles, are among the exports. 
 
 The imports at the Cape consist of woollens, cottons, hardware, earthenware, ftirnU 
 ture, haberdashery, soap, paper, books, and portions of most articles used in this country. 
 Piece goods and teak timber are imported from India, tea from China, sugar from India 
 and the Mauritius, &c. 
 
 Revenue, §*c, — The total revenue of the Cape Colony for the year 1832 amounted to 
 130,808/. 7s. S^d. ; the expenditure for the same year was 126,889/. Os. 9^d. ; leaving 
 a balance of 3,919/. 6s. \0\d. in favour of the former. 
 
 Trade. — The trade between the colonists and the independent natives is subjected to 
 various restraints, of which it is not always very easy to discover the policy. The sale 
 of gunpowder and fire-arms to the natives has been prohibited ; a regulation which 
 might have been a judicious one, had they not been able to obtain them from any on^ 
 else. But the Americans have begun to trade at Natal, on the eastern coast, and have 
 liberally supplied the natives with these and various other articles ; so that by keeping 
 up the regulation in question, we merely exclude ourselves from participating in what 
 might be an advantageous trade. 
 According to the official accounts, the values of the products imported into, and exported from the 
 
 Estimated Value of Imports. 
 
 Estimated Value of Exports. 
 
 
 G. Britain. 
 
 British 
 Colonies. 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 Other 
 Foreign 
 States. 
 
 Total. 
 
 G. Britain, 
 
 BritisJi 
 Colonies. 
 
 U"itedl Other 
 States, Fg-X 
 
 Total. 
 
 Cape-Town, • - 
 Simon's Town - • 
 Port-Eli:cabeth, 
 
 Total 
 
 L. 
 275,049 
 603 
 56,8G.S 
 
 332,420 
 
 L. 
 
 27,200 
 3,33S 
 3,430 
 
 L. 
 
 4,349 
 5,391 
 
 L. 
 
 86,229 
 3 2 
 19 
 
 L. 
 
 392,827 
 9,624 
 6,317 
 
 L. 
 171,313 
 
 5,797 
 61,142 
 
 L. 
 
 106,830 
 570 
 4,156 
 
 L. 1 L. 
 4,603, 14,822 
 61 4 
 - . 498 
 
 L. 
 
 297,574 
 6,432 
 65,796 
 
 33,968 
 
 9,740 
 
 86,640 462,768 
 
 238,258' 111,556 
 
 4,664 15,3241 369,802 
 
 During the same year, the ships and tonnage entering inwards from, and clearing outwards to, the 
 undermentioned countries, were : — 
 
 Siiips Inwards. 
 
 C. Town 
 
 S. TOWH 
 
 P Eliz 
 
 Ships Outwards. 
 
 G. Britain. 
 
 B. Colonies. 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 Other 
 Foreign 
 States. 
 
 Total. 
 
 G. Britain. 
 
 B. Colonies. 
 
 United 
 SUte."i. 
 
 Other 
 Foreign 
 States. 
 
 Tot&l. 
 
 1 s 
 
 ~9S 
 8 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 ^140 
 2,973 
 2,227 
 
 1 Ships 
 
 Tons 
 
 Ships 
 
 Tons 
 
 Ships 
 
 Tons 
 
 1 Ships! 
 
 Tons 
 
 1 Ships 
 Tons 
 
 1 Ships 
 
 s 
 
 Ships 1 
 
 Tons 
 
 Ships 1 
 
 Tons. 
 
 78 25,047 
 !» 3,141 
 15 2,771 
 
 lo2 a0,959 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 2 
 
 9,572 
 5,6.-2 
 559 
 
 82 
 4 
 2 
 
 18,419 
 2,003 
 171 
 
 289 
 28 
 
 88,178 
 13,749 
 5,728 
 
 115 
 8 
 12 
 
 45,447 
 3,063 
 1,937 
 
 102 30,900 
 121 4,606 
 6] 1,210 
 
 25 
 19 
 
 7,670 
 5,504 
 
 41 
 4 
 6 
 
 12,.'->.37 
 1,262 
 1,019 
 
 283 
 43 
 24 
 
 96,554 
 14,4.35 
 4,166 
 
 115 
 
 40,340 
 
 _53 
 
 15,763 
 
 _88 
 
 20,593 
 
 358 
 
 107,655 
 
 135 
 
 50,447 
 
 120 .36,7161 44 
 
 13,174 
 
 51 
 
 14,S1S .^50!TJ5,ld5 
 
CAPE-TOWN. 
 
 249 
 
 Articles exported from the Cape. — The following account of the exports from the Cape in 1829 is 
 taken from the Cape Almanac for 1831. It is the iriott complete of any that we have seen, and it» 
 accuracy may be depended upon. 
 
 Articles, the Produce and Manufacture of the Cape Colony, exported during 1829. 
 
 Amount* 
 
 je 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 2,794 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5,5-0 
 
 16 
 
 
 4,.^53 
 
 7 
 
 ^ 
 
 5!40 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 228 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4,1C3 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 87 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 866 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 23,449 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 467 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 383 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 i38 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,917 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,589 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 4,236 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 49 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 413 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 96 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 33,722 
 
 18 
 
 5i 
 
 5,989 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 79 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8,753 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3,759 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 688 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4,023 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1,782 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 63 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 169 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 138 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Aloes, 375,736 lbs. and 61 casks and cases, 
 
 estimated value 
 Argol, 22,422 lbs. 
 
 Butter, 105,519 lbs. and 152 casks and jars 
 Beef, pork, and tonj^ues, salted, 1,780 ca^ks and 
 
 kCRS 
 
 Beer, 3,306 ga)lons 
 Biscuits and rusks, 20,000 lbs. 
 Corn, grain, meal, &c., viz. 
 
 Barley and oats, 13,553 muids 
 
 Beans and peas, 60 mtiids 
 
 Bran, 36,332 lbs. 
 
 Flour, 78,224 lbs. 
 
 Wheat, 24,236 muids 
 Cheese ... 
 Curiosities ... 
 Confectionery ... 
 Cindles, 11,584 lbs. . .. 
 Carriages - . . 
 
 Feathers, ostrich, 539 lbs. and 31 boxes 
 Fish 
 
 Fruits, dried, 133,333 lbs. 
 
 green ... 
 Garden seeds and bulbs 
 Gum, 16,943 lbs. and 2 cases 
 Hides, horse and ox, 79,035 pieces 
 Horns, 244,610 in number 
 Hay, 29,160 lbs. 
 Horses, 314 in number 
 Ivory, 25,497 lbs. and 227 tusks, bundles and 
 
 casks ... 
 Lime, 72 half-aams • 
 Leather, 2 cases 
 Mules, 48 head 
 
 Oil, whale, 34,662 gallons and 90 casks 
 Oxen, cows, and calves, 444 head 
 Polonies - - 
 
 Potatoes and onions, 367 muids 
 Poultry ... 
 
 Salt, 288 muids 
 
 Sheep, 3,282 in number ; pigs, 33 ; goats, 2 
 Spirits, viz. 
 
 Brandy, 1 ,408^ gallons 
 
 Liqueurs, 24 gallons 
 Soap, 1,218 lbs. 
 Saddlery and harness 
 Skins, viz. 
 
 Goat, 91,781 pieces and 55 bundles 
 
 Seal, 3,928 pieces 
 
 Sheep, 77,343 pieces 
 
 Calt^ 1,414 pieces and 2 bundles 
 
 Rabbit and mole, 4'JO pieces 
 
 Karosses, 1 can: 
 Tallow, 13,333 lbs. 
 Vinegar, 428 gallons 
 Wine, ordinary, 1,548,977J gallons 
 
 Constantia, 2,874 gallons 
 Wool, 33,280 lbs. and 11 bags 
 Wood .... 
 Whalebone, 13,038 lbs. and 229 bundles 
 Wax, bees', 9 10 lbs. 
 
 Zebras, 4 head ... 
 
 Ji 8. d. 
 
 28 10 0 
 
 1,506 10 0 
 
 85 0 0 
 
 20 0 0 
 
 24 0 0 
 
 23 0 0 
 
 Supplies to his Majesty's Navy. 
 
 Beef, fresh, 13.7,662 lbs. 
 Biscuit, 259,616 lbs. 
 Bread, soft, 11 8,480 lbs. 
 Flour, 57,422 lbs. 
 
 Hay, 5,630 lbs. ... 
 Raisins, 10,722 lbs. 
 Sheep, 34 in number, and oxen 23 
 Vegetables, 30,0 1 3 lbs. 
 Wine, ordinary, 18,091 Imperial quarts 
 Total estimated value of'colonial pro-' 
 duce and manufactures exported 
 during thp year 1829 . - ' 
 
 717 0 
 
 2,859 0 
 
 740 0 
 
 632 0 
 
 26 0 
 
 191 0 
 
 83 0 
 
 306 0 
 
 1,432 0 
 
 514 15 0 
 K.34 0 0 
 3,795 0 0 
 169 0 0 
 14 0 0 
 7 10 
 408 0 
 13 0 
 146,936 0 
 2,1.37 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 1,220 0 0 
 73 10 0 
 1,392 0 0 
 22 0 0 
 148 0 0 
 
 285,247 15 10^ 
 
 Custom-house Regulations, Fees, &c. 
 
 On Admission of a Ship to Entry, observe — 
 
 1. The ship's register must be lodged in the Custom-house, 
 until the vessel clear again for sea. 
 
 2. The manifest of the cargo on board for this place must 
 be deposited there. 
 
 3. The cockets of cargoes shipped from any place in Great 
 Britain or Ireland for tliis place must also be deposited there. 
 
 From the endorsement ot such cockets, an extract is to be 
 made, which will show the contents of the different packages 
 on board, and facilitate the making out of the entries. 
 
 4. In making out the declarations, the value by invoice of 
 the different commodities must be given by the importer, in 
 order to enable the Custom-house to estimate the duties pay- 
 able, and to send in to government, annually, the required 
 statement of the total duties received upon tlie several articles 
 imported. 
 
 In the clearing of a Ship outwards, observe — 
 
 1. The master must produce a certificate from the harbour 
 master, that the tonnago duties of the port have been paid. 
 
 2. The export manifest must be examined with the permits 
 granted, in order to ascertain whether packages have been 
 shipp! d without a permit. 
 
 3. Export declarations must be, sent in by the several 
 shippers, of the quantity and value of goods or produce 
 shipped by them, in order to ascertain the amount of the 
 exports of the colony. 
 
 4. When Cape wine is shipped for exportation to England, 
 affidavit of the particular description of such wine must be 
 delivered, and a certificate granted, by the collector or comp- 
 troller of customs, to the master, of his having received such 
 affidavit. 
 
 5. Manifests, in triplicate, of such goods as are shipped 
 from the Cape for Great Britain, must be delivered, signed, 
 and sworn to by the master, before the collector or comp- 
 troller. 
 
 The original of which is to be returned to the master to 
 accompany the cargo. 
 
 The duplicate to be forwarded, by the first conveyance sail- 
 ing sunsequently to the vessel containing the original, to the 
 commissioners of customs in England or Scotland respectively, 
 as the case may happen. 
 
 An<l the triplicate, written on or covered with a stamp, to 
 remain as an office copy. 
 
 N B. — Ships taking in cargoes for other parts of the world, 
 are required to deliver only original and dujjlicate manifests. 
 
 Description qf Stamps required. L. s. d. 
 
 From 1 to 10 tons of goods shipped from the Cape 0 7 6 
 10-20 - . - - - 0 15 0 
 
 20 - 50 • - • - 1 10 0 
 
 50 and upwards • - - -250 
 
 6. When whale oil or whale bone is shipped from the Cape 
 for England, the proprietor of the whale fishery is to make 
 oath, before the collector or comptroller, that tlie sair.e v,-ere 
 bond fide the produce of fish, or creatures living in the sea, 
 actually taken and caught wholly by his Majesty's subjects 
 usually residing in this colony ; and the collector or comptroller 
 is to grant a certificate under his liand and seal to the master, 
 testifying that such oath hath been made before him. 
 
 7. When salted seal skins are shipped from the Cape for 
 England, the shipper is to make oath before the collector or 
 comptroller, that tne same are really ar.d bviuifide the skins of 
 
 seals taken and caught on the coast appertaining to the Cape 
 of Good Hope, wholly by his Majesty's sulyects usually residing 
 in this colony ; and that all the salt used in ti e curing or 
 preserving of the same was not made in, or exported from. 
 Great Britain or Ireland ; and the collector or comptroller is 
 to grant a certificate to the master accordingly. 
 
 8. The original manifest, and a copy thereof, of ships touch- 
 ing at the Cape of Good Hope, with cargoes from the east- 
 ward for England, to be delivered and sworn to by the master 
 before the collector or comptroller. The original to be returned 
 to the master, and the copy forwarded from the Custom-house 
 to the commissioner of customs. 
 
 9. If any part of such cargo shall be discharged at the Cape 
 of Good Hope, the collector or comptroller is to indorse upon 
 the manifest the part of the cargo so discharged, and verily 
 
 the same. 
 
 10. The usual fees to be charged, viz. — 
 Entrance .... 
 Clearance - 
 Landing (or shipping) cargo 
 Lan<ling (or shipping) part cargo 
 Coastwise: Landing (or shipping) part cargo 
 
 Manifest of goods taken in here • " - 
 Coastwise: Entrance — gratis. 
 
 Clearance - . . . 
 
 Landing (or shipping) cargo 
 
 s. 
 
 0 6 
 0 6 
 0 15 
 0 7 
 0 1 
 0 1 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 In obtaining Permits, observe 
 
 1. No credit will be given to any person whatever. 
 _ 2. The duties are to be collected on all imports, whether 
 intended for private use, for presents, or for trade ; except ou 
 wearing apparel accompanying the proprietor. 
 
 Or on specie. 
 
 On garden seeds. 
 
 On horses (exclusive of geldings). 
 
 On goods lodged in the Custom-house stores for exportation. 
 On goods transhipped in the bay for other ports (provided 
 
 neither bargain nor sale of them have Uken place). 
 On naval stores. 
 
 On government stores (provided an order be sent from go- 
 
 3. 1*. 6d. IS charged for every permit for goods exceeding 
 the value of 71. 10s. shipped or landed, and 9d. on goods under 
 7/. IOj. value ; as also 9d. for every baggage permit. 
 
 Wharfage Dues. L. s. d. 
 
 Every pipe, puncheon, or cask equal in size or larger 
 
 than a pipe 
 
 -016 
 
 For every hoist at the crane . - . - 0 0 9 
 For every horse - . . .-076 
 
 For aU oxen 0 16 
 
 For a sheep . . . . . o 0 4A 
 
 For a pig - . . . - 0 0 4 J 
 
 i or every case measuring J a ton, or larger - 0 1 6 
 
 Port Dues. 
 
 Upon all vessels entering this port for the purposes of Uade. 
 perton,4^</. ' 
 
 Upon all vessels entering this port to procure refreshments, 
 or for any purpose short of trade, per ton, 2Jrf. 
 
250 
 
 CAPITAL. 
 
 Regulations as to Trade. — All goods, the produce or manufacture of the Cape of Good Hope, or the 
 territories or dependencies thereof, are subject (on importation into England) to the same duties as are 
 imposed on the like articles, the produce or manufacture of the British possessions within the limits of 
 the East India Company's charter, except when any other duty is expressly laid on them. — (3 & 4 Will. ^ 
 c, 56. tt9.) 
 
 The 6 Geo. 4. c. 114. enacts, that it shall be lawful for his Majesty, by any order in council to be issued 
 from time to time, to give such directions and make such regulations touching the trade and com- 
 merce to and from any British possessions in Africa, as to his Majesty in council shall appear most 
 expedient and salutary ; and if any goods be imported or exported in any manner contrary to such order 
 of his Majesty in council, the same shall be forfeited, together with the ship importing or exporting the 
 same. — § 73. ■ ■> • . 
 
 It shall not be lawful for any person to re-export, from any of his Majesty's possessions abroad, to any 
 foreign place, any coals, the produce of the United Kingdom; and no such coals shall be shipped at any 
 of such possessions^ to be exported to any British place, until the exporter or the master of the exporting 
 vessel shall have given bond, with one sufficient surety, in double the value of the coals, , that such coals 
 shall not be landed at any foreign place. — ^85. 
 
 It shall be lawful for the shipper of any wine, tlie produce of the Cape of Good Hope or of its dependencies, 
 which is to be exported thence, to go before the chief officer of customs, and make and sign an affidavit 
 before him, that such wine was really and bond fide the produce of the Cape of Good Hope or of its de- 
 pendencies ; and such officer is hereby authorised and required to administer such affidavit, and to grant a 
 certificate thereof, setting forth in such certificate the name of the ship in which the wine is to be exported, 
 and the destination of the same, — § 78. 
 
 Duties. — A duty of per cent, is charged on the importation of all articles of the growth, production, 
 or manufacture of Great Britain, or of the British plantations in the West Indies! 
 
 A duty of 10 per cent, is charged on the importation (by British vessels) of all articles of the growth, 
 production, or manufacture of foreign Europe, America, or the eastward of the Cape, to be levied accord- 
 ing to the declaration of the value by the importer. No abatement or reduction whatever admitted, ex- 
 cept of the duties and landing charges payable on the importation thereof 
 
 An additional duty of ]s. &d. per gallon is charged on the importation of arrack, rum, gin, liqueurs, 
 whisky, or other spirituous liquors, brandy excepted. 
 
 No tea may be landed, unless the permission of the East India Company's agent be first obtained. ' 
 
 No ammunition may be landed or shipped, unless the permission of government be first obtained. 
 
 Commission. — The following rates of commission are charged and allowed, namely — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 1. On the nett amount of all sales of goods by public sale, and on the gross amount of all other sales 5 
 
 2. Goods consigned, and afterwards withdrawn - . - - - - - 2| 
 
 3. On purchases effected from the proceeds of goods on which a commission has already been 
 
 charged - - - - - - - -2| 
 
 4. On all other purchases, or shipments of goods - . - - • 5 i 
 
 5. On the sale or purchases of ships, houses, or lands - . » ■ 2| 
 
 6. On ships' disbursements - - - - - . r : 5 
 
 7. On procuring freight - - - - 5 
 
 8. On collecting freight on ships bound to this place - - - - 2| 
 
 9. On guaranteeing bills or bonds by indorsement or otherwise - - - - 2^ 
 
 10. On collecting debts without recourse to law - - - - - - 2^ 
 
 Ditto, where legal proceedings are taken - - - - --.5 
 
 11. On effecting remittances by bills of exchange - - - - - - 1 
 
 12. On the negotiation of bills - - - - - --1 
 
 13. On effecting insurances - - - - - - - G? 
 
 14. On the administration of estates - - - - - - 5 
 
 15. On cash advances - - - - - ---2| 
 
 16. On the debtor and creditor sides of cash accounts, on which no other commission IS charged - 1 
 Money. — Accounts are either kept in pounds, shillings, pence, and farthings, or m rix-dollars, schil- 
 
 iings, and stivers. 
 
 1 Stiver = f of a Penny. 
 6 Stivers = 2^ Pence, or 1 schilling. 
 8 Schillings = 18 Pence, or 1 rix-dollar. 
 The commissariat department grant bills on the Treasury at a premium of 1| per cent. 
 Weights and Measures. — The weights made use of in the Cape are derived from the standard pound of 
 Amsterdam: and those assized are from 50 lbs. down to 1 loot, or the 32d part of a pound, which is re- 
 garded as unity. 
 
 The muid of wheat weighs, at an average, about 
 110 lbs. Dutch, being somewhat over 196 lbs. En- 
 glish. 
 
 Cloth and Long Measures. 
 12 Rhynland inches — 1 Rhynland foot. 
 27 ditto = 1 Dutch ell. 
 
 144 ditto = 1 Square foot. 
 
 144 Square feet = 1 Rood, 
 600 Roods = 1 Morgen. 
 
 Liquid Measure. 
 16 Flasks = 1 Anker. 
 4 Ankers = 1 Aam. 
 4 Aams 1 Leaguer. 
 
 Corn Measure. 
 4 Schepels ■= 1 Muid. 
 10 Muids = 1 Load. 107 schepels = 
 82 Winch, bushels, or 4 schepels = 3 Imp. bush, 
 very nearly. 
 
 Colonial Weights and Measures compared with those of England. 
 Weights. 
 
 100 lbs. Dutch = nearly 109 lbs. English avoirdupois. 
 
 100 lbs. English = nearly 92 lbs. Dutch. 
 
 Wine or Liquid Measure. 
 1 Flask " 
 1 Anker 
 1 Aum 
 1 Leaguer 
 1 Pipe 
 
 Saldanha Bay, in lat. 33° 6' S., long, 17° 58' 15" E., being 16i leagues north of Cape-Town, is one of the 
 best and most commodious harbours in the world. It is perfectly safe at all seasons. 
 
 Besides the Cape Almanac, one of the best of that class of publications, and the other authorities 
 referred to, we have derived part of the above details from papers laid before the Finance Committee. 
 
 CAPITAL, in political economy, is that portion of the produce existing in a country, 
 which may be made directly available, either to the support of human existence, or to 
 the facilitating of production. — {Principles of Political EcononiT/, 2d ed. p. 97.) But in 
 commerce, and as applied to individuals, it is understood to mean the sum of money which 
 a merchant, banker, or trader adventures in any under(aking, or which he contributes to 
 
 = 9h 
 
 ditto. 
 
 7-9 
 
 ditto. 
 
 - 38 
 
 ditto. 
 
 31 1 
 
 ditto. 
 
 = 152 
 
 ditto. 
 
 126 6 
 
 ditto. 
 
 - 110 
 
 ditto. 
 
 91-6 
 
 ditto. 
 
CAPSICUM. — CARAVAN. 
 
 251 
 
 the common stock of a partnership. It signifies likewise the fund of a trading company, 
 or corporation ; in which sense the word stock is generally added to it. Thus we say tlie 
 capital stock of the Bank, &c. The profit derived fi-om any undertaking is estimated by 
 the rate wliich it bears to the cajjital that was employed. 
 CAPSICUM. Sec Pepper. 
 
 CARAVAN, an organised company of merchants, or pilgrims, or both, who associate 
 together in many parts of Asia and Africa, that they may travel with greater security 
 through deserts and other places infested with robbers; or where the road is naturally 
 dangerous. The word is derived from the Persian hcrvan, or cdrvdn, a trader or dealer. 
 — {Shawns Travels in the Levant, p. 9. 'ito cd.) 
 
 Every caravan is under the command of a chief or aga C caravan-hachi), who has 
 frequently under him such a number of troops or forces as is deemed sufficient for its 
 defence. When it is practicable, they encamp near wells or rivulets ; and observe a regular 
 discipline. Camels arc used as a means of conveyance, almost uniformly, in preference 
 to the horse or any other animal, on account of their wonderful patience of fatigue, eating 
 little, and subsisting three or four days or more without water. There are generally nu)re 
 camels in a caravan than men. — (Sec Camel.) 
 
 The commercial intercourse of Eastern and African nations has been principally 
 carried on, from the i-emotest period, by means of caravans. During antiquity, the 
 products of India and China were conveyed either from Suez to Ilhinoculura, or from 
 Bussorah, near the head of the Persian Gulf, by the Euphrates, to Babylon, and thence 
 by Palmyra, in the Syrian desert, to the ports of Phoenicia on the Mediterranean, where 
 they were exchanged for the European productions in demand in the East. Sometimes, 
 however, caravans set out directly from China, and, occupying about 250 days in the 
 journey, arrived on the shores of the Levant, after traversing the whole extent of Asia. 
 ( Gibbon, vol. vii. p. 93.) The formation of caravans is, in fact, the only way in which 
 it has ever been possible to carry on any considerable internal commerce in Asia or Africa. 
 The governments that have grown up in those continents have seldom been able, and 
 seldomer indeed have they attempted, to render travelling practicable or safe for indi- 
 viduals. The wandering tribes of Arabs have always infested the immense deserts by 
 which they are intersected ; and those only, who are suflSciently powerful to protect them- 
 selves, or sufficiently rich to purchase an exemption from the predatory attacks of these 
 freebooters, can expect to pass through territories subject to their incursions, without being 
 exposed to the risk of robbery and murder. 
 
 Since the establishment of the Mohammedan faith, religious motives, conspiring with 
 those of a less exalted character, have tended to augment the intercourse between 
 different parts of the Eastern world, and to increase the number and magnitude of the 
 caravans. Mohammed enjoined all his followers to visit, once in their lifetime, the Caaba, 
 or square building in the teniple of Mecca, the immemorial object of veneration amongst 
 his countrymen ; and in order to preserve continually upon their minds a sense of 
 obligation to perform this duty, he directed that, in all the multiplied acts of devotion 
 which his religion prescribes, true believers should always turn their faces towards that 
 holy place. In obedience to a precept so solemnly enjoined and sedulously inculcated, 
 large caravans of pilgrims used to assemble annually in every country where the 
 Mohammedan faith is established ; and though, owing either to a diminution of religious 
 zeal, or the increasing difficulties to be encountered in the journey, tb^ number of pil- 
 grims has of late years declined greatly, it is still very considerable. Few, however, of 
 the pilgrims are actuated only by devotional feelings. Commercial ideas and obj.ects 
 mingle with those of religion ; and it redounds to the credit of Mohammed, that he grjuited 
 permission to trade during the pilgrimage to Mecca ; providing at the same time far the 
 temporal as well as the lasting interests of his votaries. " It shall be no crime in you, 
 if ye seek an increase from your Lord 6y trading during the pilgrimage." — {Sale's Koran, 
 c. 2. p. 36. ed. 1764.) 
 
 The numerous camels of each caravan are loaded with those commodities of every 
 country which are of easiest carriage and readiest sale. The holy city is crowded during 
 the month of Dhalhajja, corresponding to the latter part of June and the beginning of 
 July, not only with zealous devotees, but with opulent merchants. A fair or market is 
 held in Mecca and its vicinity, on the twelve days that the pilgrims are allowed to remain 
 in that city, which used to be one of the best frequented in the world, and continues to 
 be well attended. 
 
 " Few pilgrims," says Burckhardt, " except the mendicants, arrive without bringing 
 some productions of their respective countries for sale : and this remark is applicable as 
 well to the merchants, with whom commercial pui-suits are the main object, as to those 
 who are actuated by religious zeal ; for, to the latter, the profits derived from selling a 
 few articles at Mecca diminish, in some degree, the heavy expenses of the journey. The 
 Moggrebyns (pilgrims from Morocco and the north coast of Africa) bring their red 
 bonnets and woollen cloaks j the European Turk^ shoes and slippers, hardware, era- 
 
252 
 
 CARAVAN. 
 
 broidered stuffs, sweetmeats, amber, trinkets of European manufacture, knit silk purses, 
 &c. ; the Turks of Anatolia bring carpets, silks, and Angora shawls ; the Persians, 
 Cashmere shawls and large silk handkerchiefs ; the Afghans, tooth-brushes, called 
 Mesouak Kattary, made of the spongy boughs of a tree growing in Bokhara, beads of a 
 yellow soapstone, and plain coarse shawls manufactured in their own country ; the 
 Indians, the numerous productions of their rich and extensive region ; the people of 
 Yemen, snakes for the Persian pipes, sandals and various other works in leather ; and 
 the Africans bring various articles adapted to the slave trade. The pilgrims are, how- 
 ever, often disappointed in their expectations of gain ; want of money makes them 
 hastily sell their little adventures at the public auctions, and often obliges them to accept 
 very low prices." — (^Travels in Arabia, vol. ii. p. 21.) 
 
 The two principal caravans which yearly rendezvous at Mecca are those of Damascus 
 and Cairo. The first is composed of pilgrims from Europe and Western Asia; the 
 second of Mohammedans from all parts of Africa. 
 
 The Syrian caravan is said by Burckhardt to be very well regulated. It is always 
 accompanied by the pacha of Damascus, or one of his principal officers, who gives the 
 signal for encamping and starting by firing a musket. On the route, a troop of horsemen 
 ride in the front, and another in the rear to bring up the stragglers. The different 
 parties of pilgrims, distinguished by their provinces or towns, keep close together. At 
 night torches are lighted, and the daily distance is usually performed between 3 
 o'clock in the afternoon and an hour or two after sunrise on the following day. The 
 Bedouins or Arabs, who carry provisions for the troops, travel by day only, and in 
 advance of the caravans ; the encampment of which they pass in the morning, and are 
 overtaken in turn and passed by the caravan on the following night, at their own resting 
 place. The journey with these Bedouins is less fatiguing than with the great body of 
 the caravan, as a regular night's rest is obtained ; but their bad character deters most 
 pilgrims from joining them. 
 
 At every watering-place on the route is a small castle and a large tank, at which the 
 camels water. The castles are garrisoned by a few persons, who remain the whole year 
 to guard the provisions deposited there. It is at these watering-places, which belong to 
 the Bedouins, that the sheikhs of the tribe meet the caravan, and receive the accustomed 
 tribute for allowing it to pass. Water is plentiful on the route ; the stations are no 
 where more distant than 11 or 1 2 hours' march ; and in winter, pools of rain-water 
 are frequently found. Those pilgrims who can travel with a litter, or on commodious 
 camel-saddles, may sleep at night, and perform the journey with little inconvenience : 
 but of those whom poverty, or the desire of speedily acquiring a large sum of money, 
 induces to follow the caravan on foot, or to hire themselves as servants, many die on the 
 road from fatigue. — ( Travels in Arabia, vol. ii. p. 3 — 9. ) 
 
 The caravan which sets out from Cairo for Mecca is not generally so large as that of 
 Damascus; and its route along the shores of the Red Sea is more dangerous and 
 fatiguing. But many of the African and Egyptian merchants and pilgrims sail from 
 Suez, Cosseir, and other ports on the western shore of the Red Sea, for Djidda, whence 
 the journey to Mecca is short and easy. 
 
 The Persian caravan for Mecca sets out from Bagdad ; but many of the Persian 
 pilgrims are now in the habit of embarking at Bussorah, and coming to Djidda by sea. 
 
 Caravans from Bagdad and Bussorah proceed to Aleppo, Damascus, and Diarbeker, 
 laden with all sorts of Indian, Arabian, and Persian commodities ; and large quantities 
 of European goods, principally of English cottons, imported at Bussorah, are now dis- 
 tributed throughout all the eastern parts of the Turkish empire by the same means. 
 The intercourse carried on in this way is, indeed, every day becoming of more im- 
 portance. 
 
 The commerce carried on by caravans, in the interior of Africa, is widely extended 
 And of considerable value. Besides the great caravan which proceeds from Nubia to 
 Cairo, and is joined by Mohammedan pilgrims from every part of Africa, there are 
 caravans which have no object but commerce, which set out from Fez, Algiers, Tunis, 
 Tripoli, and other states on the sea-coast, and penetrate far into the interior. Some of 
 them take as many as 50 days to reach the place of their destination ; and as their rate 
 of travelling may be estimated at about 18 miles a day at an average, the extent of their 
 journeys may easily be computed. As both the time of their outset and their route is 
 known, they are met by the people of the countries through which they travel, who 
 trade with them. Indian goods of every kind form a considerable article in this traffic ; 
 in exchange for which, the chief commodity the inhabitants have to give is slaves. 
 
 Three distinct caravans are employed in bringing slaves and other commodities from 
 Central Africa to Cairo. One of them comes direct from Mourzouk, the capital of 
 Fezzan, across the Libyan desert ; another from Senaar ; and the third frorn Darfur. 
 They do not arrive at stated periods, but after a greatci* or less interval, according to the 
 success they have had in procuring slaves, ivory, gold dust, drugs, and such other articles 
 
CARAVANSEllA. — CARBUNCLE. 
 
 253 
 
 as are fitted for the Ef^yptian markets. The Mourzouk caravan is said to he under tJie 
 best regulations. It is generally ahout 50 days on its passage ; and seldom consists of 
 less than 100, or of more than 300, travellers. The caravans from Senaar and Darfur 
 used formerly to be very irregular, and were sometimes not seen in Egypt for 2 or 3 
 years together ; but since the occupation of the former by the troops of Mohammed Ali, 
 the intercourse between it and Egypt has become comparatively frequent and regular. 
 The number of slaves imported into Egypt by these caravans is said to amount, at 
 present, to about 10,000 a year. The departure of a caravan from Darfur is looked 
 upon as a most important event ; it engages for a while the attention of the whole 
 country, and even forms a kind of era. — (^Browne's Travels in Africa, 2d ed. p. 278.) 
 A caravan from Darfur is considered large, if it has 2,000 camels and 1,000 slaves. 
 Many of the Moorish pilgrims to Mecca cross the sea from Souakin and Massouah to 
 the opposite coast of Arabia, and then travel by land to Mecca ; and Burckhardt states, 
 that of all the poor pilgrims who arrive in the Hedjaz, none bear a more respectable 
 character for industry than those from Central Africa. 
 
 Caravans are distinguished into heavy and light. Camels loaded with from 500 to 
 600 lbs.* form a heavy caravan ; light caravans being the term applied to designate 
 those formed of camels under a moderate load, or perhaps only half loaded. The mean 
 daily rate at which heavy caravans travel is about 18| miles, and that of light caravans 
 22 miles. 
 
 The safety of a caravan depends materially on the conduct of the caravan-hachi, or 
 leader. Niebuhr says, that when the latter is intelligent and honest, and the travellei 
 understands the language, and is accustomed to the Oriental method of travelling, an 
 excursion through the desert is rarely either disagreeable or dangerous. But it is not 
 unusual for the Turkish pachas to realise considerable sums by selling the privilege of 
 conducting caravans ; and it is generally believed in the East, that leaders so appointed, 
 in order to indemnify themselves, not unfrequently arrange with the Arabian sheikhs 
 as to the attack of the caravans, and share with them in the booty ! At all events, a 
 leader who has paid a large sum for the situation, even if he should be honest, must im- 
 pose proportionally heavy charges on the association. Hence the best way in travelling 
 with caravans is, to attach oneself to one conducted by an active and experienced mer- 
 • chant, who has a considerable property embarked in the expedition. With ordinary 
 precaution, the danger is then very trifling. It would be easy, indeed, were there any 
 thing like proper arrangements made by government, to render travelling by caravans, at 
 least on all the gi-eat routes, abundantly secure. — (Niebuhr, Voyage en Arabic, tome ii. 
 p. 194. ed. Amst. 1780.) 
 
 No particular formalities are required in the formation of a caravan. Those that 
 start at fixed periods are mostly under the control of government, by whom the leaders 
 are appointed. But, generally speaking, any dealer is at liberty to form a company and 
 make one. The individual in whose name it is raised is considered as the leader, or 
 caravan-bachi, unless he appoint some one else in his place. When a number of mer- 
 chants associate together in the design, they elect a chief, and appoint officers to decide 
 whatever controversies may arise during the journey. — (For further details with respect 
 to caravans, see the Modern Part of the Universal History, vol. xiv. pp. 214 — 243. ; 
 Robertson's Disquisition on Ancient India, Note 54. ; Rees's Cyclopcudia, art. Caravan^ 
 most of which is copied from Robertson, though without a single word of acknowledg- 
 ment ; BurckhardVs Travels in Arabia, vol. ii. passim ; Urquhart on Turkey and its 
 Resources, -p. 137. 151., §*c.) 
 
 CARAVANSERA, a large public building or inn appropriated for the reception 
 and lodgment of the caravans. Though serving in lieu of inns, there is this radical 
 difference between them, — that, generally speaking, the traveller finds nothing in a 
 caravansera for the use either of himself or his cattle. He must carry all his provisions 
 and necessaries with him. They are chiefly built in dry, barren, desert places ; and are 
 mostly furnished with water brought from a great distance and at a vast expense. A weli 
 of water is, indeed, indispensable to a caravansera. Caravanseras are also numerous in 
 cities ; where they serve not only as inns, but as shops, warehouses, and even exchanges* 
 
 CARAWAY-SEED (Fr. Carvi, Cumin des pres ; Ger. Keummel, Brodkmnmel; It. 
 Carvi), a small seed, of an oblong and slender figure, pointed at both ends, and thickest 
 in the middle. It is the produce of a biennial plant ( Carum carui), with a taper root 
 like a parsnep, but much smaller. It should be chosen large, new, of a good colour, not 
 dusty, and of a strong agreeable smell. It is principally used by confectioners ; and is 
 extensively cultivated in several parts of Essex. 
 
 CARBUNCLE (Ger. Karfunkel ; Fr. EscarbouMe ; It. Carhonchio ; Sp. Carbun- 
 culo ; Lat. Carbuncvlus), a precious stone of the ruby kind, of a very rich glowing 
 blood-red colour, highly esteemed by the ancients. — (See Ruby.) 
 
 * This is the burden of the small camel only. The large ones usually carry from 750 to 1,000 Ibfc 
 
254? 
 
 CARD. — CARDS 
 
 CARD (Fr. Cardes ; Ger. Karddtschen, Karden, WollJtratzen ; It. Cardi ; Ru3. 
 Bardii ; Sp. Cardas), an instrument, or comb, for arranging or sorting the hairs of wool, 
 cotton, &c. Cards are either fastened to a flat piece of wood, and wrought by the hand j, 
 or to a cylinder, and wrought by machinery. 
 
 CARDAMOMS (Fr. Cardamomes ; Ger. Kardamom ; It. Cardamomi ; Sp. Kar- 
 damomos; Hind. Gujarati elachi), seed capsules produced by a plant, of which there are 
 different species growing in India, Cochin China, Siam, and Ceylon. The capsules are 
 gathered as they ripen ; and when dried in the sun, are fit for sale. The small capsules, 
 or lesser cardamoms, are produced by a particular species of the plant, and are the most 
 valuable. They should be chosen full, plump, and difficult to be broken ; of a bright 
 yellow colour ; a piercing smell ; with an acrid, bitterish, though not very unpleasant 
 taste ; and particular care should be taken that they are properly dried. They are 
 reckoned to keep best in a body, and are therefore packed in large chests, well jointed, 
 pitched at the seams, and otherwise properly secured ; as the least damp greatly reduces 
 their value. The best cardamoms are brought from the Malabar coast. They are pro- 
 duced in the recesses of the mountains, by felling trees, and afterwards burning them ; for 
 wherever the ashes fall in the openings or fissures of the rocks, the cardamom plant naturally 
 springs up. In Soonda Balagat, and other places where cardamoms are planted, the 
 fruit or berry is very inferior to that produced in the way now mentioned. The Malabar 
 cardamom is described as a species of bulbous plant, growing 3 or 4 feet high. The 
 growers are obliged to sell all their produce to the agents of government, at prices 
 fixed by the latter, varying from 550 to 700 rupees the candy of 600 lbs. avoirdupois : 
 and it is stated that the conti-actor often puts an enhanced value on the coins with which 
 he pays the mountaineers ; or makes them take in exchange tobacco, cloths, salt, oil, 
 betel nut, and such necessary articles, at prices which are frequently, no doubt, estimated 
 above their proper level. Such a system ought assuredly to be put an immediate end 
 to. Not more than one hundredth part of the cardamoms raised in Malabar are used in 
 the country. They are sent in large quantities to the ports on the Red Sea and the 
 Persian Gulf, to Sind, up the Indus, to Bengal, Bombay, &c. They form a universal 
 ingredient in curries, pillaus, &c. The market price, at the places of exportation on the 
 Malabar coast, varies from 800 to 1,200 rupees the candy. — (Milhurn's Orient. Com- 
 merce, and the valuable evidence of T. H. Baber, Esq., before the Lords' Committee of ^ 
 1830, p. 216.) 
 
 Malabar cardamoms are worth at present (September, 1833), from 3s. 8c?. to 3s. 10c?. 
 a pound in the London market, duty (Is.) included. Ceylon cardamoms are worth 
 from Is. 8c?. to 2s. 2d. 
 
 CARDS, OR PLAYING CARDS (Du. Kaarten, Speelkarden ; Fr. Cartes ajouev; 
 Ger. Karten, Spiel karten ; It. Carte da giuoco ; Rus. Kartii ; Sp. Carras, Naipes ; Sw. 
 Kort). The only thing necessary to be noticed in this place with respect to cards, is the 
 regulations as to their manufacture, sale, and the payment of the duty. 
 
 It is regulated by the 9 Geo. 4. c. 18., that an annual licence duty of 5s. shall be paid by every maker of 
 playing cards and dice. The duty on every pack of cards is Is. and is to be specified on the ace of spades. 
 Cards are not to be made in any part of Great Britain, except the metropolis ; nor in Ireland, except in 
 Dublin and Cork ; under a penalty of 100/. Cards are to be enclosed in wrappers, with such marks as the 
 commissioners of stamps may appoint. Before licence can be had, bond must be given to the amount of 
 500/. for the payment of the duties, &c. Selling or exposing to sale any pack of cards not duly stamped, 
 subjects a licensed maker to a penalty of 50/. ; and any one else to a penalty of 10/. Any person having 
 in his possession, or using, or permitting to be used, any pack of cards, not duly.stamped, to forfeit 5/. 
 Second-hand cards may be sold by any person, if sold without the wrapper of a licensed maker ; and in 
 packs containing not more than 52 cards, including an ace of spades duly stamped, and enclosed in a 
 wrapper with the words " Second-hand Cards " printed or written in distinct characters on the outside: 
 penalty for selling second-hand cards in any other manner, 20/. 
 
 An Account of the Duty received on Playing Cards in Great Britain and Ireland in each Year from 1820, 
 specifying the Rates of Duty charged. — (Par/. Paper, No. 427. Sess. 1832.) 
 
 Year. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Rate. 
 
 Amount of Duty. 
 
 Rate. 
 
 Amount of Duty. 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 2*. Qd. per pack 
 
 Is. per pack from May 
 
 £ S. d. 
 21,267 5 0 
 21, ,347 5 0 
 21,179 17 6 
 22,006 12 6 
 25,874.12 6 
 22,577 17 6 
 18,300 15 0 
 20,864 12 6 
 
 17,365 5 6 
 
 15,542 14 0 
 14,509 7 0 
 14,400 2 0 
 
 2s. per pack 
 
 C2s. per pack to5thof July,'1 
 < 1.S-. per pack for the re- > 
 C mainder of the year -J 
 Is. per pack 
 
 £ s. d. 
 2,019 14 1 
 1,821 16 8i 
 1,643 0 11 
 1,6.57 4 5| 
 1,598 12 8i 
 1,559 8 0 
 1,037 12 6 
 1,001 12 5 
 
 640 19 0 
 
 403 11 0 
 244 12 0 
 104 18 0 
 
CARMEN. — CARRIERS. 
 
 255 
 
 • CARMEN, of the City of London, arc constituted a feUowsliip ])y act of common 
 council. The rates which they are allowed to charge, and the regulations hy which they 
 arj to be guided, are settled at the quarter sessions. In other respects they are subjected 
 to the rule of the president and governors of Christ's Hospital, to whom the owner of 
 every cart pays an annual licence duty of 17s. 4d. 
 
 Carmen are to help to load and unload their carts; and if any carman exacts more than the regular 
 rates, upon due proof, before the Lord Mayor, or any two magistrates, he shall suffer imprisonment for 
 the space of 21 days. • 
 
 If any person shall refuse to pay any carman his hire, according to the regular rates, upon complain* 
 made, the president of Christ's Hospital, or a justice of the i)eace, may compel payment. 
 
 Merchants or other persons may choose what cart they please, except such as stand for wharf-work, 
 tackle-work, crane-work, at shops and merchants* houses, which are to be taken in turn ; and every car. 
 man standing with his empty cart next to any goods to be loaded, shall, upon the first demand, load the 
 ame for the accustomed rates ; and if any person shall cause a carman to attend at his house, shop, ware- 
 house, or cellar, with his loaded cart, the carman being willing to help to unload the same, he snail pay 
 the carman after the rate of 12d. for every hour after the first half-hour for his attendance. 
 
 Every licensed carman is to have a piece of brass fixed upon his cart, upon which is to he engraven a 
 certain number ; which number, together with the carman's name, is registered in a register kept at Christ's 
 Hospital; so that, in case of any misbehaviour, the party offended, by taking notice of the number of the 
 cart, may search for it in the register, and the name will be found. 
 
 Carmen not conforming to these rules, or working without a numbered piece of brass fixed on the cart, 
 may be suspended from their employment. 
 
 Carmen riding upon the shaits of their carts, or sitting within them, not having some person on foot 
 CO guide the horses, shall forfeit 10s. 
 
 CARMINE (^Ger. Karmin ; Tiu. Karmyn ; Fr. Carmine; It. Carminio ; Lat. Car- 
 minium), a powder of a very beautiful red colour, bordering upon purple, and used 
 by painters in miniature. It is a species of lake, and is formed of finely pulverised 
 cochineal. It is very high priced. 
 
 CARNELIAN. See Agate. 
 
 CARPET, CARPETS (Ger. Teppiche ; Du. Tapyten, Vloer-tapyten ; Fr. Tapis; 
 It. Tappeti ; Sp. Alfombras, Alcatifas, Tapetes ; Rus. Kowr'd, Kilimi), Pej'sian and 
 Turkish carpets are the most esteemed. In England, carpets are principally manu- 
 factui-ed at Kidderminster, Wilton, Cirencester, Worcester, Axminster, &c. ; and in 
 Scotland, at Kilmarnock. Those made at Axminster are believed to be very little, if 
 any thing, inferior to those of Persia and Turkey. 
 
 CARRIAGES. See Coaches. 
 
 CARROT (Daucus carota Lin.), a biennial plant, a native of Britain. Though long 
 known as a garden plant, its introduction into agriculture has been comparatively recent. 
 The uses of the carrot in domestic economy are well known. It is extensively culti- 
 vated in Suffolk, whence large quantities are sent to the London market. Horses arc 
 said to be remarkably fond of carrots. 
 
 CARRIERS, are persons undertaking for hire to carry goods from one place to 
 another. 
 
 Proprietors of carts and wagons, masters and owners of ships, hoymen, lightermen, 
 bargemen, ferrymen, &c. are denominated common carriers. The master of a stage coach 
 who only carries passengers for hire, is not liable for goods ; but if he undertake to carry 
 goods and passengers, then he is liable for both as a common carrier. The post-master 
 general is not a carrier in the common acceptation of the term, nor is he subjected to his 
 liabilities. 
 
 1. Duties and Liabilities of Carriers. — Carriers are bound to receive and carry the 
 goods of all persons, for a reasonable hire or reward ; to take proper care of them in 
 their passage ; to deliver them safely, and in the same condition as when they were 
 received (excepting only such losses as may arise from the act of God or the hing's 
 enemies') ; or, in default thereof, to make compensation to the owner for whatever loss 
 or damage the goods may have received while in their custody, that might have been 
 prevented. 
 
 Hence a carrier is liable, though he be robbed of the goods, or they be taken from him 
 by irresistible force ; and though this may seem a hard rule, yet it is the only one that 
 could be safely adopted ; for if a carrier were not liable for losses imless it could be 
 shown that he had conducted himself dishonestly or negligently, a door would be opened 
 for every species of fraud and collusion, inasmuch as it would be impossible, in most 
 cases, to ascertain whether the facts were such as the carrier represented. On the same 
 principle a carrier has been held accountable for goods accidentally consumed by lire 
 while in his warehouse. In delivering the opinion of the Court of King's Bench on a 
 case of this sort. Lord Mansfield said — "A carrier, by the nature of his contract, 
 obliges himself to use all due care and diligence, and is answerable for any neglect. 
 But there is something more imposed upon him by custom, that is, by the common law, 
 A common carrier is in the nature of an insurer. All the cases show him to be so. This 
 makes him liable for every thing except the act of God and the king's enemies ; that is, 
 even for inevitable accidents, with those exceptions. The question then is, What is the 
 act of God ? I consider it to be laid down in opposition to the act of vian ; such 
 
256 
 
 CARRIERS. 
 
 lightning, storms, tempests, and the like, which could not happen by any human inter' 
 vention. To prevent litigation and collusion, the law presumes negligence except in 
 those circumstances. An armed force, though ever so great and irresistible, does not 
 excuse ; the reason is, for fear it may give room for collusion, which can never happen 
 with respect to the act of God. We all, therefore, are of opinion that there should be 
 judgment for the plaintiff."— {Forward v. Pittard, 1 T. R. 27.) 
 
 A carrier is not obliged to have a new carriage for every journey ; it is sufficient if he 
 provide one that, without any extraordinary accident, may be fairly presumed capable of 
 performing the journey. 
 
 A carrier may be discharged from his liability by any fraud or concealment on the 
 part of the individual employing him, or of the bailor ; as if the latter represent a parcel 
 as containing things of little or no value, when, in fact, it contains things of great value. 
 But when the carrier has not given a notice limiting his responsibility, and when he 
 puts no questions with respect to the parcel to the bailor, the latter need not say any 
 thing with respect to it ; and though the bailor should represent the thing delivered to 
 the carrier as of no value, yet if the latter know it to he otherwise, he will be responsible 
 in the event of its being lost or damaged. If the bailor deliver goods imperfectly 
 packed, and the carrier does not perceive it, he is not liable in the event of a loss occur- 
 ring; but if the defect in the package were such that the carrier could not but perceive 
 it, he would be liable. On this principle a carrier was made to answer for the loss of a 
 greyhound that had been improperly secured when given. to him. 
 
 A carrier may refuse to admit goods into his warehouse at an unseasonable time, or 
 before he is ready to take his journey ; but he cannot refuse to do the ordinary duties 
 incumbent on a person in his situation. 
 
 It is felony, if a carrier open a parcel and take goods out of it with intent to steal 
 them ; and it has been decided, that if goods be delivered to a carrier to be carried to a 
 specified place, and he carry them to a different place, and dispose of them for his own 
 profit, he is guilty of felony : but the embezzlement of goods by a carrier, without a 
 felonious taking, merely exposes to a civil action. 
 
 No carrier, wagonman, carman, or wainman, with their respective carriages, shall 
 travel on Sundays, under a penalt}'^ of 20s. — (3 Chas. 1. c. 1.) 
 
 A carrier is always, unless there be an express agreement to the contrary, entitled to 
 a reward for his care and trouble. In some cases his reward is regulated by the legis- 
 lature, and in others by a special stipulation between the parties ; but though there be 
 no legislative provision or express agreement, he cannot claim more than a reasonable 
 compensation. 
 
 2. Limitation of Responsibility. — Until the act of 1 830, a carrier might, by express 
 stipulation, giving public notice to that effect, discharge his liability from all losses 
 by robbery, accident, or otherwise, except those which arose from misfeazance and gross 
 negligence {from which no stipulation or notice could exempt him), and provided the 
 notice did not contravene the express conditions of an act of parliament. 
 
 Notices generally bore, that the carrier would not be responsible for more than a 
 certain sum (usually 5L) on any one parcel, the value of which had not been declared 
 and paid for accordingly ; so that a person aware of this notice, entering a box worth 
 1,000Z. without declaring its value, or entering it as being worth 200/., would, should it 
 be lost, have got in the first case only 51., and in the latter only 200/., unless he could 
 have shown that the carrier had acted fraudulently or with gross negligence. - But, to 
 avail himself of this defence, the carrier was bound to show that the bailor or his servant 
 was acquainted with the notice at the time of delivering the goods. No particular 
 manner of giving notice was required. It might be done by express communication, by 
 fixing it up in a conspicuous place in the carrier's office, by insertion in the public papers 
 or Gazette, by the circulation of handbills, &c. ; it being in all cases a question for the 
 jury to decide whether the bailor was really acquainted with the notice of the limitation ; 
 since, if he were not, he was entitled to recover, whatever efforts the carrier may have 
 made to publish it. Thus, a notice stuck up in a carrier's warehouse, where goods were 
 delivered, was of no avail against parties who could not read ; neither was it of any avail 
 against those who could read, and who had seen it, unless they had actually read it. On 
 this principle it was held, that a notice in a newspaper is not sufficient, even when it was 
 proved that the bailor read the newspaper, unless it could also be proved that he had read 
 tlio notice itself. 
 
 These attempts to limit responsibility gave rise to a great deal of litigation and un- 
 certainty ; and to obviate the inconveniences thence arising, the important statute, 
 1 Will. 4. c. 68., was passed. This act declares, that carriers by land shall not be 
 liable for the loss of certain articles specified in the act, when their value exceeds 10/., 
 unless the nature and value of such articles be stated at the time of their delivery to the 
 carrier, and an increased charge paid or agreed to be paid upon the same. It is further 
 declared, that no publication of any notices by carriers shall have i>owcr to limit their 
 
CARRIERS. 
 
 237 
 
 responsibility at common law for all other articles except those specified in the act ; but 
 as the act is of great importance, we subjoin it. 
 
 From and after the passing of this act, no mail contractor, stage coach proprietor, or other common 
 carrier land for hire, shall be liable for the loss of or injury to any article or articles or property of the 
 description following, viz. gold or silver coin of this realm or of any foreign state, or any gold or silver in 
 a. manufactured or unmanufactured state, or any pricious stones, jewellery, watches, clocks, or time- 
 pieces of any description, trinkets, bills, notes of the Governor and Company of the Banks of England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland respectively, or of any other bank in Great Kritain or Ireland, orders, notes, or 
 securities for payment of money, English or foreign stamps, maps, writings, title-deeds, paintings, 
 engravings, pictures, gold or silver plate or plated articles, glass, china, silks i-n a manufactured or unmanu- 
 factured state, and whether wrought up or not wrought up with other materials, furs, or lace, or any 
 of them, contained in any parcel or package which shall have been delivered, either to be carried tor hire 
 or to accompany the person of any passenger in any mail or stage coach or other public conveyance, when 
 the value of such article or articles or property aforesaid contained in such parcel or package shall exceed 
 the sum of l6^., unless at the time of the delivery thereof at the office, warehouse, or receiving house of 
 such mail contractor, &c. the value and nature of such article or articles or property shall have been 
 declared by the person or persons sending or delivering the same, and such increased charge as herein- 
 after mentioned, or an engagement to pay the same, be accepted by the person receiving such parcel or 
 package. — § 1. 
 
 When any parcel or package containing any of the articles above specified shall be so delivered, and its 
 value and contents declared as aforesaid, and such value shall exceed the sum of 10/., it shall be lawful 
 for such mail contractors, stage coach proprietors, and other common carriers, to demand and receive an 
 increased rate of charge, to be notified by some notice, affixed in legible character in some public and 
 conspicuous part of the office, warehouse, or other receiving house, where such parcels or packages are 
 received by them for the purpose of conveyance, stating the increased rates of charge required to be paid 
 over and above the ordinary rate of carriage, as a compensation for the greater risk and care to be taken 
 for the safe conveyance of such valuable articles ; and all persons sending or delivering parcels or packages 
 containing such valuable articles as aforesaid at such office shall be bound by such notice, without further 
 proof of the same having come to their knowledge. — § 2. 
 
 Provided always, that when the value shall have been so declared, and the increased rate of charge 
 paid, or an engagement to pay the same shall have been accepted as herein-belbre mentioned, the person 
 receiving such increased rate of charge or accepting such agreement shall, if required, sign a receipt for 
 the package or parcel, acknowledging the same to have been insured, which receipt shall not be liable to 
 any stamp duty; and if such receipt shall not be given when required, or such notice as aforesaid shall 
 not have been affixed, the mail contractor, stage coach proprietor, or other common carrier as aforesaid, 
 shall not have or be entitled to any benefit or advantage under this act, but shall be liable and responsible 
 as at the common law, and be liable to refund the increased rate of charge. — § 3. 
 
 And be it enacted, that from and after the 1st day of September 1850, no public notice or declara- 
 tion heretofore made or hereafter to be made shall be deemed or construed to limit or in any wise 
 affect the liability at common law of any such mail contractors, stage coach proprietors, or other 
 public common carriers as aforesaid, for or in respect of any articles or goods to be carried and conveyed 
 by them ; but that all and every such mail contractors, stage coach proprietors, and other common car- 
 riers as aforesaid shall, from and after the said 1st day ot September, be liable, as at the common law, to 
 answer for the loss of any injury [so in the act\ to any articles and goods in respect whereof they may not 
 be entitled to the benefit of this act, any public notice or declaration by them made and given contrary 
 thereto, or in anywise limiting such liability, notwithstanding. — \ 4. 
 
 And be it further enacted, that for the purposes of this act every office, warehouse, or receiving house, 
 which shall be used or appointed by any mail contractor, or stage coach proprietor, or other such common 
 carrier, for the receiving of parcels to be conveyed as aforesaid, shall be deemed and taken to be the 
 receiving house, warehouse, or office of such mail contractor, stage coach proprietor, or other common 
 carrier ; and that any one or more of such mail contractors, stage coach proprietors, or common carriers, 
 shall be liable to be sued by his, her, or their name or names only ; and that no action or suit commenced 
 to recover damages for loss or injury to any parcel, package, or person, shall abate for the want of joining 
 any co-proprietor or co-partner in such mail, stage coach, or other public conveyance by land tor hire as 
 aforesaid. — \b. 
 
 Provided always, and be it further enacted, that nothing in this act contained shall extend or be conJ 
 strued to annul or in anywise affect any special contract between such mail contractor, stage coach pro- 
 prietor, or common carrier, and any other parties, for the conveyance of goods and merchandises. \Q. 
 
 Provided also, and be it further enacted, that where any parcel or package shall have been delivered at 
 any such office, and the value and contents declared as aforesaid, and the increased rate of charges been 
 paid, and such parcels or packages shall have been lost or damaged, the party entitled to recover damages 
 in respect of such loss or damage shall also be entitled to recover back such increased charges so paid as 
 aforesaid, in addition to the value of such parcel or package. — \ 7. 
 
 Provided also, and be it further enacted, that nothing in this act shall be deemed to protect any mail 
 contractor, stage coach proprietor, or other common carrier for hire, from liability to answer for loss or 
 injury to any goods or articles whatsoever, arising from the felonious acts of any coachman, guard, book- 
 keeper, porter, or other servant in his or their employ, nor to protect any such coachman, guard, book- 
 keeper, or other servant, from liability for any loss or injury occasioned by his or their own personal 
 neglect w misconduct — § 8. 
 
 Provided also, and be it further enacted, that such mail contractors, stage coach proprietors, or other 
 common carriers for hire, shall not be concluded as to the value of any such parcel or package by the 
 value so declared as aforesaid, but that he or they shall in all cases be entitled to require, from the party 
 suing in respect of any loss or injury, proof of the actual value of the contents by the ordinary legal 
 evidence ; and that the mail contractors, stage coach proprietors, or other common carriers as aforesaid, 
 shall be liable to such damages only as shall be so proved as aforesaid, not exceeding the declared value* 
 together with the increased charges as before mentioned. — § 9. * 
 
 And be it further enacted, that in all actions to be brought against any such mail contractors, &c., th* 
 defendant or defendants may pay the money into court. — § 10. 
 
 It will be observed, that carriers continue, notwithstanding this act, liable, as before, 
 for the felonious acts of their servants, and their own misfeazance or gross negligence. 
 It is not possible, however, to lay down any general rule as to the circumstances which 
 constitute this offence. Differing as they do in almost every case, the question, when 
 raised, must be left to a jury. But it has been decided, that the misdelivery of a parcel, 
 or its nondelivery within a reasonable time, is a misfeazance that can not be defeated by 
 any notice on the part of the carrier limiting his responsibility. In like manner, the 
 sending of a parcel by a different coach from that directed by the bailor, the removing it 
 from one carriage to another, are misfeazances. Where a parcel is directed to a person 
 at a particular place, and the carrier, knowing such person, delivers the parcel to anothpr 
 
258 
 
 CARTS. — CASSIA. 
 
 who represents himself as the consignee, such delivery is gross negligence. Leaving 
 parcels in a coach or cart unprotected in the street is also gross negligence. 
 
 At common law, there is no distinction between carriage performed by sea or land j 
 but by the 7 Geo. 2. c. 15. and 26 Geo. 3. c. 86., corrected and amended by the 
 53 Geo. 3. c. 159., it is enacted that ship-owners are not to be liable for any loss or 
 damage happening to goods on board through the fraud or neglect of the master, without 
 their knowledge or privity, further than the value of the vessel and the freight accruing 
 during the voyage. — (See Owners.) 
 
 3. Commencement and Termination of Liabiliti/, — A carrier's liability commences 
 from the time the goods are actually delivered to him in the character of carrier. A 
 delivery to a carrier's servant is a delivery to himself, and he will be responsible. The 
 delivery of goods in an inn-yard or warehouse, at which other carriers put up, is not a 
 delivery so as to charge a carrier, unless a special notice be given him of their having 
 been so delivered, or some previous intimation to that effect. 
 
 A carrier's liability ceases, when he vests the property committed to his charge in the 
 hands of the consignee or his agents, by actual delivery ; or when the property is resumed 
 by the consignor, in pursuance of his right of stopping it in transitu. It is in all cases 
 the duty of the carrier to -deliver the goods. The leaving goods at an inn is not a suffi- 
 cient delivery. The rule in such cases, in deciding upon the carrier's liability, is to 
 consider whether any thing remains to be done by the carrier, as such ; and if nothing 
 remains to be done, his liability ceases, and conversely. 
 
 A carrier has a lien upon goods for his hire. Even if the goods be stolen, the right- 
 ful owner is not to have them without paying the carriage. 
 
 For further details as to this subject see Jeremy on the Law of Carriers, passim ; Chitti/s 
 Commercial Law, vol. iii. pp. 369 — 386. ; and Burn's Justice of the Peace, tit. Carriers. 
 There are some excellent observations with respect to it in Sir WiUiam Jones's Essay on 
 the Law of Bailments — ( For an account of the regulations as to the conveyance of pas- 
 sengers in stage coaches, see Coaches, Stage.) 
 
 CARTS. Every cart, &c. for the carriage of any thing to and from any place, where 
 the streets are paved, within the bills of mortality, shall contain 6 inches in the felly. 
 No person shall drive any cart, waggon, &c. within 5 miles of the General Post Office, 
 unless the name, surname, and place of abode of the owner, be painted in conspicuous 
 letters, at least 1 inch in height, on the right or off side thereof, under a penalty 
 of 51. Any person may seize and detain any cart, waggon, &c. without such mark. — 
 (1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 22.) 
 
 CASH, in commerce, means the ready money, bills, drafts, bonds, and all immediately 
 negotiable paper in an individual's possession. 
 
 CASH ACCOUNT, in book-keeping, an account to which nothing but cash is 
 carried on the one hand, and from which all the disbursements of the concern are drawn 
 on the other. The balance is the cash in hand. When the credit side more than 
 balances the debit, or disbursement side, the account is said to be in cash ; when the con- 
 trary, to be out of cash. 
 
 Cash Account, in banking, is the name given to the account qf the advances made by 
 
 a banker in Scotland, to an individual who has given security for their repayment (See 
 
 Banks (Scotch).) 
 
 CASHEW NUTS ( Ger. AkajunUsse, Westindische Anakarden ; Du. Catsjoenoofen ; 
 Yr. Noix d'acajou ; It. Acaju; St^. Nueces d'acaju ; Port. Nozes d'acaju), the ytroduce of 
 the Anacardium occidentale. They are externally of a greyish or brownish colour, of the 
 shape of a kidney, somewhat convex on the one side, and depressed on the other. The 
 shell is very hard ; and the kernel, which is sweet and of a very fine flavour, is covered 
 witli a thin film. Between this and the shell is lodged a thick, blackish, inflammable oil, 
 of such a caustic nature in the fresh nuts, that if the lips chance to touch it, blisters im- 
 mediately follow. The kernels are used in cooking, and in the preparation of chocolate. 
 
 CASPIAN SEA. See Taganrog. 
 
 CASSIA. There are four species of cassia in the market, viz. Cassia Fistula ; Cassia 
 Lignea, or Cassia Bark ; Cassia Buds, and Cassia Senna. 
 
 1. Cassia Fistula (Fr. Casse ; Ger. Rhonhasie ; It. Folpa di cassia; Lat. Cassias 
 pulpa ; Arab. Khyar sheher) is a tree which grows in the East and West Indies, and 
 Egypt (Cassia fistula Lin.). The fruit is a woody, dark brown pod, about the thick- 
 ness of the thumb, and nearly 2 feet in length. Those brought to this country come 
 principally from the West Indies, packed in casks and cases ; but a superior kind is 
 brouglit from the East Indies, and is easily distinguished by its smaller smooth pod, and 
 by the greater blackness of the pulp. 
 
 2. Cassia Lignea, or Cassia Bark (Fr. Casse; Ger. Cassia,- Port. Cassia' hrhosa; 
 Aral). Selcekeh ; Hind. Tvj ; Malay, Ki yii-legi), the bark of a tree (Laurus Cassia 
 Lin.) growing in Sumatra, Borneo, the Malabar coast, Philippine Islands, &c. ; but 
 chiefly in the provinces of Quantong and Kingsi, in China, which furnish the greatest 
 
CASTOR. 
 
 — CATECHU. 
 
 259 
 
 part of the cassia met with in the European markets. The tree grows to the height of 
 50 or 60 feet, with large, spreading, horizontal branches. The hark resembles that of 
 cinnamon in appearance, smell, and taste, and is very often substituted for it : hut it may 
 be readily distinguished ; it is thicker in substance, less quilled, breaks shorter, and is 
 more pungent. It should be chosen in thin pieces ; tlie best being that which approaches 
 nearest to cinnamon in flavour : that which is small and broken should be rejected. A 
 good deal of the cassia in the Indiav. markets is brought from Borneo, Sumatra, and Cey- 
 lon. Malabar cassia is thicker and darker coloured than that of China, and more sub- 
 ject to foul packing : each bundle should be separately inspected. — ( Ainslie's Materia 
 Indica ; Milburn's Orient. Com., Sfc.) 
 
 The duty on cassia was reduced in 1825 from 2*. 6d. per lb. to Is., and in 1829 to firf. Owing partly to 
 these reductions, and partly to the heavy duty on and high price of cinnamon, the consumption of cassia 
 has more than doubled since 1820. Still, however, it is very inconsiderable when compared with the im- 
 portation. In 1832, the duty of Gi/. per lb. produced 1,807/. 2a-. 10^/., showing that 72,285 lbs. had been 
 cleared for consumption. The imports in ordinary years, vary from about 400,000 lbs. to about 80(),(XJ0 lbs. ; 
 the excess over what is made use of at home being principally sent to Germany, Italy, and Russia. Of 
 837,.58yibs. imported in 1830, 799,715 lbs. were brought from the East India Company's territories and 
 Ceylon, 25,586 lbs. from the Philippine Islands, 6,290 lbs. from lirazil, and 5,995 lbs. from the Mauritius. 
 Cassia was quoted in the London markets, in August, 1833, at from 865. to 90*. a cwt. in bond. — {Pari. 
 Paper, No. 367. Sess. 1832, &c.) 
 
 Cassia Buns, the dried fruit or berry of the tree (Laurus cassia) which yields the 
 bark described in the previous article. They bear some resemblance to a clove, but are 
 smaller, and, when fresh, have a rich cinnamon flavour. They should be chosen round, 
 fresh, and free from stalks and dirt. Cassia buds are the produce of China. The ex- 
 ports from Canton in 1831 amounted to 1,334 piculs, or 177,866 lbs. The imports into 
 Great Britain in 1832 were 75,173 lbs., but the entries for home consumption are not 
 specified. They were quoted in the London markets in October, 1 833, at 80s. a cwt. 
 in bond. — (Milburn's Orient. Com.; Anglo- Chinese Kalendar for 1832; and Pari. 
 Paper, No. 425. Sess. 1833.) 
 Cassia Senna. See Senna. 
 
 CASTOR (Fr. Castoreum ; Ger. Kastoreunt ; It. Castoro ; Sp. Castoreo), the pro- 
 duce of the beaver. In the inguinal region of this animal are found four bags, a large 
 and a small one on each side : in the two large ones there \.:- contained a softish, greyish 
 yellow, or light brown substance, which, on exposure to the air, becomes dry and brittle, 
 and of a brown colour. This is castor. It has a heavy but somewhat aromatic smell, 
 not imlike musk ; and a bitter, nauseous, and subacrid taste. The best comes from 
 Russia ; but of late years it has been very scarce ; and all that is now found in the shops 
 is the produce of Canada. The goodness of castor is determined by its sensible qualities ; 
 that which is black is insipid, inodorous, oily, and unfit for use. Castor is said to be 
 sometimes counterfeited by a mixture of some gummy and resinous substances ; but the 
 fraud is easily detected, by comparing the smell and taste with those of real castor. — 
 ( Thomson's Dispensatory. ) 
 
 CASTOR OIL (Fr. Huile du Ricin ; Ger. Eizinusohl It. Olio di Ricino ; Sp. 
 Ricinsoel), is obtained from the seeds of the Ricinus communis, or Palma Chrisii, an 
 annual plant, found in most tropical countries, and in Greece, the south of Spain, &c. 
 The oil is separated from the seeds either by boiling them in water, or by subjecting them 
 to the action of the press. It is said, that though the largest quantity of oil may be pro- 
 cured by the first method, it is less sweet, and more apt to become rancid, than that 
 procured by expression, which, in consequence, is the process now most commonly 
 followed. Good expressed castor oil is nearly inodorous and insipid ; but the best leaves 
 a slight sensation of acrimony in the throat after it is swallowed. It is thicker and 
 heavier than the fat oils, being viscid, transpai*ent, and colourless, or of a very pale straw 
 colour. That which is obtained by boiling the seeds has a brownish hue ; and both 
 kinds, when they become rancid, thicken, deepen in colour to a reddish brown, and acquire 
 a hot, nauseous taste. It is very extensively employed in the materia medica as a 
 cathartic. — ( Thomson's Dispensatory. ) 
 
 The quantity cleared for home consumption in 1831 amounted to 327,040 lbs., being about double the 
 quantity cleared for consumption in 1820; an increase principally ascribable to the reduction of the 
 duty from Is. 3d. to 3d. Of the total quantity imported in 1830, amounting to 490,5.58 lbs. , no fewer than 
 441,267 lbs. were from the East Indies, 39,408 lbs. from British North America, 5,159 lbs. from the 
 United States, and 4,718 lbs from the British West Indies. Castor oil from foreign countries, being loaded 
 with a duty of Is., is almost wholly re-exported. The price of East India castor oil in bond varies from 
 lOd. to Is. Id. per lb. ; that of the West Indies is much higher. — {Accounts published by the Board oj 
 Trade, p. 118. ; Pari. Paper, No. 367. Sess. 1832, &c.) 
 
 CATECHU (Fr. Cachou ; Ger. Kaschu ; Hind. Cut; Mai. Gambir), a brown 
 astringent substance, formerly known by the name of Terra Japonica, because supposed 
 to be a kind of earth. It is, however, a vegetable substance obtained from two plants ; 
 viz. the Mimosa, or more correctly the Acacia catechu, and the Uncaria gambir. The 
 first of these is a tree from 20 to 30 feet high, found in abundance in many of the ^ 
 forests of India, from 16° of lat. up to 30°. The places most remai kable for its produc- 
 tion are, the Burmese territories ; a large province on the Malabar coast, called the Con- 
 
^260 
 
 CAT'S EYE. — CATTLE. 
 
 can ; and the forests skirting the northern part of Bengal, under the hills which divide 
 it from Nepaul. The catechu is obtained from this tree by the simple process of boiling 
 the heart of the wood for a few hours, when it assumes the look and consistency of tar 
 The substance hardens by cooling ; is formed into small balls or squares ; and being 
 dried in the sun, is fit for the market. The price to the first purchaser in the Concan 
 is about 15s. a cwt. According to Dr. Davy, who analysed it, the specific gravity of 
 Concan catechu is 1 '39 ; and that of Pegu, 1 •28. The taste of this substance is astrin- 
 gent, leaving behind a sensation of sweetness : it is almost wholly soluble in water. Of 
 all the astringent substances we know, catechu appears to contain the largest portion of 
 tannin. According to Mr, Purkis, 1 lb. is equivalent to 7 or 8 lbs. of oak bark for 
 tanning leather. From 200 grs. of Concan catechu. Dr. Davy procured 109 of tannin, 
 68 of extractive matter, 13 of mucilage, and 10 of earths and other impurities : the same 
 quantity of Pegu catechu aflforded 97 grs. of tannin, 73 of extract, 16 of mucilage, and 
 14 of impurities. The uncaria gambir is a scand-ent shrub, extensively cultivated in all 
 the countries lying on both sides of the Straits of Malacca ; but chiefly in the small 
 islands at their eastern extremity. The catechu is in this case obtained by boiling the 
 leaves, and inspissating the juice ; a small quantity of crude sago being added, to give 
 the mass consistency : it is then dried in the sun, and being cut like the Concan catechu 
 into small squares, is ready for use. There is a great consumption of this article through- 
 out all parts of India as a masticatory ; it forms an ingredient in the compound of betel 
 pepper, areca nut, and lime, which is in almost universal use. Catechu may be pur- 
 chased at the Dutch settlement of Rhio, or at Malacca, in the Straits of Singapore, at 
 the rate of about 10s. a cwt. The quantity of it, under the corrupted name of cutch, 
 imported yearly into Calcutta from Pegu, at an average of the 5 years ending with 
 1828-29, was about 300 tons, at a cost not exceeding 9s. per cwt. From Bombay a 
 considerable quantity is annually imported into China. The quantity of catechu, under 
 the name of gambir, produced in Rhio by the Chinese settlers, is equal to about 4,600 
 tons a year, about 2,000 of which are exported for the consumption of Java ; the rest 
 being sent to China, Cochin China, and other neighbouring countries. 
 
 Catechu, particularly from Singapore, has lately been imported in considerable quan- 
 tities for trial in our tanneries; but with a duty of ll. per cwt., equal to twice the 
 prime cost, we fear the speculation is not likely to succeed. — ( See AinsUe's Materia 
 Indica ; Lire's Dictionary; Singapore Chronicle; Buchanan's Journey through Mysore 
 Canara, and Malabar ; Bell's Review of the external Commerce of Bengal. ) 
 
 CAT'S EYE, a mineral of a beautiful appearance, brought from Ceylon. Its colours 
 are grey, green, brown, red, of various shades. Its internal lustre is shining, its fracture 
 imperfectly conchoidal, and it is translucent. From a peculiar play of light, arising 
 from white fibres interspersed, it has derived its name. The French call the appearance 
 chatoyant. It scratches quartz, is easily broken, and resists the blowpipe. It is set by 
 the jewellers as a precious stone. 
 
 CAT SKINS. The skin or fur of the cat, is used for a variety of purposes, hut is prin- 
 cipally dyed and sold as false sable. It appears from evidence taken before a late Com- 
 mittee of the House of Commons, that it is a common practice in London to decoy the 
 anunal and kill it for the sake of its skin. The fur of the wild cat is, however, far more 
 valuable than that of the domestic cat. The wild cat skins imported into this country are 
 brought almost wholly from the tei ritories of the Pludson's Bay Company. The animal 
 from which they are taken is a good deal larger than the English wild cat, and is some- 
 times called the loup cervier, or Canadian lynx. It is very courageous. At an average 
 of the 3 years ending vvitli iSSl, the number of cat skins imported amounted to 40,006 
 a year, of which about 24,000 a year were retained for home consumption. 
 
 CATTLE, a collective term applied to designate all those quadrupeds that are used 
 either as food for man, or in tilling the ground. By neat cnc horned cattle is meant the 
 two species included under the names of the ox (Bos) and the buffalo (Bubulus) ; but 
 as the latter is hardly known in this country, it is the former only that we have here 
 in view. 
 
 The raising and feeding of cattle, and the preparation of the various products which 
 they yield, have formed, in all countries emerged from the savage state, an important 
 branch of industry. 
 
 It would be quite inconsistent with the objects and limits of this work, to enter into 
 any details with respect to the different breeds of cattle raised in this or other countries. 
 They are exceedingly various. In Great Britain they have been vastly improved, both 
 in the weight of carcase, the quality of the beef, and the abundance of the milk, by the 
 extraordinary attention that lias been given to the selection and crossing of the best 
 l)reeds, according to the objects in view. This sort of improvement began about the 
 middle of last century, or ratlier later, and was excited and very miich forwarded by 
 the skill and enterprise of two individuals — Mr. Bakewcll of Dishley, and Mr. Culley 
 of Northumberland. The success by which their efforts were attended roused a spirit of 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 emulation in others; and the rapid growth of commerce and manufactures since 1760 
 having occasioned a corresponding increase in the demand for butcher's meat, improved 
 systems of breeding, and improved breeds, have been very generally introduced. 
 
 But the improvement in the size and condition ' of cattle has not been alone owing 
 to the circumstances now mentioned. Much of it is certainly to be ascribed to the great 
 improvement that has been made in their feeding. The introduction and universal 
 extension of the turnip and clover cultivation has had, in this respect, a most astonishing 
 influence, and has wonderfully increased tlie food of cattle, and consequently the supply 
 of butcher's meat. 
 
 It was stated in the First Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons 
 on Waste Lands (printed in 1795), that cattle and sheep had, at an average, increased in 
 size and weight about a fourth since 1732 ; but there are strong grounds for supposing 
 that the increase had been much more considerable than is represented by the committee. 
 
 According to an estimate of Dr. Davenant in 1710, the average weight of the ne.tt 
 carcase of black cattle was only 370 lbs., of calves 50 lbs., and of sheep only 28 lbs. ; but 
 according to Sir F. M. Eden {Hist, of the Poor, vol. iii. Appen. p. 88.) and Mr. Mid- 
 dleton (Affric. of Middlesex, 2d ed. p. 541.), the weight of the carcase of bullocks killed 
 in London is now, at an average, 800 lbs., calves 140 lbs., sheep 80 lbs., and lambs 50 lbs., 
 including olFal ; and deducting the latter, the nett weight of the carcases is nearer a half 
 than a fourth greater than the weight assigned by Davenant. 
 
 Consumption of Butcher's Meat in London. — The number of head of cattle, sheep and 
 lambs, sold in Smithfield market, each year since 1 732, has been as follows : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Sheep. Years. Cattle. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Cattle. Sheep 
 
 Years. Cattle. | Sheep. 
 
 1732 
 1733 
 1734 
 1735 
 1736 
 1737 
 1738 
 1739 
 1740 
 1741 
 1742 
 1743 
 1744 
 1745 
 1746 
 1747 
 1748 
 1/49 
 1750 
 1751 
 1752 
 1753 
 1754 
 1755 
 1756 
 1757 
 
 76,210 
 80,169 
 78,810 
 83,894 
 87,606 
 89,862 
 87,010 
 86,787 
 84,810 
 77,714 
 79,fi01 
 76,475 
 76,648 
 74, J 88 
 71,582 
 71,1.'")0 
 67,681 
 72,706 
 70,765 
 69,589 
 73,708 
 75,252 
 70,437 
 74,290 
 77,257 
 82,612 
 
 514,700 
 555,050 
 566,910 
 590,970 
 587,420 
 607,330 
 589,470 
 568,9h'0 
 501,020 
 536,180 
 503,260 
 468,120 
 490,620 
 563,990 
 620,790 
 621,780 
 610,060 
 624,220 
 656,340 
 631,890 
 ■642,100 
 '648,440 
 631,350 
 647,100 
 624,710 
 574,960 
 
 1758 
 1759 
 1760 
 1761 
 1762 
 1763 
 1764 
 1765 
 1766 
 1767 
 1768 
 1769 
 1770 
 1771 
 1772 
 1773 
 1774 
 1775 
 1776 
 1777 
 1778 
 1779 
 1780 
 1781 
 1782 
 
 84,252 
 86,439 
 88,594 
 82,514 
 102,831 
 80,851 
 75,168 
 81,6-30 
 75,534 
 77,324 
 79,660 
 82,131 
 86,890 
 93,573 
 89,503 
 90,133 
 90,419 
 93,581 
 98,372 
 93,714 
 97,360 
 97,352 
 102,383 
 102,543 
 101,176 
 
 550,930 
 582,260 
 622,210 
 666,010 
 772,160 
 653,110 
 556,560 
 537,000 
 574,790 
 574,050 
 626,170 
 642,910 
 649,090 
 631,860 
 609,540 
 609,740 
 585,290 
 623,M0 
 671,700 
 714,870 
 658,540 
 676,540 
 706,850 
 743,330 
 728,970 
 
 1783 
 1784 
 1785 
 1786 
 1787 
 1788 
 1789 
 1790 
 1791 
 1792 
 1793 
 1794 
 1795 
 1796 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1804 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 
 101,840 
 98,143 
 99,047 
 92,m 
 94,946 
 92,829 
 93,269 
 103,708 
 101,164 
 107,348 
 116,848 
 109,448 
 131,092 
 117,152 
 108,377 
 107,470 
 122,986 
 125,073 
 134,546 
 126,389 
 117,551 
 113,019 
 125,0^3 
 120,250 
 134,326 
 
 701,610 
 616,110 
 641,470 
 665,910 
 668,570 
 679,100 
 693,700 
 749,660 
 740,360 
 760,859 
 728,480 
 719,420 
 745,640 
 758,840 
 693,510 
 753,010 
 834,400 
 842,210 
 760,560 
 743,470 
 787,430 
 903,940 
 912,410 
 858,570 
 924,030 
 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 1813 
 1814 
 181-5 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 18i'2 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 144,042 
 137,600 , 
 132,155 
 125,012 I 
 13-1,854 I 
 137,770 j 
 135,071 
 124,948 ! 
 120,439 I 
 129,888 
 138,047 
 135,226 
 132,933 I 
 129,125 I 
 142,043 I 
 149,552 i 
 163,615 I 
 156,985 
 143,460 I 
 138,363 j 
 147,698 I 
 158,313 
 159,907 
 148,168 
 166,224 
 
 1,015,280 
 y8!t,250 
 962,750 
 966,400 
 953,630 
 891,240 
 870,880 
 962,840 
 968,560 
 1,044,710 
 963,250 
 949,900 
 947,990 
 1,107,230 
 1,340,160 
 1,264,920 
 1,239,720 
 1,130,310 
 1,270,530 
 1,335,100 
 1,288,460 
 1,240,300 
 1,287,070 
 1,189,010 
 1,364,160 
 
 Down to 1820, this table is extracted from papers laid before parliament ; since 1820, it is made up 
 from returns procured, for this work, from the Chamberlain's office. 
 
 The number of fatted calves, exclusive of sucklers, of which no account is taken, sold annually in 
 Smithfield from 1821 inclusive, has been as follows : — 
 
 1821 
 
 - 21,768 
 
 1827 
 
 
 
 - 20,72i^ 
 
 1822 
 
 - 24,255 
 
 1828 
 
 
 
 . 20,832 
 
 1823 
 
 - 22,739 
 
 1829 
 
 
 
 - 20,879 
 
 1824 
 
 - 21,949 
 
 1830 
 
 
 
 - 20,300 
 
 1825 
 
 - 20,958 
 
 1831 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 . 22,118 
 
 1832 
 
 
 
 I 19^2 
 
 \Obtained from the clerk of the market, 5th of Nov. 1833.) 
 
 The contract prices of butcher's meat per cwt. at Greenwich Hospital, since 1730, have been a> 
 below 
 
 d. 
 
 I' 
 
 ? 
 H 
 
 We suspect, from what we have heard from practical men of great experience, that 
 the weight assigned by Sir F. M. Eden and Mr. Middleton to the cattle sold in Smith- 
 field is a little beyond the average. It must also be observed, as already stated, that it 
 is the gross weight of the carcase, or the weight of the animal under deduction of blou^ 
 
 S 3 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 1730 . 
 
 - 1 5 8 
 
 1785 
 
 - 1 17 6| 
 
 1823 - 
 
 - 2 2 
 
 173.5 . 
 
 • 0 16 11 
 
 1790 - 
 
 - 1 16 10 
 
 1824 - 
 
 - 2 2 
 
 1740 - 
 
 .18 0 
 
 1795 - 
 
 - 2 2 10 
 
 1825 - 
 
 - 2 19 
 
 1745 - 
 
 .12 2 
 
 1800 - 
 
 - 3 4 4 
 
 18-26 - 
 
 . 2 17 
 
 1750 - 
 
 - 1 6 6 
 
 1805 . 
 
 - 3 0 4 
 
 1827 - 
 
 . 2 15 
 
 1755 - 
 
 - 1 7 91 
 
 1810 . 
 
 - 3 12 0 
 
 1828 . 
 
 - 2 10 
 
 1760 - 
 
 - 1 11 6 
 
 1815 - 
 
 .380 
 
 1829 - 
 
 - 2 6 
 
 1765 . 
 
 .17 3 
 
 1820 - 
 
 . 3 10 4| 
 
 1830 - 
 
 - 2 3 
 
 1770 - 
 
 - 1 8 6 
 
 1821 - 
 
 . 2 18 10 
 
 1831 - 
 
 . 2 4 
 
 1775 - 
 
 - 1 13 5 
 
 1822 - 
 
 . 1 i« 5i 
 
 183i: - 
 
 -26 
 
 1780 - 
 
 - 1 12 6 
 
 
 
 
262 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 and refuse ; and therefore to get tlie nett weight, we have further to deduct the offal, or 
 the hide, tallow, entrails, feet, &c. We have been informed that the following quantities 
 may be deducted from the carcase weights, in order to obtain the nett weights of the 
 different animals ; viz. from neat cattle, 250 lbs. each ; calves, 35 lbs. ; sheep, 24 lbs. ; 
 lambs, 1 2 lbs. If these estimates be nearly right, we should be able, provided we knew 
 the respective numbers of sheep and lambs, to estimate the total quantity of butcher's 
 meat furnished for London by Smithfield market, exclusive of hogs and pigs. Sheep 
 and lambs are not, however, distinguished in the returns ; but it is known that the former 
 are to the latter nearly as .3 to 1 ; so that we may estimate the average gross weight of 
 the sheep and lambs at about 70 lbs., and their average nett weight at about 50 lbs. 
 The account for 1830 will then stand as under : — 
 
 Number and Species of Animals. 
 
 Gross Weip;ht. 
 
 Offal. 
 
 Nett Weight. 
 
 Butcher's Meat. 
 
 159,907 Cattle 
 1,287,070 Sheep and lambs 
 20,300 Calves 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 800 
 70 
 140 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 250 
 20 
 35 
 
 Lbs. 
 550 
 50 
 105 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 87,948,850 
 64,353,500 
 2,131,500 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 154,434,850 
 
 This quantity, estimated at the average price of 6d., would cost 3,860,871/. ; at 8c?., it 
 would cost 5,147,828Z. 
 
 A part of the cattle sold at Smithfield go to supply the towns in the vicinity ; but, on 
 the other hand, many cattle are sold in the adjoining towns, and slaughtered for the use 
 of London, of which no account is taken. We have reason to think that the latter 
 quantity rather exceeds the former ; but, supposing that they mutually balance each 
 other, the above quantity of 154,434,850 lbs. may be regarded as forming the annual 
 supply of butcher's meat at present required for London ; exclusive, however, of hogs, 
 pigs, suckling calves, &c., and exclusive also of bacon, hams, and salted provisions 
 brought from a distance. The quantities thus omitted from the account are very con- 
 siderable ; nor can there, we apprehend, be any doubt that, with the addition of such 
 parts of the ofFal as are used for food, they may be considered as more than balancing 
 the butcher's meat required for the victualling of ships. On this hypothesis, therefore, it 
 will follow, assuming the population of the metropolis to amount to 1,450,000, that the 
 annual consumption of butcher's meat by each individual, young and old, belonging to 
 it, is, at an average, very near 107 lbs. 
 
 This, though not nearly so great as has been sometimes represented *, is, we believe, a 
 larger consumption of animal food than takes place any where else by the same number 
 of individuals. According to M. Chabrol, the consumption of butcher's meat in Paris 
 amounts to between 85 lbs. and 86 lbs. for each individual. At Brussels the consump- 
 tion is a little greater, being supposed to average 89 lbs. each individual; being rather 
 more than 3 lbs. above the mean of Paris, and 18 lbs. under the mean of London. 
 
 According to the reports of the inspectors of hides and skins, the following are the numbers of cattle, 
 calves, and sheep, slaughtered in Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, and Sheffield, from 1815 to 1820 in- 
 clusive : — 
 
 Liverpool - 
 Manchester 
 
 Leeds - - - - 
 Sheffield 
 
 Totals 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Calves. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 74,671 
 95,054 
 22,976 
 30,097 
 
 100,329 
 96,574 
 34,598 
 28,455 
 
 457,268 
 489,557 
 317,642 
 184,859 
 
 222,798 
 
 259,956 1 1,443,326 
 
 {Appen. to Agric. Report 0/1821, p. 267.) 
 
 In estimating the weights of the animals killed at these towns, a lower standard must 
 be adopted than that which we have taken for London ; first, because the largest and 
 finest cattle are brought to the metropolis ; and secondly, because a very large proportion 
 of the calves are sucklers, which are excluded from the London accounts. These con- 
 siderations have not been sufficiently attended to by the framers of the estimate in the 
 report now quoted. Sheep, in the above table, means, no doubt, sheep and lambs. 
 
 We extract from Dr. Cleland's valuable work on the statistics of Glasgow the sub- 
 joined account of the number, weight, &c. of the animals slaughtered and sold in tliat 
 city during the year 1822. 
 
 * Mr. Midcileton (Agriculture of Middlesex, p. G^IS.) estimates the consumption of animal food in London, 
 exclusive of fish and poultry, at i.'34 lbs. a year for every individual ! And he further estimates the total 
 average annual expense incurred by eacli inhabitant of the metropolis, for all sorts of animal food, at 
 8/. 8a-. ! To make any comments on sucli conclusions would be worse than useless; but the fact of their 
 beinn met with in a work, otherwi.se of considerable merit, is one of the many proofs, every where to be 
 met with, of the low state of statistical knowledge in tliis country. 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 Butcher's Meat sold in the Glasgow Market in 1822. 
 
 263 
 
 Royalty. 
 
 Suburbs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 13,009 
 7,«)27 
 48,896 
 59,424 
 5,899 
 
 1,557 
 630 
 8,624 
 9,213 
 
 m) 
 
 14,566 
 8,557 
 57,520 
 68,637 
 6,539 
 
 135,155 
 
 20,664 
 
 155,819 
 
 average 28 stone, 407,848, at 7*. 
 — — 3ti«. 
 
 6s. 
 20x. 
 
 Bullocks 
 Hides 
 
 Heads and offals 
 Calf skins 
 Sheep tallow 
 Heads and offals 
 Sheep skins 
 Heads and offals 
 I>ainb skins 
 Heads and offals 
 
 Tallow, 8fc. belonging to tfiese Carcasses. 
 
 - 14,566, averaging 3i stone, 50,981, at 7s. 
 
 - - 14,566, — ~ 28s 
 
 14,566, — — 8s. 
 
 8,557, — 2s. 
 
 57,520, averaging 3i lbs,, 1D1,320, - 5d. 
 
 8,557, — — Is. 6d. 
 
 57,520, — — Is. 6d. 
 
 57,520, — — 7d. 
 
 68,337, — — Is. 3d 
 
 68,637, - — 4rf. 
 
 Total value of Carcasses, Tallow, Hides, &c. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 142,746 16 0 
 
 15,4(/2 12 0 ' 
 
 57,520 0 0 
 
 20,.''j91 2 0 
 
 6,539 0 0 
 
 1242,799 10 0 
 
 17,843 
 20,392 
 5,826 
 855 
 
 4,194 3 
 641 15 
 4,314 0 
 1,677 13 
 4,289 16 3 
 1,143 19 0 
 
 14 0 
 4 
 6 
 0 
 4 
 
 61,179 4 5 
 303,1)78 14 5 
 
 X. B. — The weight is estimated in this statement by the stone of 16 lbs., each of 22| oz. The office of 
 hide-inspector having been abolished, there are no means of continuing this table to a later period; but 
 the returns ot the cattle sold in the market at Glasgow since ]822, show that the increase in the supply 
 of animal food has at least kept pace with the increase of population. 
 
 The population of Glasgow, when this account was taken, amounted to 147,043, which 
 shows that the consumption of butcher's moat in that city, is, as compared with its po- 
 pulation, but little inferior to that of London. This statement, taken in connection 
 with the fact that, so late as 1760, the slaughter of bullocks for the supply of the public 
 market was unknown in Glasgow, sets the wonderful improvement that has since taken 
 place in the food of the Scotch people in the most striking point of view. Previously to 
 1780 it was customary in Glasgow, Edinburgh, and the principal Scotch towns, for fa- 
 milies to purchase in November what would now be reckoned a small half-fed cow or ox, 
 the salted carcase of which was the only butcher's meat they tasted throughout the year. 
 In the smaller towns and country districts this practice prevailed till the present century ; 
 but it is now everywhere abandoned. We believe, indeed, that there has never been in 
 any country a more rapid increase in the quantity, or a greater iSnprovement in the quality 
 of the food brought to market, than has taken place in Scotland since 1770. In so far as 
 respects butcher's meat, this has been occasioned partly by the growing numbers and opu- 
 lence of all classes, and partly by the vast increase in the food of cattle consequent to the 
 introduction of green crops, and of an improved system of cultivation. — (See Bread.) 
 
 The introduction of steam navigation, and the improved means of communication by 
 rail-roads and otherwise, has already had, and will, no doubt, continue to have, a ma- 
 terial influence over the supply of butcher's meat. Owing to the difficulty and expense 
 of their conveyance, cattle could not formerly be conveniently fattened at any very con- 
 siderable distance from the great markets ; but steam navigation has gone far to remove 
 this difficulty. Instead of selling their cattle, lean or half-fed, to the Norfolk graziers, 
 by whom they were fattened for the London market, the producers, in various districts 
 of Scotland, are now beginning to fatten them at home, either sending the live animals or 
 the carcasses by steam to London, Liverpool, &c. This practice is indirectly as well as 
 directly advantageous to the farmer, inasmuch as it enables him to turn his green crops 
 to" better account, and to raise larger supplies of manure. The same practice is also 
 extending in Ireland ; and will, no doubt, spread itself over every part of the country 
 where feeding can be carried on, that has the required facility of transport. 
 
 Exclusive of the cattle raised in Great Britain, we import considerable supplies of beef and of live 
 cattle from Ireland. 
 
 Account of the number of Cows and Oxen, and of the quantities of Beef, imported into Great Britain 
 from Ireland, from ISOl : — 
 
 Year*. 
 
 Cows 
 and Oxen. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Cows 
 and Oxen. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Cows 
 and Oxen. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 BtrreU. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 1801 
 
 31,543 
 
 58,911 
 
 1810 
 
 44,553 
 
 71,605 
 
 1818 
 
 58,165 
 
 80,587 
 
 1802 
 
 42,501 
 28,016 
 
 59,448 
 62,226 
 
 1811 
 
 67,680 
 
 108,282 
 
 1819 
 
 .'32,176 
 
 7(>,"04 
 
 1803 
 
 1812 
 
 79,122 
 
 114,504 
 
 1820 
 
 39,014 
 
 52,591 
 
 1K04 
 
 15,646 
 
 59,342 
 
 1813 
 
 48,973 
 
 104,516 
 
 1S21 
 
 26,725 
 
 65,905 
 
 1805 
 
 21,862 
 
 88,519 
 
 1814 
 
 16,435 
 
 83,162 
 
 18-2 
 
 34,659 
 
 43,139 
 
 1806 
 
 27,704 
 
 91,261 
 
 1815 
 
 53,809 
 
 60,307 
 
 1823 
 
 46,351 
 
 69,079 
 
 1807 
 
 26,252 
 
 85,255 
 
 1816 
 
 31.752 
 
 59,495 
 
 1824 
 
 62,314 
 
 54,810 
 
 1808 
 
 13,958 
 
 88,366 
 
 1817 
 
 45.301 
 
 105,555 
 
 1S25 
 
 63,519 
 
 63,557 
 
 1809 
 
 17,917 
 
 89,771 
 
 
 
 
 
 In 1825 the trade between Great Britain and Ireland was placed on the footing of a coasting trade, so 
 that there are no means of continuing this account to a later date ; but for some further i)artu ulars, the 
 reader is referred to Liverpool, art Docks; for an account of the sales of cattle at the great fair ot 
 Ballirasloe, see Fairs and Markets. 
 
 S 4 
 
264? 
 
 CAVIAR. -CEDAR. 
 
 Number of Head of Cattle in Great Britain. — It would, on many accounts, be very 
 desirable to be able to form an accurate estimate of the number and value of the stock 
 of cattle in Great Britain, and of the proportion annually killed and made use of ; but 
 owing to the little attention that has been paid to such subjects in this country, where 
 every sort of statistical knowledge is at the very lowest ebb, there are no means of ar- 
 riving at any conclusions that can be depended upon. The following details may not, 
 however, be unacceptable. 
 
 Arthur Young has given, both in his Eastern and Northern Tours, estimates of the 
 number and vahie of the different descriptions of stock in England. The greatest dis- 
 crepancy, unaccompanied by a single explanatory sentence, exists between them ; but 
 there can be no doubt that the following estimate (Eastern Tour, vol. iv. p. 456.), though, 
 perhaps, rather under the mark, is infinitely nearer the truth than the other, which is 
 about twice as great : — 
 
 Number of Draught cattle - - - - - 684,491 
 
 Cows .... . 741,532 
 
 Fatting cattle - - - - - 513,369 
 
 Young cattle - - - - - 912,656 
 
 Total - - 2,852,048 
 
 Now, taking this number at the round sum of 3,000,000, and adding a third to it for 
 the increase since 1770, and 1,100,000 for the number of cattle in Scotland (General 
 Report of Scotland, iii. Addenda, p. 6.), we shall have 5,100,000 as the total head of 
 cattle of all sorts in Great Britain. The common estimate is, that about a fourth part 
 of the entire stock is annually slaughtered; which, adopting the foregoing statement, 
 gives 1,275,000 head for the supply of the kingdom; a result which all that we have 
 heard inclines us to think is very near the mark. 
 
 Dr. Colquhoun estimated the total head of cattle in England and Wales only, in 
 1812, at 5,500,000; but he assigns no data for his estimate, which is entitled to very 
 little attention. 
 
 Cattle of the Continent. — Baron Malchus has given, in his work on European Statistics, published 
 at Stuttgard in 1826, an account of the number of horned cattle, sheep, swine, &c., in most European 
 countries. In so far as respects the British empire, the statements are mostly copied from Colquhoun 
 and are ludicrously inexact. Perhaps, however, they may, in so far as regards the Continental states, be 
 better entitled to credit. The following are some of the items in his Table : — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Cattle. 1 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 2,647,000 
 
 Baden - - . - 
 
 421,900 ! 
 
 Russia ... 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 Bavaria ... 
 
 1,895,700 
 
 Denmark 
 
 1,607,000 
 
 Austria . - - - 
 
 9,912,500 1 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 - 2,500,000 
 
 France . - 
 
 6,681,900 : 
 
 Prussia - - 
 
 4,275,700 
 
 Spain . . . . 
 
 2,500,000 1 
 
 Saxony - . - 
 
 345,000 
 
 Portugal 
 
 650,000 1 
 
 Hanover ... 
 
 794,000 
 
 Switzerland - 
 
 800,000 
 
 Wirtemberg 
 
 713,000 
 
 Italy 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 On the whole the Baron estimates the neat or horned cattle of Europe, including the British isles, but 
 excluding Turkey, at 70,270,974. At best, however, this estimate can only be considered as a very 
 rough approximation. 
 
 Laws as to Cattle. — No salesman, broker, or factor, employed in buying cattle for others, shall buy for 
 himself in London, or within the bills of mortality, on penalty of double the value of the cattle bought and 
 sold. — (31 Geo. 2. c. 40.) 
 
 Cattle not to be driven on Sunday, on penalty of 20s. — (3 Cha. 1. c. 1.) 
 
 Any person unlawfully and maliciously killing, wounding, or maiming any cattle, shall be guilty of 
 felony, and, upon conviction, may be transported, at the discretion of the court, beyond seas for life, or 
 for any term not less than 7 years, or be imprisoned for any term not exceeding 4 years, and kept to hard 
 labour ; and, if a male, may be once, twice, or thrice publicly or privately whipped, if the court shall 
 think fit so to order. — (7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 30.) 
 
 Persons wantonly and cruelly abusing, beating, or iH-treating cattle, may, upont)eing convicted before 
 a justice of such ofFence, be fined in any sum not exceeding 51. and not below 10s. ; and upon nonpayment 
 of fine, may be committed to the house of correction for any time not exceeding 3 months. 
 
 Complaint must be made within 10 days after the offence. Justices are instructed to order compensation 
 to be made, not exceeding 20s., to persons vexatiously complained against. — (3 Geo. 4. c. 71.) 
 
 CAVIAR (Fr. Caviar, Cavial ; Ger. Kaviar ; It. Caviario, Caviale ; Sp. Caviario ; 
 Rus. Ikra ; Lat. Caviariwn), a substance prepared in Russia, consisting of the salted roes 
 of large fish. The Uralian Cossacks are celebrated for making excellent caviar. The best 
 is made of the roe of the sturgeon, appears to consist entirely of the eggs, and does not 
 easily become fetid. This is packed in small casks or kegs ; tJie inferior sort being in the 
 form of dry cakes. Caviar is highly esteemed in Russia, and considerable quantities are 
 exported to Italy. It is principally made of the sturgeon caught in the Wolga, in the 
 iieighl)ourliood of Astrachan. — (See Tooke's Russia, 2d ed. vol. iii. p. 345.) 
 
 CAYENNE PEPPER, on GUINEA PEPPER. See Chillies. 
 
 CEDAR (Ger. Zeder ; Dii. Cedcr ; Fr. Cedre ; It. and Sp. Cedro ; Rus. Kedr ; 
 I.,at. Cedrus). The cedar of I^ebanon, or great cedar (Finns cedrus), is famous in 
 tscripti rj : it is a tall, majestic-looking tree. " Behold," says the inspired writer, " the 
 ^ssyiian was a cedar in Lebanon with fair branches, and with a shadowing shroud, and 
 
CERTIFICATE. — CHALDRON. 
 
 of an high stature; and his top was among the thick boughs. His height was exalted 
 above all the trees of the field, and his boughs were multiplied, and his branches became 
 long. The fir trees were not like his boughs, and the chestnut trees were not like his 
 branches; nor any tree in the garden of God was like unto him in beauty." — 
 (Ezekiel, xxxi. 3. 5. 8.) The cedar grows to a very great size. The timber is resinous, 
 has a peculiar and powerful odour, a slightly bitter taste, a rich yellowish brown colour, 
 and is not subject to the worm. Its durability is very great ; and it was on this account 
 (propter caternitatem, "Vitruvius, lib. ii. § 9.) employed in the construction of temples, 
 and other public buildings, in the formation of the statues of the gods, and as tablets for 
 writing upon. In the time of Vitruvius, cedars were principally produced in Crete, 
 Africa, and some parts of Syria. — (Xoc. cit.) Very few are now found on Lebanon ; 
 but some of those that still remain are of immense bulk, and in the highest preservation. 
 
 Cedar exceeds the oak in toughness, but is very inferior to it in strength and stiffness. 
 Some very fine cedars have been produced in England. 
 
 There are several other kinds of timber that are usually called cedar ; thus, a species 
 of cypress is called white cedar in America ; and the cedar used by the Japanese foi' 
 building bridges, ships, houses, &c., is a kind of cypress, which Thunberg describes as 
 a beautiful wood, that lasts long without decay. The Juniperus oxycedrus is a native of 
 Spain, the south of France, and the Levant ; it is usually called the brown berried 
 cedar. The Bermudian cedar (Juniperus Bermudiana), a native of the Bermuda and 
 Bahama islands, is another species that produces valuable timber for many purposes ; 
 such as internal joiners' work, furniture, and the like. The red cedar, so well known 
 from its being used in making black-lead pencils, is produced by the Virginian cedar 
 (^Juniperus Virginiana), a native of North America, the West India islands, and Japan. 
 The tree seldom exceeds 45 feet in height. The wood is very durable, and, like the 
 cedar of Lebanon, is not attacked by worms. It is employed in various ways, but 
 principally in the manufacture of drawers, wardrobes, &c., and as a cover to pencils. 
 The internal wood is of a dark red colour, and has a very strong odour. It is of a 
 nearly uniform texture, brittle, and light. — (See Tredgold's Principles of Carpentry; 
 Lib. of Entertaining Knowledge, Veget. Substances ; Bees' s Cyclop., 8j-c.) 
 
 The duty on cedar {21. 10s. a ton from a foreign country, and 10*. from a British possession) produced 
 2,549/. 195. lid. in 1832. Its price in bond varies from 6d. to 9d. a foot. 
 
 CERTIFICATES, in the customs. No goods can be exported by certificate, ex- 
 cept foreign goods formerly imported, on which the whole or a part of the customs paid 
 on importation is to be drawn back. The manner of proceeding is regulated by the 
 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52. § 68, &c. The person intending to enter outwards such goods, is 
 to deliver to the collector or comptroller of the port where the goods were imported or 
 warehoused, two or more bills, specifying the particulars of the importation of such 
 goods, and of the entry ojitwards intended to be made ; and the oflficers, if they find 
 such bills to agree with the entry inwards, are to issue a certificate of such entry, with 
 the particulars necessary for the computation of the drawback upon the goods, the 
 names of the person and ship by whom and in which the goods are to be exported, &c. 
 The merchant then enters the goods outwards, as in the common way of exportation. 
 The cocket granted upon this occasion is called a certificate cocket, and differs a little in 
 form from common over-sea cockets. Notice of the time of shipping is to be given to 
 the searcher. Some time after the departure of the vessel, the exporter may apply for 
 the drawback. The collector and comptroller then make out on a proper stamp a de- 
 benture, containing a distinct narration of the transaction, with the exporter's or mer- 
 chant's oath that the goods are really and truly exported beyond seas, and not relanded, 
 nor intended to be relanded ; and also with the searcher's certificate of the quantity 
 and quality of the goods at the time of shipping. The debenture being thus duly made 
 out and sworn to, the duties to be repaid are indorsed, the merchant's receipt taken below, 
 and the money paid. 
 
 Certificates of origin, subscribed by the proper officers of the places where the goods 
 were shipped, are reqiiired, to entitle the importers of sugar, coffee, cocoa, and spirits, 
 from any British plantation, to get them entered as such. A similar certificate is 
 required in the case of blubber — (see Blubber); and in the case of wine from the 
 Cape of Good Hope ; and sugar from the limits of the East India Company's charter, 
 &c. — (See Importation and Exportation.) 
 
 CHAIN, in surveying, a measure of length, composed of a certain number of links 
 made of iron wire, serving to take the distance between two or more places. Gunter's 
 chain contains 100 such links, each measuring inches, consequently equal to 66 feet, 
 or 4 poles. 
 
 CHALDRON, a dry English measure. 36 coal bushels make a chaldron, and 
 21 chaldrons a score. The coal bushel is 19 j inches wide from the outside, and 
 8 inches deep. It contains 2,21 7 "6 cubic inches; but when heaped, 2,815*5, making 
 the chaldron 58*65 cubic feet. There are 12 sacks of coal in a chaldron; and if 
 
266 CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. — CHARLESTON. 
 
 5 chaldrons be purchased at the same time, the seller must deliver 63 sacks : the 
 3 sacks additional are called the ingrain. But coals are now sold in London, and 
 almost every where else, by the ton of 20 cwt. avoirdupois. The Newcastle chaldron of 
 coals is 53 cwt., and is just double the London chaldron. — (See Coal.) 
 • CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, is an assembly of merchants and traders, where 
 affairs relating to trade are treated of. There are several establishments of this sort in 
 most of the chief cities of France ; and in this country, chambers of this kind have been 
 erected for various purposes. 
 
 Chamber of Assurance, in France, denotes a society of merchants and others for 
 carrying on the business of insurance ; but in Holland it signifies a court of justice, 
 where causes relating to insurances are tri.^d. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, one of the most esteemed and celebrated of the French wines. 
 See Wine. 
 
 CHANKS, OR CHANK SHELLS, common conch shells, are fished up by divers 
 in the Gulf of Manar, on the coast opposite JafFnapatam, in Ceylon, in about 2 fathoms 
 water ; and at Travancore, Tuticoreen, and other places. Large fossil beds of chanks 
 have also been found. They are of a spiral form, and form a considerable article of 
 trade in India, where they are in extensive demand all over the country. They are 
 sawn into narrow rings or bracelets, and are worn as ornaments for the anns, legs, 
 fingers, &c. by the Hindoo women ; many of them are also buried with the bodies of 
 opulent and distinguished persons. Those which, from being taken with the fish, are 
 called green chanks, are most in demand. The white chank, which is the shell thrown 
 upon the beacl^ by strong tides, having lost its gloss and consistency, is not worth the 
 freight up to Calcutta. The value of the green chank depends upon its size. A chank 
 opening to the right, called in Calcutta the right-handed chank, is so highly prized, as 
 sometimes to sell for 400, or 500, or even 1,000 rupees. — (BeWs Commerce of Bengal, 
 and private communications.') 
 
 The fishery of chanks is monopolised by government, who most commonly let the 
 banks for about 4,O00Z. a year. Sometimes, however, they are fished by the servants of 
 government on its account. But as the fishermen of the coast, and those belonging to 
 the little islands where they are found, cannot be prevented from taking chanks, the 
 better plan, as it appears to us, would be to give every one leave to fish them ; but to 
 lay a somewhat heavier duty on their exportation. We have been assured by those well 
 acquainted with the circumstances, that this would be advantageous to all parties, but 
 especially to government. We have heard that an arrangement of this sort has recently 
 been made, but we have not learned anything positive respecting it. 
 
 CHARCOAL (Fr. Charhon de hois; Ger. Reine Kohle ; It. Carhone di legna ; 
 Sp. Carbon de lena ; Lat. Carho ligni), a sort of artificial coal, consisting of wood 
 burned with as little exposure to the action of the air as possible. " It was customary 
 among the ancients to char the outside of those stakes which were to be driven into the 
 ground, or placed in water, in order to preserve the wood from spoiling. New-made 
 charcoal, by being rolled up in clothes which have contracted a disagreeable odour, 
 effectually destroys it. When boiled with meat beginning to putrefy, it takes away the 
 bad taint : it is, perhaps, the best tooth-powder known. When putrid water at sea is 
 mixed with about i of its weight of charcoal powder, it is rendered quite fresli ; 
 and a much smaller quantity of charcoal will serve, if the precaution be taken to add a 
 little sulphuric acid previously to the water. If the water casks be charred before they 
 are filled with water, the liquid remains good in them for years : this precaution ought 
 always to be taken for long sea voyages. The same precaution, when attended to 
 for wine casks, will be found very much to improve the quality of the wine." — ( Thom- 
 son's Chemistry.) 
 
 CHARLESTON, a city and sea-port of the United States, in South Carolina, in 
 lat. 32° 47' N., long. 79° 48' W. Population in 1830, including the suburbs, 40,300. 
 The situation of Charleston has a good deal of resemblance to that of New York, being 
 built on a point of land between the Ashley and Cooper rivers, at their point of con- 
 fluence. The exports principally consist of cotton and rice (particularly the former), 
 which are the staple products of the state. There are a few other articles exported, 
 such as naval stores, hams, bacon, &c., but their value is quite inconsiderable. All the 
 cotton sent from South Carolina to foreign countries is shipped at Charleston. In 
 1831-32, the exports are said to have amounted to 182,628 bales, of which 138,683 
 were for Great Britain.* The value of the cotton exported in 1831 amounted, according 
 to the customhouse valuation, to 4,885,431 dollars, and that of the rice to 1,218,859 do. 
 But exclusive of the exports to foreign countries. South Carolina sends a great deal of 
 cotton and rice to other ports of the Union. The shipments of cotton coastwise in 
 
 * This statement is taken from an American paper, and is believed to be nearly accurate, but it is 
 naXf official. 
 
CHART. 
 
 267 
 
 1831-32 were estimated at about -13,000 bales. The imports from foreif^ countries 
 principally consist of cottons, woollens and linens, hardware, iron and steel, coffee, 
 sugar, tea, wine, spices, &c. The greater part of the imports do not, however, come 
 from abroad, but from the northern and middle states. Tiie former supply her with 
 fish, shoes, and all sorts of coarse manufactured goods for the use of tiie slave population ; 
 while the latter supply her with wheat, flour, &c. Most part of the imports of foreign 
 produce are also brought at second-hand from New York, which occupies the same rank, 
 in the Union that Liverpool and London do in Great Britain, There were, in 1830, 
 5 banks in this city, including the branch of the United States Bank, with an ag- 
 gregate capital of 4,975,000 dollars : the total dividends for the same year amounted 
 to 317,000 dollars ; being at the rate of 6*371 per cent. There were also 2 marine in- 
 surance companies, having a capital of 750,000 dollars. — ( Statement hy J. H. Goddardy 
 Esq., New York Daily Advertiser, 29th of January, 1831.) The registered, enrolled, 
 and licensed tonnage belonging to Charleston, in 1831, amounted to 13,008 tons, of 
 which 7,147 tons were employed in the coasting trade. The total value of the articles 
 imported into South Carolina, in the year ending 30th of September, 1832, was 1,213,725 
 dollars; the total value of the exports during the same year being 7,752,781 dollars. — 
 (Papers laid before Congress, 15th of February, 1833.) In South Carolina, the dollar 
 is worth 4s. 8d. currency; so that IZ. sterling = IZ. Os. 8^c/. currency. Weights and 
 Measures same as in England. — (For further details, see New York.) 
 
 Po7-t. — Charleston harbour is spacious and convenient ; but the entrance to it is incommoded by a range 
 of sand-banks, stretching from Sullivan's Island on the north to Folly Island on the south, about 2^ 
 leagues. There are several channels through these banks, but only three, the middle or direct channel, 
 the ship channel, and Lawford channel, between the latter and the mainland, that ought to be atteinj)ted 
 by ships of considerable burden. The entrance to the sliip channel is in lat. 32° 'tO'. The depth of water 
 on the shallowest part of the bar at ebb tide is 12 feet, and at flood from 17 to 18 feet ; whilst the depth iu 
 the middle chaimel at low water does not exceed 9 feet, and in Lawford channel it docs not exceed 10 or 
 11 feet. A lighthouse has been erected on the south point of Lighthouse Island, bearing from the middle 
 of the bar of the ship channel W. N. W. g N. It is 80 feet high, having a revolving light, alternately 
 brilliant and obscure, the period of obscuration being double that of brilliancy ; but on approaching the 
 light, the latter gains upon the former, and within I5 league it is never wholly dark. The light may be 
 seen in line weather at from 3 to 4 leagues off. After getting into the channel, wlTich is marked by the 
 breakers and buoys on each side, the proper course for a ship to-steer is to bring the lighthouse to bear 
 N.W. by W., and stand direct for it till you get within the banks, when the course is N. by W. 
 But it is unnecessary to enter into further details on these points, as all ships entering Charleston harbour 
 are bound, provided they are hailed by a licensed pilot off the bar, to pay him full pilotage fees whether 
 they accept his services or not. In point of fact, however, they are always accepted ; for the shifting 
 of the sands, the influence of the' tides, &c. render the entrance so difficult to those not perfectly familiar 
 with it, that even the packet ships that sail regularly to and from New York uniformly heave-to without 
 the bar for a pilot. — (See Plan of Charleston Harbour, reduced from the original survey of Major 
 H. Bache.) 
 
 Ships usually moor alongside quays or wharfs, where they are in perfect safety. 
 
 Shipping Charges. — The charges of a public natiire paid by 
 ships entering this port differ but little in amount on a native 
 and a foreign ship. On a vessel supposed to be of 300 tons 
 burden, entering, unloading, taking on board a mixed cargo, 
 and clearing out, they would be as under ; — 
 
 Dollars. Cents. L. s. d. 
 Fee on entry at the customhouse - 2 CO or 0 11 
 Surveyor's fee, on a foreign ship • 5 00 . 1 1 44 
 
 , t)itto, on a native ship - 00 - 0 12 »| 
 
 Harbour-master's fee - . 2 00 - 0 8 6A 
 
 Port warden's survey, when required . 10 00 • 2 2 Sj 
 Fees on clearance at the customhouse, T er. Oil 11' 
 
 of a native ship - . 
 
 Ditto, of a foreign ship - - 2 70 - 0116^ 
 Pilotage inwards and outwards, sup- 1 en nn in li; fii 
 
 posing the ship to draw 14 ft. water j ^0 0° " 1" 6^ 
 M'harfage, per diem - - - 1 00 - 0 4 
 
 The difference in the fees on the clearance at the Custom- 
 house of a native and a foreign ship, is owing to the former 
 being obliged to give certain bonds which are not required of 
 the latter. 
 
 The greater or smaller tonnage of the ship makes no dif- 
 ference on-any of the above charges, except that of pilotage, 
 which is in proportion to her draft of water, and is the same 
 whether for a foreign or a native ship. 
 
 Departures from Charleston. — The following is 
 An Account of the Number of Ships, with a Specification of 
 
 their Tonnage, and the Countries to which they belonged, 
 
 that cleared from Charleston for Foreign Ports during each 
 
 of the Three Years ending with 1831 : — 
 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Nation. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vsls. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vsls. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vsls. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 British 
 
 55 
 
 19,052 
 
 51 
 
 16,250 
 
 91 
 
 26,631 
 
 United States 
 
 258 
 
 61,783 
 
 269 
 
 64,742 
 
 186 
 
 43,369 
 
 French 
 
 22 
 
 5,481 
 
 11 
 
 2,777 
 
 6 
 
 1,848 
 
 Spanish 
 
 5 
 
 420 
 
 12 
 
 1,106 
 
 27 
 
 2,671 
 
 Bremen 
 
 3 
 
 811 
 
 5 
 
 872 
 
 3 
 
 371 
 
 Dutch 
 
 
 193 
 
 
 
 
 
 Danish 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 125 
 
 1 
 
 125 
 
 Total 
 
 345 
 
 87,785 
 
 549 
 
 85,872 
 
 "3U~ 
 
 75,015 
 
 Rates of Commission. — The rates of commission or factorage 
 usually charged and allowed at Charleston on transacting dif- 
 ferent sorts of business, are as follows, viz — 
 For selling domestic produce, 2i per cent. 
 For selling foreign merchandize, 5 per cent. 
 For guaranteeing either of these sales, 2^ percent, additional 
 is commonly allowed. 
 For purchasing with funds in hand, or drawing domestic billj 
 
 for reimbursement, 2.2 per cent. 
 For purchasing goods and drawing foreign bills for reimburse- 
 ment, 5 per cent, is charged. 
 For the sale of real or personal estate, the regular charge is 
 5 per cent. ; but where the property to be sold is of any con- 
 siderable value, the parties in general enter into an agree- 
 ment beforehand, and a much lower rate of commission is 
 allowed. 
 
 Charges on Rice and Cotton shipped at Charleston. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Dravage, wharfage, &c. - - 12i per barrel. 
 
 Cooperage - ... isj ditto. 
 
 Total 31 cents per barrej 
 
 On cotton the charges are — 
 On square bales, 
 Drayage, wharfage, &c. 
 Labour, mending bagging, &c. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 • 10 per bale. 
 
 - 10 ditto. 
 
 Total 20 cents per bale. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 - 10 per bale. 
 
 - 15 ditto. 
 
 Total 25 cents per bale. 
 
 For commission, see above. 
 
 These particulars have been principally derived from the 
 answers made by the Consul at Charleston, to the circular 
 queries ; answers'which do great credit to his intelligence ami 
 industry. 
 
 On round bales or bags, 
 Drayage, wharfage, &c. 
 Labour, mending bagging, &c. 
 
 CHART (Ger. Seekarten; Du. Zeekarten; Fr. Cartes marines; It. Carte marine; 
 Sp. and Port. Cartas de marear) is properly applied to a projection of some part of the 
 sea, as the term Map is to a portion of the land ; wherefore charts are sometimes de- 
 nominated " Hydrographical Maps." They are distinguished into several kinds, as plain, 
 globular, and TNIercator charts. 
 
268 
 
 CHARTERPARTY. 
 
 CHARTERPARTY, the name given to a contract in writing, between the owner 
 or master of a ship and the freighter, by which the former hires or lets the ship, or a 
 part of the ship, under certain specified conditions, for the conveyance of the goods of 
 the freighter to some particular place or places. Generally, however, a charterparty is 
 a contract for the use of the whole ship : it is in commercial law, what an indenture is 
 at common law. 
 
 No precise form of words, or set of stipulations, is requisite in a charterparty. The 
 forms subjoined to this article are those most commonly in use ; but these may, and, 
 indeed, in many cases must, be varied, to suit the views and intentions of the parties. 
 
 A charterparty is generally under seal : but sometimes a printed or written instru- 
 ment is signed by the parties, called a memorandum of a charterparty; and this, if a 
 formal charterparty be not afterwards executed, is binding. The stamp in either case is 
 the same. 
 
 Charterparties, when ships are let or hired at the place of the owners' residence, are 
 generally executed by them, or some of them ; but when the ship is in a foreign port, it 
 must necessarily be executed by the master, and the merchant or his agent, unless the 
 owners have an agent in such port, having proper authority to act for them in such 
 matters. 
 
 A charterparty made by the master in his name, when he is in a foreign port in the 
 usual course of the ship's employment, and, therefore, under circumstances which do not 
 afford evidence of fraud ; or when it is made by him at home, under circumstances which 
 afford evidence of the expressed or implied assent of the owners; is binding upon the 
 latter. But, according to the law of England, no di7-ect action can be maintained upon 
 the instrument itself against the owners, unless it be signed and sealed by them, or unless 
 they authorise the master (or agent, as the case may be) to enter into the contract, and 
 unless it be distinctly expressed in the charterparty that he acts only as agent. 
 
 When a ship is chartered by several owners to several persons, the charterparty should 
 be executed by each, or they will not be liable to an action for nonperformance. But 
 if the charterparty be not expressed to be made between the parties, but runs thus — 
 " This charterparty indented witnesseth, that C, master of the ship W., with consent of 
 A. and B., the owners thereof, lets the ship to freight to E. and F.," and the instrument 
 contains covenants by E. and F. to and with A. and B. ; in this case A. and B. may 
 bring an action upon the covenants expressed to be made with them ; but unless they 
 seal the deed, they cannot be sued upon it. This, therefore, is a very proper form. 
 
 The general rule of law adopted in the construction of this, as of other mercantile in- 
 struments, is, that the interpretation should be liberal, agreeable to the real intention of 
 the parties, and conformable to the usage of trade in general, and of the particular trade 
 to which the contract relates. 
 
 The charterparty usually expresses the burden of the ship ; and by the famous French 
 Ordinance of 1681, it is required to do so. According to Molloy (book ii. c. 4. § 8.), 
 if a ship be freighted by the ton, and found of less burden than expressed, the payment 
 shall be only for the real burden ; and if a ship be freighted for 200 tons, or thereabouts, 
 the addition of thereabouts (says the same author) is commonly reduced to Jive tons more 
 or less; but it is now usual to say so many tons " register measurement." 
 
 The usual covenant, that the ship shall be seaworthy, and in a condition to carry the 
 goods, binds the owners to prepare and complete every thing to commence and fulfil the 
 voyage. But though the charterparty contained no such covenant, the owner of the 
 vessel would be, at common law, bound, as a carrier, to take care that the ship should be 
 fit to perform the voyage ; and even though he should give notice, limiting his responsi- 
 bility from losses occasioned to any cargo put on board his vessel, unless such loss should 
 arise from want of ordinary care, &c., he would be liable if his ship were not seaworthy. 
 — (See Seaworthy.) 
 
 In all maritime transactions, expedition is of the utmost consequence ; for even by a 
 short delay, the object or season of a voyage may be lost ; and therefore, if either party 
 be not ready by the time appointed for the loading of the ship, the other may seek another 
 ship or cargo, and bring an action to recover the damages he has sustained. 
 
 The manner in which the owner is to lade the cargo is, for the most part, regulated 
 by the custom and usage of the place where he is to lade it, unless there be any express 
 stipulation in the charterparty with respect to it. Generally, however, the owner is 
 bound to arrange the different articles of the cargo in the most proper manner, and to 
 take the greatest care of them. If a cask be accidentally staved, in letting it down into 
 the hold of the ship, the master must answer for the loss. 
 
 If the owner covenants to load a full and complete cargo, the master must take as 
 much on board as he can do with safety, and without injury to the vessel. 
 
 The master must not take on board any contraband goods, whereby the ship or cargo 
 may be lial)lc to forfeiture and detention ; nor must he take on board any false or coloiu- 
 ablc papers ; but he must take and keep on board all the papers and documents required 
 
CHARTERPARTY. 
 
 269 
 
 for the protection and manifeslation of the ship and cargo by the law of the countries 
 from and to which the ship is bound, by the law of nations in general, or by any treaties 
 between particular states. 
 
 If the master receive goods at the quay or beach, or send his boat for them, his re- 
 sponsibility commences with the receipt in the port of London. With respect to goods 
 intended to be sent coastwise, it has been held, that the responsibility of the wharfinger 
 ceases by the delivery of them to the mate of the vessel upon the wharf. As soon as he 
 receives the goods, the master must provide adequate means for their protection and 
 security ; for even if the crew be overpowered by a superior force, and the goods taken 
 while the ship is in a port or river within the country, the master and owners are liable 
 for the loss, though they may have committed neither fraud nor fault. This may seem 
 a harsh rule ; but it is necessary, to put down attempts at collusive or fraudulent conw 
 binations. 
 
 The master must, according to the terms of the charterparty, commence the voyage 
 without delay, as soon as the weather is favourable, but not otherwise. 
 
 Sometimes it is covenanted and agreed upon between the parties, that a specified 
 number of days shall be allowed for loading and unloading, and that it shall be lawful 
 for the freighter to detain the vessel a further specified time, on payment of a daily sum 
 as demurrage. — (See Demurrage.) If the vessel be detained beyond both periods, the 
 freighter is liable to an action on the contract. The rate of demurrage mentioned in the 
 charterparty will, in general, be the measure of the damages to be paid ; but it is not the 
 absolute or necessary measure ; more or less may be payable, as justice may require, 
 regard being had to the expense and loss incurred by the owner. When the time is thus 
 expressly ascertained and limited by the terms of the contract, the freighter is liable to 
 an action for damages if the thing be not done within the time, although this may not he 
 attributable to any fault or omission on his part ; for he has engaged that it shall be done. 
 — (^Abbott on the Law of Shipping, part iii. c. 1.) 
 
 If there has been any undertaking or warranty to sail with convoy, the vessel must 
 repair to the place of rendezvous for that purpose ; and if the master neglect to proceed 
 with convoy, he will be answerable for all losses that may arise from the want of it. 
 
 The owners or master should sail with the ship for the place of her destination with 
 all due diligence, and by the usual or shortest course, unless in cases of convoy, which 
 the master must follow as far as possible. Sometimes the course is pointed out in the 
 charterparty. A deviation from the usual course may be justified for the purpose of re- 
 pairs, or for avoiding an enemy or the perils of the seas, as well as by the sickness of the 
 master or mariners, and the mutiny of the crew. 
 
 By an exception in the charterparty, not to be liable for injuries arising from the act 
 of God and the king's enemies, the owner or master is not responsible for any injury 
 arising from the sea or the winds, unless it was in his power to prevent it, or it was occa- 
 sioned by his imprudence or gross neglect. " The question," said Lord Mansfield, in 
 an action brought by the East India Company, " is, whether the owners are to pay for 
 the damage occasioned by the storm, the act of God ; and this must be determined by 
 the intention of the parties, and the nature of the contract. It is a charter of freight. 
 The owners let their ships to hire, and there never was an idea that they insure the cargo 
 against the perils of the sea. What are the obligations of the owners which arise out of 
 the fair construction of the charterparty ? Why, that they shall be liable for damages 
 incurred by their own fault, or that of their servants, as from defects in the ship, or im- 
 proper stowage, &c. If they were liable for damages occasioned by storms, they would 
 become insurers," The House of Lords confirmed this doctrine by deciding (20th of 
 May, 1788) that the owner is not liable to make satisfaction for damage done to goods 
 by storm. 
 
 The charterer of a ship may lade it either with his own goods, or, if he have not suffi- 
 cient, may take in the goods of other persons, or (if not prevented by a clause to that 
 effect in the charterparty) he may wholly underlet the ship to another. — (For further 
 details, see Abbott on the Law of Shipping, part iii. c. 1. ; Chittx/s Commercial Law, vol. iii. 
 c. 9, &c. ; and the articles Bill of Lading, Freight, Master, &c. in this Dictionary. ) 
 
 Forms of Charterparties. 
 The following is one of the most usual forms of a charterparty : — 
 
 This charterparty, indented, made, &c., between A. B., &c., mariner, master, and owner, of the good 
 ship or vessel, called, &c., now riding at anchor, &c., of the burthen of 200 tons, or thereabouts, of the one 
 part, and C. D. of, &c., merchant, of the other part, witnesseth, that the said A. B., for the coiisiileration 
 hereinafter mentioned, hath granted, and to freight letten, and by these presents doth grant, and to 
 freight let, unto the said C. D , his executors, administrators, and assigns, the whole tonnage of the hold, 
 stern-sheets, and half-deck of the said ship or vessel, called, &o., from the port of London, to, &c.,in a voyage 
 to be made by the said A. B. with the said ship, in manner hereinafter mentioned, (that is say,) to sail 
 with the first fair wind and weather that shall happen after, &c. next, from the port of London, with the 
 goods and merchandise of the said C. D., his factors or assigns, on board, to, &c. aforesaid, (the act of 
 God, the king's enemies, fire, and all and every other dangers and accidents of the seas, rivers, and navi- 
 
270 
 
 CHARTERPARTY. 
 
 gation, of whatever nature and kind, in so far as ships are liable thereto, during the said voyage always 
 excepted,) and there unlade and make discharge of the said goods and merchandises ; and also shall thera 
 take into and on board the said ship again, the goods and merchandises of the said C. D., his factors or 
 assigns, and shall then return to the port of London with the said goods, in the space of, .Vc. limited for 
 the end of the said voyage. In consideration whereof, the said C. D., for himself, his executors, and 
 administrators, doth covenant, promise, and grant, to and with the said A. B., his executors, adminis- 
 trators, or assigns, by these presents, that the said C. D., his executors, administrators, factors, or assigns, 
 shall and will well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, unto the said A. B., his executors, administrators, 
 or assigns, for the freight of the said ship and goods, the sum of, &c. (or so much per ton,) within twenty- 
 one days after the said ship arrived, and goods returned, and discharged at the port of London aforesaid, 
 for the end of the said voyage ; and also shall and will pay for demurrage, (if any shall be by default of 
 him, the said C. D., his factors or assigns,) the sum of, &c. per day, daily, and every day, as the same shall 
 grow due. And the said A. B., for himself, his executors, and administrators, doth covenant, promise, 
 and grant, to and with the said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns, by these presents, that 
 the said ship or vessel shall be ready at the port of London to tike in goods by the said C. D., on or before, 
 &c. next coming. And the said C. D., for himself, his, &c., doth covenant and promise, within ten days 
 after the said ship or vessel shall be thus ready, to have his goods on board the said ship, to proceed on in 
 the said voyage ; and also, on arrival of the said ship at, &c., within, &c. days to have his goods ready to 
 put on board the said ship, to return on the said voyage. And the said A. B., for himself, his executors, 
 and administrators, doth further covenant and grant, to and with the said C. D., his executors, adminis- 
 trators, and assigns, that the said ship or vessel now is, and at all times during the voyage shall be, to the 
 best endeavours of him, the said A. B., his executors and administrators, and at his and their own 
 proper costs and charges, in all things made and kept stiff, staunch, strong, well-apparelled, furnished, 
 and provided, as well with men and mariners sufficient and able to sail, guide, and govern the said ship, 
 as with all manner of rigging, boats, tackle, and apparel, furniture, provision, and appurtenances, fitting 
 and necessary for the said men and mariners, and for the said ship during the voyage aforesaid. In 
 witness, &c. 
 
 The great variety of circumstances under which diiFerent voyages are made produce a 
 corresponding diversity in charterparties. The charterparty of which the following is a 
 copy affords a good example of the more complex species of these instruments. 
 
 It is this day mutually agreed between Mr. T. B. Rann, owner of the good ship or vessel called the 
 Mermaid, William Henniker, master, of the measurement of 472 tons, or thereabouts, now in the river 
 Thames, and Mr. David Thomson, of the firm of Messrs. Thomson, Passmore, and Thomson, of Mauritius 
 merchants, that the said ship, being tight, staunch, and strong, and every way fitted for the voyage, shall 
 with all convenient speed, sail and proceed to Calcutta, with leave to take convicts out to New South 
 Wales, and from thence troops, merchandise, or passengers, to the aforementioned port of Calcutta, with 
 leave to touch at Madras on her way thither, if required on owner's account, or so near thereunto as she 
 may safely get, and there load, from the factors of the said merchants at Calcutta, a full and complete 
 cargo of rice, or any other lawful goods which the charterer engages to ship, and proceed with the same 
 to Port Louis, in the Isle of France, and deliver the same free of freight; afterwards load there a full 
 and complete cargo of sugar in bags, or other lawful merchandise of as favourable tonnage, which the 
 charterer engages to ship, not exceeding what she can reasonably stow and carry over and above her 
 tackle, apparel, provisions, and furniture ; and, being so loaded, shall therewith proceed to London, or so 
 near thereunto as she may safely get, and deliver the same on being paid freight, viz. for such quantity 
 of sugar equal to the actual quantity of rice, or other goods, that may be shipped at Calcutta, at the rate 
 of 51. I2s. 6d. per ton of 20 cwt. nett, shipped there; and should the vessel dehver more nett sugar in the 
 port of London than the quantity of rice, or other goods, actually shipped in Calcutta, the owners to be 
 paid on the excess at the regular current rate of freight for sugar which other vessels, loading at the 
 same time at Fort Louis, receive ; the tonnage of the rice, wheat, or grain, to be reckoned at 20 cwt, nett 
 per ton ; that of other goods at the usual measurement (.the act of God, the king's enemies, fire, and all 
 and every other dangers and accidents of the seas, rivers, and navigation, of whatever nature and kind 
 soever, during the said voyage, always excepted). I'he freight to be paid on unloading and right dehvery 
 of the cargo, as is customary in the port of London. Ninety running days are to be allowed the said 
 merchant (if the ship is not sooner despatched) for loading the ship at Calcutta, discharging the cargo at 
 Port Louis, and loading the cargo there; the said laydays to commence on the vessel being ready to 
 receive cargo, the master giving notice in writing of the same at Calcutta, and to continue during the 
 loading there ; and from the time of her arrival at Port Louis, and being ready to discharge, till tlie final 
 loading at that port, and to be discharged in the port of London with all possible despatch ; and 20 days 
 on demurrage over and above the said laying days, at 12/. per day. Penalty for non-performance of this 
 agreement, 4,000/. The cargo to be brought to and taken from alongside at the expense and risk of 
 the merchants. The necessary cash for the disbursements of the vessel at Calcutta, not exceeding 550/., 
 to be advanced by the charterer's agents ; they taking the master's drafts on the owner for the same, at 
 the regular current i-ate of exchange, and at three months' siglit ; and if the said bills be not regularly 
 accepted and paid when due, the same to be deducted from the freight payable by this charterparty. I'ho 
 . vessel to be disbursed at Port Louis by the chartering agents ; sum not to exceed 300/., free of comrnission ; 
 and the amount to be deducted from the freight at the final settlement at the port of London. Caj)tain 
 not to ship goods without consent. In the event of the ship being prevented, by damage or any other 
 cause, reaching the Mauritius on or before the 1st day of January, 1831, the charterer or his agents shall 
 be at liberty to employ the vessel for one or two voyages to Calcutta, at the rate of 21. per ton of rice, or 
 other goods, delivered at Mauritius. Fifty running days,- to load and discharge, to be allowed on each 
 voyage; it being understood that the charterer or his agents shall load the ship, as before agreed, either 
 at the end of the first or second voyage, as the case may be. The freight on the intermediate voyages (if 
 any) to be paid on delivery of the cargo, in casli, or by bills on London at usance, at the option of the 
 master. The vessel to be addressed, both at Calcutta and Isle of France, to the agents of the charterer. 
 In witness whereof, the said parties have hereunto set their hands and seals, at London, the 2d day of 
 December, 18i.'9. 
 
 Signed, scaled, and delivered, > (Signed) THOS. B. RANN, (L.S.) 
 
 in the presence of 3 D. THOMSON, (L.S.) 
 
 (Signed) E. FORSYTH, 
 
 Stamp Duty on Charterparties. — The statute 55 Geo. 3. c. 184. enacts, that any charter- 
 party, or any agreement or contract for the charter of any ship or vessel, or any 
 memorandum, letter, or other writing, between the captain, master, or owner of any 
 ship or vessel, and any other person, for or relating to the freight or conveyance of any 
 money, goods, or effects, on board of such ship or vessel, shall be charged with a duty of 
 1/. 15s. 
 
 And when the same, together with any schedule, receipt, or other matter, put or in- 
 dorsed thereon, or annexed thereto, sliall contain 2,160 words or upward.s, then for every 
 
CHAY ROOT. — CHEESE. 
 
 271 
 
 entire quantity of 1,080 words contained therein over and above the first 1,080 words, 
 there shall be charged a further progressive duty of .5s. 
 
 CHAY OR CHOY ROOT, the roots of a small biennial, rarely triennial, plant, 
 growing spontaneously in light, dry, sandy ground near the sea ; and extensively culti- 
 vated, especially on the coast of Coroniandel. The cultivated roots are very slender, 
 and from ] to 2 feet in length, with a few lateral fibres ; but the wild are shorter, and 
 supposed to yield one fourth part more of colouring matter, and of a better quality. 
 The roots are employed to dye the durable reds for which the Indian cotton yarn and 
 chintzes have been long famous, and which can only be equalled by the Turkey red. 
 
 Chay root forms a considerable article of export from Ceylon. Only a particular set 
 of people are allowed to dig it. It is all bought up by government, who pay the diggers 
 a fixed price of 75 or 80 rix-dollars a candy, and sell it for exportation at about 175 rix- 
 dollars. — (^Bertolacci's Ceylon, p. 270.) 
 
 This root has been imported into Europe, but with no success. Dr. Bancroft sus- 
 pects it may be injured by the long voyage ; but he adds, that it can produce no effect 
 which may not be more cheaply produced from madder. It is a very bulky article, and 
 is consequently burdened with a very heavy freight. — {Permanent Colours, vol. ii. 
 pp. 282 — 303.) 
 
 . CHECKS, CHEQUES, or DRAFTS, are orders addressed to some person, 
 generally a banker, directing him to pay the sum specified in the check to the person 
 named in it, or bearer, on demand. The following is the usual form : — 
 
 J^^QQ London, 30th October, 1833. 
 
 Pay Mr. A. B. or hearer. One Hundred Pounds, on 
 account of 
 
 Messrs. Jones, Loyd, and Co. ^' 
 
 In point of form, checks nearly resemble bills of exchange, except that they are 
 uniformly payable to bearer, and should be drawn upon a regular banker, though this 
 latter point is not essential. They are assignable by delivery only ; and are payable 
 instantly on presentment, without any days of grace being allowed. But by the custom 
 of London, a banker has until 5 of the afternoon of the day on which a check is pre- 
 sented for payment, to return it; so that where a check was returned before 5, with 
 a memorandum of " cancelled by mistake" written under it, it was held a refusal to pay. 
 If a check upon a banker be lodged with another banker, a presentment by the latter at 
 the clearing-house is sufficient. Checks are usually taken conditionally as cash ; for 
 unless an express stipulation be made to the contrary, if they be presented in due time 
 and not paid, they are not a payment. It is difficult to define what is the due or reason- 
 able time within which checks, notes, or bills, should be presented. A man, as Lord 
 EUenborough has observed, is not obliged to neglect all other business that he may im- 
 mediately present them : nevertheless it is the safest plan to present them without any 
 avoidable delay ; and if received in the place where payable, they had bettti be presented 
 that day, or next at furthest. If a check be not presented within a reasonable time, the 
 party on whom it is drawn will be justified in refusing to pay it ; and the holder will 
 lose his recourse upon the. drawer. Checks drawn on bankers residing 10 miles or 
 more from the place where they are drawn, must be on a stamp of the same value as a 
 bill of exchange of an equal amount ; but checks drawn on a banker, acting as such 
 within 10 miles of the place where they are issued, may be on plain paper. — (Chitt^/ 
 on Commercial Law, vol. iii. p. 591. ; Woolrych on Commercial Law, c. 3. § 2., §'c.) 
 
 CHEESE (Ger. K'dse ; Du. Kaas ; Fr. Fromage ; It. Formaggio, Cacio ; Sp. Queto ; 
 Rus. Sur ; Lat. Caseus), the curd of the milk separated from the whey, and pressed or 
 hardened. It has been used as an article of food from the earliest ages : vast quantities 
 of it are consumed in Great Britain, and iia most countries of Europe. 
 
 There is an immense variety of cheeses, the qualities of which depend principally on 
 the richness and flavour of the milk of which they are made, and partly on the way in 
 which they are prepared. England is particularly celebrated for the abundance and 
 excellence of its cheese. Cheshire and Gloucestershire are, in this respect, tw o of its 
 most famous counties; the cheese produced in the former has been estimated at 11,500 
 tons a year. There are two kinds of Gloucester cheese, double and single ; the first 
 is made of the milk and cream, the latter of the milk deprived of about half the cream. 
 They are of various sizes, from 20 to 70 and even 80 lbs. ; but they generally run from 
 50 to 60 lbs. ' A great deal of cheese is also made in that part of Shropshire which 
 borders upon Cheshire, and in North Wiltshire. Tlie former goes under the name of 
 Cheshire cheese : the latter was, till lately, called Gloucestershire cheese ; now it receives 
 its appellation from the county where it is made. A strong cheese, somewhat resem- 
 bling Parmesan, is made at Chedder in Somersetshire. The celebrated rich cheese^ 
 
272 
 
 CHERRIES. 
 
 called Stilton, is made in Leicestershire, principally in the villages round Melton Mow- 
 bray. It is not reckoned sufficiently mellow for cutting unless it be two years old ; and 
 is not saleable unless it be decayed, blue, and moist. A rich cheese is also made at 
 Leigh, in Lancashire. The other cheeses made in England, which have acquired a pe- 
 culiar name, either from the quantity made, or from the quality, are the Derbyshire, 
 Cottenham, and Southam cheeses. The two last are new milk cheeses, of a peculiarly 
 tine flavour : the places where they are made are in Cambridgeshire. Bath and York are 
 remarkable for their cream cheeses. The county of Warwick, and Banbury in Oxford- 
 shire, are also remarkable for cheeses ; the former for the quantity made in it, about 
 20,000 tons being annually sent to London, besides a very large supply to Birmingham. 
 Banbury cheese is distinguished for its richness. 
 
 Scotland is not celebrated for its cheese : the best is called Dunlop cheese, from a 
 parish in Ayrshire, where it was originally manufactiu-ed. Dunlop cheeses generally 
 weigh from 20 to 60 lbs. each ; and are, in all respects, similar to those of Derbyshire, 
 except that the latter are smaller. 
 
 Turmeric, marigolds, hawthorn buds, &c. were formerly used to heighten and im- 
 prove the colour of cheese ; but annotto (which see) is decidedly the best ingredient 
 that can be employed for that purpose, and is at present used in Cheshire and Glouces- 
 tershire to the exclusion of every thing else. An ounce of genuine annotto will colour 
 a hundred weight of cheese. 
 
 Large quantities of very good cheese are produced in Holland. In the manufacture 
 of Gouda cheese, which is reckoned the best made in Holland, muriatic acid is used 
 in curdling the milk instead of rennet. This renders it pungent, and preserves it 
 from mites. 
 
 Parmesan cheese, so called from Parma in Italy, where it is manufactured, is merely 
 a skim-milk cheese, which owes its rich flavour to the fine herbage of the meadows along 
 the Po, where the cows feed. The best Parmesan cheese is kept for 3 or 4 years, and 
 none is ever carried to market till it be at least 6 months old. 
 
 Swiss cheese, particularly that denominated Gruyere, from the bailiwick of that 
 name in the canton of Fribourg, is very celebrated. Gruyere cheeses are made of 
 skimmed or partially skimmed milk, and are flavoured with herbs. They generally 
 weigh from 40 to 60 lbs. each, and are packed for exportation in casks containing 10 
 cheeses each. 
 
 According to Mr. Marshall, the average yearly produce of cheese from the milk of a 
 cow, in England, is from 3 to 4 cwt., or more than double the weight of the butter. 
 
 For further details, see Loudon's Ency. of Agriculture ; art. Dairy in Supp. to Ency. 
 Brit. ; Stevensoti's art. on England, in the Edinburgh Ency., ^c. 
 
 The imports of cheese, in 1831, amounted to 134,459 cwt., almost the whole of 
 which came from the Netherlands. The quantity re-exported was but inconsiderable. 
 The duty of 10s. 6d. a cwt. on imported cheese produced, in 1823, 69,049/. 2s. 8d. ; 
 showing that the quantity entei-ed for home consumption amounted to about 1 32,000 cwt. 
 
 The contract price of the cheese furnished to Greenwich Hospital, in the undermen- 
 tioned years, has been as follows : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Prices per lb. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Prices per lb. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Prices per lb. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Prices per lb. . 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 1730 
 
 
 1800 
 
 n 
 
 1814 
 
 8f 
 
 1824 
 
 Ik 
 
 1740 
 
 3i 
 
 1805 
 
 1815 
 
 8 
 
 1825 
 
 ii 
 
 1750 
 
 31 
 3J 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1816 
 
 6| 
 
 1826 
 
 1760 
 
 1807 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1827 
 
 
 1770 
 
 3f 
 
 1808 
 
 71 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1828 
 
 9 
 
 1775 
 
 
 1809 
 
 8 
 
 1819 
 
 8 
 
 1829 
 
 
 1780 
 
 1 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1820 
 
 7 
 
 1830 
 
 4 
 
 1785 
 
 
 1811 
 
 1821 
 
 6 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1790 
 
 4 
 
 1812 
 
 n 
 
 1822 
 
 5 
 
 1832 
 
 t 
 
 1795 
 
 5? 
 
 1813 
 
 8i 
 
 1823 
 
 4 
 
 See art. Prices. 
 
 It is not possible to form any estimate of the value of the cheese annually consumed in 
 Great Britain. Dr. Colquhoun states that the butter and cheese consumed in the United 
 Kingdom must be worth at least 5,000,000/. a year, exclusive of the milk of which they 
 are made ; but he assigns no grounds for this statement ; which we are inclined to think 
 is very greatly exaggerated. — (See Butter.) 
 
 CHERRIES, the fruit of a tree (Prunus Cerasus Lin.) too well known to require 
 any description. They derive their name from Cerasus, a city of Pontus, whence the tree 
 was Ijrought by LucuUus, about half a century before the Christian era. It soon after 
 spread into most parts of Europe, and is supposed to have been carried to Britain about 
 a century after it came to Rome. The principal supplies of cherries for the London 
 market are brought from the cherry orchards in Kent and Herts. The wood of the 
 cherry is close, takes a fine polish, and is not liable to split. — (TZees's Cyclopaedia; 
 Loudon's Ency. of Agric, §-c.) 
 
CIIESNUT. — CHOCOLATE. 
 
 27J 
 
 CHESNU r, a forest tree {Fagus castanea) growing abundantly in most parts of 
 tlic southern countries of Europe. It was at one time very common in Kngland ; and 
 is still frequently met with. It is long lived ; grows to an immense size ; and is very 
 ornamental. The wood is hard and compact ; when young, it is tough and flexible ; but 
 when old, it is brittle, and often shaky. The chesnut contains only a very small i)ro- 
 portion of sap-wood ; and hence the wood of young trees is found to lie superior to even 
 the oak in durability. It is doubtful whether the roof of Westminster Hall be of oak 
 or chesnut ; the two woods being, when old, very like each other, and having Ijccn 
 formerly used almost indifferently in the construction of buildings. A good deal of 
 chesnut has been planted within the last thirty years. — ( T'redgold's Frhicij)les of 
 Carpentry. ) 
 
 CHESNUTS (Fr. Chutaignes ; Ger. Kastanien ; It. Castugne ; Sp. Castanas), the 
 fruit of the chesnut tree. Chesnuts grow in this country, but are very inferior both in 
 size and perfection to those imported from the south of Europe. In some parts of the 
 Continent they are frequently used as a substitute for bread, and form a large proportion 
 of the food of the inhabitants. This is particularly the case in the Limousin, in Corsica, 
 and in several districts of Spain and Italy. The inhabitants of the Limousin are said to 
 prepare them in a peculiar manner, which deprives them of their astringent and bitter 
 properties. Chesnuts imported from Spain and Italy are frequently kiln-dried, to pre- 
 vent their germination on the passage. In this country they are principally served up 
 roasted at desserts. 
 
 During the 3 years ending with ]831, the entries of foreign chesnuts for home consumption averaged 
 20,948 bushels a year. The duty of 2$. a bushel produced, in 1832, 2,321/. 12s. lOd. nett, showing that the 
 consumption must have amounted to 23,216 bushels. 
 
 CHETWERT, a measure of corn in Russia, equal to Winchester bushels, so that 
 100 cbetwerts = 74^ Winchester quarters. 
 
 CHILLIES (Hind. Gas Murridge ; Javan. Lomhok ; Malay, Chabai), the pods or 
 fruit of the Capsicum annuum, or Guinea pepper. This is one of the hardiest and most 
 productive plants found in tropical climates ; growing luxuriantly in almost all dry 
 soils, however indifferent. In the wild state, the pods are small, and so pungent and 
 acrid as to blister the tongue ; but when raised on rich soils, they are large, and compara- 
 tively mild. The plant is said to be a native of both Indies. It is very extensively 
 cultivated ; and, with the exception of salt, is far more extensively used than any other 
 condiment. In tropical countries, the pods are frequently made use of when unripe and 
 green: when ripe, they become of a deep red colour; and in this state they are ex- 
 ported dry and entire, or reduced to powder — that is, to Cayenne pepper ; which, when 
 genuine, consists wholly of the ground pods of the capsicum. • — (See Pepper.) 
 
 CHINA ROOT (Ger. Chinawurzel ; Du. Chinawortel ; Fr. Squine, Esquine ; Sp. 
 Raiz China, Cocolmeca ; Arab. Rhuhsinie), the root of a species of climber (Smilax 
 China Lin.). It comes from the West Indies as well as from China ; but that from the 
 latter is best. It is oblong and thick-jointed, full of irregular knobs, of a reddish brown 
 colour on the outside, and a pale red within ; while new, it will snap short, and look 
 glittering within ; if old, the dust flies from it when broken, and it is liglit and kecky. 
 It should be chosen large, sound, heavy, and of a pale red colour internally. It is of no 
 value if the worm be in it. — {Milhurn's Orient. Commerce.) 
 
 CHINA WARE. See Porcelain. 
 
 CHINTS OR CHINTZ (Fr. Indiennes j Ger. Zitze ; It. Indians; Rus. Siz ; Sp. 
 Chites, Zaraza), fine printed calico, first manufactured in the East Indies, but now 
 largely manufactured in Europe, particularly in Great Britain. (See Calico.) 
 
 CHIP HATS. See Hats. 
 
 CHOCOLATE (Du. Chocolade ; Fr. Chocolat ; Ger. Schoholate ; It. Cioccolafa ; 
 Por. Chocolate; Rus. Schoholad ; Sp. Chocolate), a kind of cake or confection, prepared 
 principally from the cacao nut. The nuts are first roasted like coflfee ; and being next 
 reduced to powder and mixed with water, the pasi« is put into tin moulds of the desired 
 shape, in which it speedily hardens, being, when takeii out and wrapped in paper, fit for 
 the market. Besides cacao nut, the Spaniards use vanilla, sugar, maize, &c. in the 
 preparation of chocolate. This article, which is celebrated fov its nutritious qualities, is 
 but little used in Great Britain ; a circumstance that seems to hp principallv owing to 
 the very heavy duties with which it has been loaded. The importation of chocolate 
 used formerly to be prohibited ; and though this prohibition no longer exists, yet, as the 
 duties on it are proportionally nuich heavier than upon cacao, we manufacture at home 
 almost all that is required for our consumption. British chocolate is said to be very 
 largely adulterated with flour and Castile soap. — (See Edward's West Indies, vol. ii. 
 p. 364. ed. 1819. ; and the art. Cacao.) The quantity of chocolate brought from abroad, 
 entered for home consumption in the United Kingdom, in 1830, only amounted to 1,324^ 
 lbs., jjroducing 160Z. of revenue. 
 
 " Alike easy to convey and employ as an aliment, it contains a large quantity of nutri- 
 
 T 
 
CHRISTIANIA. 
 
 tive and stimulating particles in a small compass. It has been said with truth, that in 
 Afiica, rice, gum, and shea butter, assist man in crossing the deserts. In the New 
 World, chocolate and the flour of maize have rendered accessible to him the table lands 
 of the Andes, and vast uninhabited forests." — (^Humboldt's Pers. Nar. vol. iv. p. 234. 
 Eng. trans.) 
 
 CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, situated at the bottom of a fiord or gulf, 
 in the province of Aggerhuus ; in lat. 59° 55^ N., Ion. 10^ 48j E. Population, 
 according to the Weimar Almanack for 1832, about 20,000. Christiania is about 60 
 miles from the open sea : the gulf is in some places very narrow, and its navigation 
 somewhat difficult ; but it is sufficiently deep for the largest vessels, having 6 or 7 
 fathoms water close to the quay. It is compulsory on all ships to take a pilot on 
 board at the mouth of the bay. The trade of the town is considerable. The principal 
 exports are timber and deals ; glass, particularly bottles ; linseed and oil-cake, iron and 
 nails, smalts, bones, oak bark, &c. Salted and pickled fish, one of the staple products of 
 Norway, is principally exported from Bergen. The deals of Christiania have always 
 been in the highest estimation ; a consequence of the excellence of the timber, and of 
 the care with which the sap-wood and other defective parts is cut away ; and not, as 
 Mr. Coxe seems to have supposed, of the skilful sawing of the plank. The saw mills 
 were formerly licensed to cut a certain quantity only, and the proprietors were bound to 
 make oath that it was not exceeded. — ( Coxe's Travels in the North of Europe, 5th edit, 
 vol. iv. p. 28.) This absurd regulation no longer exists. There are far fewer restric- 
 tions on industry and commerce in Norway than in Sweden. In the former, British 
 manufactured goods are admitted on moderate duties, and are very generally made use 
 of. The principal articles of import are corn, colonial produce ; woollen, linen, and 
 cotton goods; butter, wine, brandy, &c. 
 
 Trade of Norway. — The following tables give a comprehensive view of the foreign 
 trade of Norway. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 An Account of the Quantities of the principal Articles imported into Norway, during each 
 of the Three Years ending with 1831. 
 
 Cotton goods - 
 
 French brandy 
 
 Coffee - 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 Hemp - 
 
 Hops 
 
 Flax - 
 
 Grain, wheat 
 Rye - 
 Barley 
 Oats - 
 Malt - 
 
 Wheaten flour 
 
 Rye flour 
 
 Barley flour - 
 
 Peas 
 
 Oil - 
 
 Cheese - 
 
 Rice 
 
 Raisins 
 
 Ruin 
 
 Salt 
 
 Sail cloth 
 
 Silks 
 
 Syrup 
 
 Grindstones 
 
 Butter - 
 
 Coals 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Soap, green 
 Soap, white 
 Tea 
 
 Tobacco 
 Woollens - - 
 Wine - 
 
 I/incn cloth - 
 
 1829. 
 
 Norwegian 
 Weight and 
 Measure. 
 
 132,629 lbs. 
 551,397 pot. 
 1,547,575 lbs. 
 
 104.,430 pot. 
 2,209,653 lbs. 
 
 96,984 
 763,973 
 
 13,766 tond. 
 232,602 
 300,614 
 
 15,179 
 
 42,530 
 573,087 lbs. 
 
 27,395 
 146,815 
 
 11,-202 tond. 
 203,423 lbs. 
 238,438 
 273,093 
 102,271 
 
 12,142 pot. 
 284,375 tond, 
 
 3,580 pieces 
 4,270 lbs. 
 720,738 
 f 133 chald. 7 
 I &5,587 pes. i 
 417,824 lbs. 
 
 39,506 tond. 
 2,195,752 Ib^. 
 126,21P 
 1(X),*''>6 
 
 41,435 
 1,405,952 
 180,926 
 474,218 pot. 
 
 English 
 Weight and 
 Measure. 
 
 6,499 tons 
 140,589 gals. 
 
 758'31 tons 
 26,626 gals. 
 1,08273 tons 
 47-52 
 374-35 
 6,700 qrs. 
 113,219 
 146,338 
 7,384 
 20,701 
 
 SJ80-81 tons 
 13-42 
 71-94 
 5,452 qrs. 
 99-68 tons 
 116-83 
 133-81 
 5011 
 3,095 gals. 
 138,419 qrs. 
 
 2*09 tons 
 353-16 
 
 W4-73 tons 
 ^,807-48 chald. 
 1,075-91 tons 
 61-85 
 49-22 
 20-30 
 688-91 
 88 ■(i5 
 120,911 gallons 
 
 Norwegian 
 Weight and 
 Measure. 
 
 180,563 lbs. 
 809,630 pot. 
 1,576,130 lbs. 
 
 119,826 pot. 
 1,369,549 lbs. 
 75,164 
 651,802 
 
 15,675 tond. 
 252,405 
 304,019 
 10,330 
 56,240 
 682,071 lbs. 
 90,525 
 165,616 
 
 8,264 tond. 
 223,144 lbs. 
 222.363 
 34i;il0 
 103,836 
 • 17,386 pot. 
 283,600 tond. 
 ("2,013 foes. 7 
 I &4.9,4001bs, j 
 4,883 lbs. 
 807,635 
 (■22 chald. &> 
 1 1,337 pees. 3 
 365,808 lbs. 
 27,001 tond. 
 2,342,225 
 H.'->,774 
 123,023 
 45,560 
 2,209,469 
 18(i,().58 
 638,794 pot 
 
 English 
 Weigtit and 
 Measure. 
 
 88-47 tons 
 !06,431 gals. 
 772 30 tons 
 20,552 gals. 
 671-08 tons 
 36-83 
 319-38 
 7,625 qrs. 
 122,858 
 147,981 
 5,028 
 27,374 
 334-21 tons 
 44-35 
 76-25 
 4,022 qrs. 
 109-34 tons 
 108-96 
 167-14 
 50-88 
 
 4,432 gals. 
 
 24-02 tons 
 
 2-39 
 39574 
 
 179-24 tons 
 3,28575chal. 
 1,147-69 tons 
 
 71-43 
 
 60-28 
 
 22-32 
 l,0S2-(i3 
 
 91-17 
 162,873 gals. 
 
 Norwegian 
 Weight and 
 Measure, 
 
 174,385 lbs. 
 314.184 pot. 
 1,814,185 lbs. 
 
 73,956 pot. 
 1,416,248 lbs. 
 66,807 
 462,552 
 
 11,962 tond. 
 305,306 
 330,730 
 32,045 
 36,277 
 688,640 lbs. 
 146,464 
 65,696 
 9,330 tond. 
 254,623 lbs. 
 215,885 
 255,917 
 117,955 
 13,815 pot. 
 294,799 tond. 
 (" 235 pees. & 7 
 I 160,316 lbs. j 
 4,902 lbs. 
 719,631 „ 
 
 No return. 
 
 351,818 lbs. 
 21,233 tond. 
 2,421,816 lbs. 
 137,708 
 132,959 
 44,247 
 1,083,193 
 193,900 
 189,001 pot 
 
 1827. 
 
 159,226 lbs. 78-02 tons 
 
 English 
 Weight and 
 Measure. 
 
 85-45 tons 
 80,107 gals. 
 888-95 tons 
 18,856 gals. 
 693-96 tons 
 3273 
 
 22665 tons 
 5,822 qrs. 
 148,607 
 160,982 
 15,597 
 17,657 
 337-43 tons 
 71-76 
 
 32-18 tons I 
 4,541-36 qrs. I 
 12476 tons 
 10578 
 125-40 
 57-80 
 
 3,522 gals, 
 
 78-55 tons ' 
 
 2-40 
 352-62 
 
 191 -99 tons 
 2,583 •83chal. 
 1,186-69 tons 
 67-48 
 
 21-68 
 530-76 
 
 95-01 
 48,313 gals. 
 
 263,325 lbs. 129 02 tons 
 
CHRlSTfANIA. 
 
 275 
 
 Exports, 
 
 An Account of the Quantities of the principal Articles exported from Norway during each 
 of the Three Years ending with 18,il. 
 
 Anchovies(uic- / 
 klcd sprats) - j 
 Oak bark 
 Bones 
 Bottles 
 Smalts 
 
 Chromate of lead 
 
 Lobsters - 
 
 Dried fish 
 
 Salted fish 
 
 Horns 
 
 Iron 
 
 Rags 
 
 Copper 
 
 Caraway seed - 
 Fish roes - 
 Buck and goat > 
 I skins - -3 
 Rock moss 
 Tar 
 
 Train oil 
 Wood, timber 7 
 and deals .J 
 Zaffre 
 
 1829. 
 
 Norwegian English 
 VVeiglit and ! Weight and 
 Measurt". Measure. 
 
 7,390 kegs 
 
 820,9!f) lbs. 
 Ki 1,520 hot. 
 208,418 lbs. 
 578,658 
 1,034,905 lobs. 
 44,417,712 lbs. 
 397,84(itond. 
 26, 198 lbs. 
 6,458,192 
 6,686 
 610,225 
 1,605 
 17,029 topd. 
 
 84,101 lbs. 
 357,515 
 1,237 tond. 
 21,806 
 183,802 
 woodljEster 
 33,860 lbs. 
 
 102-12 
 
 2S3-53 
 
 21,764-67 
 38,039 bar. 
 
 12-83 tons 
 3,16451 
 3-27 
 299 
 ()-78615 
 16,282 bar. 
 
 41-20 tons 
 
 175-17 
 1,201 bar. 
 20,849 
 
 360,251-92 tons 
 16-59 tons 
 
 1830. 
 
 Norwegian English 
 Wciglu and Weight and 
 Measure. JVleusure. 
 
 6,172 kegs 
 
 6,876 sk.lbs. 
 1,097,755 
 144,028 hot. 
 2.57,340 lbs. 
 538,(>(i8 
 1,196,904 lob. 
 43,447,887 lbs 
 13,993 tnd. 
 52,391 lbs 
 6,123,(W7 
 14,238 
 751,825 
 1,518 
 22,677 tnd. 
 113,817 lbs. 
 109,803 
 
 1,017 tnd. 
 20,476 
 19^,615 
 woodlffister 
 no return 
 
 1,078-15 tons 
 537-89 
 
 126-09 
 2G3 91 
 
 21,289-46 " 
 300,218 bar. 
 
 25 67 tons 
 3,000-28 
 6-97 
 368-39 
 0-74382 
 21.682 bar. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Norwegian 
 Weiglit and 
 Measure. 
 
 .9,413 kegs 
 
 12,320 sk.lbs, 
 955,742 
 344,987 hot 
 183,700 lbs. 
 594,.506 
 872,941 lob. 
 25,448,895 lb. 
 469,659 tnd. 
 39,858 lbs. 
 5,135,677 
 8,640 
 524,S94 
 l,5a5 
 17,011 tnd. 
 
 55-78 tons 114,951 lbs. 
 
 53-80 tons 
 972 bar. 
 19,577 
 
 -81,415-4 tns. 
 
 91,812 
 
 6(;4 tnd 
 18,708 
 172,979 
 wootilsB.ster 
 610 lbs. 
 
 English 
 Weiglit and 
 Measure. 
 
 1,93177 tons 
 468-31 
 
 90-01 
 291-30 
 
 12,469-95 
 449,051-15 bar. 
 19-41 tons 
 2,516-48 
 4-23 
 257-20 
 0-7.5215 
 16,264 bar. 
 
 56-32 ton.s 
 
 44-98 
 
 577-50 bar.! 
 17,887 I 
 
 339,038-84 tons] 
 0-29,890 
 
 Trade with England. — According to the official accounts rendered by the British Custom-house, there 
 were imported from Norway, in 1831, 48,151 cwt. oak bark, 377 tons iron, 18,219 goat skins, 206,840 ibs. 
 smalts, 118 cwt. tallow, 8,439 great hundreds battens and batten ends, 10,457 great do. deal and deal ends, 
 4,826 masts, &c. under 12 inches diameter, and 23,527 loads of timber, exclusive of about ],000,(;00 
 lobsters, of which no account is kept. During the same year we exported to Norway 535,491 lbs. cotiec, 
 7,765 lbs. indigo, 8,189 lbs. pepper, 4,981 lbs. pimento, 4,585 gallons rum, 3,169 cwt. muscovado sugar, 
 366,024 lbs. tobacco, 83,566 lbs. cotton wool, 3,774 tons coal, 434,744 yards cotton cloth, earthenware of the 
 value of 3,402/., cutlery of the value of 2,648/., 92,150 bushels of salt, soap and candles of the value of 
 2,938/., woollen manufactures of the value of about 13,000/., and some minor articles. — {Par/. Paper, 
 No. 550. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 Nothing would do so much to extend our frade with Norway, and not with it only, but with the wJiole 
 north of Europe, as the repeal of the discriminating duty on Norwegian and Baltic timber. And, as this 
 measure would be, in other respects, highly advantageous, it is to be hoped that its adoption may not be 
 long deferred. 
 
 Customs Duties As previously remarked, these, when compared with the Swedish duties — (see 
 
 GoTTENBUKGH), are moderate. They amounted, in 1831, inwards, to 161,840/. 5s. 3d. ; outwards, to 
 47,381/. 8s. 3d ; making together, 209,221/. I3s,6d. To these have to be added 27,456/. 19s. 5d. received 
 on account of tonnage duties, lights, &c. . 
 
 1. Tranaii Oplag.— VnAer this system, goods from abroad 
 
 Customs Regulaiiona. — Within 24 hours after a vessel has 
 got to her moorings, the master should deliver to the collector 
 his general report as to ship and cargo, or present the requi- 
 site documents for having such report made out with the 
 assistance of a ship broker, whose services masters of foreign 
 vessels cannot entirely dispense with. On making this general 
 re()ort, the measuring bill is to be exhibited, and payment of 
 the tonnage and other dues inward is to be made. If the ship 
 nave not been previously measured in Norway, and is, con- 
 sequently, not provided with a Norwegian measuring bill, she 
 is to be measured, to ascertain her burden in Norwcfiian com- 
 mercial lasts, for the calculation of the tonnage duty. 
 
 The general report having been made, the Custom-house 
 officers in charge of the vessel are furnished with the books 
 for delivery, and the discharge of the cargo commences under 
 tlieir inspection ; and the consignees may make their special 
 reports under their responsibility and signature. If they are 
 without precise information as to the contents of any or all of 
 the packages or bales to their address, these bales or packages 
 may, at their request, be opened in the presence of the officers 
 before report is made. If a consignee omits availing himself 
 of this permission, his pretending thereafter that more or other 
 goods than he had ordered, or been advised of, have been sent 
 to his address, will not be attended to. In the reporu or en- 
 tries is to be stated, whether it is intended to pay the amies 
 forthwith, whether the goods are intended for exportation, ox 
 whether they are to be landed. 
 
 Prior to commencing loading outwards, the master is to 
 eive verbal notice of his intention at the Custom-house. If he 
 nave no Norwegian measuring bill, the vessel is to be measured. 
 This being done, the shipper or shippers of the outward bound 
 cargo are each of them to make their special entries as to the 
 quality, weight, and measure of the goods they mean to load. 
 A copy of such entries is to be deposited at the Custom-house, 
 and the losuting commences under the control of the officers. 
 This applies to all mixed cargoes ; but if the outward bound 
 cargo consist exclusively of wood, the shipper or shippers are 
 only to notify that they" intend loading wood, without specify- 
 ing quantity, measure, &c., as the export duty on wood is 
 charged according to the burden of the ve-iisel. M'hen the 
 master clears outwards, he produces the proper documents for 
 showing the burden of his vessel, and to what port she belongs, 
 and he is then, on proper application being made, provided 
 with a pilot, who takes his vessel to sea. 
 
 Warehousing. — In Norway, goods brought from abroad 
 may be bonded or warehoused, with a view to their being 
 again exported at some future period. Goods entered for 
 home consumption may also be bondetl for a certain period, 
 in order to facilitate the payment of the duties. 
 
 The former is called " transit w;)/afr," that is, depositing or 
 warehousing goods for exportation, subject to transit duties 
 only. The latter is called " cmlit oji'aji," that is, warehousing 
 or bonding on credit. 
 
 on exportation a transit duty, which, in most cases, is l-lOlh 
 of what they would pay if entered for home consumption. If 
 the goods are deposited in the Custom-house warehouses, they 
 lie free of rent or dues during 14 days, and if in pi-ivate ware- 
 houses, under the key and sea! of the customs, during 6 months. 
 If they remain long, viz. beyond 14 days in the one, and 
 beyond 6 months m the other case, they pay rent or dues equal 
 to l-8th of the transit duty per month ; which, after the lapse 
 of 3 months, as regards goods if the Custom-house warehouses., 
 is increased to l-4th of the transit duty per month. 
 
 2. Credit Oplag This system allows most goods imported 
 
 from abroad to'be placed "in the owner's or importer's own 
 warehouses, under his own lo< k, free of duty , for a given time, 
 on his reporting to the customs, every 3 months, how much he 
 has sold, otherwise consumed, or exported, and then paying 
 the duty on such amount; the Custom-house officers, who hre 
 bound quarterly to examine the goods, convincing themselves, 
 by ocular demonstration, that no more is missing than the 
 quantity reported to have been taken away. 
 
 'I'his credit on the duties in no ci.se to exceed 2 years from 
 the time the goods were impcrttd. 
 
 Bv way of security for payment of the duties on which the 
 credit is granted, government reserve to themselves — 
 
 1. Priority of mortgage on all the goods in question. 
 
 2. Priority, or first right, in the property, goods, and effects 
 or every description belonging to the trader availing himself 
 of tills credit, in as far as such property is not previously 
 legally niovtgaged. 
 
 3. Liberty for the Custom-house officers, when and as often 
 as they shall deom it expedient, between the stated quarterly 
 inspection, to look over the stock on hand, with a view of ascer- 
 taining w'nether there remains sufficient value for the duties ; 
 and if they see reason to doubt this, full right, in default of 
 other satisf'actory security beUig offered, to seize the stock, and 
 to sell the whole, or as much as s-hall cover the duties. 
 
 4. In case of death or failure of ihe party, an equal rig,ht to 
 sell forthwith the whole of his stock at public auction, and to 
 retain as much of the proceeds as shall cover the duties ; and 
 in case of deficiency, an established claim for the remainder 
 on the estate of the"deceastd or bankrupt, as the case may be. 
 
 In charging the duties, no allowance is made for waste or 
 damage in the w arehouses. 
 
 The warehouse rent charged on goods bonded under tlia 
 transit system, in the Custom-house warehouses, is as follows • 
 J. rf. 
 
 On a quarter of wheat, for the first 3") q q.^^, moMh. 
 
 months - - - -J 
 
 Afterwards - - - 0 1-1076 
 
 On a ton of raw sugar, for the first 5\ ^y n-53fii per month. 
 
 months . - . . ( 
 
 After 
 2 
 
27(5 
 
 CHRISTIANIA. 
 
 Money, Weights, and Measures. — In Norway there are no gold coins. The principal silver coin, called 
 a species dollar, is divided into 120 skillings. There are, also, half species, or 60 skilling pieces ; l-iih 
 species, or 24 sk.Ming pieces ; l-15th species, or 8 skilling pieces ; and what is denominated skillemynt, or 
 small change — that is, 4 and 2 skilling pieces. The species dollar contains 390-58 Eng. grs. pure silver, 
 and is, consequently, worth 45. 6|rf. sterling, the par of exchange being 4 species dollars 42 6-17 skill. — \l. 
 All Norway coins, except the small change, are alloyed with l-7th copper, so that the species dollar 
 weighs 448 38 Eng. grs., and its divisions in proportion. Small change coins are alloyed with three times 
 their weight of copper. There are 1 and 2 skilling pieces of copper.j 
 
 Weights and Measures, same as at Copenhagen ; which see. 
 
 Table showing the Number of Ships, their Destination, and Tonnage in Norwegian Lasts and English 
 Tons, that cleared out from Christiania; and also the Number of Ships, their Destination, and 
 Tonnage, that cleared out from Norwegian Ports generally, Christiania included; during each of 
 the Three Years ending with 1831. 
 
 Destination. 
 
 Sailed from Christiania. 
 
 Sailed from Norway. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Lasts. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Lasts. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 r 
 
 18z9 
 
 15 
 
 _ 
 
 o7o 
 
 940 
 
 568 
 
 13,172 
 
 32,930 
 
 Sweden " * " ""s 
 
 1830 
 
 10 
 
 
 542 
 
 423 
 
 10,323 
 
 25,807 
 
 
 1831 
 
 11 
 
 
 755 
 
 546 
 
 13,226 
 
 33,065 
 
 
 1829 
 
 117 
 
 l,o99 
 
 4,747 
 
 2,062 
 
 24,442 
 
 61,105 
 
 
 1830 
 
 126 
 
 2,216 
 
 5,540 
 
 1,968 
 
 24,396 
 
 60,990 
 
 
 1831 
 
 155 
 
 2,678 
 
 6,695 
 
 2,096 
 
 26,817 
 
 67,042 
 
 r 
 
 1829 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 * " 
 
 
 
 117 
 
 4,537 
 
 11,342 
 
 
 1831 
 
 I 
 
 17 
 
 42 
 
 133 
 
 6,638 
 
 16,595 
 
 Other li^ltic ports - 
 
 1829 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 110 
 
 354 
 
 11,827 
 
 29,567 
 
 1830 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 150 
 
 222 
 
 6 092 
 
 15 230 
 
 
 1831 
 
 8 
 
 302 
 
 755 
 
 240 
 
 7^210 
 
 18'025 
 
 r 
 
 1829 
 
 6 
 
 207 
 
 517 
 
 89 
 
 2,067 
 
 5,167 
 
 Hamburgh, Altona,and Bremen < 
 
 1830 
 
 7 
 
 239 
 
 597 
 
 97 
 
 2,268 
 
 5,670 
 
 
 1831 
 
 9 
 
 326 
 
 815 
 
 114 
 
 2,865 
 
 7,162 
 
 
 1829 
 
 96 
 
 8,14^4 
 
 20,360 
 
 228 
 
 44,027 
 
 110,067 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 1830 
 
 86 
 
 7,189 
 
 17,972 
 
 840 
 
 44,819 
 
 112,047 
 
 
 1831 
 
 122 
 
 9,981 
 
 24,952 
 
 970 
 
 53,735 
 
 134,337 
 
 Holland, Hanover, and Olden- \ 
 burg - - - 
 
 1829 
 1830 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 60 
 381 
 
 150 
 952 
 
 982 
 1,030 
 
 43,595 
 50,170 
 
 108,977 
 125,425 
 
 1831 
 
 5 
 
 349 
 
 872 
 
 823 
 
 33,024 
 
 82,560 
 
 
 1829 
 
 127 
 
 8,825 
 
 22,062 
 
 579 
 
 35,706 
 
 89,265 
 
 France - - 
 
 1830 
 
 145 
 
 9,683 
 
 24,207 
 
 569 
 
 35,120 
 
 87,800 
 
 
 1831 
 
 101 
 
 6,685 
 
 16,712 
 
 423 
 
 25,855 
 
 64,637 
 
 
 1829 
 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 3,674 
 
 9,185 
 
 Portugal and Spain - 
 
 1830 
 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 3,189 
 
 7,972 
 
 
 1831 
 
 1 
 
 91 
 
 227 
 
 63 
 
 3,015 
 
 7,537 
 
 
 1829 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 4,307 
 
 10,767 
 
 Other Mediterranean ports 
 
 1830 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 6,357 
 
 15,892 
 
 1831 
 
 
 
 
 67 
 
 5.004 
 
 12,510 
 
 
 1829 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 71 
 
 177 
 
 Ports beyond Europe - 
 
 1830 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1831 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shipping Charges — The various charges of a public nature 
 payable by a ship of about 300 tons burden, entering the port 
 of Christiania with a mixed cargo on board, unloading there, 
 taking on board another cargo, and clearing out, are as fol- 
 low : — 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 1. Charges Inwards. — Pilotage from Farder, at the 
 mouth of Christiania Bay, where all ships must 
 take a pilot on board - - - 2 2 2 
 
 Bill of health, assuming that the crew, including 
 
 the master, consists of 14 persons • • 0 17 9 
 
 Tonnage dues and light money - - 9 1 6 9 
 
 Brokers' fees - - • - 1 5 4 
 
 L. 14 2 0 
 
 2. Charges Ouirvards. — Pilotage 
 Castle dues ... 
 Muster roll of crew 
 Pale or stake money 
 Measuring bill 
 
 Charity chest ... 
 Tonnage dues ard light money 
 Higholm light 
 Pilotage to Farder 
 Brokers' fees 
 
 - 0 3 2 
 .245 
 -017 
 
 - 10 11 1 
 
 - 0 0 9 
 
 - 1 16 8 
 . 1 16 11 
 
 N. B. —There is no difflren<;e between the charges on native 
 ships in Norwegian ports, and privileeflJ foreign ships, that is, 
 the ships of countries having recipi^oc'ty treaties with Nor- 
 ■way J nor in the duties on goods Imported by native ships and 
 such privileged foreign ships. Great Britain is a privUeged 
 country. 
 
 The shipping of Norway has declined considerably of late 
 years ; a proof, if any such were wanting, of the groundless- 
 ness of the clamours kept up in this country as to the supposed 
 pernicious influence of reciprocity treaties on !our ship|)ing. 
 
 Banking. — There are no |)rivate banking establishments in 
 Norway ; hut there is a public bank, having its principal office 
 at Drontheim,with branches at Christiania, Bergen, and Chris- 
 tiansaiid. It was established by a compulsory assessment in 
 IHlCi. Its capital consists. of 2,000,000 species dollars, in 
 transferable shares, divided amongst those who were forced to 
 contribute to its formation. These shares are now at a pre- 
 mium of .50 per cent. Its managers are appointed by, and arc 
 accountable to, thf Storthing or Norwegian uarlianicnt. It 
 Issues notes tior 100, 60, 10, and so low as 1 species dollar* 
 
 These notes should be payable in specie on demand; but 
 they are at a discount of 35 per cent., and are paid by the bank 
 at that rate. It discounts bills at 2 and 3 months date at 6 
 per cent, ner annum ; advances money on mortgage at 4 per 
 cent. ; and transacts the ordinary banking business of indivi. 
 duals. It does not allow interest on deposits. The dividend 
 is, at present, from 6 2-3ds to 7 per cent. 
 
 Credit — Goods are sold partly for ready money, and partly 
 on credit, hut principally the former. 
 
 Commission, iSj-c The number of brokers in Christiania is 
 
 limited to 4. Commission on the sale of goods, 2 per cent., or, 
 del credere included, 3 per cent. Prokerage is fixed by law at 
 5-6ths per cent., which, in practice, is paid by the sellers. 
 
 Insurance.— All houses situated in Norwegian market towns 
 must be insured in the General Insurance Company at Chris- 
 tiania, which is guaranteed by the state. The premium is 
 moderate, being, on Ijuildings situated in towns, l-4th, and on 
 those situated in the country, l-8th per cent. Sometimes, 
 however, when very destructive fires occur, it is raised. 
 
 Proinsiom, S;c — Christiania is not a favourable place for 
 careenir>A and repairing ships; but supplies of beet, bread, 
 water, and other sea stores, may be had as cheap or cheapi r 
 than in any other port of Norway ; but its distance from the 
 sea is too great to allow of its h-ing visited by ships desirous 
 merely of victualling — (We h:.ve derived these details from 
 various sources, but principally from the able Answers of the 
 Consul at Christiania to the Circular Queries.) 
 
 Timber — A standard Christiania deal is 1 1 feet long, 1^ inch 
 thick, and 9 inches broad ; and 51'2 such deals make a load. 
 
 Freight of deals from Norway to England is calculated at 
 the rate of single deals, the standard measure of which f€>r 
 Christiania and all the southern ports of Norway, except Dram 
 (a small town on the Krammcn, about 20 miles S.W. of 
 Christiania), is 11 feet long, and 1^ inch in thickness. A 
 single deal from Dram is reckoned 10 feet long and 1^ inch 
 thick. 
 
 Battens. — Three battens make 2 deals, retaining their own 
 length and thickness. Half deals are only counted as deal ends, 
 if they run under 6 feet ; but if they run 6 or 7 feet long, then 
 2 half deals are counted a deal, retaining their own thickness. 
 
 Emls of Deals Four ends of deals, although 5 feet long, 
 
 make but a deal 11 feet long, retaining their thickness, which 
 the owners and captains of ships think unreasonable; but as 
 the freighters of snips seldom wish to have this assortment, 
 which commonly run from 3 to 5 feet, and are taken on boaril 
 as stowage, conscxpientlv for the advantage of the ship and not 
 the freighter, the ship ought to bear the burden. 
 
 Ends of Battens, called Larwick I'nlings. — No less than 6 
 ought to be counted a single deal, 11 feet long ami IJ lucli 
 thick. 
 
CHUN AM. — CINNAMON. 
 
 277 
 
 Vale-hoard* , wheii they have thr;ir proper length, are 7 feet 
 loniu ; 3 pale-boards are counted a single deal. 
 
 Mavea for hogsheads take up much room ; in consetiuence of 
 which more than 10 cannot be computed a single deal. 
 
 The width of deal is never noticed in the calculation of 
 freight : a good deal ought to run 9 inches within the sap, 
 which not a twentieth part of a cargo does at present ; l.ut, 
 though some may be above 9 inches wide, many are only 8, 
 therefore one mast make up for the otlier. 
 
 Timber, or Hervn Goods, cannot be exactly comjiuted accord, 
 ing to the contents in deals, because it cannot be stowed in a 
 ship in the same manner as deals ; the freight is, therefore, 
 agreed for by the lump, or according to the number of deals 
 which the vessel may have taken on board on a former 
 
 their contents: when, therefore, the deal* are mention«l 
 as usual 9'and 10 feet, and 11 and 12 feet, he cannot insist on 
 more freight than half of the length, according to its de> 
 scription. 
 
 One thousand Norway standard deals are reckoned equal to 
 a keel of coals, which is V!l tons. 
 
 llowtprita pay duty as masts; capravens are alKjve Vi and 
 under 18 inches in circnmference at the middle, and without 
 bark. Clapboard is exjjorted in whole pieces and unquartered. 
 Deals from (iermany pass as Norway deals ; spruce deal* are 
 upwards of 20 feet in length ; deals from Norway, altove 7 feet 
 long, are counted as whole deals ; above 6 feet, and not above 
 7 feet in length, are accounted as half deals, and two of them 
 pass as one whole deal. 
 
 The difference between the Christiania and Dram standard 
 One hundred deals = 120. being nearly 1-1 1th part, the freights to Uram ought to be 
 
 A ton == 40 solid feet of timber, cut to a square. varied proportiorially. It has sometimes hajipened that ships 
 
 One load of l>alk, or timber, = 50 solid feel. both for Christiania and Dram have been in company, and 
 
 Two loads of timber are reckoned for 160 deals. those for Christiania have got up loaded, and sailed, l>eforc th« 
 
 The several bills of lading contain together an exact account others for Dram have got over Dramstroom, which runs very 
 of the cargo which the captain has received on l)oard strong down in the spring of the year. — (llordaniz,' Huroiiean 
 liis ship, consequently binding him to deliver according to Commerce.) 
 
 CHUNAM, the name given in India to lime. The best, obtained by the calcination 
 of shells, is employed in the composition of Betel — (which see), to prevent, it is said, 
 its injuring the stomach. 
 
 CIDER, OR CYDER (Fr. Cidrc ; Ger. Zider, Apfdwein ; It. Cidro ; Rus. Sidor ; 
 Sp. Sidra), the juice of apples expressed and fermented. The produce of the duty on 
 cider and perry (the expressed and fermented juice of pears) amounted, in 1828, to 
 37,220/. ; which, as the duty was 10s. a barrel, shows that the quantity produced must 
 have amounted to 74,440 barrels, exclusive of what might be clandestinely manufactured. 
 The perry is supposed to have amounted to about a fourth part of this quantity. The 
 duty was repealed in 1830. — (See Apples.) 
 
 CIGARS. See Tobacco. 
 
 CINNABAR (Ger. Zinnoher s Du. Cinaher, Vermilioen ; Fr. Cinnahre ; It. Cinabro ; 
 Sp. Cinahrio ; Rus. Kinowar ; Lat. Cinnabrium). 
 
 1 . Native Cinnabar — a mineral substance, red, heavy, and brilliant. It is found in 
 various places, chiefly in quicksilver mines, being one of the ores of that metal. The cin- 
 nabar of the Philippine Islands is said to be of the highest colour ; but that of Almaden, 
 in Spain, is the richest. The best native cinnabar is of a high colour, brilliant, and free 
 from earthy or stony matter. 
 
 2. Artificial Cinnabar " When two parts of mercury and one of sulphur are triturated 
 
 together in a mortar, the mercury gradually disappears, and the whole assumes the form 
 of a black powder, formerly called Ethiops mineral. When this mineral is heated red 
 hot, it sublimes ; and if a proper vessel be placed to receive it, a cake is obtained 
 of a fine red colour. This cake was formerly called cinnabar ; and, when reduced to 
 a fine powder, is well known in commerce under the name of vermilion." — ( Thomson's 
 Chemistry. ) 
 
 CINNAMON (Du. Kaneel ; Fr. Cannelle ; Ger. Zimmet, Kanehl ; It. Canella; Lat. 
 Cinnamomum, Canella ; Poi*. Canella ; Sp. Canela Pers. and Hind. Darchinie ; Arab. 
 Darsini ; Malay, Kaimanis ; Greek, Kivaixov), the bark of the cinnamon tree (iawTOy 
 cinnamomum), a native of Ceylon, where it grows in great abundance ; it is also found 
 in Cochin China, but no where else. The cinnamon said to be found in China, Borneo, 
 &c. is merely Cassia lignea. It is brought home in bags or bales weighing 92^ lbs. each ; 
 and, in stowing it, black pepper is mixed with the bales to preserve the cinnamon. The 
 best cinnamon is tliin and rather pliable : it ought to be about the substance of royal 
 paper, or somewhat thicker ; is of a light yellow colour, approaching nearly to that of 
 Venetian gold ; it is smooth and shining ; fractures splintery ; has an agreeable, warm, 
 aromatic flavour, and a mild sweetish taste ; when chewed, the pieces become soft, and 
 seem to melt in the mouth ; it is not so pungent but that it may be borne on the tongue 
 without pain, and is not succeeded by any after taste. Whatever is hard, thick as a 
 half-crown piece, dark-coloured or brown, or so hot that it cannot be borne, should be 
 rejected. Particular care should be taken that it be not false packed, or mixed with 
 cinnamon of an inferior sort. — {Milburn's Orient. Comm.; MarshaWs Essay, quoted 
 below.) 
 
 The cinnamon of Cochin China grows in the dry sandy districts lying N. W. of the 
 town of Faifoe, between 15° and 16° N. lat. It is preferred in China to the cinna- 
 mon of Ceylon : the annual imports into Canton and other ports vary from 250,000 to 
 300,000 lbs. There are no fewer than 10 varieties of this species in the market. It 
 is not cured, like that of Ceylon, by freeing it from the epidermis. — ( Crawfurd's Embassy 
 to Siam, 8fc. p. 475.) 
 
 Cinnamon Monopoly. — Down to the present year, the cultivation of cinnamon in 
 Ceylon was restricted to a few gardens in the neighbourhood of Colombo ; the pro- 
 duction and sale of the article being wholly monopolised by government. Upon the 
 transference of the island from the East India Company to the king's government, the 
 former agreed to pay 60,000/. a year for 400,000 lbs. or 4,342|^ bales of cinnamon ; it 
 being stipulated, that if the quantity collected exceeded this amount, the surplus was to be 
 
 T 3 
 
278 
 
 CINNAMON. 
 
 Inirned ! * But this agreement was afterwards broken off ; and, for these some years 
 jjast, the cinnamon has been sent to England by government, and sold on its account at 
 «juarterly sales. The revenue derived by the Ceylon treasury from the cinnamon monopoly, 
 in 1831, is said to have amounted to 106,434Z. lis. 11c?. ; but it is not said whether this 
 is the nett or gross revenue, that is, whether it be exclusive or inclusive of the expenses 
 attending its management. — ( Ceylon Almanac for 1833, p. 82.) As the monopoly could 
 not be enforced, except by confining the culture of cinnamon to certain districts, it 
 necessarily led to the most oppressive interferences with the rights of individuals, to the 
 creation of numberless imaginary offences, and the multiplication of punishments, form- 
 ing a heavy drawback upon the prosperity of the island. We are, therefore, glad to 
 have to state that it has been at length abandoned ; and that we are no longer liable 
 to the charge of upholding, without improving, the worst part of the Dutch policy ; but 
 have restored to the natives their right to cultivate cinnamon any where and in any 
 way they think fit. We subjoin a copy of the advertisement issued by the Ceylon 
 government in reference to this important subject. 
 
 Notice is hereby given, that in direct pursuance of instructions received from the secretary of state, 
 from and after the 10th of July next, the general export of cinnamon from the ports of Colombo and Point 
 de Galle exclusively, in the island of Ceylon, will be allowed, on payment of an export duty of Qs. 
 per pound, without distinction of quality. 
 
 From the same period, all restrictions and prohibitions against the cultivation, possession, or sale of 
 cinnamon by private individuals will cease; and such quantities of cinnamon as government now has in 
 its possession, or may hereafter be obliged to receive in payment of rent, or from the government plant- 
 ations (until they can otherwise be disposed of), will be sold at periodical sales, subject always to the 
 payment of the said export duty, and under conditions as to the completion of the purchase, and the 
 actual payment of the purchase money in cash or government bills, on delivery of the cinnamon, similar 
 to those heretofore stipulated at the sales held in London, and which will be fully notified and explained 
 hereafter. 
 
 No collections will, for the future, be made in the forests on account of government. 
 
 The first sale will be held on the 10th day of July next, at the office of the commissioner of revenue; 
 when 1,000 bales of cinnamon will be put up to sale in lots at the undermentioned prices, and will be sold 
 to the highest bidder above the reserved price. 
 
 5. d. 
 
 1st sort, per lb. - - - - - 3 6 
 
 2d — - - - - -.20 
 
 Sd — - . - . .09 
 
 The proportion of each sort to be put up will be notified hereafter. 
 
 The stock of cinnamon in the hands of the agent in London, in September, 1832, and which was to be 
 sold at the 4 usual quarterly sales, in October, 1832, and January, April, and July, 1833, amounted to 4,688 
 bales; two consignments, amounting to 826 bales, have since been sent to England, viz. 500 bales in July, 
 1832; 326 bales in October, 1832; since which no shipments have been made, and none will be made 
 hereafter. 
 
 The sales for the 2 years ending with that of July, 1832, somewhat exceeded 5,500 bales per annum. 
 Chief Secretary's office, Colombo, March 9. 1833. 
 
 Duties on Cinnamon. — Nothing can be more satisfactory than this document, in so 
 far as the free culture of cinnamon is concerned ; but it is deeply to be regretted, that 
 the abolition of the old monopoly system should be accompanied by the imposition of 
 the exorbitant duty of 3s. per lb. on all cinnamon exported, without distinction of qua- 
 lity. Its natural cost does not, we believe, exceed 6d. or 8c?. per lb. ; but taking it at 
 Is., the duty is no less than 300 per cent. ! So enormous a tax, by confining, the 
 export of cinnamon within the narrowest limits, will go far to deprive the island of the 
 advantages it would otherwise derive from the repeal of the monopoly, and will be, in 
 all respects, most injurious. We have heard, that it is contended, in vindication of this 
 oppressive tax, that Ceylon having a natural monopoly of cinnamon, it is sound policy 
 to burden it with the highest duty it will bear ; as the largest revenue is thus obtained 
 at the least expense to the island. But in addition to the cinnamon produced in Cochin 
 China, and which it is more than probable will speedily find its way to the European 
 markets, the extent to which cassia lignea is substituted for cinnamon, shows that 
 the monopoly possessed by Ceylon is of very trifling importance. But though it 
 were otherwise, though cassia lignea did not exist, and cinnamon were to be found no 
 Avhere but in Ceylon, we should not the less object to so exorbitant an export duty. So 
 long as it is maintained, it will confine within the narrowest limits, what might other- 
 Avise become a most important branch of industry, and a copious source of wealth to the 
 island. According to the crown commissioners, the average quantity and value of the 
 different sorts of cinnamon annually sold of late years has been, — 
 
 Sorts of Cinnamon. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Rate. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 First sort • . 
 
 Second sort ... 
 
 Third sort - . - 
 
 All sorts - - - 
 
 Ll,.i. 
 
 90,000 
 2.j(),()00 
 180,000 
 
 s. d. 
 7 2J 
 5 lOi 
 4 Si 
 
 £ s. 
 32.842 If) 
 67,502 10 
 38,437 10 
 
 500,000 
 
 - 
 
 138,343 15 
 
 • See an article by H. Marshall, Esq., staflT surgeon to the forces in Ceylon, in Thomsoii's Annais qf 
 I'hilosophy, vol x. p. 356. 
 
CINQUE PORTS. 
 
 279 
 
 It is not at all probable that the exports cvill materially increase under the newr 
 system ; but had the duty varied from about 6d. per lb. on the best, to 3d. or 4d. on the 
 inferior sorts, we have little doubt, now that the culture is free, that the exports would, 
 at no very distant period, have amounted to .some millions of pounds. It is the high 
 price of cinnamon, — a price not caused by its scarcity or the difficulty of its production, 
 but by the oppressive monopolies and duties to which it has been sul)jected, — that has 
 made it be regarded as a luxury attainable only by the rich. There is no other .spice 
 tliat is so universally acceptable ; and there is none, were it charged with a reasonable 
 duty, that would be so sure to command an immense sale. We know, quite as well as 
 the writer of an article on tliis subject in the Colombo Journal, that " tlie cook who 
 employs 1 ounce of cinnamon to improve the flavour of his dishes, will not employ 
 4 ounces when the spice is a fourth of the price ;" but we further know, what the jour- 
 nalist would seem to be ignorant of, that were its price reduced, as it might be, to a third 
 of what it has hitherto cost, it would be used by ten or a dozen cooks, for every one who 
 employs it at present. In fact, the entire consumption of cinnamon in Great Britain 
 is under 20,000 lbs. a year ! 
 
 Should the exports of cinnamon from Ceylon under the new plan amount to 
 500,000 lbs. a year, government will receive from it an annual revenue of 75,000/. ; and 
 supposing them to amount to 600,000 lbs., the revenue will be 90,000/. And to se- 
 cure the immediate payment of this trifling sum, every ulterior consideration of profit 
 and advantage has been sacrificed. It is, however, pretty clear, that this short-siglited 
 rapacity will be, in the end, no less injurious to the revenue, than to the industry and 
 trade of the island. Were cinnamon allowed to be exported for a few years under a low 
 duty, or till such time as the taste for it was fully diffused throughout this and other 
 countries, it would then be easy, by gradually raising the duty, to obtain from it, without 
 materially checking the consumption, a very large revenue ; at least 5 or 6 times more 
 than it will ever produce under the present plan. 
 
 Suppose that we had had the power effectually to monopolise the inventions by which 
 Sir Richard Arkwright and others have so prodigiously facilitated the spinning of 
 cotton ; what would have been thought of the policy of those who should have proposed 
 laying a duty on exported cottons equivalent to the peculiar advantages we enjoyed in 
 their production ? Had this been done, we should have got a monopoly value for our 
 exports of cotton; but instead of amounting, as at present, to 17,000,000/. a year, they 
 would not, under such apian, Ijave amounted, to 170,000/. ; and instead of affording sub- 
 sistence for some 1,300,000 or 1,400,000 individuals, the cotton manufacture would not 
 have supported 50,000 ! And yet this is the mischievous nostrum, — for it would be an 
 abuse of terms to call it a principle, — on which we have proceeded to regulate the export 
 of the staple product of Ceylon. 
 
 The following table shows the quantities of cinnamon retained for home consumption, 
 the rates of duty, and the nett amount of the duties in each year, since 1810. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities 
 retained for 
 Home Con- 
 sumption in 
 the United 
 Kingdom- 
 
 Nett Amount of 
 Duty received 
 thereon. 
 
 Rates of Duty charged 
 thereon. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities 
 retained for 
 Home Con- 
 sumption in 
 the Llnited 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Nett Amount of 
 Duty received 
 thereon. 
 
 Rates of Duty charged 
 thereon. 
 
 1810 
 
 1811 
 1812 
 
 1813 
 
 1814 
 
 1815 
 18!« 
 1817 
 1818 
 
 1819 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 12,793 
 
 8,748 
 13,416 
 
 Records 
 
 ' 9,565 
 9,355 
 9,8fi3 
 10,689 
 11,381 
 
 13,077i 
 
 £ $. d. 
 
 5,609 7 3 
 
 5,715 16 7 
 4,081 10 1 
 
 destroyed - 
 
 8,977 3 11 
 
 1,175 17 7 
 1,235 14 1 
 1,324 0 9 
 1,424 18 11 
 
 1,637 1 1 
 
 Of the East Indies. 
 C2s. per lb. and 
 ^2/. 135. 4(f. per 
 (.cent, ad valorem. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 r(From April 1.5.) 
 )25. 4|rf. per lb. 
 1 and ol. 2s. 4d. per 
 (.cent, ad valorem, 
 f (From April 10.) 
 I 2s. 6d. per lb. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 f (From April 10.) 
 I 2j. 6d. per lb. 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Llis. 
 10,61Si 
 12,002 
 14,f)07^ 
 14,225 
 13,7 66f 
 14,0P8| 
 14,155i 
 14,451i 
 15,696i 
 
 29,720 
 
 Nil.* 
 23,172 
 15,271 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1,331 3 6 
 1,503 18 2 
 1,816 19 0 
 1,767 8 7 
 1,723 16 4 
 1,766 0 2 
 1,782 14 9 
 1,807 19 7 
 1,773 16 9 
 
 1,343 8 4 
 
 709 5 0 
 583 17 6 
 435 0 10 
 
 Of the East Indies. 
 2s. 6d. per lb. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 • do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 ("(From June 21.) 
 )6d. per lb. from 
 1 British posses- 
 (.sions. 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 In the London market, cinnamon is divided into 3 sorts. The first is worth, at present (Sept 1S33), 
 duty included, from 8s. 6d. to 10s. per lb. ; the second, 6s. to 7s. 6d. ; and the third from 5s. to 6s. 
 
 CINQUE PORTS. These are ancient trading towns, lying on the coast of Kent 
 and Sussex, which were selected from their proximity to France, and early superiority 
 in navigation, to assist in protecting the realm against invasion, and vested with certain 
 privileges by royal charter. 
 
 " The ports so privileged, as we at present account them, are Dover, Sandwich, 
 Romney, Hastings, Hythe, and the two ancient towns of Winchelsca and Rye ; although 
 * The export having exceeded the quantity charged with duty within the year. 
 
280 
 
 CITRON.— CLOCK. 
 
 the two latter places appear to have been originally only members. The services which 
 they were appointed to perform were either honorary, viz. assisting at the coronation 
 and sending members to parliament ; or auxiliary to the defence of the realm, as fur- 
 nishing a certain supply of vessels and seamen, on being summoned to that service by 
 the king's writ. 
 
 " In process of time the Cinque Ports grew so powerful, and, by the possession of a 
 warlike fleet, so audacious, that they made piratical excursions in defiance of all public 
 faith ; on some occasions they made war, and formed confederacies as separate inde- 
 pendent states. It seems, however, that these irregularities were soon suppressed, when 
 the government was strong, and sufficiently confident to exert its powers. So long as the 
 mode of raising a navy by contributions from diflPerent towns continued, the Cinque 
 Ports aflTorded an ample supply ; but since that time their privileges have been preserved, 
 but their separate or peculiar services dispensed with. Their charters are traced to the 
 time of Edward the Confessor ; they were confirmed by the Conqueror, and by subse- 
 quent raonarchs. William the Conqueror, considering Dover Castle the key of England, 
 gave the charge of the adjacent coast, with the shipping belonging to it, to the constable 
 of Dover Castle, with the title of Warden of the Cinque Ports ; an office resembling that 
 of the Count of the Saxon coast ( Comes littoris Saxonici) on the decline of the Roman 
 power in this island. The lord,warden has the authority of admiral in the Cinque Ports 
 and its dependencies, with power to hold a court of admiralty ; he has authority to hold 
 courts both of law and equity ; is the general returning officer of all the ports, — par- 
 liamentary writs being directed to him, on which he issues his precepts ; and, in many 
 respects, he was vested with powers similar to those possessed by the heads of counties 
 palatine. At present the efficient authority, charge, or patronage, of the lord warden is 
 not very great ; the situation is, however, considered very honourable, and the salary is 
 3,000/. He has under him a lieutenant and some subordinate officers ; and there are 
 captains at Deal, Walmer, and Sandgate Castles, Archcliff Fort, and Moats Bulwark. 
 
 " There is an exclusive jurisdiction in the Cinque Ports (before the mayor and jurats 
 of the ports), into which exclusive jurisdiction the king's ordinary writ does not run ; 
 that is, the court cannot direct their process immediately to the sheriff, as in other cases. 
 In the Cinque Ports, the process is directed to the constable of Dover Castle, his deputy, 
 or lieutenant. A writ of error lies from the mayor and jurats of each port to the lord 
 warden of the Cinque Ports, in his court of Shepway, and from the court of Shepway to 
 the King's Bench ; a memorial of superiority reserved to the crown at the original 
 creation of the franchise ; and prerogative writs, as those of habeas corpus, prohibition, 
 certiorari, and mandamus, may issue, for the same reason, to all these exempt jurisdictions, 
 because tne privilege that the king's writ runs not must be intended between party and 
 party, and there can be no such privilege against the king." — (^Chitti/'s Commercial 
 Laic, vol. ii. p. 12.) 
 
 CITRON (Ger. Succade ; Da. Sukkat ; It. Confetti di cedro ; Sp. Acitron verde ; 
 Fr. Citronat verd), an agreeable fruit, resembling a lemon in colour, smell, and taste. 
 The principal diffi2rence lies in the juice of the citron being somewhat less acid, and the 
 yellow rind being somewhat hotter, and accompanied with a considerable bitterness. — 
 (Lewis's Mat. Med.) It is imported, preserved and candied, from Madeira, of the 
 finest quality. 
 
 CIVET (Ger. Ziheth ; Du. Civet; Fr. Civette ; It. Zibetlo ; Sp. ^Z^rctZia), a perfume 
 taken from the civet cat. It is brought from the Brazils, Guinea, and the interior of 
 Africa. When genuine, it is worth .SOs. or 40s. an ounce. 
 
 CLARET, one of the best French wines. See the articles Bordeaux and Wine. 
 
 CLEARING, " among London Bankers, is a method adopted by them for exchanging 
 the drafts on each other's houses, and settling the differences. Thus, at half-past 3 o'clock, 
 a clerk from each banker attends at the clearing-house, where he brings all the drafts on 
 the other bankers, which have been paid into his house that day, and deposits them in 
 their proper drawers (a drawer being allotted to each banker) ; he then credits their 
 accounts separately with the articles which they have against him, as found in the drawer. 
 Balances are then struck from all the accounts, and the claims transferred from one to 
 another, until they are so wound up and cancelled, that each clerk has only to settle with 
 two or three others, and their balances are immediately paid. 
 
 " Such drafts as are paid into a banker's too late for clearing, are sent to the houses on 
 wliich they are drawn, to be marked, which is understood as an engagement that they will 
 be paid the next day." — (Kelb/s Cambist.) — (For an account of the saving of money 
 effected by this device, see ante, p. 65. The technical operations carried on at the clear- 
 ing-house have been described by Mr. Gilbart, in his Practical IVeaiisc on Dankingy 
 pj). Ifi — 20.) 
 
 CLEARING-HOUSE, the place where the operation termed clearing is carried on. 
 CLOCK, CLOCKS (Ger. Uhrcn, Crosse IJhrvn, Wianduhren ; Du. Uuren, Uur- 
 werkcn, lloroloffien ; Fr. Ilorloges ; It. Orologyi, Oriuoli j Sp. liclojcs ; Rus. Tsc/uisU), 
 
CLOTH. — CLOVES. 281 
 
 a kind of machine, put in motion by a gravitating body, and so constructed as to divide, 
 measure, and indicate the successive portions of time with very great accuracy. Most 
 clocks mark the hour by striking or chiming. It is a highly useful instrument, and is 
 extensively employed for domestic and philosophical ])urposes. Clocks are made of an 
 endless variety of materials and models, so as to suit the different uses to which they are 
 to be applied, and the different tastes of their purchasers. Their price consequently 
 varies from a few shillings to more than lOOZ. The Germans and Dutch are particularly 
 celebrated for their skill in the manufacture of wooden clocks ; while the English, 
 French, and Genevese, especially the former, have carried the art of making metallic 
 clocks, so as to keep time with the greatest precision, to a high degree of perfection. 
 
 The history of the invention, introduction, and successive improvements in the manu- 
 facture of clocks, has been carefully investigated by some very learned and industrious 
 antiquaries — (^scc Bec/tmann's Hist, of Inventions, vol. i. pp.419 — 462. Eng. ed. ; and 
 liees's Cr/dopcudia) ; but, notwithstanding these researches, the subject is still involved 
 in considerable obscurity. It seems, however, that the middle of the fourteenth century 
 may be regarded as tlie epoch when clocks, having weights suspended as a moving 
 power, and a regulator, began to be introduced. The period when, and the individual 
 by whom, the pendulum was first applied to clockwork, have been subjects of much 
 contention. Galileo and Huygens have disputed the honour of the discovery. *' But 
 whoever may have been the inventor, it is certain that the invention never flourished till 
 it came into the hands of Huygens, who insists, that if ever Galileo thought of such a 
 thing, he never brought it to any degree of perfection. The first pendulum clock made 
 in England was in the year 1662, by one Fromantel, a Dutchman." — (^Ilutton's Math. 
 Dictionary. ) 
 
 The clock manufacture is of considerable importance and value. It is carried on to 
 a great extent in Londoh. 
 
 The ad valorem duty of 25 per cent, on foreign clocks produced, in 1832, 6,023Z. 8s. 
 nett. It is principally derived from the wooden clocks brought from Holland and 
 Germany. 
 
 Under the article Watches, the reader will find some statements as to the importation 
 and exportation of clocks, as well as watches. 
 
 Clockmakers are obliged to engrave upon the dial-plate of all clocks made by them their name, and 
 the place of their residence. No outward or inward box, case, or dial-plate of any clock or v/atch, with 
 the maker's name engraved thereon, shall be exported without the movement or machinery being in or 
 with such box or case, under forfeiture of double its value. — (3 & 4 tVill. i. cap. 52. ^ 104,) It is illegal 
 to import, or to enter to be warehoused, any clock or watch impressed with any mark purporting to repre- 
 sent any legal British mark, or not having the name of some foreign maker visible on the frame, and 
 also on the face, or hot being in a complete state. — 57.) 
 
 It is said, however, not to be an uncommon practice among the less reputable portion of the trade, to 
 engrave their names and " London" on foreign clocks and watches, and to sell them to the public as 
 English work. The fraud may be detected by referring to any respectable watchmaker. 
 
 By a Treasury order of the 4lh of September, 1828, clocks and watches for private use, though not marked 
 in the manner now specified, may be admitted on payment of the duty, on the parties making affidavit of 
 their entire ignorance of the law in question. 
 
 Persons hired by, or in the emj)loyment of, clock and watch makers, who shall fraudulently embezzle, 
 secrete, sell, &c. any metal, material, or precious stone, with which he may happen to be intrusted, shall, 
 upon trial and conviction before a justice of the peace, forfeit 20/. for the first ottience ; and for the second, 
 and every subsequent offence, he shall forfeit 40/. ; and, in default of payment, is to be committed to the 
 house of correction. — (27 Geo. 2. c. 7. ^ 1.) — (See Watch.) 
 
 CLOTH. See Wool, Linen, &c. 
 
 CLOVER (Ger. Klee; Du. Klaver; Fr. Trejle, Luzerne ; It. Trifoglio ; Sp. Trebol ; 
 Rus. Trilistnik ; Lat. Trifoliuni), a very important species of grass. Some of the species 
 in cultivation are annual; others biennial or triennial; and others perennial. The seed 
 used formerly to be principally imported from Holland ; but that which is raised in this 
 coimtry is now said to be of a superior quality. — {^Loudon's Encyclopccdia of Agriculture.) 
 Cidture for seed is, however, very precarious, and of uncertain profit. 
 
 The entries of foreign clover seed for home consumption, at an average of the 3 years ending with 
 1831, were 99,04G cwt. a year. But for the high duty of 20a-. a cwt., there can be little doubt that the 
 importation would be much more considerable. The price of foreign clover seed in the London market, 
 at present (September, 1833), varies, duty included, from 50s. to 66*. a cwt. 
 
 CLOVES (Ger. N'dglein, Gewiirznelken ; Du. Kruidnagelen ; Fr. Clous de girofe, 
 Girofies ; It. Chiovi di garofano, Garofani, Garoffoli; Sp. Clavos de especia, Clavillos ; 
 Rus. Gioosdika ; Arab. Kereyifid ; Malay, Chankee), the fruit, or rather cups of the 
 imopened flowers, of the clove tree, or Caryophylhis aromaticus. The clove tree is a 
 native of the Moluccas, where it was originally found; but plants have since been carried 
 to Cayenne and other places, where they succeed tolerably well. Cloves are shaped like 
 a nail ; whence the name, from the French clou, nail. They are imported from the 
 Dutch settlements ; the best in chests, and an inferior kind in bags. The best variety 
 of the Amboyna cloves is smaller and blacker than the other varieties, very scarce, and, 
 as a mark of pre-eminence, is tenned the Royal clove. Good cloves have a strong, 
 fragrant, aromatic odour ; and a hot, acrid, aromatic taste, which is very pennanent. 
 
282 
 
 CLOVES. 
 
 They should be chosen large sized, perfect in all parts ; the colour should be a dark 
 brown, almost approaching to black ; and, when handled, should leave an oily moisture 
 upon the fingers. Good cloves are sometimes adulterated by mixing them with those 
 from which oil has been drawn; but these are weaker than the rest, and of a paler, 
 colour ; and whenever they look shrivelled, having lost the knob at the top, and are light 
 and broken, with but little smell or taste, they should be rejected. As cloves readily 
 absorb moisture, it is not uncommon, when a quantity is ordered, to keep them beside a 
 vessel of water, by which means a considerable addition is made to their weight. — 
 ( Thomson's Dispensatory ; Milium' s Oriental Commerce. ) 
 
 Policy of the Dutch as to the Trade in Cloves. — From the expulsion of the English 
 from Amboyna, in 1623, the Dutch have, a few short intervals only excepted, enjoyed 
 the exclusive possession of the Moluccas, or Clove Islands. In their conduct as to tlie 
 clove trade, they have exhibited a degree of short-sighted rapacity, which has been, we 
 believe, seldom equalled even in the annals of monopoly. Their object has not been to 
 encourage the growth and trade of cloves, but to confine both within the narrowest limits. 
 They have preferred deriving a large profit from a stunted and petty trade, to a moderate 
 profit from a trade that might have afforded employment for a very large amount of 
 capital ; and to prevent their narrow and selfish projects fi'om being counteracted by the 
 operations of the natives, they have subjected them to the most revolting tyranny. " That 
 they might," says Mr. Crawfurd, " regulate and control production and price just as 
 they thought proper, the clove trees were extirpated every where but in Amboyna, the 
 seat of their power ; and the surrounding princes were bribed, by annual {.stipends, to 
 league with them for the destruction of their subjects' property and birthright. This 
 plan was begun about the year 1551. The contracts are still in force, and an annual 
 fleet visits the surrounding islands to suppress the growth of cloves, which, in their 
 native country, spring up with a luxuriance which these measures of Satanic rigour, and 
 of sacrilege towards bountiful nature, can scarce repress. By the plan on which the 
 clove trade is now conducted, — a plan carried into effect through so much iniquity and 
 bloodshed, — the country of spices is rendered a petty farm, of which the natural owners 
 are reduced to the worst condition of predial slavery ; and the great monopoliser and 
 oppressor is that government, whose duty it should have been to insure freedom and 
 afford protection. Human ingenuity could hardly devise a plan more destructive of 
 industry, more hostile to the growth of public wealth, or injurious to morals, than this 
 system framed in a barbarous age ; and it reflects disgrace upon the character of a civil- 
 ised people to persevere in it. 
 
 " It is curious to remark how the monopolisers, in carrying the details of this system 
 into effect, at once impose upon the natives and deceive themselves. The nominal price 
 paid to the natives is actually above the natural price of the commodity, but they are 
 cheated in the details. The cultivator brings his produce to the public stores, where it 
 is subjected at once to a deduction of one fifth for payment of the salaries of the civil and 
 military officers. The price of the remainder is fixed at the rate of 9*6 Spanish dollars 
 the picul : but before payment is made, another deduction of one fifth is made ; one 
 half of which is for the chiefs or rajas, and the other for the native elders, who are over- 
 seers of the forced culture. The real price, therefore, paid to the grower is 8 Spanish 
 dollars per picul, or 3|<i. per lb. avoirdupois, instead of 1 Spanish dollars per picul, or 
 4§(i. per lb., which is pretended to be given. 
 
 When cloves have been sold on the spot, the price usually exacted has been about 
 64 Spanish dollars the picul, or 8 times the price paid to the cultivator. The 
 average price in Holland, previously to the war of the French revolution, may be taken 
 at 6s. per lb., or 177^| Spanish dollars per picul, being 2,122 per cent, advance on the 
 real cost of the commodity in the place of its growth. When brought direct to England, 
 they have cost at an average 3s. Sd. the lb., making 108y|^ Spanish dollars per picul, an 
 advance on the natural export price of 1,258 per cent." — (^Eastern Archipelago, vol. iii. 
 pp. 388—390.) 
 
 Duty on Cloves. — This was considerably reduced in T819 ; and there has, in conse- 
 quence, been a decided increase in the consumption of the article ; though not nearly so 
 great as it would have been, had it been supplied under a more liberal system. The 
 cloves at present entered for home consumption in Great Britain, amount to about 
 80,000 lbs. a year, of which a part comes from Cayenne. But the cultivation of the 
 clove in Cayenne depends entirely on the existence of the present system in the Moluccas. 
 The superiority which the latter enjoy over every other place in the production of cloves 
 is so very great, that were any thing like freedom given to those engaged in their culture, 
 they would very speedily exclude every other from the market. It is not to be imagined, 
 that so liberal and intelligent a government as that of Holland can much longer continue 
 insensible to the disgrace of supporting a system like the present, and to the many 
 advantages that would result from its abolition. Subjoined is 
 
COACHES. 
 
 An Account of the Qumtity of Cloves entered for Home Consumption each Year since 1810; of theNctt 
 Amount of Duty received therefrom, and the Kates of Duty. 
 
 1810 
 
 1811 
 1812 
 
 1813 
 
 1815 
 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 , 18?0 
 I 1821 
 1822 
 
 im 
 
 1824 
 1825 
 
 182() 
 1827 
 1828 
 18i.'9 
 
 mo 
 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Quantities 
 retained for 
 Home (3on- 
 umptionin the 
 United King 
 dom. 
 
 Lbt. 
 
 35,584 
 
 28,977 
 35,552 
 
 Rates of Duty charged thereon. 
 
 ^ s. d. 
 10,197 19 10 
 
 8,370 1 1 
 8,517 19 10 
 
 Records destroyed 
 
 31,975 
 
 50,462 
 
 16,470 
 
 73,973 
 18,281 
 34,254f 
 3(;,554^ 
 
 49,765A 
 57,78()A 
 60,32o4 
 45,i;6l 
 
 52,701 1 
 
 85,9iK)f 
 
 61,216i 
 
 48,637f 
 
 60,111 
 
 83,885 
 
 82.672 
 
 r45. 
 
 Cad 
 
 rFr 
 \5s. 
 
 Cad 
 
 , 9,540 9 3 
 5,708 3 9 
 
 1,867 6 10 
 
 6,390 13 6 
 
 1,777 5 3 
 
 3,3n4 4 7 
 
 3,657 0 5 
 
 3,285 9 2 
 
 5,020 16 8 
 
 5,747 14 4 
 
 6,035 10 0 
 
 4,543 9 10 
 
 5,279 
 8,602 
 6.148 
 4,875 
 6,061 
 8,379 
 8,169 
 
 4 9 
 
 1 9 
 
 19 2 
 
 13 2 
 
 9 7 
 
 8 2 
 
 6 9 
 
 Of the East Indies. 
 
 ■4s. M. per lb. andl 
 13.S-. id. per cent. > 
 . ad valorem. J 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 From 15th of April ) 
 6|rf. per lb. and f 
 3s. 4rf. per cent. T 
 ad valorem. j 
 From 10th of April > 
 1 5s. l^d. per lb. J 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 From 5th()f J uly 2s.lJ''lb, 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 Of the Rtilish I'o»- Of the Fori i(;n Possensions 
 Ainciica. in America. 
 
 2s. per lb. 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 2s. 4|cZ. per lb. 
 do. 
 
 do. - 
 
 do. - 
 do. - 
 do. 
 2s. per lb. 
 do. - 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 4s. 8rf. per lb. 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 5j. 6^f/. per lb. 
 
 do. 
 
 f 3U. 13s. 4rf. percent. 
 < ad valorem, equal to 
 C. about Is. 6d. per lb. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 Ss. i)er lb. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 Of British Possessions. 
 
 2s. per lb. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 Of KoreiRn 1 
 
 3s. per lb. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 The price of cloves, exclusive of the duty, in the London market, is, at present (October, 1833), as 
 follows : — 
 
 Amboyna, Bencoolen, &c. - Is. 2d. to Is. M. per lb. | Bourbon, Cayenne, &c. - Is. 2c?. to Is. od. per lb. 
 
 Cr-ovES, Oil of, is procured from cloves by distillation. When new, it is of a pale 
 reddish brown coloui-, which becomes darker by age. It is extremely hot and fiery, and 
 sinks in water. The kind generally imported from India contains nearly half its weight 
 of an insipid expressed oil, which is discovered by dropping a little into spirits of wine ; 
 and on shaking it, the genuine oil mixes with the spirit, and the insipid separating, the 
 fraud is discovered. — ( Milhurn. ) 
 
 COACHES, vehicles for commodious travelling. They have sometimes two, and 
 sometimes four wheels. The body of the coach is generally suspended, by means of 
 spring.s, upon the framework to which the wheels are attached. They are usually drawn 
 by horses, but recently have been impelled by steam. The forms and varieties of coaches 
 are almost innumerable. 
 
 1. Historical Notice. — Beckmann has investigated the early history of coaches with 
 his usual care and learning. It is certain that a species of coaches were used at Rome ; 
 but whether they were hung on springs, like those now made use of, is not certain. After 
 the subversion of the Roman power, horseback was almost the only mode of travelling. 
 About the end of the fifteenth century, however, covered carriages began to be employed 
 by persons of distinction on great occasions. In 1550, there were at Paris only three 
 coaches : one of which belonged to the queen ; another to the celebrated Diana of 
 Poitiers ; and the third to a corpulent, unwieldy nobleman, Rene de Laval, lord of Bois 
 Dauphin. Coaches were seen, for the first time, in Spain, in 1546. They began to be 
 used in England about 1580 ; and were in common use among the nobility in the begin- 
 ning of the seventeenth century. — ( Hist, of Invent, vol. i. pp. Ill . 1 27. Eng. trans. ) 
 
 2. Manufacture of Carriages. — This is a department of considerable value and im- 
 portance. The best built and handsomest carriages are made in London, where only 
 the trade of a coach currier is carried on ; bvit the carriages made at Edinburgh, and 
 some other places, are also very superior. Down to 1825, a duty was laid on all car- 
 riages made for sale; and it appears from the following account, that, in 1812, 1,531 
 four-wheeled carriages, 1,700 two- wheeled ditto, and 105 taxed carts (smail carriages 
 without springs), were made for sale. 
 
 3. Duties on Carriages. — These duties have been long imposed, and have fluctuated 
 considerably at different periods. The following table shows the number of four- 
 wheeled and other carriages (exclusive of hackney coaches) charged with duties in the 
 
284 
 
 COACHES. 
 
 years 1812, 1825, and 1830, the rates of duty on each species of carriage, and the pro» 
 duce of the duties. — (Compiled from Pari. Papery No. 686. Sess. 1830. and Papers 
 published by the Board of Trade.) 
 
 O OOOCOOO lO 
 ^ O OOOJ>00 TH 
 
 T CO g^tX-t 
 
 to o' d d d d o* d d 
 
 o oootoo < lo 
 
 . w CN 5, ■ • ^ 
 
 o o« 
 
 .5^ o oootcoooco 
 ^ o ooor-TfiocOfi 
 
 to tOL^t>t^00 00 00O> 
 
 .^j o 0000000 • 
 
 ^ O OOOO'J'OO^ 
 
 CO 00 O "fl Lf5 CI ' 
 
 o 00000000 
 
 O OOOICOOOOJCO 
 
 000 
 
 O^O 10 
 
 000 
 
 rf<0 O 
 
 2 TP CO 
 3^ 13 CO 
 
 00 o o 
 coo U5 in 
 
 CO CO 10 U5 
 
 00 o o 
 
 000 o o 
 
 iff 
 
 00 o o 
 coo o o 
 I o o 
 
 S 31 >0 ifl 
 I Tf< O) 10 
 1 CM CX CO 
 
 00 
 00 1 
 
 Tfl rl C 
 
 00 
 100 
 
 00 
 
 ir; O 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 1^ O) 
 
 •O G-) 
 Ol CO 
 
 CO 
 CM 
 
 o 0000 
 
 O lOOOifJ 
 
 -=5 
 
 .-H S 
 
 So 
 
 ' CO" 
 
 5 a a> . 
 
 .2 ^ g 2 £ 
 & "gco q'C S 
 
 3 » « "g 
 
 J3 < J= >.T3 S XI 
 
 If i« ? CO 
 
 Repealed in 1825. 
 
 34 13 0 
 
 11,008 8 0 
 31,759 15 0 
 
 42,768 3 0 1 
 
 1,913 15 0 
 1,063 2 6 
 61 1 0 1 
 
 131 5 0 
 
 115 0 0 
 6 18 0 
 
 3 3 0 
 
 1 9 0 
 
 2 15 0 
 
 f 
 
 otoo 0 coo 
 
 lOOICO 10 o^co 
 t-<00 rH 00 
 
 11 
 
 7,592 
 11,549 
 
 19,141 1 
 
 1,531 
 1,701 
 407 
 105 
 
 184 
 
 46 
 
 ft 
 .0 
 
 O 5) 
 e £ 
 
 K ft 
 
 |l 1 I I I I I I I I 
 
 U 
 
 o 
 
 ^1 
 
 S « „ S », 
 8 s g 13 <u fc; 
 
 ft «i S 5 a; i 
 
 o x: Oj:: 
 
COACHES. 
 
 285 
 
 Bates of Duty on Cariiages. — On those having — 
 
 . Rate. Kate. 
 Four wl.eels. L. s. d. L. i. il. 
 
 Persons keeping 1-6 0 () Persons keeping 6-8 4 0 
 2 - 6 10 0 — 7 - 8 10 0 
 
 _ 8 - 8 16 0 
 
 9 and upwards - 'J 1 6 
 
 _ 3-700 
 _ 4 - 7 10 0 
 
 — 6 - 7 17 6 
 Additional bodies - - - * 5 ^ 0 
 
 t;aniages let to hire - - - - 6 0 0 
 
 Post chaises 5 5 0 
 
 Carriages with wheels of less diameter than 30 
 inches, drawn by ponies or mules not exceeding 
 13 hands - - - - 3 5 0 
 
 Rate. 
 L. t. ,1. 
 4 10 O 
 10 0 
 
 Carriages drawn by 1 ticne • 
 Carriage* used by common carrien 
 Two wheels. 
 
 Drawn by 1 horse - - - • -3 50 
 
 Drawn by 2 or more - - - - 4 10 0 
 
 Additional Ixidies - • - ••1116 
 
 Describe<l in act 2 & 3 Will. 4. cap. 32. No. 1. 
 
 charged - - - • •1100 
 
 Ditto, ditto. No. II., common stage carts • 1 10 O 
 
 Let out to hire . - • - -350 
 
 Carria;'es use<l by common carriers - -15 0 
 
 4. Hackney Coaches are coaches stationed in the streets or other public places, and 
 bound to carry such persons as require their services, for certain rates of hire according 
 to the distances travelled. They have generally been licensed by authority, and subjected 
 to certain regulations, intended to prevent strangers and others using them from fraud 
 and imposition. It may be doubted, however, whether these regulations have had any 
 good effect ; and whether the public would not be as well accommodated, at least in all 
 large towns, by throwing the business open, and trusting to competition to rectify abuses. 
 As respects London, nothing can be said in favour of its hackney coach establishment. 
 Speaking generally, the coaches are the dirtiest, most disagreeable vehicles that can well 
 be imagined, and the horses and drivers are but little superior ; forming a striking con- 
 trast to the elegance and commodiousness of the private carriages, the excellence of the 
 horses, and the neatness of the servants. 
 
 Hackney coaches were first established in London in 1 625 ; but they were not then 
 stationed in the streets, but at the principal inns. In the reign of Charles II. their 
 number was considerable. Commissioners for licensing and superintending hackney 
 coaches were established by the act 9 Ann. c. 23. ; and successive acts have been passed, 
 specifying the number of coaches that might be licensed, the duties payable to govern- 
 ment, and the conditions under which licences were to be granted. The total number 
 of hackney coaches, chariots, and cabriolets, actually licensed in the metropolis, on the 
 1st of January, 1830, appears, from the following table, to have been 1,265. 
 
 An Account of the Number of Hackney Coaches, Chariots, and Cabriolets, licensed in the Metropolis, 
 in each of the Five Years to the 1st of January 1830 i showing the Rates of Duty, and the Produce of 
 the Duties. — {Pari. Paper, No. 687. Sess. 1830.) 
 
 Years ending 1st of January 1826 
 
 — 1st of January 1827 
 
 — 1st of January 1828 
 
 — 1st of January 1829 
 
 — 1st of January 1830 
 
 Number 
 licensed. 
 
 Rates of Duty. 
 
 Produce of the Duties, 
 including Fines. 
 
 1,150 
 
 1,200 
 1,200 
 1,265 
 1,265 
 
 ("2/. per lunar month > 
 (_ each carriage. J 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 29,392 12 6 
 
 30,606 12 6 
 31,333 7 6 
 32,176 17 6 
 32,908 18 6 
 
 5. Hackney Coach Regulations, Fares, SjC — The laws as to hackney coaches in the city of London 
 were consolidated by the act 1 &2 Will. 4. c. 22., which placed the collection of the duties, &c. in the 
 hands of the commissioners of stamps. We notice a few of the more important clauses. 
 
 Definition. — A hackney coach is any carriage with 2 or more wheels, standing or plying for hire in any 
 public street or road. — ^ 4. 
 
 Licensing, Plates, Sgc. — A licence to keep a hackney coach costs 5T., and a weekly sum of 105. has to 
 be paid per advance on every licence. A plate specifying the number of the licence is to be placed inside 
 the coach; and 2 other plates, on which are painted the names of the proprietor, or of one of the proprietors 
 of the coach, are to be placed externally one on each side. Penalty on proprietor for letting or employing 
 a hackney coach without having properly numbered plates properly fixed upon such coach, 10/. : ditto on 
 driver, if proprietor, 10/. ; if not, 5/. — § § 22, 23. 
 
 Obligation to ply Carriages standing on the streets with plates, to be deemed hackney coaches ; and, 
 
 unless actually hired, shall be compellable, under a penalty of 40s., to go with any person oflering to hire 
 the same. — \ 35. 
 
 Distance. — Drivers of hackney coaches compellable, under a penalty of 40s., to go any di.stance not 
 exceeding 5 miles from the General Post Otfice, or from the place where they shall have been hired. 
 — % 34. 
 
 Number of Passengers. — To prevent disputes, the number of persons to be carried by hackney coaches 
 is to be painted in some conspicuous place outside ; and they are compellable, under a penalty of 40s., to 
 carry this number if required. — § 46. 
 f Rates and Fares — These may be charged, at the option of 
 the proprietor or driver, either by time or distance ; that is, by 
 the hour or mile, but not by the day. The terms are, when 
 charged by distance. 
 
 For every hackney coach Tdrawn by 2 horses, for any 
 distance within and not exceeding 1 mile, 1*. ; and for 
 every distance exceeding 1 mile after the rate of Gd. for 
 every mile, and for any fractional part of ^ a mile over 
 and above any number of i miles completed. 
 
 Fares when taken by time are — For anv time within and not 
 exceeding 30 miiiutes, Is. ; above 30 minutes and not ex- 
 ceeding45 do., 1*. 6</.; above 45 minutes and not exceeding 
 1 hour, 2*. ; and fbr any further time exceeding 1 hour, 
 then after the rate and proportion of 6J. for every 15 
 minutes completed, and Gd. toi any fractional part of the 
 period of 15 minutes. 
 Cabriolets, or carriages with one horse, are entitled to two 
 thirds, and no more, of the rates and charges above men^ 
 tioned.—s. 38. and schedules. 
 
 Sack Fare. — The driver of a hackney coach discharged beyond the limits of the metropolis, that is, be- 
 yond 3 miles from the General Post Office, after 8 o'clock in the evening, or before 5 o'clock in the morning, 
 shall be entitled to full fare from the place of such discharge to the nearest part of said limits, or to the 
 stand where the coach shall have been hired beyond the limits, at the option of the hirer. Coaches dis- 
 charged during the day beyond the limits, are entitled to a back fare at the rate of 6(1. a mile ; but such 
 back fare is not payable for any distance less than 4 miles. — ^ 39. 
 
 Coaches waiting are entitled to a reasonable deposit, to be accounted for in the fare. Penalty on drivers 
 refusing to wait, or to account for deposit, 40s. — J 47. 
 
286 
 
 COACHES. 
 
 Refusal to pay Fare, or defacing or injuring any hackney coach, may be punished, unless reasonable 
 satisfaction be made for the same, by imprisonment for 1 calendar montii. — \ 41. 
 Drivers exacting more than legal Fare liable to a penalty of 40^. — \ 42. 
 
 Agreement to pay more than legal Fare, not binding ; sum paid beyond such legal fare may be recovered 
 back, and driver be liable in a penalty of 40a-. — \ 43. 
 
 Drivers demanding more than Sum agreed upon, though distance be exceeded, or it be less than the 
 legal fare, forfeit 40a-. for each offence. — ^ 44, 45. 
 
 Drivers to hold Check Strings, under a penalty of 20s. — \ 48. 
 
 Property left in Hackney Coaches to be carried to Stamp Office, under a penalty of 20i If not claimed 
 within a year, to be given up to driver ; or if not applied for, to be sold. — § 49. 
 
 Court of Aldermen authorised to make orders for regulating hackney coaches in city. — ^ 54. 
 
 Offences may be tried either by a justice appointed for that purpose by the secretary of state, or by any 
 other of his Majesty's justices. — ^ 62. 
 
 Hackney coaches were first established at Edinburgh in 1673; but the number 
 licensed was inconsiderable till after the American war. 
 
 5. Stage Coaches, Travelling by. — Owing to the improvement in the breed of horses 
 and the building of carriages, but, above all, to the extraordinary improvements that have 
 been effected, within these few years, in the laying out, construction, and keeping of 
 roads, the ordinary rate of travelling by stage coaches is seldom under 9 or 10 miles an 
 hour, stoppages included, and, on some roads, is as much as 11 or 1 2 ! The stages 
 having been shortened, this wonderful speed is not found to be materially more injurious 
 to the horses than the slower rate at which they travelled some years ago. The surface 
 of the roads being perfectly smooth, and most sharp turns or rapid descents having been 
 got rid of, travelling even at this speed has been rendered comparatively safe ; and it is 
 astonishing, considering the number of coaches, how few accidents occur. They are 
 occasioned, for the most part, by the misconduct of the drivers ; and principally by their 
 endeavouring to make up by increased speed for time lost at stoppages, or by their 
 attempting to pass each other. 
 
 6. Law as to Stage Coaches. — This is now embodied in the acts 2 & 3 Will. 4. c. 120. and 3 & 4 Will, 4. 
 c. 48. 
 
 Definition. — A stage coach is any carriage travelling along the road at the rate of 3 miles or more an 
 hour, without regard to form, provided the passengers pay separate fares for their places therein ; but 
 all carriages used wholly on a railway, or impelled by steam, are excepted from this definition. — (2 & 3 
 Will. 4. c. 120. \ 4.) 
 
 Licences, Duties, Sfc. — A large portion of the act is occupied with regulations as to licences, duties 
 plates, &c. But it is sufficient for our purpose to give the following schedule of the duties : — 
 
 Duty. 
 
 For and in respect of every original licence to be 
 taken out yearly by the person who shall keep, use, 
 or employ any stage carriage in Great Britain, 
 (that is to say,) for every such stage carriage - 5 0 0 
 
 And for and In respect of every supplementary 
 licence for the same carriage, for which any such 
 original licence shall have been granted, which 
 shall be. taken out in any of the several cases pro- 
 vided for by this act, during the period for which 
 such original licence was granted - - 0 1 0 
 
 And for and in respect of every mile which any 
 such stage carriage shall be licensed to travel, the 
 several sums following respectively,(that is to say,) 
 if such stage carriage shall be licensed to carry — Duty 
 
 per Mile. 
 
 ■ Not more than 4 passengers - - 0 0 1 
 
 More than 4 and not more than 6 passengers - 0 0 \^ 
 More than 6 and not more than 9 passengers 0 0 2 
 
 More than 9 and not more than 1'2 passengers 0 0 
 More than 12 and not more than 15 passengers 0 0 3 
 More than 15 and not more than 18 passengers 0 0 3.^ 
 ]Vlore than 18 and not more than 21 passengers 0 0 4 
 
 And if such stage carriage shall he Jicensed to 
 carry more than 21 passengers, then for every 
 3 additional passengers exceeding 21 which such 
 stage carriage shall be licensed to carry, the ad- 
 ditional duty of - - - - 0 0 01 
 
 And where such excess above 21 shall not be exactly 3, 
 or a multiple of 3, then such additional duty of ^d. shall be 
 payable for any number of such excess being less than 3, or 
 progressively less than any multiple of 3, which such stage 
 carriage shall be licensed to carry. 
 
 Provided always, that the number of passengers for carrying 
 of which any stage carriage shall be licensed, shall be reckoned 
 exclusive of the coachman or driver, and also exclusive of the 
 conductor or guard, if there shall be a conductor or guard. 
 
 And also the duties on passengers conveyed for hire by car- 
 rianes travelling upon railways ; (that is to say,) 
 The proprietor or company of proprietors of i _ 
 Great Iiritain, along which any passengers shall be con'- 
 veyed for hire, in or upon carriages drawn or impelled by the 
 otherw' ' 
 
 The proprietor or company of proprietors of every railway 
 " Iiritain, along which ' " ' 
 
 hire, in or upon carria . . ^ _ 
 
 power of steam, or otherwise, shall ])ay for and in respect of 
 all such passengers at and after the rate of ^d. per mile for 
 every 4 passengers so conveyed. 
 
 Want of Licence, S(C. — Keeping, using, &c. any stage carriage without a licence, or without plates, or 
 with recalled plates, or contrary to their licences, or with improper plates, are offences punishable each by 
 a penalty of 20/.— 27, 28, 
 
 Penalty on Drivers of Coaches without Plates, if not the owner, 10/. ; if the owner, 20/. — ^ 30. 
 
 Forging Plates, a misdeameanor. — ^ 32. 
 
 Names of Proprietors, Sfc. to be painted outside, in legible and conspicuous characters, the names of tlio 
 extreme places between which such carriage shall be licensed to go, and also the greatest number of 
 passengers licensed to be carried inside and outside. Penalty for neglect in this particular, 51.— \ 36. 
 
 Certain Carriages not to carry outside Passengers or Luggage, viz. those, the top or roof of which shall be 
 more than 8 feet-y inches from the ground, or the bearing of which on the ground, that is, the distance 
 be;ween the centres of the tracks of the wheels, shall be less than 4 feet 6 inches. Penalty 5/. — § 37. 
 
 Luggage on the Roof not to exceed a certain Height, viz. 10 feet 9 inches from the ground on a carriage 
 drawn by 4 or more horses ; and 10 feet 3 inches from ditto, if on a carriage drawn by 2 or 3 horses. Driver 
 of any carriage where such offence is committed liable in a penalty of 5/.— § 43. 
 
 The clauses in the act 2 & 3 Will. 4. c. 120. relating to the distribution of outside passengers, &c. have 
 been repealed by the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 48., which substitutes the following in their steatl. 
 
 Number of outside Passengers, 8(C. — Any licensed stage carriage with 4 wheels or more, the top or 
 roof of which shall not be more than 8 feet 9 inches from the ground, and the bearing of which on the 
 pround shall not be less than 4 feet 6 inches from the centre of the tracks of the wheels, if such carriage 
 shall be licensed to carry any number not more than 9 passengers, shall be allowed to carry not more than 
 5 of such passengers outside ; and if licensed to carry more than y and not more than 12 passengers, shall 
 be allowed to carry not more than 8 of such passengers outside ; and if licensed to carry more than 12 and 
 not more than 15 passengers, shall be allowed to carry not more than 1 1 of such passengers outside ; and 
 if licensed to carry more than l.'i and not more than 18 passengers, shall be allowed to carry not more than 
 12 of such passengers outside ; and if licensed to carry any greater number than IS passengers, shall be 
 allowed to carry not more than 2 additional passengers outside for every 3 additional passengers whicli 
 such carriage shall be so licensed to carry in the whole; provided that in no case a greater number of 
 passengers shall be carried on the outside than is authorised by the licence. If more be carried, driver to 
 forfeit 51.— \ 2, 
 
 Driver, Guard, and Children in lap, not to be counted as passengers ; 2 children under 7 years reckoned 
 M 1 pa«sc:iger. — j 3. 
 
COAL. 
 
 287 
 
 No Person to sit on Luggage on the Roof, nor more than 1 person besides driver on the box. Penalty 51. 
 U. 
 
 Justices, Road-survej/orSfToll-heepers, S(C. authorised to cause stage carriages and luggage to be measured ; 
 any passenger authorised to require the driver to stoj) at a toll-gate, and to require the gate-keeper to 
 measure the carriage and luggage, and to count the number of inside and outside passengers. I'enaity on 
 driver refusing to stop, 5/. ; on gate-keeper neglecting to provide a measure, or refusing to measure ancl 
 count, 51.— [2 & 3 mil. 4. c. 120. ^ 45.) 
 
 Conduct of Drivers, S(c. — Drivers quitting the box before a proper person shall stand at the head of the 
 horses ; such person leaving the horses before some other person shall be placed in like manner, or have 
 the command of the horses, or before the driver has resumed his seat on the box and taken the reins ; 
 driver allowing any passenger or other person to drive for him, or leaving the box without any 
 reasonable occasion, or for a longer time than is absolutely necessary ; concealing or misplacing 
 plates ; guard discharging fire-arms unnecessarily ; driver, conductor, or guard, neglecting to take care of 
 luggage ; asking more than the proper fare ; neglecting to account to his employer ; or assaulting or 
 using abusive language to any person having travelled, or about to travel, as a passenger, or to any person 
 accompanying the same : shall in each and every such case forfeit 51. — ^ 47. 
 
 Drunkenness, S,c — Drivers, conductors, or guards having the care of any stage carriage, endangering, 
 through intoxication, negligence, or wanton and furious driving, the safety of any passenger or other 
 person, or the property of the owner of such carriage or other person, shall each person so off ending forfeit 
 51.— ^9. 
 
 Oumers liable for penalties, when driver or guard is not known or cannot be found. — ^ 49. 
 
 Railway Proprietors are to render accounts of the passengers conveyed along the same to the Stamp 
 Office, and to give security to keep and render such accounts, and to pay the duties. — § ^ 50, 51. 
 
 Treasui-y may compound with proprietors of railways for the duties chargeable on passengers conveyed 
 by them.— ^;.52. 
 
 Mail Coaches are under the regulations of the post-master general ; and the enactments in this act as 
 to plates, inscriptions, outside passengers, and luggage, do not extend to them ; but the other regulations 
 as to the conduct of drivers, guards, &c. do apply to them. Mail coaches have only four outside passen- 
 gers ; one on the box, and three immediately behind the box. No passenger allowed to sit beside the 
 guard. The rate of travelling, the time allowed for stoppages, the quantity of luggage to be carried, 
 &c, are all regulated by the post-master general. 
 
 COAL (Du. Steenkull ; Du. Steenhoolen ; Fr. Charhon de terre ; Ger. Steinkohlen ; 
 It. Carboni fossili ; Lat. Lithanthrax ; Port. Carvoes de terra, ou de pedra ; Rus. Ugoljj 
 Kamennoe ; Sp. Carhones de tierra, Carbones de piedra ; Sw. Stenliol), This highly 
 important combustible mineral is divided by mineralogists into the three great families 
 of black coal, uninflammable coal, and brown coal ; each of these being again divided 
 into many subordinate species. 
 
 All the common coals, as slate coal, foliated coal, cannel coal, &c. belong to the black 
 coal family. Slate and foliated coal is found in vast quantities in Durham and North- 
 umberland, at Whitehaven in Cumberland, in the river district of the Forth and Clyde, 
 &c. The best Newcastle coal kindles easily ; in burning it cakes or runs together into 
 a solid mass, emitting a great deal of heat, as well as of smoke and flame ; it leaves a 
 small quantity of heavy, dark-coloured residuum or ashes. Most of the Scotch coals are 
 what are familiarly called open burning coals. They do not last so long as the Newcastle 
 coal, yield less heat, do not cake or run together in burning, and usually leave a con- 
 siderable quantity of light, white ashes. They make, however, a very jileasant, cheerful 
 fire ; and, for most household purposes, the best fire is said to be made of a mixture of 
 Scotch and Newcastle coal. 
 
 Cannel coal is sometimes met with in the Newcastle pits, in Ayrshire, &c. ; but the 
 largest beds of it, and of the purest kind, are near Wigan in Lancashire. It burns with 
 a beautiful clear flame, emitting a great deal of light, but not a great deal of heat. It 
 takes a good polish ; and articles made of it are often passed off for pure jet. 
 
 The uninflammable coals are those known by the names of Welsh culm or stone coal, 
 Kilkenny coal, and the blind or deaf coal of Scotland. These coals are difficult to 
 kindle, which has given rise to their name; but when once thoroughly ignited, they 
 burn for a long time : they make a hot, glowing fire, like charcoal, without either flame 
 or smoke ; but owing to their emitting noxious vapours, they cannot be used in dwelling 
 houses, though they are in considerable demand among maltsters, dyers, &c. 
 
 Brown, or Bovey coal, so called from its being principally found at Bovey near Exeter, 
 is light, yields but little heat in burning, and is seldom used as fuel. 
 
 In all, about seventy species of coal are said to be imported into London, of which 
 forty-Jive are sent from Newcastle ! Of course, many of them differ from each other by 
 almost imperceptible degrees, and can only be distinguished by those thoroughly con- 
 versant with the trade. 
 
 Origin of Coal. Phenomena of Combustion, ^c. — Coal beds, or strata, lie among these 
 of gravel, sand, chalk, clay, &c. which form great part of the present surface of the earth, 
 and have been evidently accumulated during remote ages by the agency of " moving water," 
 — similar to accumulations now in process of formation at the mouths of all great rivers, 
 and in the bottoms of lakes and seas. When these strata had, by long contact and 
 pressure, been solidified into a rocky crust to the earth, this crust, by subsequent con- 
 vulsions of nature, of which innumerable other proofs remain, has been in various parts 
 broken and heaved up above the level of the sea, so as to form the greater part of our 
 dry or habitable land ; in some places appearing as lofty mountains, in others as ex- 
 tended plains. In many situations, the fracture of the crust exhibits the edges of the 
 various distinct strata found in a given thickness of it. When the fracture has the form 
 
288 
 
 COAL 
 
 of a precipitous clifF, these edges appear one above another, like the edges of piled 
 planks or books ; but often also they are met with in horizontal succession along a plain, 
 as the edges of a pile of books laid down upon a table ; or they may be seen surround- 
 ing hills of granite, which protrude through them. Coal, and other precious minerals, 
 were first discovered by man at the fractures of the strata above described, and by his con- 
 tinued digging .of the strata or veins he has gradually formed the vast excavations called 
 mines. "When it was at last discovered, that, all the world over, the mineral strata occur 
 among themselves in nearly the same order or succession, so that the exposure any where 
 of a portion of one stratum is a good indication of the other strata lying near, the oper- 
 ations of the miner became of much surer result, and expensive boring through superior 
 strata might be prudently undertaken, even where no specimen of the desired but more 
 deeply buried substance had yet been seen. 
 
 Before the discovery of coal mines, or the invention of cheap means of working them, 
 wood was the general fuel of the earth ; and in many countries where the arts have not 
 much flourished, it is still the chief fuel. Coal, however, for many purposes, answers 
 much better than wood. Now, coal and wood, although in appearance so different, are 
 in their ultimate composition very nearly allied. They both have for their basis or chief 
 ingredient the substance called by the chemists carbon, and for their chief other ingre- 
 dient, the substance called hydrogen, which, when separated, exists in the form of air 
 or gas. The hydrogen is easily driven away or volatilised from either coal or wood, by 
 heating in a close place; and when it is caught and preserved, it forms the gas now used 
 to light our streets and public buildings. What remains of coal, after being so treated, 
 is the substance called coke ; and what remains of wood, similarly treated, is the sub- 
 stance called charcoal, — both being nearly pure carbon, but differing as to the states of 
 compactness. This kindred nature of coal and wood does not surprise, when the fact is 
 known, that much of our coal is really transformed wood ; many coal mines being evi- 
 dently the remains of antediluvian forests, swept together in the course of the terrestrial 
 changes already alluded to; and afterwards solidified to the state now seen. In these 
 mines, the species of the plants or trees which formed them are still quite evident in 
 abundant specimens, mixed often with the remnants of the animals which inhabited the 
 earth at the same time. The extensive peat-mosses now existing on the surface of the 
 earth, consist chiefly of vegetable remains in an early stage of the kind of change which 
 terminates in the formation of coal. 
 
 A substance which, like coal or wood, cheaply answers the purpose of producing great 
 heat and light, is called fuel, and the phenomenon of that production is called combustion. 
 Now, modern discovery has ascertained that, in every instance, combustion is merely an 
 appearance which accompanies the mutual action, when very intense, of two substances 
 in the act of forming an intimate or chemical union. Where that act is less energetic, 
 the heat produced is less intense, and there is no light. Thus, water and sulphuric acid 
 when mixing produce great heat, but no light. Water and quicklime produce still 
 greater heat ; sufficient, it is known, to set fire to a ship in which the mixture unfortu- 
 nately occurs. It is an occurrence of the same kind when heat is evolved from an acid 
 dissolving a metal ; and it is still of the same kind when a mass of coal or wood in a 
 fire-grate is, with the appearance of combustion, undergoing solution in the oxygen of 
 the .atmosphere. In this last case, however, the temperature of the fuel is, by the very 
 intense action, raised so much that the fuel becomes incandescent or luminous ; an 
 appearance assumed by every substance, whether burning or not, — of a stone, for in- 
 stance, or piece of metal, — when heated beyond the temperature indicated by 800® of 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer. The inferior degrees of such incandescence are called red 
 heat ; the superior degrees while heat. The reason why any strongly heated body throws 
 out light, we cannot yet explain. When a quantity of wood or coal has been burned 
 to ash in a confined portion of air, the whole of the fuel, vanished from view, is held in 
 solution by the air, as salt is held in water, and is again recoverable by the art of the 
 chemist. The phenomenon of common fire, or combustion, then, is merely the fuel 
 being chemically dissolved in the air of the atmosphere. If the fuel has nothing vola- 
 tile in it, as is true of pure carbon, and therefore nearly true of coke and charcoal, it 
 burns with the appearance of red-hot stones ; but if there be an ingredient, as hydrogen, 
 which, on being heated, readily assumes the form of air, that ingredient dilates before 
 burning, and in the act produces the more bulky incandescence called flame. 
 
 The two great purposes which combustion serves to man, are to give light and heat. 
 By the former he may be said to lengtlien considerably the duration of his natural ex- 
 istence ; for he converts the dismal and almost useless night into what, for many ends, 
 serves him as well as day ; and by the latter, besides converting winter into any climate 
 which he desires, he is enabled to effect most important mutations on many of the sub- 
 stances which nature offers for liis use; and, since the invention of the steam engine, he 
 makes heat perform a great proportion of the work of society. From these considerations 
 
COAL. 
 
 289 
 
 mny be perceived the importance of having fire at command ; and, as the cheapest means 
 of comniandinji; fire, of having abundance of coal. 
 
 In respect to the natural supi)ly of coal, IJritain, among the~nations, is most singularly 
 favoured : much of the surface of the country conceals under it continuous and thick 
 beds of that valuable mineral, — vastly more precious to us than would have been 
 mines of the precious metals, like those of Peru and Mexico; for coal, since applied 
 to the steam engine, is really hoarded power, applicable to almost every purjjose which 
 Imman labour directed l)y ingenuity can accomplish. It is the possession of her coal 
 mines which has rendered Britain, in relation to the whole world, what a city is to the 
 rural district which surrovmds it, — the producer and dispenser of the rich products of 
 art and industry. Calling her coal mines the coal cellars of the great city, there is in 
 them a supply, which, at the present rate of expenditure, will last for 2,000 years at 
 least ; and therefore a provision which, as coming improvements in the arts of life will 
 naturally effect economy of fuel, or substitution of other means to effect similar purposes, 
 may be regarded as inexhaustible. 
 
 The comparative values of the different kinds of fuel have been ascertained, by finding 
 how much ice a certain quantity of the different kinds, while bin-ning, will melt ; and thus, 
 
 1 lb. of good coal - - melts of ice 90 lbs. I 1 lb. of good wood - - melts of ice 52 lbs. 
 
 — coke - — y4 do. — iicat - - — 19 do. 
 
 — charcoal of wood — 95 do. | — hydrogen gas - — 370 do. 
 
 The kinds or differences of coal depend on the comparative proportions in them of 
 carbon and hydrogen, and of earthy impurities totally incombustible. While some 
 species of coal contain nearly a third of their weight of hydrogen, others have not a 
 fiftieth. The former kinds are flaming coal, pleasing in parlour fires, and fit for the 
 manufacture of gas. The other kinds — some of the Welch stone coal, for instance — will 
 only burn when in large heaps, or when mixed with more inflammable coal : they have 
 no flame. When flaming coal is burned where a suflficiency of oxygen cannot pass 
 through or enter above the fire, to combine with and consume the hydrogen as fast as it 
 rises, a dense smoke is given out, consisting of hydrogen and carbon combined in the 
 proportions which form a pitchy substance. The Welch coal above mentioned can as 
 little give out smoke as flame, and hence is now much used in great breweries, and in 
 the steam engine furnaces of towns, where smoke is a serious nuisance. 
 
 According to Mr. Kirwan — 
 
 
 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
 Bitumen. 
 
 Eaj-th. 
 
 Se. gr. 
 
 100 parts 
 
 Kilkenny coal yield 
 
 
 97-3 
 
 0 
 
 3-7 
 
 1-526 
 
 
 comp. cannel 
 
 
 75-2 
 
 21-68 maltha 
 
 3-1 
 
 1-232 
 
 
 Swansea 
 
 
 73-53 
 
 23-14 mixt. 
 
 3-33 
 
 1-357 
 
 
 Leitrim 
 
 
 71 -43 
 
 23-37 do. 
 
 5-20 
 
 1351 
 
 
 Wigan ... 
 
 
 61-73 
 
 Sry-] do. 
 
 1-57 
 
 1-268 
 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 
 58-00 
 
 40-0 do. 
 
 
 1-271 
 
 
 Whitehaven 
 
 
 57-0 
 
 4 13 
 
 1-7 
 
 1-257 
 
 
 slaty cannel 
 
 
 47-62 
 
 32-52 maltha 
 
 20 0 
 
 1-4-26 
 
 
 asphaltum 
 
 
 31-0 
 
 680 bitumen. 
 
 
 1-117 
 
 
 maltha 
 
 
 8 0 
 
 
 
 2-07 
 
 100 parts of the best English coal give, of coak 63 0 by Mr. Jars. 
 
 100 do. . . - . 73 0 Hielm. 
 
 100 do. Newcastle do. - - - 58 0 Dr. Watson. 
 
 The foliated or cubical coal, and slate coal, are chiefly used as fuel in private houses ; 
 the caking coals, for smithy forges ; the slate coal, from its keeping open, answers best 
 for giving great heats in a wind furnace, as in distillation on a large scale ; and glance 
 coal, found in Staffordshire, is used for drying grain and malt. The coals of South 
 Wales contaiir less volatile matter than either the English or the Scotch ; and hence, in 
 equal weight, produce a double quantity of cast iron in smelting the ores of this metal. 
 It is supposed that 3 parts of good Newcastle coal are equivalent, as fuel, to 4 parts 
 of good Scotch coal. 
 
 Consumption of Coal. Number of Persotis engaged in the Trade. Supphj of Coal. — 
 The great repositories of coal in this kingdom are in Northumberland and Durham, 
 whence London and most parts of the south of England are at present supplied ; in 
 Cumberland, whence large quantities of coal are exported to Ireland ; and in Stafford- 
 shire, Derbyshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Leicestershire, Warwickshire, South Wales, 
 &c. In Scotland, coal is found in the Lothians, Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire Ayrshire, 
 and other counties. In Ireland, coal is both deficient in quantity and inferior in 
 quality to that of Great Britain ; and turf forms the great article of fuel. 
 
 Mr. Taylor, an experienced coal owner and coal agent, estimates the annual consumption of coal in 
 Great Britain, as follows : — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 The annual vend of coals carried coastwise from Durham and Northumberland is • - 3,300,000 
 Home consumption, say one fifth .... - 7 . 660,000 
 
 3,960,0.00 
 
 u 
 
290 
 
 COAL. 
 
 Which quantity supplies about 5,000,000 persons ; and supposing the whole population 
 of Great Britain to be 15,000,000, this must be trebled; for though these two thirds of 
 population are perhaps less able to afford fuel, yet, taking into consideration the manu- 
 facturing districts, and the cheapness of coal in the interior, the estimate will not be 
 too high - - . , . _ . 11,880,000 
 
 Consumed by iron works, say 600,000 tons of metal, to produce which requires at least 4 times 
 the quantity of coal in making even pig metal, and the extraordinary consumption in the 
 Cornwall, &c. mines . 3,000,000 
 
 Consumed in Great Britain 14,880,000 
 Exported to Ireland, say.------ - 700,000 
 
 Total tons, exclusive of foreign exportation - - 15,580,000 
 
 This estimate does not differ materially from that of Mr. Stevenson {^Edinburgh Encyc. art. England, 
 p. 74:0.), and Mr. Bakewell — (see post) ; and may be regarded as sufficiently accurate. 
 
 Mr. Buddie, of Wallsend, an extremely well informed coal engineer, gives the follow- 
 ing estimate of the number of persons engaged in the different departments of the coal 
 trade on the Tyne and Wear, in the conveyance of coal to London, and in the London 
 coal trade : — 
 
 " I hold a paper in my hand stating the number of people employed In the coal trade 
 in each department. I would beg to observe, the returns from the Tyne are official 
 documents ; from the Wear I have no returns, but it is by an approximate calculation. 
 The number of persons employed under-ground on the Tyne are, — men, 4,937; boys, 
 3,554; togethei-, 8,491; above-ground, — men, 2,745; boys, 718; making 3,463: 
 making the total employed in the mines above and below ground, 11,954, which in 
 round numbers I call 12,000, because I am pretty sure there were some omissions in the 
 returns. On the river Wear, I conceive there are 9,000 employed; making 21,000 
 employed in digging the coal, and delivering it to the ships on the two rivers. From 
 the best calculations I have been able to make, it would appear that, averaging the 
 coasting vessels that carry coals at the size of 220 London chaldrons each vessel, there 
 would be 1,400 vessels employed, which would require 15,000 seamen and boys. I 
 have made a summary. There are, seamen, 15,000; pitmen and above-ground people 
 employed at the collieries, 21,000; keel-men, coal-boatmen, casters, and trimmers, 
 2,000 ! making the total number employed in what I call the Northern Coal Trade, 
 38,000. In London, whippers, lightermen, and so forth, 5,000 ; factors, agents, &c. 
 on the Coal Exchange, 2,500; — 7,500 in all, in London. Making the grand total 
 in the North country and London departments of the trade, 45,500. This does tiot, 
 of course, include the persons employed at the outports in discharging the ships 
 there." 
 
 In another place, Mr. Buddie states, that " colliers are always paid by the piece," and 
 consequently their wages, although at the same rate per chaldi-on, vary according to the 
 quantity of work they have to do ; and it is difficult to form an average, they vary so 
 very considerably : they have varied from 14s. a week, to, in some instances, 40s. " The 
 colliers can earn up to 5s. or even more per day ; but there is not full employment for 
 them ; they sometimes do not earn more than half that sum ; 2s. 6d. is the certain 
 wages that they are hired to receive from their employers, whether they are employed 
 or not ; that is, consequently, a tax on the coal owner, during the suspension of his col- 
 liery from any accident. The men have the option of finding work elsewhere ; but if 
 they cannot do this, they may call upon their master to pay tliem 14s. per week ; it was 
 15s. a week till 1828. 
 
 We regret that we are unable to lay any estimates before our readers of the number 
 of persons employed in the other branches of the coal trade ; but taking into view the 
 proportion which the trade on the Tyne and the Wear bears to the trade of Great 
 Britain, as shown in Mr. Taylor's statement, we are inclined to think that the total 
 number of persons directly engaged in the coal trade may be set down at from 160,000 
 to 180,000. 
 
 The importance of coal as a necessary of life, and the degree in which our superiority 
 in arts and manufactures depends upon our obtaining supplies of it at a cheap rate, lias 
 naturally attracted a good deal of attention to the question as to the period when the 
 exhaustion of the coal mines may be anticipated. But the investigations hitherto made 
 as to the magnitude and thickness of the diffi.>rent coal-beds, and the extent to which 
 they may be wrought, arc too vague and unsatisfactory to afford grounds for forming 
 any tiling like a tolerably near approximation to a solution of this question. But such 
 as they are, they are sufKcient to show that many centuries must elapse before posterity 
 can feel any serious difficulties from a diminished supply of coal. According to 
 Mr. Taylor, whose estimate of the consumption of coal is given above, the coal-fields of 
 Durham and Northumberland are adequate to furnish the present annual supply for 
 more than 1,700 years. We subjoin Mr. Taylor's estimate. 
 
COAL. 
 
 291 
 
 Estimate op the Extent and rRODucE op tiik Durham and NonTHUMBERLAND Coal-fiklds. 
 
 Durham. ^.^^^ 
 " From South Shields soutli ward to Castle Edcti, 21 miles ; thence westward to "West Auckland, 
 3'2 miles; north-east from West Auckland to Eltriugham, 'Si miles; and then to Sliields, 
 22 miles ; being an extent or area of 
 
 'Northumberland. 
 
 " From Shields northward, 27 miles, by an average breadth of 9 miles 
 
 Porlion excavated. 
 
 " In Durham, on Tync, say - 
 
 — on Wear - . . - 
 
 " In Northumberland, say 13 miles by 2 • 
 
 '732 
 
 " Estimating the workable coal strata at an average thickness of 12 feet, the contents of 
 
 1 square mile will be 12,390,000 tons, and of 732 square miles - - - 9,069,480,000 
 
 Deduct one third part for loss by small coal, interceptions by dikes, and other inter- 
 ruptions - 3.023, lfiO,(K)0 
 
 Remainder - 6,046,320,000 
 
 
 
 - 591 
 
 
 
 - 243 
 
 
 
 837 
 
 
 
 - 39 
 
 
 
 . 40 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 - 26 
 
 
 
 — 105 
 
 " This remainder is adequate to supply the present vend from Newcastle, Sunderland, Hartley, Blyth, 
 and Stockton, of 3,500,000 tons, for a period of 1,727 years. 
 
 " It will be understood that this estimate of the quantity of coal in Durham and Northumberland can 
 only be an approximation, especially as the south-eastern coal district of Durham is yet ahnost whollv 
 unexplored ; but the attempt is made, in the hope of satisfying your Lordships that no apprehension 
 need be entertained of tliis valuable mineral being exhausted for many future generations. 
 
 " There is also a considerable extent of coal-field in the northern and south-western districts of 
 Northumberland ; but the foregoing comprises that which is continuous, and most suitable and available 
 for exportation." — {Lords' lleport, 1829, p. 124.) 
 
 Dr. Buckland, the celebrated geologist, considers this estimate as very greatly exag- 
 gerated ; but in his examination before the committee of the House of Commons, he 
 quotes and approves a passage of Bakevs^ell's Geology, in %vhich it is stated that the 
 coal-beds in South Wales are alone sufficient to supply the whole present demand of 
 England for coal for 2,000 years. The passage is as follows : — 
 
 " Fortunately we have in South Wales, adjoining the Bristol Channel, an almost 
 exhaustless supply of coal and ironstone, which are yet nearly unwrought. It has been 
 stated, that tliis coal-field extends over about 1,200 square miles ; and that there are 23 
 beds of workable coal, the total average thickness of which is 95 feet ; and the quantity 
 contained in each acre is 100,000 tons, or 65,000,000 tons per square mile. If from 
 this we deduct one half for waste, and for the minor extent of the upper beds, we shall 
 have a clear supply of coal equal to 32,000,000 tons per square mile. Now, if we admit 
 that 5,000,000 tons from the Northumberland and Durham mines is equal to nearly one 
 third of the total consumption of coal in England, each square mile of the Welsh coal- 
 field would yield coal for 100 years' consumption ; and as there are from 1,000 to 1,200 
 square miles in this coal-field, it would supply England with fuel for 2,000 years, after 
 all our English coal mines are worked out ! " 
 
 It is, therefore, quite idle either to prohibit, or impose heavy duties on, the export- 
 ation of coal, on the ground of its accelerating the exhaustion of the mines. The 
 abolition of the expensive and destructive process of screening — (see post^ — will more 
 than balance any export that is ever likely to take place to foreign countries. 
 
 Profits of Coal Mining. Coal Owners' Monopoly, Sfc. — Instead of the business of coal 
 mining being, generally speaking, an advantageous one, it is distinctly the reverse. 
 Sometimes, no doubt, large fortunes have been liiade by individuals and associations 
 engaged in this business ; but these are rare instances. The opening of a mine is a very 
 expensive and hazardous operation, and of very uncertain result. Collieries are expftsed 
 to an infinite number of accidents, against which no caution can guard. The chances of 
 explosion have, it is true, been a good deal lessened by the introduction of Sir Humphry 
 Davy's lamp ; and some mines are now wrought, that but for tlie invention of this ad- 
 mirable instrument, must have been entirely abandoned. But besides explosions, which 
 are still every now and then occurring, from the carelessness of the workmen, and other 
 contingencies, mines are very liable to be destroyed by creeps, or by the sinking of the 
 roof, and by drowning, or the irruption of water from old workings, through fissures 
 which cannot be seen, and consequently cannot be guarded against. So great, indeed, 
 is the hazard attending tliis sort of property, that it has never been possible to effect an 
 insurance on a coal-work, against fire, water, or any other accident. 
 
 Mr. Buddie, who is intimately acquainted with the state of the coal trade, informed 
 the committee of the House of Lords, that " Although many collieries, in the hands of 
 fortunate individuals and companies, have been, perhaps, making more than might be 
 deemed a reasonable and fair pi ofit, according to their risk, like a prize in a lottery ; yet. 
 
 U 2 
 
292 
 
 COAL. 
 
 as a trade, taking the whole capital employed on both rivers, he should say that certainly 
 it has not been so." — (First Report, p. 56.) Again, being asked, " What have the 
 coal owners on the Tyne and Wear, in your opinion, generally made on their capital 
 employed?" he replied, " According to the best of my knowledge, I should think that 
 bi/ no means ten per cent, has been made at simple interest, without allowing any extra in- 
 terest for the redemption of capital." — (p. 57.) 
 
 In addition to the vast expense attending the sinking of shafts, the erection of steam 
 engines, &c., and the risk of accidents, the coal, after being brought to the surface, has 
 frequently to be conveyed 7 or 8 miles to the place of shipping ; and those whose 
 collieries are in that situation, have to pay way-leave rents, amounting, in some cases, to 
 5001. a year, for liberty to open a communication, or a railroad, through the properties 
 lying between them and the shore. 
 
 Much has frequently been said of the monopoly of the coal owners on the Tyne and 
 the Wear ; but we are satisfied, after a pretty careful investigation of the circumstances, 
 that no such monopoly has ever existed ; and that the high price of coal in the metro- 
 polis is to be ascribed wholly to the various duties and charges that have been laid upon 
 it, from the time that it has passed from the hands of the owner, to the time that it is 
 lodged in the cellar of the consumer. What means have the coal owners of obtaining a 
 monopoly price for their coal ? They enjoy no exclusive privileges of any sort ; they are 
 a numerous body ; and the trade is as open as any other to all capitalists to engage in. 
 The number of places on the east and west coasts, both of England and Scotland, and 
 the southern parts of Wales, from which coals are exported, render it quite visionary to 
 suppose that any general agreement to keep up prices can take place amongst the various 
 coal proprietors. And though such an agreement were entered into, it is impossible it 
 could be maintained. The power of producing coal greatly exceeds the present demand ; 
 many new mines have been recently opened, and many others would be brought into 
 activity were the price artificially enhanced. It is true that the coal owners referred to, 
 having experienced the ruinous effects of throwing a superabundant quantity of coal 
 upon restricted and already glutted markets, have occasionally met together ; and each 
 having named the price he thinks his coal will command, and at which he intends to sell 
 it, they have proceeded jointly to regulate, according to the probable demand, the quan- 
 tity that each shall raise during any particular period. By means of this arrangement, 
 the supply and price of coal have been kept, during the time it has existed, comparatively 
 steady. Common prudence prompts and justifies such an arrangement; but it also 
 suggests the necessity of reducing the price of coal to the lowest level that will afford the 
 customary rate of profit. For were the price demanded by the northern coal owners 
 raised above this level, new mines would be opened in Durham and Northumberland ; 
 the imports from the Tees, whence a large supply of excellent coal is at present brought 
 to the London market, would be augmented ; and fresh competitors, from Swansea and 
 other places, would come into the field and undersell them. Government should en- 
 courage and promote this fair competition ; but it ought, at the same time, to do equal 
 justice by all the competitors. It is not to lend assistance to, or remove burdens from, 
 one set of adventurers, which it does not lend to or remove from others. It is no part 
 of its duty to say how coals, or any species of produce, shall be carried to market. It is 
 bound to give every reasonable facility for the opening of new channels or modes of con- 
 veyance between all parts of the country ; but it would be glaringly unjust to lay a tax 
 on the coals conveyed by a particular channel, from which those conveyed by other 
 channels were exempted. 
 
 Mr. Buddie thinks that the aggregate capital employed by the coal owners on the 
 Tyne amounts to about 1,500,000Z. exclusive of the craft in the river: and supposing 
 this estimate to be nearly correct, it will follow, allowing for the value of the ships, that 
 the total capital employed in the coal trade may be moderately estimated at from eiyht 
 to fen millions ; an immense sum to be almost wholly at the risk of the owners, without 
 any insurance upon it. 
 
 Progressive Consumption of Coal. Duties and Regulatio^is affecting it, particidarly in 
 the Port of London. — There ai-e no mines of coal in either Greece or Italy; and no 
 evidence has been produced to show that the ancients had learned to avail tliemselves of 
 this most useful mineral. Even in England, it does not seem to have been used pre- 
 viously to tlie beginning of the thirteenth century ; for the first mention of it occurs in 
 a charter of Henry III., granting licence to the burgesses of Newcastle to dig for coal. 
 In 1281, Newcastle is said to have had a considerable trade in this article. About the 
 end of tills century, or the beginning of the fourteenth, coals began to be imported into 
 London, being at first used only by smiths, brewers, dyers, soap-boilers, ^c. This 
 innovation was, however, loudly complained of A notion got abroad, that the smoke 
 was higlily injurious to tlie public health ; and, in 131G, ])arliament petitioned the king, 
 Edward I., to prohibit the burning of coal, on tlie ground of its being an intolerable 
 nuisance. His Majesty issued a proclamation conformably to the prayer of the petition ; 
 
COAL. 
 
 but it being ])ut little attended to, recourse was had to more vigorous fneasures ; a corn, 
 mission of oyer and terminer being issued out, with instructions to inquire as to all who 
 burned sea-coal within the city, or parts adjoining, to punisfi them for the first offence, 
 by " pecuniary mulcts;" and ui>on a second offence, to demolish their furnaces; and to 
 provide for the strict observance of the proclamation in all time to come. 
 
 But notwithstanding the efforts that were thus made to prohibit the use of coal, and 
 the prejudice that was long entertained against it ; it continued progressively to gain 
 ground. This was partly, no doubt, owing to experience having shown that coal smoke 
 had not the noxious influence ascribed to it, but far more to the superior excellence of 
 coal as an article of fuel, and the growing scarcity and consequent high price of timber. 
 In the reign of Charles I. the use of coal became universal in London, where it has ever 
 since been used to the exclusion of all other articles of fuel. At the Restoration, the 
 quantity imported was supposed to amount to about 200,000 chaldrons. In 1670, the 
 imports had increased to 270,000 chaldrons. At the Revolution, they'amounted to about 
 300,000 chaldrons, and have since gone on increasing with the growing magnitude and 
 population of the city ; being, in 1750, about 500,000 chaldrons ; in 1800, about 900,000 
 chaldrons; and at present about 1,700,000 chaldrons. — (CampheU's Fulilical Survey of 
 Great Britain, vol. ii. p. 30. ; Ediiigton on the Coal Trade, p. 41. &c. ) 
 
 It might have been supposed, considering that coal is, in this country, a prime 
 necessary of life, and by far the most important of all the instruments of manufacturing 
 industry, that it would have been exempted from every species of tax ; and that every 
 possible facility would have been given for its conveyance from the mines to the districts 
 in the south of England, and other places in want of it. But such, we regret to say, 
 has not been the case. The coal trade of (;reat Britain has been for more than a century 
 and a half subjected to the most oppressive regulations. From a very early period, the 
 corporation had undertaken the task of weighing and measuring the coal brought to 
 London; and had been accustomed to charge Sd. a ton for their trouble. In 1613, the 
 power to make this charge was confirmed to the city by royal charter, it being at the 
 same time ordered that no coal should be unladen from any vessel till the Lord IVIayor 
 had given leave. The right to charge this sum according to the chaldron of coal, has 
 since been confirmed to the city by act of parliament ; and as the labouring meters, not- 
 withstanding they have been very well paid, have received only 5d. out of the 8cZ., the 
 balance of Sd. per chaldron, producing at present about 20,000Z. a year, goes to the city 
 treasury. 
 
 But besidips the above, duties for civic purposes have been laid on the coal imported 
 into London from the reign of Charles II. downwards. They were originally imposed 
 in 1667, after the great fire, in order to assist in the rebuilding of churches and other 
 public edifices ; and have ever since been continued, to enable the corporation to execute 
 improvements in the city ; though it is probable most of our readers will be inclined to 
 think that few improvements could be so great, as a reduction in the price of so very 
 important an article as coal. At present, a duty of \0d, per chaldron, denominated the 
 orphans' duty, is appropriated, until 1858, to defray the expense of the approaches to 
 London Bridge. 
 
 Exclusive of the corporation duties, a duty payable to government was laid on all 
 sea-borne coal in the reign of William III., which was only repealed in 1830. This 
 duty was at once glaringly unjust and oppressive : unjust, inasmuch as it fell only on 
 those parts of the empire to which coals had to be carried by sea ; and oppressive, inas- 
 much as it amounted to full fifty per cent, upon the price paid to the coal owner for the 
 coal. It is not very easy to calculate the mischief that this tax has done to the southern 
 counties. We, however, are satisfied that the depressed condition of the peasantry of 
 the south, as compared with those of the north, is, in no inconsiderable degree, to be 
 ascribed to the operation of the coal tax. This tax, after being long stationary at 5s. a 
 chaldron, was raised to 9*. ^d. during the late war; but was reduced to 6s. in 1824. 
 But the inequality of the tax was not confined to its affecting those parts onlv of the 
 empire to which coal had to be carried by sea. Even there its pressure was not equal : 
 for, while it amounted to 6s. a chaldron, or 4s. a ton, in the metropolis and all the south 
 of England, it only amounted to Is. l^d. a ton on coal carried by sea to Ireland, and 
 to Is. 8cZ. on that carried to W^ales ; while Scotland was for many years entirely ex- 
 empted from the duty. 
 
 iSesides this striking partiality and injustice, various troublesome Custom-house 
 regulations were required, in consequence of distinctions being made between the duties 
 on large and small coal, between those on coal and culm (a species of coal), and coal 
 and cinders, and of coal being allowed to be imported duty free into Cornwall, Devon, 
 &c. for the use of the mines. These distinctions are now, however, wholly abolished ; 
 and no duties exist on coal except those collected in London and a few othjr ports, and 
 appropriated to local purposes. 
 
 A small supply of coal was of late years brought to London from Staffordshire, bv 
 
 U 3 ' 
 
291 
 
 COAL. 
 
 canal navigation. This coal was charged with a duty of 1 5. a chaldron ; but this is now 
 also repealed. 
 
 The regulations to which the sale and delivery of coals have been subjected in the 
 city of London, have been, if possible, still more objectionable than the duties imposed 
 on them. Instead of being sold by weight, all coals imported into the Thames have been 
 sold by measure. It is curious to observe the sort of abuses to which this pi-actice has 
 given rise. It is stated by the celebrated mathematician. Dr. Hutton, who, being a 
 native of Newcastle, was well acquainted with the coal trade, that, " If one coal, measur- 
 ing exactly a cubic yard (nearly equal to 5 bolls), be broken into pieces of a moderate 
 size, it will measure 7^ bolls ; if broken very small, it will measure 9 bolls ; which 
 shows that the proportion of the weight to the measure depends upon the size of the 
 coals; therefore, accounting by weight is the most rational method." The shippers 
 were well aware of this, and insisted upon the coal owners supplying them with largo 
 coal only ; and to such an extent was this principle carried, that all coal for the Lon- 
 don market was screened, as it is technically termed, or passed over gratings, to sepa- 
 rate the smaller pieces. Inasmuch, however, as coals were sold in all their subsequent 
 stages by measure, no sooner had they been delivered by the owner, than it was for the 
 interest of every one else into whose hands they came before reaching the consumer, 
 to break them into smaller portions. In fact, the profit of many of the retailers in 
 London has arisen chiefly from the increase of measure by the breakage of coal. And 
 Mr. Brandling, a very intelligent and extensive coal owner, stated to the Commons' com- 
 mittee, that, in consequence of the breakage, coals are reduced in London to a size 
 inferior to what they would be, were they put on board unscreened, and subjected to no 
 additional breakage. 
 
 The statements now made sufficiently evince the nullity of all the regulations en- 
 forcing the sale of coal by correct measures : for even though these regulations had been 
 enforced, instead of being, as they usually were, wholly neglected, they would have been 
 of almost no use ; inasmuch as any dishonest dealer was as able to cheat, by breaking his 
 coals a little smaller than usual, as if he had sold them in deficient measures. 
 
 The loss occasioned by the useless process of screening has been very great. The 
 quantity of coal separated by it has amounted in some cases to from 20 to 25 per cent, 
 of the whole ; and the greater part of this residue, containing a portion of the very best 
 coal, is burned on the spot. " I have known," says Mr. Buddie, " at one colliery, as 
 many as from 90 to 100 chaldrons a day destroyed. If they were not consumed, they 
 would cover the whole svirface, and in the burnings of them they ar^ extremely 
 destructive ; they destroy the crops a great way round, and we pay large sums for injury 
 done to the crops, and for damage to the ground." — (^First Lords' Rep. p. 72.) The 
 waste of coal has been in this way enormous ; and the coal owner has been obliged to 
 charge a higher price upon the coal sold, in order to indemnify himself for the loss of so 
 great a quantity, and for the mischief he does to others in burning. 
 
 The fact, that so monstrous a system should have been persevered in for more than a 
 century, sets the power of habit in reconciling us to the most pernicious absurdities in a 
 very striking point of view. Happily, however, the nuisance has been at last abated ; 
 the sale of coal by weight taking away both the temptation to break coal, and the neces- 
 sity of screening. 
 
 But the abuses that have infected the coal trade were not confined to those that grew 
 out of the duties, and the sale by measure. They have insinuated themselves into most 
 departments of the business ; and to such an extent have they been carried, that it takes, 
 at this moment, a larger sum to convey a chaldron of coal from the pool, a little below 
 London Bridge, to the consumers in the city, than is sufficient to defray the entire cost of 
 the coal in the north, including the expense of digging them from the mine, their con- 
 veyance to the shore, landlord's rent, &c. ! The following statement shows the various 
 items that made up the price of coal to the London consumer, in October, 1830, distri- 
 buted under their proper heads. They have been carefully abstracted from the evidence 
 before the parliamentary committees. 
 
 Charges up to the Time of Arrival in the Port ok London. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Coal Owner. 
 
 raid coal owner for coals ------ 
 
 Deduct river duty paid by him for improvement of Sunderland harbour 
 
 0 14 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 13 
 
 9 
 
 Coal Fitter. 
 
 Keel dues, and fittage (including seven miles' water-carriage) 
 
 0 2 
 
 3 
 
 Sliip Owner. 
 
 I'or freight, including insurance of sliip and cargo, pilotage, seamen's wages, 
 wear and tear of the ship and material.-, discharging ballast, ike. 
 
 0 8 
 
 
 
 
 Carried over 
 
 0 10 
 
 
 0 JJ 
 
 9 
 
COAL. 
 
 Mujiicipnl Dues. 
 Kivcr duty, as above 
 I'ier duty, lights, &c. paid by ship 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 £ s. d. 
 0 0 3 
 0 0 5k 
 
 Charges in the Port of London. 
 
 Government Tax - . . _ 
 
 Municipal Dues. 
 
 'J'riiiity and Nore lights, tonnage duty, Trinity House for ballast, &c. 
 Entries, &c. - - - - - - 
 
 Corporation of London metage ... 
 Ditto orphans' dues . . - - - 
 
 Ditto meter's pay and allowance - . . . 
 
 Ditto market dues - - - - - 
 
 Ditto Lord Mayor's groundage, &c. . - - - - 
 
 Ditto land metage - 
 
 Ditto undertaker - - - - - 
 
 Coal-whippcrs - 
 
 Coal Factor. 
 
 Factorage and del credere commission - - . 
 
 Coal Merchant. 
 
 buyer s commission _ . - - . 
 
 Lighterage - 
 
 Cartage 
 
 Credit 
 
 Shootage 
 
 Add for even money - - 
 
 (See Com. Rep. p. 8.) 
 Add for discount, scorage, and ingrain* (sec same Rep. p. 'J.) 
 
 Making the price paid by the consumer - - - 
 
 Which is thus ajiportioned : — 
 
 Coal owner for coal - - » - . 
 
 Ship owner, &c. for voyage to London - - . 
 
 Government duty, corporation charges, and London coal merchant 
 
 0 0 5 
 
 0 0 Hi 
 
 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 10 
 
 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 1 
 
 0 0 0| 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 0 0 1 
 
 0 1 7 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 3 
 
 0 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 12 
 
 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 0 10 yi 
 
 0 0 ^ 
 
 0 G 0 
 
 0 4 4| 
 0 0 4| 
 
 0 14 
 
 £ s. d. 
 0 13 G 
 
 0 11 L-l 
 
 1 5 51 
 
 2 10 7i 
 
 Of these charges but little reduction need be looked for in those incurred in the rivers Tyiie and 
 Wear, and in the rate of freight : and as the government duty of 6s. per chaldron has been abolished, 
 the charges that admit of further reduction are the municipal dues, and those attending the delivery of 
 coal to the consumers ; and in these, certainly, there is ample room for retrenchment. 
 
 Of the items which make up the sum of '4s. 4|f/. of charges in the port of London, a sum of Is. 2<f. 
 (10c?. as orphan duty, appropriated to the new bridge, and 4(/. as corporation metage) is a species of 
 public tax. Ho soon, however, as the term for which the orphan duty is appropriated has expired, it 
 ought to be abolished; and it would be highly desirable were some means then also found of indemni- 
 fying the cori)oration for the 4rf. of metage claimed by them ; inasmuch as the abolition of these duties 
 would not only occasion a direct saving in the price of coal, but would afford great facilities for its 
 delivery. — (See post, for an account of the local duties in 183i^.) 
 
 The most important item, in those forming the charges in the port of London, is the fee of the coal- 
 whippcr, or coal-heaver — that is, the deliverer of the coals from the ship to the barge or lighter. This 
 fee is about Is. Id., and is at least 5 times as great as it ought to be. At Newcastle and Sunderland the 
 filling of a chaldron of coal into the wagon costs from \\d. to Ifrf. ; and admitting that to raise coal from 
 the hold is a little more difficult, still, if 4f/. were allowed, it would be a most liberal payment. But the 
 truth is, that this item should be struck off altogether. It is occasioned by a regulation pecuhar to 
 the Thames, which prevents the crews of colliers from performing this indispensable part of their pecu- 
 liar duty. In the outports, to which luckily this preposterous regulation does not extend, the crews act 
 as coal-heavers, and they do so without either asking or obtaining additional wages. And there certainly 
 is no reason whatever for supposing that the case would be materially different in the port of London, 
 were it not for the regulation referred to. In 1829, the total amount of money paid to the coal-hea\ ers 
 was 107,566/. 13s. ; of which at least 90,000/. may be saved to the citizens, by simply allowing the crew to 
 perform the function of coal-heavers. 
 
 The evidence given by the ship owners and captains before the parliamentary committees establishes, 
 in the fullest manner, all that has now been stated. To discharge a ship when loaded with timber is 
 admitted to be rather more difficult than when she is loaded with coal. Luckily, however, the masters 
 of all ships other than colliers may employ, in their discharge, either the crew, or such other labourers 
 as they think fit, without any sort of interference. And it is proved, that while the cost of discharging 
 a ship of 300 tons, laden with coal, amounts to about 36/., a ship of the same burden, laden with timber, 
 may be discharged for 9/. or 10/. — {Com. Rep. p. 321.) This, certainly, is a subject deserving of the imme- 
 diate attention of parliament. 
 
 Besides the charge of 8rf. on account of ship metage, there has been a further charge of 6d. per chal- 
 dron on account of land metage. But the new regulations enforcing sale by weight will lead to the 
 abolition of the land as well as the ship meters. Their inefficiency for all useful'purposes was conclusively 
 shown by the witnesses examined by the parliamentary committees. Iir fact, the system of metage has 
 rather been a means of concealing than of discovering fraud. 
 
 The duties appropriated to public i)urposes, those claimed by the city of London as private propertv, 
 and those required to defray the cost of the coal exchange, and the weighing establishments, Ike, are, in 
 future, to be charged in the aggregate at so much a ton on the coal imported, and paid into the City 
 Chamberlain's office: accounts of the distribution of the produce of the duty being annually prepared 
 and laid before parliament. 
 
 But the charges on account of the delivery of coal from the ship to the consumer are the most oppres- 
 sive. They amount in all to no less than 14s. 8grf. ! One item is lighterage, being a sum of 2s. a chaldron 
 
 * Scorage and ingrain were allowances that grew out of the system of selling bv measure. As this 
 lystem is now repealed, it is unnecessary to describe them. 
 
 U 4 
 
296 
 
 COAL. 
 
 paid for conveying the coals from the ship to the wharf. This charge seems to be in no ordinary degree 
 exorbitant. It is mentioned by Mr. Buddie, in his evidence [First Lords' Hep. p. I'^l.), that the Tyne 
 keelmen, who take the coals from the spouts or staiths, as they are termed, to deliver them to the ships, 
 are paid only \s. 6d. a chaldron, though they have to navigate their heels from 1 to 8 mites, and 
 though it is far more difficult to shovel tlie coals from the keels into the port-holes of the ships, than 
 from a lighter to a wharf. Were the charge for lighterage reduced to the same level in the Thames as 
 in the Tyne, it would not certainly exceed 8d. or 9rf. a chaldron. But before this desirable result can be 
 accomplished, this department of the trade must, like all the rest, be thrown open. Here again the 
 trammels of monopoly interfere. At present no individual can act as a lighterman, who is not free of the 
 Waterman's Company, and who has not served 7 years as an apprentice upon the river. Competition is 
 thus wholly excluded, and the charges rendered far higher than they would be under a different system. 
 
 The next item in the charge for delivery is 6s. a ch«ildron for cartage from the wharf to the con. 
 sumer's residence. The best way, perhaps, to judge of the reasonableness of this charge, is by comparing 
 it with the sums charged for similar work done elsewhere. Now, assuming the average weight of the 
 chaldron to be 27 cwt, and the average distance to v/hich coals are carted If mile, the charge will be 
 Ss. 5^d. per ton per mile ; but in the north, in Durham, Lancashire, &c., it is usual to let the cartage of 
 coals, including the loading, by contract, at from ~d. to 8d. a ton on turnpike roads, and 9^. and IVd. on 
 heavy country roads. So that the expense of cartage in London is four or Jive times as much as it costs 
 in the north. It seems difficult to account for this difference by the greater expense attending the 
 keep of men, horses, &c. in the metropolis, though that certainly is very heavy. Perhaps a part of it is 
 owing to the system of.licensing carts, and regulating the fees of cartage. At all events the subject is 
 one that ought to be investigated. 
 
 Exclusive of the charge of 6s. for cartage, there is a further charge of Is. 6d. for shooting, that is, for 
 unloading the wagon into the cellar. Next to the item for whippers, this is the most outrageous over- 
 charge in this lengthened catalogue of abuses. There are thousands of labourers in London who would 
 be glad to be allowed to perform the same work for od. or ^d., for which the citizens are obliged to pay 
 Is. (irf. Indeed, we believe it might be done for a good deal lei^s. Mr. Buddie says, " At tiie rate we 
 pay our wagon-men for filling the wagons, 1 believe they would be very glad, for 2d., to heave these same 
 coals out of the cellar again up the hole," — {First Lords' llep. p. 121.) ; an operation which, every one 
 knows, would be about 10 times as troublesome as pouring them down. 
 
 Such of our readers as may have gone through these statements will, we think, feel but little disposed 
 to diff(3r from the committee of the House of Lords, who observe, in the Second Report, " that in every 
 stage, from the port of shipment to the coal merchant's wharf, and thence to the consumer's cellar, the 
 regulations under which the trade is conducted are productive of delay, of an aggravation of expense, and 
 an encouragement to fraud ! " — [Rep. p. 8.) 
 
 The sale of coal by weight, and the abolition of the metage system, hirve undoubtedly eradicated some 
 of the more flagrant abuses, that infected the trade. But the statements now laid before the reader 
 show that there are other departments that require to be thoroughly examined. The exorbitancy of the 
 existing charges for the delivery of coal from the ships to the wharf, and for carting, shooting, &c. demand 
 that nothing should be left untried that may have any chance of contributing to their effectual reduction. 
 
 Regulations as to Sale in London. — A seller's ticket is to accompany all coals sold within the city of 
 London and its environs, specifying the species of coal, and the number of sacks and weight of coal sent. 
 The coals may be either in bags containing 1 or 2 cwt., or in bulk. The carman is in all cases bound to 
 carry a weighing machine with the coal, which machine is to be made conformably to regulation ; and, 
 upon being desired, he is to weigh any one sack, or the whole sacks in his wagon. Penalty on refusing 
 to weigh, or otherwise obstructing the weighing, 201. Penalty on non-delivery of ticket to purchaser, 201. 
 In the event of the weight being deficient, a penalty is imposed of 10/. or 50/., according to deficiency. 
 Quantities of less than 560 lbs. may be sold without being weighed. — (1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 76.) 
 
 In order to save trouble in collecting the duties that still attach to coal in the port of London, the 
 corporation is authorised to compound with the owner or master of any ship or vessel importing coal, for 
 the tonnage upon which the duties are to be paid. A certificate of such composition, expressing the 
 number of tons of coal, cinders, or culm, agreed to be taken as the cargo of the ship or vessel compounded 
 for, is to be given to the master or owner of the same, and to be taken as evidence of the quantity on board. 
 
 When no composition is entered into, the coal is to be weighed in the presence of an officer of the cus- 
 toms at the port of shipment ; and the duties are to be paid upon the weight so shipped. 
 
 The shipment of coal in the Tyne is at present regulated by the act 5 Geo. 4. c. 72., commonly called the 
 Turn Act. The object of this act is to make all ships engaged in the trade of the Tyne be loaded in the 
 order in which they arrive. It prevents any preference being given to particular ships ; and renders it nearly 
 impossible for any coal owner to give constant employment to any vessel in the trade which he may wish 
 to employ. In some respects this act is probably advantageous, but, on the whole, its policy seems very 
 questionable. Why should a coal owner be prevented from employing certain ships in preference to 
 others ? Under this act, if more ships engage in the trade than can be profitably employed in it, the loss 
 produced by detention in port, and waiting for a cargo, instead of falling, as it naturally would, were the 
 trade free, on particular ships, and driving them from the business, falls equally on every ship employed, 
 and depresses the whole trade. There is no regulation of this sort in the Wear. 
 
 Exportation of Coal. — For a considerable number of years past a duty of 17s. Qd. a chaldron was laid on 
 all large, and of 4s. Qd. a chaldron on all small coal exported. 'I'he first of these duties is quite ex- 
 cessive; and is not to be vindicated, unless the policy of preventing the exportation of coal were admitted. 
 Inasmuch, however, as small coal is the only species used in manufactories, no ground could be assigned 
 for prohibiting the exportation of round coal, except the risk of exhausting the mines. But the state- 
 ments previously made show the futility of this apprehension. There cannot, therefore, be any reasonable 
 doubt as to the policy of the reduction that has recently been made in the duty on large coal exported. 
 We believe, indeed, that it might have been carried a good deal further, with advantage to the revenue 
 and to all parties. — (For the existing duties on coal exported, see Tariff.) 
 
 Price of Coal. — The following is an account of the contract price of coal supplied to Greenwich 
 Hospital in the undermentioned years : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Per Chaldron. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Per Chaldron. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Per Chaldron. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 rf. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1730 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1785 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 2| 
 
 1824 
 
 2 
 
 
 8 
 
 1735 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 1790 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 H 
 
 18i;5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1740 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 1795 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 1^^26 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 1715 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 1800 
 
 2 
 
 U 
 
 7 
 
 1827 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 
 1805 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 82 
 
 1828 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 1755 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 vl 
 
 1810 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 182!) 
 
 1 
 
 l(i 
 
 7 
 
 Vim 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 1815 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 65 
 
 1830 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 17(i5 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 4^ 
 
 1820 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 1831 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 1770 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 H 
 
 1821 
 
 
 (i 
 
 6 
 
 1832 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 1775 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 lU 
 
 18'i2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1780 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 '^'i 
 
 1823 
 
 2_ 
 
 G 
 
 5' 
 
 
 (See art. Pkices.) 
 
 'I'his table .sets the beneficial influence of the abolition of the duty on coals, and of the other alterations 
 (hat have been made in the management of the Ir.ido, in a very sti iking iH)int of view. 
 
COAL. 
 
 Imports of Coal into London, and public Duties tlicrcon. — 'Yhc following (able shows tlic fjuantity of 
 coal and culm (small coal) imported into London during each of the 7 years ending with IH'.M, tlie public 
 duties charged on the same, and the produce of the duties. — {Pari. Paper, No. 197. Scss. 1833.) . 
 
 Coals, Cinders, and Culm, imported into the Port of London. 
 
 yea)s 
 
 Total Quantity imrortcd. 
 
 Rates of Public Duties charged on Importation. 
 
 Produce of 
 the Duties. 
 
 Stated in 
 Chaldrons. 
 
 Stated in Tons, allowinf; 
 25A cwt. to the Chaldron, 
 1&2 Will.4. C.7G. S.44. 
 
 iiiSiii 
 
 1,600,229 
 1,476,331 
 1,537,694 
 1,583,511 
 1,630,804 
 1,604,151 
 1,677,708 
 
 2,040,291 
 
 1,882,321 
 
 1,960,559 
 
 2,018,975 ■ 
 
 2,079,275 
 
 2,015,292 
 
 2,139,078 
 
 f Coals and cinders : ") 
 
 I Charged by measure, ds. per chaldron. j 
 J Charged by weight, 4a-. per ton. I 
 ] Culm, M. per chaldron. f 
 ! ("Duties repealed from 1st of March, 1831, per') 
 
 II act 1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 16. j J 
 
 £ 
 
 4Cu,H52 
 416,804 
 443,217 
 4G4,fi>9 
 467,716 
 40,702 
 
 Account of the various Local or Municipal Duties charged on Coals imported into the Port of London 
 since 1825; specifying such Duties in detail, the Rate of each, and the Amount of Duty annually pro- 
 duced by each. — (7^«?7. Paper, No. 296. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1 1831 
 1832 
 
 Description of Duties. 
 
 Duty on coals delivered in the year ending 5th of January, 1827, 
 pursuant to the act of the 5th & 6th of Will. & Mary, c. 10., for 
 the relief of tlie orphans and other creditors of the city of Lon- 
 don, and continued by various acts of parliament for effecting 
 public works - _ . _ 
 
 Additional metage duty, pursuant to the said act of 5 & 6 W. & M. 
 and applicable to the purposes of the said orphans' fund 
 
 Ditto - - .... 
 
 Ditto - - 
 
 Ditto - . . ... 
 
 Ditto - . . 
 
 Ditto - - - 
 
 Commutation pursuant to the act of 1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 76. for the 
 said duties of 6c/. and 4rf. per chaldron, continued by the act of 
 10 Geo. 4. c. 136. for making the approaches to London Bridge 
 Duty charged by 43 Geo. 3. c. 134. for establishing a market in 
 the city of London for the sale of coals _ _ . 
 
 Ditto ...... 
 
 Ditto . - - . ... 
 
 Ditto ...... 
 
 Ditto - - . - ... 
 
 Ditto, including 267Z. 8*. G^d. for duty on coals imported in 
 1831, but delivered in 1832 
 Continued by the act of the 1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 76. for the support ofl 
 the said market, and for paying the compensations of the land 
 coal-meters of London, Westminster, and Middlesex, for the 
 abolition of their offices - - . _ . 
 
 Duty payable to the corporation of the city of London, for metage 
 Ditto . - - - . . 
 
 Ditto - . . 
 
 Ditto .... . 
 
 Ditto - . - . , 
 
 Ditto ... . . _ 
 
 Commutation for the said duty of 4(f. per chaldron, water-bailliage 
 and groundage of coals, and fees to Lord Mayor on permit, &c. 
 pursuant to the act of the 1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 76., chargeable with 
 the compensations to the clerks, officers, and deputy sea-coa! 
 meters, for the abolition of their places by the said act . . 
 
 Duty of water-bailliage on coals and groundage of colliers, pay.lj 
 able to the corporation of London by non-freemen only - 
 
 Ditto ...... 
 
 Ditto . . . . 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto . . . ... 
 
 Ditto - . - _• . 
 
 Commuted by said act l&2Will. 4. c. 76., as before stated 
 Fees payable to tlie Lord Mayor of London for permit and regis- 
 tering certificates of the quantity and quality of coals, pursuant! 
 to the act 9 Anne, c. 28. - . - - 
 
 Ditto - - - - - . 
 
 Ditto - - - . . J 
 
 Ditto - - - - . J 
 
 Ditto - - ... .1 
 
 Ditto - - .j 
 
 Commuted under the said act 1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 76., as before men-: 
 tioned. i 
 
 6d. per chald. 
 
 M. per chald. 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 8d. per ten - 
 
 Id. per chald. 
 
 - ditto 
 ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 If?, per ton - 
 id. per chald. 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 id. per ton 
 fjd. per New-") 
 ] castle, ordou- I 
 ble chald. and }► 
 j 6d. per ship I 
 Lgroundage -J 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 \s. 6d. per ship 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 - ditto 
 
 65,548 3 5 
 
 59,292 9 9 
 
 63,211 14 6 
 
 65,029 14 10 
 
 66,689 10 11 
 
 65,364 15 6 
 
 6,619 8 
 6,091 18 
 6,472 15 
 6,639 18 
 6,785 9 
 
 8,877 10 8 
 
 26,624 1 4 
 
 24,367 12 11 
 
 25,893 13 11 
 
 26,559 13 10 
 
 27,141 19 5 
 
 26,390 14 0 
 
 35.510 2 
 
 903 11 
 942 11 
 
 990 2 
 1,010 6 
 
 991 15 
 Nil. 
 
 Sll 11 
 467 16 
 495 19 
 515 13 
 524 19 
 481 14 
 Nil. 
 
 Note. — The act of the 47 Geo. 3. 
 
 . ,j „ , , . . , (repealed by the act 1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 76.) imposed a dutv of 6d 
 
 per chaldron on all coals sold by wharf measure, and Is. per 5 chaldrons, sold by pool mea<=ure • but the 
 corporation of London have no means of ascertaining the amount of those duties paid in the districts of 
 Westminster, Middlesex, and Surrey. _ Guildhall, 15th of May, 1833. uii^iric.b or 
 
 It appears from this account, that the various local and municipal duties charged on coal in the port of 
 ^^"'^".U'lJ^?^' '''"^OMJJted to 115,407/. 18*. Sd., being at the rate of about U. 4Jrf. per chaldron cn the coal 
 imported that year. Were these duties wholly abolished, or commuted for some other tax. and all re^-u- 
 lations as to the unloaduig of ships in the river, with the exception of those ncccssarv to preserve order 
 swept oH, we have no doubt that the price of coal would be materiallv reduced. 
 
298 
 
 COAL. 
 
 Ut p3JB»S S9UJ 
 
 -unog uSiaAoj 
 
 o « 
 
 |»5 
 
 Hi 
 
 -sis 
 
 UI pajBls 'saiu 
 -ojoo iisniig: 
 o? pajaodxa 
 
 irj r-. Tji <j) 
 
 1 ^ T}< ITS CC 
 
 CO to an- 
 
 ai g» 
 
 00 o o< to oTi-^^co •^jTi-r 
 
 ■rj t-- I— to I— 03 ^ 
 
 1 CT> CO to to LI O 05 I 
 lOt-l^OtriiOl— 
 
 c^^to■-lloa3^o■-lC^>coto 
 CO cx i-^ 00 o o o 
 
 of oto'sT to oo'io oTi-Ti-T 
 
 CM CM <X 0< r- r-l r-l rH ri 
 
 lo— itot><tcc^t-coor:- 
 r-oocoq3^i£5g<--'^ — 
 
 Tf< O 0< to Tj< Ol 00 ' 
 
 1 o^^o 
 
 oo 
 I tra CO 
 
 i--i--cocf»coiO"#r-o;aj 
 
 r-ro-o" r-ToToTTjr CO CO CO 
 r--o)Ciii-iooa><— ((><c»G< 
 
 S0'*Lf5 Ol COOOOOOO 
 
 r-i'r-l C-i 00 CO^oT^CSl CO G< 
 
 COOrt'-^rM.JlOOi-llCt— 
 
 o CO t?i 00 «*■ CO T^ r~ ■ 
 tx -rt CO (y> o* '■^„°'^ 
 to' irT T-^ o" ltT CO co" 
 
 ^r^r— lr-lr-ltOr-*I — 0*0 CO 
 
 00 --i ifl t— to Cf< '^"i, 
 ora3d'i::rco'"of o" oTco o 
 
 siiox UI 
 pajBjs 'puBjaji 
 o) pajaodxa 
 
 ?.3 
 
 III 
 
 •mSia^V suox 
 UI pajEjs 'osiAv 
 
 XjIJUEUO IE}0X 
 
 I 00 '-0^1-^ 
 
 oTto'-^'^Co''-^'^"'^ Ci o 
 tCO^OlCTlOlOJI^LQ;* 
 COtotOtOtOtOtCI>tOt> 
 
 COtCr-(tOLOc»t003Tj<0 
 tO-^-^OS— <£hc0 03r-iO 
 ■— C3 CO O to ri 
 
 CTlCOOCOCOLOlOOlOlO 
 C0-*O-*C0r-iT-HTf.00ir5 
 •cj^ r-^ tO^ £3]^ CO OD 00^ (» i-O 
 
 Tji"ororto'co'r-^otri^tc'~trr 
 
 irj ai ir; 1— 1— CO tc to O CO 
 
 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 
 
 ! CO 
 
 iq^ 03 Oj^ cm^ 00 i-o^ -e^ co__ CO 03^ 
 tsTr^^r^toof 00-* c*c 
 in Tf< CO i-i o oc CO * o 
 
 Trf- 03_l— OCJ^CO CO CO l-;^Tf< UO 
 
 <o CO CO CO TjT TjT ^ TjT TjT 
 
 03_03 co_^a3 o CO CO o o-j^ 
 
 o"i-'rr^oo'cM''-r>-ro>i^r-r 
 
 I- O O) 00 03 CM CN CO G^t 0» 
 
 lOOOCO't^" 
 
 on- o t— 
 
 CO O to O rf< I O — ' ro 
 to <0 00 '0 O) I— to 
 
 I- tM_^I-;I- <» -^^OO -^i, 
 
 I'Tco'to'"— "c>ri--rco''oo orto" 
 o-rcTo< (?f oroTtj^cN of t>r 
 
 OOa>00003l-COCN-f< 
 
 ' ■<+< I - 03 1-10 10 
 
 01 O -H 01 CO •+< 10 to I- 00 
 
 .— ot 01 o» r>» (N 01 c-t 01 c< 
 
 00COt»CO0Cu0 00 0C0000 
 
 Nett Produce of the 
 Duties on Coals, Cin- 
 ders, and Culm in the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 6i-*t-^tot-toT}ir-03Tji 
 
 03l0CNC^t-'-HOC0O00 
 
 to 03 00 to to 03 CO 00 'O oo 
 ;g OCi^CT^O 0C3_l— CN^tX O CO O 
 
 to irj^o'i— I— oo"t-^r-^co to" 
 
 00 ri 10 CO to to rH 00 00 CO 
 
 01 ri 0 0 r-<_ai 03 D3 00 03 
 
 Total Gross Revenue. 
 
 ~S 03*0*23*0 oTScTl— uo'crrto 
 »jt-Ticotctocotot--i-~r- 
 
 0 t-~ t— 03 0» 03 CO 00 to 
 to I— t— 1— CO c-0 03 — c 
 ^ r-;^<33^r^oj_to^tc CO_CO r~;_r-. 
 
 ^ to o^oTofr^co'co I— 
 'ocot— 1000033'notc 
 Or-Hoono)a)o03a3 
 
 Gross Revenue. 
 
 On Coals, Cinders, 
 and Culm exported 
 to Foreign Parts. 
 
 ^"03 rt'tc'to'o'o 00 CO 
 ^. CO CO Tf< to to n 03 to 
 
 ria3nr-lOnnC0(»C0 
 
 COto— .1— CMCMO<tO00O< 
 Co 00 CO 03_l— 0 CC "^H^tO^r^^T^ 
 
 On Coals, Cinders, and 
 Culm brought or car- 
 ried Coastwise, or by 
 Inland Navigation, in 
 the United Ivingdom. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 957,899 9 10^ 
 1,086,584 17 3- 
 1,019,865 10 5 A 
 1,006,506 2 3f 
 1,145,659 1 3? 
 948,810 16 10 
 899,918 14 9f 
 972,839 19 9x 
 862,526 8 6, 
 922,682 1 45- 
 
 a 
 >* 
 
 03O.--0^C0'fi0t0t— 00; 
 
 OOQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOj 
 
 i 
 
 Total Quantity 
 
 shipped to 
 all Parts, stated 
 in Tons Weight. 
 
 4,365,040 
 4.803,427 
 4,638,059 
 4,788,839 
 5,319,627 
 5,279,192 
 5,391,763 
 5,856,547 
 5,458,377 
 5,603,807 
 
 Culm. 
 
 Chaldrons 
 Imperial 
 Measure- 
 
 86,335 
 117,111 
 1'07,9.52 
 99,439 
 98,939 
 132,443 
 136,456 
 163,247 
 146,518 
 142,419 
 
 Chaldrons 
 Newcastle 
 Measure. 
 
 a30300tOtOlOlflOt30tO 
 
 tOrHr-iCNniOI-~l--0< 
 
 n CM 0» t-O i£0 I— 0< 
 
 Small Coals. | 
 
 Chaldrons 
 Imperial 
 Measure. 
 
 1,372 
 1,855 
 2,121 
 19,146 
 
 3,622 
 4,523 
 32,426 
 81,673 
 106,240 
 78,041 
 
 ChaUlrons 
 Newcastle 
 Measure. 
 
 O) 03 o> Ol 03 ^ '0 r- to 
 
 n000303-f<l— tOtO— I 
 1— to '-0 00 to CO tO^t.0^00 
 
 'o'tiTr-^otroT Tfrr-^r.ro^o 
 COCOCOCO'*'*<'*tO'OtC 
 
 Coals (except Small Coals) and Cinders- 
 
 Chaldrons 
 Imperial 
 Measure. 
 
 2,502,997 
 2,819,506 
 2,664,788 
 2,733,534 
 
 3,015,949 
 3,061,817 
 3,211,205 
 2,899,805 
 2,976,093 
 
 Chaldrons 
 Newcastle 
 Measure. 
 
 22,732 
 20,536 1 
 23,671 
 22,425 
 
 18,783 
 15,501 
 9,222 
 11,403 
 11,056 
 
 Tons. 
 
 613,996 
 572,955 
 623,582 
 666,763 
 720,018 
 733,980 
 7.37,837 
 881,415 
 892,188 
 977,485 
 
 i 
 
 aiOrH-itco-fiotor-OQ 
 
 — Gl G^ GJ Ol CN C) O) CM gS 
 OOOOCCOOOOOOOCOOOOOO 
 
COASTING TRADE. 
 
 299 
 
 COASTING TRADE, the trade or intercourse carried on by sea between two or 
 more ports or places of the same country. 
 
 It has been customary in most countries to exclude foreigners from all participalion 
 in the coasting trade. This policy began in England in the reign of Elizabeth (5 Eliz. 
 c. 5. ), or, perhaps, at a more remote era; and was perfected by the acts of navigation 
 passed in 1651 and 1660. A vast number of regulations have been since enacted at dif- 
 ferent periods. The existing rides with respect to it, which have been a good deal 
 simplified, are embodied in the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. .52., and are as follow : — 
 
 Definition qf Coasting Trade. — All trade by sea from any one part of tlic United Kingdom to any other 
 part thereof, or from one part of the Isle of Man to another thereof, shall be deemed to be a coasting trade, 
 and all ships while employed therein sliall be deemed to be coastir)g ships ; and no part of the United 
 Kingdom, however situated with regard to any other part thereof, shall be deemed in law, with reference 
 to each other, to be parts beyond the seas in any matter relating to the trade or navigation or revenue of 
 this realm. — ^ \{)5, 
 
 Lords of Treasury to regulate what shall be deemed trading by Sea under this Act. — It shall be lawful 
 for the said commissioners of his Majesty's treasury to determine and direct in what cases the trade by 
 water from any place on the coast of the United Kingdom to another of the same shall or shall not be 
 deemed a trade by sea within the meaning of this act <'r of any act relating to the customs. — \ 106. 
 
 Coasting Ship confined to coasting J'oyage. — No goods shall be carried in any coasting shij), except such 
 as shall be laden to be so carried iit some port or place in the United Kingdom, or at some port or place 
 in the Isle of Man respectively ; and no goods shall be laden on board any ship to be carried coastwise 
 until all goods brought in such ship from parts beyond the seas shall have been luiladen ; and if any goods 
 shall be taken into or put out of any coasting ship at sea or over the sea, or if any coasting shij) shall 
 touch at any place over the sea, or deviate from her voyage, unless forced by unavoidable circumstances, 
 or if the master of any coasting ship which shall have touched at any jjlace over the sea shall not declare 
 the same in writing under his hand to the collector or comptroller at the port in the United Kingdom or 
 in the Isle of Man where such ship shall afterwards first arrive, the master of such ship shall forfeit the 
 sum of 200/. — ^ 107. 
 
 Before Goods be laden or unladen. Notice of Intention, Sfc. to be given, and proper Documents to issite. 
 — No goods shall be laden on board any ship in any port or place in the United Kingdom or in the Isle 
 of Man to be carried coastwi.se, nor having been brought coastwise shall be unladen in any such port or 
 place from any ship, until due notice in writing, signed by the master, shall have been given to the col- 
 lector or comptroller, by the master, owner, wharfinger, or agent of such ship, of the intention to lade 
 goods on board the same to be so carried, or of the arrival of such ship with goods so brought, as the case 
 may be, nor until proper documents shall have been granted as herein-after directed for the lading or for 
 the unlading of such goods ; and such goods shall not be laden or unladen except at such times and places, 
 and in such manner, and by such persons, and under the care of such officers, as are herein-after di- 
 rected j and all goods laden to be so carried, or brought to be so unladen, contrary hereto, shall be 
 forfeited. — § 108. 
 
 Particulars in Notice. — In such notice shall be stated the name and tonnage of the ship, and the name 
 of the port to which she belongs, and the name of the master, and the name of the port to which she 
 is bound or from which she has arrived, and the name or description of the wharf or place at which 
 her lading is to be taken in or discharged, as the case may be ; and such notice shall be signed by the 
 master, owner, wharfinger, or agent of such ship, and shall be entered in a book to be kept by the 
 collector, for the information of all parties interested ; and every such notice for the unlading of 
 any ship or vessel shall be delivered within 24 hours after the arrival of such ship or vessel, under a 
 penalty of 20/. to be paid by the master of such ship or vessel ; and in every such notice for the lading 
 of any ship or vessel shall be stated the last voyage on which such ship or vessel shall have arrived 
 at such port; and if such voyage shall have been from parts beyond the seas there shall be produced with 
 such notice a certificate from the proper officer of the discharge of all goods, if any, brought in such ship, 
 and of the due clearance of such ship or vessel inwards of such voyage. — \ 109. 
 
 From and to Ireland. — Upon the arrival of any coasting ship at any pott in Great Britain from Ireland, 
 or at any port in Ireland from Great Britain, the master of such ship shall, within 2i hours after such 
 arrival, attend and deliver such notice, signed by him, to the collector or comptroller ; and if such ship 
 shall have on board ahy goods subject on arrival to any duty of excise, or any goods which had been 
 imported from parts beyond the seas, the particulars of such goods, with the marks and numbers of the 
 packages containing the same, shall be set forth in such notice; and if there shall be no such goods on 
 board, then it shall be declared in such notice that no such goods are on board ; and the master shall also 
 answer any questions relating to the voyage as shall be demanded of him by the collector or comptroller ; 
 and every master who shall fail in due time to deliver such notice, and truly to answer such questions, 
 shall forfeit the sum of 100/. — § 110. 
 
 After Notice given of lading. Collector may grant a general Sufferance. — When due notice shall have 
 been given to the collector or comptroller at the port of lading of the intention to lade goods on board any 
 coasting ship, such collector or comptroller shall grant a general sufiferance for the lading of goods (with- 
 out specifying the same) on board such ship, at the wharf or place which shall be expressed in such suf, 
 ferance ; and such sufferance shall be a sufficient authority for the lading of any sort of goods, except 
 such, if any, as shall be expressly excepted therein : provided always, that before any sufterance be 
 granted for any goods prohibited to be exported, or subject to any export duty other than any ad valore7n 
 duty, the master or owner of any such ship, or the shipper of such goods, shall give bond, with one suffi- 
 cient surety, in treble the value of the goods, that the same shall be landed at the port for which such 
 sufferance is required, or shall be otherwise accounted for to the satisfaction of the commissioners of his 
 Majesty's customs. — ^111. 
 
 Master of Coasting Vessel to keep a Cargo Boole. — The master of every coasting ship shall keep or cause 
 to be kept a cargo book of the same, stating the name of the ship and of the master, and of the port to 
 which she belongs, and of the port to which bound on each voyage ; and in which book shall be entered, 
 at the port of lading, an account of all goods taken on board such ship, stating the descriptions of the 
 packages, and the quantities and descriptions of the goods therein, and the quantities and descriptions of 
 any goods stowed loose, and the names of the respective shippers and consignees, as far as any of such 
 particulars shall be known to him; and in which book, at the port of discharge, shall be noted the 
 respective days upon which any of such goods be delivered out of such ship, and also the respective times 
 of departure from the port of lading, and of arrival at any port of unlading ; and such master shall pro- 
 duce such book for the inspection of the coast-waiter or other proper olticer, so often as the same shall be 
 demanded, and who shall be at liberty to make any note or remark therein; and if such master shall fail 
 correctly to keep such book, or to produce the same, or if at any time there be found on board such ship 
 any goods not entered in the cargo book as laden, or any goods noted as delivered, or if at any time it be 
 found that any goods entered as laden, or any goods not noted as delivered, be not on board,'the master 
 of such ship shall forfeit the sum of 50/. ; and if, upon examination at the port of lading, any package 
 entered in the cargo book as containing any foreign goods shall be found not to contain such goods, such 
 package, with its contents, shall be forfeited ; and if at the port of discharge any package shall be found 
 to contain any foreign goods which are not entered in such book, such goods shall be forfeited. — \ 112. . 
 
300 
 
 COBALT. 
 
 Accounts of Foreign Goods, S(C. to he delivered to Collector. — Before any coasting ship shall depart from 
 the port of lading, an account, together with a duplicate of the same, all fairly written, and signed by the 
 master, shall be delivered to the collector or comptroller ; and in such account shall be set forth such 
 particulars as are required to be entered in the cargo book of all foreign goods, and of all goods subject to 
 export duty (other than any ad valorem duty), and of all corn, grain, meal, flour, or malt, laden on board, 
 and generally, whether any other British goods or no other British goods be laden on board, as the case 
 may be, or whether such ship be wholly laden with British goods not being of any of the descriptions 
 oefore mentioned, as the case may be ; and the collector or comptroller shall select and retain one of such 
 accounts, and shall return the other, dated and signed by him, and noting the clearance of the ship 
 thereon ; and such account shall be the clearance of the ship for the voyage, and the transire for the goods 
 expressed therein ; and if any such account be false, or shall not correspond with the cargo book, the 
 master shall forfeit the sum of 50^. — \ 113. 
 
 Transire to be delivered to Collector. — Before any goods be unladen from any coasting ship at the port 
 of discharge, the master, owner, wharfinger, or agent of such ship shall deliver the transire to the col- 
 lector or comptroller of such i)ort, who shall thereupon grant an order for the unlading of such ship at 
 the wharf or place specified in such order : provided always, that if any of the goods on board such ship 
 be subject to any duty of customs or excise payable on arrival coastwise at such port, the master, owner, 
 wharfinger, or agent of such ship, or the consignee of such goods, shall also deliver to the collector or 
 compti-oller a bill of the entry of the particulars of such goods, expressed in words at length, together 
 with a copy thereof, in which all sums and numbers may be expressed in figures, and shall pay down all 
 duties of customs, or produce a permit in respect of all duties of excise, which shall be due and payable 
 on any of such goods, as the case may be; and thereupon the collector and comptroller shall grant an 
 order for the landing of such goods, in the presence or by the authority of the coast-waiter. — § IH. 
 
 Collector in certain Cases may grant general Transire for Coastiiig Vessels. — It shall be lawful for the 
 collector and comptroller, in the cases herein-after mentioned, to grant for any coasting ship a general 
 transire, to continue in force for anytime not exceeding one year from the date thereof, for the lading of 
 any goods (except such goods, if any, as shall be expressly excepted therein), and for the clearance of the 
 ship in which the goods shall be laden, and for the unlading of the goods at the place of discharge ; (that 
 IS to say,) 
 
 For any ship regularly trading between places in the river Severn eastward of the Holmes ; 
 For any ship regularly trading between places in the river Humber ; 
 For any ship regularly trading between places in the Frith of Forth ; 
 
 For any ship regularly trading between places to be named in the transire, and carrying only manure, 
 
 lime, chalk, stone, gravel, sand, or any earth, not being fullers' earth : 
 Provided always, that such transire shall be written in the cargo book herein-before required to be kept 
 by th^" masteft of coasting ships : provided also, that if the collector and comptroller shall at any time 
 revoke such transire, and notice thereof shall be given to the master or owner of the ship, or shall be 
 given to any of the crew when on board the ship, or shall be entered in the cargo book by any officer of 
 the customs, such transire shall become void, and shall be delivered up by the master or owner to the 
 collector or comptroller. — § 115. 
 
 Coast-waiter, kc. may go on board and examine any Coasting Ship. — It shall be lawful in any case, 
 and at all legal times, for the coast- waiter, and also for the landing-waiter, and for the searcher, and for 
 any other proper officer of the customs, to go on board any coasting ship in any port or place in the 
 United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, or at any period of her voyage, and strictly to search such ship, and 
 to examine all goods on board, and all goods being laden or unladen, and to demand all documents which 
 ought to be on board such ship. — \ 116. 
 
 Times and Places for landing and shipping. — No goods shall be unshipped from any ship arriving 
 coastwise in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, and no goods shall be shipped, or water- 
 borne to be shipped, in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, to be carried coastwise, but only 
 on days not being Sundays or holidayg, and in the daytime, (that is to say,) ft-om the 1st of September 
 until the last day of March betwixt sun-rising and sun-setting, and from the last day of March until the 
 1st of September between the hours of 7 o'clock in the morning and 4 o'clock in the afternoon ; nor shall 
 any such goods be so unshipped, shipped, or waterborne, unless in the presence or with the authority of 
 the proper othcer of the customs, nor unless at places which shall be appointed or approved by the proper 
 officer of the customs. — ^ 117. 
 
 Goods prohibited or restrained. — Whenever any goods which may be prohibited to be exported by pro- 
 clamation or by order in council under the authority of this act shall be so prohibited, it shall be lawful 
 in such proclamation or order in council to prohibit or restrict the carrying of such goods coastwise ; and 
 if any such goods shall be carried coastwise, or shall be shipped or waterborne to be carried coastwise, 
 contrary to any such prohibition or restriction, the same shall be forfeited. — § 118. 
 
 Dues of the City of London. — For the purpose of enabling the dues payable to the city on articles im- 
 ported coastwise to' be ascertained and collected, it is enacted, that if all or any of the following goods, 
 viz. firkins of butter, tons of cheese, fish, eggs, salt, fruit, roots eatable, and onions, brought coastwise 
 into the port of the said city, and which are liable to the said dues, be landed or unshipped at or in the 
 said port before a proper certificate of the payment of the said dues shall have been obtained, such goods 
 shall be forfeited, and may be seized by an officer of customs empowered to seize any goods that may be 
 landed without due entry thereof. — (7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 56. § 15.) 
 
 Account of the Tonnage of Vessels employed in the Coasting Trade, which have entered at and 
 cleared out from the Borts of Great Britain, from 1827 to 1831, both inclusive. — (Pa? /. Paper, No. 429. 
 Sess. 1832.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tonnage entered 
 Inwards. 
 
 Tonnage cleared 
 Outwards. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tonnage entered 
 Inwards. 
 
 Tonnage cleared 
 Outwards. 
 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 
 8,186,004 
 8,811,109 
 8,933,633 
 
 8,648,868 
 8,957,286 
 9,158,525 
 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 9,121,619 
 9,176,758 
 
 9,439,09;) 
 9,372,870 
 
 COBALT (Gcr. Kohalt; Du. Kohal; Sw. Coholt , Fr. Cohalt ; It. Cohalto ; 
 Rus. Koholt ; Lat. Cohaltum), a mineral of a grey colour, with a shade of red, and by no 
 means brilliant. It has scarcely any taste or smell ; is rather soft ; specific gravity about 
 8*6. Sometimes it is composed of plates, sometimes of grains, and sometimes of small 
 fibi-cs adhering to each other. Its oxides are .principally emi)loycd. — (See Smalts, oi' 
 Smaltz.) Tliey form tlie most ])crmancnt blue witli which we arc acquainted. 'J'he 
 colouring power of oxide of cobalt on vitrifiable mixtures is greater, perhaps, than tliat 
 of any other metal. One grain gives a full blue to 240 grains of glass. — ( lytomson's 
 Chemistry, and Lire's Dictionary.') 
 
COCCULUS INDICUS. — COCO. 
 
 SOI 
 
 COCCULUS INDICUS, on INDIAN BERRY (Sans. Kaliawari ; Malay, 
 Tuha-hid(ji), the fruit of the Mcnispcrmuni Cocculus, a large tree of the Malabar coast, 
 Ceylon, &c. It is a small kidney-shajjed berry, liaving a white kernel inside, of a most 
 impleasant taste. It is of a poisonous and intoxicating fjuality, and has been emiiloyed 
 to adulterate ale and beer. I5ut its emjjloyment in that way is ])rohibited, under a 
 penalty of 200/. upon the brewer, and of 500/. upon the seller of the drug, by the 
 56 Geo. 3. c. 58. 
 
 COCHINEAL (Ger. Koschenilje ; Du. Conchmilje ; Fr. Cochenille ; It. Cocciniylia ; 
 Sp. Cochinilla, Grana ; Port. Cochenilha ; Rus. Konssenel), an insect (Coccus cacti) 
 found in Mexico, Georgia, South Carolina, and some of the West India islands ; but it 
 is in Mexico only that it is reared with care, and forms an important article of com- 
 merce. It is a small insect, seldom exceeding the size of a grain of barley ; and was 
 generally believed, for a considerable time after it began to be imported into Euroj)e, to 
 be a sort of vegetable grain or seed. There are two sorts or varieties of cochineal : tJie 
 best or domesticated, which the Spaniards called (jrana Jina, or fine grain ; and the wild, 
 which they call grana sylvestra. The former is nearly twice as large as the latter ; pro- 
 bably because its size has been improved by the favourable effects of human care, and of a 
 more copious and suitable nourishment, derived solely from the Cactus cochinellifer, during 
 many generations. Wild cochineal is collected six times in the year; but that which is 
 cultivated is only collected thrice during the same period. The insects are detached 
 from the plants on which they feed by a blunt knife ; they are tlien put into bags, and 
 dipped in boiling water to kill them, after which they are dried in the svm ; and though 
 they lose about two thirds of their weight by this process, about 600,000 or 700,000 lbs. 
 (each pound being supposed to contain 70,000 insects) are brought annually to Eurojje. 
 It is principally used in the dyeing of scarlet, crimson, and other esteemed colours. The 
 watery infusion is of a violet crimson ; the alcoholic of a deep crimson; and the alkaline 
 of a deep purple, or rather violet hue. It is imported in bags, each containing about 
 200 lbs. ; and has the appearance of small, dry, shrivelled, rugose berries or seeds, of a 
 deep brown, purple, or mulberry coloin-, with a white matter between the wrinkles. In 
 this state they suffer no change from length of keeping. Dr. Bancroft says that that 
 cochineal is the best, which " is large, plump, dry, and of a silver white colour on the 
 surface." 
 
 The species of cochineal called granilla, or dust, is supposed by Dr. Bancroft to be 
 principally formed of grana sylvestra. The insects of which it consists are smaller than 
 those composing the fine cochineal ; and it does not yield more than a third of the 
 colouring matter that is yielded by the latter. The cochineal insect was introduced into 
 India in 1795 ; but a very inferior sort only is produced. It has also been introduced 
 into Java and Spain, but with what success remains to be seen. — ( Thomson's Dispensa- 
 tory ; Bancroft on Colours, §"c. ) 
 
 The imports of cochineal usually vary from 1,100 to 1,650 bags, or from 220,000 tQ 
 ,S30,000 lbs. In 1831, the quantity imported amounted to 224,371 lbs.; of which 
 95,728 lbs. were brought from Mexico, 69,824 lbs. from the United States, 51,146 lbs, 
 from the British West Indies, and 4,370 lbs. from Cuba and the foreign West Indies, 
 The exports during the same year amounted to about 90,000 lbs. The duty on foreign 
 cochineal was reduced, in 1826, from Is. per lb. to 6d. At an average of the 3 
 years ending with 1831, the entries for home consumption amounted to 148,131 lbs. 
 a year. 
 
 The price of cochineal fluctuated very much during the war, partly on account of the 
 obstacles M'hich it occasionally threw in the way of importation, and partly on account of 
 its being an article of direct government expenditure. In 1814, the price of the best 
 cochineal was as high as 36s. and 39s. ; and it has since gone on regularly declining, 
 with hardly a single rally, till it has sunk to 8s. or 10s. Previously to the war it had never 
 been under 12s. or 13s. Lac dye has recently been employed to some extent in dveing 
 scarlet ; but notwithstanding this circumstance, the consvimption of cochineal, occasioned, 
 no doubt, partly by its cheapness, and partly, perhaps, by some change of fashion, has 
 been materially increased since 1824. This, however, l>as not had any material in- 
 fluence on its price; and it would appear, from the long continuance of low prices, 
 .vithout any diminution of imports, that they are still sufficient to remunerate the growers 
 of the article. — ( Toohe on High and Low Prices ; Cook's Conwierce of Great Britain for 
 1830; Pari Papers, S^c.) 
 
 COCOA. See Cacao. 
 
 COCO, COKER, OK, more properly, COCOA NUTS (Ger. Kokosniisse Du. Ko- 
 hnsnooten ; Fr. and Sp. Cocos ; It. Cocchi ; Rus. Kohos j Sans. A^crriVc^Za), the fruit of a 
 species of palm tree ( Cocos nucifera Lin. ). This tree is common almost every whore 
 within the tropics, and is one of the most valuable in the world. It grows to the height 
 of from 50 to 90 feet; it has no branches, but the leaves are from 12 to 14 feet in 
 length, with a very strong middle rib. The fruit is nearly as large as a man's head ; the 
 
302 
 
 COD. 
 
 external rind is thin, tough, and of a brownish red colour ; beneath this there is a quan- 
 tity of very tough fibrous matter, which is used in many countries in the manufacture of 
 cordage, and coarse sail-cloth — (see Coir) ; within this fibrous coating is the shell of the 
 nut, which is nearly globular, very hard, susceptible of a high polish, and used for many 
 domestic purposes ; the kernel is white, in taste and firmness resembling that of a hazel 
 nut ; it is hollow in the interior, the liollow being filled with a milky fluid. While the 
 nut is green, the whole hollow of the shell is filled with fluid, which is refreshing, agree- 
 able, and pleasant to the taste. The solid part of the ripe kernel is extremely nutritious, 
 but rather indigestible. The kernels yield by expression a great deal of oil, which, 
 when recent, is equal to that of sweet almonds ; but it soon becomes rancid, and is then 
 employed by painters. A tree generally yields about 100 nuts, in clusters near the top 
 of about a dozen each. The wood of the tree is made into boats, rafters, the frames of 
 houses, and gutters to convey water. The leaves are used for thatching buildings ; and 
 are wrought into mats, baskets, and many other things, for which osiers ai"e employed 
 in Europe ; so that every part of it is applied to some useful purpose. 
 
 If the body of the tree be bored, there exudes from the wound a white liquor, called 
 palm wine or toddy. It is very sweet when fresh ; kept a few hours, it becomes more 
 poignant and agreeable ; but next day it begins to grow sour, and in the space of 
 24 hours is changed into vinegar. When distilled, it produces the best species of Indian 
 arrack ; it also yields a great deal of sugar. Toddy is obtained from several species of 
 palms, but that of the Cocos nucifera is the best. — •( See Ainslie's Materia Indica ; 
 Rees's Ci/dopeedia, Sfc.) 
 
 An improvement has recently been effected in the preparation of cocoa oil, which 
 promises to be of much importance in the arts, by making it available in the manu- 
 facture of candles and soap, and for various purposes to which it was not previously 
 applicable. 
 
 The palm oil met with in the market is not obtained from the Cocos nucifera, but 
 from another species of palm. It is chiefly imported from the coast of Guinea. — (See 
 Palm Oil.) 
 
 Cocoa nuts are produced in immense quantities in Ceylon, forming, with their pro- 
 ducts, — oil, arrack, and coir, — the principal articles of export from that island. They 
 are also very abundant in the Maldive Islands, Siam, and on several places of the 
 coast of Brazil. Cocoa oil is in very extensive use all over India, and large quantities 
 are manufactured in the lower provinces of Bengal. This latter is said to be superior 
 to that imported from Ceylon. 
 
 The duty on cocoa nuts, which is imposed by tale, was judiciously reduced in 1833. 
 from 5s. per 120 on those from a British possession to Is. per 1,200; those from a 
 foreign country pay 20 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 COD (Ger. Kabljau, Bakalau ; Du. Kaheljaauw, Bauhaelja ; Da. Kabliau, Skrd- 
 torsk, Bakelau ; Sw. Kaheljo, Bakelau ; Fr. Morue, Cahillaud ; It. Baccala, Baccalarc , 
 Sp. Bacalao ; Port. Bacalhao ; Lat. Gadus), a species of fish, too well known to require 
 any description. " It is amazingly prolific. Leewenhoek counted 9,384,000 eggs in a cod- 
 fish of a middling size ; a number that will baflSe all the efforts of man to exterminate. 
 In our seas they begin to spawn in January, and deposit their eggs in rough ground, 
 among rocks. Some continue in roe till the beginning of April. 
 
 " The cod is only found in the northern parts of the world ; it is an ocean fish, and 
 never met with in the Mediterranean. The great rendezvous of the cod-fish is on the 
 banks of Newfoundland, and the other sand banks that lie off the coasts of Cape Breton, 
 Nova Scotia, and New England. They prefer those situations, by reason of the quan- 
 tity of worms produced in these sandy bottoms, which tempt them to resort there for 
 food. But another cause of the particular attachment the fish have to these spots is 
 their vicinity to the polar seas, where they return to spawn : there they deposit their 
 roes in full security ; but want of food forces them, as soon as the more southern seas are 
 open, to repair thither for subsistence. Few are taken to the north of Iceland, but they 
 abound on its south and west coasts. They are also found to swarm on the coasts of 
 Norway, in the Baltic, and off the Orkney and Western Isles ; after which their num- 
 bers decrease in proportion as they advance towards the south, when they seem quite to 
 cease before they reach the mouth of the Straits of Gibraltai-. 
 
 " Before the discovery of Newfoundland, the greater fisheries of cod were on the seas 
 of Iceland, and off our Western Isles, which were the grand resort of ships from all the 
 commercial nations ; but it seems that the greatest plenty was met with near Iceland. 
 The English resorted thither before the year 1415 ; for we find that Henry V. was dis- 
 posed to give satisfaction to the King of Denmark, for certain irregularities committed by 
 his subjects on tliose seas. In the reign of Edward IV. tlie English were excluded from 
 the fishery, by treaty. In later limes, we find Queen Elizabeth condescending to ask 
 permission to fish in those seas, from Cln-istian IV. of Denmark. In the reign of her 
 
COD. 
 
 803 
 
 successor, however, no fewer than 150 English ships were employed in the Iceland 
 fishery ; which indulgence might arise from the marriage of James with a princess ot 
 JJeiunark." — (^Pennant's British Zoology.) 
 
 Cod is prepared in two different ways ; that is, it is either gutted, salted, and then 
 barrelled — in which state it is denominated green or pickled cod, — or it is dried and 
 cured — in which state it is called dried cod. Ready access to the shore is indispensable 
 to the prosecution of the latter species of fishery. 
 
 Cod Fishery, British. — Newfoundland was discovered by John or Sebastian Cabot, in 
 1497; and the extraordinary abundance of cod-fish on its banks was speedily ascer- 
 tained. The French, Portuguese, and Spaniards engaged in the fishery soon after this 
 discovery. The English were later in coming into tiie field. In 1578, France had on 
 the banks of Newfoundland 150 vessels, Spain 120 or 130, Portugal 50, and England 
 from 30 to 50. During the first half of last century, the fishery was principally carried 
 on by the English, including the Anglo-Americans, and the French; but the capture 
 of Cape Breton, and of their other possessions in America, gave a severe blow to the 
 fishery of the latter. The American war divided the British fishery ; that portion of it 
 which had previously been carried on from New England, being thereafter merged in 
 that of the United States. Still, however, we contrived to preserve the largest share. At 
 an average of the 3 years ending with 1789, we are said to have had 402 ships, 1,9 11 boats, 
 and 16,856 men, engaged in the American fisheries. During last war, the French being 
 excluded from the fisheries, those of England attained to an extraordinary degree of 
 prosperity; the total value of the produce of the Newfoundland fishery in 1814 having 
 exceeded 2,800,000Z. But since the peace, the British fishery on the Newfoundland 
 banks has rapidly declined; and can hardly, indeed, be said, at this moment, to exist. It 
 is now carried on almost entirely by the French and the Americans ; the facilities 
 enjoyed by the latter for its prosecution being greater than those of any other people, 
 and the former being tempted to engage in it by the extraordinary encouragements 
 afforded by government. At present, the British fishery carried on by the inhabitants of 
 Newfoundland is confined entirely to the shore or boat fishery. But this, though pro- 
 bably not so good a nursery of sailors as the bank fishery, is admitted to be " the most 
 productive of merchantable fish and oil." — (M^ Gregorys British America, 2d ed. vol. i. 
 p. 206.) The average annual produce of the fisheries of all sorts, including seal, 
 salmon, &c., exported from Newfoundland, during the 3 years ended with 1832, is 
 stated by Mr. M'Gregor at 516,417/. — (vol. i. p. 161.). A considerable fishery is also 
 carried on from the ports and harbours of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, New Bruns- 
 wick, &c. But next to that of Newfoundland, the principal British fishery is carried 
 on along the coast of Labrador. We borrow from the valuable work now referred to, 
 the following recent and authentic statements with respect to it : — 
 
 " During the fisliing season, from 280 to 300 schooners proceed from Newfoundland to the different 
 fishing stations on the coast of Labrador, where about 20,000 British subjects are employed for the season. 
 About one third of the schooners make two voyages, loaded with dry f^^h, back to Newfoundland during 
 the summer; and several merchant vessels proceed from Labrador with their cargoes direct to Europe, 
 leaving, generally, full cargoes for the fishing vessels to carry to Newfoundland. A considerable part of 
 the fish of the second voyage is in a green or pickled state, and dried afterwards at Newfoundland. Eight 
 or 9 schooners from Quebec frequent the coast, having on board about 80 seamen and 100 fishermen. 
 Some of the fish caught by them is sent to Europe, and the rest to Quebec ; besides which, they carry- 
 annually about 6,000/. worth of furs, oil, and salmon, to Canada. 
 
 " From Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but chiefly from the former, 100 to 120 vessels resort to La- 
 brador : the burden of these vessels may amount to 6,0CO or 7,000 tons, carrying about 1,200 seamen and 
 fishermen. They generally carry the principal part of their cargoes home in a green state. 
 
 " One third of the resident inhabitants aie English, Irish, or Jersey servants, left in charge "^f the pro- 
 perty in the fishing rooms, and who also employ themselves, in the spring and fall, catching seals in nets. 
 The other two thirds live constantly at Labrador, as furriers and seal-catchers on their own account, but 
 chiefly in the former capacity, during winter ; and all are engaged in the fisheries during summer. Half 
 of these people are Jcr.-eymen and Canadians, most of v;hom have families. 
 
 " Erom 16,(;00 to 18,000 seals are taken at Labrador in the beginning of winter and in spring. They 
 are very large ; and the Canadians, and other winter residents, are said to feast and fatten on their flesh. 
 About 4,( 00 of these seals are killed by the Esquimaux, The whole number caught produce about 550 
 tuns of oil, value about 8,000/. 
 
 " There are 6 or 7 English houses, and 4 or 5 Jersey houses, established at Labrador, unconnected 
 with Newfoundland, who export their fish and oil direct to Europe. The quantity exportetl last year 
 (1832) to the Mediterranean was about 
 
 54,000 quintals cod-fish, at 10s. - - - 27,000 
 
 1,050 tierces salmon, at 60s. - - - 3,150 
 
 To England, about 200 tuns cod oil . . ' . - . 5,200 
 
 220 do. seal do. . - . _ . 4,880 
 
 Furs _ . . . . . 3,150 
 
 .^f 43,380 
 
 By Newfoundland houses, 27,500 quintals cod-fish, at 10s. ... 13,750 
 280 tierces salmon, at 10s. - - - 840 
 
 Total direct export from Labrador - ^'57,970 
 
304. 
 
 COD. 
 
 Brought forward £S7,ffiO 
 
 Produce sent direct to Newfoundland from Labrador : — 
 
 32,120 quintals cod-fish, at 10s, best quality . 16,060 
 
 312,000 quintals cod-fish, at 8s. - - - 12+,800 
 
 1,800 tuns cod oil, at 20/. - - . . 36,000 
 
 Salmon, &c. - - . 3,220 
 
 Fish, Sic. sent to Canada, about . - . 12,000 
 
 Do. carried to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick,"? 
 should be in value at least - - - 3 
 Estimated value of the produce of Labrador, exclusive of what the Mo- 
 
 52,000 
 
 ravians send to London . j 302,050 
 
 " Tlie Labrador fishery has, since 1814, increased more than sixfold, principally in consequence of our 
 fishermen being driven from the grounds (on the Newfoundland coast) now occupied by the French. In 
 1829, the Americans had about 500 vessels and 15,000 men employed on the coast ; and three " catch" 
 amounted to 1,100,000 quintals fish, and about 3,000 tuns oil ; value together aboat 610,0001."— {Bridsh 
 Jtnerica, vol. i. pp. 185 — 187.) 
 
 The total produce of the British fisheries in the various seas and rivers of America, including seal oil 
 and skins, is estimated by Mr. M'Gregor, at an average of the 5 years ending with 1832, at 857,210/. 
 a year. — (Vol. ii. p. 59G.; see, also, for further particulars, the useful pamphlet of Mr. Bliss on the Statistics, 
 Trade, 8(0. of British America.) 
 
 About eight tenths of the dried fish exported from Newfoundland by British subjects, 
 are sent to Spain, Portugal, Italy, and other Continental nations ; the rest goes to the 
 West Indies and to Great Britain. 
 
 By the act 26 Geo. 3. c. 26. bounties were given, under certain conditions specified 
 in the act, to a certain number of vessels employed in the fishery on the coasts and banks 
 of Newfoundland ; but these bounties have entirely ceased several years since. A bounty 
 was, however, paid, down to the 5th of April, 1830, to all persons residing in Great 
 Britain and Ireland, curing, drying, or pickling cod-fish, ling, or hake ; the bounty being 
 4s. a cwt. on the dried cod, &c., and 2s. 6d. a barrel on that which was pickled. A 
 tonnage bounty was at the same time paid on vessels fitted out for the cod, ling, and 
 hake fishery on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland ; but this has also ceased. 
 
 The act 5 Geo 4. c. 51. contains several regulations with respect to the Newfoundland fisheries. Aliens 
 are prohibited from fishing on the coasts, or in the bays or rivers of Newfoundland; excepting, however, 
 the rights and privileges granted by treaty to foreign states at amity with his Majesty. 
 
 All British subjects may take, cure, and dry fish, occupy vacant places, cut down trees for building, and 
 do other things useful for the trade. — § 3. 
 
 Certificates shall be granted to vessels clearing out for the fishery; and on arrival at Newfoundland a 
 report shall be made of such certificate, and registered; and on leaving the fishery the usual clearance 
 shall be obtained. Vessels having on board any goods other than fish, &c. to forfeit the fishing certificate. 
 — 
 
 Persons throwing out ballast, &c. to the prejudice of the harbours in Newfoundland, shall be subject to 
 a penalty. — \ 5. 
 
 A contract in writing, specifying wages, and how to be paid, must be entered into with seamen and 
 fishermen. — § 7. 
 
 A fisherman is prohibited receiving more than three fourths of his wages during service ; but the balance 
 due to him is to be paid immediately upon the expiration of the covenanted time of service. No fisherman 
 to be turned off, except for wilful neglect of duty, or other sufficient cause, under a penalty, for each 
 ofFence, of not less than 51. nor more than 50/. 
 
 In order to fulfil the conditions in any treaty with a foreign state, his Majesty may empower the 
 governor of Newfoundland to remove any works erected by British subjects for the purpose of carrying 
 on the fishery between Cape St. John and Cape Ray, and to compel them to depart to another place. — \ 12, 
 
 Every person so refusing to depart shall forfeit 50/. — § 13. 
 
 The governor is empowered to sell or lease places within the island called Ship-rooms ^ 14, 
 
 There are no means whatever by which to form any estimate of the number of ships 
 and boats employed, either regularly or occasionally, in the cod fishery on the coasts of 
 Great Britain, and on those of Norway, the Orkney and Shetland Islands, the Well- 
 bank, the Dogger-bank, the Broad-fourteens, &c. or of the quantity and value of the fish 
 annually caught. They must, however, be very considerable. See Fish. 
 
 For the regulations, &c. as to the importation of fish into Great Britain, see Fish. 
 
 It is doubtful whether the distant cod fishery may not have passed its zenith. Spain, 
 Italy, and other Catholic countries, have always been the great markets for dried fish : 
 but the observance of Lent is every day becoming less strict; and the demand for dried 
 fish will, it is most likely, sustain a corresponding decline. The relaxed observance of 
 Lent in the Netherlands and elsewhere has done more than any thing else to injure the 
 herring fishery of Holland. 
 
 Cod Fishery, American. — The Americans have at all times prosecuted the cod fishery 
 with great vigour and success. Their fishermen are remarkable for their activity and 
 enterprise, sobriety and frugality ; and their proximity to the fi.shing grounds, and the 
 other facilities they po.ssess for carrying on the fishery, give them advantages with which 
 it is very difficult to contend. In 1795, the Americans employed in the cod fishery 
 about 31,000 tons of shipping; in 1807, they are said to have employed 70,306 tons: 
 but it subsequently declined for several years, and was almost entirely suspended during 
 the late war. According to the ofiicial returns, the Americans had 85,687 tons of 
 shipping engaged in the cod fishery in 1828 ; but owing to the slovenly and inaccurate 
 way in whicli the navigation accounts laid before Congress have been prepared, — (for 
 proofs of tills, see Nicw Yoiiic,) — this statement is entitled to no credit. The corrected 
 accounts for 1831 (laid before Congress the 15th of I'Vbruary, 1833) represent the 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 305 
 
 shipping engaged that year in the cod fishery as amounting to 60,977 t£>ns. During tlie 
 year ended the 30th of September, 1832, the Americans exported 250,514 quintals of 
 dried, and 102,770 barrels of pickled cod; their aggregate value being about 1,050,000 
 dollars. 
 
 " The Americans follow two or more modes of fitting out for the fisheries. The first is accomplished 
 by 6 or 7 farmers, or their sons, building a schooner during winter, which they man themselves (as all 
 the Americans on the sea coast are more or less seamen as we ll as farmers) ; and alter fitting the vessel 
 with necessary stores, they proceed to the bank.*. Gulf of St. Lawrence, or Labrador; and, loading their 
 vessel with fish, make a voyage between spring and harvest. The proceeds they divide, after paying any 
 balancethey may owe for outfit. They remain at home to assist in gathering? their crop.s, and proceed 
 again for another cargo, which is salted down, and not afterwards dried : this is termed mud.fish, and 
 kept for home consumption. The other plan is, when a merchant, or any other, owning a vessel, lets her 
 to 10 or 15 men on shares. He finds the vessel and nets. The men pay for all the provisions, hooks, 
 and lines, and for the salt necessary to cure their proportion of the fish. One of the number is acknow- 
 ledged master ; but he has to catch fish as well as the others, and receives only about 20s-. per month for 
 navigating the vessel : the crew have five eighths of the fish caught, and the owners three eighths of 
 the whole. 
 
 " The first spring voyage is made to the banks ; the second either to the banks. Gulf of St. Lawrence, or 
 the coast of Labrador ; the third, or fall voyage, is again to the banks ; and a fourth, or second fall voyage, 
 is also made, sometimes, to the banks." — {M'(Ji-egor, vol. i. p. 220.) 
 
 It is stipulated in the first article of a convention between Great Britain and the United States, signed 
 at London, 20th of October, 1818, that the subjects of the United States shall have liberty to take all sorts 
 of fish " on that part of the coast of Newfoundland from Cape Ray to the Ramcau Islands, on the western 
 and northern coasts of Newfoundland from Cape Ray to the Quirpon Islands, on the Magdalen Islands, 
 and also on the coasts, bays, harbours, and creeks, from Mount Joly, on the southern coast of Labrador, 
 to and through the Straits of Belleisle, and thence northwardly indefinitely along the coast, without pre- 
 judice, however, to any of the exclusive rights of the Hudson's Bay Company; and that the American 
 fishermen shall also have liberty, for ever, to dry and cure fish in any of the unsettled bays, harbours, 
 and creeks, of the southern part of the coast of Newfoundland here above described, and of the coast of 
 Labrador; but so soon as the same, or any portion thereof, shall be settled, it shall not be lawful for the 
 said fishermen to dry or cure fish without previous agreement for such purpose with the inhabitants, pro- 
 prietors, or possessors of the ground. And the United States hereby renounce for ever any liberty 
 heretofore, enjoyed or claimed by the inhabitants thereof, to take, dry, or cure fish on or within 3 marine 
 miles of any of the coasts, bays, creeks, or harbours of his Britannic Majesty's dominions in America not 
 included within the above mentioned limits." The American fishermen are, however, admitted into all 
 bays, &c. for the purpose of shelter, of repairing damages, of purchasing wood, and of obtaining water, 
 and for no other purpose whatever ; and when there, they are to be placed under such restrictions as may 
 be necessary to prevent their abusing the privileges hereby reserved to them. 
 
 Cod Fishery, French. — France has always enjoyed a considerable share of the cod 
 fishery. The following Table shows the extent to which she has carried it since the 
 peace : — 
 
 Account of the Number of Ships, with their Tonnage, Crews, and Cargoes, that have entered the 
 different Ports of France from the Cod Fishery during the Nine Years ending with 1831. — (From ' 
 the Tableau General du Commerce de la France for 1831, p. 346.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Crew. 
 
 Cod, gr^en. 
 
 Cod, dry. 
 
 Oil. 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 ■ 
 
 182.5 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 184 
 348 
 336 
 341 
 387 
 381 
 414 
 377 
 302 
 
 16,958 
 36,999 
 35,172 
 38,938 
 44,868 
 45,094 
 50,574 
 45,036 
 35,180 
 
 3,655 
 6,672 
 6,311 
 7,088 
 8,238 
 7,957 
 9,428 
 8,174 
 6,243 
 
 Kilog. 
 
 4,407,730 
 7,677,824 
 7,288,949 
 8,627,341 
 9,046,145 
 12,838,291 
 10,548,878 
 10,410,302 
 9,922,680 
 
 Kilog. 
 4,423,739 
 14,891,189 
 15,823,731 
 15,591,664 
 15,970,250 
 17,256,155 
 30,377,594 
 13,645,790 
 12,817,943 
 
 Kilog. 
 
 415,210 
 1,353,898 
 1,294,336 
 1,063,670 
 1,201,623 
 1,395,897 
 1,909,147 
 1,150,059 1 
 1,163,229 1 
 
 The quantities of oil are exclusive of draches (huiles non epures) ; there are also sounds, &c. Mar- 
 seilles, Granville, Dunkirk, Bordeaux, La Rochelle, and Nantes, are the principal ports whence ships 
 are fitted out for the fishery. 
 
 But notwithstanding the apparent prosperity of this branch of industry, it may be 
 doubted whether it be really so beneficial to France as would at first sight appear. It 
 depends more upon artificial regulations than upon any thing else. Foreign cod is ex- 
 cluded from the French markets by the oppressive duty with which it is loaded ; and 
 the comparatively great demand for dried fish in Catholic countries renders this a very 
 great boon to the French fishermen. But it is admitted, that this would not be enough 
 to sustain the fishery; and bounties amounting to about 1,500,000 fr., or 60,000/. a 
 year, are paid to those engaged in it. These, however, have been recently reduced. 
 
 St. Pierre and Miquelon, small islands on the coast of Newfoundland, belong to the 
 French. Their right of fishing upon the shores of that island, and upon the great bank, 
 was replaced, in 1814, upon the footing on which it stood in 1792. This concession has 
 been much objected to by Mr. M'Gregor and others ; we believe, however, that they 
 have materially over-rated its influence. 
 
 COFFEE (Ger. Koffe, Koffehohnen ; Du. Koffy, Koffihoonen; Da. Kafe, Kaffthoyiner ; 
 Sw. Koffe; Fr. It. and Port. Caffe ; Sp. Cafe; Bus. Kofe; Pol. Kawa ; Lat. Coffea, 
 Caffea; Arab. Bun; Malay, Kdica ; Pers. Tochem, Keweh ; Turk. Chaube), the berries 
 of the coffee plant ( Coffea Arahica Lin. ). They are generally of an oval form, smaller 
 than a horse-bean, and of a tough, close, and hard texture ; they are prominent on 
 the one side and flattened on the other, having a deeply marked furrow running length- 
 
 X 
 
306 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 wise along the flattened side ; they are moderately heavy, of a greenish colour, and a 
 somewhat bitterish taste. 
 
 Historical Notice of Coffee. — The coffee plant is a native of that part of Arabia 
 called Yemen ; but it is now very extensively cultivated in the southern extremity of 
 India, in Java, the West Indies, Brazil, &c. We are ignorant of the precise period 
 when it began to be roasted, and the decoction used as a drink, though the discovery 
 is not supposed to date further back than the early part of the fifteenth century. No 
 mention of it is made by any ancient writer ; nor by any of the moderns previously to the 
 sixteenth century. Leonhart Rauwolf, a German physician, is believed to be the first 
 European who has taken any notice of coffee. His work was published in 1573, and 
 his account is, in some respects, inaccurate. Coffee was, however, very accurately de- 
 scribed by Prosper Albinus, who had been in Egypt as physician to the Venetian 
 consul, in his works de Plantis Egypti, and de Medicina Egyptiorum, published in 1591 
 and 1592. 
 
 A public coffee-house was opened for the first time, in London, in 1652. A Turkey 
 merchant, of the name of Edwards, having brought along with him from the Levant 
 some bags of coffee, and a Greek servant accustomed to make it, his house was thronged 
 with visiters to see and taste this new sort of liquor. And being desirous to gratify his 
 friends without putting himself to inconvenience, he allowed his servant to make and 
 sell coffee publicly. In consequence of this permission, the latter opened a coffee-house 
 in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill, on the spot where the Virginia Coffee-house now stands. 
 Garra way's was the first coffee-house opened after the great fire in 1666. — (^Moseley on 
 Coffee, 5th ed. p. 15.)* 
 
 M. de la Roque mentions that the use of coffee was first introduced into France in 
 the period between 1640 and 1660; and he further states, that the first coffee-house 
 for the sale of coffee in France was opened at Marseilles, in 1671 ; and that one was 
 opened at Paris in the following year. — ( Voyage de la Syrie, torn. ii. pp. 310 — 319.) 
 
 Some time between 1680 and 1690, the Dutch planted coffee beans they had procured 
 from Mocha, in the vicinity of Batavia. In 1690, they sent a plant to Europe ; and it 
 was from berries obtained from this plant that the first coffee plantations in the West 
 Indies and Surinam were derived. 
 
 Progressive Consumption of Coffee in Great Britain. Influence of the Duties. — In 
 1660, a duty of 4<i. a gallon was laid on all coffee made and sold. Previously to 1732, 
 the duty on coffee amounted to 2s. a pound ; but an act was then passed, in compliance 
 with the solicitations of the West India planters, reducing the duty to Is. 6d. a pound; 
 at which it stood for many years, producing, at an average, about 10,000/. a year. In 
 consequence, however, of the prevalence of smuggling, caused by the too great magni- 
 tude of the duty, the revenue declined, in 1783, to 2,869/. 10s. lO^d. And it having 
 been found impossible otherwise to check the practice of clandestine importation, the 
 duty was reduced, in 1784, to 6d. The consequences of this wise and salutary measure 
 were most beneficial. Instead of being reduced, the revenue was immediately raised 
 to near three times its previous amount, or to 7,200/. 15s. 9d., showing that the con- 
 sumption of legally imported coffee must have increased in about a ninefold proportion ! 
 — a striking and conclusive proof, as Mr. Bryan Edwards has observed, of the effect of 
 heavy taxation in defeating its own object. — {Hist, of the West Indies, vol. ii. p. 340. 
 8vo ed.) 
 
 The history of the coffee trade abounds with similar and even more striking examples 
 of the superior productiveness of low duties. In 1807, the duty was Is. 8d. a pound ; 
 and the quantity entered for home consumption amounted to 1,170,164 lbs., yielding 
 a revenue of 161,245/. lis. 4d. In 1808, the duty was reduced from Is. 8c?. to 7d. ; 
 and in 1809, there were no fewer than 9,251,847 lbs. entered for home consumption, 
 yielding, notwithstanding the reduction of duty, a revenue of 245,856/. 8s. 4d. The 
 duty having been raised, in 1819, from 7c?. to Is. a pound, the quantity entered for 
 home consumption, in 1824, was 7,993,041 lbs., yielding a revenue of 407,544/. 4s. 3c?. 
 In 1824, however, the duty being again reduced from Is. to 6d., the quantity entered 
 for home consumption, in 1825, was 10,766,1 12 lbs., and in 1831 it had increased to 
 22,740,627 lbs., yielding a nett revenue of 583,751/. 
 
 The consumption of the United Kingdom may, at present, be estimated at about 
 23,000,000 lbs., producing about 600,000/. of revenue. 
 
 We subjoin 
 
 * Charles II. attempted, by a proclamation issued in 1675, to suppress coffee-houses, on the ground of 
 their being resorted to by disaftected i)ersons who " devised and spread abroad divers false, malicious, 
 and scandalous reports, to the defamation of his Majesty's government, and to the disturbance of the 
 peace and quiet of the nation." The opinion of the Judges having been taken as to the legality of the 
 proceeding, they resolved, " That retailing coffee might be an innocent trade ; but as it was used to 
 nourish sedition, spread lies, and scandalise gr^a/ men, it might also be a common nuisance! 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 307 
 
 L Quantities of the difFercnt Sorts of Coffee entered for Home Consumption in the United Kingdom, 
 
 each Year since \822. 
 
 Years ended 
 
 British 
 Pl&ntstion* 
 
 ForiMgn 
 riant- 
 ation. 
 
 ^Kast 
 
 Total. 
 
 Years ended 
 
 
 Foreign 
 Plant- 
 ation , 
 
 Km 
 
 Total. 
 
 5th Jan. 1822 
 
 — 182.-3 
 -~ 1824 
 
 — 1825 
 
 — 1826 
 
 — 1827 
 
 Lbt. 
 7,386,060 
 7,494,218 
 8.218,342 
 7,947,890 
 10,622,376 
 12,409,000 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 764 
 3,416 
 
 881 
 1,540 
 2,849 
 2,753 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 206,177 
 171,717 
 235,697 
 313,513 
 457,745 
 791,570 
 
 Lbs. 
 7,593,001 
 7,669,351 
 8,454,920 
 8,262,943 
 11,082,970 
 13,203,323 
 
 5th Jan. 1828 
 
 — 1829 
 
 — 1830 
 
 — 1831 
 
 — 1832 
 _ 1833 
 
 Lbs. 
 14,676,968 
 16,151,239 
 18,495,407 
 21,697,966 
 21,501,966 
 20,964,301 
 
 Lbs. 
 1,210 
 2,984 
 6,197 
 3,971 
 3,940 
 17,591 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 888,198 
 973,410 
 974,576 
 989,585 
 1,2.'}4,721 
 1,970,635 
 
 U,t. 
 15,.566,376 
 17,127,633 
 19,476,180 
 22,691,522 
 '^2,740,6'/? 
 22,952,527 
 
 [L An Account of the Quantity of Coffee retained for Home Consumption in Great Britain, the; Rates of 
 Duty thereon, and the Produce of the Duties, each Year since 1789. 
 
 1789 
 1790 
 1791 
 1792 
 1793 
 1794 
 1795 
 1796 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1804 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 1813 
 1S14 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 Quantities retained 
 for Home 
 Consumption. 
 
 BritlsIiFiantalion. 
 
 930,141 
 973,110 
 1,047,276 
 946,666 
 1,070,438 
 .969,512 
 1,054,588 
 396,953 
 637.001 
 697,487 
 682,432 
 826,590 
 750,861 
 829,435 
 905,532 
 1,061,327 
 1,201,736 
 1,157,014 
 1,170,164 
 1,069,691 
 9,251,837 
 5,308,096 
 6,390,122 
 8,118,734 
 8,788,601 
 6,324,267 
 6,117,311 
 7,557,471 
 8,688,726 
 7,967,857 
 7,429,352 
 6,869,286- 
 7,327,283 
 7,404,204 
 8,209,245 
 7,993,040 
 10,766,112 
 12,724,139 
 14,974,378 
 16,522,423 
 18,906,373 
 21,840,520 
 21,747,813 
 22,053,326 
 
 Rates of Duty on 
 
 0 101 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 Per lb. 
 S. d. 
 
 2 Ok 
 
 _6| 
 7 
 
 n 
 
 ~7 
 
 Hi 
 
 Of 
 Of 
 
 0 10 
 0 10 
 
 *0 lOf 
 0 111 
 
 Percent.ad valorem. 
 Ji s. d. 
 Nil, 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 "7 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 19 2 
 Nil. 
 
 46,286 17 
 
 50,799 7 
 
 57,659 5 
 
 48,825 6 
 
 67,357 11 
 
 74,430 4 
 
 65,788 3 
 
 30,048 6 
 
 92,469 3 
 
 78,966 6 
 
 74,001 2 
 
 142,867 11 
 
 106,076 2 
 
 72,183 2 
 
 72,093 15 8 
 
 151,388 
 
 120,172 18 
 
 152,759 6 
 
 161,245 11 
 
 229,738 16 
 
 245,886 8 
 
 175,567 1 
 
 212,890 12 
 
 255,184 7 
 Custom records 
 
 213,513 18 
 
 258,762 18 
 
 290,834 0 
 
 298,540 5 
 
 250,106 4 
 
 292,154 8 
 
 340,223 6 
 
 371,252 " 
 
 374,596 19 
 
 416,324 3 
 
 407,544 4 
 
 307,204 14 
 
 324,667 11 
 
 384,994 13 
 
 425,389 5 
 
 484,975 10 
 
 558,544 3 
 
 559,431 19 
 
 575,264 18 
 
 11 
 7 
 9 
 4 
 8 
 4 
 4 
 10 
 1 
 
 destroyed. 
 4 
 3 
 11 
 1 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 IIL Account of the Quantity of Coffee Imported into the United Kingdom from the several Britisti 
 Colonies and Plantations, from the British Possessions in the East Indies, and from Foreign Countries, 
 in the Year ending the 5th of January, 1836; distinguishing the several Sorts of Coffee, and the 
 Colonies and Countries from which the same was imported. — (Furnished by the Custom House.) 
 
 Colonies and Countries from which imported. 
 
 Of the British 
 Possessions in 
 America, and of 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
 Ofthe East Indies 
 and Mauritius. 
 
 Ofthe Foreign 
 Plantations. 
 
 Total QuanUty 
 imported. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 British colonies and plantations in Ame- 
 
 
 
 
 
 rica; viz. 
 Antigua 
 
 
 
 
 
 580 
 
 
 
 580 
 
 Barbadoes ... 
 
 57,825 
 
 
 
 57,825 
 
 Dominica 
 
 112,557 
 
 
 
 112,557 
 
 Grenada 
 
 8,236 
 
 
 
 8,236 
 
 Jamaica - . . 
 
 11,154,307 
 
 
 
 11,154,307 
 
 St Christopher 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 St Lucia 
 
 53,582 
 
 
 
 53,582 
 
 St Vincent's 
 
 118 
 
 
 
 lie 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 21,950 
 
 
 11,110 
 
 33,060 
 
 Tortola 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 Bahamas . . 
 
 
 
 ' 280,156 
 
 280,156 
 
 DemeraiB 
 
 " 1,139,054 
 
 
 1 
 
 1,139,054 
 
 X 2 
 
308 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 III. Account of the Quantity of Coffee imported into the United Kingdom ~ continued. 
 
 Colonies and Countries from which imported. 
 
 Of the British 
 Possessions in 
 Americftj and of 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
 Of the East Indie* 
 and Mauritius. 
 
 — — 
 
 L 
 
 Of the Foreign) 
 Plantations. 
 
 Total Quantitr 
 imported. 
 
 Berbice 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 - 
 
 2,027,037 
 
 
 2,027,037 
 
 British North American Colonies 
 Egypt 
 
 - 
 - 
 
 5,416 
 
 _ 
 
 8,899 
 50 
 
 14 315 
 
 ' 50 
 
 West Coast of Africa 
 
 - 
 
 32,306 
 
 1 
 
 31,032 
 
 63,338 
 
 Cape of Good Hope « 
 
 - 
 
 
 338 
 
 
 338 
 
 Easterp coast of A frica • 
 
 
 _ 
 
 214 
 
 _ 
 
 214 
 243,296 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 
 
 243,29& 
 
 
 British possessions in the East Indies; 
 
 VIZ. 
 
 
 
 
 East India Company's territories. 
 
 ex- 
 
 
 
 
 
 elusive of Singapore 
 
 - 
 
 
 2,462,813 
 
 _ 
 
 2,462,813 
 
 Singapore 
 
 
 
 849,900 
 
 _ 
 
 849,900 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 
 
 1,870,143 
 
 
 l,870,'l43 
 
 Java 
 
 
 - 
 
 1,034,262 
 
 - 
 
 1,034,S;62 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 
 
 34 019 
 
 
 34,019 
 
 Other islands of the Indian Seas 
 
 
 - 
 
 *442 
 
 - 
 
 442 
 
 China 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 27 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 
 110 
 
 Hayti 
 
 
 
 
 ' 1,124,213 
 
 1,124,213 
 
 Foreign colonies in the West Indies ; 
 
 viz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cuba 
 
 
 
 
 609,418 
 
 609,418 
 
 United States of America 
 
 
 
 
 37,360 
 
 57,360 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 
 
 
 57,539 
 
 57,539 
 
 Columbia 
 
 
 
 
 228 
 
 228 
 
 Brazil • 
 
 
 
 
 4,117,094 
 
 4,117,094 
 
 Europe 
 
 
 4,010 
 
 672,350 
 
 336,434 
 
 l,012,79i 
 
 Totals 
 
 
 14,617,046 
 
 7,167,914 1 
 
 6,613,533 
 
 £8,398,493 
 
 IV. Account of the Quantity of ColTee exported from the United Kingdom, in the Year ended the 5th 
 of January, 1836 ; distinguishing the several Sorts of Coffee, and the Countries to which the same was 
 exported. — (Furnished by Custom House.) 
 
 
 Of the BritRh 
 
 
 
 
 Countries to which exportetl. 
 
 Possessions in 
 
 Of the East Indies 
 
 Of the Foreign 
 
 Total Quantitj 
 
 America, and of 
 
 and Mauritius. 
 
 Plantations. 
 
 exported. 
 
 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Russia ... 
 
 18,852 
 
 3,750 
 
 1,319,652 
 
 1,342,254 
 
 Sweden - - - 
 
 
 102 
 
 9,985 
 
 10,087 
 
 Norway . - - 
 
 
 722 
 
 309,737 
 
 310,459 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 13,839 
 
 •615,328 
 
 629,167 
 
 Prussia - - - 
 
 
 24,156 
 
 133,613 
 
 157,769 
 
 Germany - - 
 
 44,867 
 
 194,081 
 
 866,730 
 
 1,105,678 
 
 The Netherlands 
 
 43,597 
 
 2,008,468 
 
 4,397,527 
 
 6,449,592 
 
 France - - . 
 
 
 95,951 
 
 
 95,951 
 
 Portugal, the Azores, and Madeira 
 
 SO 
 
 642 
 
 7,534 
 
 8,206 
 
 Spain an^J the Canaries 
 
 
 479 
 
 149 
 
 628 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 
 
 6,279 
 
 6,279 
 
 Italy 
 
 35,512 
 
 209,686 
 
 1,489,905 
 
 1,735,103 
 
 Malta 
 
 42,026 
 
 4,967 
 
 36i^,8S8 
 
 411,881 
 
 The Ionian Islands 
 
 
 260 
 
 37,621 
 
 37,881 
 
 Turkey and Continental Greece 
 
 
 8,821 
 
 739,114 
 
 747,935 
 
 Moreaand Greek Islands 
 
 
 
 104,139 
 
 104,139 
 
 Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Man 
 
 8,892 
 
 10,488 
 
 3,837 
 
 23,217 
 
 
 193,776 
 
 2,576,412 
 
 10.406,038 
 
 13,176,226 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 Other parts of Africa 
 
 
 
 34,776 
 
 34,776 
 
 2,108 
 
 5,370 
 
 5,255 
 
 12,733 
 
 East Indies and China 
 
 
 966 
 
 302 
 
 1,268 
 
 New South Wales, Swan River, and Van 
 
 
 
 
 
 Diemen's Land 
 
 2 
 
 9,749 
 
 7,348 
 
 19,544 
 
 British North American Colonies 
 
 1 
 
 14,702 
 
 52,8-19 
 
 69,169 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 
 8,676 
 
 19,988 
 
 28,664 
 
 United States of America 
 
 
 
 640 
 
 640 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 761 
 
 
 761 
 
 States of the Rio de la Plata 
 
 
 
 781 
 
 781 
 
 Chili 
 
 112 
 
 245 
 
 1,330 
 
 1,687 
 
 Peru 
 
 
 
 121 
 
 121 
 
 Totals from Great Britain 
 
 200,091 
 
 2,616,881 
 
 10,529,398 
 
 13,346,370 
 
 British North American Colonies 
 
 167 
 
 
 
 167 
 
 Total quantity exported from the 
 
 
 
 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 200.258 
 
 2,616,881 
 
 10.529,398 
 
 13,346,537 ^ 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 V. Account of the Amount of Duties received on Coffbe in Great Britain and Irelan<l respectively in tlie 
 Year ending 5th of January, 1836 ; distinguishing each Sort of Coffee, and the nett Produce of the 
 Duties on Cofffee in the United Kingdom in such Year. — (Furnished by the Custoin-house.) 
 
 Year ending 5th January, 1836. 
 
 In Great Britain. 
 
 In Ireland. 
 
 In the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Of the British possessions in America and Sierra 1 
 Leone - - - J 
 Of the East Indies and Mauritius 
 Other sorts - 
 
 Total gross receipt 
 
 Nett produce 
 
 428,416 
 
 203,340 
 145 
 
 £ 
 
 14,581 
 
 6,120 
 1 
 
 £ 
 
 442,997 
 
 209,460 
 146 
 
 631,901 
 
 $0,702 
 
 632,fX)3 
 
 631,422 
 
 20,702 
 
 652.124 
 
 The introduction of tea and coffee, it has been well remarked, «« has led to the most 
 Ji'onderful change that ever took place in the diet of modern civilised nations, — a change 
 highly important both in a moral and physical point of view. These beverages have 
 the admirable advantage of affording stimulus without producing intoxication, or any ot 
 tts evil consequences. Lovers of tea or coffee are, in fact, rarely drinkers ; and hence 
 the use of these beverages has benefited both manners and morals. Raynal observes 
 that the use of tea has contributed more to the sobriety of the Chinese than the severest 
 laws, the most eloquent discourses, or the best treatises on morality." — (^Scotsman, 17th 
 of October, 1827.) 
 
 Supply and Consumption of Coffee. — Owing to the rapidly increasing consumption of 
 coffee in this country, the Continent, and America, the great value of the article, the 
 large .amount of capital and labour employed in its production, and the shipping required 
 for its transport, it has become a commodity of primary commercial importance. It 
 deserves particular attention, too, inasmuch as there are few, if any, articles that exhibit 
 such variations, not only as to consumption, but also as to growth and price. These are 
 occasioned partly by changes of commercial regulations and duties, and partly, also, by 
 the plant requiring 4 or 5 years before it comes to bear ; so that the supply is neither 
 suddenly increased when the demand increases, nor diminished when it falls off. St. 
 Domingo used formerly to be one of the greatest sources of supply, having exported, in 
 1786, about 35,000 tonsj and it is supposed that, but for the negro in.surrection which 
 broke out in 1792, the exports of that year would have amounted to 42,000 tons. The 
 devastation occasioned by this event caused, for a series of years, an almost total cessation 
 of supplies. Recently, however, they have again begun to increase ; and are under- 
 stood to amount, at present, to above 20,000 tons a year. From Cuba, the exports 
 of coffee have within these few years rather declined, owing partly to an increased con- 
 sumption in the island, and partly to the efforts of the planters having, a little time back, 
 been more directed to the cultivation of sugar : they may at present amount to from 
 18,000 to 20,000 tons; or, including Porto Rico, to 25,0'00 or 27,000 tons. In Java, 
 also, the exports of coffee have, of late, been on the decline, but not to any consi- 
 derable extent. In Jamaica and the other British West India colonies, the cultivation of • 
 coffee was greatly extended during the prevalence of the high prices, but the imports 
 tiave fallen off from 12,000 tons in 1829, to about 10,800 tons in 1832. In Brazil, the 
 growth of coffee has increased with unprecedented rapidity. So late as 1 821, the quantity 
 of coffee exported from Rio de Janeiro did not exceed 7,500 tons ; whereas it now 
 amounts to about 30,000 tons ! * This extraordinary increase has probably been, in 
 some measure, owing to the continuance of the slave trade ; and it remains to be seen, 
 whether the growth of coffee may not now be checked by the late cessation of that abo-- 
 minable traffic. The culture of coffee in India and Ceylon is daily becoming of more 
 importance. In India, it is raised chiefly on the coast of Malabar, and the quantity 
 exported is, at present, believed to exceed 4,000,000 lbs. The exports from Ceylon, 
 in 1830, were 1,669,490 lbs. The total imports of coffee into Great Britain from the 
 East Indies, in 1832, were 10,407,897 lbs. 
 
 The following may, we believe, be regarded as a pretty fair estimate of the annual ex- 
 ports of coffee from the principal places where it is produced, and of the annual consumption 
 in those countries into which it is imported from abroad, at the present time : — 
 
 Exports. Tons. 
 
 Mocha, Hodeida, and other Arabian ports . - _ 10,000 
 
 Java - 18,000 
 
 Sumatra and other parts of India - . - . 8,000 
 
 Brazil and the Spanish Main - - ... 42,000 
 
 St. Domingo - - - .... 20,000 
 
 Cuba and Porto Rico - - • . - - 25,000 
 
 British West India colonics - . - . . 11,000 
 
 Dutch West India colonies - « . . _ 5,000 
 
 French West India colonies and the Isle de Bourbon . . 8,000 
 
 147,000 
 
 • M. Montvcran is pleased to inform us, in his Essal de Stattstiqiie sur Ifs Colonies, a work in other 
 respects of considerable merit (Piices Justijicatives, p. 11.), that the exports of c jffee from Brazil in 
 1830-31 amounted to 1,865,000 kiiog. = 1,836 tops! In point of fact they were more than 20 times as mucL 
 
310 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 Consumption. 
 Great Britain - - 
 
 Netherlands and Holland 
 Germany and countries round the Baltic 
 France, Spain, Italy, Turkey in Europe, the Levant, &€." 
 America - - - - 
 
 Tons. 
 
 10,500 
 40,500 
 
 32,000 
 35,000 
 20,500 
 
 138,500 
 
 Of this quantity, the consumption of Great Britain and America amounts to nearly a 
 fourth part, and may be said to have arisen almost entirely since 1 807. 
 
 Of the entire export of coffee from Arabia, not more, perhaps, than 5,000 or 6,000 
 tons finds its way to the places mentioned above ; so that, supposing these estimates to 
 be about correct, it follows that the supply of coffee is, at present, about equal to the 
 demand. The latter is, however, rapidly increasing ; and it is impossible to say whether 
 it be destined to outrun, keep pace with, or fall short of the supply. On the whole, 
 however, we should be inclined to think, that though they may occasionally vary to the 
 extent of a few thousand tons on the one side or the other, the probability is that they 
 will be pretty nearly balanced ; so that, supposing peace to be preserved, we do not anti- 
 cipate any very great variation of price. The prices Of 1827, 1828, 1829, and 1830, 
 seem to have been a good deal below the average. This depression naturally checked 
 production and stimulated consumption, so that prices rose considerably in 1831, 1832, 
 and 1833 ; but the advance, in the last, has not been maintained, at least to the whole 
 extent. Such oscillations will, no doubt, continue to take place ; but unless the cost 
 of producing coffee should be permanently increased or diminished, they can only be 
 temporary. 
 
 The consumption of coffee in the United States has been more than quadrupled since 
 1821, in which year it amounted to 6,680 tons. Part of this increase is, no doubt, to 
 be ascribed to the reduction of the duty, first from 5 to 2 cents per pound, and its sub- 
 sequent repeal ; part to the fall in the price of coffee ; and a part, perhaps, to the 
 increase of temperance societies. Probably, also, it was in some degree ascribable to 
 the comparatively high duties formerly laid on the teas imported into the United 
 States J these, however, finally ceased in 1833. 
 
 Account of the Imports of Coffee into the United States, the Exports from the same, and the Quantities 
 left for Home Consumption, during each of the Fifteen Years ending the 30th of September, 1835. — 
 {Papers published by Order of Congress.) 
 
 1821 
 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 21,273,659 
 25,782,390 
 37,337,732 
 39,224,251 
 45,190,630 
 43,319,497 
 50,051,986 
 55,19i,697 
 51,133,538 
 51,488,248 
 81,759,386 
 91,722,329 
 99,955,020 
 80,153,366 
 103,199,577 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 9,387,595 
 7,267,119 
 20,900,687 
 19,427,227 
 24,512,568 
 11,584.713 
 21,697;789 
 16,037,964 
 18,083,843 
 13,124,561 
 6,056,629 
 55,251,158 
 24,897,114 
 35,806,861 
 11,446,775 
 
 Left for Home Consumption. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 11,886,0^3 
 18,515,271 
 16,437,045 
 19,797,024 
 20,678,062 
 31,734,784 
 28,354,197 
 39,156,733 
 33,049,695 
 38,363,687 
 75,702,757 
 40,471,171 
 75,057,906 
 44,346,505 
 91,752,802 
 
 Tons. 
 5,306 
 8,266 
 7,338 
 8,838 
 9,231 
 14,167 
 12,658 
 17,481 
 14,754 
 17,127 
 33,796 
 18,067 
 33,508 
 19,797 
 4ii961 
 
 Mr. Cook gives the following statement of the imports of coffee into the Continent and Great Britain, 
 and of the stocks on hand on the 31st of December each year: — 
 
 Places. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Stocks. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831 
 
 1832. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 France » - 
 Trieste, Genoa, and Leghorn 
 Antwerp 
 
 Kotterdam . . - 
 
 ATnsterdam 
 
 Hamburgh 
 
 Bremen - - 
 
 Copenhagen 
 
 I'ctcrsburgh 
 
 Tons. 
 13,000 
 
 12,100 
 21,200 
 4,500 
 9,000 
 20,250 
 4,960 
 1,340 
 500 
 
 Tons. 
 
 8,300 
 
 6,430 
 
 5,130 
 11,740 
 10,700 ■ 
 17,380 
 
 4,330 
 
 1,570 
 
 1,200 
 
 T071S. 
 
 13,130 
 13,570 
 8,400 
 14,200 
 10,550 
 22,500 
 6,130 
 1,670 
 1,700 
 
 Tons. 
 6,150 
 4,500 
 4,000 
 3,600 
 5,800 
 10,700 
 2,000 
 350 
 300 
 
 Tons. 
 2,900 
 1,250 
 2,850 
 4,500 
 6,000 
 7,500 
 1,750 
 490 
 1,000 
 
 Ton*. 
 5,100 
 6,200 
 1,900 
 7,500 
 7,480 
 11,000 
 2,680 
 600 
 960 
 
 Totals 
 
 Orcat Britain 
 
 86,850 
 18,290 
 
 66,780 
 19,350 
 
 91,850 
 22,370 
 
 37,200 
 13,420 
 
 28,240 
 12,530 
 
 43,420 
 12,180 
 
 Continent and Great Britaii 
 
 105,140 
 
 86,130 
 
 114,220 
 
 50,620 
 
 40,770 
 
 55,600 
 
 {State of Commerce qf Great Britain for 1832, p. 19. & 21.) 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 311 
 
 According to Mr. Cook, the prices] of Jamaica and St. Domingo (Hayti) coffee, exclusive of duty, 
 in the Ix)naon market, at the close of each year since 181 4, have been — , 
 
 \ears. 
 
 amaica. 
 
 St D 
 
 . . omingo. 
 
 ears. 
 
 T a'c 
 
 Rt Do in 0 
 omi g 
 
 1814 
 
 Sls.tolOSs. percwt. 
 
 90*.tol04s. per cwt. 
 
 1826 
 
 42s. to i)5s. per cwt. 
 
 50*.to FAs. I>er cwt. 
 
 1815 
 
 61 no 
 
 72 80 
 
 1827 
 
 30 — 80 
 
 37 — 39 
 
 1816 
 
 68 — 102 
 
 74— 75 
 
 1828 
 
 28— 80 
 
 36— 38 
 
 1817 
 
 86 — 105 
 
 93— 98 
 
 1829 
 
 30— 75 
 
 32— 34 
 
 1818 
 
 134 — 155 
 
 144 — 148 
 
 1830 
 
 32— 78 
 
 34— 35 
 
 1819 
 
 U7 _ 165 
 
 128 — 134 
 
 1831 
 
 50— 86 
 
 45—46 
 
 1820 
 
 112 — 135 
 
 118 — 120 
 
 1832 
 
 60— 90 
 
 55— r,7 
 
 1821 
 
 85 — 125 
 
 98 — 102 
 
 1833 
 
 77 — 110 
 
 65— 66 
 
 1822 
 
 85 — 135 
 
 95 — 100 
 
 1834 
 
 68 — 124 
 
 48 — 52 
 
 1823 
 
 79 — 117 
 
 75— 79 
 
 1835 
 
 80 — 113 
 
 51- 53 
 
 1824 
 
 50—102 
 
 58— 61 
 
 1st. Nov. 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 48 — 100 
 
 55— 56 
 
 1836 
 
 71 — 120 
 
 51— 54 
 
 The following extract from Prince's Price Current shows the prices of the different sorts of coflee in 
 Ix)ndon on the 4th of November, 1836. 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Coffbe, per cwt. in bond, 
 
 f fine mid. and fine 
 middling 
 low do. 
 fine ord. 
 good ord. 
 ord. and triage 
 , good mid. to fine 
 
 Berbice / ^"^ 
 ueroite ^ ordinary 
 
 Dominical mid. and fine 
 
 and •! good and fine ord. 
 
 St. Lucia (.triage and ord. 
 
 d. 
 
 110 0 to 119 
 
 d. Duty. 
 
 94 
 90 
 • 85 
 ■ 75 
 66 
 107 
 93 
 77 
 70 
 92 
 80 
 70 
 
 0 — lOG 0 
 
 0 — 93 0 
 
 0 — 89 0 
 
 0 — 80 0 
 
 0 — 72 0 
 
 0 — 118 0 
 
 0 — 106 0 
 
 0 — 91 0 
 
 0 — 76 0 
 
 0-116 0 
 
 0 _ 91 0 
 
 0 — 76 0 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Brit. 
 
 PI. & 
 W. I. 
 
 B. P. 
 6d. 
 
 F. E. 
 
 I. 9d. 
 
 F. 
 l4. 3<f. 
 per lb. 
 
 Coffee is sold in bond ; the business is done in the public 
 market, either by juiblic sale or private contract. The terms 
 are — E. 1. and \V. 1. British Plantation, 1 month, 1 per cent, 
 discount, allowing 4 per cent, for cash ; East India at a prompt 
 of three months from the day of sale, without discount ; Foreign 
 
 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 St. Dorningo 
 
 
 SI 
 
 0 to 
 
 54 
 
 0' 
 
 E. In. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 44 
 
 0 — 
 
 54 
 
 0 
 
 Brit. 
 
 Havanah and Cuba, good and 
 
 fine 
 
 
 
 
 
 PI. & 
 
 ord. 
 
 
 48 
 
 0 — 
 
 78 
 
 0 
 
 W. I. 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 
 63 
 
 0 - 
 
 72 
 
 0 
 
 B. P. 
 
 East India, Java 
 
 
 40 
 
 0 — 
 
 48 
 
 0 
 
 • 6d. 
 
 Cheribon and Bat. good 
 
 
 50 
 
 0 — 
 
 70 
 
 0 
 
 F.E. 
 
 Ceylon certificate 
 for export 
 
 
 71 
 
 0 — 
 
 72 
 
 0 
 
 I. 9d. 
 
 
 44 
 
 0 _ 
 
 48 
 
 0 
 
 F. 
 
 Sumatra and Samarang 
 
 
 38 
 
 0 _ 
 
 48 
 
 0 
 
 1*. 3rf. 
 
 Mocha 
 
 
 52 
 
 0 - 
 
 105 
 
 0 
 
 per lb. 
 
 1 month, 24 per cent, discount, and 4 per cent, for cash. The 
 tares are the same as allowed by the revenue. The draft on 
 B. P., namely, casks of 5 cwt. and upwards 5 lbs. ; under 5 cwt. 
 4 lbs. ; barrels and bags 2 lbs. : Foreign and East India 1 lb. 
 
 Notwithstanding the great reduction of the duties on coffee in 1824, there can be no 
 doubt that they are still too high. At this moment they amount to 50 per cent, on the 
 price of very fine coffee, and to 75 or 90 per cent, on the price of inferior sorts. Were 
 the duties on British plantation coffee reduced to 3d. per lb. (28^. a cwt.), and those 
 on Mocha and Foreign India coffee to 4d. per lb. (37s. 4d. a cwt.), the consumption would 
 be so much extended, that, instead of being diminished, the revenue would be decidedly 
 increased. The increase of consumption mentioned above must not, however, be wholly 
 attributed to the reduction of the duty in 1824 : the low prices from that year to 1830 
 had, no doubt, a material effect in facilitating the formation of a taste for coffee. The 
 great i eduction in the price of low brown sugar (at least l^d. per lb.) must also have 
 assisted the consumption of coffee, — the one being so necessary to the extensive use of 
 the other. The small increase of consvimption since 1830 is wholly to be ascribed to 
 the rise of prices; but were the duty reduced to 3d., this rise would be counteracted, 
 and the consumption would again rapidly increase ; nor, provided East India were ad - 
 mitted at a duty of 4d., and foreign at a duty of 6d., is there any reason to fear that the 
 increased consumption would have any material influence on the price. 
 
 Species of Coffee. Roasting, §-c. — The coffee of Mocha is gerieially esteemed the 
 best ; then follow the coffees of Jamaica, Dominica, Berbice, Demerara, Bourbon, Java, 
 Martinique, and Hayti. Arabian or Mocha coffee is produced in a very dry climate, 
 the best being raised upon mountainous slopes and sandy soils. The most fertile soils 
 are not suitable for the growth of very fine coffee. Mr. Bryan Edwards observes, that 
 ** a rich deep soil, frequently meliorated by showers, will produce a luxuriant tree and a 
 great crop ; but the beans, which are large, and of a dingy green, prove, for many years, 
 rank and vapid." And the same remark is made by Mr. Crawfurd, with respect to the 
 coffee of Java. — (East Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 487.) Coffee is improved by being 
 kept ; it then becomes of a paler colour. 
 
 Mocha, or, as it is commonly called, Turkey coffee, should be chosen of a greenish 
 light olive hue, fresh and new, free from any mustiness, the berries of a middling size, 
 clean, plump, and without any intermixture of sticks or other impurities. Particular 
 care should be taken that it be not false packed. Good West India coffee should be of 
 a greenish colour, fresh, free from any unpleasant smell, the berries small and unbroken. 
 
 Coffee berries readily imbibe exhalations from other bodies, and thereby acquire an 
 adventitious and disagreeable flavour. Sugar placed near coffee will, in a short time, so 
 impregnate the berries, as to injure their flavour. Dr. Moseley mentions, that a few bags 
 of pepper, on board a ship from India, spoiled a whole cargo of coffee. 
 
 " The roasting of the berry to a proper degree requires great nicety : the virtue and 
 agreeableness of the drink depend upon it ; and both are often injured by the ordinary 
 method. Bernier says, when he was at Cairo, where coffee is so much used, he was 
 assured by the best judges, that there were only two people in that great city who un- 
 derstood how to prepare it in perfection. If it be under-done, its virtues will not be 
 imparted, and, in use, it will load and oppress the stomach; if it be over. done, it will 
 
 X 4 
 
312 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 yield a flat, burnt, and bitter taste, its virtues will be destroyed, and, in use, it will heat 
 the body, and act as an astringent." — {Moseley, p. 39.) 
 
 Adulteration of Coffee. — A mill for grinding coffee may be bought for a small sum ; 
 and no one who has the means of grinding it at home ought to purchase it ground, 
 unless from shops of the first respectability. Ground coffee is liable to be, and in point 
 of fact is, very extensively adulterated with succory, beans, roasted corn, &c. The 
 facilities for this fraudulent intermixture are so very great as to render it impossible 
 materially to lessen them otherwise than by a reduction of the duty. 
 
 Regulations with respect to Sale, hnportation, Sfc. — Roasted beans and rye, reduced to powder, have 
 frequently been used to adulterate ground coffee : and the possebsion of such substitutes for coffee was 
 formerly an offence punishable by the forfeiture of the articles, and a penalty of 100/. But by the act 
 3 Geo. 4. c. 53., persons who are not dealers in cqffee may take a licence for roasting and selling corn, peas, 
 beans, or parsneps, labelling the parcels with the names, and conforming to the various regulations pre- 
 scribed in the act. 
 
 Dealers in coffee must take out a licence, renewable annually, which, at present, costs lis. 
 
 No coffee can be imported in packages of less than 100 lbs. ne'tt weight. 
 
 No abatement of duties is made on account of any damage coffee may have received. . 
 
 Coffee cannot be entered as being the produce of any British possession in America or of the Mauritius, 
 until the master of the ship in which the coffee is imported deliver to the collector or comptroller a cer- 
 tificate of its origui, and declare that the coffee is the produce of such place. — (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52. 
 ^ § 36, 37.) 
 
 We subjoin two pro forma accounts, one of the sale of 100 bags Brazil coffee, the other of the sale of 
 10 tierces Jamaica coffee. They may be depended upon as accurate ; and are interesting from their show- 
 ing in detail the various charges, exclusive of duty, affecting this important article. 
 
 Pro forma Accouist Sale of . B. 100 Bags Coffee per " Ix>ndon," from Rio Janeiro, on Account of C. D. and Co. 
 
 By E. F. for 100 bags. Prompt 1 month. 
 
 Cwt. </rs- lbs. 
 Lots 1 to 5. weighing 115 0 0 gross. 
 
 3 2 8 Tare 2 lb. Dri.ft 2 lb. per bag. 
 
 Itl 1 20 nett 
 
 . at 3/. 3*. 
 
 Discount 2J per cent. 
 
 Charges. 
 
 To Sea insurance on 400/. at 21. per cent 
 
 Policy 5s. 6d. per cent. ... 
 Commission ^ per cent. . - . 
 
 Dock rates on 143 cwt. 0 qr. 24 lbs. at Is. 'Zd.* 
 Lotting Id. per bag - ... 
 
 Insurance against fire ... 
 Freight on 143 cwt. 0 qr. 24 lbs. at 3s. 
 Primage 5 per cent. 1/. Is. 6d. Pierage 2». Id. 
 
 Public sale. charges lis. 6d. Petty expenses 8s. 6d. 
 Brokerage 1 per cent. ... 
 Commission 2J per cent. ... 
 
 Errors excepted. 
 
 London, "id of November, 1833. 
 
 i. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 . 8 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 - 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 . 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 - 8 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 - 0 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 ' ^1 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 445 10 0 
 II 2 9 
 
 22 13 
 1 6 
 4 9 
 
 11 2 
 
 Nett proceeds 
 
 (Cash, 30th of November, 1833.) 
 
 Pro forma Account Sale of G. H. 10 Tierces Coffee per " Kingston," from Jamaica, on Account of I. K. and Co. 
 
 By L. M. for 10 tierces. Prompt 1 month 
 
 Casks. Cri't. qrs. lbs. 
 
 Lot 4. a weighing 4.5 0 0 
 3 0 15 
 
 Cmts. qrs. lb». 
 Tare 3 2 IS 
 Draft 0 0 25 
 
 31 0 13 nett 
 
 - at5i. 10*. 
 
 31 0 13 nett 
 
 Charges, 
 
 To Sea insurance on 300Z. at 2/. per eent. 
 Policy 5». 6d. per cent. 
 Commission J per cent. 
 
 Discount 1 per cent. 
 
 Dock rates on 52 cwt. 2 qrs. 20 lbs. at \s. 6d. • 
 Lotting at 9d. per tierce • • 
 
 Insurance against fire ... 
 Freight on 62 cwt. 2 qrs. 20 lbs. at 6*. 
 Primage 5s. and pierage 3». Od, 
 
 Public sale charges 7s. Petty expenses 7». €d. 
 Brokerage 1 per cent. ... 
 Commission 2^ per cent. • . 
 
 L. 
 
 t. 
 
 d. 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 IS 
 
 J6 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 Errors excepted 
 
 Lontfon, M of November, 1833. 
 
 Nett proceeds L.255 19 
 (cash, 30th of November, 1833.) 
 
 • Coffee in bags pays Is. 2(/., and in casks Is. 6tl. of dock dues. 
 
COINS. 
 
 313 
 
 COINS, pieces of metal, most commonly gold, silver, or copper, impressed with a 
 public stamp, and frequently made legal tender in payment of debts, either to a limited 
 or an unlimited extent. 
 
 1. Circumstances which led to the Introduction and Use of Coins. — When the precious 
 metals first began to be used as money, or as standards by which to measure the value 
 of different articles, and the equivalents for which they were most commonly exchanged, 
 they were in an unfashioned state, in bars or ingots. The parties having agreed uj)on the 
 quantity of metal to be given for a commodity, the exact amount was then ascertained 
 by weight. But it is obvious that a practice of this sort must have been attended with 
 a great deal of trouble and inconvenience. There can, however, be little doubt that the 
 greatest obstagle to the use of unfashioned metals as money would be found in the dif- 
 ficulty of determining their quality, or the degree of their purity, with suflficient pre- 
 cision. The operation of assaying is one of great nicety and difficulty ; and could not 
 be performed in the early ages othcA'wise than in a clumsy, tedious, and inaccurate 
 manner. It is, indeed, most probable, that when the precious metals were first used as 
 money, their quality would be appreciated only by tlieir weight and colour. A very 
 short experience would, however, be sufficient to show the extreme inexactness of con- 
 clusions derived from such loose and unsatisfactory criteria ; and the devising of some 
 method, by which the fineness of the metal might be easily and correctly ascertained, 
 would very soon be felt as indispensable to the general use of gold and silver as money. 
 Such a method was not long in presenting itself: it was early discovered, that, to ascer- 
 tain the purity of the metal, and also to avoid the trouble and expense of weighing it, 
 no more was necessary than to mark each piece with a stamp, declaring its weight and 
 fineness. This invention was made at a very early period. j\ccording to Herodotus, 
 the Lydians were the first who coined money. — (Lib. i. c. 94,,) Other ancient authors 
 say that the art of coining was invented during the period when Saturn and Janus 
 reigned in Italy; that is, in a period antecedent to authentic history. — (^Goguet, de 
 V Origine des Loix, 8fc. torn. i. p. 267.) 
 
 2. Metal used in the Manufacture of Coins. — Before the art of metallurgy was well 
 understood, the baser metals were frequently used as money. Iron was the primitive 
 money of the Lacedaemonians, and copper of the Romans. But both iron and copper 
 deteriorate by being kept ; and besides this defect, the rapid improvement of the arts, 
 by lowering their price, rendered their bulk too great in proportion to their value to 
 permit of their continuing to be used as money. Copper, indeed, is still used in the 
 form of tokens, convertible into silver in very small payments. In this country, copper 
 pence and halfpence are rated at about 72 per cent, above their real value ; but as their 
 issue is exclusively in the hands of government, and as they are only legal tender to the 
 extent of one shilling in any one payment, this over-valuation is not productive of any 
 bad eflfect. The use of copper in other covmtries is limited in much the same way ; gold 
 and silver being every where the only metals made use of in the manufacture of the 
 coins used in considerable payments. 
 
 3. Standard of Coins. — By the standard of a coin, is meant the degree of its purity, 
 and its weight; that is, the fineness of the metal of which it is made, and the quantity 
 of metal contained in it. 
 
 (L) Silver Coins. — A pound Ti'oy, or 12 ounces, of the metal of which English 
 silver coins are made, contains 1 1 oz. 2 dwts. pure silver, and 1 8 dwts. alloy. This 
 poimd is coined into 66 shillings; so that each shilling contains 80*727 grains fine silver, 
 and 87*27 grains standard silver ; and the moneij pound, consisting of 20 shillings, con- 
 tains 1614*545 grains pure silver, and 1745*454 grains standard silver. From 1600 
 down to 1816, the pound weight of standard silver bullion was coined into 62 shillings. 
 All the English silver coins have been coined out of silver of 11 oz. 2 dwts. fine, from 
 the Conquest to this moment, except for the short period of 16 years, from the 34th 
 Henry VIII. to the 2d Elizabeth. 
 
 (2.) Gold Coins. — The purity of gold is not estimated by the weights commonly in 
 use, but by an Abyssinian weight called a cai-at. The carats are subdivided into four 
 parts, called grains, and these again into quarters ; so that a carat grain, with respect 
 to the common divisions of a pourd Troy, is equivalent to 2 k dwts. Gold of the 
 highest degree of fineness, or pure, is said to be 24 carats fine. When gold coins were 
 first made at the English mint, the standard of the gold put in them was of 23 carats 
 3^ grains fine and ^ grain alloy ; and so it continued, without any variation, to the 
 18th of Henry VIII., who, in that year, first introduced a new standard of gold of 22 
 carats fine, and 2 carats alloy. The first of these standards was called the old ; and the 
 second the new standard, or crown gold ; because crowns, or pieces of the value of 
 5s., were first coined of this new standard. Henry VIII. made his gold coins of 
 both these standards under different denominations; and th'is practice was continued 
 by his successors imtil 1633. From that period to the present, the gold of which the 
 coins of this kingdom have been made has been invariably of the neiv standard, or 
 
S14 
 
 COINS. 
 
 crown gold; though some of the coins made of the old standard, previously to 1633, 
 continued to circulate till 1732, when they were forbidden to be any longer current. 
 — (^Liverpool on Coins, p. 27.) 
 
 The purity of our present gold coins is, therefore, 1 1 parts fine gold and 1 part alloy. 
 The sovereign, or 20 shilling piece, contains 113-001 grains fine gold, and 123-274 
 grains standard gold. The pound Troy of standard gold is coined into 46 ^ sovereigns, 
 or into 46?. 14s. 6d. The mint or standard price of gold is, therefore, said to be 
 46/. 14s. 6d. per lb. Troy, or 31. 17s. lO^d. an ounce. 
 
 The alloy in coins is reckoned of no value. It is allowed, in order to save the trouble 
 and expense that would be incurred in refining the metals, so as to bring them to the 
 highest degree of purity ; and because, when its quantity is small, it has a tendency to 
 render the coins harder, and less liable to be worn or rubbed. If the quantity of alloy were 
 considerable, it would lessen the splendour and ductility of the metals, and would add 
 too much to the weight of the coins. 
 
 The standard of the coins of foreign countries may be learned at a glance, by inspecting 
 the Table of Coins subjoined to this article. 
 
 4. Variations of the Standard. — The value of all sorts of property being estimated, 
 and the stipulations in almost all contracts for its purchase, sale, or hire, being made in 
 money or coins, it is plain that no change can take place in the value of such money 
 or coins, without virtually subverting these estimates and contracts, and enriching the 
 debtor portion of society at the expense of the creditor portion, or vice versa. As the 
 cost of producing all commodities is liable to vary from improvements in the arts, the ex- 
 haustion of the present or the discovery of new sources of supply, none can be selected 
 to serve as money or coin, that may not vary in its real value. It is believed, however, 
 that the precious metals vary less than any material that could be suggested. And with 
 the exception of the extraordinary fall in their value caused by the discovery of the 
 American mines, it seems to have been remarkably constant at other periods. 
 
 But in addition to the fluctuations naturally inherent in the value of coins, arising 
 from variations in the cost of the metal of which they are made, their standard has been 
 repeatedly changed. Notwithstanding that money or coin, from its being universally 
 used as a scale by which to compute the value of all commodities, and as the equivalent 
 for which they are commonly exchanged, is by far the most important of all the 
 measures used in society ; and should, consequently, be preserved as invariable as pos- 
 s-ible ; there is none that has been so frequently altered. The necessities or extravagance 
 of governments have forced them to borrow ; and to relieve themselves of the incum- 
 brances thus contracted, they have almost universally had recourse to the disgraceful 
 expedient of degrading the coin ; that is, of cheating those who lent them money, to the 
 extent of the degradation, and of enabling every other debtor in . their dominions to do 
 the same. 
 
 l"he ignorance of the public in remote ages facilitated this species of fraud. Haa 
 the names of the coins been changed when the quantity of metal contained in them 
 was diminished, there would have been no room for misapprehension. But, although 
 the weight of the coins was undergoing perpetual, and their purity occasional, reductions, 
 their ancient denominations were almost uniformly preserved : and the people who saw 
 the same names still remaining after the substance was diminished ; who saw coins of a 
 certain weight and fineness circulate under the names of florins, livres, dollars, and 
 pounds ; and who saw them continue to circulate as such, after both their weight and 
 the degree of their fineness had been lessened ; began to think that they derived their 
 value more from the stamp affixed to them by authority of government, than from the 
 quantity of the precious metals they contained. This was long a very prevalent opinion. 
 But the rise of prices which invariably followed every reduction of the standard, and the 
 derangement that was thereby occasioned in every pecuniary transaction, undeceived the 
 public, and taught them, and their rulers, the expediency of preserving the standard of 
 money inviolate. 
 
 The standard may be reduced by simply raising the denomination of the coin ; by 
 ordering, for example, that a half-sovereign should pass for a sovereign, and the latter 
 for a double sovereign, &c. If injustice be resolved upon, this is the least mischievous 
 .way > in which it can be perpetrated, inasmuch as it saves all the trouble and expense 
 of a'recoinage. But as it renders the fraud obvious and glaring, it has rarely been 
 resorted to ; and most reductions have been effected either by diminishing the weight 
 of the coins, or by increasing the proportion of alloy in the metal of which they are made, 
 or both. 
 
 Originally the coins of all countries seem to have had the same denomination as the 
 weights commonly used in tliem ; and contained the exact quantity of the precious 
 metals indicated by their name. Thus, the talent was a weight used in the earliest 
 period by the Greeks, the as or pnndo by the Romans, the livre by the Frencli, and the 
 pound by the English and Scotch ; and the coins originally in use in Greece, Italy, 
 
COINS. 
 
 315 
 
 France, and England, bore the same names, and weighed precisely a talent, a pondo, a 
 livre, and a pound. The standard has not, however, been preserved inviolate, either in 
 modern or .incient times. It has been less degraded in England than any where else ; 
 but even here the quantity of silver in a poimd sterling is less than the third part of a 
 pound weight, — the quantity it contained in 1300. In France, the livre current in 1789 
 contained less than one sixty-sixth part of the silver implied in its name, and which it 
 had actually contained previously to 1103. In Spain, and some other countries, the 
 degradation has been carried still further.* 
 
 From 1296 to 1355, the coins of England and Scotland were of the same weight and 
 purity ; but at the last mentioned epoch the standard of Scotch money was, for the first 
 time, sunk below that of England ; and by successive degradations, the value of Scotch 
 money, at the union of the crowns in 1600, was only a twelfth part of the value of the 
 English money of the same denomination. It remained at this point till the union of 
 the kingdoms cancelled the separate coinage of Scotland. 
 
 The gold and silver coins of Ireland have been for a considerable period the same as 
 those of Great Britain ; but, until 1825, they were nominally rated 85 per cent, higher. 
 This difference of valuation, which was attended with considerable inconveniences, was 
 put an end to by the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 79., which assimilated the currency throughout 
 the empire. 
 
 The Tables annexed to this article contain all the information that can be desired by 
 mercantile men with respect to the weight, fineness, &c. of English and Scotch gold and 
 silver coins, from the earliest periods to the present moment. 
 
 5. Mint, or Government Valuation of Gold and Silver Coins. — If both gold and 
 silver coins be made legal tenders, it is obviously indispensable that their value with 
 respect to each other should be fixed by authority ; or that it should be declared, that 
 individuals shall be entitled to discharge the claims upon them by payments, either of 
 gold or silver coins, according to some regulated proportion. The practice of making 
 both metals legal tenders was long adopted in England. From 1 257 till 1 664, the 
 value of gold coins was regulated by proclamation ; or, which is the same thing, it was 
 ordered that the gold coins, then current, should be taken as equivalent to certain 
 specified sums of silver. — (^Liverpool on Coins, p. 128.) From 1664, down to 1717, 
 the relation of gold to silver was not fixed by authority ; and silver being then the only 
 legal tender, the value of gold coins fluctuated, according to the fluctuations in the 
 relative worth of the metals in the market. But, in 1717, the ancient practice was again 
 reverted to ; and it was fixed that the guinea should be taken as the equivalent of 21 
 shillings, and conversely. 
 
 But the value of each of the precious metals is liable to perpetual changes. And 
 hence, how accurately soever their proportional value, as fixed by the mint regulations, 
 may correspond with the proportion which they actually bear to each other in the market 
 when the regulation is made, the chances are 10 to 1 that it will speedily cease to ex- 
 press their relation to each other. But the moment that such a change takes place, it 
 becomes the obvious interest of every one who has a payment to make, to make it in 
 the overvalued metal ; which, consequently, becomes the sole, or nearly the sole, currency 
 of the country. Hence the reason why the coins of some countries are almost wholly 
 of silver, and others almost wholly of gold. It is estimated, for example, that when it 
 was fixed, in 1717, that the guinea should exchange for 21 shillings, gold was over- 
 valued as compared with silver to the extent of lg| per cent. — (^Liverpool on Coins, p. 85. ) ; 
 and as the real value of silver with respect to gold continued to increase during the 
 greater part of last century, the advantage of paying in gold in preference to silver 
 became more decided, and ultimately led to the universal use of gold in all large pay- 
 ments, and to the fusion or exportation, of all silver coins of full weight. — (^Liverpool, 
 loco cit.) 
 
 In France, a different valuation of the metals has had a different effect. Previously 
 to the recoinage in 1785, the Louis d'or was rated in the mint proportion at only 24 
 livres, when it was really worth 25 livres 10 sols. Those, therefore, who should have 
 discharged the obligations they had contracted by payments of gold coin instead of 
 silver, would plainly have lost 1 livre 10 sols on every sum of 24 livres. In consequence, 
 very few such payments were made ; gold was almost entirely banished from circulation, 
 and silver became almost Ihe onlv snecies of metallic money used in France. — ( 
 Traite d'Economie Politique, torn. i. p. 393.) 
 
 In 1816, however, a new system was adopted in this country ; it being then enacted 
 (56 Geo. 3. c. 68.), that gold coins onli/ should he legal tender in all payments of more 
 than 40 shillings. The pound of silver bullion, that had previously been coined into 
 62 shillings, Avas then also coined into 66 shillings, the additional four shillings being 
 
 ♦ For an account of the degradation of the coins of the ancient and modern Continental nations, see 
 the article Money, in the Supplement to the old, or in the new edition of the Enci/clopiedia Britannica. 
 
816 
 
 COINS. 
 
 letained by government as a seignorage or duty (amounting to 6g| per cent.) upon the 
 coinage. To prevent the silver coins from becoming redundant, government has retained 
 the power to issue them in its own hands. Under these regulations, silver has ceased to 
 be a standard of value, and forms merely a subordinate or subsidiary species of currency, 
 or change, occupying the same place in relation to gold that copper occupies in relation 
 to itself. This system has been found to answer exceedingly well. 
 
 A good deal of difference of opinion has existed as to whether gold or silver coins are 
 best fitted for being made a legal tender. It does not seem that the one possesses any 
 very striking advantage over the other ; none, certainly, that would justify a change, after 
 a selection has been made, and acted upon for any considerable period. 
 
 Down to 1626, a seignorage or duty upon the coinage was usually charged upon the 
 gold and silver coins issued by the mint ; and it may be easily shown that the imposition 
 of such a duty, when it is not carried to an undue height, is advantageous. A coin is 
 more useful than a piece of uncoined bullion of the same weight and purity ; the coinage 
 fitting it for being used as money, while it does not unfit it for being used for any other 
 purpose. When, therefore, a duty or seignorage is laid upon coin equal to the expense 
 of coinage, it circulates at its real value ; but when this charge is defrayed by the public, 
 it circulates at less than its real value, and is consequently either melted down or ex- 
 ported whenever there is any demand for bullion in the arts, or any fall in the exchange. 
 It is, indeed, true, that were a seignorage to be laid on gold coins, it would be necessary, 
 to prevent an enhancement of the value of the currency, that their weight should be 
 proportionally reduced ; and it is on this account better, perhaps, to let them remain on 
 the present footing. But when a seignorage was laid on the silver coins, in 1816, it 
 was not necessary to take the circumstance now alluded to into consideration ; for as 
 they were made subordinate to gold, and were intended to serve as change merely, its 
 imposition had no tendency to raise the value of the currency, at the same time that it 
 was calculated effectually to prevent the fusion of the coins, and to yield a small revenue 
 to government. 
 
 6. Coinage since 1790. Amount of Coin in Circulation. — No. V. of the subjoined 
 Tables shows the amount of the gold and silver coinage at the British mint, each year, 
 from 1790 downwards. 
 
 It will be seen from this account, that gold coin to the amount of about 47,000,000/. 
 has been coined at the mint between 1817 and 1831, both inclusive. It is not easy 
 to form any very precise estimate of the portion of this immense sum now in circu- 
 lation. In consequence of the exemption of our gold coin from any seignorage, large 
 quantities of the coins carried abroad during an unfavourable exchange find their way 
 to the foreign mints, where they are melted and recoined. We are not, however, 
 wholly destitute of the means of approximating to the quantity of coin in circulation. 
 The mint works wholly, or almost wholly, for the Bank of England, so that, by com- 
 paring the issues of coin by the Bank with the coin paid to her, and allowing for the 
 export, we are able to get at a tolerably accurate result. We are indebted to Mr. 
 Horsley Palmer for the following estimate, made up on this principle, of the gold 
 coin in circulation in February, 1833. It may not be quite accurate, but we are sure 
 that it is as accurate as it is possible to make any estimate of the sort. — ( See opposite 
 page.) 
 
 7. The Exportation and Importation of Gold and Silver Coins was formerly pro- 
 hibited ; but in 1819 it was enacted (59 Geo. 3. c. 49.), that they might be freely exported 
 and imported, without being liable to any charge or duty wliatever ; and they may be 
 imported without being either reported or entered at the Custom-house. This regulation 
 has rendered it next to impossible to ascertain the value of the bullion imported. 
 
 8. Forgery of Coin. Issue of forged or spurious Coins. — The forgery of coin is an 
 offence that is practised more or less at all periods. The most effectual means of pre- 
 venting it is to improve the fabric of the genuine coins, to cut the dies with great deli- 
 cacy, and occasionally to vary the form of the coins. During the lengthened period 
 from 1770 down to 1816, the genuine silver coins in circulation were so much worn and 
 defaced, that it was very difficult to distinguish between them and counterfeits, which, 
 in despite of the severest penalties, were thrown into circulation in immense quantities. 
 But since the issue of the new coins, in 1816, forgery has been comparatively rare. 
 There has, however, been a considerable increase of forgery during the last 7 years, as 
 compared with the previous 7. Sufficient titne has not yet been afforded for determin- 
 ing the influence of the law exempting the ofTence of counterfeiting from the punish- 
 ment of death. 
 
COINS. 
 
 Estimate of Gold Coin in Circulation in February, 1833. 
 
 317 
 
 Issued by the Bank. 
 
 From January, 1821," 
 to July, 1824, inclu- 
 sive 
 
 From August, 1824, 
 to DccembQr, 1825, 
 inclusive - 
 
 ?1 
 
 From January, 1826, 
 to April, 1828. 
 elusive 
 
 From May, 1828, 
 15th of February, 
 
 '■1 
 
 Deduct for export. 
 1824-25 j£^6,()00,000- 
 1828-29 5()(),()()0 ] 
 1830-32 2,000,000 J 
 
 From 15th of Febru- 
 ary, 1832, to 15th 
 February, 1833 
 
 Deduct the stock at"l 
 the branch banks, | 
 which has been I 
 taken as part of the ( 
 issue from the Bank I 
 in London - -J 
 
 Leaving in circulation ~\ 
 in the hands of the f 
 public on the 15th C 
 of February, 1833 -3 
 
 17,370,000 
 
 8,()60,000 
 
 2,370,000 
 
 9,600,000 
 
 38,000,000 
 
 8.500,000 
 
 29,500,000 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 31,300,000 
 1,300,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 OI)servations. 
 
 CThe exchanges during this period were in favour of the 
 I country, and gold was imported. 
 
 The exchanges during the major part of this period wore 
 against the country, and gold was exported. Of the total 
 issue of 8,660,000/., about 2,.''j00,000A were issuetl from Oc 
 tober to the end of December, 1825, to supply the i)lace of 
 the country notes then discredited, leaving (i,0OO,OO<JA as the 
 estimated export of coin, in addition to the bar and other 
 uncoined gold sold by the Bank during this period. 
 
 fThe exchanges during this period were in favour of the 
 t country, and gold was imported. 
 
 1st. The exchanges were against the country from November, 
 1828, to February, 1829, during which period the issue 
 amounted to 1,500,000/., of which 1,000,000/. is estimated to 
 have been applied in the withdrawal of the country ]/. 
 notes, leaving 500,000/. as the amount of estimated export 
 during that period. 
 2d. From August, 1830, to February, 1832, the exchanges 
 ■> were also against the country, during which period the 
 issue was 4,000,000/. : 1,000,000/. of this sum was issued in 
 November, 1831, upon the rejection of the Reform Bill, and 
 1,000,000/. more may fairly be estimated as the further 
 amount applied within the whole period, from August, 
 1830, in the withdrawal of the country small notes; leaving 
 2,000,000/. as the estimated amount of coin exported from 
 1830 to 1832. 
 
 rThis sum was taken out during the political discredit of May, 
 l 1832, and has not yet rett«rned to the Bank. 
 
 9. Law as to the counterfeiting, S(c. of Coin. — The acts as to this were consolidated and amended by 
 the 2 & 3 Will. 4. c. 34., of which the following is a brief abstract : — 
 
 Counterfeiting the gold or silver coin of the realm, transportation for life, or for not less than 7 years, 
 or imprisonment for not exceeding 4 years ; and every such offence shall be deemed to be complete, 
 although the counterfeiting be not finished. — ^3. 
 
 Colouring counterfeit coin, or any pieces of metal, with intent to make them pass for gold or silver 
 coin ; colouring or altering genuine coin, with intent to make it pass for higher coin ; transportation for 
 life, or for any term not less than 7 years, or imprisonment for any term nQt exceeding 4 years. — ^4. 
 
 Impairing the gold or silver coin, with intent to make the coin so impaired pass for gold or silver coin 
 of full weight, transportation for not exceeding 14, nor less than 7 years, or imprisonment for not exceed- 
 ing 3 years. — § 5. 
 
 Buying or selling, &c. counterfeit gold or silver coin for lower value than its denomination, importing 
 counterfeit coin from beyond seas, transportation for life, or for not less than 7 years, or imprisonment 
 for not exceeding 4 years. — § 6. 
 
 Uttering counterfeit gold or silver coin, imprisonment for not exceeding 1 year ; and uttering, accom- 
 panied by possession of other counterfeit coin, or followed by a second uttering within 10 days, im- 
 prisonment for not exceeding 2 years ; every second offence of uttering after a previous conviction, shall 
 be felony, transportation for life, or for not less than 7 years, or imprisonment for not exceeding 4 years. 
 
 leaving 3 or more pieces of counterfeit gold or silver coin in possession, with intent to utter the 
 same, imprisonment for not exceeding 3 years ; second offence, transportation for life, or for not less than 
 7 years, or imprisonment for not exceeding 4 years. — § 8. 
 
 Making, mending, having possession of, or selling any mould, &c., or coining tools, or any press or 
 engine, conveying tools or monies out of the mint without authority, felony ; transportation for life, or 
 for not less than 7 years, or imprisonment for not exceeding 4 years. — 10, 11. 
 
 Counterfeiting any current copper coin, or making, mending, or having in his possession any coining 
 tool, or buying, selling, &c. any counterfeit copper coin for lower value than its denomination, trans- 
 portation for not exceeding 7 years, or imprisonment for not exceeding 2 years ; and uttering any coun- 
 terfeit copper coin, or having in his possession 3 or more pieces of counterfeit copper coin, imprisonment 
 for not exceeding 1 year. — \ 12. 
 
 Gold or silver coin tendered to any person suspecting any piece to be counterfeit, may be broken by 
 such person ; and if it shall appear to be counterfeit, the person tendering shall bear the loss ; but if it 
 shall be of due weight, and appear to be of lawful coin, the person breaking it is to receive it at the rate 
 it was coined for, and any dispute shall be finally determined by any justice ; and the tellers of the Ex- 
 chequer and the receivers-general of the revenue are to break or deface every piece of counterfeit coin 
 tendered lor payment — § 13. 
 
 Any person discovering any counterfeit coin, gold, silver, or copper, or any coining tool, is to carry the 
 same forthwith before some justice, and on reasonable cause to suspect any person of counterfeiting, or 
 having such coin, or any tool, &c., such justice may cause any place under the control of such sus- 
 pected person to be searched, either in the day or night, and if any such coin or tool shall be found, to 
 cause the same to be seized forthwith, and carried before a justice, who is to secure the same for the 
 purpose of being produced in evidence, and afterwards of being delivered up to the mint. — ^ 14. 
 
318 
 
 COINS. 
 
 The necessity of the evidence of any officer of the mint to prove counterfeit coin dispensed with. — § 17. 
 The court may order hard labour or solitary confinement. — § 19. 
 
 The words " king's coin " include all coin lawfully current in the United Kingdom ; and wilfully 
 having, in any dwelling-house or other building, lodging, apartment, field, or other place, open or 
 inclosed, whether belonging to or occupied by himself or not, and whether for his own use or benefit, or 
 for that of another, shall be deemed having in his possession within this act ^ 21. 
 
 Persons acting in the execution of this act, protected in the usual manner, by requiring notice oi 
 action, &c., and allowing tender of amends, &c. — ^ 22. 
 
 10. Convictions for Coining and Uttering. — In the 7 years ending with 1818, 63 persons were convicted 
 in England and Wales of the offence of counterfeiting the coin of the realm, of whom 1 was executed. 
 In the next 7 years the convictions for coining were reduced to 14, but of these 5 were executed. In the 
 last septennial period, ending with 1832, the convictions were 3+, and the executions 7. The convictions 
 for issuing forged coins in the first of the above periods were 21, in the second 9, and in the third, 32. 
 
 Tables relative to the Coins of Great Britain and other Countrie.s. 
 
 No. I. English Coins. — Account of the English Silver and Gold Coins; showing their Value, the 
 Seignorage or Profit upon the Coinage, and the Price of the Pound Troy of Standard Gold and Silver, 
 from the Conquest to the present Time.— (This and the next Table, No. II., are taken from Part II. of 
 Essays on Money, Exchanges, and Political Economy, by Henry James.) 
 
 1066 
 1280 
 1300 
 1344 
 1349 
 1356 
 1394 
 1401 
 1421 
 1425 
 1464 
 1465 
 1470 
 1482 
 1483 
 1485 
 1509 
 *1527 
 
 1543 
 1545 
 1546 
 1547 
 1549 
 1551 
 
 1552 
 
 1553 
 1560 
 
 1600 
 1604 
 
 1717 
 1816 
 
 Anno Regni. 
 
 Conquest 
 8 Edward I. . 
 
 28 . 
 
 18 Edward III. 
 
 23 
 30 
 
 18 Richard II. 
 
 3 Henry IV. 
 9 Henry V. . 
 
 4 Henry VI. 
 4 Edward IV. 
 5- 
 
 49 Henry VI. - 
 22 Edward IV. 
 
 1 Richard III. 
 
 1 Henry VII. 
 
 1 Henry VIII. 
 18 
 
 34 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 1 Edward VI. 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 Mary - 
 
 2 Elizabeth 
 
 43 
 
 2 James I. 
 
 2 Charles I. 
 18 Charles II. 
 
 3 George I. 
 56 George III. 
 
 
 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 4. 
 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 
 7. 
 
 
 8. 
 
 Fineness 
 of the Sil- 
 ver in the 
 
 Pound 
 Weight of 
 such Sil- 
 ver coined 
 into 
 
 Profit or 
 Seignor- 
 age on the 
 Coinage. 
 
 Equal to the 
 Mint Price 
 for Standard 
 
 Silver of 
 lloz. 2dwts. 
 fine Troy 
 vpeight. 
 
 Fineness 
 of the 
 Gold in 
 
 Pound 
 Weight of 
 such Gold 
 
 Profit or 
 Seignorage 
 on the 
 
 Mint Price 
 for Standard 
 Gold of 22 
 
 Coins. 
 
 the Coins. 
 
 coined into 
 
 Coinage. 
 
 Carats fine 
 Xroy weight. 
 
 Oz 
 
 dts 
 
 £ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 JC s 
 
 d. 
 
 J? 
 X 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Crls. gm. 
 
 A s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 ? 
 
 23 3| 
 
 13 3 
 
 4 
 
 0 8 
 
 4 
 
 12 10 8 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 14 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 11 
 
 8 
 
 13 3 9 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 15 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 8 
 
 14 8 4 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 — — 
 
 15 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 
 
 14 9 11 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 10 
 
 
 5 
 
 9i 
 
 
 
 15 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 
 
 14 9 11 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 10 lu 
 10 Hi 
 
 
 16 13 
 
 4 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 
 
 16 2 9 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 16 13 
 
 4 
 
 0 5 10 
 
 16 1 11 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 17 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 2i 
 
 
 20 16 
 
 8 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 18 0 5 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 17 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 15 2i 
 17 lOi 
 
 
 22 10 
 
 0 
 
 1 0 10 
 
 21 1 10 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 17 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 22 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 13 
 
 0 
 
 21 9 7 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 17 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 4f 
 
 
 22 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 7 
 
 6 
 
 21 15 0 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 17 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 41 
 
 
 22 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 7 
 
 6 
 
 21 15 0 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 17 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 41 
 
 
 22 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 7 
 
 6 
 
 21 15 0 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 17 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 18 Hi 
 
 
 22 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 6 
 
 22 0 0 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 24 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 8 
 
 22 0 0 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 §• 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 22 0 { 
 
 27 0 
 25 2 
 
 0 
 6 
 
 0 2 
 0 3 
 
 9 
 0 
 
 24 19 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 0 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 42 
 
 23 0 
 
 28 16 
 
 0 
 
 1 4 
 
 0 
 
 26 8 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 f 
 
 22 0 
 
 30 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 27 10 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 0 
 
 4 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 20 0 
 
 30 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 27 10 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 0 
 
 4 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 20 0 
 
 30 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 31 7 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 12 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 2| 
 
 22 0 
 
 34 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 33 0 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 12 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 3if 
 
 36 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 0 I 
 
 33 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 3i 
 
 23 3if 
 
 36 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 0 i 
 
 33 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 
 
 32 17 8 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 
 23 3i 
 
 36 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 
 
 33 0 8 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 23 3|C 
 
 36 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 0 I 
 
 33 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 
 
 32 16 0 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 o" 
 
 23 3|C 
 
 36 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 0 i 
 
 33 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 33 0 0 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 22 0 
 
 37 4 
 
 0 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 35 14 0 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 41 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 1 
 
 5 
 
 39 18 7 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 44 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 44 10 0 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 46 14 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 46 14 6 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 46 14 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 46 14 6 
 
 • 1527 — Henry VIII ] The Saxon or Tower pound was used at the mint up to this time, when the 
 Dound Troy was substituted in its stead. The Tower pound was but 11 oz. 5 dwts. Troy ; so that, from 
 the Conquest to the 28th of Edward I., 20 shillings in tale were exactly a pound in weight. 
 
 + 1666—18 Charles II.] The seignorage on the coinage was at this time given up, and the gold bullion 
 brought to the mint has ever since been: coined free of expense. A seignorage of 6U per cent was 
 imposed on the coinage of silver by 56 Geo. 3. 
 
COINS. 
 
 319 
 
 No. II. English Coins. — Account of the Quantity of Fme Silver coined into 20*. or the Pound Sterling: 
 the Quantity of Standard Silver, of 11 oz. 2 dwts. Fine and 18 dwts. Alloy, contained in 20«. or the Pound 
 Sterling, in the different lleigiis, from the Time of lidward I. to the Keign of William IV. — A similar 
 Account with respect to Gold. — And an Account of the proportiorjal Value of Pine Gold to Pine 
 Silver, according to the Number of Grains contained in the Coins. — Calculated in Grains and 1000/A 
 Parts Troy Weight. 
 
 
 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 
 
 
 Number of Grains 
 of Fine Silver in 
 20 Sliillings, or 
 the Pound Ster* 
 Ling, as coined by 
 the Mint Inden- 
 
 Number of Grains 
 of St<indai'd Sil- 
 
 Number ofGrains 
 of Fine (Jold in 
 20 Shillings, or 
 the Found Ster- 
 ling, as coined by 
 the Mint Inden- 
 
 Number of Orainf 
 
 Proportionate 
 Value of Fine 
 
 
 Anno Reent 
 n gni. 
 
 
 ver, 11 oz. 2 dwU. 
 Fine in 20 Shil- 
 lings, or the 
 Found Sterling, 
 
 22 Carats fine, in 
 20 Shillings, or 
 the Founa Ster- 
 lingj^as cohi«l by 
 
 iiold to Fine 
 Silver, accordin;; 
 to the Quantity o 
 each Metal con- 
 tained in the 
 
 
 
 
 tures. 
 
 Mint Indentures. 
 
 tures. 
 
 tures. 
 
 
 
 
 Qraint. 
 
 Grairu. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Grain*. 
 
 Gold t» Silver. 
 
 1066 
 
 Conquest 
 
 
 4,995-000 
 
 5,400-000 
 
 
 
 
 1280 
 
 8 Edward I. 
 
 - 
 
 4,995-000 
 
 5,400 000 
 
 
 
 
 1344 
 
 18 Edward III. 
 
 
 4,933-333 
 4,440-000 
 
 5,333-333 
 
 407-990 
 
 445-080 
 
 1 to 12091 
 
 1349 
 
 23 
 
 - 
 
 4,800-000 
 
 383-705 
 
 418-588 
 
 1 — 11-571 
 
 1356 
 
 30 
 
 - 
 
 3,996-000 
 
 4,320-000 
 
 358-125 
 
 390-682 
 
 1 — 11-158 
 
 1401 
 
 3 Henry IV. 
 
 - 
 
 3,996 000 
 
 4,320-000 
 
 358-125 
 
 390-682 
 
 1 — 11-158 
 
 1421 
 
 9 Henry V. - 
 
 - 
 
 3,330 000 
 
 3,600-000 
 
 322-312 
 
 351-613 
 
 1 — 10-331 
 
 14f>4 
 
 4 Edward IV. 
 
 
 2,664 000 
 
 2,880-000 
 
 257-850 
 
 281-291 
 
 1 — 10-331 
 
 1465 
 
 
 _ 
 
 2,664-000 
 
 2,880-000 
 
 238-750 
 
 260-454 
 
 1 — 11-158 
 
 1470 
 
 49 Henry VI. 
 
 - 
 
 2,664-000 
 2,664-000 
 
 2,880-000 
 
 238750 
 
 260-454 
 
 1 — 11-158 
 
 1482 
 
 22 Edward IV. 
 
 
 2,880-000 
 
 238750 ■ 
 
 260-454 
 
 1 — 11-158 
 
 1509 
 
 1 Henry VIII. 
 
 > 
 
 2,664-000 
 
 2,880-000 
 
 238750 
 
 260-454 
 
 1 — 11-158 
 
 1527 
 
 18 
 
 
 *jO0o uuu 
 
 
 
 
 1 — 11-268 
 
 1543 
 
 34 . 
 
 - 
 
 2,000-000 
 
 2,162-162 
 
 191-666 
 
 209090 
 
 1 — 10-434 
 
 1545 
 1546 
 
 
 
 1,200-000 
 800-000 
 
 1,297-297 
 864-864 
 
 176-000 
 160-000 
 
 192-000 
 174-545 
 
 1 — 6818 
 1 — 5-000 
 
 
 
 1547 
 
 ^1 Edward VI. 
 
 
 800000 
 
 864-864 
 
 160-000 
 
 174-545 
 
 1— 5 000 
 
 1549 
 
 3 
 
 
 800 000 
 
 864-864 
 
 155-294 
 
 169-412 
 
 1— 5151 
 
 *1551 
 
 5 
 
 
 400-000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,760 000 
 
 1,902-702 
 
 160-000 
 
 174-545 
 
 1 — 11000 
 
 1552 
 
 6 
 
 
 1,768 000 
 
 1,911-351 
 
 160-000 
 
 174-545 
 
 1 — 11-050 
 
 1553 
 
 1 Mary 
 
 
 1,760-000 
 
 1,902-702 
 
 159-166 
 
 173-636 
 
 1 — 11057 
 
 1560 
 
 2 Elizabeth 
 
 
 1,776000 
 
 1,920-000 
 
 160-000 
 
 174-545 
 
 1 — 11-100 
 
 1600 
 
 43 . 
 
 
 1,718-709 
 
 1,858-064 
 1,858-064 
 
 157-612 
 
 171-940 
 
 1 — 10-904 
 
 1604 
 
 2 James I. > 
 
 
 1,718-709 
 
 141-935 
 
 154-838 
 
 1 — 12-109 
 
 1626 
 
 2 Charles I. 
 
 
 1,718-709 
 1,718-709 
 
 1,858-064 
 
 128780 
 
 140-487 
 
 1 — 13-346 
 
 1666 
 
 18 Charles II. 
 
 
 1,858-064 
 
 118-651 
 
 129-438 
 
 1 — 14-485 
 
 1717 
 
 3 George I. 
 
 
 1,718-709 
 
 1,858-064 
 
 113-001 
 
 123-274 
 
 1 — 15-209 
 
 tl816 
 
 56 George HI, 
 
 
 1,614.545 
 
 1,745 454 
 
 112-001 
 
 123-274 
 
 1 — 14-287 
 
 No. III. Scotch Coins. — Account of the Number of Pounds, Shillings, and Pennies Scotch, which have 
 been coined out of One Pound Weight of Silver, at different Times ; with the Degree of Purity of such 
 Silver, or its Fineness, from the Year 1107 to the Year 1601. — (From CardonneVs Numis7nata Scotia; 
 p. 24.) 
 
 Purity. 
 
 Alloy. 
 
 Value of th< 
 Money coin 
 ed out of a 
 Lb. Weight 
 of Silver. 
 
 Anno Regni. 
 
 Purity. 
 
 Alloy. 
 
 From 
 1107 
 
 From 
 1306 
 to 
 
 1329 
 1366 
 1367 
 From 
 1371 
 to 
 1390 
 1393 
 1424 
 
 Alexander I. 
 David I. 
 William 
 Alexander II. 
 Alexander III. 
 John Baliol 
 
 I Robert I. 
 
 David II. 
 
 Robert II. 
 
 Robert II L 
 .Tames L 
 
 Oz. prv. 
 
 11 2 
 11 2 
 
 11 2 
 
 11 2 
 
 11 2 
 
 11 2 
 11 2 
 
 Or. prv. 
 
 0 18 
 
 0 18 
 0 18 
 
 0 18 
 
 0 18 
 0 18 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1 0 0 
 
 1 5 0 
 1 9 4 
 
 1 12 0 
 1 17 6 
 
 1451 
 1456 
 1475 
 1484 
 1488 
 1489 
 1529 
 1544 
 1556 
 1565 
 1567 
 1571 
 1576 
 1579 
 1581 
 1597 
 1601 
 
 James II. 
 
 I James IV. 
 
 James V. 
 Mary 
 
 James VI. 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 16 
 24 
 
 16 
 3 
 14 
 23 
 1 
 5 
 10 
 13 
 15 
 31 
 35 
 
 Oz. prv, 
 
 11 2 
 
 Oz. prv. 
 
 0 18 
 
 0 18 
 
 0 18 
 
 0 18 
 
 0 18 
 
 11 0 
 
 11 0 
 
 11 0 
 
 11 0 
 
 U 0 
 
 9 0 
 
 8 0 
 
 11 0 
 
 11 0 
 
 11 0 
 
 11 0 
 
 1 0 
 1 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 * 1551 — 5 Edward VI.] The coinage of debased silver money in the 5th year of Edward VI. of 3 oz. 
 fine, ought more properly to be considered as Tokens. The sum of 120,000/. only was so coined, — (See 
 James's Essai/s, chap, iv.) 
 
 f 1816 — 56 George III.] The government having taken the coinage of silver into its own hands, there 
 is at present no fixed price paid to the public, by the mint, for standard silver. And supposing the 
 government to continue the present mint regulations, and to keep gold at 775. 10|rf. an ounce, as the 
 price of silver varies, the relative value of gold to saver will vary in like proportion. 
 
820 
 
 COINS. 
 
 No. IV. Scotch Coins. — Account of the Number of Pounds, Shillings, and Pennies Scotch, which have 
 been coined out of One Pound Weight of Gold j with the Degree of their Purity, and the Proportion 
 that the Gold bore to the Silver. — {Cardonnel, p. 25.) 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Anno Regni. 
 
 Fineness. 
 
 Alloy. 
 
 Value of the Coin 
 coined out of One 
 Pound of Gold. 
 
 Pound of Pure Gold 
 ■weighed of Pure 
 Silver. 
 
 
 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 Oz 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 d. 
 
 Lbs. oz. 
 
 pw. gr. 
 
 1371, &c. 
 
 Robert II. 
 
 . 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 0* 
 
 1 ' 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 17 22 
 
 1390, &C. 
 
 Robert II. 
 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 
 17 22 
 
 1424 
 
 James I. 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 17 22 
 
 1451 
 
 James II. 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 4 14 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 4 14 
 
 1475 
 
 James III. 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 78 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 0 20 
 
 1484 
 1488 
 
 
 24 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 78 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 7 9 
 
 James IV. 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 78 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 7 9 
 
 1529 
 
 James V. 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 108 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 7 9 
 
 1556 
 
 Mary 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 144 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 8 6 
 
 1567 
 
 James VI. 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 240 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 8 6 
 
 1579 
 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 240 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 2 20 
 
 1597 
 
 
 31 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 360 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 1601 
 
 
 35 ■ 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 432 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 1633 
 
 Charles I. 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 492 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 7 11 
 
 No V — Account of the Value of the Gold and Silver Coins, specifying each, coined at the Mint, each - 
 ' Year since 1790. — {Pari. Paper, No. 138. Sess. 1833 ; and papers published by the Board of Trade.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gold coined. 
 
 Silver coined. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gold coined. 
 
 Silver coined. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 & d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1790 
 
 2,660,521 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1812 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 52 14 
 
 0 
 
 1791 
 
 2,456,566 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1813 
 
 519,722 
 
 3 6 
 
 89 18 
 
 0 
 
 • 1792 
 
 1,171,863 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 251 17 
 
 6 
 
 1814 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 161 4 
 
 0 
 
 1793 
 
 2,747,430 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1815 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1794 
 
 2,558,894 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1816 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1,805,251 16 
 2,436,297 12 
 
 0 
 
 1795 
 
 493,416 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 293 11 11 
 
 1817 
 
 4,275,337 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 
 
 1796 
 
 464,680 
 2,000,297 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1818 
 
 2,862,373 
 
 10 0 
 
 576,279 0 
 
 0 
 
 1797 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1819 
 
 3,574 
 
 10 8 
 
 1,267,272 12 
 
 0 
 
 1798 
 
 2,967,504 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1820 
 
 949,516 
 9,520,758 
 
 0 10 
 
 847,717 4 
 
 0 
 
 1799 
 
 449,961 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1821 
 
 13 10 
 
 433,686 0 
 
 0 
 
 1800 
 
 189,937 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1822 
 
 5,356,787 
 
 12 6 
 
 31,430 7 
 285,271 16 
 
 1 
 
 1801 
 
 450,242 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 53 7 
 
 1 
 
 1823 
 
 759,748 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 
 
 1802 
 1803 
 
 437,018 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 62 0 
 
 0 
 
 1824 
 
 4,065,075 
 
 0 0 
 
 282,070 16 
 
 0 
 
 596,444 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 72 6 
 
 8 
 
 1825 
 
 4,580,919 
 
 0 0 
 
 417,535 16 
 
 0 
 
 1804 
 
 718,396 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 77 10 
 
 0 
 
 1826 
 
 5,896,461 
 
 7 6 
 
 608.605 16 
 33,019 16 
 
 0 
 
 1805 
 
 54,668 
 
 
 0 
 
 182 18 
 
 0 
 
 1827 
 
 2,512,636 
 
 17 6 
 
 0 
 
 1806 
 
 405,105 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1828 
 
 1,008,559 
 2,446,754 
 
 2 6 
 
 16,288 3 
 108,259 16 
 
 0 
 
 1807 
 1808 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 
 108 10 
 
 0 
 
 1829 
 
 12 6 
 
 0 
 
 371,744 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 1830 
 
 2,387,881 
 
 2 6 
 
 151 16 
 
 0 
 
 1809 
 
 298,946 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 114 14 
 
 0 
 
 1831 
 
 587,949 
 
 14 5 
 
 33,696 5 
 
 8 
 
 1810 
 
 316,935 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 120 18 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1811 
 
 312,263 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Nil. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 ^£•69,856,894 
 
 8 9 
 
 9,183,259 5 
 
 9 
 
 No. VI. Gold Coins of different Countries. — A Table containing the Assays, Weights, and Values 
 of the principal Gold Coins of all Countries, computed according to the Mint Price of Gold in England, 
 and from Assays made both at London and Paris, which have been found to verify each other. * 
 
 *^* The publishers of this work have purchased the right to publish this Table from Dr. Kelly, in the 
 second edition of whose Cambist it originally appeared. 
 
 COINS. 
 
 Assay. 
 
 M'eight. 
 
 Standard 
 Weight. 
 
 Contents 
 in pure 
 Gold. 
 
 Value in 
 Sterling. 
 
 
 
 Car. 
 
 
 Dwt. gr. 
 
 Dnrt.gr. mi. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 1. d. 
 
 Austrian 
 
 } Souverain - - - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 
 3 14 
 
 3 13 15 
 
 78-6 
 
 13 10-92 
 
 Dominions 
 
 \ Double ducat ... 
 
 B. 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 12 
 
 4 20 5 
 
 106-4 
 
 18 9-97 
 
 
 Ducat Kremnitz, or Hungarian 
 
 B. 1 
 
 
 2 5f 
 
 2 10 3 
 
 53-3 
 
 9 5-91 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Carolin - 
 
 W. 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 5i 
 
 5 5 10 
 
 115- 
 
 20 4-23 
 
 Max d'or, or Maximilian 
 
 W. 3 
 
 2i 
 
 4 4 
 
 3 14 0 
 
 77- 
 
 13 7-44 
 
 
 Ducat 
 
 B. 1 
 
 2 5f 
 
 2 19 11 
 
 52-8 
 
 9 412 
 
 Bern - 
 
 Ducat (double, &c. in proportion) - 
 
 B. 1 
 
 
 1 23 
 
 2 2 1 
 
 459 
 
 8 1-48 
 
 
 Pistole - . - _ 
 
 W. 0 
 
 1} 
 
 4 21 
 
 4 19 0 
 
 105-5 
 
 18 7-86 
 
 Brunswick - 
 
 Pistole (double in proportion) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 
 4 2H 
 
 4 19 5 
 
 105-7 
 
 18 8-48 
 
 
 Ducat - . . - 
 
 B. 1 
 
 li 
 
 2 
 
 2 5f 
 
 2 8 9 
 
 51-8 
 
 9 2- 
 
 Cologne 
 
 Ducat - . - 
 
 B. 1 
 
 2 5f 
 
 2 9 8 
 
 52-6 
 
 9 3-70 
 
 Denmark - 
 
 Ducat current - - - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 3f 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 21 19 
 
 42-2 
 
 7 5-62 
 
 
 Ducat specie - - - 
 
 B. 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 5| 
 
 2 9 8 
 
 52-6 
 
 9 3-70 
 
 
 Christian d'or ... 
 
 W. 0 
 
 1 
 
 4 7 
 
 4 5 16 
 
 93-3 
 
 16 614 
 
 • The London assays in this Table were made by Robert Binglcy, Esq, F.R.S. the King's Assay 
 Master of the Mint, and those at Paris by Pierre Fr^d^ric Bonneville, Essayeur du Commerce, as 
 published in his elaborate work on the coins of all nations. 
 
 Specimens of all the foreign coins brought to London for commercial purposes have been supplied for 
 this Table from the Bullion-office, Bank of England, by order of the Bank Directors, and have been 
 selected by John Humble, Esq., the chief clerk of that office, who also examined the Tables in their 
 progress. It may likewise he added, that the Mint Reports of these commercial coins are chiefly from 
 average assays; and that all the computations have been carefully verified by different calculators.— 
 tNotc by Dr. Kelly, to second edition of the Cambist, published in 1821.) 
 
COINS. 
 
 321 
 
 England - Guinea . - . 
 
 Half-guinea - - - 
 
 Seven shilling piece- 
 Sovereign - - - 
 
 FuANCE - Double Louis (coined before 1786) - 
 Louis - 
 
 Double Louis (coined since 1786) - 
 Louis • - 
 
 Double Napoleon, or piece of 40 
 francs - - - 
 
 Napoleon, or piece of 20 francs 
 New Louis (double, &c.) the same 
 as the Napoleon. 
 
 Franckfort on the Maine Ducat 
 
 Geneva - Pistole, old _ . . 
 
 Pistole, new 
 
 Genoa - - Sequin .... 
 Hamburgh - Ducat (double in proportion) 
 Hanover - George d'or 
 
 Ducat - 
 
 Gold florin (double in proportion) - 
 Holland - Double ryder - - - 
 
 Ryder - _ - - 
 
 Ducat - . - 
 Malta - Double Louis - - 
 
 Louis - - - 
 
 Demi Louis - 
 Milan - Sequin - - 
 
 Doppia or pistole 
 40 Lire piece of 1808 
 Naples - - Six ducat piece of 1783 
 
 Two ducat piece, or sequin, of 1762 
 Three ducat piece, or oncetta, of 1818 
 Netherlands Gold lion, or 14 florin piece 
 
 Ten florin piece (1820) 
 Parma- - Quadruple pistole (double in propor. 
 tion) - 
 Pistole or doppia of 1787 
 Ditto of 1796 
 Maria Theresa (1818) 
 Piedmont - Pistole coined since 1785 (|, &c. in 
 proportion) - - 
 Sequin (^ in proportion) 
 Carlino, coined since 1785 (1, &c. in 
 
 proportion) - - 
 Piece of 20 francs, called Marengo - 
 Poland - - Ducat - - - 
 
 Portugal - Dobraon of 24,000 rees 
 Dobra of 12,800 rees 
 MoidoreorLisbonnine (|,&c. in prop.) 
 Piece of 16 testoons, or 1,600 rees - 
 Old crusado of 400 rees 
 New crusado of 480 rees 
 Milree (coined for the African colo- 
 nies 1755) - 
 Prussia - - Ducat of 1748 - - . 
 
 Ducat of 1787 
 Frederick (double) of 1769 
 Frederick (single) of 1778 
 Frederick (double) of 1800 
 Frederick (single) of 1800 
 Sequin (coined since 1760) 
 Scudo of the Republic 
 Ducat of 1796 - - 
 Ducat of 1763 
 Gold ruble of 1756 
 Ditto of 1799 - - - 
 
 Gold poltin of 1777 
 Imperial of 1801 
 Half Imperial of 1801 
 Ditto of 1818 - 
 Carlino (| in proportion) 
 Ducat of 1784 
 Ducat of 1797 
 Augustus of 1754 - 
 Augustus of 1784 
 
 Ounce of 1751 - - - 
 
 Double ounce of 1758 
 Spain - Doubloon of 1772 (double and single 
 in proportion) 
 Quadruple pistole of 1801 
 Pistole of 1801 
 
 Coronilla, gold dollar, or vintem of 
 1801 - 
 Sweden - Ducat - - 
 
 Rome ■ 
 Russia 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Sicily * 
 
 Assay. 
 
 Stand. 
 Stand, 
 Stand. 
 Stand. 
 
 w. 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 vv. 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 w. 
 
 0 
 
 li 
 
 w. 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 w. 
 
 0 
 
 
 w. 
 
 0 
 
 ll 
 
 B. 
 
 1 
 
 2i 
 
 W. 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 W. 0 Oi 
 
 W. 0 li 
 
 B. 1 Si 
 
 W. 3 OA 
 
 Stand. 
 
 Stand. 
 
 B. 1 2i 
 
 W. 1 Si 
 
 W. 1 3 
 
 w. 1 ^ 
 
 B. 1 3 
 
 W. 0 1 
 
 W. 0 If 
 
 W. 0 2i 
 
 W. 1 2f 
 B. 1 Si 
 
 Stand. 
 W. 0 If 
 
 W. 1 0 
 
 W. 0 3 
 
 W. 1 Oi 
 
 VV. 0 If 
 
 W. 0 U 
 B. 1 ^ 
 
 W. 0 lA 
 W. 2 0 
 B. 1 21 
 
 Stand. 
 
 Stand. 
 
 Stand. 
 W. 0 Of 
 W. 0 Oi 
 W. 0 Of 
 
 Stand. 
 B. 1 21 
 B. 1 2 
 W. 0 If 
 
 w. 0 n 
 
 W. 0 2 
 
 W. 0 2 
 
 B. 1 31 
 
 W. 0 If 
 
 B. 1 2i 
 
 B. 1 2 
 
 Stand. 
 
 W. 0 Oi 
 
 Stand. 
 
 B. 1 2i 
 
 B. 1 2i 
 
 B. 0 Oi 
 
 W. 0 2t 
 
 B. 1 2 
 
 B. 1 2| 
 
 W. 0 2| 
 
 W. 0 If 
 
 W. 1 2i 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 W. 0 2i 
 W. 1 1 
 W. 1 1 
 
 W. 1 2| 
 B. 1 2 
 
 Dwt. t^r. 
 
 5 9i 
 2 16f 
 1 19 
 5 Si 
 10 11 
 5 5i 
 9 20 
 4 22 
 
 8 7 
 4 Si 
 
 2 5f 
 4 7i 
 
 3 15f 
 
 2 2 
 12 21 
 6 9 
 2 5f 
 10 16 
 5 8 
 2 16 
 2 5f 
 
 4 H 
 8 8 
 
 5 16 
 
 1 20i 
 
 2 lOi 
 5 7f 
 4 7f 
 
 18 9 
 4 14 
 4 14 
 
 4 3| 
 
 5 20 
 2 5f 
 
 29 6 
 4 3i 
 2 5f 
 34 12 
 18 6 
 
 6 22 
 2 6 
 0 15 
 0 16i 
 
 0 19f 
 2 5f 
 2 5f 
 8 14 
 4 7 
 8 14 
 4 7 
 2 4A 
 
 17 Of 
 2 6 
 
 2 5f 
 
 1 0| 
 0 18f 
 0 9 
 
 7 17i 
 
 3 20i 
 
 4 Si 
 10 Ih 
 
 2 5; 
 4 
 
 4 6> 
 
 2 2o; 
 
 5 17 
 
 17 8J 
 
 Standard 
 
 Contents 
 in I'ure 
 
 Value in 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 
 Drvt. f;r. mt. 
 
 — — ; 
 
 
 
 «. d. 
 
 5 9 10 
 
 llo7 
 
 21 0" 
 
 2 16 15 
 
 59-3 
 
 10 6- 
 
 1 19 0 
 
 39-G 
 
 7 0- 
 
 5 3 5 
 
 113'1 
 
 20 ()- 
 
 10 5 6 
 
 224-9 
 
 39 9-64 
 
 5 2 12 
 
 1 12'4 
 
 10 10-71 
 
 9 15 19 
 
 212;6 
 
 37 7-53 
 
 4 19 19 
 
 106 '3 
 
 18 y-75 
 
 o «j n 
 o 3 0 
 
 1/9" 
 
 31 8 36 
 
 4 1 10 
 
 Oj I 
 
 15 10*5 
 
 2 9 14 
 
 52 '9 
 
 9 4-34 
 
 3 15 ^4 
 
 9iii'5 
 
 16 4-45 
 
 
 80' 
 
 14 1-9 
 
 2 10 6 
 
 
 9 5-41 
 
 2 9 14 
 
 ro n 
 
 9 4'35 
 
 4 5 3 
 
 c'i ^ 
 
 16 4 66 
 
 2 10 3 
 
 oo'6 
 
 9 5] 9 
 
 1 18 6 
 
 39" 
 
 6 1083 
 
 12 21 0 
 
 283 "2 
 
 50 1 40 
 
 6 9 0 
 
 140 '2 
 
 24 975 
 
 2 9 12 
 
 52 '8 
 
 9 4'13 
 
 9 18 18 
 
 ?nc ^ 
 
 38 1-25 
 
 4 21 16 
 
 JOo' 
 
 19 1-37 
 
 2 113 
 
 
 9 7-75 
 
 2 10 0 
 
 53 '2 
 
 9 4-96 
 
 4 0 8 
 
 88-4 
 
 15 7-74 
 
 8 4 0 
 
 179-7 
 
 31 9-64 
 
 5 12 18 
 
 121*9 
 
 21 689 
 
 1 16 6 
 
 37-4 
 
 6 7-42 
 
 
 58'1 
 
 10 340 
 
 5 7 16 
 
 117-1 
 
 20 8-69 
 
 4 5 15 
 
 93-2 
 
 16 5-93 
 
 17 12 18 
 
 386- 
 
 68 3-78 
 
 4 10 4 
 
 97-4 
 
 17 2-85 
 
 4 8 14 
 
 yo y 
 
 16 11-67 
 
 4 1 10 
 
 89-7 
 
 15 10-5 
 
 
 
 22 2'/5 
 
 2 9 12 
 
 52-9 
 
 9 4-34 
 
 CIO on r\ 
 Zo -0 0 
 
 oi)*-'* 
 
 llii 3-3 
 
 3 18 4 
 
 82 '7 
 
 14 7-63 
 
 2 9 12 
 
 529 
 
 9 4-34 
 
 34 12 0 
 
 759- 
 
 134 3-96 
 
 
 401 '5 
 
 71 070 
 
 0 22 0 
 
 152-2 
 
 26 11 24 
 
 2 5 14 
 
 49 '3 
 
 8 8-70 
 
 0 14 18 
 
 13-6 
 
 2 4'88 
 
 0 16 2 
 
 
 2 7 '43 
 
 U 19 15 
 
 10 
 
 3 2-44 
 
 o n 
 
 
 9 404 
 
 is 9 fa 
 
 _ „~ " 
 
 9 3-71 
 
 8 9 18 
 
 loa- 
 
 0 bO 
 
 4 5 4 
 
 92 '8 
 
 16 508 
 
 ^ ? 1" 
 
 184 '5 
 
 32 7-84 
 
 4 4 I'o 
 
 
 16 3-42 
 
 
 52 '2 
 
 9 2-86 
 
 
 
 6i 11'43 
 
 o in n 
 
 z 10 0 
 
 DO Z 
 
 9 4 '98 
 
 2 9 8 
 
 52-6 
 
 9 3-71 
 
 1 0 10 
 
 1^ ^ 
 
 3 11'78 
 
 0 18 14 
 
 IT'I 
 
 3 0-31 
 
 0 9 0 
 
 8-2 
 
 1 5 41 
 
 8 6 8 
 
 I8I-9 
 
 52 2-31 
 
 4 3 4 
 
 90'9 
 
 16 105 
 
 4 3 12 
 
 91-3 
 
 16 198 
 
 9 23 16 
 
 219-8 
 
 30 8-10 
 
 2 9 8 
 
 52-6 
 
 9 3 71 
 
 2 9 14 
 
 52'9 
 
 9 4-34 
 
 4 3 8 
 
 91'2 
 
 16 1 -69 
 
 4 4 12 
 
 92-2 
 
 16 3-81 
 
 2 15 8 
 
 58-2 
 
 10 3-60 
 
 5 7 14 
 
 117' 
 
 20 8-48 
 
 61 21 16 
 
 372- 
 
 65 10-05 
 
 16 9 6 
 
 360-5 
 
 63 9 62 
 
 4 2 6 
 
 901 
 
 15 11 -35 
 
 1 0 18 
 
 22-8 
 
 4 0-42 
 
 j 2 8 12 
 
 51-9 
 
 9 2-22 
 
 * Much variation is found in the fineness of the Sicilian gold coins. 
 Y 
 
COINS. 
 
 COINS. 
 
 Assay. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Standard 
 Weight. 
 
 Contents 
 in pure 
 Gold. 
 
 Value in 
 Sterling. 
 
 Switzerland Pistole of the Helvetic Republic of 
 1800 
 
 TuEVES - - Ducat - - 
 Turkey - Sequin fond,ucli of Constantinople of 
 1773 
 
 Sequin fonducli of 1789 
 
 Half missier (1818) 
 
 Sequin fonducli 
 
 Yermeebeshlek 
 Tuscany - Zecchino or sequin 
 
 Ruspone of the kingdom of Etruria 
 United States * Eagle and ^ in proportion) 
 Venice - Zecchino or sequin (| and ^ in pro- 
 portion) - - 
 Wirtemberg Carolin _ - - 
 
 Ducat . _ . 
 
 Ducat (double and | ducat in pro- 
 portion) ... 
 
 EAST INDIES. 
 
 Mohur of 1770 - - 
 Mohur, Half (1787), i in proportion 
 Mohur Sicca of Bengal 
 Mohur of the Dutch East India? 
 
 Company (1783) - -j 
 Mohur, Half Ditto (1801) 
 Rupee, Bombay (1818) 
 Rupee of Madras (1818) 
 Pagoda, star - - 
 
 Cor. gr. 
 
 W. 0 1| 
 B. 1 2 
 
 W. 2 2i 
 W. 2 3i 
 W. 5 3| 
 W. 2 3 
 B. 0 Si 
 B. 1 3i 
 B. 1 3| 
 W. 0 Oi 
 
 B. 1 3i 
 W. 3 2 
 B. 1 2, 
 
 B. 1 2 
 
 B. 1 2i 
 B. 1 2i 
 B. 1 3| 
 W, 3 3i 
 
 W. 3 li 
 B. 0 Oi 
 
 Stand. 
 W. 3 0 
 
 Drvt. gr. 
 
 4 2Ii 
 
 2 Sf 
 
 2 5f 
 2 52 
 0 18i 
 2 5 
 
 2 If 
 
 3 5f 
 6 17i 
 
 11 6 
 
 2 6 
 
 6 31 
 2 5 
 
 2 5f 
 
 7 22i 
 
 3 23i 
 7 23 
 
 10 2 
 
 5 31 
 7 11 
 7 12 
 2 4f 
 
 Dwt. gr. mi. 
 
 1 19 9 
 
 2 9 8 
 
 1 23 6 
 1 22 16 
 
 0 13 5 
 
 1 22 7 
 
 3 4 13 
 
 2 10 14 
 
 7 7 13 
 11 4 8 
 
 2 10 10 
 5 4 0 
 2 8 12 
 
 2 9 '8 
 
 8 11 15 
 
 4 16 10 
 8 15 0 
 
 8 8 0 
 
 4 18 18 
 7 11 13 
 7 12 0 
 1 21 11 
 
 Grain: 
 
 105-9 
 
 52- 6 
 
 43-3 
 42-9 
 12-16 
 42-5 
 70-3 
 
 53- 6 
 161- 
 246-1 
 
 53-6 
 113-7 
 
 51- 9 
 
 52- 6 
 
 186-8 
 94- 
 189-8 
 
 183-4 
 96-2 
 164-7 
 165- 
 41-8 
 
 «. d. 
 
 18 8-91 
 9 3-71 
 
 7 7-94 
 7 7-11 
 2 1-82 
 7 6-26 
 12 5-30 
 9 5-83 
 
 28 5-93 
 43 6-66 
 
 9 5-83 
 20 1-47 
 9 2-22 
 
 9 3-71 
 
 33 0-72 
 
 16 7-64 
 30 1-.04 
 
 32 5-50 
 
 17 0-30 
 2& 1-78 
 
 29 2-42 
 7 477 
 
 No. VII. Silver Coins of different Countries, — A Table containing the Assays, Weights, and 
 Values of the principal Silver Coins of all Countries, computed at the rate of 5s. 2d. per Ounce 
 Standard, from Assays made both at the London and Paris Mints. 
 
 COINS. 
 
 Assay. 
 
 • 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Standard 
 Weight. 
 
 Contents 
 'siWerf 
 
 Value in 
 Sterling. 
 
 
 
 02. dwt. 
 
 Dnit. gr. 
 
 Dwt. gr, mi. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 J. 
 
 d. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Rixdollar of Francis II., 1800 
 
 W. 1 5 
 
 18 1 
 
 16 0 4 
 
 355-5 
 
 4 
 
 1-64 
 
 
 Rixdollarof thekingdom of Hungary 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 18 1 
 
 16 6 1 
 
 360-9 
 
 4 
 
 2-39 
 
 
 Half rixdollar, or florin. Convention 
 
 W. 1 3 
 
 9 0| 
 
 8 2 1 
 
 179-6 
 
 2 
 
 1-07 
 
 
 Copftsuck, or 20 creutzer piece 
 
 W. 4 3 
 
 4 6A 
 
 2 16 3 
 
 59-4 
 
 0 
 
 8-29 
 
 
 17 Creutzer piece 
 
 W. 4 8 
 
 4 0 
 
 2 9 18 
 
 53-5 
 
 0 
 
 7-47 
 
 
 Halbe copf, or 10 creutzer piece 
 
 W. 5 5 
 
 2 11 
 
 1 7 1 
 
 28-8 
 
 0 
 
 401 
 
 Baden - 
 
 Rixdollar - - - 
 
 W. 1 4 
 
 18 2 
 
 16 3 1 
 
 358-1 
 
 4 
 
 2- 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Rixdollar of 1800 (f in proportion) - 
 
 W. 1 4| 
 
 17 12 
 
 15 13 13 
 
 345 6 
 
 4 
 
 0-25 
 
 
 Copftsuck - 
 
 W. 4 3 
 
 4 6| 
 
 2 16 3 
 
 59-4 
 
 0 
 
 8-29 
 
 Bern - 
 
 Patagon or cro-wn (1 in proportion) 
 
 W. 0 7 
 
 18 22 
 
 18 7 14 
 
 406-7 
 
 4 
 
 879 
 
 
 Piece of 10 batzen 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 5 3 
 
 4 14 17 
 
 102-5 
 
 1 
 
 2-31 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Piece of 48 grotes 
 
 W. 2 2 
 
 11 0 
 
 8 22 1 
 
 198- 
 
 2 
 
 3-64 
 
 Brunswick - 
 
 Rixdollar, Convention 
 
 W. 1 3 
 
 18 1 
 
 16 4 4 
 
 359-2 
 
 4 
 
 2-15 
 
 
 Half rixdollar 
 
 W. 1 3 
 
 9 Oi 
 8 10| 
 
 8 2 2 
 
 179-6 
 
 2 
 
 1-07 
 
 
 Gulden, or piece of |, fine, of 1764 - 
 Gulden, common, of 1764 
 
 B. 0 16 
 
 9 1 1 
 
 200-8 
 
 2 
 
 403 
 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 9 0 
 
 8 2 10 
 
 180- 
 
 2 
 
 1-13 
 
 
 Gulden, ditto, of 1795 
 
 W. 2 2 
 
 11 n 
 
 8 23 7 
 
 199-1 
 
 2 
 
 3-80 
 
 
 Half gulden, or piece of §, of 1764 - 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 4 12 
 
 4 1 5 
 
 90- 
 
 1 
 
 0 56 
 
 Denmark - 
 
 Ryksdaler, specie, of 1798 
 
 W. 0 13 
 
 18 14 
 
 17 11 17 
 
 388-4 
 
 4 
 
 S-23 
 
 
 New piece of 4 marks 
 
 W. 0 12 
 
 12 9 
 
 11 16 14 
 
 259 8 
 
 3 
 
 0-27 
 
 
 Half ryksdaler - - 
 
 W. 0 13 
 
 9 7 
 
 8 17 8 
 
 194-2 
 
 2 
 
 3-11 
 
 
 Mark, specie, or J ryksdaler 
 
 W. 3 1 
 
 4 0 
 
 2 21 12 
 
 64-4 
 
 0 
 
 7-59 
 
 
 Rixdollar, specie, of Sleswig and 
 Holstein (pieces of § and § in prop.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W. 0 12 
 
 18 13 
 
 17 12 6 
 
 389-4 
 
 4 
 
 6-37 
 
 
 Piece of 24 skillings 
 
 W. 4 7 
 
 5 2| 
 
 3 2 10 
 
 68^9 
 
 0 
 
 
 England 
 
 Crown (old) - 
 
 Stand. 
 
 19 81 
 
 19 8 10 
 
 4297 
 
 5 
 
 0- i 
 
 
 Half-crown - 
 
 Stand. 
 
 9 16A 
 
 9 16 5 
 
 214-8 
 
 2 
 
 6- 1 
 
 
 Shilling 
 
 Stand. 
 
 3 21 
 
 3 21 0 
 
 85-9 
 
 1 
 
 0- 1 
 
 
 Sixpence - - 
 
 Stand. 
 
 1 22i 
 18 4J 
 
 1 22 10 
 
 42-9 
 
 0 
 
 6- 1 
 
 
 Crown (new) 
 
 Stand. 
 
 18 4 7 
 
 403-6 
 
 4 
 
 8-36 j 
 
 
 Half-crown - 
 
 Stand. 
 
 9 2 
 
 9 2 4 
 
 201-8 
 
 2 
 
 4-18 
 
 
 Shilling - 
 
 Stand. 
 
 3 15A 
 
 3 15 6 
 
 807 
 
 0 11-27 1 
 
 
 Sixpence - - - 
 
 Stand. 
 
 1 19f 
 
 1 19 14 
 
 40-3 
 
 0 
 
 5-63 
 
 France 
 
 Ecu of 6 livres . . - 
 
 W. 0 7 
 
 18 18 
 
 18 7 16 
 
 4031 
 
 4 
 
 8-28 1 
 
 
 Demi ecu - 
 
 W. 0 7 
 
 9 9 
 
 9 1 18 
 
 201-5 
 
 2 
 
 4-13 i 
 
 
 Piece of 24 sous (divisions in rcrip.) 
 
 W. 0 7 
 
 3 20 
 
 3 16 19 
 
 83-4 
 
 0 11-64 
 
 
 Piece of 30 sous (J in proportion) - 
 
 W. 3 8 
 
 6 12 
 
 4 12 4 
 
 100-2 
 
 1 
 
 199 
 
 
 Piece of 5 francs of the Convention 
 
 W. 0 lOi 
 
 16 0 
 
 15 5 14 
 
 338-3 
 
 3 
 
 11-24 
 
 
 Piece of 5 francs (Napoleon) of 1808 
 
 W. 0 7 
 
 16 1 
 
 15 12 4 
 
 344-9 
 
 4 
 
 0-16 
 
 
 Piece of 2 francs of 1808 
 
 W. 0 7 
 
 6 11 
 
 6 6 2 
 
 138-8 
 
 1 
 
 7-38 
 
 
 Franc of 1809 
 
 W. 0 7 
 
 3 5| 
 
 3 3 1 
 
 69-4 
 
 0 
 
 9-69 
 
 
 Demi franc - - 
 
 W. 0 8i 
 
 1 15 
 
 4 13 6 
 
 347 
 
 0 
 
 4-84 
 
 
 Franc (Louis) of 1818, same as franc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ot 1809. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Patagon - - 
 
 W. 1 0 
 
 17 9 
 
 15 19 8 
 
 351- 
 
 4 
 
 1-03 
 
 
 Piece of 15 sous of 1794 
 
 W. 2 6 
 
 2 H 
 
 1 15 1 
 
 36-1 
 
 0 
 
 5-04 
 
 ♦ This vBlne of the American eagle is taken fVom average assays of the coins of twelve years. 
 
 4 
 
COINS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weigh;. 
 
 Standard 
 
 Contents 
 in I'ure 
 Silver. 
 
 
 
 Vajue in 
 
 
 COINS. 
 
 Assay. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 Sltrling. 
 
 
 
 0-4. Ju l. 
 
 Urvl.gr. 
 
 Dwt. gi: mi. 
 
 Orairu. 
 
 
 * 
 
 Genoa - 
 
 Scudo, of 8 lire, of 1796 (J, i, &c. in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 proportion) . . - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 8 
 
 21 9 
 
 20 14 10 
 
 457-4 
 
 5 
 
 3 87 
 
 
 Scudo of the Ligurian Republic 
 
 W. 0 
 
 9i 
 
 21 9 
 
 20 11 2 
 
 454-3 
 
 5 
 
 3-43 
 
 Hambl/rgh - 
 
 Ilixdollar, specie . - . 
 
 W. 0 10 
 
 v. 18 
 
 17 21 12 
 
 397-5 
 
 4 
 
 7-49 
 
 
 Double mark, or 32 schilling piece 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (single in proportion) 
 
 W. 2 
 
 3 
 
 11 18 
 
 9 11 8 
 
 210-3 
 
 2 
 
 5 DC, 
 
 
 Piece of 8 schillings 
 
 W. 3 
 
 12 
 
 3 8^ 
 
 2 6 4 
 
 50-1 
 
 0 
 
 6 99 
 
 
 Piece of 4 schillings 
 
 W. 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 2 
 
 1 6 12 
 
 28 -3 
 
 0 
 
 3 95 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Rixdoliar, Constitution 
 
 W. 0 
 
 9 
 
 18 19 
 
 18 0 14 
 
 40()-3 
 
 
 7 8!) 
 
 
 Florin, or piece of §, tine 
 
 B. 0 16 
 
 8 10 
 
 9 0 10 
 
 200-3 
 
 2 
 
 3 -96 
 
 
 Half florin, or piece of ^, ditto 
 
 B. 0 
 
 16 
 
 4 4 
 
 4 11 4 
 
 99-2 
 
 1 
 
 185 
 
 
 Quarter, or piece of 6 good gro- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 schen, ditto - - - 
 
 B. 0 16 
 
 2 1 
 
 2 4 10 
 
 48-6 
 
 0 
 
 6-78 
 
 
 Florin, or piece of §, base 
 
 W. 2 
 
 1 
 
 11 Of 
 
 8 23 15 
 
 199 6 
 
 2 
 
 3-87 
 
 Hesse Cassel 
 
 Kixdollar, Convention 
 
 W. 1 
 
 6 
 
 18 1 
 
 15 22 6 
 
 353- 
 
 4 
 
 1-39 
 
 
 Florin, or piece of § in proportion) 
 Thaler of 1789 
 
 W. 1 
 
 6 
 
 9 0| 
 
 7 23 3 
 
 1768 
 
 'i 
 
 0-(i8 
 
 
 W. 0 lOi 
 
 12 7^ 
 
 11 17 5 
 
 2597 
 
 3 
 
 0-26 
 
 
 Ecu, Convention (1815) 
 
 W. 1 
 
 6 
 
 17 23^ 
 
 15 21 2 
 
 349-3 
 
 4 
 
 0 77 
 
 
 Bon gros - - - 
 
 W. 6 14 
 
 1 4 
 
 0 115 
 
 10-3 
 
 0 
 
 1'43 
 
 Holland 
 
 Ducatoon - - 
 
 B. 0 
 
 3 
 
 20 22 
 
 21 4 15 
 
 471-6 
 
 5 
 
 5 85 
 
 
 Piece of 3 florins 
 
 W. 0 
 
 2 
 
 20 7 
 
 20 2 12 
 
 446 4 
 
 5 
 
 2-33 
 
 
 Rixdoliar (the assay varies) 
 
 W. 0 16 
 
 18 6 
 
 16 20 8 
 
 375-9 
 
 4 
 
 4-99 
 
 
 Half rixdoliar . - - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 16 
 
 9 0 
 
 8 8 8 
 
 185-4 
 
 2 
 
 188 
 
 
 Florin or guilder (| in proportion) - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 4§ 
 
 6 18 
 
 6 14 14 
 
 146 8 
 
 
 8-i9 
 
 
 12 Stiver piece - - 
 
 W. 0 16i 
 
 4 12 
 
 4 3 18 
 
 92-4 
 
 1 
 
 0 90 
 
 
 Florin of Batavia 
 
 W. 0 
 
 5| 
 
 6 13 
 
 6 9 2 
 
 141 6 
 
 1 
 
 7/7 
 
 
 Rixdoliar, or 50 stiver piece, of the 
 
 
 
 
 16 13 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 kingdom of Holland 
 
 W. 0 
 
 *5i 
 
 17 0 
 
 367-9 
 
 4 
 
 3-37 
 
 LUBEC - 
 
 Rixdoliar, specie 
 
 W. 0 13 
 
 18 8 
 
 17 15 12 
 
 39 19 
 
 4 
 
 6 72 
 
 
 Double mark - 
 
 W. 2 
 
 3 
 
 11 18 
 
 9 11 8 
 
 2103 
 
 2 
 
 5-36 
 
 
 Mark - _ - 
 
 W. 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 21 
 
 4 17 14 
 
 105 1 
 
 1 
 
 2-67 
 
 Lucca - 
 
 Scudo . - - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 3 
 
 17 0 
 
 16 18 10 
 
 372 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 98 
 
 
 Barbone - - 
 
 W. 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 20i 
 
 1 7 14 
 
 29 3 
 
 0 
 
 4 09 
 
 Malta - 
 
 Ounce of 30 tari of Emmanuel Pinto 
 
 W. 2 
 
 5 
 
 19 li 
 
 15 4 14 
 
 537 4 
 
 
 11-11 
 
 
 2 Tari piece . - _ 
 
 W. 2 19 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 19 2 
 
 17 7 
 
 0 
 
 2-41 
 
 Milan - 
 
 Scudo of 6 lire (| in proportioni 
 
 W. 0 
 
 7 
 
 14 20| 
 
 14 9 10 
 
 319-6 
 
 3 
 
 8-62 
 
 
 Lira, new 
 
 W. 4 10 
 
 4 0 
 
 2 9 0 
 
 52-8 
 
 0 
 
 7-37 
 
 
 Lira, old - - - - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 
 2 10 
 
 2 9 4 
 
 52 9 
 
 0 
 
 7-38 
 
 
 Scudo of the Cisalpine Republic 
 
 W. 0 
 
 7 
 
 14 21| 
 
 14 10 4 
 
 320-2 
 
 3 
 
 871 
 
 
 Pieceof 30 soldi of ditto 
 
 W. 2 18 
 
 4 17 
 
 3 11 8 
 
 77-2 
 
 0 10-78 
 
 Modena 
 
 Scudo of 15 lire, 1739 (Rouble, &c. in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 proportion) . _ . 
 
 W. 0 14 
 
 18 12^ 
 
 17 8 9 
 
 385-2 
 
 4 
 
 5-78 
 
 
 Scudo of 5 lire, of 1782 
 
 W. 0 
 
 3 
 
 5 19 
 
 5 17 2 
 
 126-8 
 
 1 
 
 5-70 
 
 
 Scudo of 1796 
 
 W. 3 
 
 3 
 
 18 If 
 
 12 22 12 
 
 287-4 
 
 
 4 13 
 
 Naples 
 
 Ducat, new (| in proportion) 
 
 W. 1 
 
 0 
 
 14 15 
 
 13 7 8 
 
 295 4 
 
 3 
 
 5-24 
 
 
 Piece of 12 Carlini of 1791 
 
 W. 1 
 
 0 
 
 17 15 
 
 16 0 18 
 
 356- 
 
 4 
 
 1-71 
 
 
 Ditto of 1796 ... 
 
 W. 1 
 
 2 
 
 17 16f 
 
 15 22 12 
 
 353-9 
 
 4 
 
 1-41 
 
 
 Ditto of 1805 (1 in proportion) 
 
 W. 1 
 
 2 
 
 17 18i 
 
 15 23 18 
 
 355-2 
 
 4 
 
 1-60 
 
 
 Ditto of 10 Carlini (1818) 
 
 W. 1 
 
 2 
 
 14 18 
 
 13 7 0 
 
 295-1 
 
 3 
 
 5-i^O 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Ducatoon, old - . 
 
 B. 0 
 
 4 
 
 21 0 
 
 21 9 0 
 
 474-6 
 
 5 
 
 6-C7 
 
 
 Ducatoon of Maria Theresa 
 
 W. 0 14 
 
 21 10 
 
 20 1 12 
 
 445-5 
 
 5 
 
 2 20 
 
 
 Crown (1, &c. in proportion) 
 
 W. 0 14 
 
 19 0 
 
 17 19 4 
 
 395-2 
 
 4 
 
 7-18 
 
 
 5 Stiver piece - - . 
 
 W. 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 4 
 
 1 9 18 
 
 31-3 
 
 0 
 
 4-37 
 
 
 Florin of 1790 ... 
 
 W. 0 
 
 14 
 
 5 £3i 
 
 6 22 
 
 5 14 9 
 
 124-3 
 
 1 
 
 5-35 
 
 
 Florin of 18 16 
 
 W. 0 
 
 7i 
 
 6 16 6 
 
 148 -4 
 
 1 
 
 8-72 
 
 
 Half florin (with divisions in prop.) 
 
 W. 4 
 
 5^ 
 
 5 11 
 
 3 9 2 
 
 15' 
 
 0 10-46 
 
 Parma - - 
 
 Ducat of 1784 - - - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 9 
 
 16 11 
 
 15 18 18 
 
 350 6 
 
 4 
 
 0-95 
 
 
 Ducat of 1796 (| in proportion) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 5i 
 
 16 12f 
 
 16 2 18 
 
 357 '9 
 
 4 
 
 1-97 
 
 
 Piece of 3 lire - - - 
 
 W. 1 
 
 4 
 
 4 14 
 
 4 2 2 
 
 90-7 
 
 1 
 
 0-66 
 
 Piedmont - 
 
 Scudo, 1755 (I, &c. in proportion) - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 5| 
 
 22 U 
 
 22 0 10 
 
 488-9 
 
 5 
 
 8-26 
 
 
 Scudo, 1770 (I and i in proportion) 
 Piece of 2 lire (1714) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 5 
 
 22 14 
 
 22 1 16 
 
 490- 
 
 5 
 
 8-42 
 
 
 W. 0 
 
 f 
 
 7 20^ 
 
 7 16 13 
 
 170-8 
 
 1 
 
 11-85 
 
 
 5 Franc piece (1801) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 16 li 
 
 15 11 12 
 
 S43-7 
 
 3 11-99 
 
 Poland 
 
 Rixdoliar, old - _ - 
 Rixdoliar, new (1794) 
 
 W. 1 
 
 2 
 
 18 1 
 
 16 6 0 
 
 360 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 38 
 
 
 W. 2 
 
 17 
 
 15 10| 
 
 11 11 6 
 
 254-3 
 
 2 11 51 
 
 
 Florin, or gulden 
 
 W. 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 0 
 
 3 18 16 
 
 84 
 
 0 
 
 J 1-72 
 
 Portugal - 
 
 New crusado (1690) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 4 
 
 11 0 
 
 10 19 0 
 
 239-2 
 
 2 
 
 9 40 
 
 
 Ditto (1718) - - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 61 
 
 9 8 
 
 9 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 3-95 
 
 
 Ditto (1795) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 7 
 
 9 9 
 
 9 1 18 
 
 201-6 
 
 2 
 
 4-15 
 
 
 Doze vintems, or piece of 240 rees 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (1799) 
 
 W. G 
 
 7 
 
 4 16 
 
 4 12 10 
 
 100-4 
 
 1 
 
 2 01 
 
 
 Testoon (1799) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 7 
 
 2 Ok 
 
 1 22 18 
 
 43-4 
 
 0 
 
 6 06 
 
 
 New crusaKo (1809) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 4 
 
 9 3 
 
 8 23 0 
 
 198-2 
 
 2 
 
 4-67 
 
 
 Seis vintems, or piece of 120 rees 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (1802) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 9 
 
 2 4| 
 
 2 2 8 
 
 46-6 
 
 0 
 
 6-50 
 
 
 Testoon (1802) ... 
 
 W. 0 
 
 9 
 
 2 0 
 
 ] 22 0 
 
 42-5 
 
 0 
 
 5-93 
 
 
 Tres vintems, or piece of 60 rees (1802) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 9 
 
 1 2i 
 
 114 
 
 23-3 
 
 0 
 
 3-25 
 
 
 Half testoon (1802) - _ . 
 
 W. 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 23 
 
 0 22 0 
 
 20-4 
 
 0 
 
 2-84 
 
 Portuguese ] 
 
 Piece of 8 macutes, of Portuguese 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Colonies j 
 
 Africa . - . 
 
 \V. 0 
 
 9 
 
 7 12 
 
 7 4 14 
 
 159-8 
 
 I 
 
 10-31 
 
 
 Ditto of 6 ditto ... 
 
 W. 0 
 
 9 
 
 5 13 
 
 5 7 12 
 
 118- 
 
 0 
 
 4-47 
 
 
 Dittoof 4 ditto . - . 
 
 W. 0 
 
 9 
 
 3 16 
 
 3 12 8 
 
 78-1 
 
 1 
 
 10-90 
 
 Prussl\ 
 
 *Rixdollar, Prussian currencj', (| in 
 proportion) - - . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W. 2 
 
 5 
 
 14 61 
 
 11 9 0 
 
 252-6 
 
 2 11-27 
 
 
 Rixdoliar, Convention 
 
 W. 1 
 
 3 
 
 18 1 
 
 16 4 2 
 
 359- 
 
 4 
 
 2-13 
 
 
 Florin, or piece of § - - - 
 
 \V. 2 
 
 
 11 2 
 
 8 22 S 
 
 198-4 
 
 2 
 
 3-70 
 
 • The Prussian coins, having been debased at different 
 
 Y 2 
 
 periods, vary in their reports. 
 
32^ 
 
 COINS. 
 
 COINS. 
 
 Assay. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Standard 
 Weight. 
 
 Contents 
 in Pure 
 Silver. 
 
 Value in 
 Sterling. 
 
 
 
 Oz. d7vt. 
 
 Drvt. gr. 
 
 gr. mi. 
 
 G rains. 
 
 3 
 
 d. 
 
 
 Florin of Silesia - _ _ 
 
 "W 2 
 
 
 9 11 
 
 7 16 0 
 
 170"3 
 
 1 
 
 11*78 
 
 
 Drittcl) or piece of 8 good groschen 
 
 W^. 3 
 
 
 5 8f 
 
 3 20 4 
 
 85 3 
 
 0 11*91 
 
 
 Piece of 6 grosclien • _ 
 
 W 2 
 
 g 
 
 3 14 
 
 2 19 6 
 
 62^'3 
 
 0 
 
 8 '69 
 
 xtOME - • 
 
 Scudo, or crown (coined since 1753) 
 
 W 0 
 
 4 
 
 17 1 
 
 16 17 13 
 
 371*5 
 
 4 
 
 3*87 
 
 
 Mezzo scudo or half-crown 
 Testone (1785) - . - 
 
 ^V. 0 
 
 4 
 
 8 12| 
 
 8 8 16 
 
 1857 
 
 2 
 
 1 yo 
 
 
 W 0 
 
 5 
 
 5 2 
 
 4 23 4 
 
 110"3 
 
 
 3*40 
 
 
 Paolo (1785) . 
 
 W 0 
 
 4 
 
 1 17 
 
 1 16 4 
 
 37 '2 
 
 0 
 
 5*19 
 
 
 Grosso, or half Paolo (1785) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 
 0 20| 
 
 0 20 0 
 
 18 5 
 
 0 
 
 2*58 
 
 
 Scudo of the Roman Republic (1799) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 g 
 
 17 1 
 
 16 13 18 
 
 368'1 
 
 4, 
 
 3 '40 
 
 Russia 
 
 Ruble of Peter the Great 
 
 W. 2 
 
 
 18 1 
 
 14 1 8 
 
 312'1 
 
 3 
 
 7*58 
 
 Ditto of Catherine I. (1725) 
 
 W. 2 
 
 
 17 11 
 
 13 23 0 
 
 309 "9 
 
 3 
 
 7 -97 
 
 
 Ditto of Peter II. (1727) 
 
 w! 2 
 
 12 
 
 18 5f 
 
 13 23 4 
 
 310" 
 
 3 
 
 7*28 
 
 
 Ditto of Anne (1734) 
 
 w! 1 
 
 11 
 
 16 141 
 
 14 6 16 
 
 317 '2 
 
 3 
 
 8*29 
 
 
 Ditto of Elizabeth (1750) 
 
 W. 1 
 
 
 16 12 
 
 14 11 16 
 
 321 "8 
 
 3 
 
 8*93 
 
 
 Ditto of Peter III. (1762) 
 
 w! 2 
 
 2 
 
 15 10 
 
 12 12 0 
 
 271 '5 
 
 3 
 
 2*75 
 
 
 Ditto of Catherine II. (1780) 
 
 W* 2 
 
 4 
 
 15 12 
 
 12 10 6 
 
 275 '9 
 
 3 
 
 2*52 
 
 
 Dittoof Paul (1799) 
 
 w! 0 
 
 14 
 
 13 12 
 
 12 15 10 
 
 280 "8 
 
 3 
 
 3 21 
 
 
 Ditto of Alexander (1802) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 13 
 
 13 11 
 
 17 7 2 
 
 273" 
 
 3 
 
 2*12 
 
 
 Ditto of ditto (1805) 
 
 w! 0 
 
 16 
 
 13 12 
 
 12 12 12 
 
 2781 
 
 3 
 
 2*83 
 
 
 20 Copeck piece (1767) 
 
 w! 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 10| 
 
 2 19 0 
 
 62 "6 
 
 
 8*74 
 
 
 Ditto (1784) - - 
 
 W. 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 3 
 
 2 12 18 
 
 56 '2 
 
 0 
 
 7*84 
 
 
 15 Copeck piece (1778) 
 
 w! 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 6 
 
 1 19 18 
 
 40 5 
 
 0 
 
 5 "65 
 
 
 10 Copeck piece ■ • - 
 
 w! 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 1 
 
 1 14 16 
 
 35 "9 
 
 Q 
 
 5*11 
 
 
 Ditto (1798) - _ 
 
 w! 0 
 
 
 1 9 
 
 1 6 16 
 
 28'5 
 
 
 3*97 
 
 
 Ditto (1802) ... 
 
 w! 0 
 
 13 
 
 1 8| 
 
 1 6 11 
 
 28 "3 
 
 0 
 
 3*95 
 
 
 5 Copeck piece (1801) 
 
 w! 0 
 
 13-1 
 
 0 16| 
 
 0 15 10 
 
 15 '3 
 
 0 
 
 2*13 
 
 Sardinia — 
 
 Scudo, or crown (^ and s.in prop.) - 
 Rix-dollar, Conventton (| and ^ in 
 proportion) _ 
 
 w! 0 
 
 
 15 2i 
 
 14 15 0 
 
 3247 
 
 3 
 
 9*34 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W. 1 
 
 3 
 
 18 0 
 
 16 3 4 
 
 ooo'2 
 
 ^ 
 
 2*01 
 
 
 Piece of 16 groschen of Leipsic 
 
 w! 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 9| 
 
 7 14 16 
 
 169*1 
 
 
 11*61 
 
 
 Rixdollar current of Saxe Gotha 
 
 W. 4 
 
 4-i 
 
 18 1 
 
 114 2 
 
 248*1 
 
 2 
 
 10*64 
 
 
 J Thaler of 1804 - - 
 
 W. 4 
 
 11 
 
 3 11 
 
 2 0 19 
 
 45*3 
 
 0 
 
 6*32 
 
 
 Ditto of 1808 - - 
 
 w! 4 
 
 
 3 5^ 
 
 1 21 8 
 
 42*1 
 
 0 
 
 5*87 
 
 
 Ditto of Jerome Bonaparte of 1809 
 
 W. 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 17 
 
 1 23 6 
 
 43*7 
 
 0 
 
 610 
 
 
 Scudo (^ in proportion) * » 
 
 w! 1 
 
 4 
 
 17 14 
 
 15 16 6 
 
 348'2 
 
 4 
 
 0*62 
 
 
 Piece of 40 grains 
 
 w! 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 21 
 
 5 7 2 
 
 117*5 
 
 1 
 
 4*40 
 
 Spain - 
 
 ^Dollar, of late coinage - « 
 
 W. 0 
 
 8 
 
 17 8 
 
 16 17 0 
 
 370*9 
 
 4 
 
 3*79 
 
 
 Half dollar ditto ... 
 Mexican peceta (1774) 
 
 w! 0 
 
 8 
 
 8 16 
 
 8 8 10 
 
 185*4 
 
 2 
 
 1*88 
 
 
 W. 0 
 
 g 
 
 4 7J 
 
 4 3 16 
 
 92*3 
 
 
 0'88 
 
 
 Real of Mexican plate (1775) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 8 
 
 2 3| 
 
 2 1 20 
 
 46*1 
 
 0 
 
 6*43 
 
 
 Peceta provincial of 2 reals of new 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 plate ( 1775) _ . . 
 
 W. 1 
 
 91 
 
 3 18 
 
 3 6 0 
 
 72*2 
 
 0 
 
 10*08 
 
 
 Real of new plate (1795) 
 
 W. 1 
 
 
 1 21 
 
 1 15 0 
 
 36*1 
 
 0 
 
 5 04 
 
 c 
 
 Rixdollar (1762) - - - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 12 
 
 18 20 
 
 17 19 10 
 
 395*5 
 
 4 
 
 7*22 
 
 Rixdollar of late coinage -■ - 
 
 W.' 0 
 
 
 18 17 
 
 17 12 0 
 
 388*5 
 
 4 
 
 6*28 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 EcUy or rixdollar of Lucerne, ^, &c, 
 in proportion (1715) - " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W. 0 
 
 14i 
 
 17 8i 
 8 14^ 
 
 16 5 8 
 
 360*1 
 
 4 
 
 2*28 
 
 
 Old gulden^or florin of Lucerne (1714) 
 
 w! 1 
 
 19 
 
 7 2 8 
 
 157*5 
 
 
 9*99 
 
 
 Ecu of 40 batzen of Lucerne (1796) 
 
 w! 0 
 
 5 
 
 19 0 
 
 18 13 14 
 
 4 J 2*3 
 
 4 
 
 9*57 
 
 
 Half ditto . 
 
 w! 1 
 
 2 
 
 9 20 
 
 8 20 12 
 
 196*7 
 
 2 
 
 3 "46 
 
 
 Florin, or piece of 40 schillings of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1"51 
 
 
 Lucerne (1793) - 
 
 W. 1 
 
 5 
 
 4 22 
 
 4 8 14 
 
 96*8 
 
 1 
 
 
 Ecu of 40 batzen of the Helvetic 
 
 W. 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 . _ 
 409*5 
 
 
 9*18 
 
 
 Republic, 1798 (§ in proportion) - 
 
 18 23 
 
 10 in 
 
 lo 10 14 
 
 4 
 
 
 Ecu of 4 franken (1801) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 7 . 
 
 18 23 
 
 18 8 12 
 
 407*6 
 
 4 
 
 9*18 
 
 A URK.EY ~ 
 
 Piastre of Selim of 1801 
 
 w! 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 6 
 
 4 7 8 
 
 95 7 
 
 1 
 
 1*36 
 
 Piastre of Crim Tartary (1778) 
 
 w! 6 
 
 13 
 
 10 5 
 
 4 2 4 
 
 90*9 
 
 
 0*69 
 
 
 Piastre of Tunis (1787) 
 
 W. 6 
 
 
 10 0 
 
 4 8 6 
 
 96*5 
 
 1 
 
 1*47 
 
 
 Piastre (1818) - - - 
 
 W. 5 
 
 14 
 
 6 6J 
 
 3 14 
 
 67*7 
 
 0 
 
 9*45 
 
 1 USCANY - 
 
 Piece of 10 Paoli of the Kingdom of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Etruria (1801) - _ - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 4 
 
 17 loi 
 
 17 5 18 
 
 382*9 
 
 4 
 
 5*46 
 
 
 Scudo Pisa of ditto (1803) 
 
 W, 0 
 
 2 
 
 17 12 
 
 17 8 4 
 
 385*0 
 
 4 
 
 5 "76 
 
 
 Piece of 10 lire ditto (1803) 
 
 B. 0 
 
 7 
 
 25 6 
 
 26 1 12 
 
 578*7 
 
 6 
 
 8 "80 
 
 
 Lira (1803) - - 
 
 B. 0 
 
 7 
 
 2 8 
 
 2 9 16 
 
 53*4 
 
 0 
 
 7*45 
 
 United States 
 
 f Dollar, 1795 (|, &c. in proportion) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 6i 
 7 
 
 17 8 
 
 16 19 16 
 
 373*5 
 
 4 
 
 415 
 
 
 Dollar (1798) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 17 10| 
 
 16 21 6 
 
 374 9 
 
 4 
 
 4 "35 
 
 
 Dollar (1802) 
 
 w! 0 
 
 IDA 
 
 17 10 
 
 16 14 0 
 
 368*3 
 
 4 
 
 3 "42 
 
 
 Dollar, an average of 8 years 
 
 W 0 
 
 Oa 
 
 17 8 
 
 16 16 0 
 
 370 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 "68 
 
 
 Dime, or one-tenth dollar (1796) - 
 
 w] 0 
 
 4 
 
 1 191 
 5 19i 
 
 1 18 14 
 
 39*5 
 
 Q 
 
 5"71 
 
 
 Half dime (1796) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 7 
 
 •0 21 0 
 
 19*5 
 
 Q 
 
 2"72 
 
 Venice 
 
 Piece of 2 lire, or 24 creutzers (1800) 
 
 W. 8 
 
 41 
 
 1 12 2 
 
 33*4 
 
 Q 
 
 4 "66 
 
 Ditto of 2 lire, called moneta pro- 
 vinciale (1808) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W. 8 
 
 3 
 
 5 lof 
 
 1 11 8 
 
 32*8 
 
 0 
 
 4*58 
 
 
 Ditto of 2 lire, 1802 (| and \ in prop.) 
 
 W. 8 
 
 4 
 
 5 65 
 
 1 8 19 
 
 30 5 
 
 0 
 
 4 25 
 
 WlBTEMBERQ 
 
 Rixdollar, specie - - - 
 Copftsuck - 
 
 W. 1 
 
 3 
 
 18 1 
 
 16 14 2 
 
 359*1 
 
 4 
 
 214 
 
 
 W. 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 16| 
 
 2 16 12 
 
 59 '8 
 
 0 
 
 8"35 
 
 EAST INDIES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rui>ee Sicca, coined by the East 
 India Company at Calcutta 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 0 
 
 13 
 
 7 11| 
 
 7 22 0 
 
 175*8 
 
 2 
 
 0*54 
 
 
 Calcutta (1818) 
 
 stand. 
 
 8 0 
 
 8 0 0 
 
 17,) 9 
 
 2 
 
 0*56 
 
 
 Bombay, new, or Surat (1818) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 7 11 
 
 7 10 4 
 
 1647 
 
 1 
 
 11*01 
 
 
 Fanam, Cananore - - - 
 
 W. 0 
 
 
 1 llf 
 
 1 11 10 
 
 3'2*9 
 
 0 
 
 4*5 
 
 
 Bombay, old 
 
 Pontlicherry - - . 
 
 B. 0 13 
 
 1 llf 
 
 1 13 16 
 
 35* 
 
 0 
 
 4*88 
 
 
 B. 0 
 
 
 1 Oi 
 
 1 1 2 
 
 22-8 
 
 0 
 
 3-18 
 
 
 Ditto, double 
 
 W. 0 
 
 ? 
 
 1 182 
 
 1 18 2 
 
 39* 
 
 0 
 
 5*44 
 
 
 Gulden of the Dutch E. I. Co. (1820) 
 
 W. 0 
 
 7^ 
 
 6 22 
 
 6 16 6 
 
 148-4 
 
 
 872 
 
 * This is the coin which is universally circulated under the name of the Spanish dollar. 
 + The American dollars, and inferior silver pieces of late coinage, vary in fineness from W. 4 dwts. to 
 W. Oj dwts. 
 
COINS. 
 
 325 
 
 The sterling value of the foreign coins, in the foregoing tables, has been computed from the assays as 
 follows : — Let it be required to assign the value in sterling, of a French double Louis d'or coined since 
 1786, the assay master's report being as follows: — " Weight, 9dwts. HOgrs. ; assay W. IJ grs.," that is, 
 0 car. 1| grs. worse than the English standard. We proceed as under : — 
 
 From 22 car. 0 gr. the fineness of English standard gold. 
 Take 0 1 J gr. 
 
 Remains 21 
 
 2i 
 
 Then, as 22 car. : 21 car. 2^ grs. : : 9dwts. 20 grs. : 9dwts. 16 grs., the standard gold contained in the Louis 
 d'or ; and hence, as 1 oz. : 31. lis. lOfrf. : : 9 dwts. 16 grs. : 1/. 175. 7^rf., the value of the Louis in sterling 
 money, and so (or any of the other coins. 
 
 Ancient Coins. — We subjoin, for the convenience of such of our readers as may at anytime have 
 occasion to consult works in which reference is made to ancient coins, the following tables of those that 
 were principally current among tlie Jews, Greeks, and Romans. They were calculated by Dr. Arbiithnot 
 {Tables of Ancient Coins, Weights, &c. 4to ed. Lond. 1754.), and do not differ materially trom trie laoies 
 of Paucton, whose Metrologie (4to. Paris, 1780.) is the most complete and elaborate work that has ever 
 been published with resi)ect to ancient monies, weights, and measures. At the same time we confess 
 we should not be disposed to place much reliance on these tables, and we have elsewhere stated our 
 reasons for holding this opinion. — (Art. Money, Supp. to Encyc. Britannica.) 
 
 Names and Proportions. 
 Gerah 
 
 Jewish Coins, 
 
 •V alue in SterlinR. 
 
 £ s. d. „ 
 
 0 0 ligu 
 
 10 
 
 Bekah 
 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 
 20~ 
 
 
 Shekel 
 
 
 0 2 
 
 Si 
 
 1,200 
 
 120 
 
 50 
 
 Man eh 7 
 Mina Hebraica $ 
 
 5 14 
 
 Of 
 
 60,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 60 [ Talent 
 
 342 3 
 
 9 
 
 Solidus aureus, or sextula, worth 
 Siclus aureus, worth 
 A talent of gold, worth 
 
 Lepton 
 
 0 12 01 
 
 1 16 6 
 5,475 0 0 
 
 Grecian Coins. 
 
 d. grs. 
 
 0 0^ 
 
 
 Chalcus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 Dichalcus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Hemiobolum 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 56 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Obolus 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Is 
 
 112 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Die 
 
 )bolum 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 224 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Tetrobolum 
 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 o| 
 
 336 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 li" 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 Drachma 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 662 
 
 96 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 li" 
 
 ~~6 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Die 
 
 rachma 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1,324 
 
 112 
 
 So 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Tetradrachma 
 
 - 2 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 1,660 
 
 384 
 
 120 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 7i 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 li 1 Pentadrachma 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Of these, the drachma and didrachma were of silver ; the rest, for the most part, of brass. 
 The drachma is here, with the generality of authors, supposed equal to the denarius : though there is 
 reason to believe that the drachma was somewhat the weightier. 
 
 Value in Sterliiuj. 
 .£ s. d. 
 
 16 If 
 
 The Grecian gold coin was the stater aureus, weighing 2 Attic drachms, or half of the \ ^ 
 
 stater argenteus ; and exchanging usually for 23 Attic drachmas of silver - -3 
 
 But according to our proportion of gold to silver it was worth - - -10 9 
 
 There were likewise the stater Cyzicenus, exchanging for 28 Attic drachmas, or - 0 18 1 
 The stater Philippicus, and stater Alexandrinus, were of the same value. 
 
 Stater Daricus, according to Josephus, worth 50 Attic drachmas, or - • 1 12 3| 
 Stater Croesius, of the same value. 
 
 Value and Proportion of the Roman Coins. 
 
 Teruncius 
 
 Sembella 
 
 20 
 
 1 40 
 
 Libella 
 As 
 
 Sestertius 
 
 Quinarius 
 Victoriatus 
 
 Denarius 
 
 Sterling. 
 s. d. grs. 
 
 0 
 
 TUS 
 
 0 
 
 0 s-nj 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 3| 
 
 0 
 
 7 S 
 
 y 3 
 
S26 
 
 COIR.— COLONIES. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 The Roman gold coin, or aureus weighed generally double the denarius; its value, 7 , . „, 
 
 according to the proportion of gold to silver, mentioned by Pliny, was - . 3 ^ * 
 
 According to the proportion that now obtains amongst us - - - 1 0 9 
 
 According to the decuple proportion mentioned by Livy and Julius Pollux - - 0 12 11 
 According to the proportion mentioned by Tacitus, by which the aureus exchanged for 7 ^ ^, 
 
 25 denarii, its value - - - - • . j " -lo 
 
 COIR, a species of yarn manufactured out of the husk of cocoa nuts. The husks 
 being steeped in water, the dry dusty substance mixed with the fibres is separated. 
 These are afterwards spun into yarn, and manufactured into cordage, that is deemed by 
 some superior to that made of hemp. The goodness of coir depends on the fineness of 
 the filaments, and on their being of a bright yellow colour. About 3,000,000 lbs. weight 
 are annually exported from Ceylon, principally to Calcutta, and other ports in the East 
 Indies. It is also prepared in the Maldive Islands, and many other places ; and is very 
 extensively used throughout the East. — {BertolaccVs Ceylon 1 Bell's Commerce of 
 Bengal, 8^c.) 
 
 COLOCYNTHIS, COLOQUINTIDA, or BITTER CUCUMBER (Ger. 
 
 Koloquinten ; Du. Bitter-appelen ; Fr. Coloquintes j It. Coloquijitida ; Sp. Coloquintidas; 
 Arab, and Pers. Hunzil), the produce of an annual plant {Cucumis colocynthis Lin.) 
 growing in Turkey, Nubia, India, and other places, much resembling the cucumber in 
 herbage. When ripe, the fruit is peeled and dried in a stove ; and in this state is 
 brought to England. It is inodorous, but has an extremely bitter, nauseous taste. It 
 is an exceedingly powerful drastic cathartic. When it is larger than a St. Michael's 
 orange, and has black acute pointed ends, it is not good. — (Ainslie's Materia Indica.) 
 
 COLONIES. — COLONY TRADE. — Colonies are establishments founded in 
 foreign countries by individuals who either voluntarily emigrate from, or are forcibly 
 sent abroad by, their mother country. The colony trade is the trade carried on between 
 colonies and their parent states. 
 
 I. Establishment of Colonies. 
 II. Influence of the Monopoly of the Colony Trade. — Slavery. 
 III. Magnitude, Population, Trade, &c. of British Colonies. 
 IV. Regulations under which Colony Trade is conducted. — Disposal op 
 Land in the Colonies, &c. 
 V. Foreign Colonies. 
 
 I. Establishment of Colonies. 
 
 (1.) Greek Colonies. — Various motives have, in different countries and ages, led to 
 the formation of colonies. * The Greek colonies of antiquity seem to have been chiefly 
 founded by citizens whom the violence and fury of contending factions forced to leave 
 their native land ; but they were sometimes formed for the purpose of relieving the 
 mother country of a redundant population, and sometimes also for the purpose of extending 
 the sphere of commercial transactions, or of providing for their security. The relations 
 between the mother country and the colony depended, in a great measure, on the motives 
 which led to the establishment of the latter. When a colony was founded by fugitives, 
 forcibly expelled from their ancient homes ; or when it was founded, as was frequently 
 the case, by bodies of voluntary emigrants, who received no assistance from, and were in 
 no respect controlled by, the parent state, it was from the first independent : and even in 
 those rarer cases in which the emigration was conducted under the superintendence of 
 the parent city, and when the colony was protected by her power and influence, the 
 dependence was, mostly, far from being absolute and complete. The great bulk of the 
 Greek colonies were really independent states ; and though they commonly regarded the 
 land of their forefathers with filial respect, though they yielded to its citizens the place 
 of distinction at public games and religious solemnities, and were expected to assist them 
 in time of war, they did so as allies only, on fair and equal terms, and never as subjects. 
 Owing to the freedom of their institutions, and their superiority in the arts of civilised 
 life to the native inhabitants of the countries among whom they were generally placed, 
 these colonies rose, in a comparatively short period, to a high pitch of opulence and 
 refinement ; and many among them, as Miletus and Ephesus in Asia Minor, Syracuse 
 and Agrigentum in Sicily, and Tarentum and Locri in Italy, not only equalled, but 
 greatly surpassed, their mother cities in wealth and power. 
 
 • Seneca has given, in a few words, a very clear and accurate statement of the different motives that 
 induced the ancients to found colonies. — *' Nec omnibus eadem causa relinquendi qucerendique patriam 
 
 Juit. Alios excidia urbium suarum, hostilibus armis elapsos, in aliena, spo/iatos stiis, e.rpulerunt : Alios 
 domcstica seditio submovit : Alios nimia superflucntis populi frcquentia, ad exonerandas vires, emisit : 
 Alms pestilentia, aut frequcns tcrrarum hiatus, aut aliqua intoleranda infelicis soli cjecerunt : Quosdam 
 
 Jf'-rfilis ores, et in majus laudatce, fama corrupit : Alios alia causa excivlt domilms suis." — (Consol. ad 
 Helviam, c. 6.) 
 
COLONIES. 
 
 (2.) Roman Colonies. — The Roman colonics were, for the most part, founded by and 
 ander the authority of government ; being intended to serve both as outlets for poor and 
 discontented citizens, and as military stations, or garrisons, to secure the subjection of 
 the conquered provinces over which they were scattered. The most intimate political 
 union was always maintained between them and the mother city. I'heir internal govern- 
 ment was modelled on that of Rome; and, while their superior officers were mostly 
 sent from the capital, they were made to contribute their full quota of troops and taxes, 
 to assist in carrying on the contests in which the Republic was almost constantly 
 engaged. 
 
 (3.) Spanish Colonies. — The early colonies of most modern nations were founded by 
 private adventurers, influenced either by the hope of gain, or by a desire to escajje from 
 religious persecution, without any wish to relieve the mother country of a surplus 
 population, or to bridle subjugated provinces. On their first institution, therefore, the 
 modern colonies approached, though with some essential variations, more nearly to the 
 Grecian than the Roman model — but the period of their freedom was of very 
 limited duration. They were very soon subjected to laws and regulations framed in the 
 metropolis, and calculated, as was to be supposed, rather to promote its interests than 
 those of the colony. At a somewhat later period the foundation of colonial establish- 
 ments was eagerly patronised by most European governments, in the view of extending 
 commerce, and of enriching the mother country, by securing to her the exclusive pos- 
 session of the market of distant countries ; and where, from the thinness of the abo- 
 riginal population, or their inferiority in the arts of civilised life, the colonists were 
 enabled to amass fortunes with compai-ative rapidity. 
 
 The Spaniards who first resorted to America after its discovery, had no intention of 
 settling in the country, or of colonising it. The idea that gold and silver alone con- 
 stituted wealth was then universally prevalent ; and the bold and enterprising companions 
 and followers of Columbus, instead of engaging in industrious undertakings, which they 
 neither understood nor relished, sought only to enrich themselves by phmdering the 
 feeble and defenceless natives of the gold and silver in their possession, and of the abund- 
 ance of which the most exaggerated accounts were immediately spread throughout 
 Europe. When new adventurers arrived on an unknown coast, their single inquiry was, 
 whether it abounded in gold. If it did, they remained, for some time at least, in the 
 covmtry ; if not, they immediately set sail for some other quarter. Auri rahida sitis a 
 cultura Hispanos divertit, is the expressive statement of a contemporary writer ( Petrus 
 Martyrus, in the Novus Orbis of Grynaeus, p. 511.). The slow progress of the Spanish 
 colonies, after their first discovery, must principally be ascribed to this cause. The gold 
 and silver accumulated by the natives were very soon exhausted ; and the skill and energy 
 of the successive swarms of adventurers, who continued to pour into the country, were 
 principally directed to the unproductive and generally ruinous trade of mining. The 
 few large fortunes that were made in this way, like the large prizes in a lottery, inflamed 
 the cupidity of the multitude, and gave an appearance of credibility to the fabulous 
 accounts of the excessive productiveness of the mines. After the gambling spirit which 
 had exclusively actuated the early adventurers had begun to subside, the colonists gra- 
 dually betook themselves to agricultural and commercial pursuits : and the vast variety 
 of valuable productions with which Mexico and the other Spanish colonies abound, the 
 extreme richness of their soil, and their advantageous situation, would, had they been 
 only tolerably well governed, have occasioned their rapid increase in wealth and civilis- 
 ation. But a blind and intolerant despotism paralysed their energies, and fettered and 
 retarded their progress. All the abuses and defects of the government of Old Spain 
 were transferred to, and multiplied in, the colonies. The whole property of those vast 
 regions was considered as vested in the crown of Spain ; and every law or regulation, 
 whether of a local or general nature, aflfecting their government, emanated from the 
 council of the Indies, in which it was supposed the king was always present. We 
 cannot stop to describe the sort of regulations to which the colonists were subjected with 
 any degree of minuteness ; but we may notice a few of them, to furnish the means of 
 judging of their general spirit and probable effect. It was, for example, made a capital 
 offence to carry on any intercourse with foreigners; and the inhabitants of the different 
 colonies were even forbidden any intercourse with each other, unless under the strictest 
 and most vexatious regulations. There were several articles, such as flax, hemp, and 
 wine, which they were not permitted to cultivate ; at the same time that the crown re- 
 served to itself the monopoly of salt, tobacco, gunpowder, and some other less important 
 articles. The alcavala, and other oppressive imposts, which had proved destructive of 
 industry in Old Spain, were rigorously levied as well on the exports as on the imports of 
 the colonies. No situation of power or emolument could be filled except by a native of 
 Old Spain. The Catholic religion was established, to the exclusion of every other ; and 
 bishops, tithes, and the inquisition, followed in its train : while, in order still better to 
 consolidate and strengthen the foundations of this monstrous despotism, the government 
 
328 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 endeavoured to make the colonists insensible of their degradation, by proscribing every 
 species of instruction, and watchfully opposing the introduction and progress of all useful 
 knowledge ! 
 
 Under such circumstances, we cannot be surprised that the Continental colonists, among 
 whom the monopoly system was maintained in its greatest purity, should have languished 
 for above two centuries in a state of sluggish inactivity. Though surrounded by all the 
 means of producing wealth, they were not generally wealthy. Oppression rendered them 
 indolent ; and went far to deprive them not only of the power, but also of the wish, to 
 emerge from poverty. The progress of the colonists who occupied the West India 
 islands was not quite so slow. It is certain, however, that down to the middle of last 
 century, Spain reaped no greater advantage from the possession of Cuba, Hispaniola, and 
 Forto Rico, than England or France from the smallest of its dependencies. In proof of 
 this we may mention, that the noble island of Cuba, which could without difficulty supply 
 all Europe with sugar, did not, in 1750, produce a sufficient quantity even for the con- 
 sumption of Old Spain. But the combined influence of an arbitrary and intolerant 
 government, and of a degrading superstition, could not balance the means of improve- 
 ment, which the fertility of the soil, and the command thence arising over most of the 
 necessaries and many of the conveniences of life, gave to the colonists. Owing also to 
 the total incapacity of Old Spain to furnish her transatlantic provinces with a sufficient 
 supply of the articles she had forced them to import from Europe, and the consequent 
 extension of the contraband trade carried on with them by the other European nations, 
 she had been compelled gradually to relax the severity of her commercial monopoly. A 
 new impulse was thus given to the spirit of industry. The colonists began to be more 
 sensible of the natural advantages of their situation, and less inclined to submit to the 
 blind and bigoted policy of the Spanish court. In 1781, a rebellion broke out in Peru, 
 in consequence of an attempt made by the government to establish a new monopoly in 
 that province, which threatened to end in the total dissolution of the connection between 
 Spain and South America, and was not quelled without great difficulty and much blood- 
 shed. But the spirit of liberty, when once excited, could not be suppressed. It con- 
 tinued to gain ground progressively, until the commencement of the late contest between 
 France and Spain interrupted the communication with the mother country, and gave the 
 colonists an opportunity of proclaiming that independence which, after a lengthened and 
 bloody struggle, they happily succeeded in achieving. 
 
 (4.) British Colonies. — The English, who, like all the other nations of Europe, naa 
 been impressed with mingled feelings of admiration and envy by the extent and im- 
 portance of the acquisitions made by the Spaniards in the New World, speedily entered 
 with enthusiasm and ardour into the career of discovery. Owing, however, to the 
 bull which Ferdinand and Isabella had obtained from the Pope, conveying to them 
 the ample donation of all the countries inhabited by infidels that the Spaniards had 
 discovered, or might discover, the English, to avoid encroaching on the dominions of 
 their rivals, directed their effi3rts further to the north. Several attempts to found 
 colonies on the coast of America were made in the reign of Elizabeth by Sir Hum- 
 phrey Gilbert, Sir Richard Grenville, Sir Walter Raleigh, and others. But in conse- 
 quence of their ignorance of the country, the deficiency of their supplies of provisions, 
 the loss of time in fruitless searches after gold, and the various difficulties incident to 
 the first settlement of a colony, none of these attempts proved successful : and it was 
 not until 1607, that a small body of adventurers founded the first permanent establish- 
 ment of the English in America, at James Town in Virginia. Letters patent were 
 granted in 1609, by King James, to the principal persons resident in London, by whom 
 the expense attending the formation of the colony was to be defrayed, incorporating 
 them into a company, and establishing a council in England for the direction of their 
 proceedings, the members of which were to be chosen by, and removeable at the pleasure 
 of, the majority of th6 partners of the company ; permitting whatever was necessary for 
 the support and sustenance of the colony for the first 7 years to be exported free of 
 duty ; declaring that the colonists and their descendants were to be secured in all the 
 rights and privileges of Englishmen, the same as if they had remained at home, or been 
 born in England ; and reserving only, as the stipulated price of these concessions, and 
 in imitation of the policy of the Spaniards, one fifth part of the gold and silver ore to 
 be found in the colonies, which was to be paid to his Majesty and his successors in all 
 time to come. In virtue of these powers, the company issued, in 1621, a charter or 
 ordinance, which gave a legal and permanent form to the constitution of the colony. 
 By this charter the supreme legislative authority was lodged, partly in the governor, 
 who held the place of the sovereign, partly in a council of state named by tlie com- 
 pany, and partly in a general council, or assembly composed of the representatives of 
 the people, in which were vested powers and privileges similar to those of the House 
 of Commons. It was not long, however, before the king and the company quarrelled. 
 The latter were in consequence divested of all their rights, partly by open violence, and 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 partly under colour of law, without compensation, after having expended upwards of 
 150,000/. in founding the colony ; and a governor and council of state appointed by the 
 king succeeded to the powers of those appointed by the committee. — (^liobertsori's His- 
 tory of America, book ix. passim; Jefferson's Notes on Viryinia, p. 179.) 
 
 The founders of the colony in Virginia had been actuated solely by the hopes of 
 gain : but the colonies that were soon after established in New England, were chiefly 
 planted by men wlio fled from religious and political persecution. The form of govern- 
 ment in the New England colonies, though at first modified a good deal by the peculiar 
 religious opinions entertained by the colonists, was in its leading principles essentially 
 free. For a considerable period, the colonists elected their own governors, coined 
 money, and exercised most of the riglits of sovereignty ; while the English, wholly 
 engrossed with the contest between freedom and prerogative at home, had no leisure to 
 attend to their proceedings. Subsequently to the Restoration, however, the govern- 
 ments of most of the New England states were established nearly on the same footing 
 as that of Virginia ; which, indeed, became the favourite model, not only for the consti- 
 tution of the colonies established on the Continent, with the exception of the proprietary 
 governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, but also for those that were established in 
 the West India islands. But under every vicissitude of government and fortune, the 
 New England colonists were distinguished by the same ardent and enthusiastic love of 
 liberty that had first induced them to quit their native land. Every thing relating to 
 the internal regulation and administration of the different colonies was determined, in 
 the colonial assemblies, by representatives freely chosen by the settlers. The personal 
 liberty of the citizens was well secured and vigilantly protected. And if we except the 
 restraints on their commerce, the monopoly of which was jealously guarded by the 
 mother country, the inhabitants of Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New England, enjoyed 
 nearly the same degree of freedom, when colonists of England, that they now enjoy as 
 citizens of the powerful republic of North America. Their progress in wealth and 
 population was in consequence ^juite unprecedented in the history of the world. The 
 white population of the colonies had increased in 1776, at the commencement of the 
 revolutionary war, to above 2,000,000, and the value of the exports from Great Britain 
 to them amounted to about 1,300,000Z. a year ! 
 
 It is not difficult to discover the causes of the unexampled prosperity and rapid 
 growth of our North American colonies, and generally of all colonies placed under 
 similar circumstances. The North American colonists carried with them a knowledge 
 of the arts and sciences practised by a civilised and polished people. They had been 
 trained from their infancy to habits of industry and subordination. They were practi- 
 cally acquainted with the best and wisest form of civil polity that had been established 
 in Europe ; and they were placed in a situation that enabled them, without difficulty, 
 to remedy its defects, and to try every institution by the test of utility. But the thin- 
 ness of the aboriginal population, and the consequent facility of obtaining inexhaustible 
 supplies of fertile and unoccupied land, must certainly be placed at the liead of all the 
 causes which have promoted the rapid increase of wealth and population in the United 
 States, and in all the other colonies both of North and South America. On the first 
 foundation of a colony, and for long after, each colonist gets an ample supply of land of 
 the best quality ; and having no rent, and scarcely any taxes, to pay, his industry neces- 
 sarily becomes exceedingly productive, and he has every means, and every motive, to 
 amass capital. In consequence, he is eager to collect laboiirers from all quarters, and is 
 both willing and able to reward them with high wages. But these high wages afford 
 the means of accumulation, and, joined to the plenty and cheapness of the land, speedily 
 change the more industrious labourers into proprietors, and enable them, in their turn, 
 to become the employers of fresh labourers ; so that every class participates in the gene- 
 ral improvement, and capital and population advance with a rapidity hardly conceivable 
 in old settled and fully peopled countries. 
 
 It has been frequently said, that the establishment of our American and West India 
 colonies was a device of the supporters of the exclusive or mercantile system — that they 
 founded them in the view of raising up a vast agricultural population, whose commerce 
 should be confined entirely to an exchange of their raw products for our manufactured 
 goods. There is, however, no truth in these assertions. On the contrary, the charters 
 granted to the founders of the settlement in Virginia distinctly empower the colonists ti 
 carry on a- direct iyitercourse with foreign states. Nor were they slow to avail themselves 
 of this permission ; for they had, so early as 1620, established tobacco warehouses in 
 Middleburgh and Flushing — (Robertsoii's America, book ix. p. 104.); and the subse- 
 quent proceedings of the British government, depriving them of this freedom of com- 
 merce, were the chief cause of those disputes, which broke out, in 1676, in an open 
 rebellion of ominous and threatening import. — (Bobertson's America, p. 147.) It was 
 not until the colonists had surnwunted the difficulties and hardships incident to their 
 first establishment, and had begun Xo increase rapidly in wealth, that their commerce 
 
330 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 became an object of importance, and that regulations were framed in the view of restrict- 
 ing its freedom, and of rendering it peculiarly advantageous to the mother country. 
 The act of 1650, passed by the republican parliament, laid the first foundations of the 
 monopoly system, by confining the import and export trade of the colonies exclusively 
 to British or colony built ships. But the famous Navigation Act of 1660(12 Charles 2. 
 c. 18.) went much further. It enacted, that certain specified articles, the produce of the 
 colonies, and since well known in commerce by the name of enumerated articles, should 
 not be exported directly from the colonies to any foreign country ; but that they should 
 first be sent to Britain, and there unladen (the words of the act are, laid upon the shore), 
 before they could be forwarded to their final destination. Sugar, molasses, ginger, 
 fustic, tobacco, cotton, and indigo, were originally enumerated ; and the list was subse- 
 quently enlarged by the addition of coffee, hides and skins, iron, corn, lumber, &c. In 
 1739, the monopoly system was so far relaxed, that sugars were permitted to be carried 
 directly from the British plantations to any port or place southward of Cape Finisterre ; 
 but the conditions under which this indulgence was granted, continued so strict and 
 numerous down to 1 803, when they ^ere a good deal simplified, as to render it in a 
 great degree nugatory — (^Edwards's West Indies, vol. ii. p. 452. ed. 1819.) ; and with 
 this exception, the oppressive and vexatious restrictions on their direct exportation to 
 foreign countries were maintained on most of the other enumerated commodities of any 
 importance, down to the recent alterations. 
 
 But besides compelling the colonists to sell their produce exclusively in the English 
 markets, it was next thought advisable to oblige them to buy such foreign articles as they 
 might stand in need of entirely from the merchants and manufacturers of England. For 
 this purpose it was enacted, in 1663, that " no commodity of the growth, production, or 
 manufacture of Europe, shall be imported into the British plantations, but such as are 
 laden and put on board in England, Wales, or Berwick-upon-Tweed, and in English 
 built shipping, whereof the master and three fourths of the crew are English." The 
 preamble to this statute, which effectually excluded the colonists from every market for 
 European produce, except that of England, assigns the motive for this restriction to be, 
 *' the maintaining a greater correspondence and kindness between the subjects at home 
 and those in the plantations ; keeping the colonies in a firmer dependence on the mother 
 country ; making them yet more beneficial to it, in the further employment and increase 
 of English shipping, and the vent of English manufactures and commodities ; rendering 
 the navigation to and from them more safe and cheap ; and making this kingdom a staple, 
 not only of the commodities of the plantations, but also of the commodities of other 
 countries and places for their supply ; it being the usage of other nations to keep their 
 plantation trade exclusively to themselves." 
 
 It was also a leading principle in the system of colonial policy, adopted as well by 
 England as by the other European nations, to discoui-age all attempts to manufacture 
 such articles in the colonies as could be provided for them by the mother country. The 
 history of our colonial system is full of efforts of this sort ; and so essential was this prin- 
 ciple deemed to the idea of a colony, that Lord Chatham did not hesitate to declare, in 
 his place in parliament, that " the British colonists of North America had no right to 
 manufacture even a nail for a horseshoe!'''' — (^Edwards's West Indies, vol. ii. p. 566.) And 
 when such were the enactments made by the legislature, and such the avowed sentiments 
 of a great parliamentary leader and a friend to the colonies, we need not be surprised at 
 a declaration of the late Lord SheflReld, who did no more, indeed, than express the 
 opinion of almost all the merchants and politicians of his time, when he affirmed that 
 " THE ONLY use of American colonies or West India islands is the monopoly of their con- 
 sumption, and the carriage of their produce!" , 
 
 ir. Influence of the Monopoly of the Colony Trade. — Slavery. 
 
 It is not necessary to enter into any lengthened disquisitions with respect to this part 
 of our subject. The rules by which we are to form our judgment upon it, are unfolded 
 in the article Commerce. Here it is sufficient to observe, in the first place, that, though 
 it could be shown that restrictions on the colony trade were really advantageous to the 
 mother country, that is not enough to prove that they should be adopted. In dealing 
 with a colony, we are not dealing with a foreign country, but with an integral part of our 
 own empire. And hence, in order to show that restrictions on the colony trade are ad- 
 vantageous, it must not merely be shown that they are beneficial to the mother coimtry, 
 but it must further be shown that they are beneficial, or, at all events, not injurious, to 
 the colony. The advantage of one part of the empire is not to be purchased by the de- 
 pression of some other part. The duty of government is to promote the prosperity, and 
 to maintain the equal rights and privileges of all ; not to enrich one class, or one province, 
 at the expense of others. 
 
 This principle is decisive of the wliole question. Owing to the identity of language, 
 manners, and reliirion, the merchants of the mother country must always liave very great 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 331 
 
 advantages in the colony markets ; and if the commodities which they have to sell be 
 about as suitable for tliem, and as low priced, as those of others, none else will be im- 
 ported into them ; but if they be not, it would plainly be to the injury of the colony to 
 compel her to buy from the mother coimtry what she might procure cheaper from others. 
 It will immediately be seen that such forced sale could be of no real advantage to the 
 mother country ; but whether that were so or not, its mischievous influence upon 
 the colony is manifest. Were Jamaica, for example, obliged-to import any article from 
 England which cost her 100,000/. a year more than she could procure a similar article 
 for elsewhere, she would manifestly lose this amount ; and though it were true that every 
 shilling of this sum found its way as extra profit into the pockets of the merchants or 
 manufacturers of England, that would be no sufficient justification of the policy of such 
 a system. The protection due by a government to its subjects does not depend on the 
 varying degrees of latitude and longitude under which they happen to live. It would 
 not be more glaringly unjust to lay peculiar burdens on the Lothians for the sake of 
 Middlesex, than it is to lay them on Jamaica for the sake of England. 
 
 In point of fact, however, the monopoly of the colony trade is of no real use, but the 
 reverse, to the mother country. If, as has been ali-eady observed, she can supply 
 her colonists with goods as cheaply as they can be supplied by others, she will have no 
 competitors in their markets ; and if she cannot do this, the monopoly is really hostile to 
 her interests. Each country has some natural or acquired capabilities that enable her 
 to carry on certain branches of industry more advantageously than any one else. But 
 the fact of a country being liable to be undersold in the markets of her colonies, shows 
 conclusively, that instead, of having any superiority, she labours under a disadvantage, as 
 compared with others, in the production of the peculiar articles in demand in them. And 
 hence, in providing a forced market in the colonies for articles that we should not other- 
 wise be able to dispose of, we really engage a portion of the capital and labour of the 
 country in a less advantageous channel than that into which it would naturally have 
 flowed. We impress upon it an artificial direction ; and withdraw it from those secure 
 and really beneficial businesses in which it would have been employed, to engage it in 
 businesses the existence of which depends only on the continuance of oppressive regu- 
 lations, and in which we are surpassed by foreigners. 
 
 Even were it conceded that the possession of an outlet in the colonies for goods that 
 could not otherwise be disposed of, was an advantage, it is one that can exist in theory 
 only. Practically it can never be realised. The interests of the colonists, and the 
 dexterity and devices of the smuggler, are too much for Custom-house regulations. 
 Cheap goods never fail of making their way through every obstacle. All the tyrannical 
 laws and guarda castas of Old Spain did not hinder her colonies from being glutted with 
 prohibited commodities. And we may be assured that the moment a competitor appears 
 in the field capable of supplying the Canadians and people of Jamaica with cottons, 
 woollens, hardware, &c. cheaper than we can supply them, that moment will they cease 
 to be our customers. All the revenue officers, and all tlie ships of England, supposing 
 them to be employed for that purpose, would be unable to avert this result. 
 
 The consequences of the American war ought to have led to sounder opinions than 
 those that are still current as to the value of the monopoly of the colony trade. Has the 
 independence of the United States been in any respect .injurious to us? So far from 
 this, it is certain that it has redounded materially to our advantage. We have been re- 
 lieved from the expense and trouble of governing extensive countries at a great distance 
 from our shores, at the same time that we have continued to reap all the advantage that 
 we previously reaped from our intercourse with them. It is visionary to imagine that 
 we could have succeeded either in preventing them from establishing manufactories at 
 home, or from importing products from abroad, had any one been able to undersell us. Our 
 command of the American market depends, at this moment, on the very same principle 
 — the comparative cheapness of our goods — on which it depended when we had a 
 governor in every state. So long as we preserve this advantage, we preserve the only 
 means by which the monopoly of any distant market can be maintained, and the only 
 means by which such monopoly is rendered of the least advantage. 
 
 But it is not to be supposed that, because restrictions on the trade of colonies can be 
 of no real advantage to their mother countries, they are not often very injurious to them 
 and to the colonies. We could not, however anxious, exclude manufactured articles, and 
 such foreign goods as are valuable without being very bulky, from our West India islands, 
 provided they were off'ercd cheaper by others. But such is not the case with lumber, 
 provisions, &c. They are too bulky to be easily smuggled ; and may be, and indeed are, 
 very much raised in price by restrictions on their importation. For many years past, all 
 direct intercourse between our West India colonies and the United States was inter- 
 dicted ; and, in consequence, the planters were compelled either to supply themselves 
 with lumber, staves, &c. by a distant voyage from Canada, or, which was by far the most 
 common practice, from the United States, through the circuitous and expensive channel 
 
332 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 of St. Thomas and other neutral islands ! In papers laid by the West India merchants 
 and planters before the House of Commons (No. 120. Session 1831), they estimate the 
 increased expense they thus incurred on lumber, staves, flour, shingles, fish, &c. at 15 per 
 rent, of the entire value of these articles, or at 187,576/. a year. And it will be observed, 
 lhat no part of this sum went into the pockets of any British merchant. It went wholly 
 to indemnify the Americans and others for being obliged to bring their products round 
 about by St. Thomas, instead of direct from the States. 
 
 This system grew out of the American war ; but it is due to Mr. Pitt to state that 
 it received no countenance from him. On the contrary, he introduced a bill, in 1785, 
 for reviving the beneficial intercourse that existed previously to the war, between the 
 United States and the West India islands. But being opposed by a powerful party in 
 parliament, and by the ship owners and Canada merchants, he was obliged reluctantly 
 to withdraw the bill. The following remarks of Mr. Bryan Edwards on this subject 
 are as applicable at this moment, as they were at the period (1794) when they were 
 written. 
 
 " This," says he, " is not a business of selfishness or faction ; nor (like many of those 
 questions which are daily moved in parliament merely to agitate and perplex government) 
 can it be dismissed by a vote. It will come forward again and again, and haunt admi- 
 nistration in a thousand hideous shapes, until a more liberal policy shall take place ; for 
 no folly can possibly exceed the notion that any measures pm-sued by Great Biitain will 
 prevent the American states from having, some time or other, a commercial intercourse 
 with our West Indian territories on their own terms. With a chain of coast of 20° of 
 latitude, possessing the finest harbours for the purpose in the world, all lying so near the 
 sugar colonies and the track to Europe, with a country abounding in every thing the 
 islands have occasion for, and which they can obtain no where else ; all these circum- 
 stances necessarily and naturally lead to a commercial intercourse between our islands 
 and the United States. It is true we may ruin our sugar colonies, and ourselves also, 
 in the attempt to prevent it ; but it is an experiment which God and nature have marked 
 out as impossible to succeed. The present restraining system is forbidding men to help 
 each other ; men who, by their necessities, their climate, and their productions, are standing 
 in perpetual need of mutual assistance, and able to supply it." — (^Hist. West Indies, Preface 
 to 2d ed. ) 
 
 We have also thought fit to interdict the West Indians from the refining, or, as it is 
 technically termed, the claying of sugars. This is one of the few manufactures that 
 might be advantageously set up in the islands. The process adds considerably to the value 
 of sugar ; and it might be carried on in the buildings, and by the hands, that are required 
 to boil the cane, or to prepare the raw or muscovado sugar. Instead, however, of being 
 allowed to refine their sugars on the spot, and where it might be done for a third of the 
 expense that is required in England, the planters have been prohibited from engaging 
 in this branch of industry ; and have been obliged to export all their sugars, either raw 
 or crushed, to England. Nothing can exceed the oppressiveness of such a regulation ; 
 and what is most singular, it has not been enforced, like most regulations of the sort, in 
 order to bolster up any of the leading interests of the country, but merely to give a 
 factitious employment to a very small class, — that of the sugar refiners, whose natural 
 residence is in the West Indies. The planters and merchants estimate the loss caused 
 by this preposterous regulation at 75,5501. a year. 
 
 The distillation of spirits from sugar has only been occasionally allowed ; but pro- 
 vided the duties were so adjusted as to give no advantage to the planters over the 
 growers of barley, or to the latter over the former, we think the distillers should be, at 
 all times, allowed to distil indiscriminately from sugar, molasses, or grain. It is the 
 duty of government to take care that the duties be so arranged as to give no unfair 
 advantage to any party over another ; but, having done this, it should do nothing more. 
 To prohibit distillation from sugar, that a forced market may be opened for grain ; or 
 distillation from grain, that a forced market may be opened for sugar ; are interferences 
 with the freedom of industry, for which no good reason has been, nor we believe can be, 
 assigned. 
 
 The interests of the planters have been sacrificed in many other ways besides those 
 now pointed out, in the view of securing some illusory advantage to our merchants and 
 ship-owners. Perseverance in this line of policy is the less excusable, as it is in direct 
 opposition to the principle of the measures introduced by Mr. Robinson (ni>w Lord 
 Goderich) in 1822, and Mr. Huskisson in 1825; and sanctioned by the legislature. 
 The avowed object of these measures was the subversion of the old colonial system, and 
 the repeal of the vexatious restrictions laid on the trade of the colonies. " If we look," 
 said Mr. Robinson, " to the dominions of England in the Eastern hemisphere, we sliall 
 find the restrictive system has been entirely and systematically abandoned. The wliole 
 of the East India Company's territories have never been shackled with the peculiar 
 restrictions of the navigation laws ; and who will say that the interests of commerce and 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 333 
 
 Other wood and lumber, the 1,000 feet of 1 
 inch thick - - - - J 8 0 
 
 Fish, beef, poric, prohibited. 
 
 The revenue derived from these and the other duties imposed 
 by the act of 1825, amounted lo about 75,000/. a year, and the 
 charges of collection to about 68,000/. ! 
 
 The effect of these duties in adding to the prices of the food 
 and lumber imported by the planters, is exhibited in the fol- 
 lowing statement of the y)rices of some of the principal of 
 these articles in the United States and the Continent, and in 
 Canada and the United Kingdom; — 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 Herrings (Danish) at the Island of St. Thomas, the 
 
 barrel - - - - - 1 0 0 
 
 Ditto (British) in the colonies, the barrel - 1 11 0 
 
 Mess beef, in Hamburgh, the barrel - - 3 0 0 
 
 Ditto, in the United Kingdom, ditto - - 4 0 0 
 
 Pork, in Hamburgh, the barrel - - 2 6 0 
 
 Ditto, in the United Kingdom, ditto - - 3 5 0 
 
 Red oak staves, in the United States, per 1,000 - 4 0 0 
 Ditto, at Quebec, per ditto - - - 7 8 4 
 
 White oak staves, in the United States, per ditto - 6 10 2 
 Ditto, at puebec, per ditto - - - 10 6 2 
 
 Flour, in the United States, the barrel - - 1 1 0 
 Ditto, at Quebec, ditto - - - - 1 5 5 
 
 Shuigles, in the United States, per 1,000 - - 0 14 0 
 Ditto, in Canada, per ditto - - -0180 
 
 navigation have suffered ? or rather, who will deny that they have been materialhj henefUe.d 
 by the freedom they have enjojjed?" — " I pro])Osc," .said Mr. Iluskisson, in 182.'>, " to 
 admit a free intercourse between all our colonies and other countries, either in British 
 ships, or in the ships of those countries, allowing the latter to import all articles, the 
 growth, produce, or manufacture of the country to which the ship belongs ; and to 
 export from such colonies all articles whatever of their growth, produce, or manufacture, 
 either to the country from which such ship came, or to any other part of the world ; 
 the United Kingdom and all its dependencies only excepted." 
 
 Unluckily, however, the conditions and regulations introduced into the bills were, for 
 the most part, in direct contradiction to the principle laid down in the speeches now 
 quoted; nor is it easy, indeed, to conceive for what purpose the latter were made, unless 
 it were to exhibit the impolicy of the former. Among others which will subsequently 
 be specified, the act of 1825 imposed the following duties for the express purpose of 
 securing to Canada and to British ships the supply of the West India islands with food 
 and lumber. 
 
 Table of Duties imposed by 6 Geo. 4. c. 114. on certain Ar- 
 ticles of Provision, and of Wood and Lumber, not being the 
 Growth, Production, or Manufacture of the United King- 
 dom, nor of any British Possession, imported or brought into 
 the British Possessions on the Continent of South America, 
 or in the West Indies, the Bahama and Bermuda Islands 
 included. 
 
 Provisions, viz. • L. s. d. 
 
 Wheat, the bushel - - - - 0 1 0 
 
 Wheat flour, the barrel - - - - 0 5 0 
 
 Bread or biscuit, the cwt. - - -016 
 
 Flour or meal, not of wheat, the barrel - - 0 2 6 
 
 Peas, beans, rye, calavances, oats, barley, In- 
 dian com, the bushel - - - 0 0 7 
 
 Rice, the 1,000 lbs. nett weight - - 0 2 6 
 
 Live stock, 10 per cent. 
 Lumber, viz. 
 
 Shingles, not being more than 12 inches in 
 length, the 1,000 - - - 0 7 0 
 
 Shingles, being more than 12 inches in length, 
 the 1,000 - - - - 0 14 0 
 
 Staves and headings, viz. 
 
 Red oak, the 1,000 - - - - 0 15 O 
 
 White oak, the 1,000 - - - 0 12 6 
 
 Wood hoops, the 1,000 - - - - 0 5 3 
 
 White, yellow, and pitch pine lumber, the 1,000 
 feet of 1 inch thick - - - 1 1 0 
 
 The United States, who felt themselves aggrieved by the imposition of such oppressive 
 duties on flour, wheat, and lumber, refused to accede to those conditions of reciprocity 
 under which the colonial ports were to be opened to their ships ; and, owing to this cir- 
 cumstance, it was not till the end of 1830, when fresh negotiations were entered into 
 with the United States, and it was agreed to modify some of the duties, that the West 
 India colonies derived any sensible advantage from the changes, such as they were, that 
 were made in 1825. 
 
 But, notwithstanding the modifications introduced by the act 1 Will. 4. c. 24., and now 
 embodied in the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 59. — (see post), — the regulations under which the 
 colony trade is at present conducted, are in the highest degree objectionable. There is, for 
 example, a duty of 5s. a barrel on all flour brought from a foreign country into our pos- 
 sessions in the West Indies and South America, and also into Nova Scotia, New 
 Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. At first sight there seems nothing to object 
 to in this regulation, except the imposition of the duty ; in point of fact, however, this is 
 its least objectionable feature, and is used merely as a pretext to conceal its real object. 
 The necessity of raising a revenue might, in some degree, excuse even the imposition of a 
 duty on the food of the colonists ; but there cannot be so much as the shadow of an 
 apology for taxing it for the benefit of another class. Such, however, is the sole end 
 and purpose of this ingeniously contrived regulation. It will be observed, that though 
 no wheat flour can be carried duty free direct from a foreign counti-y to our possessions 
 in the West Indies, or to our possessions to the north of the United States on the 
 Atlantic, it may be imported duty free into Canada, where it is not needed ! The con- 
 sequence is, that a large proportion of the United States' flour intended for the West 
 Indies, instead of being shipped direct from New York, Philadelphia, &c. for the islands, 
 is carried, in the first instance, to Montreal and Quebec, and is thence conveyed in 
 British ships to its final destination. The duty is imposed to force this trade ; that is, 
 to make the food of the colonists be carried to them by a roundabout course of more 
 than 2,000 miles, in order that a few hundred pounds may be forced into the pockets of 
 the ship-owners, at an expense of many thousand pounds to the colonists. Such, indeed, 
 is the influence of the system, that there have been instances of wheat having been carried 
 from Archangel to Quebec, landed there, and again shipped for Jamaica ! Shingles, 
 lumber, &c. are subjected to the same regulations, with this difference merely, that they 
 may be imported duty free into Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, &c., being thence 
 carried to the West Indies ; whereas, by confining the importation of duty free flour to 
 Canada, it must pass, before it can reach the consumers, through the lengthened, difficult, 
 and dangerous navigation of the St. Lawrence. 
 
334. 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 It is unnecessary to make any commentary on such regulations. None more ob- 
 jectionable in principle, or mischievous in practice, are to be met with in the worst parts 
 of the old Spanish colonial regime. 
 
 All duties on and regulations with respect to the importation of articles of provision, 
 lumber, &c. into the colonies, ought to be wholly abolished. Jamaica, and our other 
 West India colonies, -may be viewed as immense sugar, rum, and coffee manufactories, 
 which, though situated at a distance from England, belong to English men, and 
 are carried on by English capital. But to promote the prosperity of any manu- 
 facture without injuring that of others, there are no means at once so obvious and 
 effectual, as to give those engaged in it every facility for supplying themselves with 
 the materials necessary to carry it on at the lowest price, and to keep the duties 
 on its produce as low as possible. This is the sound and obvious principle that ought 
 to have been kept steadily in view in legislating for the colonies ; though, as already 
 seen, it has been totally lost sight of. That the system of forcing importation from 
 Canada may be advantageous to that province, we do not presume to deny ; but we 
 are not to impoverish one part of our dominions that we may enrich another, more 
 especially when it is certain, as in the present case, that the advantage conferred is trifling 
 indeed compared with the injury inflicted. In other respects, the operation of the present 
 system is most pernicious. Sugar is an important necessary of life, and enters largel^y 
 into the consumption of every individual in Great Britain. Surely, then, it is highly 
 important that every means should be resorted to for reducing its cost ; and as we have 
 excluded foreign sugars from our markets, the only way in which any such reduction 
 can be effected is by abolishing the existing restrictions, and allowing the planters to 
 furnish themselves with the materials necessary for their manufacture at the lowest 
 rate, and to dispose of their produce in the state and at the places they prefer. 
 
 The vexatious regulations now alluded to, have been, for the most part, imposed 
 to benefit the mother country at the expense of the colonies. There has, however, 
 been, in this respect, a reciprocity of injuries. Being obliged to buy whatever they 
 wanted in the markets of the mother country, the colonists early succeeded in obtain- 
 ing, what, indeed, could not, under the circumstances of the case, be denied to them, 
 the monopoly of these markets for the sale of their peculiar productions. And hence 
 the high discriminating duties on foreign sugars, coffee, timber, &c. Owing to the 
 very great fertility of the colonies of Demerara, Berbice, &c., acquired during the late 
 war, the exclusion of foreign sugar has not latterly been so great a burden as it used to 
 be, though it still occasions an enhancement of its price. But there are no palliating 
 circumstances about the discriminating duty on foreign timber. Not satisfied with 
 giving the Canadians an unfair advantage in the markets of the West Indies, we give 
 them a still more unjustifiable advantage in those of England. It was proved in 
 evidence taken before a committee of the House of Lords, that timber from Canada is 
 not half so durable as that from the Baltic, and is, besides, peculiarly liable to dry rot. 
 It is not allowed to be used in the building of ships for the navy, and is rejected by all 
 the more respectable house-builders: and yet, under the miserable pretext of giving 
 employment to saw mills in Canada, and to a few thousand tons of additional shipping, 
 we actually force the use of this worthless article, by imposing a discriminating duty of 
 no less than 45s. a load on all timber from the north of Europe. It has been shown, by 
 papers laid before parliament, that were the same duty laid on timber from Canada that 
 is laid on timber from the Baltic, the revenue would gain 1,500,000/. a year, while the 
 durability of our ships and houses would be doubled. — ( For a further discussion of this 
 subject, see Timber.) 
 
 These restrictions tend to render the colony trade a source of loss, and of irritation and 
 disgust to all parties. In other respects, too, their influence is most pernicious. So 
 long as the colonists are prevented from purchasing lumber, provisions, &c. in the 
 cheapest markets, and as their trade continues subjected to regulations injurious to their 
 interests, they are justified in resisting all efforts to make them contribute any thing 
 considerable to the expenses of the armaments required for their protection. *' At- 
 tempts," said Lord Palmerston, " have been made in all the West India islands to induce 
 them to contribute to the expenses of the establishments ; and they have always repre- 
 sented that their means of doing so were crippled hy the commercial arrangements- of the 
 mother country : they have said, ' If you will let us trade as we like, and collect our oion 
 custom duties, and so on, we will do it.*" And no proposal could be fairer. — (^Finance 
 Committee, Evidence, p. 146.) 
 
 Tlie expense of the colonies is a very heavy item in the national expenditure — far 
 more so than is generally supposed. Not only are we subjected, as in the case of timber, 
 to oppressive discriminating duties on foreign articles, that similar afticles from the co- 
 lonies may enjoy the monopoly of our markets, but we have to defray a very large sum 
 on account of their military and naval expenditure. There are no means by which to 
 estimate the precise amount of this expense; but it is, notwithstanding, abundantly 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 335 
 
 certain, tliat Canada and the islands in the West Indies cost us annually, in military 
 and naval outlays, upwards of a million and a half in time of peace, exclusive of the revenue 
 collected in them. And if to this heavy expense were added the vast additional sums 
 their defence costs during war, the debtor side of a fairly drawn up colonial budget 
 would attain to a very formidable magnitude j and one which we apprehend could not 
 possibly be balanced. 
 
 In entertaining this opinion we are not singular. " If," said Lord Sheffield, " we 
 have not purchased our experience sufficiently dear, let us derive a lesson of wisdom 
 from the misfortunes of other nations, who, like us, pursued the phantom of foreign 
 conquest and distant colonisation ; and who, in the end, found themselves less populous, 
 opulent, and powerful. By the war of 1739, which may be truly called an Ame- 
 rican contest, we incurred a debt of upwards of 31,000,000/. ; by the war of 1755 we 
 incurred a further debt of 71,500,000/. ; and by the war of the revolt we have added 
 to both these debts nearly 100,000,000/. more ! And thus we have expended a far 
 larger sum in defending and retaining our colonies, than the value of all the merchandise 
 we have ever sent them. So egregious has our impolicy been, in rearing colonists for 
 the sake of their custom ! " — ( On the Commerce of the American Slates, p. 240. ) 
 
 But our object is not to excite unavailing regrets for bygone follies, but to induce the 
 return to a better system. The repeal of the restrictions on the colony trade seems in- 
 dispensable, as a preliminary to other reforms. We have already seen that the legislature 
 has recognised the principle of this repeal ; and until it has taken place, or the existing 
 restrictions been materially modified, we shall neither be able to rid ourselves of the dis- 
 criminating duties in favour of colonial products, nor to make the colonies defray any 
 considerable part of the expenditure incurred on their account. 
 
 If there be no room for surprise at the complaints so constantly put forth by the West 
 Indians, there is very great room for surprise that so few attempts should have been 
 made to redress the grievances of which they complain. Met in every quarter by the 
 keen and active competition of the Brazilians and Cubans, who have been emancipated 
 from the trammels of monopoly, and permitted freely to resort, whether as buyers or 
 sellers, to every market, the planters in the British colonies could not be otherwise than 
 depressed. They have been made the victims of an erroneous system of policy ; for 
 there is nothing in the circumstances under which they are naturally placed, to lead to 
 a belief that their distresses are incurable. Were they permitted freely to supply them- 
 selves with such articles as they, require, to refine their sugar in the islands, and were the 
 exorbitant duties that are now laid on some of their staple products adequately reduced, 
 can any one doubt that their condition would be materially improved ? or that these 
 measures would not equally redound to the general advantage of the public ? 
 
 The colonies being integral parts of the empire, the trade with them should, as far as 
 circumstances will permit, be conducted on the footing of a coasting trade. The state 
 of the revenue requires that moderate duties should be laid on sugar, coffee, and rum, 
 when imported into Great Britain or Ireland ; but the duties on cotton, cacao, and most 
 other colonial products, might be repealed without injury to the revenue, and with ad- 
 vantage to all parties. The system we have hitherto pursued has been a radically 
 different one, and in most respects the reverse of what it ought to have been. By 
 excluding the colonists from the cheapest markets for their food and lumber, we have 
 artificially raised the cost of their produce ; and then, to protect them from the conse- 
 quences of such short-sighted policy, we give them a monopoly of the British market ! It 
 is thus that one unjust and vicious regulation is sure to give birth to others ; and that 
 those who depart from sound principle have nothing left but to endeavour to bolster up 
 one absurdity by another. It is time, surely, that an end were put to so ruinous a system. 
 It is as much for the interest as it is the duty of England, to remove all restrictions from 
 the colonists, not essential for the sake of revenue ; for this is the only means by which 
 she can provide for their real prosperity, and rid herself of those monopolies that form 
 the heaviest clog upon her industry. 
 
 We hope it will not be supposed, from any thing, now stated, that we consider the 
 foundation of colonial establishments as, generally speaking, inexpedient. We entertain 
 no such opinion. It is not to the establishment of colonies, provided they be placed in 
 advantageous situations, but to the trammels that have been laid on their industry, and 
 the interference exercised by the mother countries in tlieir domestic concerns, that we 
 object. Every individual ought to have full liberty to leave his native country ; and 
 occasions very frequently occur, when governments may advantageously interfere to 
 settle emigrants in foreign countries, and when the soundest policy dictates the propriety 
 of their supporting and protecting them until they are in a situation to support and pro- 
 tect themselves. There can be no question whatever that Europe has been prodigiously 
 benefited by the colonisation of America. The colonists carried the arts, the sciences, 
 the language, and the religion of the most civilised communities of the Old World to 
 
336 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 regions of vast extent and great natural fertility, occupied only by a few miserable 
 savages. The empire of civilisation has in consequence been immeasurably extended : 
 and while the experience afforded by the rise and progress of communities placed under 
 such novel circumstances, has served to elucidate and establish many most important and 
 fundamental principles in government and legislation, Europe has been enriched by the 
 vast variety of new products America has afforded to stimulate the inventive powers of 
 genius, and to reward the patient hand of industry. 
 
 But whatever may have been the advantages hitherto derived from the colonisation of 
 America, they are trifling compared to what they would have been, had the European 
 powers left the colonists at liberty to avail themselves of all the advantages of their 
 situation, and avoided encumbering themselves with the government of extensive terri- 
 tories 3,000 miles distant. Fortunately, however, a new era is, at length, begun — Novus 
 scBclorum nascitur ordo ! The monopoly of the trade of America is destroyed, and her 
 independence achieved. From Canada to Cape Horn, every port is ready to receive 
 adventurers from Europe ; and a boundless field has, in consequence, been opened for 
 the reception of our surplus population, and for the advantageous employment of 
 European arts, capital, and skill. The few remains of the old colonial system which 
 still exist, and which are principally to be found in the mercantile policy of this country 
 and France, cannot be of long duration. Their mischievous operation is no longer 
 doubtful ; and they will disappear according as the knowledge of sound commercial 
 principles is more generally diffused. 
 
 Slavery. — Since the publication of the former edition of this work, a law has. been 
 made which will effect a radical change in the condition of society in the British West 
 Indies. The abolition of the slave trade has been c6nsummated by the act for the free- 
 dom of the unhappy persons now in a state of bondage. The statute 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 73. 
 enacts, that on the 1st of August, 1834, slavery is to cease throughout the British do- 
 minions, and that the then existing slaves are to become apprenticed labourers ; the term 
 of their apprenticeship partly ceasing on the 1st of August, 1838, and partly on the 1st 
 of August, 1 840 ; when the black and coloured population will become altogether free. A 
 sum of 20,000,000?. is to be distributed in certain proportions, and according to certain 
 conditions, to the planters, as a compensation for the loss of their slaves. — (See article 
 Slaves and Slave Trade.) 
 
 Such are the prominent features of this famous statute, by which the British parlia- 
 ment has endeavoured at once to once to meet and satisfy the claims of humanity ana 
 justice. The payment of 20,000,000Z. to the colonists, though not more than they were 
 fairly entitled to, is, perhaps, the most striking instance to be met with in history, of a 
 resolution to vindicate and maintain the right of property ; and reflects as much credit 
 on the wisdom as on the liberality of the British nation. 
 
 Nothing but vague conjectures can, of course, be indulged in as to the future working 
 of this measure in the colonies. We believe, however, that those who have contended 
 that it will not be productive of any falling oflF in the industry of the blacks will be found 
 to have taken a very erroneous view of the matter. Field labour in the West Indies has 
 hitherto been always associated with slavery and degradation, and been enforced by the 
 lash. The fair inference, consequently, is, that when the fetters are struck off the 
 slave, and he is left to follow his own inclinations, he will be desirous of escaping from 
 what he cannot fail to consider an ignominious occupation. Necessity, no doubt, will 
 prevent him from becoming altogether indolent ; but the effect will in this, as in other 
 instances, be proportioned to its cause : and necessity in the West Indies is very differen 
 from necessity in Europe. Most articles that are here deemed indispensable, would ther 
 be positive incumbrances ; and those essential to subsistence may be procured with less 
 certainly than half the labour hitherto exacted from the slaves. At some future period, 
 perhaps, when the recollection of their degradation has begun to fade, and a taste fol 
 conveniences and gratifications has been introduced amongst them, they may become mor4 
 industrious ; but this is a distant and a very uncertain prospect. We, therefore, look, at 
 first, for a very considerable decline in the industry of the slaves, and a proportional falling 
 off in the exports from the islandsr It will give us pleasure should our anticipations be 
 disappointed ; and assuredly we do not state them by way of objection to, or deduction 
 from, the great measure of emancipation. It would be monstrous to suppose that we 
 might retain above 750,000 of our fellow-creatures in a state of bondage, for no better 
 reason than that sugar might be sent to England from Jamaica or Barbadoes, rather than 
 from India, Java, or Cuba. 
 
 For further information on this subject, we beg to refer our readers to an article on 
 Colonial Policy, in No. 84. of the Edinburgh Review, to the chapter on Colonies, in Sir 
 Henry Parnell's invaluable work on " Financial Reform," and to the Parliamentary 
 Paper No. 120. Sess. 1831. This paper, being prepared by a committee of West India 
 merchants and planters, occasionally, probably, exaggerates the injury they sustain from 
 the existing regidations ; it is, however, a very instructive and valuable document. Some 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 337 
 
 of the previous statements are taken from the article in the Edinhuryh Review ; hut we 
 are not, on that account, liable to the charge of appropriating the labours of others. 
 
 III. Magnitude, Population, Trade, etc. of the British Colonies. 
 
 Notwithstanding the loss of the United States, the colonies of Great Britain, ex- 
 clusive of India, exceed in number, extent, and value, those of every other country. 
 Previously, indeed, to the breaking out of the late contests, the colonial dominions of 
 Spain far exceeded in extent and importance those of any other power. But Cuba, 
 Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands, are now all that remain to lier. These, indeed, 
 are very valuable possessions, though inferior to those of England. 
 
 (1.) North American Colonies. — In North America we possess the provinces of Lower 
 and Upper Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, with their dependencies. The 
 situation and boundaries of these provinces will be more easily learned from the inspec- 
 tion of the accompanying map, than they could be from any description. The shores of 
 Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are washed by the Atlantic Ocean ; and the noble 
 river St. Lawrence, by its communication with the great American lakes, gives to 
 Canada all the benefits of a most extensive inland navigation, and forms a natural 
 outlet for her surplus produce, as well as for the surplus produce of that part of the 
 United States which is washed by the lakes. There is every variety in the soil and 
 climate of these regions. In Lower Canada, the winter is very severe. The surface of 
 the country is covered with snow for nearly half the year. From the beginning of 
 December to the middle of April, the St. Lawrence is frozen over, and affords a smooth 
 and convenient passage for the sledges by which it is then covered. But though severe, 
 the climate is far from being unhealthy or disagreeable. The weather is generally clear 
 and bracing ; and the labour of artisans, at their out-door employments, is rarely sus- 
 pended for many days in succession. On the breaking up of the ice in the latter end 
 of April, or the beginning of May, the powers of vegetation almost immediately re- 
 sume their activity, and bring on the fine season with a rapidity that is astonishing to a 
 stranger. The highest temperature in Lower Canada varies from 96° to 102° of Fah- 
 renheit ; but the purity of the atmosphere abates the oppressive heat that is felt in most 
 countries where the mercury ranges so high ; and the weather is, on the whole, decidedly 
 pleasant. In 1814, it was ascertained that the province of Lower Canada contained 
 about 335,000 inhabitants ; at present the number may amount to about 580,000. The 
 population is chiefly confined to the banks of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 That part of the province of Upper Canada, which stretches from Lake Simcoe and 
 the rivers Trent and Severn, westward to Lake LIuron and the St. Clair River, and 
 southward to Lake Erie, and part of Lake Ontario, has a soil of extraordinary fertility, 
 capable of producing the most luxuriant crops of wheat, and every sort of grain. 
 " The climate," says Mr. Bouchette, surveyor-general of Lower Canada, " is so par- 
 ticularly salubrious, that epidemic diseases, either among men or cattle, are almost 
 entirely unknown. Its influence on the fertility of the soil is more generally perceptible 
 than it is in Lower Canada, and is supposed to be congenial to vegetation in a much 
 superior degree. The winters are shorter, and not always mai-ked with such rigour as 
 in the latter. The duration of frost is always accompanied with a fine clear sky and a 
 dry atmosphere. The spring opens, and the resumption of agricultural labours taket 
 place, from 6 weeks to 2 months earlier than in the neighbourhood of Quebec. The 
 summer heats rarely prevail to excess, and the autumns are usually very friendly to the 
 harvests, and favourable for securing all the late crops." — ( Bouchette's Topographical 
 Description of Canada, p. 595.) The ground on the shores of Lake Ontario and Lake 
 Erie, as far west as the junction of the Thames with the St. Clair Lake, is laid out in 
 townships, and partly settled. But the population is so very thin as not, on an average, 
 to amount to more than twenty persons to a square mile, in settled townships ; while 
 the fertility of the soil is such, that 120 persons to a square mile woidd not be a dense 
 population. To the north of the River Thames, along the banks of the St. Clair, and 
 the shores of Lake Huron, round to the River Severn, and thence to the river that joins 
 Lake Nippissing and Lake Huron, is a boundless extent of country that is almost entirely 
 unoccupied. The interior of this space has hitherto been but imperfectly explored ; but 
 the banks of the St. Clair and the shores of Lake Huron afford the finest situations for 
 settlements. The soil is in many places of the greatest fertility, the river and lake teem 
 with fish, and every variety of the best timber is foimd in the greatest profusion. In 
 1783, the settlers in Upper Canada were estimated at only 10,000; in 1825 they 
 amounted to upwards of 157,000; and now amount, according to IMr. INI'Gregor, to 
 above 300,000 : a miserably small population for a country that could easily support 
 many millions of inhabitants in a state of the gre?.test comfort. 
 
 The winters in the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are more severe 
 than in Upper Canada, and they are a good deal infested with fogs and mists. But 
 
 Z 
 
338 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 their proximity to England, and their favourable situation for the fishing business, give 
 them considerable advantages. 
 
 In addition to the above, we possess the Hudson's Bay territory, — a tract of vast 
 extent, but situated in an inhospitable climate, and vi'orth very little except as hunting 
 grounds. We also possess the large islands of Newfoundland ana Cape Breton ; but 
 the soil is barren, and the climate severe and foggy ; so that they are valuable prmcipally 
 as fishing stations. 
 
 "We extract from the valuable work of Mr. M'Gregor on British North America 
 (2d ed. vol. ii. p. 589-), the following statistical Table, representing the population, 
 stock of cattle, cultivated land, &c. in the different provinces in 1832 : — 
 
 Upper Canada . . - 
 Canada - » - - 
 New Brunswick . . . 
 Nova Scotia - 
 Prince Edward Island 
 Newfoui\dland and Labrador 
 Total 
 
 Inhabitants, 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Homed 
 Cattle. 
 
 Hogs. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Acres culti- 
 vated. 
 
 310,000 
 580,000 
 110,000 
 196,000 
 35,000 
 76,000 
 
 34,380 
 126.000 
 12,000 
 19,000 
 4,500 
 600 
 
 214,692 
 440,000 
 
 87,000 
 144,796 
 
 32,000 
 8 000 
 
 '^20,000 
 350,000 
 65,000 
 98,'214 
 30,000 
 16,000 
 
 240,000 
 610,000 
 105,000 
 234,6.58 
 ^ 8,000 
 10,000 
 
 1,HOO,UOO 
 2,125,000 
 365,000 
 398,964 
 180,000 
 45,000 
 
 1,307,000 
 
 196,480 
 
 926,488 1 779,214 
 
 1,247,658 
 
 4,913,16 1 
 
 Number of Emigrants. 
 
 1825 
 
 Individuals. 
 8,741 
 12,818 
 1827 12,648 
 
 There emigrated to the British colonies in North America in 
 
 1831 
 
 1829 
 1830 
 
 Individuals. 
 12,084 
 13,307 
 30,574 
 
 Individuals. 
 58,067 
 1832 60,339 
 {Pari. Paper, No. 696. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 Of these, the great majority have been destined for Upper Canada. — (For the total emigration from the 
 United Kingdom, see Passengeiis.) 
 
 Information for Emigrants to British North America. — In the latter part of 1831, a 
 set of commissioners were appointed by government for the purpose of digesting plans of 
 emigration, procuring information useful for emigrants, &c. On the 9th of February, 
 1832, they issued the following paper, the statements in which may be, consequently, 
 regarded as quite authentic. 
 
 Colonial Office, 9th of February, 1832. 
 
 The object of the present notice is to afford such information as is likely to be useful to persons who 
 desire either to emigrate, or to assist others to emigrate, to the British possessions in Nortli America. 
 
 In the first place, it seems desirable to define the nature of the assistance to be expected from govern, 
 nient by persons proceeding to these colonies. No pecuniary aid will be allowed by government to emi- 
 grants to the North American colonies ; nor after their arrival will they receive grants of land, or gifts of 
 tools, or a supply of provisions. Hopes of all these things have been sometimes held out to emigrants by 
 speculators in this country, desirous of making a profit by their conveyance to North America, and willing 
 for that purpose to delude them with unfounded expectations, regardless of their subsequent disappoint- 
 ment. But the wish of government is to furnish those who emigrate with a real knowledge of the cir- 
 cumstances they will find in the countries to which they are going. 
 
 No assistance of the extraordinary extent above described is allowed, because, in colonies, where those 
 Avho desire to work cannot fail to do well for themselves, none such is needed. Land, indeed, used for- 
 merly to be granted gratuitously ; but when it was taken by poor ^-eople, they found that they had not the 
 means of living during the interval necessary to raise their crops ; and further, that they knew not enough 
 of the manner of farming in the colonies, to make any progress. After all, therefore, they were obliged 
 to work for wages, until they could make a few savings, and could learn a little of the way of farming in 
 Canada. But now, land is not disposed of except by sale. The produce of sales, although the price is 
 very moderate, is likely to become a considerable fund, which can be turned to the benefit of the colonies, 
 and therefore of the emigrants ; while yet no hardship is inflicted on the poor emigrant, who will work 
 for wages just as he did before, and may after a while acquire land, if land be his object, by the savings 
 which the high wages in these colonies enable him speedily to make. 
 
 These are the reasons why government does not think it necessary to give away land in a country, 
 where, by the lowness of its price, the plentifulness of work, and the high rate of wages, an industrious 
 man can earn enough in a few seasons to become a freeholder by means of his own acquisitions. 
 
 The land which is for sale will bo open to public competition, and of course, therefore, its price must 
 depend upon the offers that may be made ; but it will generally not be sold for less than from 4*. to 5s. per 
 acre; and in situations where roads have been made, or the ground has been partially cleared, the com- 
 mon prices lately have been 7.9. 6d., lOs., and 15^. Further particulars will be best learned upon the 
 spot, where every endeavour will be made to meet the different circumstances and views of different 
 purchasers. 
 
 Although government will not make any gifts at the public expense to emigrants to North America, 
 agents will be maintained at the principal colonial ports, whose duty it will be, without fee or reward 
 from private individuals, to protect emigrants against imposition upon their first landing, to acquaint 
 them with the demand for labour in different districts, to point out the most advantageous routes, and to 
 furnish them generally with all useful advice upon the objects which they have had in view in emigrating : 
 and when a private engagement cannot be immediately obtained, employment will be afforded on some 
 of the public works in progress in the colonies. Persons newly arrived should not omit to consult the 
 government agent for emigrants, and as much as possible should avoid detention in the ports, where they 
 are exposed to all kinds of impositions, and of pretexts for keeping them at taverns till any money they 
 may possess has been expended. — For the same purpose of guarding against the frauds practised on new 
 comers, and of preventing an improvident expenditure at the first moment of arrival, it seems very desir- 
 able that individuals who may wish to furnish emigrants with money for their use in the colony should 
 have the means of making the money payable there, instead of giving it into the hands of the emigrants 
 in this country. The commissioners for emigration are engaged in cHecting general arrangements lor 
 this purpose, and due notice will bo given to the jmblic when they shall be completed. Agents for 
 emigration have been apjjointed at St. John's, St Andrew's, and Miramichi in New Brunswick, and at 
 Quebec and York in Canada. On the whole subject of the manner of proceeding upon landing, it may bo 
 observed, in conclusion, that no effort will be spared to exempt emigrants from any necessity for delay 
 at the place of disembarkation, and from uncertainty as to the opportunities of at once turning their 
 labour to account. 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 339 
 
 After this explanation of the extent of the aid to be expected from government, the following utate. 
 ments are subjoined of the ordinary charges for passage to the North American colonics, as well as of the 
 usual rates of wages and usual prices in them, in order that every individual may have the means of 
 judging for himself of the inducements to emigrate to these parts of the British dominions. 
 
 Passage. — Passages to Quebec or New Brunswick may either be engaged inclusive of provisions, or 
 exclusive of provisions, in which case the ship owner finds nothing but water, fuel, and bed places, without 
 bedding. Children under 14 years of age are charged one half, and under 7 years of age one third, of the 
 full price ; and for children under 12»months of age no charge is made. Upon these conditions the price 
 of passage from London, or from places on the east coast of Great Britain, has generally been 6/. with pro- 
 visions, or 3f. without. From Liverpool, Greenock, and the principal ports of Ireland, as the chances of 
 delay are fewer, the charge is somewhat' lower ; this year it will probably be from 21. to 2/. lO*. without 
 provisions, or from 4/. to 51. including provisions. It is possible that in March and April passages maybe 
 obtained from Dublin for S5s. or even 30j. ; but the prices always grow higher as the season advances. In 
 ships sailing from Scotland or Ireland, it has mostly been the custom for passengers to find tiieir own pro- 
 visions : but this practice has not been so general in London; and some shipowners, sensible of the 
 dangerous mistakes which may be made in this matter through ignorance, are very averse to receive pas- 
 sengers who will not agree to be victualled by the ship. Those who do resolve to su})ply their own pro- 
 visions, should at least be careful not to lay in an insufficient stock ; 50 days is the shortest period lor 
 which it is safe to provide ; and from London the passage is sometimes prolonged to 75 days. 
 
 The best months for leaving England are certainly March and April ; the later emigrants do not find 
 employment so abundant, and have less time in the colony before the commencement of winter. 
 
 Various frauds are attempted upon emigrants, which can only be effectually defeated by the good sense 
 of the parties against whom they are contrived. Sometimes agents take payment from the emigrant for 
 his passage, and then recommend him to some tavern, where he is detained from day to day under false 
 pretences for delay, until, before the departure of the ship, the whole of his money is extracted from him. 
 This of course cannot happen with agents connected with respectable houses ; but the best security is to 
 name in the bargain for passage a particular day, after which, whether or not the ship sails, the passenger 
 is to be received on board and victualled by the owners. In this manner the emigrant cannot be inten- 
 tionally brought to the place of embarkation too soon, and be compelled to spend his money at public 
 houses, by false accounts of the time of sailing ; for from the very day of his arrival at the port, being the 
 day previously agreed upon, the ship becomes his home. 
 
 The conveyance of passengers to the British possessions in North America is regulated by an act of 
 parliament (9 Geo. 4. c. 21.), of which the following are the principal provisions: — Ships are not allowed to 
 carry passengers to these colonies unless they be of the height of 5J feet between decks ; and they mutt 
 not carry more than 3 passengers for every 4 tons of the registered burden ; there must be on board at 
 least 50 gallons of pure water, and 50 lbs. of bread, biscuit, oatmeal, or bread stuff", for each passenger. 
 When the ship carries the full number of passengers allowed by law, no part of the cargo, and no stores or 
 provisions, may be carried between decks ; but if there be less than the complete number of passengers, 
 goods may bestowed between decks in a proportion not exceeding 3 cubical feet for each passenger want- 
 ing of the highest number. Masters of vessels who land passengers, unless with their own consent, at a 
 place different from that originally agreed upon, are subject to a penalty of 20/., recoverable by summary 
 process before 2 justices of the peace in any of the North American colonies. 
 
 The enforcement of this law rests chiefly with the officers of his Majesty's customs ; and persons having 
 complaints to make of its infraction, should address themselves to the nearest Custom-house. 
 
 Besides the sea voyage from England, persons proceeding to Canada should be provided with the means 
 of paying for the journey which they may have to make after their arrival at Quebec. The cost of this 
 journey must, of course, depend upon the situation of the place where the individual may find employ- 
 ment, or where he may have previously formed a wish to settle ; but to all it will probably be uselul to 
 possess the following report of the prices of conveyance, during the last season, on the route from Quebec 
 to York, the capital of Upper Canada. From Quebec to Montreal (180 miles), by stearit.boat, the charge 
 for an adult was dd. ; trom Montreal to Prescolt (120 miles), by boats or barges, 7*. ; from Prescott to 
 York (2.50 miles), by steam-boat, 7*. The journey, performed in this manner, usually occupies 10 or 12 
 days : adding, therefore, lis. for provisions, the total cost from Quebec to York (a distance of 5F>0 miles) 
 may be stated, according to the charges of last year, at \l. lis. 6d. Persons who are possessed of sufficient 
 means prefer to travel by land that part of the route where the River St. Lawrence is not navigable by 
 steam-boats, and the journey is then usually performed in 6 days, at a cost of 61. It must be observed, 
 that the prices of conveyance are necessarily fluctuating, and that the foregoing account is only presented 
 as sufficiently accurate for purposes of information in this country, leaving it to the government agent at 
 Quebec to supply emigrants with more exact particulars, according to the circumstances of the time at 
 which they may arrive. 
 
 Rates of Wages and Market Prices. — The colonics in North America, to which emigrants can with 
 advantage proceed, are Lower Canada, Upper Canada, and New Brunswick. From the reports received 
 from the other British colonies in North America, namely. Prince Edward's Island, Newfoundland, Nova 
 Scotia, and Cape Breton, it appears that they do not contain the means either of affording employment at 
 wages to a considerable number of emigrants, or of settling them upon land. 
 
 Lower Canada. — From Lower Canada the commissioners for emigration have not received the official 
 reports which were required f rom the North American colonies, for the purpose of compiling the present 
 statement. They believe, however, that the following account of the prices of grain and of wages may be 
 relied upon for its general correctness : — 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Wheat - . per bushel . _ - 4 6 
 
 Rye - - _ . -.30 
 
 Maize - - — . . -2t> 
 
 Oats - . _ . . .13 
 
 Wages of labourers - per day . - - 2 6 
 
 Ship-builders, carpenters, joiners, coopers, masons, and tailors - -50 
 
 Upper Canada. — From a comparison of all the documents before the commissioners for emigration, 
 it appears that the yearly wages of labourers in Upper Canada, hired by the year, are from 27/. to 30/. ; 
 that their monthly wages, in different situations and at different seasons, range from 1/. 10s. to 3/. ids. 
 per month ; and that daily wages range from 2s. to Ss. 9d. In all these rates of wages, board and lodging 
 are found by the employer. Without board, daily wages vary from 3s. Gd. out of harvest to 5s. during 
 harvest ; 6s. 3rf., besides provisions, is sometimes given to harvest men. The wages of mechanics may be 
 stated universally at from 5s. to 7s. &d. per day. 
 
 The following Table exhibits the lowest and the highest price which the sever.il articles therein named 
 bore, during the year 1831, in each of the principal districts of Upper Canada ; — 
 
340 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 
 Eastern District. 
 
 Johnstown di 
 
 tto. 
 
 Bathurst ditto. 
 
 iNewcastle ditto. 
 
 
 PHc^n 
 1831. 
 
 Highest 
 Ditto. 
 
 Low St 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Highest 
 
 'Lowest 
 
 i 
 
 Highest 
 
 
 L. s. il. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 L. a. d 
 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 1. d 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 vvheatjperbu. 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 5 6 
 
 0 5 3 
 
 n" fi 
 n % 
 
 9 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 5 o' 
 
 0 3 6 
 
 0 6 3 
 
 Maixe — 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 0 1 9 
 
 
 3 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 Oats — 
 
 0 13 
 
 0 18 
 
 0 13 
 
 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 1 6 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 0 13 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 Bailey — 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 0 19 
 
 0 4 
 
 0,0 3 0 
 
 0 3 6 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 0 3 1 
 
 10 13 
 
 0 1 67 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rotatoeSy cwt 
 
 
 bushel. \ 
 
 0 13 
 
 0 1 
 
 \ 
 
 0 1 3 
 
 0 19 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 Uutter (ir.) Id. 
 
 0 0 7a' 
 
 0 0 9 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 0 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 0 0 8 
 
 0 0 7i 
 
 0 0 9 
 
 Ditto (salt) — 
 
 0 0 75 
 
 0 0 7i 
 
 0 0 7A 
 
 n n 
 
 10 0 0 7^ 
 
 0 0 7A 
 
 0 0 7A 
 
 0 0 9 
 
 Cheese — 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 
 
 6 0 0 6 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 0 0 5 
 
 0 0 7A 
 
 Eg^, per doz. 
 
 0 0 5 
 
 0 0 9 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 0 0 
 
 10 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 8 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 0 0 7| 
 
 Ducksjper pair 
 
 0 18 
 
 0 18 
 
 0 1 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 0 2 6 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 Fowls — 
 
 0 14 
 
 0 16 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 1 
 
 ."018 
 
 0 2 3 
 
 0 13 
 
 0 13 
 
 — 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 2 4 
 
 0 2 
 
 6 0 4 0 
 
 O 4 0 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 0 3 9 
 
 X urkeys — 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 6 0 
 
 0 3 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 0 4 0 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 0 2 3 
 
 0 3 9 
 
 Hay, per ton 
 
 1 15 0 
 
 2 5 0 
 
 1 10 0 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 2 0 0 
 
 2 10 0 
 
 1 10 0 
 
 3 10 0 
 
 t5traw,perIoad 
 
 0 16 8 
 
 0 16 8 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 10 
 
 00 7 6 
 
 0 7 6 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 Bread, 4 lb. If. 
 
 0 0 9 
 
 0 0 10 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 0 0 
 
 8 0 0 10 
 
 0 0 10 
 
 0 0 7.i 
 
 0 0 7J 
 
 Meat, per lb. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beef - - 
 
 0 0 2i 
 
 0 0 3J 
 
 0 0 2A 
 
 0 0 
 
 4 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 2A 
 
 0 0 3 
 
 Alutton 
 Pork . - 
 
 0 0 3 
 
 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 2J 
 
 0 0 
 
 4 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 2J 
 
 0 0 3 
 
 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 5 
 
 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 
 
 6 0 0 3 
 
 0 0 3 
 
 0 0 3 
 
 0 0 4 
 
 Veal - - 
 
 0 0 3 
 
 0 0 3 
 
 0 0 2^ 
 
 0 0 
 
 3i0 0 4 
 
 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 3 
 
 0 0 3i 
 
 Flour 100 lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fine - - 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 0 17 6 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 0 17 
 
 6 0 12 6 
 
 0 16 0 
 
 0 12 6 
 
 0 17 6 
 
 Seconds 
 
 0 12 6 
 
 0 12 6 
 
 0 12 6 
 
 0 1.5 
 
 0 0 10 6 
 
 0 12 6 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 .L. s. d 
 b 3 9 
 0 2 0 
 0 O 10 
 0 2 3 
 
 [0 010 
 
 0 7i 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 7i 
 
 1 3 
 1 3 
 
 Niagai 
 
 Highest Lowest 
 
 ,Atn^ iLondon ditto 
 
 t. d. L. s. d 
 3 0 3 9 
 0 2 9 0 2 6 
 0 1 10.^ 0 1 3 
 0 3 9 |0 2 6 
 
 0 2 C 0 1 3 
 
 10 0 0 
 
 0 10 0 0 
 
 0 6 0 0 
 
 1 lO.i 0 0 
 1 lOj 0 1 
 1 6 0 1 
 5 0 jo 3 
 0 0 jO 5 
 0 0 1 15 
 5 0 0 5 
 0 7 0 0 
 
 0 0 5 0 0 2 
 
 0 0 7J 0 0 2 
 
 0 6 iO 0 3* 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 15 0 iO 12 6 
 
 0 12 6 0 12 6 
 
 iO 0 3^ 
 0 0 2i 
 
 Highest 
 
 X. s. d. 
 0 5 0 
 0 2 6 
 0 1 6 
 0 2 6 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 0 1 
 3 
 
 0 3 
 0 7 
 2 10 
 5 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 Low. High. 
 
 3 9 
 3 H 
 
 0 3J 
 0 51 
 0 7A 
 0 4i 
 
 15 0 
 
 i. d. 
 
 5 0 
 
 5 9 
 
 3 1* 
 
 3 9 
 
 2 6 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 V,' 
 
 0 rji 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 3 
 
 2 6 
 2 6 
 
 0 31 
 
 New Brunswick. — The following is a list of prices compiled from documents sent in from various parts 
 of New Brunswick : — 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Maize 
 
 Oats 
 
 Barley 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Butter (fresh) 
 
 Ditto (salt) 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Eggs 
 
 Ducfcs 
 
 Fowls 
 
 Geese 
 
 Turkeys 
 
 Hay 
 
 Straw 
 
 per bushel 
 
 per dozen 
 per pair 
 
 L. 
 
 *. 
 
 rf. 
 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 to 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 Bread 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 Beef 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 Mutton 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 Pork 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 0 3 6 
 
 Veal 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 
 0 1 0 
 
 Flour 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 
 0 0 10 
 
 Salt pork 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 
 0 0 7 
 
 Ditto beef 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 10 
 
 Malt 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 ^0^ 
 
 
 0 3 6 
 
 Rye flour 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 Indian ditto 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 Salt cod 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 2 10 0 
 
 Ditto mackarel 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 5 0 
 
 Ditto alewives 
 
 
 L. ». d. 
 
 per 4 lb. loaf 0 0 10 to 
 
 per stone 0 3 3 — 
 
 _ 0 2 4 - 
 
 — 0 2 Oi — 
 
 — 0 2 4 — 
 per 100 lbs. 0 16 0 _ 
 
 per barrel 4 15 0 — 
 
 _ 3 0 0 — 
 
 per bushel 0 6 2 — 
 
 per barrel 12 6 
 
 — 12 6 
 per cwt. 0 16 0 — 
 
 per 112 lbs. 0 10 0 _ 
 
 per barrel 0 17 0 — 
 
 _ 0 10 0 — 
 
 L. s. d 
 0 10 
 0 4 0 
 0 4 0 
 0 4 0 
 0 4 8 
 0 17 6 
 5 5 0 
 3 10 0 
 0 6 4 
 
 0 12 0 
 
 Coals are sold at 30i. per chaldron. House rent is from 51. to 6/. per annum for families occupying one 
 room ; and for families occupying two rooms, from 6/. to 10/. Common labourers receive from 3>s. to 4*. a 
 day, finding their own subsistence ; but when employed at the ports in loading vessels, their subsistence 
 is found for them. Mechanics receive from 5s. to 7s. 6d. per day, and superior workmen from 7s. 6d. 
 to 10s. 
 
 Upon the foregoing statements, it must be observed that emigrants, especially such of them as are 
 agricultural labourers, should not expect the highest wages named until they have become accustomed 
 to the work of the colony. The mechanics most in demand are those connected with the business of 
 housebuilding. Shoemakers and tailors, and ship-builders, also find abundant employment. 
 
 Mr. Buchanan, his Majesty's chief agent for the superintendence of emigrants in 
 Upper and Lower Canada has issued the following information, dated Quebec, 16th of 
 July, 1833. 
 
 There is nothing of more importance to emigrants on arrival at Quebec, than correct information on 
 the leading points connected with their future pursuits. Many have suffered much by a want of caution, 
 and by listening to the opinions of interested designing characters, wlio frequently offer their advice 
 unsolicited, and who are met generally about wharfs and landing places frequented by strangers. To 
 guard emigrants from falling into such errors, they should, immediately on arrival at Quebec, proceed to 
 the office of the chief agent for emigrants in Sault-au-Matelot Street, Lower Town, where every inform, 
 ation requisite for their future guidance, in either getting settlement on lands, or obtaining employment 
 in Upper or Lower Canada, will be obtained gratis. On your route from Quebec to your destination you 
 will find many plans and schemes offered to your consideration, but turn away from them unle.^s you are 
 well satisfied of the purity of the statements. On all occasions when you stand in need of advice, apply 
 to the government agents. 
 
 Emigrants are informed that they may remain on board ship 48 hours after arrival ; nor can they be 
 deprived of any of their usual accommodations for cooking or berthing during that period ; and the mastej 
 of the ship is bound to land the emigrants and their baggage, free of expense, at the usual landing places, 
 and at seasonable hours. , ^ , 
 
 Should you require to change your EngHsh money, go to some respectable merchant or to the banks 
 The currency in the Canadas is at the rate of 5s. the dollar, and is called Halifax currency; at preseit ; 
 the gold sovereign is worth 24s. currency in Montreal; in New York, 8s. is calculated for the doll.ir ; 
 hence many are deceived when hearing of "the rates of labour, &c. : 5s. in Canada is equal to 8s. New York ; 
 thus, 8s. New York currency is equivalent to 5s. Halifax currency. 
 
 Emigrants who wish to settle in Lower Canada, or to obtain employment, are informed that many 
 desirable situations are to be met with. "Wild lands of superior quality may be obtained by purchase on 
 very easy terms from the commissioners of Crown lands in various townships in the province, and good 
 farm labourers and mechanics are much in request, particularly in the eastern townships, where al.so 
 many excellent situations and improved farms mj.y be purchased from private proprietors. At the 
 Chambly Canal many labourers will find immediate employment. In every part of Upper Canada the 
 demand for labourers and mechanics is also very great. All labouring emigrants who reach York, and 
 who maybe in want of immediate employment, will be provided with it by the government. The princii^al 
 situations in Upper Canada where arrangements are made for locating emigrants are in the Bathurst, 
 Midland, Newcastle, Home, London, .md Western districts. Settlers with means will have opportuiiitieti 
 of purchasing Crown lands in several parts of the province at the monthly sales, information of which 
 may be obtained on application at the Crown Land Ollice, York, or to A. IJ. Hawke, Esq. the governuK iit 
 agent for emigrants there, to whom they will apply, on arrival, for such further advice as they may requiic. 
 
 Emigrants proceeding to Upper Canada, above Kingston, either by the Ottawa or St. Lawrence route, 
 are advised to supply themselves with provisions at Montreal, such as bread, tea, sugar, and butter, which 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 341 
 
 they will purchase cheaper and of better quality than along the rontc. Tliry arc also particularly 
 cautioned against the use of ardent spirits, or drinking cold river water, or lying on the bankiof the river 
 exposed to the night dews; they should proceed at once from the steain-hoat at Montreal for Lachine, 
 8 miles above, from whence the Durham and steam-boats start for Prescott and IJytown daily. 
 
 Emigrants will obtain from Mr. John Hays, the government agent at Lachine, such advice and assist- 
 ance as they may require ; and they will find there a convenient barrack log house, where those wishing 
 may remain for the night, and avoid exposure and expense of lodgings, Mr. John Patton, the govern- 
 ment agent at Prescott, will render every advice and assistance to emigrants. 
 
 Labourers or mechanics dependent on immediate employment are requested to proceed immediately on 
 arrival into the country, 'liie chief agent will consider such persons as may loiter about the ports oi 
 landing beyond one week after arrival to have no further claims on the nrotcction of his Majesty's agents 
 for assistance or employment, unless they have been detained by sickness or some other satisfactory 
 cause. 
 
 Tlie following information with respect to Upper Canada has been circulated by 
 the Canada Company : — 
 
 " Persons desirous of obtaining employment, and having the means of emigrating to Upper Canada, 
 may get work at high prices compared with what they have been accustomed to receive in this country a^ 
 agricultural labourers. The wages given in Upper Canada are from i'Z. to 3/. per month, with board and 
 lodging. At these wages there is a constant demand for labour in all parts of Upper Canada ; and there is 
 no doubt that a very great number, beyond those now there, would find employment. "Working artisans, 
 particularly blacksmiths, carj)enters, bricklayers, masons, coopers, millwrights, wheelwrights, shoemakers, 
 and tailors, get high wages, and are much wanted. Industrious men may look forward with confidence 
 to an improvement in their situation, as they may save enough out of one season's work to buy land 
 themselves in settled townships. 
 
 " Freehold land of excellent quality is to be sold at 8s. 9d to 20s. currency per acre, payable as follows : 
 — One fifth of the purchase money to be paid down at the time of making choice of the land in Canada, 
 and the remainder in 5 annual payments with interest, which an industrious settler would be able to pay 
 out of the crops. 
 
 " Upper Canada is a British province, within a few weeks' sail of this country. The climate is good ; 
 all the fruits and vegetables common to the English kitchen garden thrive well ; sugar, for domestic 
 purposes, is made from the maple tree, on the land. The soil and country possess every requisite for 
 farming purposes and comfortable settlement, which is proved by the experience of the numerous 
 industrious emigrants now settled there. The samples of Upper Canada wheat have not been exceeded 
 in quality by any in the British market during the past year. The population of the province, which is 
 rapidly increasing, consists almost exclusively of persons from Great Britain and Ireland, who have gone 
 there to settle. The taxes are very trifling, and there are no tithes. The expense of clearing the land 
 ready for seed is about il. per acre if paid for in money ; but if done by the purchasers themselves, they 
 must employ part of their time at wages, or possess some means of their own. 
 
 " The expense of removing from this country to Quebec or Montreal, including provisions for the 
 voyage, is, for grown persons, men or women, from 61. to 71., and half price for children under 14 years of 
 age : if the parties find their own provisions, the passage money is 31. or 31. 10s. for an adult, and in pro- 
 portion for children. From Ireland and Scotland the expense is considerably less. The expense of the 
 transport of an adult emigrant from Quebec to York and the head of Lake Ontario will not exceed from 
 1/. to II. 2.V. 6rf. currency, or l8s. or 19a-. sterling, exclusive of provisions. 
 
 " The Canada Company, to encourage settlement in the Huron tract, have determined for this year 
 (1833) to allow all families, settlers in that district, purchasing 160 acres or more, of the Company, the 
 expenses of conveyance, at a stipulated rate, from Quebec or Montreal to the head of Lake Ontario, 
 allowing each family to consist of 2 adults and 3 children, by deducting those expenses from the second 
 instalment of the purchase money of their farm. The present prices of land in the Huron tract, which 
 is of the finest quality in America,, are from 8*. 9d. to 10s. provincial currency, that is, from If to 2 
 dollars per acre. 
 
 " The Canada Company, to facilitate the transmission of money to the Upper and Lower Provinces, 
 will receive from int«fcding emigrants any deposits in London, for which they will issue letters of credit 
 on their agents, allowing the parties the full benefit of the rate of exchange, which usually ranges from 
 8 to 10 per cent. Persons resident in this country, desirous of making remittances to their friends in the 
 Canadas, are aflforded the same facilities and advantages. 
 
 " Further information, and the papers distributed by the Canada Company, may be obtained on appli- 
 cation to the secretary, John Perry, Esq. 
 " London, October, 1833." 
 The following extract from the MontrealDatly Advertiser of the 4th of September, 1833, gives the prices 
 of the principal articles of Canadian produce as under : — 
 
 £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 Ashes, pot, 1st sort, per cwt 1 3 6 to 1 
 
 pearl . .15 0—156 
 
 Flour and meal — 
 
 Superfine,per 1961bs. (Canada) 1 10 9—111 3 
 
 Fine ditto ditto 1 9 6 — 1 10 0 
 
 Middling ditto ditto 1 7 6—1 8 0 
 
 Pollards ditto ditto 12 0—1 2 6 
 
 Indian meal, per 168 lbs. - 1 2 6 
 
 Oatmeal per cwt. . 0 13 6— 0 14 0 
 
 Grain and seed — 
 Wheat, W. Canada, per 60 lbs. 0 6 3— 0 6 6 
 
 mixed -060—062 
 
 red . 0 5 10 — 0 6 0 
 
 Barley, per bushel - ,034—036 
 
 Indian c6rn . - 0 4 0— 0 4 6 
 
 Oats - - 0 1 6 — 0 1 8 
 
 Peas (boiling) - -049—05 0 
 
 Flax seed, per bushel -050—053 
 
 (2. ) West India Colonies. — In the "West Indies we possess Jamaica, Barbadoes, 
 St. Lucia, Antigua, Grenada, Trinidad, and some other islands, exclusive of Demerara 
 and Berbice in South America. Jamaica, by far the largest and most valuable of our 
 insular possessions, is about 120 miles in length and 40 in mean breadth, containing 
 about 2,800,000 acres, of which from 1,100,000 to 1,200,000 are supposed to be in 
 cultivation. Being situated within the tropic of Cancer, the heat in the West Indies is 
 intense, but is moderated by the sea breeze which blows regularly during the greater 
 part of the day. The rains make the only distinction of seasons. They sometimes fall 
 with prodigious impetuosity, giving birth to innumerable torrents, and laying all the 
 low country under water : the trees are green the whole year round : they have no snow, 
 no frost, and but rarely some hail. The climate is very humid ; iron rusts and corrodes 
 in a very short time ; and it is this, perhaps, that renders the West Indies so unfriendly 
 to European constitutions, and produces those malignant fevers that are so very fatal. 
 The vegetable productions are numerous and valuable ; but the sugar cane and the coflTc* 
 
 Z 3 
 
342 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 plant are incomparably more important than the others, and constitute the natural riches 
 of the islands. 
 
 The West Indies are occasionally assailed by the most dreadful hurricanes, which 
 destroy in a moment the hopes and labours of the planters, and devastate entire islands. 
 "Whole fields of sugar canes are sometimes torn up by the roots, houses are either thrown 
 down or unroofed, and even the heavy copper boilers and stills in the works have, in 
 .numerous instances, been wrenched from the ground and battered to pieces. The rain 
 pours down in torrents, sweeping before it every thing that comes in its way. The 
 destruction caused by such dreadful scourges seldom fails to produce a very great scarcity, 
 and not unfrequently famine ; and we are ashamed to have to add, that the severity of 
 the distress has on several occasions been materially aggravated by a refusal on the part 
 of the authorities to allow importation direct from the United States ! * This was the 
 case at Dominica so late as 1817. 
 
 Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494, and continued in possession of the 
 Spaniards till 1655, when it was wrested from them by the English. Although it had 
 thus been for more than a century and a half under the power of Spain, such was the 
 deadening influence of her colonial system, that it did not, when we conquered it, con- 
 tain 1,500 white inhabitants, and these were immersed in sloth and poverty. Of the 
 many valuable articles which Jamaica soon after produced in such profusion, many were 
 then altogether unknown ; and of those that were known, such a supply only was cul- 
 tivated as was required for the consumption of the inhabitants. " The Spanish settlers," 
 it is said by Mr. Bryan Edwards, " possessed none of the elegancies of life; nor were 
 they acquainted even with many of those gratifications which, in civilised states, are 
 considered necessary to its comfort and convenience. They were neither polished by 
 social intercourse, nor improved by education ; but passed their days in gloomy languor, 
 enfeebled by sloth, and depressed by poverty. They had been for many years in a state 
 of progressive degeneracy, and would probably in a short time have expiated the guilt 
 of their ancestors, by falling victims themselves to the vengeance of their slaves." — 
 (Hist. West Indies, vol. i. p. 297. 8vo ed.) 
 
 For a considerable number of years after we obtained possession of Jamaica, the 
 chief exports were cacao, hides, and indigo. Even so late as 1772, the exports of sugar 
 amounted to only 11,000 hogsheads. In 1774, they had increased to 78,000 hogs- 
 heads of sugar, 26,000 puncheons of rum, and 6,547 bags of coffee. The American 
 war was very injurious to the West India settlements ; and they may, indeed, be said to 
 be still suffering from its effects, as the independence of America led to the enactment 
 of . those restrictions on the importation of food, lumber, &c. that have been so very 
 hurtful to the planters. In 1780, Jamaica was visited by a most destructive hurricane, 
 the devastation occasioned by which produced a dreadful famine ; and other hurricanes 
 followed in the immediately succeeding years. But in 1787, a new era of improvement 
 began. The devastation of St. Domingo by the negro insurrection, which broke out in 
 1792, first diminished, and in a few years almost entirely annihilated, the annual supply 
 of 1 1 5,000 hogsheads of sugar, which France and the Continent had previously been 
 accustomed to receive from that island. This diminution of supply, by causing a greatly 
 increased demand for, and a consequent rise in the price of, the sugar raised in the other 
 islands, occasioned an extraordinary extension of cultivation. So powerful in this respect 
 was its influence, that Jamaica, which, at an average of the 6 years preceding 1799, had 
 produced only 83,000 hogsheads, exported, in 1801 and 1802, upwards of 286,000 
 hogsheads, or 143,000 a year ! 
 
 The same rise of price, which had operated so powerfully in Jamaica, occasioned a 
 similar though less rapid extension of cultivation in our other islands, and in Cuba, 
 Porto Rico, and the foreign colonies generally. The vacuum caused by the cessation 
 of the supplies from St. Domingo being thus more than filled up, a reaction commenced. 
 The price of sugar rapidly declined ; and notwithstanding a forced market was for a 
 while opened to it, by substituting it for malt in the distillery, prices did not attain to 
 their former elevation. On the opening of the Continental ports, in 1813 and 1814, 
 they, indeed, rose, for a short time, to an extravagant height ; but they very soon fell 
 again, involving in ruin many of the speculators upon an advance. And notwithstand- 
 ing a recent rally, ^ey are, and have been for the last 10 years, comparatively low. 
 The fall seems to be entirely owing to the vast extension of the sugar cultivation in 
 Cuba, Brazil, Java, Louisiana, &c., and in Demerara, Berbice, and the Mauritius. 
 From the facility, too, with which sugar may be raised in most of these countries, 
 and their vast extent, there seems little prospect of prices ever again attaining to their 
 
 * It is stated in a report by a committee of the Assembly of Jamaica, that 15,000 negroes perished 
 between the latter end of 1780 and the beginning of 1787, through famine occasioned by hurricanes and 
 the prohibition of importation from the United States I — {Edwards's West Indies, vol. ii. p. 515.) Those 
 who are so very fond of vituperating " hard-hearted economists," as they are pleased to term those who 
 advocate the repeal of oppressive restrictions, must, we presume, look upon occurrences of this sort aa 
 merciful dispensations. 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 343 
 
 t)ld level. It is to no purpose, tlicrcfore, to attempt to relieve the distresses of the 
 planters of Jamaica and our other islands by temporary expedients. The present low 
 prices have not been brought about by accidental or contingent circumstances. And 
 to enable the planters to contend successfully with the active competitors that surround 
 them on all sides, we must place them, at least in so far as we have the means, in a similar 
 situation, by allowing them to resort for supplies to the cheapest markets, and to send 
 their produce into Europe in such a shape as they may think best. 
 
 The devastation of St. Domingo gave the same powerful stimulus to the growth of 
 coffee in the other West Indian colonies, that it did to the growth of sugar ; and owing 
 to the extraorainary mcrease m the demand for coffee in this and other European coun- 
 tries during the last 10 years, the impulse has been, in a great measure, kept up. — (See 
 Coffee.) In 1752, the export of coffee from Jamaica amounted to only G0,000 lbs. ; 
 in 1775, it amounted to 440,000 lbs. ; in 1797, it had increased to 7,931,621 lbs. ; in 
 1832, the exports to England amounted to 1 g,'',! 1,000 lbs. ; and they have been stationary 
 at about this quantity for some time. 
 
 We have already seen, that when Jamaica was taken from the Spaniards, it only con- 
 tained 1,500 white inhabitants. In 1673, the population amounted to 7,768 whites 
 and 9,504 slaves. It would have been well for the island had the races continued to pre- 
 serve this relation to each other ; but, unfortunately, the black population has increased 
 more than f ve times as rapidly as the white ; the latter having increased only from 7,768 
 to about 30,000, while the former has increased from 9,504 to 322,421, exclusive of 
 persons of colour. The immense preponderance of the slave population has rendered 
 the question of emancipation so very difficult. 
 
 The correspondence of the slaves in Jamaica with their emancipated brethren in Hayti 
 or St. Domingo has been prohibited by a provision in the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 59. § 55. 
 — (see post\ 
 
 The real value of the exports to Jamaica amounts to about 1 ,600,000/. a year, being 
 more than half the amount of the exports to the West Indian colonies. It should, 
 however, be observed, that a considerable portion of the articles sent to Jamaica, and 
 some of the other colonies, are only sent there as to an entrepot, being subsequently 
 exported to the Spanish main. During the ascendancy of the Spanish dominion in 
 Mexico and South America, this trade, which was then contraband, was carried on to 
 a very great extent. It is now much fallen off ; but the central situation of Jamaica 
 will always secure to her a considerable share of this sort of transit trade. 
 
 Barbadoes was the earliest- of our possessions in the West Indies. It is the most 
 easterly of the Caribbee islands ; Bridge Town, the capital, being in Ion. 59° 41' W. 
 Barbadoes is by far the best cultivated of all the West India islands. It contains about 
 105,000 acres, having a population of about 16,000 whites, 2,700 free people of colour, 
 and 68,000 slaves. It exports about 21,000 hogsheads of sugar, of 16cwt. each. Bar- 
 badoes had attained the acme of its prosperity in the latter part of the seventeenth century, 
 when the white population is said to have amounted to about 50,000, though this is 
 probably an exaggeration. But it is only as compared with itself that it can be con- 
 sidered as having fallen off ; for, compared with the other West India islands, its 
 superiority is manifest. It raises nearly as much food as is adequate for its supply. 
 
 The islands next in importance are St. Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, Antigua, &c. 
 It is unnecessary to enter into any special details with respect to them ; their population 
 and trade being exhibited in the Tables annexed to this section. 
 
 During the late war, we took from the Dutch the settlements of Demerar'a, Berbice, 
 and Essequibo, in Guiana, which were definitively ceded to us in 1814. The soil of 
 these settlements is naturally very rich ; and they have, in this respect, a decided 
 advantage over most of the West India islands. Their advance, since they came into 
 our possession, was for a while very great ; but recently their progress seems to have 
 been checked, and their exports, particularly those of rum and coffee, have declined 
 considerably. The imports of sugar from them amount to about a third of the imports 
 from Jamaica. The rum of Demerara enjoys a high reputation ; and of the total 
 quantity imported from the British colonies and plantations in 1832, amounting to 
 4,741,649 gallons, Demerara and Berbice furnished 1,415,449, gallons. The best 
 samples of Berbice coffee are of very superior quality ; but the planters finding the 
 cultivation of sugar more profitable, the imports have materially declined of late years. 
 In 1832, they amounted, from both colonies, to 3,449,400 lbs. Considerable quantities 
 of cotton were formerly exported from Guiana; but the Americans having superior 
 facilities for its production, the planters have in a great measure ceased to cultivate it. 
 Cacao, annotto, &c. are produced, but not abundantly. 
 
 These statements are sufficient to show the importance of Demerara and Berbice. 
 Considering, indeed, theii- great natural fertility, and the indefinite extent to which every 
 sort of tropical culture may be carried in them, they certainly rank among the most 
 raluable of the colonial possessions we have acquired for many years. 
 
 Z 4 
 
COLONIES AND 
 
 Exclusive of the above, we possess the settlement of Balize on the Bay of Honduras. 
 This is of importance, as affording a means of obtaining abundant supplies of mahogany ; 
 but it is of more importance as an entrepot for the supply of Guatemala with English 
 manufactured goods. — (For accounts of the colonies in Australasia, &c, see Columbo, 
 Cape of Good Hope, Port Louis, Sydney, &c.) 
 
 Account of the Quantities of Sugar, Rum, Molasses, and Coffee, imported into the United Kingdom from 
 the West Indies and the Mauritius, and of the Portions of those Quantities entered for Re-exportation 
 in 1834 and 1835. — {Pari. Paper, No. 298., Sess. 1836.) 
 
 Colonies whence 
 imported. 
 
 gjlgar (unrefined). 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 Cwt3. 
 
 Cwis. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Oallont. 
 
 Cmti. 
 
 Cwtt. 
 
 IJ>t. 
 
 Lbs. 
 580 
 
 AntiRua - ... 
 
 257,177 
 
 174,818 
 
 71,445 
 
 67.051 
 
 87,882 
 
 75,985 
 
 224 
 
 Barbadoes ... 
 
 394,527 
 
 344,689 
 
 2,170 
 
 1,798 
 
 55,553 
 
 58,125 
 
 77,868 
 
 57,825 
 
 Dominica ... 
 
 54,87e 
 
 25,014 
 
 27,764 
 
 7,308 
 
 2,550 
 
 2,700 
 
 893,492 
 
 112,557 
 
 Grenada ... 
 
 194,542 
 
 170,280 
 
 217,049 
 
 248,524 
 
 23,219 
 
 8,747 
 
 10„332 
 
 8,236 
 
 Jamaica ... 
 
 1,256,253 
 
 1,148,760 
 
 2,924,067 
 
 2,450,272 
 
 2,809 
 
 982 
 
 18,268,883 
 
 11,154,307 
 
 Montserrat ... 
 
 26,631 
 
 16,261 
 
 20,480 
 
 26,492 
 
 4,779 
 
 1,848 
 
 
 
 Nevis - ... 
 
 59,748 
 
 39,637 
 
 23,286 
 
 39,.366 
 
 6,466 
 
 161 
 
 
 
 St. Kitt's 
 
 105,355 
 
 87,614 
 
 79,0S0 
 
 107,101 
 
 17,397 
 
 7,526 
 
 185 
 
 40 
 
 St. Lucia ... 
 
 63,306 
 
 54,744 
 
 4,707 
 
 10,972 
 
 2,811 
 
 6,057 
 
 96,004 
 
 53,582 
 
 St. Vincent 
 
 213,017 
 
 195,057 
 
 93,397 
 
 189,154 
 
 33,094 
 
 26,455 
 
 197 
 
 118 
 
 Tobago - ... 
 
 79,018 
 
 77,260 
 
 272,787 
 
 . 299,705 
 
 11,646 
 
 5,986 
 
 
 Toitola .... 
 
 21,926 
 
 1.3,821 
 
 .3,478 
 
 5,220 
 
 
 1,408 
 
 
 28 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 339,615 
 
 289,393 
 
 7,714 
 
 9,586 
 
 ' 99,494 
 
 84,640 
 
 160,915 
 
 33,060 
 
 Bahamas ... 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 45,579 
 
 280,156 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 Demerara ... 
 
 687,282 
 
 760,376 
 
 1,273,693 
 
 1,875,245 
 
 282,967 
 
 221,782 
 
 1,481,980 
 
 1,159,054 
 
 Berbice - ... 
 
 90,699 
 
 126,483 
 
 61,277 
 
 115,411 
 
 20,699 
 
 5,225 
 
 1,045,668 
 
 2,027,037 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 163 
 
 
 MAURITIUS - - 
 
 553,890 
 
 558,712 
 
 1 
 
 201 
 
 206 
 
 
 701 
 
 243,296 
 
 Total Importations - 
 
 4,397,866 
 
 4,082,921 
 
 5,112,401 
 
 5,453,518 
 
 650,572 
 
 507,627 
 
 22,082,191 
 
 15,109,876 
 
 Proportion re- fW. I. 
 exported (unref. ) 1 M . 
 
 12,313 
 4,850 
 
 11,4.55") 
 1,750/ 1 
 
 1,613,163 
 
 1,668,205 
 
 2,078 
 
 4,753 
 
 768,819 
 
 613,053 
 
 The duties on West India produce entered for home consumption during the year 
 1835, yielded about 6,700,OOOZ. nett. 
 
 The exports from this country to our West India colonies consist of coarse cottons, 
 linens, checks, hats, and other articles of negro clothing ; hardware and earthenware ; 
 staves, hoops, coal, lime, paint, lead; Irish provisions, herrings and other salt fish ; along 
 with furniture, wine, beer, medicines, and, indeed, almost ev«ry article which a great 
 manufacturing country can supply to one, situated in a tropical climate, which has very 
 few mechanics, and hardly any manufactures. Since the depression of West Indian pro- 
 perty, and the opening of the ports on the Spanish main to ships from England, the 
 exports to the West Indies have decreased both in quantity and value. Their declared 
 or real value amounted, as appears from the following account, in 1834, to 2,680,022Z. 
 
 Statement of the Total Amount of Trade between the United Kingdom and the Briti^ West India 
 Cdlonies, in each Year, from 1814 to 18G4, both inclusive. 
 
 
 Official Value. 
 
 declared Value 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 Exports to the British West Indies. 
 
 of 
 
 British and Irish 
 
 Imports from 
 
 the British 
 West Indies. 
 
 British and Irish 
 Produce and 
 Manufactures. 
 
 Foreign and 
 
 Colonial 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Total 
 of 
 Exporti. 
 
 Products 
 exported to the 
 British West Indies. 
 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 J819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 183() 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1H34 
 
 £ 
 
 9,022,309 
 9,903,260 
 7,847,895 
 8,326,926 
 8,608,790 
 8,188,539 
 8,353,706 
 8,367,477 
 8,019,765 
 8,425,276 
 9,065.546 
 7,982,829' 
 8,420,454 
 8,880,833 
 9,496,950 
 9,087,923 
 8,-599,100 
 8,448,839 
 8,138,668 
 8,008,248 
 5,410,113 
 
 £ 
 
 6,282,226 
 6,742,451 
 4,584,509 
 6,632,708 
 5,717,216 
 4,395,215 
 4,246,783 
 4,940,609 
 4,127,052 
 4,621,589 
 4,843,556 
 4,702,249 
 8,792,4.53 
 4,685,789 
 4,134,744 
 5,162,197 
 8,749,799 
 3,7i'f>,522 
 3,813,821 
 4,4()1,''90 
 4,494,6.59 
 
 £ 
 
 339,912 
 453,630 
 268,719 
 882,883 
 272,491 
 297.199 
 814;567 
 370,738 
 243,126 
 285,247 
 824,375 
 295,021 
 £55,241 
 331,586 
 S'26,298 
 359,059 
 290,878 
 258,764 
 286,605 
 302,189 
 323,986 
 
 £ 
 
 6,222.138 
 7,196;081 
 4,853,228 
 7,015,591 
 5,989,707 
 4,692,414 
 4,561,3.50 
 5,311,847 
 4,370,178 
 5,906,836 
 5,167,931 
 4,997,270 
 4,047,694 
 5,017,375 
 4,461,042 
 5,521.256 
 4,040,677 
 3,988,286 
 4,100,426 
 4,704,180 
 4.818,646 
 
 £ 
 
 7,019,938 
 7,218,057 
 4,537,056 
 5.890,199 
 6,021,627 
 4,841,253 
 4,197,761 
 4,320,581 
 3,439 818 
 8,676,780 
 3,827,489 
 8,866,834 
 3,199,265 
 8,683,222 
 8,289,704 
 8,612,085 
 2,888,448 
 2,.581,949 
 2,439.807 
 2,597,591 
 2,680,022 
 
 The following are the quantities of some of the principal articles exported to the West Indian colonics 
 in 1831 : — Cottons, 21,975,4.59 yards; linens, ll,(t29,191 yards; woollens, 149,952 yards; hats, 26,694 
 <lozcns ; leather, wrought and unwrought, 349,842 lbs. ; earthenware, 1,331,799 pieces ; glass, 23,544 cwt. ; 
 hardware and cutlery, 13,,535 cwt. ; coals and culm, 48,536 tons ; beef and pork, 24,472 barrels ; soap and 
 candles, 4,.389,968 lbs,, &c. — {Pari. Paper, No. 550. Sess. 1833J 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 345 
 
 The articles exported from Canada and the British possessions in North Annerica 
 principally consist of timhcr and lumber of all sorts ; j^rain, flour, and biscuit ; furs, dried 
 fish, fish oil, turpentine^ &c. The imports principally consist of woollens, cottons, and 
 linens, earthenware, hardware, leather, salt, haberdashery of all sorts ; tea, sugar, and 
 coffee; spices, wine, brandy, and rum, furniture, stationery, &c. 
 
 The following are the quantities of some of the principal articles exported from Great 
 Britain to Canada, Nova Scotia, &c. in 1831 : — Cottons, 15,618,106" yards; woollens, 
 900,124 yards; linens, 3,309,165 yards; earthenware, 2,253,851 pieces; iron and steel, 
 wrought and unwrought, 12,400 tons; hardware and cutlery, 29,^182 cwt. ; coals and 
 culm, 31,134 tons; salt, 1,559,684 bushels; beef and pork, 8,534 barrels, &c. — {Pari. 
 Paper, No. 550. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 We are indebted to Mr. Mayer, of the Colonial Office, for much valuable inform- 
 ation, and in particular for the Tables given in the next two pages, the most com- 
 plete that have ever been published, of the population and trade of our colonial 
 possessions. 
 
 Money. — What is called West India currency is an imaginary money, and has a different value in 
 different colonies. The value it bears, as compared with sterling money, was supposed to represent the 
 corresponding value of the coins in circulation in the different islands at the time tlie proportion was 
 fixed : these coins being for the most part mutilated, and otherwise worn and defaced, currency is in all 
 cases less valuable than sterling. The following are the values of 100/. sterling, and of a dollar, in the 
 currencies of the different islands : — 
 
 Sterling. Currency. Dollar. Currency. 
 
 Jamaica - 100/. = 140/. 1 = 6s. 8rf. 
 
 Barbadoes - - - 100/. = 135/. 1 = 6s. 3d. 
 
 Windward Islands (except Barbadoes) . - 100/. = 175/. 1 = 8s. 3d. 
 
 Leeward Islands - - - 100/. = 200/. 1 = 9s. Od. 
 
 But these proportions are seldom acted upon ; the exchange being generally from 10 to 20 per cent, 
 above the fixed par. 
 
 By an order in council of the 23d of March, 1825, British silver money is made legal tender throughout 
 all British colonial possessions, at the nominal value as in England ; and bills for the same are given on 
 the Treasury of London, of 100/. each bill for 103/. such silver money. By this order, also, the value 
 of the Spanish dollar is fixed at is. 4c/. British silver money throughout all the colonies where it is 
 current 
 
 The following are the gold coins circulating at Jamaica, with their legal weight and fineness : — 
 
 Value in Currency. 
 
 Drvts. grt.Tr. ■£ S. d. 
 
 Spanish doubloon - - -- 17 8- - -500 
 
 Two pistole piece - - - 8 16 - - - 2 10 0 
 
 Pistole - - -48 - ---150 
 
 Half pistole - • . -24 - - - -0 12 6 
 
 Portuguese Johannes (called Joe) - .-18 12 - - - -5 10 0 
 
 Half Joe - - 96- - - -2 15 0 
 
 Quarter Joe - - -4 15- - -.176 
 
 Moidore - - - -6 22 - - - -200 
 
 Halfmoidore - - -3 11 - - - -10 0 
 
 English guinea - - 5 8- - - -1126 
 
 Half guinea - - -2 16 - - - 0 16 3 
 
 Sovereign - - - 5 2- . - -1120 
 
 IV. Regulatioks under which Colony Trade is conducted. — Disposal of Land 
 IN the Colonies, &c. 
 These are embodied in the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 59., which came into operation on 
 the 1st of September, 1833. It is as follows : — 
 
 Importation and Exportation of Goods confined to free Ports. — No goods shall be imported into, 
 nor shall any goods, except the produce of the fisheries in British ships, be exported from, any of the 
 British possessions in America by sea, from or to any place other than the United Kingdom, or some 
 other of such possessions, except into or from the several ports in such possessions, called " Free Ports," 
 enumerated or described in the table following ; (that is to say,) 
 
 Table of free Po7-ts. — Kingston, Savannah Le Mar, Montego Bay, Santa Lucia, Antonio, Saint 
 Ann, Falmouth, Maria, Morant Bay, Annotto Bay, Black River, Rio Bueno, Port Morant, Jamaica ; 
 Saint George, Grenada ; Roseau, Dominica ; Saint John's, Antigua ; San Josef, Trinidad : Scarborough, 
 Tobago; Road Harbour, Tortola ; Nassau, New Providence ; Pint's Town, Crooked Island ; Kingston, 
 Saint Vincent ; Port Saint George and Port Hamilton, Bermuda; any port where there is a Custom, 
 house, Bahamas; Bridgetown, Barbadoes; Saint John's, Saint Andrew's, New Brunswick; Halifax, 
 Pictou, Nova Scotia ; Quebec, Canada ; Saint John's, Newfoundland ; George Town, Demerara ; New 
 Amsterdam, Berbice ; Castries, Saint Lucia; Basseterre, Saint Kitt's ; Charles Town, Nevis ; Plymouth, 
 Montserrat ; Sydney, Cape Breton ; Charlotte Town, Prince Edward's Island ; Angnilla, Anguilla ; and 
 if any goods shall be imported into any port or place in any of the said possessions, contrary hereto, such 
 goods shall be forfeited. — § 2. 
 
 His Majesty may appoint other Ports to be free Ports. — Provided always, that if liis Majesty shall deem 
 it expedient to extend the provisions of this act to any port or ports not enumerated in the said table, it 
 shall be lawful for his Majesty, by order in council, to do so ; and from the day mentioned in such order 
 in council, all the privileges and advantages of this act, and all the provisions, penalties, and forfeitures 
 therein contained, shall extend, and be deemed and construed to extend, to any such port or ports, asfvilly 
 as if the same had been inserted and enumerated in the above table : provided also, that nothing herein- 
 before contained shall extend to prohibit the importation or exportation of goods into or from any ports or 
 places in Newfoundland or Labrador in British ships. — \ 3. 
 
 His Majesty may ajtpoint Parts for limited Purposes. — And whereas there are in the said possessions 
 many places situated in rivers and in bays at which it may be necessary to establish ports for particular 
 and limited purposes only; be it therefore enacted, that it shall be lawful for his IMajesty, in any order in 
 council made for the appointment of any free port, to limit and confine such appointments respectively 
 to any and such purposes only as shall be expressed in such order. — § 4. 
 
 Privileges granted to Foreign Ships limited to the S/iips of those Countries granting the lilcc Privileges 
 to British Ships, %c. — And whereas by the law of navigation foreign ships arc permitted to import into 
 
S4.6 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 EXTENT, POPULATION, &c., OF THE BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN AND WEST 
 INDIAN COLONIES. yyr^x 
 
 British North American 
 Colonies- 
 
 Area in British 
 Square Miles. 
 
 1806. 
 
 1825. 
 
 or latest Ceiisus. 
 
 Lower Canada 
 
 Upper Canada - - 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Nova Scotia ... 
 
 Cape Breton - . - 
 
 Prince Edward's Island 
 
 Newfoundland ... 
 
 260,000 
 105,000 
 27,700 
 15,600 
 3,100 
 2,100 
 36,000 
 
 200,000 
 70,718 
 35,000 
 65,000 
 2,513 
 9,676 
 26,505 
 
 423,630 
 157,541 
 72,932 
 104,0001 
 16,000/ 
 20,000 
 62,497 
 
 649,005 
 336,461 
 119,457 
 142,548 
 32,292 
 60,088 
 
 Totals 
 
 439,500 
 
 409,412 
 
 846,600 
 
 1,239,851 
 
 British 
 West Indian 
 Colonies. 
 
 Antigua - 
 Barbadoes 
 Dominica 
 Grenada 
 Jamaica 
 Montserrat - 
 Nevis • 
 St. Kitt's 
 St. Lucia 
 St. Vincent . 
 Tobago - 
 Tortoia and 
 
 Virgin Isl<inds 
 Anguilla 
 Trinidad 
 Bahamas 
 Bermudas 
 British tiuiana 
 
 Demerara and 
 
 Essequibo 
 Berbice - 
 Honduras 
 
 Area 
 in 
 
 British 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 63,000 
 
 Imports 
 
 of Sugar 
 from 
 West 
 India 
 
 Colonies 
 into U. K 
 
 in 1835. 
 
 Ctvfi. 
 
 158,503 
 
 323,705 
 25,014 
 
 170,280 
 1,145,377 
 16,262 
 39,637 
 87,614 
 34,133 
 
 195,056 
 77,260 
 
 13,821 
 
 221,342 
 
 685,284 
 126,143 
 
 1,140 
 6,827 
 487 
 
 628 
 
 .i 
 
 840 1,549 2,: 
 7,803 2,258 2; 
 417l 1,406 1, 
 219 137 2, 
 37,152 
 no census taken. 
 213 1 234 ; 
 ,140 
 
 1,612 
 676 518 
 
 1,053 
 200 44 
 
 207 201 
 
 162 203 
 
 2,243 1,853 
 
 2,282 2,278 
 
 1,897 2,751 
 
 2,609 
 453 
 156 
 
 1,996 
 1,576 2, 
 1,482 
 225 
 
 360 
 
 283 
 150 
 6,681 
 
 328 
 177 
 7,314 
 1,332 
 410 
 
 1,336 1,773 
 325 510 
 685 737 
 
 14,454 
 36,159 
 7,919 
 12,258 
 
 16,531 
 42,657 
 8,635 
 13,052 
 
 166,595 169,658 
 
 3,032 
 4,583 
 9,505 
 6,297 
 12,007 
 6,558 
 
 3,473 
 
 4,678 
 10,312 
 
 7,497 
 12,245 
 
 7, 
 
 2,975 3,485 
 
 1,279 1,695 
 
 13,052 10,336 
 
 5,529 5,279 
 
 2,620 2,622 
 
 41,224 33,753 
 13,007 10,349 
 1,654 811 
 
 1834, or latest Census. 
 
 Total. Whites, 
 
 36,860 
 97,970 
 20,622 
 29,648 
 373,405 
 
 7,447 
 10,401 
 23,425 
 18,647 
 26,787 
 14,485 
 
 7,479 
 3,666 
 41,479 
 17,567 
 10,61'^ 
 
 80,945 
 24,752 
 4,107 
 
 1,980 
 14,959 
 840 
 801 
 No cen 
 330 
 700 
 1,612 
 
 477 
 365 
 4,201 
 4,667 
 4,264 
 
 3,006 
 570 
 250 
 
 33,432 
 5,146 
 3,606 
 3,786 
 sus taken. 
 974 
 2,000 
 3,000 
 3,919 
 2,824 
 3,000 
 
 1,296 
 327 
 18,724 
 4,211 
 4,456 
 
 6,360 
 1,651 
 1,788 
 
 82,807 
 14,384 
 23,536 
 311,692* 
 6,355 
 8,722 
 20,660 
 
 I. -5,348 
 22,997 
 
 II, 621 
 
 5,192 
 2,388 
 22,359 
 9,705 
 
 65,556 
 19,359 
 1,920 
 
 Si 
 ^1 
 
 35,412 
 102,912 
 18,830 
 28,123 
 311,692 
 
 7,659 
 1,422 
 25,272 
 18.148 
 27,122 
 4,901 
 
 6,965 
 3,080 
 45,284 
 18,573 
 
 74,922 
 21,580 
 3,958 
 
 POPULATION AND TRADE OF ASIATIC, AFRICAN, AND EUROPEAN COLONIES IN 1834. 
 
 Britbh African and 
 European CoJ^nies. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Free 
 Coloured 
 and Ap- 
 prentices. 
 
 Imports 
 into the 
 United 
 Kingdom, 
 Official 
 Value. 
 
 Exports 
 from the 
 
 United 
 Kingdom, 
 
 Official 
 
 Value. 
 
 Delared or 
 real Value 
 of British 
 and Irish 
 Produce 
 and Manu- 
 factures ex- 
 ported from 
 the U. K. 
 
 Number and Tonnage of Vessels 
 to and from the United 
 Kingdom and the Colonies. 
 
 Outwards. 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Ceylon . • - 
 
 New South Wales 
 Van Diemen's Land 
 Swan River . . . 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 Sierra Leone, and settlements 
 on the coast of Africa — 
 Biver Gambia, Sierra Leone, 
 and coast to Mesurada - 
 Windward coast from Mesu- 
 rada to Cape Apollonia - 
 Cape Coast Castle and Gold 
 Coast from Cape Apollonia 
 to Rio Volta 
 Coast from Rio Volta to Cape 
 of Good Hope (including 
 Fernando Po) 
 HriiKoland . 
 
 Gibraltar . . . . 
 Malta - - . . - 
 United States of the Ionian 
 Islands 
 
 8,844 
 6,786 
 60,794 
 37,688 
 
 55,675 
 
 85 
 
 2,221 
 14,998 
 123,125 
 
 194,395 
 
 76,279 
 33,438 
 
 L. 
 782,148 
 289,917 
 152,040 
 95,349 
 69 
 
 248,760 
 
 307,848 
 95,937 
 735,825 
 336,539 
 5,089 
 649,153 
 
 11 
 
 47,355 
 14,955 
 
 207,393 
 
 203 
 1,423,166 
 689,425 
 
 L. 
 
 149,318 
 60,181 
 482,313 
 230,146 
 3,555 
 304,381 
 
 325,687 
 
 31 
 
 460,719 
 242,696 
 
 10 
 
 Tons. 
 20^09 
 2,774 
 
 12,400 
 
 6,566 
 
 Ships. 
 33 
 13 
 
 90 
 
 47 
 
 56 
 3,720 
 1,219 
 
 8,469 
 
 The white population of Jamaica is supposed to amount to about 36,000. 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 347 
 
 ■so 
 
 6 
 
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 g 8S2 
 
 •suox § 
 
 •a S la „ 0) 
 
 k4 
 
 5s? 
 
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 •1 MO 
 
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 8 ^53 
 
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 1^ 
 
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 I S S55 53 
 
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 It 
 
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 -1 
 
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 r^rj-m — O^'-'^O — tOtO- 
 t-.TH toto lO i-^ce_Ti< ;^_t-- 
 
 tO ^ t.o"»0^co OJ O CO O' 
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 torn to to 
 
 • Tjil-OltOi-tOtOtO 
 
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 Ttuoi^oiiototo- 
 
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 5 (D-^ 
 
 S2°22222'=£oo£'oSo "S os 
 
 1 CI 6 I 
 
 § -on -a g 13 « 
 
 o o o o o o o - u c o o V3 o r o i 
 
 sq5(=iSi55o i o5g5 § 5(3 § q S 
 
 o c o 
 
 o ■« 3 ■= o ■§ 
 
 £ 2 2 2 22 2 2 rt £ £ 2 2 « £ 2 « 2° 
 
 |SSS5qS5 g laSS S IS g 2 S- 
 
 to ' G ""to ,<NCico«'^(0« 
 
 ♦To £ to o -^oc to o fc< M •Jto o «ro> 
 
 C O^ltO Z C S CN -S ^tO C to CO 
 
 tiS-dS aSas g.-gssa asa g- 3 3 
 
 lis 
 
31.8 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 any of the British possessions abroad, from the countries to which they belong, goods the produce of those 
 countries, and to export goods from such possessions to be carried to any foreign country whatever ; be 
 it therefore enacted, that the privileges thereby granted to foreign ships shall he limited to the ships of 
 those countries which, having colonial possessions, shall grant the like privileges of trading with those 
 possessions to British ships, or which, net having colonial possessions, shall place the commerce and 
 navigation of this country, and of its possessions abroad, upon the footing of the most favoured nation, 
 unless his Majesty by order in council shall in any case deem it expedient to grant the whole or any of 
 such privileges to the ships of any foreign country, although these conditions be not in all respects 
 fulfilled by such foreign country : provided, that no foreign country shall be deemed to have fulfilled the 
 before-mentioned con.litions, or to be entitled to these privileges, unless his Majesty shall, by his order or 
 orders, have declared that such foreign country hath so fulfilled the said conditions, and is entitled to the 
 said privileges : provided also, that every order in council in force at the time of the commencement of 
 this act, whereby declaration is made of the countries entitled in whole or in part to the privileges of the 
 law of navigation, shall continue in force as effectually as if the same had been made under the authority 
 of this act. — § 5. 
 
 This Act not to affect certain Acts. — Nothing contained in this act, or any other act passed in the pre- 
 sent session of parliament, shall extend to repeal or in any way alter or affect an act (4 Geo. 4. c. 77.), 
 intituled *' An Act to authorize his Majesty, under certain Circumstances, to regulate the Duties and 
 Drawbacks on Goods imported or exported in foreign Vessels, and to exempt certain foreign Vessels from 
 Pilotage," nor to repeal or in any way alter or affect an act (5 Geo 4. c. 50.) to amend the last-mentioned 
 act ; and that all trade and intercourse between the British possessions and all foreign countries shall be 
 subject to the powers granted to his Majesty by those acts. — § 6. 
 
 Goods prohibited or restricted to be imported into Colonies. — The several sorts of goods enumerated 
 or described in the table following, denominated " A Table of Prohibitions and Restrictions," are hereby 
 prohibited to be imported or brought, either by sea or by inland carriage or navigation, into the British 
 possessions in America, or shall be so imported or brought only under the restrictions mentioned in such 
 table, according as the several sorts of such goods are set forth therein ; (that is to say,) 
 
 A Table of Prohibitions and Restrictions. 
 
 Coffee, sugar, melasses, and rum, being of foreign ifroduction, 
 or the production of any place within the limits of the East 
 India Company's charter, prohibited to be imported into 
 any of the British possessions on the continent of South 
 America or in the West Indies (the Bahama and Bermuda 
 islands not included), except to be warehoused for export- 
 ation only ; and may also be prohibited to be imjiorted into 
 the Bahama or the Bermuda islands by his Majesty's order 
 in council. 
 
 Base or counterfeit coin, and books, such as are prohibited to 
 be imported into the United Kingdom, prohibited to be im« 
 ported. 
 
 Gunpowder, arms, ammunitions or utensils of war, prohibited 
 to be imported, except from the United Kingdom, or from 
 some other British possession. 
 
 Tea, prohibited to be imported, except from the United King- 
 dom, or from some other British possession in America, un- 
 less by the East India Company, or with their licence during 
 the continuance of their exclusive right of trade. 
 
 Fish, dried or salted, oil, blubber, fins, or skins, the produce 
 "of creatures livins in the sea, prohibited to be imported, 
 except from the United Kingdom, or from some other Bri- 
 tish possession, or unless taken by British ships fitted out 
 from the United Kingdom or from some British possession, 
 and brought in from i\e fishery, and except herrings from 
 the Isle of Man, taken and cured by the inhabitants thereof. 
 
 And if any goods shall be imported or brought into any of the British possessions in America con- 
 trary to any of the prohibitions or restrictions mentioned in such table in respect of such goods, the same 
 shall be forfeited; and if the ship or vessel in which such goods shall be imported be of less burden than 
 70 tons, such ship or vessel shall also be forfeited. — \ 7. 
 
 Coffee, ^c, though British, deemed Foreign in certain Cases. — All coffee, sugar, melasses, and rum 
 (although the same may be of the British plantations), exported from any of the British possessions in 
 America, into which the like goods of foreign production can be legally imported, shall, upon subsequent 
 importation from thence into any of the British possessions in America, into which such goods, being of 
 foreign production, cannot be legally imported, or into the United Kingdom, be deemed to be of foreign 
 production, and shall be liable, on such importation respectively, to the same duties or the same forfeitures 
 as articles of the like description, being of foreign production, would be liable to, unless the same shall 
 have been warehoused under the provisions of this act, and exported from the warehouse direct to such 
 other British possession, or to the United Kingdom, as the case may be. ^8. 
 
 Duties qf Importation in America. — There shall be raised, levied, collected, and paid unto his Majesty 
 the several duties of customs, as the same are respectively set forth in figures in the table of duties 
 herein-after contained, upon goods, wares, and merchandise imported or brought into any of his Majesty's 
 po.ssessions in America} (that is to say,) 
 
 Table of Duties. 
 
 Dnties payable upon spirits, being of the growth, production, 
 or manufacture of the United Kingdom, or of^ any of the 
 British possessions in America or the West Indies, imported 
 into Newfoundland or Canada. 
 
 Spirits imported into Newfoundland ; viz. L. t. d. 
 
 the produce of any of the British possessions in 
 South America or the West Indies j viz. 
 
 imported from any British 
 America, or fr 
 dom, the gallon 
 
 America, or from the United King- 
 
 - 0 0 6 
 
 Imported from any other place, to be 
 deemed foreign, and to be charged with 
 duty as such, 
 the produce of any British possession in North 
 America, or of the United Kingdom, and 
 imported from the United Kingdom, or 
 firom any British possession in America, the 
 gallon . - - - -016 
 
 Imported from any other place, to be 
 deemed foreign, and to be charged with 
 duty as such. 
 Spirits imported into Canada ; viz. 
 
 the produce of any British possession in South 
 America or the West Indies, and imported 
 from any British possession in America, or 
 from the United Kingdom, the gallon - 0 0 6 
 
 Imported from an other place, to be 
 deemed foreign, and to be charged with 
 duty as such. 
 
 Note — When imported from the United Klngilom, this 
 duty is not to be abated upon the ground of any duty under 
 any colonial law. 
 
 Duties i)ayable upon goods, wares, and merchandise, not being 
 of the growth, production, or manufacture of the United 
 Kingdom, or o any of Uie British possessions in America, 
 imported or brought into any of tlie British possessions in 
 America, by sea or by Inland carriage or navigation. 
 
 Imported into the British possessions in the West 
 Indies or on (ho continent of South A men 
 Jnto the Hnhaiiin or Bermuda islands: viz. 
 
 Wheat flour, the barrel 
 
 imported from any British possession in 
 
 North America, or from the warehouse 
 
 in the United Kingdom ... 
 Shingles, not more than 12 inches in length, 
 the 1,000 - - . ^ '. 
 
 more than 12 inches in length, the 1,000 
 imported from any British possession in 
 
 North America, or from the warehouse 
 
 in the United Kingdom 
 Red oak staves and headings ; viz. 
 
 until the 1st of January, 1834, the 1,000 
 on and from the 1st of January, 1854, until 
 
 the 1st of January, 18.'56, the 1,000 
 on and from the 1st of January, 1836, the 
 
 1,000 . - . . ' . 
 
 imported from any British possession in 
 
 North America, or from the warehouse 
 
 in the United Kingdom ... 
 White oak staves and headings ; viz. 
 
 until the 1st of January, 1834, the 1,000 
 on and from the 1st of January, \fiM, until 
 
 the 1st of January, 1836, the 1,000 
 on and from the 1st of January, 1856, the 
 
 1,000 - . " . . 
 
 imported from any British possession in 
 
 North America, or from the warehouse 
 
 in the United Kingdom - - . 
 Pitch pine lumber, 1 inch thick, the 1,000 
 imported from any British possession in 
 
 North America, or from the warehouse 
 
 in the United Kingdom . . . 
 White and yellow pine lumber, 1 inch thick, 
 the 1,000 feet; viz. 
 until the 1st of January, 1R51 
 on and from the 1st of January, 1854, until 
 
 the 1st of .Tanuary, 18.36 
 on and from the 1st of January, 1836 
 imported from any British possession in 
 
 North America, or from the warehouse 
 
 In the Unit;'d Kingdom 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 7 0 
 0 14 0 
 
 Free. 
 1 6 3 
 1 2 3 
 0 15 0 
 
 Free. 
 13 9 
 0 19 9 
 0 12 6 
 
 Free. 
 110 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 S4?9 
 
 Dye wood and cabinet-makers' wood 
 Other kinds of wood and lumber, 1 inch thick, 
 the 1,000 feet .... 
 Wood hoops, the 1,000 
 
 imported from any British possession in 
 North America, or from the warehouse 
 in the United Kinndom . . . 
 Beef and pork, salted, of all sorts, the cwt. 
 
 imported from any British possession in 
 North America . . . 
 
 Wheat flour, the barrel ... 
 Beef and pork, salted, of all sorts, the cwt. 
 
 fresh, brought by land or inland navigation 
 Imported into any of the British possessions in 
 America ; viz. 
 Spirits; viz. 
 
 Brandy, geneva, or cordials, and other 
 spirits, except rum, the gallon 
 
 and further, the amount of any duty 
 payable for the time heing on spirits 
 the manufacture of the United 
 liingdom. 
 
 Ruir;, the gallon .... 
 and further, the amount of'any duty 
 payable for the time being on rum of 
 the British possessions in South 
 America or the West Indies. 
 JV.B. — Kum, although British, if im. 
 ported from any British possession in 
 which foreign rum is not prohibited, is 
 treated as foreign, unless it had been 
 warehoused, and exported from the ware- 
 house. 
 
 Wine in bottles, the tun ... 
 and further, for every 100/. of the value 
 
 and on the bottles, the dozen 
 bottled in and imported from the United 
 Kingdom, for every 100/. of the value . 
 the bottles 
 
 Wine not in bottles, for every 100/. of the value 
 imported into the British possessions in 
 North America from Gibraltar or Malta, 
 subject to no higher duty than if imported 
 from the United Kingdom; viz. 1-lOth 
 of the duty remitted. 
 
 Coffee, the cwt. - ... 
 
 Cocoa, the cwt. - 
 
 Sugar, the cwt. - ... 
 
 Mela^ses, the cwt. - . 
 
 and further, the amount of any duty pay. 
 able for the time being on coffee, cocoa, 
 sugar, and melasses respectively, being 
 the produce of the British possessions in 
 South America or the West Indies. 
 Clocks and watches, leather manufactures, linen, 
 musical instruments, wires of all sorts, books and 
 papers, silk manufactures, for every 100/. of the 
 value 
 
 Glass manufactures, soap, refined sugar, sugar 
 candy, tobacco manufactured, cotton manufac- 
 tures, for every 100/. of the value 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 Free. 
 
 0 5 0 
 0 12 0 
 Tree. 
 
 7 7 0 
 
 7 10 0 
 0 1 0 
 
 7 10 0 
 
 Free. 
 7 10 0 
 
 0 .5 0 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 30 0 0 
 20 0 0 
 
 Alabaster, anchovies, argol, aniseed, ambar, al- 
 monds, brimstone, botargo, box wood, currants, 
 capers, l ascacoo, cummin litcd, coral, cork, cin- 
 nabar, dates ; essence of bergamot, of lemon, of 
 roses, of citron, of oranges, of lavender, of rose- 
 mary ; emery stone ; fruit, preserved in sugar or 
 brandy; figs; honey; iron in bars, unwrought, 
 and pig iron ; juniper berries, incense of frankin- 
 cense, lava and Malta stone for building, lentils; 
 marble, rou^fh and worked; mosaic work, me- 
 dals, musk, maccaroni, nuts of all kinds; oil of 
 olives, oil of almonds ; orris root, ostrich feathers, 
 ochres, orange buds and peel, olives, pitch, 
 pickles in jars and bottles, paintin^^s, pozzolana, 
 pumice stone, punk, Parmesan cheese, pickles, 
 prints, pearls, ^irecious stones (except diamonds), 
 quicksilver, raisins, sausages, sponges, tar, tur- 
 pentine, vermilion, vermicelli, whetstones ; for 
 every 100/. of the value - - - • 
 
 Goods, wares, and merchandise, not otherwise 
 charged with duty, and not herein declared to be 
 free of duty, for every 100/. of the value • 1 
 
 Coin, bullion, and diamonds ; horses, mules, asse=, 
 neat cattle, and all other live stock ; tallow and 
 raw hides; rice; corn and grain, unground ; 
 biscuit or bread; meal or flour (except wheat 
 flour) ; fresh meat, fresh fish, carriages of tra- 
 vellers ..... 
 
 Wheat flour, beet and pork, hams and bacon, wood 
 and lumber, imported into Canada ; wood and 
 lumber, imported into New Brunswick, Nova 
 Scotia, or Prince Edward's Island ; hay and 
 straw, fruit and vegetables, fresh ; salt, cotton 
 wool ; goods, the produce of places within the 
 limits of the Fast India Company's charter, im- 
 ported from those places, or from the United 
 Kingdom, or from some place in the British do- 
 minions ; herrings taken and cured by the inha 
 bitants of the Isle of Man, and imported from 
 thence; lumber, the produce of and imported 
 from any British possession on the west coast of 
 Africa ; any sort of craft ; food and victuals, ex- 
 cept spirits; and any sort of clothing, and imple- 
 ments and materials, fit and necessary for the 
 British fisheries in America, imported into the 
 place at or from whence such fishery is carritd 
 on ; drugs, gums or resins, dye wood and hard 
 wood, cabinet-makers' wood, tortoiseshell, hemp, 
 flax, and tow ... 
 
 Seeds, wheat flour, fruits, pickles, woods of all 
 sorts, oakum, pitch, tar, turpentine, ochres, 
 brimstone, sulphur, vege'.able oils, burr stones, 
 dog stones, hops, cork, sago, tapioca, sponge, 
 sausages, cheese, cider, wax, spices, tallow, im. 
 
 imrted direct from the warehouse in the United 
 Cingdom - - - - 
 
 All goods imported from the United Kingdom, 
 after having there paid the duties of consump- 
 tion, and being exported from thence without 
 drawback • - ... 
 
 And if any of the goods herein-before mentioned shall be imported through the United Kingdom (having 
 been warehoused therein, and exported from the warehouse, or the duties thereon, if there paid, having 
 been drawn back), one tenth part of the duties herein imposed shall be remitted in respect of such goods. 
 — §9. 
 
 Acts not repealed. — Nothing in this act or in any other passed in thepresent session of parliament shall 
 extend to repeal or abrogate, or in any way to alter or affect an act (18 Geo. 3. c. 12.), intituled "An Act for 
 removing all Doubts and Apprehensions concerning Taxation by the Parliament of Great Britain in any of 
 the Colonies, Provinces, and Plantations of North America and the West Indies, and for repealing so 
 much of an Act made in IheTthYear of the Reign of his present Majesty as imposes a Duty on Tea imported 
 from Great Britain into any Colony or Plantation in America, as relates thereto ;" nor to repeal or in 
 anyway alter or affect any act now in force which was passed prior to the last-mentioned act, and by 
 which any duties in any of t!ie British possessions in America were granted and still continue payable to 
 the Crown ; nor to repeal or in any way alter or affect an act (31 Geo. 3. c. 31.) intituled " An Act to repeal 
 certain Parts of an Act passed in the 14th Year of his Majesty's Reign, intituled * An Act (or making more 
 effectual Provisions for the Government of the Province of Quebec in North America, and to make lurther 
 Provisions for the Government of the said Province.' " — ^ 10. 
 
 Duties imposed by prior Acts to be applied to Purposes of those Acts. — The duties imposed by any of 
 the acts herein-before mentioned or referred to, passed prior to the said act (18 Geo. 3. c. 12.) shall be 
 received, accounted for, and applied for the purposes of those acts : provided always, that no greater 
 proportion of the duties imposed by this act, except as herein-before excepted, shall be charged upon any 
 article which is subject also to duty under any of the said acts, or subject also to duty under any colonial 
 law, than the amount, if any, by which the duty charged by this act shall exceed such other duty or 
 duties : provided, that the full amount of the duties mentioned in this act, whether on account of such 
 former acts, or on account of such colonial law, or on account of this act, shall be levied and received 
 under the regulations and powers of this act. — § 11. 
 
 Currency, Weights, and Measures. — All sums of money granted or imposed by this act, either as 
 duties, penalties, or forfeitures, in the British possessions in America, are hereby declared to be sterling 
 money of Great Britain, and shall be collected, and paid to the amount of the value which such nominal 
 sums bear in Great Britain ; and that such monies may be received and taken at the rate of 5s. 6d. the ounce 
 in silver; and all duties shall be paid and received in every part of the British possessions in .America 
 according to British weights and measures in use on the 6th day of July, 1825; and in all cases wiiere 
 such duties are imposed according to any specific quantity or any specific value, the same shall be deemed 
 to apply in the same proportion to any greater or less quantity or value; and all such duties shall be under 
 the inanagement of the commissioners of the customs. — § 12. 
 
 Dutiespaid by Collector to Treasurer of Colo7iy in which /tt'i^rf. — The produce of the duties so received 
 under this act, except such duties as are payable under any act passed prior to the 18 Geo. 3. as 
 aforesaid, shall be paid by the collector of the customs into the hands of the treasurer or receiver-gene- 
 ral of the colony, or other proper officer authorised to receive the same, to be applied to such uses as shall 
 be directed by the local legislatures of such colonies ; and that the produce of such duties so received ir» 
 colonies which have no local legislature may be applied in such manner as shall be directed by the com- 
 inissionera of his Majesty's treasury. — \ 13. 
 
350 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 All British Vessels shall be subject to equal Duties, except coasting Vessels. — Whereas in some of his 
 Majesty's possessions abroad, certain duties of tonnage are, by acts of the local legislatures of such pos- 
 sessions, levied upon Britisli vessels, to which duties the like vessels built within such possessions, or 
 owned by persons resident there, are not subject ; be it further enacted, that there shall be levied and 
 paid at the several British possessions abroad, upon all vessels built in any such possessions, or owned by 
 any person or persons there resident, other than coasting or drogueing vessels employed in coasting or 
 drogueing, all such and the like duties of tonnage and shipping dues as are or shall be payable in any such 
 possessions upon the like British vessels built in other parts of his Majesty's dominions, or owned by per. 
 sons not resident in such possessions. — § 14. 
 
 Drawback on Rum, Sfc. — There shall be allowed upon the exportation from Newfoundland to 
 Canada of rum or other spirits, the produce of the British possessions in South America or the West 
 Indies, a drawback of the full duties of customs paid upon the importation thereof from any of the 
 said places into Newfoundland, provided proof on oath be made to the satisfaction of the collector and 
 comptroller of the customs at the port whence such rum or other spirits is exported, that the full duties on 
 the importation of such rum or other spirits at the said port had been paid, and that a certificate be pro. 
 duced under the hands and seals of the collector and comptroller of the customs at Quebec, that such rum 
 or other spirits had been duly landed in Canada : provided that no drawback shall be allowed upon any such 
 rum or other spirits unless the same shall be shipped within 1 year from the day of the importation of the 
 same, nor unless such drawback shall be duly claimed within 1 year from the day of such shipment. — \ 15. 
 
 Ship and Cargo to be reported on. Arrival. — The master of every ship arriving in any of the British 
 possessions in America, or the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, whether laden or in ballast, 
 shall come directly, and before bulk be broken, to the Custom-house for the port or district where he 
 arrives, and there make a report in writing to the collector or comptroller, or other pro|)er officer, of the 
 arrival and voyage of such ship, stating her name, country, and tonnage, and if British the port of 
 registry, the name and country of the master, the country of the owners, the number of the crew, and 
 how many are of the country of such ship, and whether she be laden or in ballast, and if laden the marks, 
 numbers, and contents of every package and parcel of goods on board, and where the same was laden, and 
 where and to whom consigned, and where any and what goods, if any, had been unladen during the 
 voyage, as far as any of such particulars can be known to him ; and the master shall further answer all 
 such questions concerning the ship, and the cargo, and the crew, and the voyage, as shall be demanded ot 
 him by such officer; and if any goods be unladen from any ship before such report be made, or if the 
 master fail to make such report, or make an untrue report, or do not truly answer the questions de- 
 manded of him, he shall forfeit the sum of 100/. ; and if any goods be not reported, they shall be forfeited. 
 
 Entry outwards of Ship for Cargo. — The master of every ship bound from any British possession in 
 America, or the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, shall, before any goods be laden therein, 
 deliver to the collector or comptroller, or other proi)er officer, an entry outwards under his hand of the 
 destination of such ship, stating her name, country, and tonnage, and if British the port of registry, the 
 name and country of the master, the country of the owners, the number of the crew, and how many are 
 of the country of such ship ; and if any goods be laden on board any ship before such entry be made, the 
 master of such ship shall forfeit the sum of 50/. ; and before such ship depart the master shall bring and 
 deliver to the collector or comptroller, or other officer, a content in writing under his hand of the goods 
 yaden, and the names of the respective shippers and consignees of the goods, with the marks and numbers 
 of the packages or parcels of the same, and shall make and subscribe a declaration to the truth of such 
 content as far as any of such particulars can be known to him ; and the master of every ship bound from 
 any British possession in America, or from the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, whether 
 in ballast or laden, shall before departure come before the collector or comptroller, or other proper officer, 
 and answer upon oath all such questions concerning the ship, and the cargo, if any, and the crew and the 
 voyage, as shall be demanded of him by such officer ; and thereupon the collector and comptroller, or other 
 proper officer, if such ship be laden, shall make out and give to the master a certificate of the clearance 
 of such ship for her intended voyage, containing an account of the total quantities of the several sorts of 
 goods laden therein, or a certificate of her clearance in ballast, as the case may be ; and if the ship depart 
 without such clearance, or if the master deliver a false content, or shall not truly answer the questions 
 demanded of him, he shall forfeit the sum of 100/. —\ 17. 
 
 Goods not stated in Certificate to be Produce of British Possessions to be deemed of Foreign Production. 
 — No goods shall be stated in such certificate of clearance to be the produce of British possessions in 
 America, unless such goods have been expressly stated so to be in the entry outwards of the same ; and 
 all goods not expressly stated in such certificate of clearance to be the produce of the British possessions 
 in America shall, at the place of importation in any other such possessions, or in the United Kingdom, 
 be deemed to be of foreign production.—^ 18. 
 
 Neufoundland Fishing Certificates in lieic of Clearance. — Whenever any ship shall be cleared out 
 from Newfoundland, or any other part of his Majesty's dominions, for the fisheries on the banks or coasts 
 of Newfoundland or Labrador, or their dependencies, without having on board any article of traffic, (ex- 
 cept only the provisions, nets, tackle, and other things usually employed in and about the said fishery,) the 
 master of such ship shall be entitled to demand from the collector or other principal officer of the customs 
 at such port a certificate under his hand that such ship hath been specially cleared out for the Newfound- 
 land fishery ; and such certificate shall be in force for the fishing season for the year in which the same 
 may be granted, and no longer ; and upon the first arrival in any port in Newfoundland, &c. of any ship 
 having on board such certificate, a report thereof shall be made by the master of such ship to the princi- 
 pal officer of the customs ; and all ships having such certificate so reported, and being actually engaged 
 in the said fishery, or in carrying coastwise to be landed or put on board any other ships engaged in the 
 said fishery any fish, oil, salt, provisions, or other necessaries for the use and purposes thereof, shall be 
 exempt from all obligation to make an entry at or obtain any clearance from any Custom-house at New- 
 foundland upon arrival at or departure from any of the ports or harbours of the snid colony, &c. during 
 the fishing season for which such certificate may be granted ; and previously to obtaining a clearance at 
 the end of such seasoa 'or any other voyage at any of such ports, the master of such ship shall deliver up 
 the before-mentioned certificate to the officer of the customs : provided always, that in case any such ship 
 shall have on board, during the time the same may be engaged in the said fishery, any goods or merchan- 
 dises whatsoever other than fish, seals, oil made of fish or seals, salt, provisions, and other things, being 
 the produce of or usually employed in the said fishery, such ship shall forfeit the said fishing ceriiticate, 
 and shall thenceforth be subject and liable to the same rules, regulations, &c. as ships in general are sub- 
 ject or liable to. — ^ 19. 
 
 Entry of Goods to be laden or unladen. — No goods shall be laden, or water-borne to be laden, on 
 board any ship, or unladen from any ship, in any of the British possessions in America, or the islands of 
 Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, until due entry be made of such goods, and warrant granted for the 
 lading or unlading of the same; and no goods shall be so laden or water-borne, or so unladen, ex- 
 cept at some place at which an officer of the customs is appointed to attend the lading and unlading of 
 goods, or at some place for which a sufferance shall bo granted by the collector and comptroller; and 
 no goods shall be so laden or unladen except in the presence or with the permission in writing of the 
 proper ofti(;er : provided always, that it shall be lawful for the commissioners of customs to make and 
 appoint such other regulations for the carrying coastwise, or for the removing of any goods for shipment, 
 as (ihall appear expedient; and that all goods laden, water-borne, or unladen contrary to the regulations 
 of this act, or contrary to auv regulations so made, be forfeited. — \ 20. 
 
 16. 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 351 
 
 Particulars of Entry of Goods inwards and outwards. — The person entering any «uch goods shall 
 deliver to the collector or comptroller, or other proper officer, a bill of the entry thereof, fairly written in 
 words at length, containing the name of the exporter or importer, and of the ship, and of the master, 
 and of the place to or fVdm which bound, and of the place within the port where the goods are to be laden 
 or unladen, and the particulars of the quality and quantity of the gootis, and the packages containing the 
 same, and the marks and numbers on the packages, and setting forth whether such goods be the produce 
 of the British possessions in America or not ; and such person shall at the same time pay down all duties 
 due upon thegoods ; and the collector and comptroller, or other proper ollicer, shall thereupon grant their 
 warrant for the lading or unlading of such goods. — \ 21. 
 
 Entry inwards by Bill of Sight. — If the imi)Orter of any goods make and subscribe a declaration before 
 the Collector or comptroller, or other proper otticer, that he cannot, for want of full information, make per- 
 fect entry thereof, it shall be lawful for the collector and comptroller to receive an entry by till of sight for 
 the packages or parcels of such goods by the bc.^t description which can be given, and to grant a warrant 
 thereupon", in order that the same may be landed and secured to the satisfaction of the oHicer of the cus- 
 toms, and at the expense of the imimrter, and may be seen and examined by such importer in the 
 presence of the proper officers ; and within 3 days after the goods shall have been so landed, the im|)0. icr 
 shall make a perfect entry thereof, and pay down all duties due thereon ; and in default of such entry 
 such goods shall he taken to the King's warehouse, and if the importer shall not, within 1 month after 
 such landing, make perfect entry of such goods and pay the duties due thereon, together with charges 
 of removal and warehouse rent, such goods shall be sold for the payment thereof, and the overplus, if any, 
 shall be paid to the proprietor of the goods. — % 22. 
 
 Goods subject to ad Valorem Duty. — \n all cases where the duties imposed by this act upon the 
 importation of articles into his Majesty's possessions in America are charged, not. according to the weight, 
 tale, gauge, or measure, but according to the value thereof, such value shall be ascertained by the declar- 
 ation of the importer of such articles, or his known agent, in manner and form following ; (that is to 
 say,) 
 
 * \ A. B. do hereby declare, that the articles mentioned in the entry, and contained in the packages 
 
 • \here specifying t/ie several packages, and describing the several marks and numbers, as the case may 
 ' oe,] are of the value of . Witness my hand the day of . A. B. 
 
 * The above declaration, signed the day of in the presence of C. D. collector [or 
 
 ' other principal officer'].' 
 
 Which declaration shall be written on the bill of entry of such articles, and shall be subscribed by the im- 
 porter thereof, or his known agent, in the presence of the collector or other principal officer of the customs 
 at the port of importation : provided, that if upon view and examination of such articles by the proper 
 officer of the customs it shall appear to him that the said articles are not valued according to the true 
 price or value thereof, and according to the true intent and meaning of this act, in such case the im- 
 porter or his known agent shall be required to declare on oath before the collector or comptroller what 
 is the invoice price of such articles, and that he verily believes such invoice j)rice is the current value of 
 the articles at the place from whence the said articles were imported ; and such invoice price, with the 
 addition of 10/. per centum thereon, shall be deemed to be the value of the articles in lieu of the value so 
 declared by the importer or his known agent, and upon v/hich the duties imposed by this act shall be 
 charged and paid : provided also, that if it shall appear to the collector and comptroller, or other proper 
 officer, that such articles have been invoiced below the real and true value thereof, at the place from 
 whence the same were imported, or if the invoice price is not known, the articles shall in such case be 
 examined by two competent persons, to be nominated and appointed by the governor or commander-in- 
 chief of the' colony, plantation, or island into which the said articles are imported, and such persons 
 shall declare on oath before the collector or comptroller, or other proper officer, what is the true and real 
 value of such articles in such colony, plantation, or island ; and the value so declared on the oaths ot 
 such persons shall be deemed to be the true and real value of such articles, and upon which the duties 
 imposed by this act shall be charged and paid. — § 23. 
 
 Jf Importer refuse to pay such Duty, the Goods may be sold. — If the importer of such articles shall 
 refuse to pay the duties hereby imposed thereon, it shall be lawful for the collector or other chief officer 
 of the customs where such articles shall be imported, to take and secure the same, with the casks or 
 other package thereof, and to cause the same to be publicly sold within the space of 20 days at the most 
 aftec such refusal made, and at such time and place as such officer shall, by 4 or more days' public notice, 
 appoint for that purpose; which articles shall be sold to the best bidder; and the money arising from the 
 sale thereof shall be applied in the first place in payment of the said duties, together with the charges 
 that shall have been occasioned by the said sale, and the overplus, if any, shall be paid to such importer 
 or proprietor, or any other person authorised to receive the same. — ^ 24. 
 
 Jf Goods be not etdered in 20 Bays, the Officer may land and secure them. — Every importer of any 
 goods shall, within 20 days after the arrival of the importing ship, make due entry inwards of such goods, 
 and land the same; and in default of such entry and landing it shall be lawful for the officers of the 
 customs to convey such goods to the king's warehouse ; and if the duties due upon such goods be not 
 paid within 3 months after such 20 days shall have expired, together with all charges of removal and 
 warehouse rent, the same shall be sold, and the produce thereof applied first to the payment of freight 
 and charges, next of duties, and the overplus, if any, shall be paid to the proprietor of the goods. — 
 ^ 25. 
 
 Goods imported from United Kingdom or British Possessions must appear in Cocket, Sfc. — No goods 
 shall be imported into any British possession as being imported from the United Kingdom, or from any 
 other British possession (if any advantage attach to such distinction), unless such goods appear upon the 
 cockets or other proper documents for the same to have been duly cleared outwards at the port of export- 
 ation in the United Kingdom, or in such other British possession, nor unless the ground upon which 
 such advantage be claimed be stated in such cocket or document. — § 26. 
 
 Goods imported from, to be deemed of the Growth of. United Kingdom. — No goods shall, upon import- 
 ation into any of the British possessions in America, be deemed to be of the growth, production, or 
 manufacture of the United Kingdom, or of any British possession in America, unless imported from the 
 United Kingdom, or from some British possession in America. — \ 27. 
 
 Entry not to be valid, if Goods be not properly described in it. — No entrv, nor any warrant for the 
 landing of any goods, or for the taking of any goods out of any warehouse, shall be deemed valid, unless 
 the particulars of the goods and packages in such entry correspond with the particulars of the gocds and 
 packages in the report of the ship, or in the certificate or other document, where any is required, bv which 
 the importation or entry of such goods is authorised, nor unless the goods shall have been properly 
 described in such entry by the denominations and with the characters and circumstances according to 
 which such goods are charged with duty or may be imported ; and any goods taken or delivered out of 
 any ship or out of any warehouse by virtue of any entry or warrant not corresponding or agreeing in all 
 such respects, or not properly describing the same, shall be deemed to be goods landed or taken without 
 due entry thereof, and shall be forfeited. — § 28. 
 
 Certificate of Production for Sugar, Cqffee, Cocoa, cm* Spirits. — Before any sugar, cofTee, cocoa, or 
 spirits shall be shipped for exportation in any British possession in America or in the island of Mauritius, 
 as being the produce of such possession or of such island, the i)roprietor of the estate on which such 
 goods were produced, or his known agent, shall make and sign an affidavit in writing before the collector 
 or comptroller at the port of exportation, or before a justice of the peace, or other officer duly authoriied 
 
352 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 to administer such oath, declaring that such goods are the produce of such estate; and such affidavit 
 shall set forth the name of the estate, and the description and quantity of the goods, and the packaees 
 containing the same, with the marks and numbers thereon, and the name of the person to whose charge 
 at the place of shipment they are to be sent; and if any justice or other officer sliall subscribe his name 
 to any writing purporting to be such affidavit, unless the person making it shall actually appear before 
 him and be sworn to the truth of the same, such justice of the peace or officer shall forfeit and pav for 
 any such offence the sum of 50/. ; and the person entering and shipping such goods shall deliver such 
 affidavit to the collector or comptroller, or other proper officer, and shall make and subscribe a declar- 
 ation before him that the goods which are to be shipped by virtue of such entry are those mentioned in 
 such affidavit ; and the master of the ship in which such goods shall be laden shall, before clearance 
 make and subscribe a declaration before the collector or comptroller that the goods shipped by virtue of 
 such entry are the same as are mentioned and intended in such affidavit, to the best of his knowledge 
 and belief ; and thereupon the collector and comptroller, or other proper officer, shall sign and give to the 
 master a certificate of production, stating that proof has been made, in manner required by law that suclt 
 goods (describing the same) are the producCof such British possession or of such island, and setting forth 
 in such certificate the name of the exporter and of the exporting ship, and of the master thereof and 
 the destination of the goods ; and if any sugar, coffije, cocoa, or spirits be imported into any British pos- 
 session in America, as being the produce of some other such possession or of such island, without such 
 certificate of production, the same shall be forfeited. — ^ 29. 
 
 Certificate of Production on Re-exportation from another Colony. — Before any sugar, coffee cocoa or 
 spirits shall be shipped for exportation in any British possession in America, as being the produce of some 
 other such possession, the person exix)rting the same shall in the entry outwards state the place of the 
 production, and refer to the entry inwards and landing of such goods, and shall make and subscribe a 
 declaration before the collector or comptroller to the identity of the same; and thereupon, if such goods 
 shall have been duly imported with a certificate of production within 12 months prior to the shipping for 
 exportation, the collector and comptroller shall sign and give to the master a certificate of production 
 referring to the certificate of production under which such goods had been so imported, and containing 
 the like i)articulars, with the date of such importation. — ^30. 
 
 Goods brought over Land, or by Inland Navigation. — It shall be lawful to bring or import by land or by 
 inland navigation into any of the British possessions in America from any adjoining foreign country any 
 goods which might be lawfully imported by sea into such possession from such country, and so to bring 
 or import such goods in the vessels, boats, or carriages of such country, as well as in British vessel^ 
 boats, or carriages. — § 31. ' 
 
 What Vessels shall be deemed British on the Lakes in America. — No vessel or boat shall be admitted to 
 be a British vessel or boat on any of the inland waters or lakes in America, except such as have been 
 built within the British dominions, and shall be wholly owned by British subjects, and shall not have 
 been repaired at any foreign place to a greater extent than in the proportion of 10s. for every ton of such 
 vessel or boat at any one time : provided always, that nothing herein-before contained shall extend to 
 prevent the employment of any vessel or boat as a British vessel or boat on such inland waters or lakes, 
 which shall have wholly belonged to British subjects before the .5th day of July, 1825, and which shall not 
 have been since that day repaired as aforesaid in any foreign place. — § 32. 
 
 Goods must be brought to a Place where there is a Custotn-house. — It shall not be lawful so to bring 
 or import any goods except into some port or place of entry at which a Custom-house now is or hereafter 
 may be lawfully established : provided also, that it shall be lawful for the governor, heutenant-governor, 
 or person administering the government of any of the said possessions respectively, by and with the 
 advice of the executive council thereof, from time to time to diminish or increase, by proclamation, the 
 number of ports or places of entry. — § 33. 
 
 Duties to be collected in same Manner as on Goods imported by Sea. — The duties imposed by this act 
 shall be ascertained, levied, and recovered upon all goods so brought or imported jn the same manner, 
 and by the same ineans, rules, regulations, penalties, &c. as the duties on the like goods imported by sea ; 
 and if any goods shall be brought or imported contrary hereto, or if any goods so brought or imported 
 shall be removed from the station or place appointed for the examination of such goods before all duties 
 payable thereon shall have been paid or satisfied, such goods shall be forfeited, together with the vessel, 
 boat, or carriage, and the horses or other cattle, in or by which such goods shall have been so importeci 
 or brought, or so removed. — § 34. 
 
 Duties in Canada on American Boats, as in America on British Boats. — The same tonnage duties shall 
 be paid upon all vessels or boats of the United States of America importing any goods into Canada as 
 are or may be payable in the United States of America on British vessels or boats entering the harbouri 
 whence such goods have been imported. — \ 35. 
 
 Conditions with respect to Warehousing in the Colonies. 
 
 Ports herein mentioned to be free warehousing Ports. — The several ports herein-after mentioned, (that 
 is to say,) Bridgetown in Barbadoes, Quebec in Canada, Sydney in Cape Breton, Roseau in Dominica, 
 St. George in Grenada, Kingston and Montego Bay in Jamaica, Charlestown in Nevis, Saint John's and 
 Saint Andrew's in New Brunswick, Saint John's in Newfoundland, Nassau in New Providence, Halifax 
 and Pictou in Nova Scotia, Basseterre in Saint Kitt's, Kingston in Saint Vincent, Road Harbour in Tor. 
 tola, San Joseph in Trinidad, shall be free tvarehousing ports for all the purposes of this act ; and 
 Kingston and Montreal in the Canadas, and Liverpool and Yarmouth in Nova Scotia, shall be warehousing 
 ports for the warehousing of goods brought by land or by inland navigation, or imported in British ships.; 
 and it shall be lawful for the several collectors and comptrollers of the said ports respectively, by 
 notice in writing under their hands, to appoint from time to time such warehouses at such ports as shall 
 be approved of by them for the free warehousing and securing of goods, and also ui such notice todeclare 
 what sorts of goods may be so warehoused, and also by like notice to revoke or alter any such appointment 
 or declaration : provided always, that every such notice shall be transmitted to the governor of the place, 
 and shall be published in such manner as he shall direct. — § 36. 
 
 Goods may be warehoused without Payment of Duty. — It shall be lawful for the importer of any such 
 goods into the said ports to warehouse them in the warehouses so appointed, without payment of any duty 
 on the first entry thereof, subject nevertheless to the rules, regulations, &c, herein-after contained. — \ 37. 
 
 Regulation as to warehousing of Goods on Arrival in Canada. — Upon the arrival of any goods at any 
 frontier port in the Canadas, such goods may be entered with the proper officer of the customs at such 
 port, to be warehoused at some warehousing port in the Canadas, and may be delivered by. such officer to 
 be passed on to such warehousing port, under bond, to the satisfaction of such officer, for the due 
 arrival and warehousing of such goods at such port. — k, 38. 
 
 Stowage of Goods in Warehouse. — All goods so warehoused shall bo stowed in such parts or divisions 
 of the warehouse and in such manner as tlie collector and comptroller shall direct; and the warehouse 
 shall be locked and secured in such manner, and shall be opened and visited only at such times, and in 
 the presence of such officers, and under such rules and regulations, as the collector and comptroller shall 
 direct ; and all such goods shall, after being landed upon importation, be carried to the warehouse, or 
 shall, after being taken out of the warehouse for exportation, be carried to be shipped, under such rules 
 and regulations as the collector and comiitroUer shall direct. — ^39. 
 
 Bond upon Entry of Goods to he warehoused. — Upon the entry of any goods to be warehoused, the im- 
 porter of such goods, instead of paying down the duties due thereon, shall give bond with two sufficient 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 353 
 
 Buretios, to he approved of by the collector or comptroller, in treble the duties payable on «uch good%, with 
 condition for the safe depositing of such goods in the warehouse mentioned in such entry, and for the 
 payment of all duties due ui)on such goods, or for the exportation thereof, according to the first account 
 taken of such goods upon the landing of the same; and with further condition, that no part thereof shall 
 be taken out of such warehouse until cleared from thence upon due entry and payment of duty, or upon 
 due entry for exportation ; and with further condition, that the whole of such goods shall be so cleared 
 from such warehouse, and the dutios, upon any deficiency of the quantity according to such first account, 
 shall be paid, within 2 years from the date of the first entry thereof; and if after such bond shall have 
 been given, the goods or any part thereof shall be sold or disposed of, so that the original bonder shall lie 
 no longer interested in or have any control over the same, it shall be lawful for the collector and comp- 
 troller to admit fresh security to be given by the bond of the new proprietor or other person having control 
 over such goods, with his sufficient sureties, and to cancel the bond given by the original bonder of such 
 goods, or to exonerate him to the extent of the fresh security so given. — ^ 40. 
 
 Goods not duly warehoused, Sfc. to be forfeited. — 1 f any goods which have been entered to be warehoused 
 shall not be duly carried and deposited in the warehouse, or shall afterwards be taken out of it without 
 due entry and clearance, or having been entered and cleared for exportation shall not be duly carried and 
 shipped, or shall afterwards be relanded except with permission of the customs, such goods shall be for- 
 feited.— \ 41. 
 
 Account of Goods to be taken on landing. — Upon the entry and landing of any goods to be warehoused, 
 the proper officer shall take a particular account of the same, and shall mark the contents on each pack- 
 age, and shall enter the same in a book to be kept for that purpose; and no goods which have been so 
 warehoused shall be taken or delivered from the warehouse except upon due entry, and under care of the 
 proper officers for exportation, or upon due entry and payment of duty for home use; and whenever the 
 whole of the goods warehoused under any entry shall be cleared from the warehouse, or whenever further 
 time shall be granted for any such goods to remain warehoused, an account shall be made out of the 
 quantity upon which the duties have been paid, and of the quantity exported, and of the quantity (to be 
 then ascertained) of the goods still remaining in the warehouse, as the case may be, deducting from the 
 whole the quantity contained in any whole packages (if any) which may have been abandoned for the 
 duties ; and if upon such account there shall in either case appear to be any deficiency of the original 
 quantity, the duty payable upon the amount of such deficiency shall then be paid. — § 42. 
 
 Samples may be taken. — It shall be lawful for the collector and comptroller, under such regulations as 
 they shall see fit, to permit moderate samples to be taken of any goods so warehoused, without entry, and 
 without payment of duty, except as the same shall eventually become payable, as on a deficiency of the 
 original quantity. — § 43. 
 
 Goods may be sorted and repacked. — It shall be lawful for the collector and comptroller, under such 
 regulations as they shall see fit, to permit the proprietor or other person having control over any ware- 
 housed goods to sort, separate, and pack and repack any such goods, and to make such lawful alterations 
 therein, or arrangements and assortments thereof, as may be necessary for the preservation of such goods, 
 or in order to the sale, shipment, or legal disposal of the same ; and also to permit any parts of such goods 
 so separated to be destroyed, but without prejudice to the claim for duty upon the whole original quantity 
 of such goods : provided always, that it shall be lawful for any person to abandon any whole packages to 
 the officers of the customs for the duties, without being liable to any duty upon the same. — \ 44. 
 
 Goods warehoused may be delivered for Removal without Payment of Duty. — Goods warehoused at any 
 warehousing port in any of the British possessions in America, being first duly entered, may be delivered, 
 under the authority of the proper officer of the castoms, without payment of duty, except for any de. 
 ficiency thereof, for the purpose of removal to another warehousing port in the same possession, under 
 bond, to the satisfaction of such officer, for the due arrival and rewarehousing of such goods at such other 
 port. — ^ 45. 
 
 All Goods to be cleared within 2 Years, or sold. — All goods which have been so warehoused or re- 
 warehoused shall be duly cleared, either for exportation or for home consumption, within 2 years from 
 the day of first entry for warehousing; and if any such goods be not so cleared, it shall be lawful for the 
 collector and comptroller to cause the same to be sold, and the produce shall be applied, first to the pay- 
 ment of the duties, next of warehouse rent and other charges, and the overplus (if any) shall be paid to 
 the proprietor : provided always, that it shall be lawful for the collector and comptroller to grant further 
 time for any such goods to remain warehoused, if they shall see fit. — § 46. 
 
 Bond on Entry for Exportation. — Upon the entry outwards of any goods to be exported from the ware- 
 house, the person entering the same shall give security by bond in treble the duties of importation on 
 such goods, with two sufficient sureties, to be approved by the collector or comptroller, that the same shall 
 be landed at the place for which they be entered outwards, or be otherwise accounted for. — \ 47. 
 
 Power to appoint other Ports. — It shall be lawful for his Majesty, by order in council, from time to 
 time to appoint any port in his Majesty's possessions in America to be a free warehousing port for all or 
 any of the purposes of this act ; and every such port so appointed by his Majesty shall be, for all the pur- 
 poses expressed in such order, a free warehousing port under this act, as if appointed by the same. — ^48. 
 
 Goods from Mauritius liable to sa?ne Duties and Regulations as West India Goods. — § 49. — (See Port 
 Louis.) 
 
 Cape of Hope within Limits of the Company's Charter. — In all trade with the British possessions in 
 America, the Cape of Good Hope, and the territories and dependencies thereof, shall be deemed to be 
 within the limits of the East India Company's charter. — \ 50. 
 
 Dutch Proprietors, &c. 
 
 Dutch Proprietors in Demerara, Esseqnibo, and Berbice, may supply their Estates from Holland. — It 
 shall be lawful for any of the subjects of the King of the Netherlands, being Dutch proprietors in the 
 colonies of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, to import in Dutch ships from the Netherlands into the 
 said colonies all the usual articles of supply for their estates therein, atod also wine imported for the pur- 
 poses of medicine only, and which shall be liable to a duty of 10s. per ton, and no more ; and in case 
 seizure be made of any articles so imported, upon the ground that they are not such supplies, or are fot 
 the purpose of trade, the proof to the contrary shall lie on the Dutch proprietor importing the same, and 
 not on the seizing officer : provided always, that if suflScient security by bond be given in court to abide 
 the decision of the commissioners of customs upon such seizure, the goods so seized shall be admitted to 
 entry and released. — § 51. 
 
 Dutch Proprietors may not export to United Kingdom. — It shall not be lawf'il for such Dutch pro- 
 prietors to export the produce of their estates to the United Kingdom, or to any of his Majesty's sugar 
 colonies in America, except under the conditions herein-after provided. — ^ 52. 
 
 What Persotis shall be deemed Dutch Proprietors. — All subjects of his Majesty the King of the Nether- 
 lands resident in his said Majesty's European dominions, who were at the date of the convention between 
 his Majesty George III. and the King of the Netherlands, dated the I2th day of August, 1815, proprietors 
 of estates in the said colonies, and all subjects of his said Majesty who may hereafter become possessed of 
 estates then belonging to Dutch proprietors therein, and all such proprietors as being then resident in the 
 said colonies, and being natives of his said Majesty's dominions in the Netherlands, may have declared, 
 within 3 months after the publication of the aforesaid convention in the said colonies, that they wish to 
 continue to be considered as such, and all subjects of his said Majesty the King of the Netherlands who 
 may be the holders of mortgages of estates in the said colonies made prior to the date of the convention, 
 and who may under their mortgage deeds have the right of exporting from the said coloniea to the 
 
COLONIES AND 
 
 Netherlands the produce of such estates, shall be deemed Dutch proprietors under the provisions of thij 
 act : provided, that where both Dutch and British subjects have mortgages upon the same property in the 
 said colonies, the produce to be consigned to the different mortgagees shall be in proportion to the debts 
 respectively due to them. — § 53. 
 
 Persons not wishing to be considered Dutch Proprietors to sign a Declaration to that Effect. — Whereas 
 it is expedient to permit any of such persons, at their option, to relinquish such character of Dutch pro- 
 prietor ; be it therefore enacted, that if any such person sliall make and sign a declaration in writing, 
 attested by two credible witnesses, setting forth that lie is desirous and has elected not to be deemed to be 
 a Dutch proprietor within the meaning of the said act in respect of any such estate or mortgage to be 
 mentioned and named in such declaration, and shall cause such declaration to be delivered to the com- 
 missioners of his Majesty's customs, such person shall thenceforth be no longer deemed a Dutch pro- 
 prietor within the meaning of the said act in respect of the estate or mortgage so mentioned in such 
 declaration as aforesaid, and such delaration shall have effect in respect of any goods the produce of any 
 such estate of which such person so far as relates to those goods was a Dutch proprietor, although such 
 goods may have been exported from the colony before the delivering of such declaration as aforesaid. 
 
 — ^ 54. 
 
 No Ship to sail from Jamaica to St. Domingo, or from St. Domingo to Jamaica. — No British merchant 
 ship or vessel shall sail from Jamaica to^t. Domingo, nor from St. Domingo to Jamaica, under the penalty 
 of forfeiture of such ship or vessel, together with her cargo ; and no foreign ship or vessel which shall have 
 come from, or shall in the course of her voyage have touched at St. Domingo, shall come into any port or 
 harbour in the island of Jamaica; and if any such ship or vessel, having come into any such port or 
 harbour, shall continue there for 48 hours after notice shall have been given by the officer of the customs 
 to depart, such ship or vessel shall be forfeited ; and if any person shall be landed in Jamaica from any 
 ship or vessel which shall have come from or touched at St. Domingo, except in case of urgent necessity, 
 or unless licence shall have been given by the governor of Jamaica to land such person, such ship shall 
 be forfeited, together with her cargo. — \ .W. 
 
 Colonial Laws repugnant to any Act of Parliament to be null and void. — All laws, by-laws, usages, or 
 customs at this time or which hereafter shall be in practice, or pretended to be in practice, in any of the 
 British possessions in America, in anywise repugnant to this act, or to any other act of parliament, so far 
 as such act relates to the said possessions, shall be null and void to all intents and purposes. — § 56. 
 
 Exemption from Duties to extend only to Duties by Act of Parliaynent. — Provided always, that no 
 exemption from duty in any of the British possessions abroad, contained in any act of parliament, extends 
 to any duty not imposed by act of parliament, unless and so far only as any duty not so imposed is expressly 
 mentioned in such exemption. — \ 57. 
 
 Officers may board Ships hovering on the Coasts. — It shall be lawful for the officers of customs to go on 
 board any ship in any British possession in America, and to rummage and search all parts of such ship 
 for prohibited and uncustomed goods, and also to go on board any ship hovering within 1 league of the 
 coasts thereof, and in either case freely to stay on board such ship so long as she shall remain in such port 
 or within such distance; and if any such ship be bound elsewhere, and shall continue so hovering for the 
 space of 24 hours after the master shall have been required to depart, it shall be lawful for the officer of 
 the customs to bring such ship into port, and to examine her cargo, and to examine the master upon oath 
 touching the cargo and voyage ; and if there be any goods on board prohibited to be imported, such ship 
 and cargo shall be forfeited ; and if the master shall not truly answer the questions demanded of him, he 
 shall forfeit 100/. — ^ 58. 
 
 Forfeiture of Vessels, Carriages, %c. removing Goods liable to Forfeiture. — All vessels, boats, carriages, 
 and cattle made use of in the removal of any goods liable to forfeiture under this act shall be forfeited, 
 and every person who shall assist or be otherwise concerned in the unshipping, landing, or removal, har- 
 bouring, &c. of such goods, or into whose possession the same shall knowingly come, shall forfeit the 
 treble value thereof, or the penalty of 100/., at the election of the officers of the customs. — \ 59. 
 
 Goods, Vessels, ^c. liable to Forfeiture may be seized by Officers. — All goods, ships, vessels, boats, car- 
 riages, and cattle, liable to forfeiture under this act, may be seized and secured by any officer of the 
 customs or navy, or by any person employed for that purpose with the concurrence of the commissioners 
 of his Majesty's customs ; and every person who shall in any way hinder or obstruct such officers or per- 
 sons employed as aforesaid, or any person aiding him, shall for every such offence forfeit the sum of 200/. 
 
 — § 60. 
 
 Writ of Assistance to search for and seize Goods liable to Forfeiture. — Under authority of a writ of 
 assistance granted by the supreme court of justice or court of vice admiralty having jurisdiction in the 
 place, it shall be lawful for any officer of the customs, taking with him a peace officer, to enter any build- 
 ing or other place in the daytime, and to search for, seize, and secure any goods liable to forfeiture under 
 this act, and, in case of necessity, to break open any doors and any chests or other packages for that pur- 
 pose; and such writ of assistance, when issued, shall be deemed to be in force during the whole of the 
 reign in which the same shall have been granted, and for 12 months from the conclusion of such reign. 
 
 Obsti-uction of Officers by Force. — If any person shall by force or violence assault, molest, hinder, or 
 obstruct any officer of the customs or navy, or other person employed as aforesaid, or any person acting 
 in his aid, such person upon conviction shall be adjudged a felon, and punished at the discretion of the 
 court. — ^ 62. 
 
 Goods seized to be secured at the next Custom-house, and sold by Auction. — All things seized as liable 
 to forfeiture under this act, or under any act made for the prevention of smuggling, or relating to the 
 customs, or to trade or navigation, shall be delivered to the collector and comptroller of the customs next 
 to the place where the same were seized ; and after condemnation they shall cause the same to be sold by 
 public auction to the best bidder : provided always, that it shall be lawful for the commissioners of the 
 customs to direct in what manner the produce of such sale shall be applied, or, in lieu of such sale, to 
 direct what things shall be destroyed, or be reserved for the public service. — § 63. 
 
 The next 17 clauses relate to the mode of proceeding in actions as to seizures before the courts, the 
 application and recovery of penalties, &c. It seems unnecessary to insert these in this place. 
 
 The King may regulate the. Trade of certain Colonies. — It shall be lawful for his Majesty, by any order 
 or orders in council to be issued from time to time, to give such directions and make such regulations 
 touching the trade and commerce to and from any British possessions on or near the continent of Europe, 
 or within the Mediterranean Sea, or in Africa, or within the limits of the East India Company's charter 
 (excepting the possessions of the said Company), as to his Majesty in council shall appear expedient ; 
 and if any goods shall be imported or exported in any manner contrary to any such order, the same shall 
 be forfeited, together with the ship importing or exporting the same. — § 81. 
 
 East India Company may carry Goods from India to Colonies. — It shall be lawful for the East India 
 Company, during the continuance of their exclusive privileges of trade, to export from any place within 
 the limits of their charter any goods for the purpose of being carried to some of his Majesty's possessions 
 in America, and so to carry and to import the same into any of such possessions, and al.so to carry return 
 cargoes from such po.ssessions to any place within the limits of their charter, or to the United Kingdom; 
 and it shall be lawful for any of his Majesty's subjects, with the licence or under the authority of the said 
 Coin] any, to lade in and export from anyjof the dominions of tiie Emjieror of China any goods, and to lade 
 in and export from any place within the limits of the said Company's charter any tea, for the purpose of 
 being carried to some of his Majesty's possessions in America, and also so to carry and to import the same 
 into any of such possessions. — \ 82. 
 
 fil. 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 355 
 
 Certificate of Production of Fast India Sugar. — It shall bo lawful for any shipper of sugar the produce 
 of some British possession within the limits of the Kast Irulia Company's charter, to be exported from 
 such possession, to ko before tiie collector, comptroller, &c. of the customs at such place, or, if there be 
 none such, to go before the principal officer of such place, or the judge or commercial resident, and make 
 an alfidavit that such sugar was really and bond fide the produce of such IJritish jjossession, to the best of 
 his knowledge and belief; and such officer, &c. is to grant a certificate thereof, setting forth the name of 
 the ship in whicii the sugar is to be exi)orteil, and her destination. — § 83. 
 
 Ships built prior to tin: \st of January, 181G, deemed British Ships witiiin certain IJmits. — All ships 
 built within tlie limits of the Kast lnd"ia Company's charter prior to the 1st day of January, 181G, and 
 which were then, and have continued sin(;e, to be solely tlio property of his Majesty's subjects, shall be 
 deemed to be British ships for all the purposes of trade within the said limits, including the Cape of 
 Good Hope. — \ 84. 
 
 Certificate of Production of Cape Wine. — It shall be lawful for the shipper of wine the produce of the 
 Cape of Good Hope, or of its dependencies, which is to be exported from thence, to go before the chief 
 officer of the customs, and make an affidavit that such wine was really and bona fide the [iroducc of the 
 Cape or its dependencies; and such oHicer is required to administer such affidavit, and to grant a certiti- 
 cate thereof, stating the name of the ship in which the wine is exported, and her destination. — \ 85. 
 
 Certificate of Production of Goods in Guernsey, 8fC. — It shall be lawful for any per.-^on who is about to 
 export from Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, to the United Kingdom, or any British possession in 
 America, any goods the growth or produce of any of those islands, or any goods manufactured from 
 materials the growth or produce thereof, or of the United Kingdom, to go before a magistrate of the 
 island from which the goods are to be exported, and sign a declaration that such goods are of such growth, 
 produce, or manufacture, and such magistrate shall administer and sign sucli declaration ; and thereupon 
 the governor, lieutenant-governor, &c. of the island shall, upon the delivery to him of such declaration, 
 grant a certificate under his hand of the proof contained in such declaration, stating the ship by, and the 
 port in the United Kingdom, or in such possession, to, which the goods are to be exported; and such 
 certificate shall be produced at such ports, in proof that the goods mentioni.i therein are of the growth, 
 produce, &c. of such islands. — ^ 86. 
 
 The next section relates to the importation of tea into Guernsey, &c. during the exclusive trading pri- 
 vileges enjoyed by the East India Company. 
 
 Guernsey, SfC. Tonnage of S/i/ps and Size of Packages for Spirits. — No brandy, geneva, or other spirits 
 (except rum of the British plantations), shall be imported into, or exported from, the islands of Jersey, 
 Guernsey, Alderney, or Sark, or removed from any one to any other of the said islands, or coastwise 
 from any one part to any other part of either of the said islands, or be shipped to be so removed or carried, 
 or be waterborne for the purpose of being so shipped in any ship, vessel, or boat of less burden than 100 
 tons (except when imported from the United Kingdom in ships of the burden of 70 tons at least), nor in 
 any cask or package of less size or content than 40 gallons, (except when in bottles, and carried in a 
 square-rigged ship,) nor any tobacco or snuff in any ship, vessel, or boat of less burden than 100 tons 
 (except wlien imported from the United Kingdom in ships of the burden of 70 tons at least), nor in any 
 cask or package containing less than 450 lbs. weight, (save and except any such spirits or loose tobacco 
 as shall be for the use of the seamen belonging to and on board any such ship, vessel, or boat, not ex- 
 ceeding 2 gallons of the former, and 5 lbs. weight of the latter, for each seaman, and also except such 
 manufactured tobacco or snuff' as shall have been duly exported as merchandise from Great Britain or 
 Ireland,) on pain of forfeiture of all such foreign brandy, geneva, or other spirits, tobacco or snufF respect- 
 ively, together with the casks or packages containing the same, and also of every such ship, vessel, or 
 boat, together with all her guns, furniture, &c. — § 88. 
 
 Not to extend to Vessels of 10 Tons supplying Island of Sark, having Licence so to do. — Nothing herein 
 contained shall extend, or be construed to extend, to any boat not exceeding the burden of 10 tons, for 
 having on board at any one time any foreign spirits of the quantity of 10 gallons or under, in casks or 
 packages of less size or content than 40 gallons, or any tobacco, snuff, or tea, not exceeding 50 lbs. weight 
 of each, for the supply of the said island of Sark, such boat having a licence from the officer of customs at 
 either of the islands of Guernsey or Jersey, for the purpose of being employed in carrying commodities 
 for the supply of the said island of Sark : provided that every such boat having on board at any one time any 
 greater quantity of spirits than 10 gallons, or any greater quantity of tobacco or snuff' than 50 lbs. weight 
 of each of the said articles, unless such greater quantity of spirits, tobacco, or snuff shall be in casks or 
 packages of the size, content, or weight herein-before required, or having on board at any one time any 
 greater quantity of tea than 50 lbs. weight, shall be forfeited. — § 89. 
 
 Penalty on Persons found on board Vessels liable to Forfeiture within 1 League of Guernsey, ^-c— Ever> 
 j)erson found or discovered to have been on board any vessel or boat liable to forfeiture, for being found 
 within 1 league of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, having on board or in any manner 
 attached or affixed thereto, or conveying or having conveyed, in any manner, such goods or other things 
 as subject such vessel or boat to forfeiture, or who shall be found or discovered to have been on board 
 any vessel or boat from which anv part of the cargo shall have been thrown overboard during chace, or 
 staved or destroyed, shall forfeit the sum of 100/. — \ 90. 
 
 British Coals not to be re-exported from British Possessions without Duty. — It shall not be lawful to 
 re-export from any of his Majesty's possessions abroad to any foreign place any coals the produce of the 
 United Kingdom, except upon payment of the duty to which such coals would be liable upon exportation 
 from the United Kingdom to siich foreign place ; and no such coals shall be shipped at any of such 
 possessions, to be exported to any British place, until the exporter or the master of the exporting vessel 
 shall have given bond, with one sufficient surety, in double the value of the coals, that such coals shall 
 not be landed at any foreign place. — ^ 91. 
 
 Penalty for using Documents counterfeited or falsified. — If any person shall, in any of his Majesty's 
 possessions abroad, counterfeit or falsify, or wilfully use when counterfeited or falsified, any entry, 
 warrant, cocket, &c. for the unlading, lading, entering, reporting, or clearing any ship or vessel, or for 
 the landing, shipping, or removing of any goods, stores, baggage, or article whatever, or shall by any false 
 statement procure any writing or document to be made for any such purposes, or shall falsely make any 
 oath or affirmation required by any act for regulating the trade of the British possessions abroad, or shall 
 forge or counterfeit a certificate of the said oath or affirmation, or shall knowingly publish such certificate, 
 he shall for every such offence forfeit the sum of 200/. — § 92. 
 
 The American govefiiment having declined complying with those conditions of reci- 
 procity under which the trade between the United States and the British colonies was 
 to be opened by the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 114., it was directed by an order in council, dated 
 the 27th of July, 1826, that a duty of 4s. 2d. per ton should be charged upon all 
 American vessels entering his Majesty's possessions in the West Indies, as well as an 
 addition of 10 per cent, upon the duties imposed by the above-mentioned act on all and 
 each of tlie articles named in it, when imported into the West Indies in American ships. 
 
 In the course of 1830, however, the negotiations that had been entered into with the 
 United States relative to this subject were happily terminated by the Americans agree- 
 ing to the conditions of reciprocity above mentioned j so that the discriminating duties 
 
 2A 2 
 
356 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 imposed upon the ships and goods under authority of the above-mentioned order in 
 council are wholly repealed. 
 
 Subjoined is the circular letter of the American government, and an extract from the 
 British order in council, dated the 5th of November, 1830, relative to this new arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 Circular to the Collectors of Customs. 
 
 Treasury Department, Oct. 6. 1830. 
 Sir, — You will perceive by the proclamation of the president herewith transmitted, that from and after 
 the date thereof, the act entituled " An Act concerning Navigation," passed on the 13th of April, 1818; 
 an act supplementary therein, passed the 15th of May, 1820 ; and an act entituled " An Act to regulate 
 the commercial Intercourse between the United States and certain British Ports," passed on the 1st of 
 March, 1823, are absolutely repealed ; and the ports of the United States are open to British vessels and 
 their cargoes, coming from the British colonial possessions in the West Indies , on the continent of South 
 America, the Bahama Islands, the Caicos, and the Bermuda or Somer Islands j also from the islands, pro^ 
 vinces, or colonies of Great Britain on or near the North American continent, and north or east of the 
 United States. By virtue of the authority of this proclamation, and in conformity with the arrangement 
 made between the United States and Great Britain, and under the sanction of the president, you are in- 
 structed to admit to entry such vessels being laden with the productions of Great Britain or her said colo- 
 nies, subject to the same duties of tonnage and impost, and other charges, as are levied on the vessels of 
 the United States, or their cargoes arriving from the said British colonies : you will also grant clearances 
 to British vessels for the several ports of the aforesaid colonial possessions of Great Britain, such vessels 
 being laden with such articles as may be exported from the United States in vessels of the United States ; 
 and British vessels coming from the said colonial possessions may also be cleared for foreign ports and 
 places othei than those in the said British colonial possessions, being laden with such articles as may be 
 exported from the United States in vessels of the United States. I am, &c. 
 
 (Signed) S. D. INGHAM, Secretary to the Treasury. 
 
 Extract from the British Order in Council, dated the 5th of November, 1830, relative to the Trade between 
 the United States and the British West Indies. 
 
 " Whereas it hath been made to appear to his Majesty in council, that the restrictions heretofore im- 
 posed by the laws of the United States upon British vessels navigated between the said States and his 
 Majesty's possessions in the West Indies and America, have been repealed ; and that the discriminating 
 duties of tonnage and of customs heretofore imposed by the laws of the said United States upon British 
 vessels and their cargoes entering the ports of the said States from his Majesty's said possessions, have also 
 been repealed, and that the ports of the United States are now open to British vessels and their cargoes 
 coming from his Majesty's possessions aforesaid. His Majesty doth, therefore, with the advice of his 
 privy council, and in pursuance and exercise of the powers so vested in him by the act passed in the sixth 
 year of the reign of his said late Majesty, or by any other act or acts of parliament, declare that the said 
 recited orders in council of the 2lst of July, 1823, and of the 27th of July, 1826, and the said order An 
 council of the 16th of July, 1827 (so far as such last-mentioned order relates to the said United States), 
 shall be, and the same are hereby respectively revoked. 
 
 " And his Majesty doth further, by the advice aforesaid, and in pursuance of the powers aforesaid, declare 
 that the ships of and belonging to the said United States of America may import from the United States 
 aforesaid into the British possessions abroad, goods the produce of those States, and may export goods 
 from the British possessions abroad, to be carried to any country whatever." 
 
 Connection of the Planter and Home Merchant. Mode of transacting Business in 
 England. — The mode of transacting West India business is as follows : — A sugar 
 planter forms a connection with a mercantile house in London, Bristol, Liverpool, or 
 Glasgow ; stipulates for an advance of money on their part ; grants them a mortgage on 
 his estate ; and binds himself to send them annually his crop, allowing them the full 
 rate of mercantile commissions. These commissions are 2^ per cent, on the amount 
 of sugar sold, and of plantation stores sent out ; along with ^ per cent, on all insurances 
 effected. During the war, when prices were high, the amount of those commissions 
 was large ; but, like other high charges, the result has, in nine cases in ten, been to the 
 injury of those who received them : they led the merchants to undertake too much, and 
 to make too large advances to the planters, for the sake of obtaining their business. 
 At that time it was usual to allow a permanent loan at the rate of 3,000/. for the assured 
 consignment of 100 hogsheads of sugar ; but that ratio was very often exceeded by the 
 planter, the 3,000?. becoming 4,000/., 5,000/., 6,000/., and, in very many cases, still more, 
 in consequence of unforeseen wants and too sanguine calculations on his part. 
 
 Persons resident in the West Indies are almost always bare of capital, and for ob- 
 vious reasons. A climate of such extreme heat, and a state of society possessing sa 
 few attractions to persons of education, offer no inducements to men of substance in 
 Europe to go thither. Those who do go, must trust to their personal exertion and the 
 support of others ; and when, after a continued residence in the West Indies, they 
 have made some progress in acquiring a competency, and have become accustomed 
 to the climate, they hardly ever consider themselves as settled there for life; their wish 
 and hope is to carry their acquisitions so far as to be enabled to pass the remainder o^ 
 their days comfortably at home. The readiest means, in the view of the planter, of ac- 
 complishing this, is the extension of his undertakings; which he can do only by borrowing 
 money. Hence a continued demand on his mercantile correspondents at home for fresh 
 advances : the consuming effect of heavy commissions, and of the interest on borrowed 
 money, is, or rather was, overlooked in his ardent speculations. But when prices 
 unfortimately fall, he finds himself 10,000/. or 20,000/. in debt, with a reduced in- 
 come. The merchants at home become equally embarrassed, because the case of one is 
 the case of three fourths of their correspondents ; and the capital of the merchants, large 
 as it may be, is absorbed and placed beyond tlieir control. The mortgages they hold 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 357 
 
 are of value only in an ultimate sense: to foreclose them, and to take possession of tlie 
 estates, is, in general, a very hazardous cour.'ie. 
 
 Such has been for a number of years tlie state of our West India trade. Perhaps it is 
 impossible to point out any meansof effectual relief: ourplantcrs must not build expectations 
 on such doubti'ul, or rather improbable, events as the stojjpage of distillation from malt, 
 or an insurrection of the negroes in rival countries, such as Cuba or i^razil. Of a bounty 
 on exportation it is idle to speak : so that their only rational and substantial ground of 
 hope seems to be in a further reduction of the duties on sugar, coffee, and rum ; and an 
 abolition of the duties on imports, and of the restrictions laid on their trade with America 
 and other countries. 
 
 The sale of West India articles takes place through the medium of produce brokers, 
 who in London reside chiefly in Mincing Lane and Tower Street. Samples of sugar 
 and rum are on show in their respective sale rooms during four days of the week, viz. 
 Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, from 11 to 1 o'clock ; during which time 
 the sugar refiners, wholesale grocers, and other dealers in produce, call in, observe the 
 state of the market, and buy what they require. Tlie terra of credit is short ; only 1 
 month for coffee and rum, and 2 months for sugar. Coffee is generally sold by 
 public auction, sugar and rum by private contract. The broker's commission is usually 
 ^ per cent, on the amount ; but in the case of coffee, as they guarantee the buyer?, 
 their charge amounts to 1 per cent. The brokers have no correspondence or connection 
 with the planters ; they are employed by the merchants ; and their sales, though for large 
 amounts, being very simple, a brokerage house of consequence generally does the busi- 
 ness of a number of merchants. Neither merchant nor broker see, or are in the least 
 under the necessity of seeing, the bulky packages containing the different articles of 
 produce of which they effect the sales : all is done by sample ; the packages remaining 
 in the bonded warehouse from the time of landing till they are sold ; after which 
 they pass to the premises of the refiner, wholesale grocer, or whoever may be the pur- 
 chaser. 
 
 The allowances made to the buyer in respect of weight, consist, first of the tare, vrhich 
 is the exact weight of the cask ; and, in the second place, of a fixed allowance of 5 lbs. 
 per cask in the case of coffee, called trett, and of 2 lbs. per cask on sugar, under the 
 name of draft. — (See Account Sales of both, in pp. 150, 151.) 
 
 The shipping of stores from England to the plantations is also a very simple trans- 
 action. West India merchants in London, Liverpool, or Bristol, receive from the 
 planters, in the autumn of each year, a list of the articles required for the respective 
 estates : these lists they divide, arrange, and distribute among different wholesale 
 dealers in the course of September and October, with instructions to get them ready to 
 ship in a few weeks. November and December are the chief months for the despatch of 
 outward-bound West Indiamen, as the plantation stores ought, by rights, to arrive about 
 the end of December, or in the course of January. That is a season of activity, and 
 generally of health, in the West Indies ; the comparatively cool months of November 
 and December having cleared the air, and the produce of the fields having become ripe 
 and ready to carry. Crop time lasts from January to the end of July, after which the 
 heavy rains put a stop to field work in the islands. Demerara, being so near the line, 
 experiences less difference in the seasons, and it is customary there to continue making 
 sugar all the year round. 
 
 The arrivals of West Indiamen in England with homeward cargoes begin in April 
 and continue till October ; after which, with the exception of occasional vessels from 
 Demerara and Berbice, they cease till the succeeding April. This corresponds with 
 the time of carrying and loading the crops : for it would be quite unadvisable, on the 
 score of health, as well as of the interruptions to work from the heavy rains, to attempt 
 loading vessels in the sugar islands during the autumnal months. 
 
 The unloading of West Indiamen in London usually takes place at the West India 
 docks; and did so unif^Jrmly from the autumn of 1802, when the docks were first 
 opened, till August, 1823, when the dock monopoly expired. The delays in discharging, 
 occasionally complained of during the war, arose from two causes; from the vessels 
 arriving in fleets (in consequence of sailing with convoy), and from the imperfections 
 nseparable from a new establishment. The latter have been long remedied ; and as to 
 the former, though at particular seasons, and after a change of wind, the vessels still 
 come close on each other, the crowding in the docks is by no means to be compared 
 to that arising from the arrival of a convoy. Cargoes are discharged very speedily, the 
 time seldom exceeding 3 days. The dock dues have also been materially reduced 
 since the peace : and the whole exhibits a striking example of the advantage attendant 
 on transacting a mass of business on one spot ; an advantage which can be enjoyed only 
 in great sea-ports, such as London, Liverpool, or Amsterdam. — (See Docks.) 
 
 The rates of freight during the war were, on sugar from 7s. to 8s. per cwt., and on 
 coffee from 10s. to lis. ; whereas they now amount, the former to 4s. and 4s. 6d., and 
 
 2 A 3 
 
S58 
 
 COLONIES AND 
 
 the latter to 6s. The ship owners complain that these freights leave them very little 
 profit ; but in consequence of the speed with which vessels may now be unloaded and 
 cleared at London, it is probable that the practice of making two voyages in the season 
 will become general. 
 
 Disposal of Land in the Colonies. — The chief cause of the rapid advancement of all 
 colonies placed in rude and thinly peopled countries, has been the facility with which 
 they have obtained supplies of fertile and unoccupied land. Were the inhabitants of a 
 colony so situated, that instead of resorting to new land to obtain increased supplies of 
 food, they were obliged to improve tlie land already in cultivation, their progress would 
 be comparatively slow, and they would approach to the condition of an old country ; 
 and the greater the concentration of the inhabitants, the nearer, of course, would be their 
 approach to that state. On the other hand, several inconveniences result from allowing 
 the colonists to spread themselves at pleasure over unoccupied districts. The inhabitants 
 become too much dispersed to be able to lend efficient assistance to each other ; a large 
 extent of roads is necessary, and their construction is a task too great for so thin a popu- 
 lation. But the greatest injury that can be done to a colony is the making of gratuitous 
 grants of large tracts of land to corporations or individuals, without laying upon them 
 any obligation as to their occupation, or obliging them to contribute their share of the 
 expenses necessary on account of public improvements. Wherever such an unwise 
 policy has been pursued, as in Lower Canada for example, the consequences have been 
 most injurious. The occurrence of the unoccupied districts obliges the settlers to esta- 
 blish themselves at inconvenient distances from each other; it prevents, by the want of 
 roads, their easy communication ; and retards, in a degree not easy to be imagined, the 
 advancement of the district. The inconveniences resulting from these grants are, indeed, 
 obvious. They have been loudly complained of by the colonists,^ and are now almost 
 universally admitted. 
 
 It is not difficult to discover the principle of the measures that ought to be adopted 
 with respect to the disposal of unoccupied colonial land. They should be so contrived 
 as to prevent too great a diffusion of the colonists, without, however, occasioning their 
 too great concentration. And it is plain, that these advantages may be realised by 
 selling all lands at a moderate price, or by imposing upon them a moderate quit-rent. If 
 the price or quit-rent were very high, it would, of course, occasion too great a con- 
 centration, and be an insuperable obstacle to the rapid pi'ogress of the colony ; while, if 
 it were too low, it would not obviate the inconvenience of too great dispersion. The 
 fixing of the price at which land should be sold is, therefore, the only really difficult point 
 to be decided upon. The Americans sell their public lands at 2 dollars an acre ; and 
 this is, perhaps, all things considered, as proper a sum as could be selected. 
 
 Until very recently we did not follow any fixed plan in the disposal of colonial lands, 
 which have in many instances been bestowed in the most improvident manner. But 
 a different system has been adopted, and lands in the colonies are no longer obtain- 
 able except by purchase. We, however, are not without apprehensions that considerable 
 inconvenience will result from the proposed plan of selling land by auction. It 
 is easy, no doubt, to fix a minimum upset price ; but the market price must entirely 
 depend on the quantity put up for sale, compared with the number and means of 
 the buyers. And, as the regulation of this quantity must necessarily be left to the 
 local authorities, they will, in fact, have the power of fixing the price. A system 
 of this sort can hardly fail of leading to very great abuses ; and will give rise to per- 
 petual complaints, even when they are not deserved, of partiality and preference. The 
 oest way, as it appears to us, would be to order competent persons to fix certain prices 
 upon all the lands to be located, according to the various circumstances for and against 
 them ; and to grant specified portions of such land* to all who claimed them, according 
 to the amount of capital they proposed to employ in their cultivation. We do not, how- 
 ever, think that the maximum price ought in any case to exceed 12s. or 15s. an acre : a 
 price of this magnitude would secure a sufficient degree of concentration, without carrying 
 the principle so far as to make it injurious.* 
 
 Disposal of Land in Canada. — The following advertisement, dated at the office of the 
 Commissioner of Crown Lands, York, Upper Canada, 27th of May, 1833, explains the 
 terms on which lands are in future to be granted in that province : — 
 
 In conformity to instructions recently received from his Majesty's secretary of state for the colonies, 
 the following arrangements for disposing of the waste lands of the crown in Upper Canada, are made 
 known lor the information of emigrants and others. 
 
 Except in the ca*;e of U. E. Loyalists, and other persons entitled by the existing regulations of the 
 government to free grants, no person can obtain any of the waste lands of the crown otherwise than by 
 purchasing at the public sales, made from time to time under the direction of the commissioner of crown 
 lands. 
 
 • The injurious consequences resulting fVom the late system of granting lands in the colonies have 
 been very forcibly ])ointcd out by Mr. Gouger, Mr. Tennant, and others; but the degree of concentration 
 they recommend would be ten times more injurious. 
 
COLONY TRADE. 
 
 359 
 
 These sales will bo made on the 1st and 3d Tuesday of each month, and will cither be continued through 
 the following day, or not, as circumstances may appear to the agent to require. 
 
 liesiries these general periodical sales, there may Ije occasional sales by auction in other districts, of such 
 town lots, or other lots of land, as may remain to be disposed of; and of these sales ample notice will be 
 given. 
 
 The conditions of every sale by public auction will be as follows : — One fourth of the purchase money 
 to be paid down ; and the remainder in 3 equal annual instalments, with interest at (j per cent on eacil 
 instalment, payable with the instalment. 
 
 The lands will be put up at an upset price, of which notice will be given at the time of sale, and in tho 
 previous advertisements which will be published of the lands intended to be put up at each sale : and ii% 
 <:ase no otter shall be made at the upset price, the land will be reserved for future sale, in a similar manner^ 
 by auction. 
 
 A patent for the lands will be issued free of charge, upon the payment in full of the purchase money 
 and interest. 
 
 'l"he commissioner for crown lands, acting also as agent for the sale of clergy reserves, requests it to be 
 noticed, that such clergy reserves as have not been hitherto occupied by authority, or leased Ijy the 
 government, will be disposed of, by public auction only, either at the periodical sales of crown lands, or 
 at occasional sales, to be duly advertised, and that the terms of payment lor clergy reserves will continue, 
 to be as follows : — 10 per cent, to be paid at the time of sale, and the remainder in 9 annual instalments 
 of 10 per cent, each, with interest on each ihstalment, to be paid with the instalment. 
 
 Such clergy reserves as have been leased, or occupied by the authority of the government, must be ap- 
 plied for by letter to the commissioner of crown lands, and when disposed of, will be sold by private sale 
 on the same terms of payment as those disposed of by public auction. 
 
 Terms upon which the Crown Lands will be disposed of in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. 
 
 It has been determined by his Majesty's government that no land shall, in future, be disposed of in New 
 South Wales or Van Diemen's Land otherwise than by public sale, and it has therefore been deemed 
 e.xpecKent to prepare for the information of settlers the following summary of the rules which it has been 
 thought lit to lay down for regulating the sales of land in those colonies: — 
 
 1. A division of the whole territory into counties, hundreds, and parishes, is in progress. When that 
 division shall be completed, each parish will comprise an area of about ^5 square miles. 
 
 2. All the lands in the colony, not hitherto granted, and not appropriated for public purposes, will bo 
 put up to sale. The price will of course depend upon the quality of the land, and its local situation ; but 
 no land will be sold below the rate of 5s. per acre, 
 
 3. All persons proposing to purchase lands not advertised for sale, must transmit a written application 
 to the governor, in a certain prescribed form, which will be delivered at the Surveyor General's Office to 
 all persons applying, on payment of the requisite fee of 2s. 6d. 
 
 4. Those persons who are desirous of purchasing, will be allowed to select, within certain defined limits, 
 such portions of land as they may wish to acquire in that manner. These portions of land will be adver- 
 tised for sale for 3 calendar months, and will then be sold to the highest bidder, provided that such 
 bidding shall at least amount to the price fixed by Article 2. 
 
 5. A deposit of 10 per cent, upon the whole value of the purchase must be paid down at the time of 
 sale, and the remainder must be paid within 1 calendar month from the day of sale, previous to which the 
 purchaser will not be put in possession of the land : and in case of payment not being made within the 
 prescribed period, the sale will be considered void, and the deposit forfeited. 
 
 6. On payment of the money, a grant will be made in fee-simple to the purchaser at the nominal quit- 
 rent of a pepper-corn. Previous to the delivery of such grant, a fee of 40s. will be payable to the colonial 
 secretary, for preparing the grant, and another fee of 5s. to the registrar of the Supreme Court, for en- 
 rolling it. 
 
 7. The land will generally be put up to sale in lots of 1 square mile, or 640 acres ; but smaller lots than 
 640 acres may, under particular circumstances, be purchased, on making application to the governor in 
 writing, with full explanations of the reasons for which the parties wish to purchase a smaller quantity. 
 
 8. The crown reserves to itself the right of making and constructing such roads and bridges as may be 
 necessary for pubbc purposes in all land purchased as above ; and also to such indigenous timber, stone, 
 and other materials, the produce of the land, as may be required for making and keeping the said roads 
 and bridges in repair, and for any other public works. The crown further reserves to itself all mines of 
 precious metals. 
 
 Colonial Office, 20th of January, 1831. 
 
 Selection of Sites for Colonial Establishments. — Nothing can be more unwise than the 
 plan, if so we may call it, hitherto followed in the selection of places at which to found 
 colonies. The captain of a ship, without any knowledge whatever of the nature of soils, 
 or the capacities of a country in an agricultural point of view, falls in after a long cruise 
 with a river or bay, abounding with fish and fresh water, and surrounded with land that 
 looks fertile, and is covered with herbage. He forthwith reports all these circumstances, 
 duly embellished, to the Admiralty, strongly recommending the situation as an admirable 
 one at which to found a colony ; and in nine cases out of ten this is all the information 
 that is required in taking a step of such infinite importance ! No wonder, therefore, 
 that many fine schemes of colonisation should have ended only in loss and disappoint- 
 ment ; and that situations which the colonists were taught to look upon as a species of 
 paradise, have proved to be any thing but what they were represented. Botany Bay, 
 though described by Captain Cook as one of the finest places in the world, had to be 
 abandoned by the colonists that were sent out to it ; as the country round it, instead of 
 being favourable for cultivation, is a mere sandy swamp. Is it possible to suppose, had 
 the proper inquiries been entered into, that any attempt would have been made to 
 establish a colony in so pestilential a climate as that of Sierra Leone ? The colony in 
 the district of Albany, in the Cape of Good Hope, was founded upon the representations 
 of an individual, who, whatever might be his information in other respects, had not the 
 slightest knowledge of agriculture ; and the distresses the settlers have had to encounter, 
 were the natural consequences of their relying on such authority. The late establishment 
 at Swan River may be adduced as another instance of misplaced or premature confidence 
 in the reports of those who were really without the means of forming a correct estimate 
 of the -various circumstances necessary to be attended to in forming a colonv. 
 
 9, A 4 ■' ' 
 
o60 
 
 COLONIES AND COLONY TRADE. 
 
 We do, therefore, hope that an end will be put to this system, — a system which is in 
 no common degree injurious to the public interests, and is highly criminal towards those 
 who embark as colonists. The founding of a colony ought to be looked upon in its true 
 point of view — as a great national enterprise. It is not an adventure to be intrusted 
 to presumptuous ignorance ; but should be maturely weighed, and every circumstance 
 connected with it carefully investigated. Above all, the situation in which it is proposes 
 to found the colony should be minutely surveyed : and its climate, soil, and capacities oi 
 production, deliberately inquired into by competent persons employed for the purpose. 
 Were this done, government and the public would have the best attainable grounds upon 
 which to proceed ; and neither party would have much reason to fear those disappoint- 
 ments, which have hitherto so often followed the exaggerated representations of those 
 to whom the important and difficult task of selecting situations for colonies has been 
 delegated. 
 
 V. Foreign Colonies. 
 
 1. Spanish Colonies. — Spain, whose colonial possessions extended a few years ago 
 from the frontiers of the United States to the Straits of Magellan, is not, at present, 
 possessed of a foot of ground in the whole American continent. Still, however, her 
 colonial possessions are of great value and importance. In the West Indies, she is mis- 
 tress of Cuba and Porto Rico ; — the former by far the largest and finest of the West 
 India islands ; and the latter also a very valuable possession. In the East, Spain is 
 mistress of the Philippine Islands, which, were they in the hands of an enterprising 
 people, would speedily become of very great commercial importance. — ( See the articles 
 Havannah, Manilla, Porto Rico.) 
 
 2. Dutch Colonies. — Java forms the most important and valuable of the Dutch 
 colonial possessions. — (See Batavia.) In the East they also possess the Moluccas, 
 Bencoolen on the coast of Sumatra, Macassar, and the eastern coast of Celebes, Banda, 
 &c. They have several forts on the Gold Coast in Africa ; and in the West Indies, they 
 possess the islands of Cura9oa and St. Eustatius, Saba, and part of St. Martin ; and on 
 the continent of South America, they are masters of Dutch Surinam. Cura9oa and 
 St. Eustatius are naturally barren, but they have been both highly improved. From its 
 being very conveniently situated for maintaining a contraband traffic with the Caraccas 
 and other districts in South America, Cura9oa was formerly a place of great trade, 
 particularly during war. But since the independence of South America, Cura9oa has 
 ceased in a great measure to be an entrepot ; the goods destined for the Continent being 
 now, for the most part, forwarded direct to the places of their destination. 
 
 That district of Surinam ceded to the British in 1814, comprising the settlements of 
 Demerara, Berbice, and Essequibo (see ante, p. 343. ), formed the most valuable portion 
 of Surinam, or Dutch Guiana. The district which still belongs to the Dutch lies to the 
 south of Berbice. It contains about 25,000 square miles, and a population of about 
 60,000. It is daily becoming of more value and importance. 
 
 3. French Colonies. — Previously to the negro insurrection that broke out in 1792, 
 St. Domingo was by far the most valuable colony in the West Indies. But this dis- 
 astrous event, having first devastated the island, terminated in the establishment of the 
 independent black republic of Hay ti. — ( See Port au Prince. ) Having also sold 
 Louisiana to the Americans, and ceded the Mauritius to the English, without making 
 any new acquisitions, the colonial dominions of France are, at this moment, of very 
 limited extent. They consist of Guadeloupe and Martinique, and the small islands of 
 Marie- Galante and Deseada, in the West Indies; Cayenne, in South America; Senegal 
 and Goree, in Africa ; the Isle de Bourbon, in the Eastern Ocean ; St. Marie, in Ma- 
 dagascar ; and Pondicherry and Chandernagor, with a very small surrounding territory, 
 in the East Indies. The tabular statements in the opposite page show the population, 
 trade, &c. of the French colonies. 
 
 4. Danish Colonies. — In the West Indies, these consist of the islands of St. Croix, 
 St. Thomas, and St. John: of these, St. Croi'x only is valuable. It is about 81 square 
 miles in extent, and contains abotit 37,000 inhabitants, of whom 3,000 are whites, 1,200 
 free blacks and mulattOes, and the remainder slaves. The soil is fertile, and it is well 
 cultivated. The principal productions are sugar, rum, aiid coffee. In India, the Danes 
 possess Tranquebar, near Madras ; and Serampoor, near Calcutta. The former contained, 
 in 1809, about 19,000 inhabitants ; but it has greatly improved since the peace, both in 
 commerce and population. Serampoor is a neat but not very considerable place. It 
 serves as an asylum for the debtors of Calcutta, and is the capital station of the mis- 
 sionaries. The Danes have a few forts on the coast of Guinea. 
 
 5. Swedish Colonies. — The Swedes only possess one colony — the small island of 
 St. Bartholomew, in the West Indies. It is only about 25 square miles in extent, but is 
 very fertile. It has no springs, nor fresh water of any sort, except such as is supplied 
 by the rain. Population between 8,000 and 9,000. 
 
COLUMBO. 
 
 361 
 
 Tible of the Population of the French Colonics, and of their Commerce with France. — (,MonivJran, 
 Essai de Statistique sur Ics Colonies, Pieces Justijicalives, No. 5.) 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Population In If 
 
 29 or according 
 
 Commerce with 
 France. 
 
 Navigation. 
 
 Cod of the French 
 Fiiiheries. 
 
 Colonics. 
 
 to the la&t Census. 
 
 Real Value, 1831. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared out. 
 
 Whites. 
 
 People of Colour. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Imports 
 F 
 
 Exports 
 from 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Ton- 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Ton- 
 
 Import e<l 
 in 1831. 
 
 Official 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 Slave*. 
 
 nage. 
 
 nage. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Kortk America. 
 Saint i'ierre and! 
 Minuelon.lSSli 
 The Antillct. 
 
 JVo. 
 8G1 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 861 
 
 Franci. 
 6,700,916 
 
 Franca. 
 476,117 
 
 No. 
 3 
 
 No. 
 353 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 Kilogr. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Martinique (Jan. 1 
 1. 1832) -J 
 
 9.410 
 
 18,832 
 
 80,753 
 
 109,995 
 
 20,123,584 
 
 12,633,530 
 
 154 
 
 40,996 
 
 136 
 
 35,037 
 
 1,744,618 
 
 436,155 
 
 GuadeIoiipc( Jan. 1 
 1.1831) -S 
 
 10,596 
 
 10,772 
 
 90,743 
 
 112,111 
 
 26,642,222 
 
 12,146,853 
 
 195 
 
 47,623 
 
 194 
 
 47,772 
 
 2,820,075 
 
 705,019 
 
 South Americn. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cayenne (.Jan. 1.1 
 1832) - 
 Africa. 
 
 1,291 
 
 2,220 
 
 19,173 
 
 22,684 
 
 2,442,158 
 
 1,736,792 
 
 29 
 
 4,458 
 
 23 
 
 4,056 
 
 131,157 
 
 32,789 
 
 Bourbon {Jan.l.l 
 
 is.-o) - 
 
 Senegal (1825) - 
 
 Asia. 
 French factories") 
 in India (1825) J 
 
 20,000 
 
 11,500 
 
 66,000 
 
 97,500 
 
 15,057,276 
 
 5,732,908 
 
 50 
 
 15,122 
 
 62 
 
 18,315 
 
 210,345 
 
 58,58-1 
 
 240 
 
 3,57a 
 
 12,297 
 
 16,110 
 
 3,445,087 
 
 3,095,818 
 
 29 
 
 3,058 
 
 25 
 
 2,706 
 
 
 
 1,021 
 
 •107,986 
 
 1,194 
 
 110,201 
 
 3,723,270 
 
 753,235 
 
 4 
 
 1,145 
 
 b 
 
 1,241 
 
 
 
 Total - 
 
 43,419 156,073 
 
 270,160 
 
 469,615 
 
 79,133,603|33,888,240 
 
 464 
 
 110,755 
 
 445 
 
 109,127i 4,906,193 
 
 1,226,540 
 
 Able-bodied blacks of both sexes - 
 Old men, children, and sick 
 
 194,141 individuals. 1 Colonies for colonial produce : — 
 75,989 — 1 Ditto 
 
 Importations 
 Exportations 
 
 64,265,250 francs. 
 30,250,083 — 
 
 Statement of the rrodiicts of the French Colonies imported into France, and entered for Consumption, 
 and of the Duties charged on their Introduction, in 1831 {Montvdran, No. 6.) 
 
 Colonies and 
 Establishments. 
 
 Sugars of 
 
 all 
 Qualities. 
 
 Cofffee. 
 
 Cacao. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Cloves 
 
 and 
 Spices. 
 
 Annotto 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 Gum. 
 
 Wax. 
 
 Wood of 
 all Kinds. 
 
 Custom 
 Duties. 
 
 Guadeloupe 
 Martinique - 
 Bourbon 
 Cayenne 
 Senegal 
 
 Factories in India - 
 St. Pierre and Fish- 
 eries of Miquelon 
 
 Total • 
 
 Kilogr. 
 36,579,836 
 27,049,000 
 16,229,003 
 1,432,075 
 
 ' 43,023 
 
 }■ • 
 
 Kilof,rr. 
 968,480 
 379,044 
 761,814 
 42,426 
 
 ' 47,282 
 
 Kilogr. 
 
 9,042 
 157,110 
 191 
 22 
 
 Kilogr. 
 28,892 
 6,117 
 3,174 
 
 169,520 
 
 81,232 
 
 Kilogr. 
 61 
 
 24,318 
 729 
 18,112 
 
 193,747 
 
 KUogr. 
 82,122 
 
 Kilogr. 
 
 282 
 12,754 
 
 Kilogr. 
 677,040 
 
 Kilogr. 
 12,898 
 
 Kilogr. 
 241,042 
 949,840 
 31,995 
 68,729 
 93,285 
 
 Franci. 
 18,813,357 
 13,845,765 
 7,092,305 
 851,408 
 114,752 
 424,608 
 6,789 
 
 81,352,957 
 
 2,199,646 
 
 168,345 
 
 268,935 
 
 236,967 
 
 82,122 
 
 13,036 
 
 677,040 
 
 12,898 
 
 1,384,889 
 
 41,148,984 
 
 Produce of the 
 French colonies 
 imported, but not 
 entered for con- 
 sumption, in 1831 
 
 Total - 
 
 6,582,833 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 87,915,770 
 52,749,462 
 
 2,199,646 
 
 168,345 '.268,935 
 
 236,967 
 
 82,122^ 13,036 677,040 
 
 12,898 
 
 1,584,889 42,087,301 
 
 Value in francs - 
 
 1,649,286 116,442'l75,148 
 
 2,369,670 164,244 130,360 947,856 25,796 
 
 346,222 58674486* 
 
 N.B. — The kilogramme = 2'21bs. avoirdupois. 
 
 COLUMBO, the modern capital of Ceylon, situated on the south-west coast of the 
 island; lat. 6° 55' N., Ion. 79° 45' E.f It is defended by a very strong fort, nearly 
 surrounded by the sea, in which is a light-house 97 feet high. In 1816, the population 
 of the town and fort was 24,664 ; and in 1831, 26,357 (Columho Journal, 17th of Oc- 
 tober, 1832.) The houses are generally only one story high ; they are of stone, clay, and 
 lime ; and the town has more of a European appearance than any other in India. The 
 inhabitants are principally Cingalese. In 1821, there were only 32 Europeans in 
 the place qualified to serve on juries. The temperature of the air is remarkable for its 
 equality ; and though very humid, the climate may, on the whole, be esteemed salu- 
 brious and temperate. There is no harbour at Columbo Jot large vessels, but only an 
 open roadstead. A projecting rock, on which two batteries Are erected, aflTords shelter 
 to a small semicircular bay on the north side of the fort, having a wooden quay to faci- 
 litate the loading and unloading of boats. The depth of water is not sufficient to allow 
 sloops or large dhonies to come alongside the quay; those exceeding 100 tons burden" 
 lying at about a cable's length from it. A bar of sand, on some parts of which the 
 water is not more than 7 feet deep, extends from the projecting rock across tliis bay. 
 The channel where it may be crossed by the larger class of ships is liable to shift ; 
 and it is only in the fine weather of the safe season that they ventm-e to go within the 
 bar. The outer road affords secure anchorage for half the year, from the beginning of 
 October to the end of March, during the prevalence of the N. E. monsoon, when the 
 wind blows off the land: during the other, or S. W. monsoon, when the wind blows from 
 the sea on shore, the road is very far from safe ; and the ships that frequent it are 
 sometimes obliged to slip their cables and stand out to sea. — {Milbnrn*s Orient. Comm. ; 
 
 • Allowing for bounty on exports. 
 
 + This is the position as given by Hamilton. According to Mr. Steuart, master attendant of the port, it 
 is in lat. 6° 57' N., Ion. 79° 52' E. 
 
S62 
 
 COLUMBO. 
 
 Hamilton's Gazet, 8fc.) As respects its harbour, Col umbo is, therefore, very inferior to 
 Trincomalee, the harbour of which is accessible at all times, and is one of the best in India : 
 but the country in the vicinity of Columbo is more fertile ; and it has the command of 
 an internal navigation, stretching in a lateral direction along the coast, from Putlam, to 
 the north of the city, to Caltura on the south, a distance of about 100 miles, partly ob- 
 tained by rivers, and partly by canals. Many flat-bottomed boats are employed in this 
 navigation, the families dependent on which reside mostly on board. Nearly all the 
 foreign trade of Ceylon is carried on from Columbo ; and it has also a large proportion 
 of the coasting traffic. 
 
 Moneys. — The rixdoUar = Is. 615?. ; but accounts arekept in pounds, shillings, and pence, as in England, 
 Weights, Measures, 8(C. — The weights are divided into ounces, pounds, &c., and are the same as in 
 Great Britain. The candy or bahar = 500 lbs. avoirdupois, or 461 lbs. Dutch Troy weight. The principal 
 dry measures are seers or parrahs. The former is a perfect cyUnder, of the depth and diameter under- 
 mentioned : — 
 
 Depth. Diameter. 
 Seer _ - . 4-35 inches. 4-35 inches. 
 
 The parrah is a perfect cube, its internal dimensions being every way 11*57 inches. 
 The liquid measure consists of gallons, and their multiples and sub-multiples, 150 gallons = 1 leaguer or 
 legger. 
 
 The bale of cinnamon consists of 92| lbs. very nearly. 
 
 Rates of Pilotage payable by all Square-rigged Vessels, Sloops, 
 or Schooners, at the I'ortr of Columbo, Trincomalee, and 
 Galle. 
 
 L. a. d. 
 
 Columbo - - - - -0 15 0 
 
 Trincomalee — 
 Vessels of 600 tons and upwards 
 400 and under 600 
 200 - - 400 
 100 - . 200 
 under 100 
 
 Galle — 
 Vessels of 600 tons 
 
 400 and under 600 
 200 - - 400 
 100 - - 200 
 under 100 
 
 For. Back 
 
 Bay. 
 L. s. d.- 
 -200 
 - 1 10 0 
 
 1 1 
 
 0 10 
 0 6 
 
 For the Inner 
 Harbour. 
 L. s. d. 
 4 0 0 
 3 0 0 
 2 2 0 
 1 1 0 
 0 15 0 
 
 3 0 
 2 5 
 1 10 
 
 The above rates of pilotage will be charged to all vessels going 
 into the inner harbour of Trincomalee and the harbour of 
 Galle, whether they make a signal for pilot or not. In Co- 
 lumbo and Back Bay, at Trincomalee, the charge will only be 
 made, if the vessel make signal, and a pilot actually repair on 
 board. 
 
 Fees on Port Clearances payable by Merchant Ships and Ves 
 
 sels, from the 1st Day of October, 182o, 
 Square-rigged vessels, sloops, or schooners ; viz. 
 Of 600 tons or upwards . - . 
 
 400 and under 600 
 200 - - 400 - 
 100 - . 200 
 under 100 
 Dhonies; viz. 
 
 Of 50 garce and upwards 
 25 garce and under 30 
 20 - - 25 
 
 15 - . 20 
 
 10 - - 15 
 
 5 - -10 
 under 5 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 8 0 0 
 
 5 10 0 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 2 15 0 
 
 1 10 0 
 
 4 0 
 3 0 
 2 12 
 2 5 
 1 17 
 1 7 
 0 15 
 
 Exceptions. — Manar and Jaffna dhonies, when passing from 
 port to port within the districts they belong to, or from Manar 
 to Jaffna Kaits or Point Pedro, or vice versd, to pay half of the 
 above rates. 
 
 Boats, vessels, or dhonies, certified to belong to any port of 
 Ceylon, being under the 5 garce or 1,000 parrahs burden, are 
 to pay as follows : — L. s. d. 
 
 Under 50 parrahs - - - - 0 0 0 
 
 50 and under 200 parrahs, or 1 garce - - 0 3 0 
 
 1 garce and under 2 garce - - - 0 5 0 
 
 2 - .3 - . - - -070 
 
 3 - . 4 - . - - 0 10 0 
 4- -6 - - -0120 
 
 Sailing Directions and Remarks on the Port of Columbo, by James Sfeuart, Esq. Master Attendant. 
 
 The land about Columbo is low near the sea, with some 
 liills to the eastward at a distance in the country. The high 
 )Uountain having on it a sharp cone, called Adam's Peak, 
 bears from Columbo E. 7" S-, distant 12.^ leagues; its height 
 above the level of the sea is estimated at about 7,000 feet, 
 according to a rough trigonometrical measurement by Colonel 
 AVillerman. When the atmosphere is clear, it may be seen 
 30 leagues. During the prevalence of the N.E. monsoon, 
 Adam's Peak is generally visible in the morning, and fre- 
 quently the whole of the day ; bat it is rarely seen in the S.W. 
 monsoon, dense vapours generally prevailing over the island at 
 this season. 
 
 Ships approaching Columbo in the night have a brilliant 
 JJght to direct them, which is exhibited every night from a 
 light-house in the fort ; the height of the light above the level 
 of the sea is 97 feet, and may be seen in clear weather as far 
 as the light appears above the horizon. 
 
 A steep hank of coral, about J a mile broad, with 15 fathoms 
 water on it, lies 7 miles W. from Columbo,extending northward 
 towards Negombo (where its surface is sand), and a few miles 
 to the southward of Columbo ; outside the bank the water 
 deepens at once to 23 fathoms, and in 2 miles to 28 fathoms, 
 greenish sand, which is not far from the edge of soundings. 
 Within the bank there are 25 fathoms gradually shoaling 
 towards the shore. 
 
 A bed of sunken rocks, called the Drunken Sailor, lies S.W. 
 by W. i W. from Columbo Light-house, distant 1,000 yards. 
 The length of the ledge may be estimated at 100 yards, and the 
 breadth 20 yards ; on its N. end a small spot, about the size of 
 the hull of a 20 ton boat, is said to have only 3 feet water on it 
 at low water ; but during several recent visits, when some of 
 the coral from its surface was brought uy), there did not appear 
 to be less than 7 feet 6 inches water on the shallowest part : on 
 the other parts of the ledge there is 4, 5, and 6 fathoms. The 
 sea breaks on the shallow part of these rocks almost constantly 
 during the S.W. monsoon, but this is very seldom the case 
 during the N.E. monsoon. 
 
 'i'here appears to be no doubt, that the Drunken Sailor is 
 pranite, or stone of the same description as the rocks on the 
 shore, with its surface incrustated with coral ; if there ever 
 was so little water as 3 feet on it, it may be supposed to be 
 sinking. 
 
 The Drunken Sailor should not be approached under 9 
 fathoms during the night, as there are 8 fathoms very near to 
 it, and in its stream to the southward. 
 
 In the N.E. monsoon of 1826, the E.I.Company'sbrigofwar 
 Thetis touched on the Drunken Sailor, having stood too close 
 to the land in beating up to the anchorage fi^om the southward ; 
 but with common attention to the depth of water approaching 
 the rock, it may be easily avoided. 
 
 Tlie passage within the Djrunken Sailor is clear, and some 
 •hips liave sailed through; but no advantage can be gained by 
 oppronching the shore so very near at this point. 
 
 The Drunken Sailor lies so near the land, and so far to the 
 
 southward of the anchorage in Columbo road, as scarcely to 
 form any impediment to ships bound to or from Columbo. 
 
 The currents off Columbc are subject to considerable vari- 
 ation ; but they are never so strong as to cause inconvenience to 
 ships, which may have to communicate with the shore in either 
 monsoon without coming to anchor. 
 
 Columbo road affords good anchorage, free from foul ground ; 
 and is frequented at all seasons of the year. 
 
 The best anchorage during the prevalence of S.W. winds 
 from April to October, is in from 7 to 8 fathoms, with the 
 light-house bearing S. by E. ^ E., Dutch church E. by S. In 
 the N.E. monsoon from November to April, it is more con- 
 venient to anchor in 6^ fathoms, with the light-house beziring 
 S. or S. ^ E., and the Dutch church E.S.E. 
 
 Ships requiring pilots to conduct them to the anchorage 
 should make the usual signal ; the charge for pilotage is 15*. 
 
 The bar is a bank of sand with 7 feet water on its shallowest 
 part, the northern extremity being about 400 yards N.W. of 
 the Custom-house Point ; small vessels that draw less than 10 
 feet water, ride within the bar protected from the S.W. wind 
 and sea. 
 
 When the sea is high, it breaks with great force on the bar, 
 and renders the passage from the shipping in the outer road 
 dangerous for small boats : the native boats generally i>ass 
 out and in to the southward of the bar, close to the breakers 
 on the rocky point of the Custom-house ; but as the passage Is 
 narrow, it should not be attempted by strangers : when the sea 
 breaks on the bar, it is better to proceed round to thenorthward 
 of the bar, which may be easily distinguished by the breakers. 
 
 What is strictly understood by a gale of wind, is a rare oc- 
 currence at Columbo : this may be owing to the vicinity of the 
 equator. The strong gales which blow on the Malabar coast are 
 felt in small squalls, and a high sea, but there is scarcely wind 
 to endanger vessels properly found in ground tackling ; it is true, 
 ships have sometimes required the aid of a second anchor, but 
 in most cases the cause has been attributable to some defect in 
 the first anchor or cable, a light anchor, an anchor breaking, 
 a short chain, or the chain coming unshackled : an instance 
 occurred in Columbo road, of two ships receiving cargo during 
 the S.W. monsoon, whose chain cables came unshacklecl 
 twice ; twice did it occur to each ship. 
 
 On the 2d of June, 1831, the Ht^clor drove in a squall; 
 having about SO fathoms of chain ahead, they let go the second 
 anchor ; but finding the ship did not immediately bring up, 
 they made sail and shipped their cables : this ship stood out of 
 the roads under double-reefed fore and mizen ton-sails, and 
 from its size, a single-reefed main top-sail, foresail, fore and 
 main trysails and driver, and returned to anchorage on the 
 4th. Instances of ships putting to sea are rare, and when it 
 is considered that although tlie soa is high, the wind is not 
 violent; and as at these times the rain having fallen jn the 
 interior, strong fi-eshes escape to the S.W., from the Kalany 
 Ganga ; it is by no means surprising that Columbo road proves 
 a safe anchorage. 
 
COLUMBO. 
 
 363 
 
 T7'ade and Navigation qf Ceylon. — The quantity and estimated value of the principal articles exported from 
 Ceylon in 183(),bcginningwith cinnamon, themostiinportantof all, wereaslbllow: viz.Cinnamon.'j80,(XX) lbs., 
 value 142,500/. ; arrack 73!',472 gallons, value 24,G0(V. ; coir, and coir roi)es and cables, 1,499,453 lbs., value 
 5,433/. ; cocoa nuts 2,842,495, value 2,528/. ; cocoa nut oil 118,511 gallon.s, value 8,992/. ; chanks and chank 
 rings ^2,833 pieces, value 3,089/. ; plumbago .00,629 lbs., value 180/. ; jaggery 292,283 lbs., value.3,6(J0/. ; coffee 
 1,609,490 lbs., value 12,232/. ; areca nuts 3,348,972 lbs., value ]2,0fi4/. ; tobacco and sherroots 1,095,673 lbs., 
 value 4;896/. The destination and total value of the exports from Ceylon in 18.30, were, to Great Britain, 
 168,576/.; to British colonies, including India, 80,07.0/. : to foreign states, 1,536/. ; being, in all, 250,787/. : 
 hut to this has to be added, for the value of the pearl fishery in 1830, 24,023/. ; making an aggregate sum of 
 274,810/. 
 
 Of the imports, the principal are rice and other grain, the e.stimated value of the quantity imported in 
 1830 being 141,761/. ; the next article of importance is cotton cloth, mostly brought Irom India, estimated 
 at 123,759/. The imports from Great Britain are very trifling ; their entire value in 1830 being only esti- 
 mated at 40,777/. The total imports during that year amounted to 349,581/. ; of which 274,576/. were from 
 British colonies, including India and China.* 
 
 Tlie number and tonnage of the ships entering Ceylon inwards in 1830 were as follow : — 
 
 From Great Britain. 
 
 From British Colonies and 
 India. 
 
 From Foreign States. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Ships. 
 .11 
 
 Tnnt. 
 3,911 
 
 Shivf. 
 
 878 
 
 Tom. 
 60,157 
 
 Shipi. 
 169 
 
 Tont. 
 12,962 
 
 Shijis. 
 
 1,058 
 
 Tom. 
 77,030t 
 
 Extent, Population, Revenue, §*c. of Ceylon. — The area of Ceylon has been computed 
 at 24,664 square miles. Its population has been much exaggerated ; having frequently 
 been estimated as high as 2,000,000, and even Mr. Bertolacci reckoned it at 1,500,000. 
 — ( View of Ceylon, p. 65.) But it was found hy an actual enumeration taken in 1831, 
 that the total population did not exceed 950,000, of vt^hich about 6,600 vi^here Avhites. It 
 appears from the official accounts Jaid before the Finance Committee in 1825, that 
 during the 14 years ending with 1824, the excess of expenditure over revenue in the 
 Island amounted to 1,365,452^., at the same time th'at various heavy items of expense 
 are not included in this account. But according to a statement in the Ceylon Almanac 
 for 1833, which seems to proceed from authority, there was, during the 3 years ending 
 with 1831, an aggregate surplus of revenue over expenditure of 174,828Z. We may, 
 however, observe that the accounts laid before the Finance Committee differ very widely, 
 for the period to which they apply, from those in the Ceylon Almanac j so much so, 
 that while, according to the former, there was, in 1822, an excess of expenditure over 
 revenue of 55,896/., there was, according to the latter, an excess of revenue over ex- 
 penditure of 15,323?. ! Of course, we do not presume to say which of these accounts is 
 most to be relied upon. Probably our readers will be inclined to think that neither is 
 entitled to implicit credit. 
 
 A part, at least, of the former excess of expenditure may fairly be ascribed to the nature 
 of the establishment kept up in the island ; which, in point of magnitude and expensive- 
 ness, seems to have been a good deal beyond what was really required. We are, how- 
 ever, disposed to believe that the greater part of the excess is to be ascribed to the poverty 
 and backward state of the colony, arising from the perpetual interference of government 
 ■with every branch of industry. All the restrictive regulations enacted by the Dutch 
 more than a century ago were kept up till 1832. The cultivation of cinnamon, the 
 fishery of pearls and chanks, the digging for chaya root, the felling of timber, &c. — (see 
 these articles) — have been all monopolised by government, and were carried on exclusively 
 either by its servants or by those whom it had licensed. A country where most of 
 the principal branches of industry were subjected to .such restrictions, could not be other- 
 wise than languishing. We believe, too, that most of these monopolies have not 
 been worth the expense attending them. In fact, the whole revenue of the island, 
 including land rent, customs, cinnamon monopoly, &c., very seldom exceeds 360,000/. a 
 year ; but looking at its extent, its fertility, its favourable situation for commerce, and 
 the advantage it enjoys in the possession of cinnamon, can any one doubt that, were it 
 rightly governed, its trade and revenue would be far greater than they are ? Nothing is 
 Avanted but the adoption of measures calculated to give fi-eedom and security to industry, 
 and the imposition of moderate duties on imports and exports, to increase them both in 
 a very high degree. 
 
 We are glad to have to state that government seems, in part at least, to have at 
 length come round to this way of thinking ; and that, under the auspices of the present 
 governor (Sir R. W. Horton), the system of compulsory labour has been relinquished, 
 and most monopolies, including that of cinnamon, been thrown up. This wise and 
 liberal conduct will, no doubt, be productive of the most beneficial effects. These, how- 
 ever, will be materially lessened by the exorbitant duty of 3*. per lb. laid on the ex- 
 portation of cinnamon ! It is difficult, indeed, to imagine for what other purpose so 
 oppressive a duty could be imposed, except it were to countervail the advantages that 
 
 * Dr. Colquhoun (2d ed. p. 412.) estimated the exports of Ceylon at 1,500,0007. a year, and the imports 
 
 at 1,000,000/. ! Perhaps a third of the Doctor's estimates are about equally near the mark. 
 
 t No accurate returns of the trade of Ceylon for 1831 have as yet (10th of October, 1833) been received 
 In England. Those given in the papers printed by the Board of Trade for 1831, are really for 1830. 
 
364^ 
 
 COLUMBO ROOT. — COMMERCE. 
 
 would otherwise have resulted from the abolition of the monopoly. It is not, however, 
 possible that so mischievous an impost should be maintained. — (See Cinnamon.) 
 Among other improvements recently introduced into the island, may be mentioned the 
 establishment of a mail coach from Columbo to Candy. 
 
 COLUMBO ROOT (Du. Columbo wortel ; Yr. Racine de Colombo} Ger. ColumhO' 
 wurzel ; It. Radice di Columbo ; Port. Raiz de Columba ; Sp. Raiz de Columbo ; Mo- 
 samb. Kalumb), the root of the plant of that name. It is a staple export of the 
 Portuguese from Mosambique. It is not cultivated, but grows naturally in great 
 abundance. It is imported in circular pieces, from § an inch to 3 inches in diameter, 
 generally from ^ to f of an inch thick ; the bark is wrinkled and thick, of a brownish 
 colour without, and a brightish yellow within ; the pith is spongy, yellowish, and slightly 
 striped : when fresh, its smell is rather aromatic ; it is disagreeably bitter, and slightly 
 pungent to the taste, somewhat resembling mustard that has been too long kept. 
 Choose the largest pieces, fresh, and of a good colour, as free from worms as possible, 
 rejecting that which is small and broken. The freight is calculated^at 16 cwt. to a ton. 
 — {Milburri's Orient. Com.) 
 
 COMBS (Ger. Kamme ; Du. Kammen ; Fr. Peignes ; It. Peltini ; Sp. Peines ; Rus. 
 Grebnii ; Lat. Pectines), instruments for combing the hair, sometimes made of horns of 
 bullocks, or of elephants' and sea-horses' teeth ; sometimes also of tortoiseshell, and 
 sometimes of box or holly wood. 
 
 COMMERCE, from commutatio mercium, is simply, as its name imports, the exchange 
 of commodities for commodities. 
 
 I. Origin of Commerce. — Mercantile Classes. 
 II. Home Trade. 
 
 III. Foreign Trade. 
 
 IV. Restrictions on Commerce. 
 
 I. Origin of Commerce. • — Mercantile Classes. 
 
 (1.) The Origin of Commerce is coeval with the first dawn of civilisation. The mo- 
 ment that individuals ceased to supply themselves directly with the various articles and 
 accommodations they made use of, that moment must a commercial intercourse have 
 begun to grow up amongst them. For it is only by exchanging that portion of the 
 produce raised by ourselves that exceeds our own consumption, for portions of the sur- 
 plus produce raised by others, that the division of employments can be introduced, or 
 that different individuals can apply themselves in preference to different pursuits. 
 
 Not only, however, does commerce enable the inhabitants of the same village or 
 parish to combine their separate efforts to accomplish some common object, but it also 
 enables those of different provinces and kingdoms to apply themselves in an especial 
 manner to those callings, for the successful prosecution of which the district or country 
 which they occupy gives them some peculiar advantage. This territorial division of 
 labour has contributed more, perhaps, than any thing else to increase the wealth and acce- 
 lerate the civilisation of mankind. Were it not for it, we should be destitute of a vast 
 number of the necessaries, comforts, and enjoyments, which we now possess ; while 
 the price of the few that would remain would, in most instances, be very greatly in- 
 creased. But whatever advantages may be derived, — and it is hardly possible to 
 exaggerate either their magnitude or importance, from availing ourselves of the pecu- 
 liar capacities of production enjoyed by others, are wholly to be ascribed to commerce as 
 their real source and origin. 
 
 We do not mean to say any thing in this article with respect to the practical details 
 connected with the different departments of commerce. These will be found under the 
 various titles to which they refer. Our object, at present, is merely to show the nature 
 and influence of commerce in general, and of the restrictions that have sometimes been 
 imposed upon it. We shall begin by endeavouring, first of all, to give some account of 
 the nature of the services performed by those individuals by whom commercial under- 
 takings are usually carried on. In the second place, we shall consider the influence of 
 the home trade, or of the intercourse subsisting amongst individuals of the same country. 
 In the third place, we shall consider the influence of foreign trade, or of that intercourse 
 which subsists amongst individuals belonging to different countries. After these topics 
 have been discussed, we shall offer a few remarks on what has been termed the restric- 
 tive system ; or on the principles involved in the regulations enacted at different times, 
 in this and other countries, for the government and direction of commerce. 
 
 (2.) Mercantile Classes. — While the exchange of different products is carried on by 
 the producers themselves, they must unavoidably lose a great deal of time, and expe- 
 rience many inconveniences. Were there no merchants, a farmer wishing to sell hi.> 
 crop would be obliged, in the first place, to seek for customers, and to disposG of his 
 
COMMERCE. 
 
 365 
 
 corn as nearly as possible in such quantities as miglit suit the demands of the various 
 individuals inclined to buy it ; and after getting its price, he would next be obliged to 
 send to 10 or 20 different and, perhaps, remote places, for the commodities he wanted to 
 get in its stead. So that besides being exposed to a world of trouble and inconvenience^ 
 his attention would be continually diverted from the labours of his farm. Under such a 
 state of things, the work of production, in every different employment, would be meet- 
 ing with perpetual interruptions, and many branches of industry that are successfully 
 carried on in a commercial country would not be undertaken. 
 
 The establishment of a distinct mercantile class effectually obviates these inconve- 
 niences. When a set of dealers erect warehouses and shops for the purchase and sale 
 of all descriptions of commodities, every producer, relieved from the necessity of seeking 
 customers, and knowing beforehand where he may at all times be supplied with such 
 products as he requires, devotes his whole time and energies to his proper business. 
 The intervention of merchants gives a continuous and uninterrupted motion to the 
 plough and the loom. Were the class of traders annihilated, all the springs of industry 
 would be paralysed. The numberless difficulties that would then occur in effecting ex- 
 changes would lead each particular family to endeavour to produce all the articles they 
 had occasion for ; society would thus be thrown back into primEeval barbarism and 
 ignorance ; the divisions of labour would be relinquished ; and the desire to rise in 
 the world and improve our condition would decline, according as it became more diffi- 
 cult to gratify it. What sort of agricultural management could be expected from 
 farmers who had to manufacture their own wool, and make their own shoes ? And what 
 sort of manufacturers would those be, who were every now and then obliged to leave the 
 shuttle for the plough, or the needle for the anvil ? A society, without that distinction 
 of employments and professions resulting from the division of labour, that is, without 
 commerce, would be totally destitute of arts or sciences of any sort. It is by the assist- 
 ance each individual renders to and receives from his neighbours, by every one applying 
 himself in preference to some peculiar task, and combining, though probably without 
 intending it, his efforts with those of others, that civilised man becomes equal to the 
 most gigantic efforts, and appears endowed with almost omnipotent power. 
 
 The mercantile class has generally been divided into two subordinate classes — the 
 wholesale dealers, and the retail dealers. The former purchase the various products of 
 art and industry in the places where they are produced, or are least valuable, and carry 
 them to those where they are more valuable, or where they are more in demand ; and 
 the latter, having purchased the commodities of the wholesale dealers, or the producers, 
 collect them in shops, and sell them in such quantities and at such times as may best 
 suit the public demand. These classes of dealers are alike useful ; and the separation 
 that has been effected between their employments is one of the most advantageous divi- 
 sions of labour. The operations of the wholesale merchant are analogous to those of 
 the miner. Neither the one nor the other makes any change on the bodies which he 
 carries from place to place. All the difference between them consists in this, — that the 
 miner carries them from below ground to the surface of the earth, while the merchant 
 carries them from one point to another on its surface. Hence it follows that the value 
 given to commodities by the operations of the wholesale merchant may frequently ex- 
 ceed that given to them by the producers. The labour or expense required to dig a 
 quantity of coal from the mine, does not exceed what is required for its conveyance from 
 Newcastle to London ; and it is a far more difficult and costly affair to fetch a piece of 
 timber from Canada to England, than to cut down the tree. In this respect there is 
 no difference between commerce and agriculture and manufactures. The latter give 
 utility to mattei*, by bestowing on it such a shape as may best fit it for ministering to 
 our wants and comforts ; and the former gives additional utility to the products of the 
 agriculturist and manufacturer, by bringing them from where they are of comparatively 
 little use, or are in excess, to where they are of comparatively great use, or are 
 deficient. 
 
 If the wholesale merchant were himself to retail the goods he has brought from 
 different places, he would require a proportional increase of capital ; and it would be 
 impossible for him to give that exclusive attention to any department of his business, 
 which is indispensable to its being carried on in the best manner. It is for the interest 
 of each dealer, as of each workman, to confine himself to some one business. By this 
 means each trade is better understood, better cultivated, and carried on in the cheapest 
 possible manner. But whether carried on by a separate class of individuals or not, it is 
 obvious that the retailing of commodities is indispensable. It is not enough that a cargo 
 of tea should be imported from China, or a cargo of sugar from Jamaica. Most indi- 
 viduals have some demand for these articles ; but there is not, perhaps, a single private 
 person, even in London, requiring so large a supply of them for his own consumption 
 It is clear, therefore, that they must be retailed; that is, they must be sold in such quarv» 
 titles and at such times as may be most suitable for all classes of consumers. And since 
 
S66 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 it is admitted on all hands, that this necessary business will be best conducted by a class 
 of traders distinct from the wholesale dealers, it is impossible to doubt that their em- 
 ployment is equally conducive as that of the others to the public interest, or that it tends 
 equally to augment national wealth and comfort. 
 
 II. Home Trade. 
 
 The observations already made serve to show the influence of the home trade in 
 allowing individuals to confine their attention to some one employment, and to prosecute 
 it without interruption. But it is not in this respect only that the establishment of the 
 home trade is advantageous. It is so in a still greater degree, by its allowing the inha- 
 bitants of the different districts of the empire to turn their labour into those channels 
 in which it will be most productive. The different soils, different minerals, and different 
 climates of different districts, fit them for being appropriated, in preference, to certain 
 species of industry. A district, like Lancashire, where coal is abundant, which has an 
 easy access to the ocean, and a considerable command of internal navigation, is the na- 
 tural seat of manufactures. Wheat and other species of grain are the natural products 
 of rich arable soils ; and cattle, after being reared in mountainous districts, are most 
 advantageously fattened in meadows and low grounds. Hence it follows, that the inha- 
 bitants of different districts, by confining themselves to those branches of industry for 
 the successful prosecution of which they have some peculiar capability, and exchanging 
 their surplus produce for that of others, will obtain an incomparably larger supply of all 
 sorts of useful and desirable products, than they could do, were they to apply themselves 
 indiscriminately to every different business. The territorial division of labour is, if pos- 
 sible, even more advantageous than its division among individuals. A person may be 
 what is commonly termed Jack of all trades ; and though it is next to certain that he 
 will not be well acquainted with any one of them, he may nevertheless make some sort 
 of rude efforts in them all. . But it is not possible to apply the same soil or the same 
 minerals to every different purpose. Hence it is, that the inhabitants of the richest and 
 most extensive country, provided it were divided into small districts without any inter- 
 course with each other, or with foreigners, could not, how well soever labour might be 
 divided among themselves, be otherwise than poor and miserable. Some of them might 
 have a superabundance of corn, at the same time that they were wholly destitute of 
 wine, coal, and iron ; while others might have the largest supplies of the latter articles, 
 with but very little grain. But in commercial covmtries no such anomalies can exist. 
 Opulence and comfort are there universally diffused. The labours of the mercantile 
 classes enable the inhabitants of each district to apply themselves principally to those 
 employments that are naturally best suited to them. This superadding of the division 
 of labour among different provinces to its division among different individuals, renders 
 the productive powers of industry immeasurably greater ; and augments the mass of 
 necessaries, conveniences, and enjoyments, in a degree that could not previously have 
 been conceived possible, and which cannot be exceeded except by the introduction of 
 foreign commerce. 
 
 " With the benefit of commerce," says an eloquent and philosophical writer, « or a 
 ready exchange of commodities, every individual is enabled to avail himself, to the 
 utmost, of the peculiar advantage of his place ; to work on the peculiar materials with 
 which nature has furnished him ; to humour his genius or disposition, and betake him- 
 self to the task in which he is peculiarly qualified to succeed. The inhabitant of the 
 mountain may betake himself to the culture of his woods and the manufacture of his 
 timber ; the owner of pasture lands may betake himself to the care of his herds ; the 
 owner of the clay-pit to the manufacture of his pottery ; and the husbandman to the 
 culture of his fields, or the rearing of his cattle. And any one commodity, however it 
 may form but a small part in the accommodations of human life, may, under the facility 
 of commerce, find a market in which it may be exchanged for what will procure any 
 other part, or the whole : so that the owner of the clay-pit, or the industrious potter, 
 without producing any one article immediately fit to supply his own necessities, may 
 obtain possession of all that he wants. And commerce, in which it appears that com- 
 modities are merely exchanged, and nothing produced, is, nevertheless, in its effects, 
 very productive, because it ministers a facility and an encouragement to every artist in 
 multiplying the productions of his own art; thus adding greatly to the mass of wealth 
 in the world, in being the occasion that much is produced." — {Ferguson's Principles Oj 
 Moral Science, vol. ii. p. 424.) 
 
 The roads and canals that intersect a country, and open an easy communication be- 
 tween its remotest extremities, render the greatest service to internal commerce, and also 
 to agriculture and manufactures. A diminution of the expense of carriage has, in fact, 
 the same effect as a diminution of the direct cost of production. If the coals brought 
 into a city sell at 20.s. a ton, of which the carriage amounts to a half, or 10.s., it is plain 
 that in the event of an improved communication, such as a more level or direct road, a 
 
COMMERCE. 
 
 367 
 
 ■railway, or a canal, being opened for the conveyance of the ooals, and that they can, by 
 its means, be imported for half the previous expense, their price will immediately fall to 
 15s. a ton; just as it would have done, had the expense of extracting them from the 
 mine been reduced a half. 
 
 Every one acquainted with the merest elements of political science is aware that em- 
 ployments are more and more subdivided, that more powerful machinery is introduced, 
 and the productive powers of labour increased, accordinj^ as larger masses of the popu- 
 lation congregate together. In a great town like I^ondon, Glasgow, or Manchester, the 
 same number of hands will perform much more work than in a small village, where each 
 individual has to perform several operations, and where the scale of employment is not 
 sufficiently large to admit of the introduction of extensive and complicated machinery. 
 But the great towns with which England is studded, could not exist without our im- 
 proved means of communication. 'I'hese, however, enable their inhabitants to supply 
 themselves with the bulky products of the soil and of the mines almost as cheap as if 
 they lived in country villages ; securing to them all the advantages of concentration, 
 with but few of its inconveniences. Roads and canals are thus productive of a double 
 benefit ; for while, by affording comparatively cheap raw materials to the manufacturers, 
 they give them the means of perfecting the divisions of labour, and of supplying propor- 
 tionally cheap manufactured goods ; the latter are conveyed by their means, and at an 
 extremely small expense, to the remotest parts of the country. The direct advantages 
 which they confer on agriculture are not less important. Without them it woidd not be 
 possible to carry to a distance sufficient supplies of lime, marl, shells, and other bulky 
 and heavy articles necessary to give luxuriance to the crops of rich soils, and to render 
 those that are poor productive. Good roads and canals, therefore, by furnishing the 
 agriculturists with cheap and abundant supplies of manure, reduce, at one and the 
 same time, the cost of producing the necessaries of life, and the cost of bringing them 
 to market. 
 
 In other respects, the advantages resulting from improved communications are probably 
 even more striking. They give the same common interest to every different part of the 
 most widely extended empire ; and put down, or rather prevent, any attempt at monopoly 
 on the part of the dealers of particular districts, by bringing them into competition with 
 those of all the others. Nothing in a state enjoying gi-eat facilities of communication is 
 separate and unconnected. All is mutual, reciprocal, and dependent. Every man 
 naturally gets into the precise situation that he is best fitted to fill ; and each, co-oper- 
 ating with, every one else, contributes to the utmost of his power to extend the limits of 
 production and civilisation. — (See Roads.) 
 
 Such being the nature and vast extent of the advantages derived from the home trade, 
 it is obviously the duty of the legislature to give it every proper encouragement and 
 protection. It will be found however, on a little consideration, that this duty is rather 
 negative than positive — that it consists less in the framing of regulations, than in the 
 removal of obstacles. The error of governments in matters of trade has not been that 
 they have done too little, but that they have attempted too much. It will be afterwards 
 shown that the encouragement which has been afforded to the producers of certain 
 species of articles in preference to others, has uniformly been productive of disadvantage. 
 In the mean time it is sufficient to observe that the encouragement which a prudent and 
 enlightened government bestows on industry, will equally extend to all its branches ; 
 and will be especially directed to the removal of every thing that may in any respect 
 fetter the freedom of commerce, and the power of individuals to engage in different 
 employments. All regulations, whatever be their object, that operate either to prevent 
 the circulation of commodities from one part of the empire to another, or the free circu- 
 lation of labour, necessarily tend to check the division of employments and the spirit of 
 competition and emulation, and must, in consequence, lessen the amount of produce. 
 The same principle that prompts to open roads, to construct bridges and canals, ought 
 to lead every people to erase from the statute book every regulation which either prevents 
 or fetters the operations of the merchant, and the free disposal of capital and labour. 
 Whether the freedom of internal commerce and industry be interrupted by impassable 
 mountains and swamps, or by oppressive tolls or restrictive regulations, the effect is 
 equally pernicious. 
 
 The common law and the ancient statute law of England are decidedly hostile to 
 monopolies, or to the granting of powers to any particular class of individuals to furnish 
 the market with commodities. Lord Coke distinctly states, " that all monopolies con- 
 cerning trade and traffic are against the liberty and freedom granted by the great 
 charter, and divers other acts of parliament which are good commentaries upon that 
 charter." — (2 Inst. 63.) And he affirms, in another place, that " Commerciton jure 
 gentium commune esse debet, et non in monopoUum et privatum paululorum questum conver- 
 tendum. Iniquum est aliis pcrmittere, aliis inhibere mcrcaturam." 
 
 But, notwithstanding this concurrence of the common and statute law of the country 
 
368 
 
 CO?vIMERCE. 
 
 in favour of the freedom of industry, during the arbitrary reigns of the princes of the? 
 house of Tudor, the notion that the crown was by its prerogative entitled to dispense 
 with any law to the contrary, and to establish monopolies, became fashionable among the 
 court lawyers, and was acted upon to a very great extent. Few things, indeed, occasioned 
 so much dissatisfaction in the reign of Elizabeth as the multiplication of monopolies ; 
 and notwithstanding the opposition made by the crown, and the court party in parlia- 
 ment, the grievance became at length so intolerable as to give rise to the famous statute 
 of 16^4 (21 James 1. c. 3.), by which all monopolies, grants, letters patent, and licences, 
 for the sole buying, selling, and making of goods and manufactures, not given by an act 
 of the legislature, are declared to be " altogether contrary to the laws of this realm, void, 
 and of none effect." This statute has been productive of the greatest advantage ; and 
 has, perhaps, contributed more than any other to the development of industry, and the 
 accumulation of wealth. With the exception of the monopoly of printing Bibles, and 
 the restraints imposed by the charters of bodies legally incorporated, the freedom of 
 internal industry has ever since been vigilantly protected ; full scope has been given 
 to the principle of competition ; the whole kingdom has been subjected to the same equal 
 law ; no obstacles have been thrown in the way of the freest transfer of commodities 
 from one county or place to another ; the home trade has been perfectly unfettered ; and 
 though the public have not been supplied with commodities at so low a price as they 
 might have obtained them for, had there been no restrictions on foreign commerce, they 
 have obtained them at the lowest price that would suffice to pay the home producers the 
 cost of producing and bringing them to market. It is to this freedom that the com- 
 paratively flourishing state of industry in Great Britain is mainly to be ascribed. 
 
 III. Foreign Trade. 
 What the home trade is to the different provinces of the same country, foreign trade 
 is to all the countries of the world. Particular countries produce only particular com- 
 modities, and, were it not for foreign commerce, would be entirely destitute of all but 
 such as are indigenous to their own soil. It is difficult for those who have not reflected 
 or the subject, to imagine what a vast deduction would be made, not only from the 
 comforts, but even from the necessaries, of every commercial people, were its intercourse 
 with strangers put an end to. It is not, perhaps, too much to say that in Great Britaic 
 we owe to our intercourse with others a full half or more of all that we enjoy. We am 
 not only indebted to it for the cotton and silk manufactures, and for supplies of wine, 
 tea, coffee, sugar, the precious metals, &c. ; but we are also indebted to it for most of the 
 fruits and vegetables that we now cultivate. At the same time, too, that foreign 
 commerce supplies us with an immense variety of most important articles, of which we 
 must otherwise have been wholly ignorant, it enables us to employ our industry in the 
 mode in which it is sure to be most productive, and reduces the price of almost every 
 article. We do not misemploy our labour in raising sugar from the beet-root, in culti- 
 vating tobacco, or in forcing vines ; but we employ ourselves in those departments of manu- 
 facturing industry in which our command of coal, of capital, and of improved machinery, 
 give us an advantage ; and obtain the articles produced more cheaply by foreigners, in 
 exchange for the surplus produce of those branches in which we have a superiority over 
 them. A commercial nation like England avails herself of all the peculiar facilities of 
 production given by Providence to different countries. To produce claret here is 
 perhaps impossible ; and at all events it could not be accomplished, unless at more than 
 100 times the expense required for its production in France. We do not, however, 
 deny ourselves the gratification derivable from its use ; and to obtain it, we have only to 
 send to France, or to some country indebted to France, some article in the production 
 of which we have an advantage, and we get claret in exchange at the price which it 
 takes to raise it under the most favourable circumstances. One country has peculiar 
 capacities for raising corn, but is at the same time destitute of wine, silk, and tea ; 
 another, again, has peculiar facilities for raising the latter, but is destitute of the former ; 
 and it is impossible to point out a single country which is abundantly supplied with any 
 considerable variety of commodities of domestic growth. Non omnis fert omnia tellus. 
 Providence, by giving to each particular nation something which the others want, has 
 evidently intended that they should be mutually dependent upon one another. And it 
 is not difficult to see that, ccateris paribus, those must be the richest and most abundantly 
 supplied with every sort of useful and desirable accommodation, who cultivate the arts of 
 peace with the greatest success, and deal with all the world on fair and liberal 
 principles. 
 
 " The commerce of one country with another is, in fact," to use the words of an able 
 and profound writer, « merely an extension of that division of labour by which so many 
 benefits are conferred upon the human race. As the same country is rendered the 
 richer by the trade of one province with another ; as its labour becomes thus infinitely 
 more divided and more productive than it could otherwise have been ; and as the mutual 
 
COMMERCE. 
 
 supply to each other of all the accommodations which one province has, and another 
 wants, multiplies the accommodations of the whole, and the country hecomes thus in a 
 wonderful degree more opulent and happy ; the same beautiful train of consequences is 
 observable in the world at large, — that great empire of which the different kingdoms 
 and tribes of men may be regarded as the provinces. In this magnificent empire, too, 
 one province is favourable to the production of one species of accommodation, and another 
 province to another : by their mutual intercourse they are enabled to sort and distribute 
 their labour as most peculiarly suits the genius of each particular spot. The labour of 
 the human race thus becomes much more productive, and every species of accommodation 
 is afforded in much greater abundance. The same number of labourers, whose eflbrts 
 might have been expended in producing a very insignificant quantity of home-made 
 luxuries, may thus, in Great Britain, produce a quantity of articles for exportation, 
 accommodated to the wants of other places, and peculiarly suited to the genius of 
 Britain to furnish, which will purchase for her an accumulation of the luxuries of every 
 quarter of the globe. There is not a greater proportion of her population employed in 
 administering to her luxuries, in consequence of her commerce ; there is probably a good 
 deal less ; but their labour is infinitely more productive : the portion of commodities: 
 which the people of Great Biitain acquire by means of the same labour, is vastly greater." 
 
 — (MilVs Commerce defended, p. 38.) 
 
 What has been already stated is sufficient to expose the utter fallacy of the opinion 
 that has sometimes been maintained, that whatever one nation may gain by her foreign 
 commerce, must be lost by some one else. It is singular, indeed, how such a notion 
 should ever have originated. Commerce is not directly productive, nor is the good de- 
 rived from it to be estimated by its immediate effects. What commercial nations give is 
 uniformly the fair equivalent of what they get. In their dealings they 3o not prey 
 upon each other, but are benefited alike. The advantage of commerce consists in its 
 enabling labour to be divided, and giving each people the power of supplying themselves 
 vrith the various articles for which they have a demand, at the lowest price required for 
 their production in those countries and places where they are raised with the greatest 
 facility. We import wine from Portugal, and cotton from America, sending in exchange 
 cloth and other species of manufactured goods. By this means we obtain two very im- 
 portant articles, which it would be all but impossible to produce at home, and which we 
 could not, certainly, produce, except at an infinitely greater cost. But our gain is no loss 
 to the foreigners. They derive precisely the same sort of advantage from the transaction 
 that we do. We have very superior facilities for manufacturing, and they get from us 
 cloth, hardware, and other important articles, at the price at which they can be produced 
 in this country, and consequently for far less than their direct production would have cost 
 them. The benefits resulting from an intercourse of this sort are plainly mutual and 
 reciprocal. Commerce gives no advantage to any one people over any other people ; 
 but it increases the wealth and enjoyments of all in a degree that could not previously 
 have been conceived possible. 
 
 But the influence of foreign commerce in multiplying and cheapening conveniences 
 and enjoyments, vast as it most certainly is, is perhajDS inferior to its indirect influence 
 
 — that is, to its influence on industry, by adding immeasurably to the mass of desirable 
 articles, by inspiring new tastes, and stimulating enterprise and invention by bringing 
 each people into coinpetition with foreigners, and making them acquainted with their 
 arts and institutions. 
 
 Tlie apathy and languor that exist in a rude state of society have been universally 
 remarked. I5ut these uniformly give place to activity and enterprise, according as man 
 is rendered familiar with new objects, and is inspired with a desire to obtain them. An 
 individual might, with comparatively little exertion, furnish himself with an abundant 
 supply of the commodities essential to his subsistence ; and if he had no desire to obtain 
 others, or if that desire, however strong, could not be gratified, it would be folly to sup- 
 pose that he should be laborious, inventive, or enterprising. But, when once excited, the 
 wants and desires of man become altogether illimitable ; and to excite them, no more is 
 necessary than to bring new products and new modes of enjoyment within his reach. 
 Now, the sure way to do this is to give every facility to the most extensive intercourse 
 with foreigners. The markets of a commercial nation being filled with the various 
 commodities of every country and every climate, the motives and gratifications which , 
 stimulate and reward the efforts of the industrious are proportionally augmented. The 
 husbandman and manufacturer exert themselves to increase their supplies of raw and 
 manufactured produce, that they may exchange the surplus for the products imported 
 from abroad. And the merchant, finding a ready demand for such products, is prompted 
 to import a greater variety, to find out cheaper markets, and thus constantly to alfbrd 
 new incentives to the vanity and ambition, and consequently to the enterprise and 
 industry, of his customers. The whole powers of the mind and the body are thus 
 called into action ; and the passion for foreign commodities — a passion which has some- 
 
 2 B 
 
370 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 times been ignorantly censured — becomes one of the most efficient causes of wealth and 
 civilisation. 
 
 Not only, however, does foreign coirimerce excite industry, distribute the gifts of 
 nature, and enable them to be turned to the best account, but it also distributes the gifts 
 cf science and of art, and gives to each particular country the means of profiting by the 
 inventions and discoveries of others as much as by those of her own citizens. The 
 ingenious machine invented by Mr. Whitney, of the United States, for separating cotton 
 wool from the pod, by reducing the cost of the raw material of one of our principal 
 manufactures, has been quite as advantageous to us as to his own countrymen. And 
 the discoveries and inventions of Watt, Arkwright, and Wedgwood, by reducing the 
 cost of the articles we send abroad, have been as advantageous to our foreign customers 
 as to ourselves. Commerce has caused the blessings of civilisation to be universally 
 diffused, and the treasures of knowledge and science to be conveyed to the remotest 
 corners. Its humanising influence is, in this respect, most important ; while, by making 
 each country depend for the means of supplying a considerable portion of its wants on 
 the assistance of others, it has done more than any thing else to remove a host of the 
 most baleful prejudices, and to make mankind regard each other as friends and brothers, 
 and not as enemies. The dread, once so prevalent, of the progress of other nations in 
 .vealth and civilisation, is now universally admitted to be as absurd as it is illiberal. 
 While every people ought always to be prepared to resist and avenge any attack upon 
 their independence or their honour, it is not to be doubted that their real prosperity 
 will be best secured by their endeavouring to live at peace. *' A commercial war, whether 
 crowned with victory or branded with defeat, can never prevent another nation from 
 becoming more industrious than you are ; and if they are more industrious they will 
 sell cheaper ; and consequently your customers will forsake your shop and go to theirs. 
 This will happen, though you covered the ocean with fleets, and the land with armies. 
 The soldier may lay waste ; the privateer, whether successful or unsuccessful, will make 
 p,oor; but it is the eternal law of Providence that * the hand of the diligent can alone 
 make rich.^ " — ( Tucker's Four Tracts, p. 41. 3d ed.) 
 
 Mr. Hume has beautifully illustrated the powerful and salutary influence of that spirit 
 of industry and enterprise resulting from the eager prosecution of commerce and the 
 arts. " Men," says he, " are then kept in perpetual occupation, and enjoy, as their 
 reward, the occupation itself, as well as those pleasures which are the fruits of their 
 labour. The mind acquires new vigour ; enlarges its powers and faculties ; and, by an 
 assiduity in honest industry, both satisfies its natural appetites, and prevents the growth 
 of unnatural ones, which commonly spring up when nourished with ease and idleness. 
 Banish those arts from society, you deprive men both of action and of pleasure ; and, 
 leaving nothing but indolence in their place, you even destroy the relish of indolence, 
 which never is agreeable but when it succeeds to labour, and recruits the spirits, 
 exhausted by too much application and fatigue. 
 
 " Another advantage of industry and of refinements in the ntiechanical arts is, that 
 they commonly produce some refinements in the liberal ; nor can the one be carried to 
 perfection, without being accompanied in some degree with the other. The same age 
 which produces great philosophers and politicians, renowned generals and poets, usually 
 abounds with skilful weavers and ship-carpenters. We cannot reasonably expect that a 
 piece of woollen cloth will be wrought to perfection in a nation which is ignorant of 
 astronomy, or where ethics are neglected. The spirit of the age affects all the arts ; 
 and the minds of men, being once roused from their lethargy, and put into a ferment- 
 ation, turn themselves on all sides, and carry improvements into every art and science. 
 Profound ignorance is totally banished ; and men enjoy the privilege of rational crea- 
 tures, to think as well as to act, to cultivate the pleasures of the mind as well as those 
 of the body. 
 
 " The more these refined arts advance, the more sociable do men become ; nor is it 
 possible that, when enriched with science, and possessed of a fund of conversation, they 
 should be contented to remain in solitude, or live with their fellow citizens in that distant 
 manner which is peculiar to ignorant and barbarous nations. They flock into cities ; 
 love to receive and communicate knowledge ; to show their wit or their breeding ; their 
 taste in conversation or living, in clothes or furniture. Curiosity allures the wise, vanity 
 the foolish, and pleasure both. Particular clubs and societies are every where formed ; 
 both sexes meet in an easy and sociable manner ; and the tempers of men, as well as 
 their behaviour, refine apace. So that beside the improvements they receive from know- 
 ledge and the liberal arts, it is impossible but they must feel an increase of humanity 
 from the very habit of conversing together, and contributing to each other's pleasure and 
 entertainment. Thus industrij, knowledge, and humanity are linked together by an indis- 
 soluble chain ; and are found, from experience as well as reason, to be peculiar to the 
 more polished, and, what are commonly denominated, the more luxurious ages."— • 
 ( Essay of Refinement in the Arts. ) 
 
COMMERCE. 
 
 371 
 
 Most commercial treatises, and most books on political economy, contain lengtliened 
 statements as to the comparative advantages derived from the home and foreign trade. 
 But these statements are almost always bottomed on the most erroneous principles. The 
 quantity and value of the commodities which the inhabitants of an extensive country 
 exchange with each other, is far greater than the quantity and value of those they ex- 
 change with foreigners : but this is not, as is commonly supposed, enough to show that 
 the home trade is proportionally more advantageous. Commerce, it must be borne in 
 mind, is not a direct but an indirect source of wealth. The mere exchange of commo- 
 dities adds nothing to the riches of society. The influence of commerce on wealth con- 
 sists in its allowing employments to be separated and prosecuted without interruption. 
 It gives the means of pushing the divisions of labour to the furthest extent ; and supplies 
 mankind with an infinitely greater quantity of necessaries and accommodations of all 
 sorts, than could have been produced, had individuals and nations been forced to depena 
 upon their own comparatively feeble efforts for the supply of their wants. And hence, 
 in estimating the comparative advantageousness of the home and foreign trades, the real 
 questions to be decided are, which of them contributes most to the division of labour ? 
 and which of them gives the greatest stimulus to invention and industry ? These ques- 
 tions do not, perhaps, admit of any very satisfactory answer. The truth is, that both 
 home trade and foreign trade are most prolific sources of wealth. Without the former, 
 no division of labour could be established, and man would for ever remain in a barbarous 
 state. Hence, perhaps, we may say that it is the most indispensable ; but the length to 
 which it could carry any particular country in the career of civilisation, would be limited 
 indeed. Had Great Britain been cut off from all intercourse with strangers, there is 
 no reason for thinking that we should have been at this day advanced beyond the point 
 to which our ancestors had attained during the Heptarchy ! It is to the products and 
 the arts derived from others, and to the emulation inspired by their competition and 
 example, that we are mainly indebted for the extraordinary progress we have already 
 made, as well as for that we are yet destined to make. 
 
 Dr. Smith, though he has satisfactorily demonstrated the impolicy of all restrictions 
 on the freedom of commerce, has, notwithstanding, endeavoured to show that it is more 
 for the public advantage that capital should be employed in the home trade than in foreign 
 trade, on the ground that the capitals employ in the former are more frequently re- 
 turned, and that they set a greater quantity of lab i r in motion than those employed in 
 the latter. But we have elsewhere endeavoured to show that ihe rate of profit which 
 different businesses yield is the only test of their respective advantageousness. — (Prin- 
 ciples of Political Economy, 2d ed. pp. 160 — 180.) Now, it is quite evident that capital 
 will not be employed in foreign trade, unless it yield as much profit as could be made by 
 employing it at home. No merchant sends a ship to China, if it be in his power to 
 realise a larger profit by sending her to Dublin or Newcastle ; nor would any one build 
 a ship, unless he expected that the capital so laid out would be as productive as if it were 
 employed in agriculture or manufactures. The more or less rapid return of capital is 
 a matter of very little importance. If the average rate of profit be 10 per cent., an 
 individual who turns over his capital 10 times a year, will make one per cent, of profit 
 each time ; whereas if he turns it only once a year, he will get the whole 10 per cent, 
 at once. Competition reduces the rate of nett profit to about the same level in all 
 businesses ; and we may be quite certain that those who employ themselves in the depart- 
 ments in which capital is most rapidly returned, do not, at an average, gain more than 
 those who employ themselves in the departments in which the returns are most distant. 
 No one is a foreign merchant because he would rather deal with foreigners than with his 
 own countrymen, but because he believes lie will be able to employ his capital more 
 advantageously in foreign trade than in any other business : and while he does this, he 
 is following that employment which is most beneficial for the public as well as for 
 himself. 
 
 IV. Restrictions on Commerce. 
 
 The statements already made, by explaimng the nature and principles of commercial 
 transactions, are suflficient to evince the inexpediency of subjecting them to any species 
 of restraint. It is obvious, indeed, that restrictions are founded on false principles. 
 When individuals are left to pursue their own interest in their own way, they naturally 
 resort to those branches of industry which they reckon most advantageous for themselves; 
 and, as we have just seen, these are the very branches in which it is most for the public 
 interest that they should be employed. Unless, therefore, it could be shown that a 
 government can judge better as to what sort of transactions are profitable or otherwise 
 than private individuals, its regulations cannot be of the smallest use, and may be ex- 
 ceedingly injurious. But any such pretension on the part of government would be 
 universally scouted. It is undeniably certain that a regard to our ov/n interest is, if not 
 an unerring guide to direct us in such matters, at least incomparably better than any 
 
372 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 other. If the trade with a particular country or in a particular commodity be a losing 
 one, or merely a less profitable one than others, it is quite as unnecessary to pass an act 
 to prevent it from being carried on, as it would be to interfere to prevent individuals 
 from selling their labour or their commodities below the market price. It appears, there- 
 fore, that all regulations affecting the freedom of commerce, or of any branch £>f industry, 
 are either useless or pernicious. They are useless, when they are intended to protect the 
 interest of individuals by preventing them from engaging in disadvantageous businesses ; 
 and pernicious, when they prevent them from engaging in those that are advantageous. 
 The self interest of the parties concerned is the only safe principle to go by in such matters. 
 When the acts of the legislature are in unison with it, there is nothing to object to in 
 them, save only that they might as well not exist ; but whenever they are inconsistent 
 with it — that is, whenever they tend to divert capital and industry into channels, into 
 which individuals, if left to their own discretion, would not have carried them — they are 
 decidedly injurious. 
 
 No one denies that it is possible to confer, by means of a restrictive regulation, an 
 advantage on a greater or less number of individuals. This, however, is no proof that 
 it is advantageous in a public point of view ; and it is by its influence in this respect that 
 we are to decide concerning it. If the exclusion of an article imported from abroad, in 
 order to encourage its manufacture at home, raise its price in the home market, that cir- 
 cumstance will, for a while at least, be advantageous to those engaged in its production. 
 But is it not clear that all that is thus gained by them, is lost by those who purchase 
 the article ? To suppose, indeed, that the exclusion of commodities that are compara- 
 tively cheap, to make room for those that are comparatively dear, can be a means of 
 enriching a country, is equivalent to supposing that a people's wealth might be increased 
 by destroying their most powerful machines, and throwing their best soils out of cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 But it is contended, that though this might be the case in the instance of commodities 
 produced at home, it is materially different when the commodity excluded came to us 
 from abroad. It is said, that in this case the exclusion of foreign produce increases the 
 demand for that produced at home, and consequently contributes to increase the demand 
 for labour ; so that the rise of price it occasions is, in this way, more than balanced by 
 the other advantages which it brings along with it. But the fact is, that though the 
 demand for one species of produce may be increased by a prohibition of importation, the 
 demand for some other species is sure to be at the same time equally diminished. There 
 is no jugglery in commerce. Whether it be carried on between individuals of the same 
 country, or of different countries, it is in all cases bottomed on a fair principle of reci- 
 procity. Those who will not buy need not expect to sell, and conversely. It is impos- 
 sible to export without making a corresponding importation. We get nothing from the 
 foreigner gratuitously : and hence, when we prevent the importation of produce from 
 abroad, we prevent, by the very same act, the exportation of an equal amount of British 
 produce. All that the exclusion of foreign commodities ever effects, is the substitution 
 of one sort of demand for another. It has been said, that " when we drink beer and 
 porter we consume the produce of English industry, whereas when we drink port or 
 claret we consume the produce of the industry of the Portuguese and French, to the 
 obvious advantage of the latter, and the prejudice of our countrymen ! " But, how 
 paradoxical soever the assertion may at first sight appear, there is not at bottom any real 
 distinction between the two cases. What is it that induces foreigners to supply us with 
 port and claret ? The answer is obvious : — We either send directly to Portugal and 
 France an equivalent in British produce, or we send such equivalent, in the first place to 
 South America for bullion, and then send that bullion to the Continent to pay for the 
 wine. And hence it is as clear as the sun at noon- day, that the Englishman who drinks 
 only French wine, who eats only bread made of Polish wheat, and who wears only Saxon 
 cloth, gives, by occasioning the exportation of a corresponding amount of British cotton, 
 hardware, leather, or other produce, the same encouragement to the industry of his 
 countrymen, that he would give were he to consume nothing not immediately produced 
 at home. A quantity of port wine and a quantity of Birmingham goods are respectively 
 of the same value ; so that whether we directly consume the hardware, or, having ex- 
 changed it for the wine, consume the latter, must plainly, in so far as the employment of 
 British labour is concerned, be altogether indifferent. 
 
 It is absolutely nugatory, therefore, to attempt to encourage industry at home by 
 restraining importation from abroad. We might as well try to promote it by inter- 
 dicting the exchange of shoes for hats. We only resort to foreign markets, that we may 
 supply ourselves with articles that cannot be produced at home, or that require more 
 labour to produce them here, than is required to produce the equivalent exported to pay 
 for them. It is, if any thing can be, an obvious contradiction and absurdity to attempt 
 to promote wealth or industry by prohibiting an intercourse of this sort. Such pro- 
 hibition, even when least injurious, is sure to force capital and labour into less pro- 
 
COMMERCE. 37:^ 
 
 tiuctive channels ; and cannot fail to diminish tlie foreign demand for one species of 
 produce, quite as much as it extends the home demand for another. 
 
 It is but seldom, however, that a restriction on importation from abroad does 
 more than substitute one sort of employment for another. Its usual effect is both to 
 alter the distribution of capital, and to increase tlie price of commodities. A country 
 rarely imports any commodity from abroad tliat may be as cheajjly produced at home. 
 In the vast majority of instances, the articles bought of the foreigner could not l)e 
 directly produced at home, without a much greater outlay of capital. Suppose that we 
 import 1.000,000/. worth of any commodity, that its importation is prohibited, and that 
 the same quantity of produce cannot be raised in this country for less than 1,200,000/. 
 or 1,500,000/.: in a case of this sort, — and this is actually the case in 99 out of 
 every 100 instances in which prohibitions are enacted, — the prohibition has the same 
 effect on the consumers of the commodity, as if, supposing it not to have existed, 
 they had been burdened with a peculiar tax of 200,000/. or 500,000/. a year. But, had 
 such been the case, what the consumers lost would have gone into tlie coffers of the 
 treasury, and would have afforded the means of repealing an equal amount of other 
 taxes ; whereas, under the prohibitory system, the high price, being occasioned by an 
 increased difficulty of production, is of no advantage to any one. So that, instead of 
 gaining any thing by such a measure, the public incurs a dead loss of 200,000/. or 
 500,000/. a year. 
 
 We have said that a prohibition of importation may be productive of immediate ad- 
 vantage to the home producers of the prohibited article. It is essential, however, to 
 remark that this advantage cannot continue for any considerable time, and that it must 
 be followed by a period of distress. Were the importation of foreign silks put an end 
 to, that circumstance, by narrowing the supply of silk goods, and raising their prices, 
 would, no doubt, be, in the first instance, advantageous to the manufacturers, by ele- 
 vating their profits above the common level. But the consequence would be, that those 
 already engaged in the trade would immediately set about extending their concerns ; at 
 the same time that not a few of those engaged in other employments would enter a 
 business which presented such a favourable prospect: nor would this transference of 
 capital to the silk manufacture be stopped, till such an increased supply of silks had been 
 brought to market as to occasion a glut. This reasoning is not founded upon hypothesis, 
 but upon the widest experience. When a business is carried on under the protection 
 of a restriction on importation, it is limited by the extent of the home market, and is 
 incapable of further extension. It is, in consequence, particularly subject to that fluc- 
 tuation which is the bane of industry. If, owing to a change of fashion, or any other 
 cause, the demand be increased, then, as no supplies can be brought from abroad, prices 
 suddenly rise, and the manufacture is rapidly extended, until a reaction takes place, 
 and prices sink below their usual level : and if the demand decline, then, as there is no 
 outlet abroad for the superfluous goods, their price is ruinously depressed, and the pro- 
 ducers are involved in inextricable difficulties. The businesses deepest entrenched behind 
 ramparts of prohibitions and restrictions, such as the silk trade previously to 1825, the 
 West India trade, and agriculture since 1815, have undergone the most extraordinary 
 vicissitudes ; and have been at once more hazardous and less profitable tlian the businesses 
 carried on under a system of fair and free competition. 
 
 A prohibition against buying in the cheapest markets is really, also, a prohibition 
 against selling in the dearest markets. There is no test of high or low price, except the 
 quantity of other produce for which an article exchanges. Suppose that, by sending a 
 certain quantity of cottons or hardware to Brazil, we might get in exchange 150 hhds. 
 of sugar, and that the same quantity, if sent to Jamaica, would only fetch 100 hhds. ; is 
 it not obvious, that by preventing the importation of the former, we force our goods to be 
 sold for fwo thirds of the price they would otherwise have brought ? To suppose that a 
 system productive of such results can be a means of increasing wealth, is to suppose what 
 is evidently absurd. It is certainly true that a restrictive regulation, which has been long 
 acted upon, and under which a considerable quantity of capital is employed, ought not 
 to be rashly or capriciously repealed. Every change in the public economy of a great 
 nation ought to be gone about cautiously and gradually. Adequate time should be s^iven 
 to those who carry on businesses that have been protected, either to withdraw from them 
 altogether, or to prepare to withstand the fair competition of foreigners. But this is all 
 that such persons can justly claim. To persevere in an erroneous and oppressive system, 
 merely because its abandonment might be productive of inconvenience to individuals, 
 would be a proceeding inconsistent with every object for which society is formed, and 
 subversive of all improvement. 
 
 It may, perhaps, be supposed that in the event of commodities being imported from 
 abroad, after the abolition of a protecting regulation^ that were previously produced 
 at home, the workmen and those engaged in their production would be thrown upon the 
 parish. Such, however, is not the case. We mav, by giving freedom to commerce* 
 
 i2 B 3 
 
374? 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 change the species of labour in demand, but it is not possible that we should thereby 
 change its quantity. If, in consequence of tlie abolition of restrictions, our imports 
 ivere increased to the amount of 4,000,000Z. or 5,000,000?., our exports, it is certain, 
 must be augmented to the same extent : so that whatever diminution of tlie demand for 
 labour might be experienced in certain departments would be balanced by a corresponding 
 mcrease in others. 
 
 The pressure of taxation has often been alleged as an excuse for restrictions on com- 
 merce, but it is not more valid than the rest. Taxation may be heavy, and even op- 
 pressive ; but so long as it is impartially and fairly assessed, it equally affects all branches 
 of industry carried on at home, and consequently affords no ground whatever for the 
 enactment of i-egulations intended to protect any particular business. And to propose 
 to protect all branches of industry from foreign competition, is, in effect, to propose to 
 put a total stop to commerce ; for if nothing is to be imported, nothing can be exported. 
 The imposition of moderate duties on foreign commodities, for the sake of revenue, is 
 quite another thing. Many of these form among the very best subjects of taxation ; 
 and when the duties on them are confined within proper bounds, — that is, when they are 
 not so high as to exert any injurious influence upon trade, or to occasion smuggling and 
 fraud, — they cannot fairly be objected to. 
 
 It is sometimes contended, by those who assert, on general grounds, that restrictions 
 are inexpedient, that it would be unwise, on the part of any country, to abolish them 
 until she had obtained a security that those imposed by her neighbours would also be 
 abolished. But the reasons that have been alleged in favour of this statement are not 
 entitled to the least weight. It is our business to buy in the cheapest and sell in the 
 dearest markets, without being, in any degree, influenced by the conduct of others. If 
 they consent to repeal the restrictions they have laid on commerce, so much the better. 
 But whatever others may do, the line of policy we ought to follow is clear and well 
 defined. To refuse, for example, to buy claret, brandy, &c. from the French, because they 
 lay absurd restrictions on the importation of British hardware, cottons, &c., would not be 
 to retaliate upon them, but upon ourselves. The fact that we do import French wine and 
 brandy shows that we do export to France, or to some other country to which France is 
 indebted, an equivalent, in some sort, of British produce. The fear of being glutted 
 with foreign products, unless we secure beforehand a certain outlet for our own, is the 
 most unfounded that can be imagined. The foreigner who will take nothing of ours, 
 can send us nothing of his. Though our ports were open to the merchants of all the 
 countries of the world, the exports of British produce must always be equal to the 
 imports of foreign produce ; and none but those who receive our commodities, either at 
 first or second hand, could continue to send any thing to us. 
 
 *' Les etrangers ne peuvent demander ni desirer rien mieux, que la liberie de vous 
 acheter et de vous vendre chez vous ct dans vos colonies. II faut la leur accorder, non 
 par foiblesse et par impuissance, mais parcequ'elle est juste en elle-meme, et qu'elle vous 
 est utile. lis ont tort sans doute de la refuser chez eux : mais cette faute d'ignorance 
 dont, sans le savoir, ils sont pun is les premiers, n'est pas un raison qui doive vous porter 
 a vous nuire a vous-meme en suivant cet exemple, et a vous exposer aux suites et aux 
 depenses d'une guerre pour avoir la vaine satisfaction d'user des represailles, dont I'effet 
 ne pent manquer de retomber survous, etde rendre votre commerce plus desavantageux." 
 — {Le Trosne de V Ordre Social, p. 416.) 
 
 There are some, however, who contend, that though restrictions on importation from 
 abroad be unfavourable to opulence, and the advancement of individuals and nations in 
 arts and civilisation, they may, notwithstanding, be vindicated on other grounds, as con- 
 tributing essentially to independence and security. The short and decisive answer to 
 this is to be found in the reciprocity of commerce. It does not enrich one individual or 
 nation at the expense of others, but confers its favours equally on all. We are under no 
 obligations to the Portuguese, the Russians, or any other people with whom we carry on 
 trade. It is not our advantage, but their own, that they have in view in dealing with us. 
 We give them the full value of all that we import; and they would suffer quite as much 
 inconvenience as we should do were this intercovirse put an end to. The independence 
 at which those aspire who would promote it by laying restrictions on commerce, is the 
 independence of the solitary and unsocial savage ; it is not an independence productive 
 of strength, but of weakness. " The most flourishing states, at the moment of their 
 highest elevation, when they were closely connected with every part of the civilised world 
 by the golden chains of successful commercial enterprise, were, according to this doctrine, 
 in the most perfect state of absolute dependence. It was not till all these connections 
 were dissolved, and they had sunk in the scale of nations, that their true independence 
 commenced ! Such statements carry with them their own refutation. There is a 
 natural dependence of nations upon each other, as there is a natural dependence of 
 individuals upon each other. Heaven has so ordered it. Some soils, some climates, 
 some situations, are productive exclusively of some peculiar fruits, which cannot else- 
 
COMMERCE. 
 
 37-5 
 
 where be profitably procured. Let nations follow this as their guide. In a rich and 
 rising community, the opulent capitalists may be as dependent upon the poor labourers, 
 as the poor labourers upon the opulent capitalists. So it is witli nations. The mutual 
 dependence of individuals upon each other knits and binds society together, and leads to 
 the most rapid advancement in wealth, in intelligence, and in every kind of improve- 
 ment. It is the same, but on a far larger scale, with tlie mutual dependence of nations. 
 To this alone do we owe all the mighty efforts of commerce ; and what lights, what 
 generous feelings, and multiplied means of human happiness, has it not every where 
 spread!" — (North American Review, No. 57.) 
 
 The principles of commercial freedom, and the injurious influence of restrictive regu- 
 lations, were set in a very striking point of view by Dr. Smith, in his great work ; and 
 they have been since repeatedly explained and elucidated. Perhaps, however, the true 
 doctrines upon this subject have no where been better stated than in the petition pre- 
 sented by the merchants of London to the House of Commons on the 8th of May, 1820. 
 This document is one of the most gratifying proofs of the progress of liberal and enlarged 
 views. It was subscribed by all the principal merchants of the metropolis, who have not 
 scrupled to express their conviction, that the repeal of every protective regulation would 
 be for the public advantage. Such an address, confirming, as it did, the conclusions of 
 science, by the approval of the best informed and most extensive merchants of the world, 
 had a powerful influence on the legislature. During the last 10 years several most 
 important reforms have been made in our commercial system ; so that, besides being 
 the first to promulgate the true theory of commerce, we are now entitled to the praise of 
 being the first to carry it into effect. No doubt our trade is still fettered by many 
 vexatious restraints ; but these will gradually disappear, according as experience serves 
 to disclose the benefits resulting from the changes already made, and the pernicious opera- 
 tion of the restrictions that are still allowed to continue. 
 
 The petition now referred to, is too important to be onoitted in a work of this sort. 
 It is as follows : — 
 
 " To the Honourable the Commons, &c., the Petition of the Merchants of the City of London. 
 - " Sheweth, 
 
 *' That foreign commerce is eminently conducive to the wealth and prosperity of a country, by enabling 
 it to import the commodities for the production of which the soil, climate, capital, and industry of other 
 countries are best calculated, and to export, in payment, those articles for which its own situation is 
 better adapted. 
 
 " That freedom from restraint is calculated to give the utmost extension to foreign trade, and the best 
 direction to the capital and industry of the country. 
 
 " That the maxim of buying in the cheapest market, and selling in the dearest, which regulates every 
 merchant in his individual dealings, is strictly applicable, as the best rule for the trade of the whole 
 nation. 
 
 " That a policy founded on these principles would render the commerce of the world an interchange 
 of mutual advantages, and diffuse an increase of wealth and enjoyments among the inhabitants of each 
 state. 
 
 " That, unfortunately, a policy the very reverse of this has been and is more or less adopted and acted 
 upon by the government of this and every other country; each trying to exclude the productions of other 
 countries, with the specious and well-meant design of encouraging its own productions : thus inflicting 
 on the bulk of its subjects, who are consumers, the necessity of submitting to privations in the quantity 
 or quality of commodities ; and thus rendering what ought to be the source of mutual benefit and of 
 harmony among states, a constantly recurring occasion of jealousy and hostility. 
 
 " That the prevailing prejudices in favour of the protective or restrictive system may be traced to the 
 erroneous supposition that every importation of foreign commodities occasions a diminution or dis- 
 couragement of our own productions to the same extent : whereas it may be clearly shown, that although 
 the particular description of production which could not stand against unrestrained foreign competition 
 would be discouraged, yet, as no importation could be continued for any length of time without a corre- 
 siwnding exportation, direct or indirect, there would bean encouragenieiit, for the purpose of that export, 
 ation, of some other production to which our situation might be better suited ; thus affording at least an 
 equal, and probably a greater, and certainly a more beneficial, employment to our own capital and labour. 
 
 " That of the numerous protective and prohibitory duties of our commercial code, it may be proved 
 that, while all operate as a very heavy tax on the community at large, very few are of any ultimate 
 benefit to the classes in whose favour they were originally instituted, and none to the extent of the loss 
 occasioned by them to other classes. 
 
 " That among the other evils of the restrictive or protective system, not the least is, that the artificial 
 protection of one branch of industry or source of production against foreign competition, is set up as a 
 ground of claim by other branches for similar protection ; so that if the reasoning upon which these 
 restrictive or prohibitory regulations are founded were followed out consistently, it would not stop short 
 of excluding us from all foreign commerce whatsoever. And the same train of argument, which, with 
 corresponding prohibitions and protective duties, should exclude us from foreign trade, might be brought 
 forward to justify the re-enactment of restrictions upon the interchange of productions i,unconnected with 
 public revenue^ among the kingdoms composing the union, or among the counties of tlie same kingdom. 
 
 " That an investigation of the effects of the restrictive system at this time is peculiarly called for, as it 
 may, in the opinion of your petitioners, lead to a strong presumption, that the distress, which now so 
 generally prevails, is considerably aggravated by that system; and that some relief may be obtained by 
 the earliest practicable removal of such of the restraints as may be shown to be most injurious to the 
 capital and industry of the community, and to be attended with no compensating benefit to the public 
 revenue. 
 
 "That a declaration against the anti-commercial principles of our restrictive system is of the more 
 importance at the present juncture ; inasmuch as, in several instances of recent occurrence, the merchants 
 and manufacturers of foreign countries have assailed their respective governments with applications for 
 further protective or prohibitory duties and regulations, urging the example and authority of this country, 
 against which they are almost exclusively directed, as a sanction for the policy of such measures. And 
 certainly, if the reasoning upon which our restrictions have been defended is worth any thing, it will 
 
 2 B 4 
 
376 
 
 COxMPANIES. 
 
 apply in behalf of the regulations of foreign states against us. They insist upon our superiority in capita', 
 and machinery, as we do upon their comparative exemption from taxation, and with equal foundation. 
 
 " That nothing would tend more to counteract the commercial hostility of foreign states, than the 
 adoption of a more enlightened and more conciliatory policy on the part of this country. 
 
 "That although, as a matter of mere diplomacy, it may sometimes answer to hold the removal of 
 particular prohibitions, or high duties, as depending upon corresponding concessions by other states in 
 Dur favour, it does not follow that we should maintain our restrictions in cases where the desired con- 
 ^ssions on their part cannot be obtained. Our restrictions would not be the less prejudicial to our own 
 capital and industry, because other governments persisted in preserving impolitic regulations. 
 
 " That, upon the whole, the most liberal would prove to be the most politic course on such occasions. * 
 
 " That independent of the direct benefit to be derived by this country, on every occasion of such con- 
 cession or relaxation, a great incidental object would be gained, by the recognition of a sound principle or 
 standard, to which all subsequent arrangements might be referred ; and by the salutary influence which 
 a promulgation of such just views, by the legislature and by the nation at large, could not fail to have on 
 the policy of other states. 
 
 " That in thus declaring, as your petitioners do, their conviction of the impolicy and injmtke of the 
 restrictive system, and in desiring every practicable relaxation of it, they have in view only such parts of 
 it as are not connected, or are only subordinately so, with the public revenue. As long as the necessity for 
 the present amount of revenue subsists, your petitioners cannot expect so important a branch of it as the 
 customs to be given up, nor to be materially diminished, unless some substitute less objectionable be sug- 
 gested. But it is against every restrictive regulation of trade, not essential to the revenue, against all 
 duties merely jn-otectivc from foreign competition, and against the excess of such duties as are partly for 
 the purpose of revenue, and partly for that of protection, that the prayer of the present petition is respect- 
 fully submitted to the wisdom of parliament 
 
 « May it therefore," &c. 
 
 For examples of the practical working and injurious operation of restrictions, see the 
 articles Bordeaux, Cadiz, Cagliaui, Colony Trade, Corn Laws and Corn Trade, 
 Naples, Timber, &c., in this Dictionary ; the articles on the American Tariff and the 
 French Commercial System in Nos. 96. and 99. of the Edinburgh Review; the Report of the 
 Committee of Commerce and Navigation to the House of Representatives of the United 
 States, 8th of February, 1830; and the Petition and Memoire a VAppui, addressed, in 
 1828, by the landowners and merchants of the Gironde to the Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 For an account of the doctrines with respect to the balance of trade, and the import- 
 ation and exportation of the precious metals, see the articles Balance of Trade, and 
 Exchange. 
 
 For an account of the articles exported from and imported into Great Britain, see 
 Imports and Exports. 
 
 COMPANIES. In commerce or the arts, a company is a number of persons 
 associated together for the purpose of carrying on some commercial or industrious under- 
 taking. When there are only a few individuals associated, it is most commonly called a 
 copartnery ; the term company being usually applied to large associations, like the East 
 India Company, the Bank of England, &c., who conduct their operations by means of 
 agents acting under the orders of a Board of directors. 
 
 Companies have generally been divided into two great classes — exclusive or joint 
 stock companies, and open or regulated companies. 
 
 1 . Exclusive or Joint Stock Companies. — By an institution of this sort is meant a 
 company having a certain amount of capital, divided into a greater or smaller number of 
 transferable shares, managed for the common advantage of the shareholders by a body of 
 directors chosen by and responsible to them. After the stock of a company of this sort 
 has been subscribed, no one can enter it without previously purcliasing one or more 
 shares belonging to some of the existing members. The partners do nothing individually ; 
 all their resolutions are taken in common, and are carried into effect by the directors and 
 those whom they employ. 
 
 According to the common law of England, all the partners in a joint stock company 
 are jointly and individually liable, to the whole extent of their fortunes, for the debts of the 
 company. They may make arrangements amongst themselves, limiting their obligations 
 with respect to each other ; but unless established by an authority competent to set aside 
 the general rule, they are all indefinitely responsible to the public. Parliament some- 
 times limits the responsibility of the shareholders in joint stock companies established by 
 statute, to the amount of the shares they respectively hold. Charters of incorporation 
 granted by the Crown were also, until lately, supposed necessarily to have this cflfect ; 
 but by the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 96. the Crown is empowered to grant charters of incorporation 
 by which the members of corporate bodies may be made individualli/ liable, to such extent, 
 and subject to such regulations and restrictions, as may be deemed expedient. Hence 
 charters are now frequently granted for the purpose merely of enabling companies to sim 
 and be sued in courts of law, under the names of some of their oflfice-bcarcrs, without in 
 any respect limiting the responsibility of the shareholders to the jniblic. This limitation 
 cannot be implied in a charter any more than in an act of parliament, and will be held 
 not to exist unless it be distinctly set forth. 
 
 " In a private copartnery, no partner, without the consent of the company, can transfer, 
 liis share to another person, or introduce a new member into the company. Each 
 member, however, may, upon proper warning, withdraw from the copartneiy, and 
 demand p.iymcnt from them of his share of the common stock. In a joint stock com- 
 
COiMPANIES. 
 
 377 
 
 pany, on the contrary, no member can demand payment of liis share from the company ; 
 but each member may, without their consent, transfer liis sliare to another person, and 
 thereby introduce a new member. The value of u share in a joint stock is always the 
 price which it will bring in the market; and this may be eitlier greater or less, in any 
 proportion, than'the sum which its owner stands credited for in the stock of the company." 
 — ( ireahh of Nations, vol. iii. p. 238.) 
 
 2. Utility of Joint Stock Companies. — Whenever the capital required to carry on any 
 undertaking exceeds what may be furnished by an individual, it is indispensable,'in order 
 to the prosecution of the undertaking, that an association should be formed. In all those 
 cases, too, in which the chances of success are doubtful, or where a lengthened period 
 must necessarily elapse before an undertaking can be completed, an individual, though 
 ready enough to contribute a small sum in connection with others, would, generally 
 speaking, be very little inclined, even if he had the means, to encounter the whole 
 responsibility of such enterprises. Hence the necessity and advantage of companies or 
 associations. It is to them that we are indebted for those canals by which every part of 
 the country is intersected, for the formation of so many noble docks and warehouses, for 
 the institution of our principal banks and insurance offices, and for many other establish- 
 ments of great public utility carried on by the combined capital and energies of large 
 bodies of individuals. 
 
 3. Branches of Industry, for the Prosecution of which Joint Stock Companies may he 
 advantageously established. — In order to ensure a rational prospect of success to a com- 
 pany, the undertaking should admit of being carried on according to a regular systematic 
 plan. The reason of this is sufficiently obvious. The business of a great association 
 must be conducted by factors or agents ; and unless it be of such a nature as to admit 
 of their duties being clearly pointed out and defined, the association would cease to have 
 any effectual control over them, and would be, in a great measure, at their mercy. An 
 individual who manages his own affairs reaps all the advantage derivable from superior 
 skill, industry, and economy ; but the agents, and even directors, of joint stock companies 
 labour, in most cases, entirely or principally for the advantage of others; and cannot 
 therefore, however conscientious, have the same powerful motives to act with energy, 
 prudence, and economy. " Like," says Dr. Smith, " the stewards of a rich man, they 
 are apt to consider attention to small matters as not for their master's honour, and very 
 easily give themselves a dispensation from having it. Negligence and profusion, there- 
 fore, must always prevail more or less in the management of the affairs of such a 
 company." It also not unfrequently happens that they suffer from the bad faith, as well 
 as the carelessness and extravagance of their servants ; the latter having, in many instances, 
 endeavoured to advance their own interests at the expense of their employers. Hence 
 the different success of companies whose business may be conducted according to a nearly 
 uniform system, — such as dock, canal, and insurance companies, rail-road companies, 
 &c. — and those whose business does not admit of being reduced to any regular plan, 
 and \vhere much must always be left to the sagacity and enterprise of those employed. 
 All purely commercial companies, trading vipon a joint stock, belong to the latter class. 
 Not one of them has ever been able to withstand the competition of private adventurers ; 
 they cannot subject the agents they employ to buy and sell commodities in distant 
 countries to any effectual responsibility ; and from this circumstance, and the abuses that 
 usually insinuate themselves into every department of their management, no such com- 
 pany has ever succeeded, unless when it has obtained some exclusive privilege, or been 
 protected from competition. 
 
 The circumstances now mentioned would seem to oppose the most formidable obstacles 
 to the success of the companies established in this country for the prosecution of mining 
 in America. This business does not admit of being reduced to a regular routine system. 
 Much must always depend on the skill and probity of the agents employed at the mines ; 
 and it must plainly be very difficult, if not quite impossible, for directors resident in 
 London to exercise any effectual surveillance over the proceedings of those Avho are at so 
 great a distance. Hence it is not at all likely that these establishments will ever be so 
 productive to the undertakers, as if they had been managed by the parties themselves. 
 
 The Abbe Morellet has given, in a tract published in 1769 {Exameii de la Reponse de 
 M. N., pp. 35 — 38.), a list of 55 joint stock companies, for the prosecution of various 
 branches of foreign trade, established in different parts of Europe since 1600, every one 
 of which had failed, though most of them had exclusive privileges. Most of those that 
 have been established since the publication of the Abbe Morellet's tract have had a 
 similar fate. 
 
 But notwithstanding both principle and experience concur in showing how very iU 
 fitted a large association is for the purpose of prosecuting commercial undertakings, there 
 are cases in which they cannot be prosecuted except by associations of this sort, and when 
 it may be expedient to grant them certain peculiar privileges. "When, owing either to 
 the disinclination or inability of government to afford protection to those engaged in anv 
 
378 
 
 COMPANIES. 
 
 particular department of trade, they are obliged to provide for their own defence and 
 security, it is obviously necessary that they should have the power to exclude such indi- 
 viduals as may refuse to submit to the measures, or to bear their due share of the expense, 
 required for the common protection of all. The Russian Company, the East India Com- 
 pany, the Levant or Turkey Company, and most of the other great trading companies 
 ■which have existed in this country, seem principally to have grown out of a real or sup- 
 posed necessity of this sort. It was not believed that any safe or advantageous intercourse 
 could be carried on with barbarous countries without the aid of ships of war, factories, 
 interpreters, &c. And as government was not always able or willing to afford this 
 assistance, the traders were formed into companies or associations, and vested with such 
 peculiar privileges as appeared to be necessary for enabling them to prosecute the trade 
 without any extrinsic support. " When," says Dr. Smith, " a company of merchants 
 undertake, at their own risk and expense, to establish a new trade with some remote and 
 barbarous nation, it may not be unreasonable to incorporate them into a joint stock com- 
 pany, and to grant them, in case of success, a monopoly of the trade for a certain number 
 of years. It is the easiest and most natural way in which the state can recompense them 
 for hazarding a dangerous and expensive experiment, of which the public is afterwards 
 to reap the benefit. A temporary monopoly of this kind may be vindicated upon the 
 same principles upon which a like monopoly of a new machine is granted to its inventor, 
 and that of a new book to its author. But upon the expiration of the term, the monopoly 
 ought certainly to determine ; the forts and garrisons, if it was found necessary to establish 
 any, to be taken into the hands of government, their value to be paid to the company, 
 and the trade to be laid open to all the subjects of the state." — ( Wealth of Nations, 
 vol. iii. p. 258.) 
 
 It may be doubted, however, whether it be really necessary, even in such a case as that 
 now mentioned, to establish a joint stock company with peculiar privileges, and whether 
 the same thing might not be more advantageously effected by the establishment of an 
 open or regulated company. 
 
 4. Open or Regulated Companies. — The affairs of such companies or associations are 
 managed by directors appointed by the members. They do not, however, possess a com- 
 mon or joint stock. Each individual pays a fine upon entering into the company, and 
 most commonly an annual contribution : a duty applicable to the business of the company 
 is also sometimes charged upon the goods imported and exported from and to the countries 
 with which they trade. The sums so collected are applied by the directors to fit out 
 ambassadors, consuls, and such public functionaries as may be required to facilitate com- 
 mercial dealings, or to build factoi-ies, maintain cruisers, &c. The members of such 
 companies trade upon their own stock, and at their own risk. So that when the fine, or 
 the sum payable on admission into a regulated company, is moderate, it is impossible for 
 its members to form any combination that would have the effect of raising their profits 
 above the common level ; and there is the same keen and close competition amongst them 
 that there is amongst other classes of traders. A regulated company is, in fact, a device 
 for making those engaged in a particular branch of trade bear the public or political 
 expenses incident to it, at the same time that it leaves them to conduct their own business 
 with their own capital, and in their own way. 
 
 Should, therefore, government at any time refuse, or be unable to afford, that protec- 
 tion to those engaged in any branch of trade which is necessary to enable them to carry 
 it on, their formation into a regulated company would seem to be the most judicious 
 measure that could be adopted ; inasmuch as it would obtain for them that protection 
 which is indispensable, without encroaching on the freedom of individual enterprise. 
 
 The African, the Levant, and some other branches of trade, were for a long time con- 
 ducted by open or regulated companies. These, however, have been recently abolished : 
 the African Company, by the act 1 & 2 Geo. 4. c. 28. ; and the Levant Company, by the 
 act 6 Geo. 4. c. 83. The Russia Company still exists (See Russia Company.) 
 
 In so far as relates to protection, it may perhaps be thought, for the reasons given by 
 Dr. Smith, that a joint stock company is better calculated to afford it than a regulated 
 company. The directors of the latter having, Dr. Smith alleges, no particular interest 
 in the prosperity of the general trade of the company, for behoof of which, ships of war, 
 factories, or forts, have to be maintained, are apt to neglect them, and to apply their whole 
 energies to the care of their own private concerns. But the interest of the directors of 
 a joint stock company are, he contends, in a great measure identified with those of the 
 association. They have no private capital employed in the trade ; their profits must 
 depend upon the prudent and profitable management of the common stock ; and it may, * 
 therefore, it is argued, be fairly presumed that they will be more disposed to attend care- 
 fully to all the means by which the prosperity of the association may be best secured. On 
 the other hand, hoAvever, it is seldom tliat the directors of joint stock companies stop at 
 the proper point ; having almost invariably attempted to extend their commercial dealings 
 by force, and to become not only merchants but sovereigns. Nor is this any thing bui 
 
COMPANIES. 
 
 379 
 
 what might have been expected, seeing that the consideration and extensive patronage 
 accruing from such measures to the directors is generally of far more importance to them 
 than a moderate increase of the dividends on their stock. Whenever they liave been 
 able, they have seldom scru])led to emj)loy arms to advance their projects ; and instead of 
 contenting themselves with shops and factories, have constructed fortifications, embodied 
 armies, and engaged in war. liut such has not been the case with regulated companies. 
 The businesses under their control have uniformly been conducted in a comparatively 
 frugal and parsimonious manner ; their establishments have been, for the most part, con- 
 fined to factories ; and they have rarely, if ever, allowed themselves to be seduced by 
 schemes of conquest and dominion. 
 
 And hence, considering them as commercial machines, it does not really seem that there 
 can be any doubt as to the superiority of a regulated over a joint stock company. The 
 latter has the defect, for which nothing almost can compensate, of entirely excluding 
 individual enterprise and competition. When such a company enjoys any peculiar privi- 
 lege, it naturally, in pursuing its own interest, endeavours to profit by it, how injurious 
 soever it may be to the public. If it have a monopoly of the trade with any particular 
 country, or of anjj particular commodity, it rarely fails, by understocking the home and 
 foreign markets, to sell the goods which it imports and exports at an artificially enhanced 
 price. It is not its object to employ a comparatively large capital, but to make a large 
 profit on a comparatively small capital. The conduct of the Dutcli East India Company 
 in burning spices, that their price might not be lowered by larger importations, is an 
 example of the mode in which such associations uniformly and, indeed, almost necessarily 
 act. All individuals are desirous of obtaining the highest possible price for what they 
 have to sell ; and if they are protected by means of a monopoly, or an exclusive privilege, 
 from the risk of being undersold by others, they never hesitate about raising the price of 
 their products to the highest elevation that the competition of the buyers will allow them j 
 and thus frequently realise the most exorbitant profits. 
 
 And yet, notwithstanding these advantages, such is the negligence, proftision, and 
 peculation, inseparable from the management of great commercial companies, that even 
 those that have had the monopoly of the most advantageous branches of commerce have 
 rarely been able to keep out of debt. It will be shown in the article East India Com- 
 pany, that that association has lost by its trade ; and that, had it not been for the aid 
 derived from the revenues of India, it must long since have ceased to exist. To buy in 
 one market ; to sell with profit in another ; to watch over the perpetually occurring 
 variations in the prices, and in the supply and demand of commodities ; to suit with 
 dexterity and judgment the quantity and quality of goods to the wants of each market ; 
 and to conduct each operation in the best and cheapest manner ; requires a degree of 
 unremitting vigilance and attention, which it would be visionary to expect from the 
 directors or servants of a great joint stock association. Hence it has happened, over 
 and over again, that branches of commerce which proved ruinous to companies, have 
 become exceedingly profitable when carried on by individuals. 
 
 5. Constitution of Companies. — When application is n ade to parliament for an act 
 to incorporate a number of individuals into a joint stock company for the prosecution of 
 any useful undertaking, care ought to be taken not to conceJe to them any privileges that 
 may be rendered injurious to the public. If a company be rmed for the construction 
 of .a dock, a road, or a canal, it may be necessary, in order to stimulate individuals to 
 engage in the undertaking, to give them some peculiar privileges for a certain number 
 of years. But if other persons were to be permanently hindered from constructing new 
 docks, or opening new lines of communication, a lasting injury might be done to the 
 public. It may be highly expedient to incorporate a company for the pui-pose of bring- 
 ing water into a city ; but supposing there were no springs in the vicinity, other than 
 those to which this company has acquired a right, they might, imless restrained by the 
 act incorporating them, raise the price of water to an exorbitant height ; and make large 
 profits for themselves at the expense and to the injury of the public. In all cases of this 
 sort ; and in the case, indeed, of all joint stock companies established for the formation 
 of canals, railroads, &c. ; it would be sound policy to limit the rates charged for their 
 services, or on account of the water, ships, goods, &c. conveyed by their means, and also 
 to limit the dividends, or to fix a maximum beyond which they should not be augmented : 
 enacting, that if the rates charged by the company produce more than suflficient to pay 
 the maximum rate of dividend, and to defray the wear and tear of the aqueduct, canal, 
 &c., they shall be allowed to reduce them till they only yield this much ; and, in the 
 event of their declining to do so, that the whole surplus above paying the dividend shall 
 be applied to purchase up the stock of the association, so that ultimately the charges on 
 account of dividends may be entirely abolished. Had this principle been acted upon 
 when canals first began* to be formed in England, the carriage of goods conveyed by 
 some of the most important lines of commiuiieation would now have cost almost nothing; 
 and this desirable result might have been accomplished in the way now suggested, with- 
 
380 
 
 COMPANIES. 
 
 out, we believe, diminishing in any degree the number of those undertakings. There 
 are few who, at the time they engage in such enterprises, suppose that they will yield 
 more than 10 or 12 per cent. ; and vast numbers will always be disposed to engage in 
 them, if there be any reasonable prospect of their yielding this much. Now, when such 
 is the case, is it not the duty of government to provide, in the event of the undertaking 
 becoming in an unexpected and unusual degree profitable, that the public should derive 
 some advantage from it ? This is not a case in which competition can reduce profits to 
 the common level. The best, perhaps the only practicable, line for a canal or railroad 
 between any two places will be appropriated by those who are first in the field ; who 
 thus, in fact, obtain a natural monopoly of which they cannot be deprived : and hence 
 the advantage of limiting the charges and dividends : without discouraging enterprise, 
 it affords a security that private individuals shall not reap an unusual and unlooked for 
 profit at the expense of the public. 
 
 In all those cases in which companies are formed for the prosecution of undertakings 
 that may be carried on, with equal advantage to the public, by individuals ; or where 
 there are no very considerable difficulties to overcome, or risks to encounter ; they ought 
 to enjoy no privilege whatever, but should be regarded, in every ppjjit of view, as if 
 they were mere individuals. 
 
 For accounts of the principal joint stock and regulated companies established in this 
 country, see the articles Bank o*- England, Docks, East India Company, Insurance, 
 Russia Company, &c. &c. 
 
 6. Companies en Commandite. — In France there is a sort of companies denominated 
 societes en commandite. A society of this description consists of one or more partners, 
 liable, without limitation, for the debts of the company ; and one or more partners, or 
 commanditaires, liable only to the extent of the funds they have subscribed. A com- 
 manditaire must not, however, take any part in the business of the company ; if he do 
 this, he loses his inviolability, and makes himself responsible for the debts of the asso- 
 ciation. The names of the partners in such societies must be published, and the amount 
 of the sums contributed by the commanditaires. 
 
 It has been proposed to introduce partnerships of this sort into this country ; but it 
 seems very doubtful whether any thing would be gained by such a measure. Partner- 
 ships en commandite may be very easily abused, or rendered a means of defrauding the 
 public. It is quite visionary to imagine that the commanditaires can be prevented from 
 indirectly influencing the other partners : and supposing a collusion to exist amongst 
 them, it might be possible for them to divide large sums as profit, when, perhaps, they 
 had really sustained a loss ; and to have the books of the association so contrived, that 
 it might be very difficult to detect the fraud. This, it is alleged, is by no means a rare 
 occurrence in France. 
 
 7. Civic Companies, or Corporations. — Exclusive of the companies previously men- 
 tioned, a number of ancient companies or corporations exist in this and most other 
 European countries, the members of which enjoy certain political as well as commercial 
 privileges. When the feudal system began to be subverted by the establishment of 
 good order and regular government in the towns, the inhabitants were divided into 
 certain trades or corporations, by which the magistrates and other functionaries were 
 chosen. The members of these trades, or corporations, partly to enhance the value of 
 their privileges, and partly to provide a resource, in case of adversity, for themselves, 
 acquired or usurped the power of enacting by-laws regulating the admission ot new 
 members, and at the same time set about providing a fund for the support of such as 
 accident or misfortune might reduce to a state of indigence. Hence the origin of 
 apprenticeships, the refusal to allow any one not a member of a corporation to carry on 
 any business within the precincts of any town corporate, and the various regulations that 
 had to be submitted to, and the fees that had to be paid by the claimants for inrolment 
 in corporations. For a lengthened period these privileges and regulations were very 
 oppressive. Within the last century, however, their influence has been progressively 
 diminishing. In France, where the abuses inseparable from the system had attained to 
 a very great height, it was entirely swept off by the Revolution : and though corpo- 
 rations still exist in this country, they have been stripped of several of their peculiar fran- 
 chises ; and should now, for the most part, be regarded more, perhaps, in the light of 
 charitable than of political institutions. It would be well, however, were they reduced 
 entirely to the former character ; and were the few political and commercial privileges, 
 which they still enjoy, communicated to the rest of the citizens. At their first institu- 
 tion, and for some time after, corporations, considered as political bodies, were probably 
 useful : but such is no longer the case ; and in so far as they now possess any special 
 immunities, tliey tend to obstruct that free competition that is so advantageous. 
 
 The following extract from a Report on the Commerce and Manufactures of the United 
 States, drawn up by Albert Gallatin, Esq., then secretary to the Treasury, and laid 
 before Congress in 1816, sets the superior advantages resulting from the unrestricted 
 
COMPASS. 
 
 331 
 
 freedom of industry in a very striking point of view. " No cause," says he, " has, 
 perhaps, more promoted in every respect the general improvement of the United States, 
 than the absence of those systems of internal restriction and monopoly which continue 
 to disfigure the state of society in other countries. No laws exist here, directly or 
 indirectly, confining men to a particular occupation or place, or excluding any citizen from 
 any branch he may, at any time, think, proper to pursue. Industry is, in every respect, 
 free and unfettered ; every species of tr^^e, commerce, and profession, and manufacture, 
 being equally open to all, without requiring any regular apprenticeship, admission, or 
 licence. Hence the improvement of America has not been confined to the improvement 
 of her agriculture, and to the rapid formation and settlement of new states in the wil- 
 derness ; but her citizens have extended their commerce to every part of the globe, and 
 carry on with complete success even those branches for which a monopoly had heretofore 
 been considered essentially necessary." 
 
 % There is in Rees's Cyclopcedia, article Company, a list of the different Civic Companies 
 belonging to the City of London, in which the periods of their incorporation, and various 
 other important particulars with respect to several of them, are specified. 
 
 COMPASS (Ger. Ein Kompass ; Du. Zeekompas ; Da. S'uekompass ; Sp. Sjocom- 
 pass ; Fr. Boussole, Compas de mer ; It. Bussola ; Sp. Aguja de mar ear ; Port. Co?«- 
 passo de marear ; Rus. Kompass korabelniii), or mariner's compass, an instrument com- 
 posed of a needle and card, by which the ship's course is directed. The needle, with 
 little variation, always points towards the north, and hence the mode of steering by the 
 compass. 
 
 The common opinion is that the compass was invented by Flavio Gioia, a citizen of 
 the once famous republic of Amalphi, very near the beginning of the fourteenth century. 
 Dr. Robertson has adopted this opinion, and regrets that contemporary historians furnish 
 no details as to the life of a man to whose genius society is so deeply indebted. — (^Hist. 
 of America, vol. i. p. 47. 8vo ed.) But though Gioia may have made improvements on 
 the compass, it has been shown that he has no claim to be considered as its discoverer. 
 Passages have been produced from writers who flourished more than a century before 
 Gioia, in which the polarity of the needle, when touched by the magnet, is distinctly 
 pointed out. Not only, however, had this singular property been discovered, but also 
 its application to the purposes of navigation, long previously to the fourteenth century. 
 Old French writers have been quoted (^Macpherson's Annals of Commerce, anno 1200; 
 Rees's Cyclopcedia}, that seem fully to establish this fact. But whatever doubts 
 may exist with respect to them, cannot affect the passages which the learned Spanish 
 antiquary, Don Antonio de Capmany (Questio7ies Criticas, p. 73 — 132.), has given 
 from a work of the famous Raymond Lully (Z)e Contemplatione) published in 1272. 
 In one place Lully says, " as the needle, when touched by the magnet, naturally 
 turns to the north " (^sicut acus per naturam vertitur ad septentrionem dum sit tacta 
 d magnete). This is conclusive as to the author's acquaintance with the polarity of 
 the needle ; and the following passage from the same work — " as the nautical needle 
 directs mariners in their navigation " (jsicut acus nautica dirigit marinarius in sua naviga- 
 tione, S^c.) is no less conclusive as to its being used by sailors in regulating their 
 course. There are no means of ascertaining the mode in which the needle Raymond 
 Lully had in view was made use of. It has been sufficiently established — (see the autho- 
 rities already referred to, and Azuni, Dissertation sur I' Origine de la Boussole,) — that it 
 was usual to float the needle, by means of a straw, on the surface of a basin of water; 
 and Capmany contends that we are indebted to Gioia for the card, and the method now 
 followed of suspending the needle ; improvements which have given to the compass all 
 its convenience, and a very large portion of its utility. But this part of his Dissertation^ 
 though equally learned and ingenious, is by no means so satisfactory as the other. It is 
 difficult to conceive how mariners at sea could have availed themselves of a floating 
 needle ; but, however this may be, it seems most probable that Gioia had considerably 
 improved the construction of the compass ; and that, the Amalphitans having been the 
 first to introduce it to general use, he was, with excusable partiality, represented by them, 
 and subsequently regarded by others, as its inventoi*. 
 
 The reader will not consider these details out of place in a work on commerce, which 
 the compass has done so much to extend. " Its discovery," to borrow the language of 
 Mr. Macpherson, " has given birth to a new era in the history of commerce and navi- 
 gation. The former it has extended to every shore of the globe, and increased and mul- 
 tiplied its operations and beneficial effects in a degree which was not conceivable by 
 those who lived in the earlier ages. The latter it has rendered expeditious, and com- 
 paratively safe, by enabling the navigator to launch out upon the ocean free from the 
 danger of rocks and shoals. By the use of th's noble instrument, the whole world has 
 become one vast commercial commonwealth, the most distant inhabitants of the earth 
 are brought together for their mutual advantage, ancient prejudices are obliterated, and 
 mankind are civilised and enlightened." — (Vol. i p. 366.) 
 
382 COMPOSITION. — CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 COMPOSITION, in commerce, commonly implies the dividend or sum paid by an 
 insolvent debtor to his creditors, and accepted by them in payment for their debts. 
 
 CONEY WOOL (Ger. Kaninchenwolle ; Du. Konynhair ; Fr. Foil de lapin ; It. 
 Pelo di ConigUo ; Sp. Conejuna^, the fur of rabbits. This article is extensively used 
 in the hat manufacture ; and besides the large supplies raised at home, a great deal is 
 imported. The imports usually range from about 300,000 to about 500,000 skins 
 a year ; but, in 1831, they exceeded 900,000, while, in 1827, they were only 197,000. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, formerly the metropolis of the Eastern, as it still is of the 
 Turkish Empire, is situated on a triangular point of land, on the European side of the 
 Sea of Marmara (Propontis), at the point where it unites with the Bosphorus, or 
 channel leading to the Black Sea, in lat. 41° 0' 12'' N., Ion. 28° 59' 2" E. Population 
 variously estimated at from 300,000 to 600,000, but believed, by the best authorities, to 
 be about 400,000. The situation of this renowned city is, in a commercial point of 
 view, one of the finest imaginable. Standing on the narrow straits uniting the Medi- 
 terranean and Euxine Seas, she at once commands, and is the entrepot for, the com- 
 merce between them. The harbour, whence the Turkish court has taken the appellation 
 of the Sublime Porte, is most excellent. It consists of an extensive inlet, or arm of the 
 sea, stretching along the north-east side of the city, which it divides from the suburbs 
 of Galata and Pera. It has sufficient depth of water to float the largest ships, and can 
 accommodate more than 1,000 sail. The strong current that sets through the Bosphorus 
 into the Sea of Marmara strikes against Seraglio Point — (see Plan); apart of the water, 
 being in consequence forced into the harbour, runs along its south-western side in the 
 direction marked by the arrows — (see Plan), — till, arriving at its extremity, it escapes 
 by the opposite side. In the middle the water is still. On leaving the port, it is neces- 
 sary to keep well over to the northern side ; for otherwise the ship might be taken by the 
 current, and driven on Seraglio Point. It may be worth while, however, to remark, 
 that notwithstanding this inconvenience, the current has been of signal service to the 
 city, by scouring the harbour, and carrying away the filth and ballast by which it must 
 otherwise have been long since choked up. The distance across from Seraglio Point to 
 the opposite suburb of Scutari, on the Asiatic coast, is rather more than an English mile. 
 "Within less than |- of a mile of the latter is a rocky islet, upon which is a tower 
 and light-house, known by the name of the Tower of Leander. Foreigners reside in 
 Galata, Pera, and the suburbs on the eastern side of the harbour ; and it is there, 
 consequently, that the principal trade of the place is carried on. The quays are good, 
 and ships lie close alongside. 
 
 The Bosphorus, or channel of Constantinople, runs in a N.E. by N. direction about 
 15 miles, varying in breadth from' to ^ mile. It is swept by a rapid current, which 
 it requires a brisk gale to stem, and has throughout a great depth of water. The 
 Hellespont, or strait of the Dardanelles, leading from the Archipelago to the Sea of 
 Marmara, is about 13 leagues in length. Its direction is nearly N.E. Where nar- 
 rowest, it is little more than a mile across. It also is swept by a strong current, and has 
 deep water throughout. 
 
 The subjoined plan of part of Constantinople and its port is copied, without reduction, 
 from the beautiful plan of the city and Bosphorus, drawn and engraved by M. Merzoff 
 Robert of Munich, and published by Mr. Wilde, of this city. 
 
 Nothing can be more imposing than the appearance of the city when seen from the 
 sea, but on landing the illusion vanishes. The streets are narrow, dark, ill-paved and 
 irregular. Owing to the want of any effective system of police, and of the most ordi- 
 nary attention to cleanliness, they are extremely filthy ; and are infested with herds of 
 dogs, and also with rats, which perform the functions of scavengers. The houses are 
 mostly built of wood, and fires are very frequent. Most of these happen designedly ; 
 the burning of a few hundred houses being deemed the readiest and most effectual 
 means of making the government aware of the public dissatisfaction, and of procuring a 
 redress of grievances ! 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kepi in piastres of 40 paras, or 120 aspers. The Turkish coin, has been so 
 much degraded, that the piastre, which a few years ago was worth 2*. sterling, is now worth little more 
 than 46?. A bag of silver {kefer) = 500 piastres, and a bag of gold {kitxe) = 30,000 piastres. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The commercial weights are — 176 drams = 1 rottolo; 2 272 rottoli = 1 oke ; 
 6 okes = 1 batman ; batmans = 1 quintal or cantaro = 124457 (124^ very nearly) lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois = 56 437 kilogrammes = 116 527 lbs. of Hamburgh. The quintal of cotton is 45 okes = 127 2 lbs. 
 avoirdupois. 
 
 The pik, or pike, is of two sorts, the greater and the less. The greater, called halebi or arschim 
 used in the measurement of silks and woollens, is very near 28 inches (27 9). The lesser, called endcse, 
 used in the measuring of cottons, carpets, &c. = 27 inches. Hence 100 long piks = 77 498 English 
 yards, and 100 short piks = 75 154 do. But in ordinary commercial affairs, the pik is estimated at f of 
 an English yard. 
 
 Corn is measured by the Mslox or ktllow ~ 0"941 of a Winchester bushel ; 8^ kisloz = 1 quarter. The 
 Jbrttn = 4 kisloz. 
 
 Oil and other liquids are sold by the alma or meter = 1 gallon 3 pints English wine measure. The 
 alma of oil should weigh 8 okes. — {Nt'lken!>recfier and Dr. Kelly.) 
 
 The Port Clifirfie.s- on account of English vessels in the harbours of the Ottoman empire are fixed 
 by treaty at 300 aspers, neither more nor less. 
 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 383 
 
 References to Plan. — A, Seraglio Point : B, Galata ; C, Scutari ; D, Tower and lighthouse of Leander. 
 The arrows show the direction of the currents. The soundings are in fathoms. 
 
 Trade, 8fc. — Owing to the vicious institutions of the Turks, and the disorganised 
 state of the empire, the trade of Constantinople is very far from being so extensive as 
 might be supposed from its situation and population. The imports consist of corn, iron, 
 timber, tallow, and furs, principally from the Black Sea ; and of cotton stuffs and yarn, 
 tin, tin plates, woollens, silks, cutlery, watches and jewellery, paper, glass, furniture, 
 indigo, cochineal, &c. from England and other European countries. Corn and coffee 
 are imported from Alexandria ; but a good deal of Brazil and West India coffee is also 
 imported, particularly in American bottoms. Sugar is partly imported from the East, but 
 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 principally from the West Indies. The exports are very trifling, consisting of silk, car- 
 pets, hides, wool, goats' hair, potashes, wax, galls, bvdlion and diamonds, and a few 
 other articles. Ships carrying goods to Constantinople, either return in ballast, or get 
 return cargoes at Smyrna, Odessa, Salonica, &c., on which places they frequently pro- 
 cure bills at Constantinople. Trade is chiefly in the hands of English, French, and 
 ■other European merchants (denominated Franks), and of Armenians and Greeks. 
 Bargains are negotiated on their account by Jew brokers, some of whom are rich. 
 
 Commercial Policy of the Turks. — It is singular that as respects commerce, the policy 
 of the Turkish government, whether originating in design or carelessness, is entitled to 
 the highest praise. " No restrictions," says Mr. Thornton, " are laid on commerce, 
 except in the instance of a general prohibition of exporting the articles necessary for the 
 «upport of human life to foreign countries, especially from the capital, where alone it is 
 rigorously enforced ; and this impolitic restraint will no doubt be removed, when the 
 Turkish government shall become sensible, that what is intended as the means of 
 securing abundance, is, in fact, the sole cause of that scarcity which is sometimes expe- 
 rienced. With this one exception, commerce is perfectly free and unfettered. Every 
 article of foreign or domestic growth or manufacture is conveyed into every port, and 
 over every province, without any interference on the part of the magistrates, after pay- 
 ment of the duties. On this subject I speak from actual experience, and may appeal 
 to every foreign or native merchant in Turkey for its general truth." — (Present State 
 of Turkey, vol. i. p. 82.) 
 
 The duties, too, are extremely moderate, being only three per cent, on imports, and as 
 as much on exports ; so that in almost all that relates to her commercial regulations, 
 Turkey is entitled to read a lesson to the most civilised European powers ; and this 
 she has done in a very able manner, in an oflficial paper published in the Moniteur 
 Ottoman, in September, 1832. We extract a few paragraphs from this very interesting 
 document. 
 
 " It is recognised throughout Europe that it would be useful to the great majority to substitute, for 
 the system of prohibitions, that of liberty, which theoretical men advocate ; the difficulty is, to find 
 means to separate the future from the past withouta violent rupture. Hence the difficulties of govern- 
 ment in satisfying all the exigencies ot agriculture, industry, and commerce, driven in a circle where 
 every measure in favour of one, acts immediately in an inverse sense on the other. The endeavour is 
 vain to establish, between so many crossing interests, a factitious equilibrium which absolute liberty of 
 exchange alone can give. 
 
 " Thus, one of the most important questions which occupies the meditation of statesmen in Europe, 
 is, to discover how the palings which pen commerce up in narrow spaces may be thrown down without 
 shocks that might endanger public order. 
 
 " Good sense, tolerance, and hospitality, have long ago done for the Ottoman empire, what the other 
 states of Europe are endeavouring to effect by more or less happy political combinations. Since the 
 throne of the sultans has been elevated at Constantinople, commercial prohibitions have been unknown; 
 they opened all the ports of their empire to the commerce, to the manufactures, to the territorial pro- 
 duce of the Occident, or, to say better, of the whole world. Liberty of commerce has reigned here 
 without limits, as large, as extended as it was possible to be. 
 
 " Never has the divan dreamed, under any pretext of national interest, or even of reciprocity, ot 
 restricting that faculty which has been exercised, and is to this day, in the most unlimited sense, by all 
 the nations who wish to furnish a portion of the consumption of this vast empire, and to share in the 
 produce Of its territory. 
 
 - " Here every object of exchange is admitted, and circulates without meeting any obstacle other than 
 the payment of an infinitely small portion of the value to the Custom-house. The chimera of a balance 
 of trade never entered into heads sensible enough not to dream of calculating whether there was most 
 profit in buying or selling. Thus the markets of Turkey, supplied from all countries, refusing no objects 
 which mercantile spirit puts in circulation, and imposing no charge on the vessels that transpoft them, 
 are seldom or never the scenes of those disordered movements occasioned by the sudden deficiency of 
 such or such merchandise, which, exorbitantly raising prices are the scourges of the lower orders, by 
 unsettling their habits, and by inflicting privations. From the system of restrictions and i)rohibition3 
 arise tliose devouring tides and ebbs which sweep away in a day the labour of years, and convert com- 
 merce into a career of alarms and perpetual dangers. In Turkey, where this system does not exist, 
 these disastrous effects are unknown. 
 
 • " The extreme moderation of the duties is the complement of this regime of commercjal liberty : and 
 in no portion of the globe are the officers charged with the collection, of more confiding facility for the 
 valuations, and of so decidedly conciliatory a spirit in every transaction regarding commerce. 
 
 " Away with the supposition that these facilities granted to strangers, are concessions extorted from 
 weakness ! • The dates of the contracts termed capitulations, which establish the rights actually enjoyed 
 by foreign merchants, recall periods at which the Mussulman power was altogether predominant in 
 Europe. The first capitulation which France obtained was in 1535, from Soliman the Canonist (the Mag. 
 nificent). The dispositions of these contracts have become antiquated, the fundamental principles remain. 
 Thus, 300 years ago, the sultans, by an act of munificence and of reason, anticijjated the most ardent 
 desires of civilised Europe, and proclaimed unlimited freedom of commerce." 
 
 Did the policy of Turkey in other respects harmonise with this, she would be one of 
 the most civilised and powerful of nations, instead of being one of the most abject and 
 degraded. Unfortunately, however, this is very far from being the case. Tyranny, 
 corruption, and insecurity universally prevail. " The cultivator of the soil is ever a help- 
 less prey to injustice and oppression. The government agents have to suflPer in their 
 turn from the cruelty and lapacity of which they themselves have been guilty ; and tl»e 
 manufacturer has to bear his full share of the common insecurity ; he is fixed to the 
 spot and cannot escape the grasp of the local governor. The raw material monopolLsed 
 by a bey or ayan, may be forced upon him at a higher price tlian he could purchase it 
 himself, and perhaps of inferior quality j fines may be imposed upon him, he may be 
 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 385 
 
 taken for forced labour, or troops may be quartered on Jiis workshop. " — ( Urquhart on 
 Turkey and its Resources, p. 139.) 
 
 This miserable system has overspread some of the fairest provinces of Europe 
 and Asia with barbarism — turned their cities into villages, and tlieir palaces into 
 cottages : but the degradation in which they are involved, would have been still more 
 complete, but for the freedom of commerce they have always enjoyed. This has tended 
 to keep alive the seeds of industry, and to counteract the destructive influence of oppres- 
 sion and insecurity. Had their intercourse with foreigners been either prohibited, or 
 placed under oppressive restrictions, the barbarism of Turkey would have been com- 
 pleted, and it is diflScult to suppose that there could have been either wealth or industry 
 in the empire. 
 
 Trade of Turkey with England. — The trade between this country and Turkey is of 
 much greater value and importance than is generally supposed ; and appears to be 
 susceptible of an almost indefinite increase. Cotton stuffs and twist are the great 
 articles of export from Great Britain to Turkey ; and notwithstanding the convulsed 
 and distracted state of the latter during the last 5 years, she has continued to take off 
 a rapidly increasing amount of these staple articles. In 1825, for example, we exported 
 direct for Turkey, (including what is now the kingdom of Greece), 13,674,000 yards 
 of cotton cloth, and 446,462 lbs. of cotton twist; whereas, in 1831, we exported to 
 Turkey (exclusive of the Morea), 24,565,000' yards of cloth, and 1,735,760 lbs. of 
 twist, being an increase of nearly 100 per cent, in the exports of stuffs, and of 400 per 
 cent, in those of yarn ! The Turkish manufactures of muslins, ginghams, handkerchiefs, 
 &c. have suffered severely from this extraordinary importation of British goods ; so much 
 so, that of 600 looms for muslins busily employed in Scutari in 1812, only 40 remained 
 in 1831 ; and of 2,000 weaving establishments in Tournovo, at the former epoch, there 
 were only 200 at the latter! — ( Urquhart on Turkey, ^c. p. 150.) But the great con- 
 sumption of Turkey consists of coarse home-made fabrics ; and we are assured by the 
 very intelligent author now referred to, that this great branch has not been sensibly 
 affected by our imports. Hitherto, indeed, they have been principally intended for the 
 wealthier part of the community ; but as cottons are universally worn by the mass of the 
 people, the trade will not attain to any thing like the extent to which it may be carried, 
 till we supply the peasantry with the stuffs suitable for their use. It is creditable to the 
 discernment of the Americans, that they were the first to perceive the superior import- 
 ance of this class of customers, and to set about supplying them with coarse unbleached 
 stuffs. The Manchester manufacturers immediately followed in the same track, and 
 with signal success. Plain goods now form the half of our investments for Turkey ; 
 and it is impossible, seeing the extent to which articles of this sort are made use of in 
 all parts of the empire, and, indeed, of the East, to form any clear idea of what may be 
 the future magnitude of this trade. 
 
 Of the European states, Austria and Switzerland have been our most formidable 
 rivals in the supply of Turkey with cottons. The stuffs were, in several respects, well 
 fitted for the Eastern markets ; but owing to the difficulty they lay under of getting 
 returns, and the continued and rapid reduction in the price of English cottons, we seem 
 to have gained a decided advantage over them, and are now nearly in the exclusive pos- 
 session of the market. Cheapness is every where the grand desideratum. Though our 
 muslins and chintzes be still very inferior in fineness to those of the East, and our red 
 dye (a colour in great esteem in Turkey, Persia, &c.) be inferior in brilliancy, these 
 defects are more than balanced by the greater cheapness of our goods ; and from Smyrna 
 to Canton, from Madras to Samarcand, we are every where supplanting the native 
 fabrics ; and laying the foundations of a commerce that will be eminently beneficial to 
 all parties. 
 
 Exclusive of cottons, we exported to Constantinople, Smyrna, and other Turkish potts, in 1831, arms 
 and ammunition of the value of 21,785/. ; earthenware, 6,434/. ; hardware and cutlery, 11,067/. ; ijon and 
 steel, 50,09.5/. ; refined sugar, 41,020/. ; woollens, to above 18,000/. ; and some lesser articles ; making, witli 
 cotton stuffs and yarn, the declared or real value of the direct exports of British produce and maniifac- 
 tures to the whole empire 888,654/., besides those exported to it at second hand from Malta, the Ionian 
 Islands, &c. We also supplied her with a considerable quantity of colonial produce. Our imports from 
 Turkey during the same year, were, wheat 7,383 quarters, currants 8,702 cwt., figs 26,243 cwt., hides 
 4,685, indigo 4,181 lbs., madder root 23,833 cwt, olive oil 108,193 gallons, opium 8,184 lbs., raisins 1( 0,458 
 cwt., silk 452,266 lbs., valonia 102,225 cwt, cotton wool 366,550 lbs., with carpets, bullion, galls, sp.-"Tes, 
 &c. — {Pari. Paper, No. 55. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 Our commerce with Turkey would be considerably facilitated by a reduction of the 
 duties on figs, currants, oil, and carpets. Nothing, however, would contribute so much 
 to its extension, as the establishment of order and tranquillity throughout the coimtry. 
 But this, we fear, is beyond the ability of the Ottoman government. The abuses 
 which have reduced the empire to its present state of degradation seem to be in- 
 herent in the structure of Turkish society, and to be in harmony with the habits and 
 prejudices of the people. If such be the case, reform must come from without, and not 
 from within. But of whatever other advantages a revolution might be productive, it is 
 
 2 C 
 
S86 
 
 CONSUL. 
 
 difficult to believe that it would bring along with it a more liberal system of commercial 
 policy than that which at present exists.* 
 
 ■ CONSUL, in commerce, an officer appointed by competent authority to reside in 
 foreign countries, in the view of facilitating and extending the commerce carried on 
 between the subjects of the country which appoints him, and tliose of the country or 
 place in which he is to reside. 
 
 Origin and Appointment of Consuls. — The office of consul appears to have originated 
 in Italy, about the middle of the twelfth century. Soon after this, tlie French and other 
 Christian nations trading to the Levant began to stipulate for liberty to appoint consuls 
 to reside in the ports frequented by their ships, that they might watch over the interests 
 of their subjects, and judge and determine such differences with respect to commercial 
 affairs as arose amongst them. The practice was gradually extended to other countries ; 
 and in the sixteenth century was generally established all over Europe. — ( Martens, 
 Precis du Droit des Gens, § 147.) 
 
 British consuls were formerly appointed by the Crown, upon the recommendation of 
 great trading companies, or of the merchants engaged in the trade with a particular 
 country or place ; but they are now directly appointed by government, without requinng 
 any such recommendation, though it, of course, is always attended to when made. 
 
 The right of sending consuls to reside in foreign countries depends either upon a 
 tacit or express convention. Hence their powers differ very widely in different states. 
 In some they exercise a very extensive jurisdiction over the subjects of the state which 
 appoints them ; but the extent of this jurisdiction is pot discretionary, and must, in all 
 cases, be regulated either by an express convention between the state appointing and 
 the state receiving the consul, or by custom. Consuls established in England have no 
 judicial power ; and the British government has rarely stipulated with other powers for 
 much judicial authority for its consuls. Turkey, however, is an exception to this remark. 
 English consuls enjoy in that country several peculiar privileges conferred by ancient 
 treaties, and confirmed by that signed at the Dardanelles in 1 809. It is there stipulated 
 and agreed upon — 
 
 " That if there happen any suit, or other difference or dispute, among the English themselves, t/ie 
 decision thereof shall be left to their own ambassador or consul, according to their custom, without the 
 judge or other governors, our slaves, intermeddling therein. 
 
 " That if an Englishm.an, or other subject of that nation, shall be involved in any lawsuit, or other 
 affair connected with law, (with a Turk,) the judge shall not hear nor decide thereon, until the ambas- 
 sador, consul, or interpreter shall be present ; and all suits exceeding the value of 4,000 aspers, shall be 
 heard at the Sublime Porte, and no where else. 
 
 " That the consuls appointed by the English ambassadors in our sacred dominions, for the protection 
 of their merchants, shall never, under any pretence, be imprisoned, nor their houses sealed up, nor 
 themselves sent away ; but all suits or differences in which they may be involved, shall be represented to 
 our Sublime Porte, where their ambassador will answer for them. 
 
 " 'J'hat in case any Englishman, or other person subject to that nation, or navigating under its flag, 
 should happen to die in our sacred dominions, our fiscal and other oflicers shall not, upon pretence of its 
 not being known to whom the property belongs, interpose any opposition or violence, by taking or seizing 
 the effects that may be found at his death, but they shall be delivered up to such Englishman, who- 
 ever he may be, to whom the deceased may have left them by his will ; and should he have died intes. 
 tate, then the property shall be delivered up to the English consul, or his representative who may be 
 then present ; and in case there be no consul, or consular representative, they shall be registered by the 
 judge, in order to his delivering up the whole thereof, whenever any ship shall be sent by the ambassador 
 to receive the same." 
 
 Conformably to these capitulations, and the by-laws of the Levant Company, Nos. 39, 
 40, and 41., the consuls were authorised to administer justice in all cases of contention 
 amongst British subjects within the Turkish dominions ; and they were further autho- 
 rised to send to England, in safe custody, any British subject resident in Turkey, who 
 should decline their jurisdiction, or appeal from them to the courts of the Grand 
 Signior, or of any other potentate. And the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 33. § 4., for the abolition 
 of the Levant Company, expressly provides for the continuance to the consuls appointed 
 by his Majesty, of the same rights and duties of jurisdiction over British subjects in 
 Turkey, that were enjoyed by the consuls appointed by the Company. 
 
 At present, therefore, consuls in Turkey enjoy extensive judicial powers ; but owing 
 to the freedom of Turkish commerce, and the simplicity of the regulations under which it 
 is carried on, their other functions, with the exception of furnishing statistical details, none 
 
 * The treatise of Mr. Urquhart, entitled Turkey and its Resources, to which we are principally 
 indebted for these details, is a work of distinguished talent, discovering throughout an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with the subjects treated of. At the same time we cannot help differing wholly from Mr. Urquhart 
 in his views as to direct and indirect taxation. We believe that no inconsiderable part of the poverfjr 
 and degradation of Turkey is to be ascribed to the prevalence of the former, which has every where, 
 and at all periods, been a fruitful source of oppression and misery. Tlie most superficial reader of this 
 work will see that we are no friends to excessive customs duties ; but it is to their abuse, and not to 
 the duties themselves, that we object. The duties we impose on brandy, for example, have been carried 
 to such a height as to defeat their object, and to be productive of an immense amount of smugg.ing and 
 demoralisation. And yet there can be no more proper subject of taxation ; nor, provided "the duties 
 were reduced to 8*. or lOs. a gallon, is it possible to imagine any less unexceptionable tax. 'l"hc defect* 
 inherent in ouj: system of customs duties might easily be removed, not only without any diminution, 
 but with a large accession, of revenue ; but though it were otherwise, we are satisfied that the imposition 
 of direct taxes on property or income would occasion more injury in the course of 4 or 5 years, than 
 the present customs duties, with all their defects, would occasion in half a century. 
 
CONSUL. 
 
 of which they have hitherto communicated, are extremely unimportant.* Mr. Urquhart, 
 whose opinion as to all that respects Turkey is deservedly of very great weight, seems 
 to think that the judicial powers enjoyed hy the European consuls in that country, have 
 been productive of much mischief. Still, however, we doubt whether they could be 
 entirely dispensed with in a country so peculiarly situated. But there can be no doubt 
 that it is highly necessary that the greatest care should be taken in the selection of the 
 individuals to whom such powers are intrusted. 
 
 Other states have occasionally given to consuls similar powers to those conceded to 
 them in Turkey. Thus, in the treaty between Sweden and the United States of 
 America, ratified on the 24th of July, 1818, it is stipulated that the consuls appointed 
 by either government to reside within the dominions of the other, or their substitutes, 
 " shall, as such, have the right of acting as judges or arbiters in all cases of differences 
 which may arise between the captains and crews of the vessels of the nation whose 
 affairs are intrusted to their care. The respective governments shall have no right to 
 interfere in these sort of affairs, except in the case of the conduct of the crews disturbing 
 public order and tranquillity in the country in which the vessel may happen to be, or 
 in which the consul of the place may be obliged to call for the intervention and support 
 of the executive power, in order to cause his decision to be respected ; it being, however, 
 well understood, that this sort of judgment or arbitration cannot deprive the contending 
 parties of their rights of appealing on their return to the judicial authorities of their 
 country." 
 
 Duties of Consuls The duties of a consul, even in the confined sense in which they 
 
 are commonly understood, are important and multifarious. It is his business to be 
 always on the spot, to watch over the commercial interests of the subjects of the state 
 whose servant he is ; to be ready to assist them with advice on all doubtfid occasions ; to 
 see that the conditions in commercial treaties are properly observed ; that those he is 
 appointed to protect are subjected to no unnecessary or unjustifiable demands in con- 
 ducting their business ; to represent their grievances to the authorities at the place where 
 they reside, or to the ambassador of the sovereign appointing him at the court on 
 which the consulship depends, or to the government at home ; in a word, to exert him- 
 self to render the condition of the subjects of the country employing him, within the 
 limits of his consulship, as comfortable, and their transactions as advantageous and 
 secure, as possible. 
 
 The following more detailed exposition of the general duties of a British consul, is 
 taken from Mr. Chitty's work on Commercial Law : — 
 
 " A British consul, in order to be properly qualified for his emioloyment, should take 
 care to make himself master of the language used by the court' and the magistracy of 
 the country where he resides, so as to converse with ease upon subjects relating to his 
 duties. If the common people of the port use another, he must acquire that also, that 
 he may be able to settle little differences without troubling the magistracy of the place 
 for the interposition of their authority ; such as accidents happening in the harbour, by 
 the ships of one nation running foul of and doing damage to each other. 
 
 " He is to make himself acquainted, if he be not already, with the law of nations and 
 treaties, with the tariff or specification of duties on articles imported or exported, and 
 with all the municipal ordinances and laws. 
 
 " He must take especial notice of all prohibitions to prevent the export or import of 
 any articles, as well on the part of the state wherein he resides, as of the government 
 employing him ; so that he may admonish all British subjects against carrying on an 
 illicit commerce, to the detriment of the revenues, and in violation of the laws of either. 
 And it is his duty to attend diligently to this part of his office, in order to prevent 
 smuggling, and consequent hazard of confiscation or detention of ships, and imprison- 
 ment of the masters and mariners. — (^Beawes, Lex Merc. vol. ii. p. 42.) 
 
 " It is also his duty to protect from insult or imposition British subjects of every 
 description within his jurisdiction. If redress for injury suffered is not obtained, he is 
 to carry his complaint by memorial to the British minister residing at the court on which 
 the consulship depends. If there be none, he is to address himself directly to the 
 court ; and if, in an important case, his complaint be not answered, he is to transmit the 
 memorial to his Majesty's secretary of state. — (Beawes, Warden, §-c.) 
 
 " When insult or outrage is offered by a British subject to a native of the place, and 
 the magistrate thereof complains to the consul, he should summon, and in case of dis- 
 obedience may by armed force bring before him the offender, and order him to give im- 
 mediate satisfaction ; and if he refuse, he resigns him to the civil jurisdiction of the 
 magistrate, or to the military law of the garrison ; nevertheless always acting as counsellor 
 or advocate at his trial, when there is question of life or property. 
 
 • No'answer has hitherto (15th of October 1833) been received to the Circular Queries from any one 
 of the Turkish consuls. 
 
 2 C 2 
 
888 
 
 CONSUL. 
 
 " But if a British subject be accused of an offence alleged to have been committed at 
 »ea, within the dominion or jurisdiction of his sovereign, it is then tlie duty of the con- 
 sul to claim cognizance of the cause for his sovereign, and to require the release of the 
 parties, if detained in prison by the magistracy of the place on any such accusation 
 brought before them, and that all judicial proceedings against them do instantly cease ; 
 and he may demand the aid of the povi^er of the country, civil and military, to enable 
 him to secure and put the accused parties on board such British ship as he shall think 
 fit, that they may be conveyed to Great Britain, to be tried by their proper judges. If, 
 contrary to this requisition, the magistrates of the country persist in proceeding to try the 
 offence, the consul should then di-aw up and transmit a memorial to the British minister 
 at the court of that country ; and if that court give an evasive answer, the consul should, 
 if it be a sea offence, apply to the Board of Admiralty at London, stating the case ; and 
 upon their representation, the secretary for the proper department will lay the matter 
 before the king, who will cause the ambassador of the foreign state, resident in England, 
 to write to his court abroad, desiring that orders may immediately be given by that 
 government, that all judicial proceedings against the prisoner be stayed, and that he be 
 released. — (See Case of Horseman and his Crew, Beawes, vol. ii. p. 422.) 
 
 " It is the duty also of a British consul to relieve all distressed British mariners, to 
 allow them 6d. daily for their support, to send them home in the first British vessels 
 that sail for England, and to keep a regular account of his disbursements, which he is to 
 transmit yearly, or oftener if required, to the Navy Office, attested by two British mer- 
 chants of the place: this is provided for by positive enactment — (1 Geo. 2. s. 2. c. 14. 
 § 12.) He is also to give free passes to all poor British subjects wishing to return 
 home, directed to the captains of the king's packet boats, or ships of war, requiring 
 them to take them on board. — ( See Seamen. ) 
 
 The consul is not to permit a British merchant ship to leave the port where he 
 resides without his passport, which he is not to grant until the master and crew thereof 
 have satisfied all just demands upon them; and for this purpose he ought to see the 
 governor's pass of a garrisoned town, or the burgomaster's; unless the merchant or 
 factor to whom the ship was consigned will make himself responsible. — (^Beawes, Lex 
 Merc. vol. ii. p. 423. ) 
 
 " It is also his duty to claim and recover all wrecks, cables, and anchors, belonging to 
 British ships, found at sea by fishermen or other persons, to pay the usual salvage, and 
 to communicate a report thereof to the Navy Board. 
 
 " The consuls and vice-consuls of his Majesty are, by express enactment (46 Geo. 3. 
 c. 98. § 9. ), empowered to administer oaths in all cases respecting quarantine, in like 
 manner as if they were magistrates of the several towns or places where they respect- 
 ively reside. It is also laid down, that a consul is to attend, if requested, all,arbitrations 
 where property is concerned between masters of British ships and the freighters, being 
 inhabitants of the place where he resides." — {Chitty on Commercial Law, vol. i. pp. 58 
 — 61., and the numerous authorities there quoted.) 
 
 Any individual, whether he be a subject of the state by which he is appointed, or of 
 another, may be selected to fill the office of consul, provided he be approved and ad- 
 mitted by the government in whose territory he is to reside. In most instances, however, 
 but not always, consuls are the subjects of the state appointing them. 
 
 Much, however, of the peculiar duties of a consul must always depend on the nature 
 of the intercourse with the country to which he is sent, and of the instructions given 
 him. British consuls are regularly supplied with copies of all acts relating to trade and 
 navigation, quarantine, slave trade suppression, emigration, &c., and with the treaties 
 between this and other countries, and must, of course, shape their conduct accordingly. 
 They are strictly forbidden from corresponding with private parties on public matters. 
 We subjoin an extract from the General Instructions for British Consuls. 
 
 " He will bear in mind that it is his principal duty to protect and promote the lawful trade anA 
 trading interests of Great Britain by every fair and proper means, taking care to conform to the laws 
 and regulations in question ; and whilst he is supporting the lawful trade of Great Britain, he will take 
 special notice of all proliibitions with respect to the export or import of specified articles, as well on 
 the part of the state in which he resides, as of the government of Great Britain, so that he may caution 
 all British subjects against carrying on an illicit commerce to the detriment of the revenue, and in 
 violation of the laws and regulations of either country; and he will not fail to give to this department 
 immediate notice of any attempt to contravene those laws and regulations. 
 
 " The consul will give his best advice and assistance, when called upon, to his Majesty's trading sub- 
 jects, quieting their differences, promoting peace, harmony, and good-will amongst them, and conciliating 
 as much as possible the subjects of the two countries, upon all points of difference which may fail under 
 his cognizance. In the event of any attempt being made to injure British subjects either in their 
 persons or property, he will uphold their rightful interests, and the privileges secured to them by treaty, 
 by due rei)resentation in the proper official quarter. He will, at the same time, be careful to conduct 
 himself with mildness and moderation in all his transactions with the public authorities, and he will 
 not upon any account urge claims, on behalf of his Majesty's subjects, to which they are not justly 
 and fairly entitled. If redress cannot be obtained from the local administration, or if the matter of 
 complaint be not within their jurisdiction, the consul will apply to his Majesty's consul-general, or to 
 his Majesty's minister, if there be no consul-general in the country wherein he resides, in order that he 
 may make a representation to the higher authorities, or take such other steps in the case as he may 
 
CONSUL. 
 
 think proper ; and the consul will pay strict attention to the inslructioni^which he may receive fi-om 
 
 the minister or consul-general." 
 
 Emoluments of Consuls. Prohibition of Trading, — Tlie emoluments of our consuls 
 were, until these few years, principally derived from certain fees, depending on the ton- 
 nage, length of the voyages, &c. of the British ships entering and clearing out of the 
 limits of their consulships. But this mode of remunerating them was materially changed 
 by the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 87. The fees payable under this act — (see post) — are but 
 inconsiderable ; but the deficiency has been, partly at least, compensated by salaries 
 allowed by government. 
 
 At present, British consuls are, in some instances, permitted to carry on trade, while 
 m others they are interdicted from having any thing to do with it. Ihe principle on 
 which the distinction is made does not seem very obvious. We observe, for example, 
 that the consul at Petersburgh, who must have a great deal to do, is allowed to trade ; 
 while the consul at Odessa, whose duties must be much lighter, is denied this privilege. 
 There is the same distinction between the consuls at Venice and Trieste ; the latter, 
 whose duties must be the heavier of the two, being allowed to act as a merchant, while 
 the other is not. If this distinction must be kept up, the preferable plan would seem to 
 be to interdict all consuls resident at the great ports, and those resident at other ports 
 principally in the character of political agents, from trading ; and to permit it to others. 
 The public duties of the former are either quite sufficient wholly to engross their attention, 
 or they are of such a kind as would make it very inexpedient for those employed in them 
 to be occupied in mercantile pursuits : in the case of the smaller class of ports, but little 
 frequented by British ships, and where the consuls have no peculiar political functions to 
 discharge, there is a less urgent necessity for prohibiting them from carrying on business on 
 their own account. At the same time, however, we are clearly of opinion that it would in 
 all cases be better not to allow consuls to engage, either directly or indirectly, in any sort of 
 industrious undertaking. The main end and purpose of their institution is the facilitating 
 of commerce with the nation in which they reside ; and in furtherance of such object 
 they ought, on all occasions, to communicate the fullest and earliest information in their 
 power touching commercial matters, not only to the government that appoints them, but 
 to such of its subjects as may apply for their advice and assistance. But, however 
 advantageous publicity may be to others, it may in various ways be extremely hostile to 
 the interests of the consul considered in his capacity of merchant ; and, when his own 
 advantage and his public duty are set in opposition, it requires little sagacity to discover 
 which will have the ascendancy. Hence the fair presumption is, that a trading consul 
 will rather endeavour to profit by the peculiar information his situation may enable him 
 to obtain, than to communicate it to others. His interests as a merchant must frequently, 
 also, even when such is not really the case, appear to be in opposition to those of the 
 parties for whose behoof he is said to be appointed ; and under such circumstances, his 
 proceedings, however fair, will always be liable to tha suspicion of partiality. It is 
 material, also, to observe that mercantile consuls labour imder peculiar disadvantages 
 in the obtaining of information. If a consul, not engaged in business, make a proper 
 application to a public functionary, or merchant, for information as to any subject with 
 which they may be acquainted, he will, in most instances, learn all that they know. 
 But it is obvious, on general principles, and we have been assured of the fact by some of 
 the most intelligent officers of the class, that if a trading consul make the same ap- 
 plication, the chances are 10 to 1 he will either learn nothing, or nothing that is not 
 false or misleading. The inquiries of the former excite no jealousy, those of the latter 
 invariably do. The former is known to be actuated only by a feeling of liberal curiosity, 
 or by a wish properly to discharge his public duties ; but, the latter being engaged in 
 business, gets credit only for selfish and interested motives, and is believed to be 
 seeking the information merely that he may turn it to his own account. A mercantile 
 consul is, therefore, uniformly the object of the suspicions cf all parties, both of 
 his countrymen, and of the foreigners amongst whom he resides. Instead of 
 being, as he ought to be, an independent public functionary, he necessarily gets 
 entangled in the cabals and intrigues of those whose differences it is his province to 
 conciliate. He is tempted, also, to engage in smuggling adventures, contrary to his 
 duty, and highly injurious to the character of his nation. And though he should be 
 proof against temptations of this sort, he is, like all other individuals, subject to misfor- 
 tune and bankruptcy ; and may, in this way, bring discredit and embarrassment on the 
 government that appoints him. These reasons seem to be far more than suffi-cient to 
 vindicate the policy of interdicting consuls from trading. But were it otherwise, it is 
 enough to decide the question to state, that if they be made properly to perform the 
 functions of their office, it will occupy every moment of their time. To the argument 
 in favour of the existing system derived from economical considerations we do not 
 attach the smallest weight. To attempt to save a few thousand poimds by allowing 
 an important class of public fxinctionaries to engage in avocations inconsistent with 
 
 2 C 3 
 
390 
 
 CONSUL. 
 
 their duty, and destructive of their utility, would be something the very reverse of 
 economy. 
 
 Cost of the Establishment. Improvements made in it. — We had occasion, in the former 
 edition of this work, to complain of the cost and inadequacy of our consular establishment. 
 But its expense has since been very much, and, in some instances perhaps, too much, 
 reduced ; at the same time that measures have been taken for increasing the duties of 
 the consuls, by making them furnish details as to the trade, manufactures, duties, 
 prices, &c. of the districts in which their consulships are situated. Hitherto this im- 
 portant department of what ought to be the peculiar duty of a consul has been most 
 strangely neglected ; but if it be properly attended to, it will occupy a large portion of 
 the consul's time, and will be a field for the display of superior talents. Some of the 
 answers made by the consuls to the Circular Queries prepared by the author of this 
 work, have been drawn up with great care and intelligence, and reflect much credit on 
 their authors. There are a good many certainly of a very inferior description ; but this 
 is not to be wondered at — it being hardly possible for those who have not given a good 
 deal of their time to such subjects, to make a proper reply to queries relating to them. 
 And if the system is to be perfected to the degree of which it is susceptible, the salaries 
 allowed to the consuls ought to be such as to afford a sufficient remuneration for the 
 services of gentlpmen of character, familiar with the principles of public law. commerce, 
 and statistics ; and such only ought to be nominated to consular situations. We subjoin 
 that part of the General Instructions for the Consuls that has reference to statistical 
 inquiries. 
 
 " The consul will forward to the secretary of state, in duplicate, so soon as the information he can 
 collect will enable him so to do, but at any rate within a period of 6 months from the date of his arrival 
 at his residence, a general Report on the trade of the place and district, specifying the commodities, as 
 well of the export as import trade, and the countries which supply the latter, together with the increase 
 or decline in late years, and the probable increase or decline to be expected, and the causes in both cases. 
 He will state the general regulations with respect to trade at the place where he is resident, and their 
 effects. He will give the average market prices within the year of the several articles of export and 
 import ; he will particularise what articles, if any, are absolutely prohibited to be imported into the 
 country wherein he resides; what articles are prohibited to be imported from any other places 
 than from the place of their growth or production ; whether there be any privileges of importation, 
 and what those privileges are, in favour of ships that are of the built of, or belonging to, the country 
 wherein he resides; whether there be any difference in the duty on goods when imported into that 
 country in a foreign ship, and if so, whether it be general, or applicable only to particular articles ; 
 what are the rates of duty payable on goods imported into the said country; whether there be any 
 tonnage duty or other port dues, and what, payable on shipping entering at, or clearing from, the ports 
 of that country ; whether there be any (and, if so, what) ports in that country wherein goods may bo 
 warehoused on importation, and afterwards exported with or without payment of any duties, and 
 under what regulations." 
 
 He is also to transmit an annual statement of the trade with the principal ports of his 
 consulships ; and quarterly returns of the prices of corn, &c. This is a good beginning, 
 and, if it be properly followed up, may lead to very advantageous results. 
 
 The following are the provisions of the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 87. with respect to the salaries 
 and charges of consuls : — 
 
 Salaries to Consuls. — " Whereas the provision which hath hitherto been made for the maintenance 
 and support of the consuls general and consuls appointed by his Majesty to reside within the dominions 
 of sovereigns and foreign states in amity with his Majesty, is inadequate to the maintenance and support 
 of such consuls general and consuls, and it is expedient to make further and due provisions for that 
 purpose ; " it is therefore enacted, that it shall be lawful for his Majesty, by any orders to be issued by the 
 advice of his privy council, to grant ^o all or any of the consuls general or consuls appointed by his 
 Majesty to reside within any of the dominions of any sovereign or foreign state or power in amity with 
 his Majesty, such reasonable salaries as to his Majesty shall seem meet, and by such advice from time to 
 time to alter, increase, or diminish any such salaries or salary as occasion may require. — (6 Geo. 4. c. 87. 
 h 1.) 
 
 Terms on which Salaries shall be granted. Leave of Absence. — Such salaries shall be issued and paid 
 to such consuls general and consuls without fee or deduction ; provided that all such salaries be granted 
 during his Majesty's pleasure, and not otherwise, and be held and enjoyed by such consuls general and 
 consuls, so long only as they shall be actually resident at the places at which they may be so appointed to 
 reside, and discharging the duties of such their offices: provided nevertheless, that in case his Majesty 
 shall, by any order to be for that purpose issued through one of his principal secretaries of state, grant to 
 any such consul general or consul leave of absence from the place to which he may be so appointed, such 
 consul general or consul shall be entitled to receive the whole, or such part as to his Majesty shall seem 
 meet, of the salary accruing during such period of absence. — ^ '2. 
 
 Salaries in lieu of Fees formerly paid. Consuls not to take other than the Fees hereinafter mentioned. — 
 The salaries so to be granted shall be taken by the consuls general and consuls as a compensation for all 
 salaries heretofore granted, and all fees of office and gratuities heretofore taken by them from the masters 
 or commanders of British vessels, or from any other person, for any duties or services by such consuls 
 general or consuls done or performed for any such persons ; and no such consuls general or consuls shall, 
 from the 1st of Jaiuiary, 1826, be entitled, on account of any thing by him done in the execution of such 
 his office, or for any service by him rendered to any masters or commanders of British vessels, or to any 
 other person in the execution of such his office, to ask or take any fees, recompence, gratuity, com- 
 pensation, or reward, or any sum of money, save as herein-after is excepted. — \ 3. 
 
 Certain Fees still allowed to be taken. — It shall be lawful for all consuls general and consuls appointed 
 by his Majesty, and resident within the dominions of any sovereign, or any foreign state or power in 
 amity witfi his Majesty, to accept the several fees particularly mentioncel in the tables to this present act 
 annexed, marked with the letters A. and IJ., for the several things and official acts and deeds particularly 
 mentioned in the said schedules ; and it shall be lawful for his Majesty, by any orders to be by him made, 
 by the advice of his privy council, from time to time, as occasion may require, to diminish, or wholly to 
 abolish, all or any of the fees aforesaid, and to establish and authorise the payment of any greater or 
 smaller or new or additional fees for the several things mentioned in tho said schedules, or for any other 
 thing to be by any ,snch consul general or consul done in the execution of such his office. — \ 1i, 
 
CONTRABAND. 
 
 391 
 
 Penalty on Consuls demanding more Fees than specified in the Schedule. — In case any cotlsul general or 
 consul appointed by his Majesty as aforesaid shall, by himself or deputy, or by any person authorised 
 thereto in his behalf, ask or accept for any thing by him done in the execution of such his office, or for any 
 service, or duty by him rendered or performed in such his office, for any person whomsoever, any other or 
 groater fee or remuneration than is specified in the schedule, or than shall be sanctioned and 8i)ecified in 
 or by any such order in council, the person so offending shall forfeit and become lial)le to pay to hi8 
 Majesty any sum of sterling British money, not exceeding the amount of the salary of such person for 
 1 year, nor less than the 12th part of such annual salary, at the discretion of the court in which such 
 penalty mav be recovered ; and shall moreover upon a second conviction for any such offence forfeit 
 such his ofnce, and for ever after become incapable of serving his Majesty in the same or the like capacity. 
 
 Table of Fees to be exhibited at Custom-houses. — A printed copy of the tables of feci allowed by this act, 
 or which may be sanctioned or allowed by any order to be made in pursuance of this act by his Majesty 
 in council, shall be exhibited in a conspicuous manner, for th-e ins{)ection of all persons, in the Custom- 
 house in tiie port of London, and in all other Custom-houses in the several ports and harbours of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ; and printed copies thereof shall, by the collector or other 
 chief officer of customs in all such ports and harbours, be delivered gratuitously, and without fee or re- 
 ward, to every master of any vessel clearing out of any such port or harbour, and demanding a copy thereof. 
 — ^6. 
 
 Table of Fees to be exhibited at Consuls^ Offices. — A copy of the schedule or table of fees to this present 
 act annexed, or which may be established and authorised by any such order in council, shall be hung up 
 and exhibited in a conspicuous place in the public offices of all consuls general or consuls appointed by 
 his Majesty, in the foreign places to which they may be so appointed, for the inspection of all persons 
 interested therein; and any consul general or consul omitting or neglecting to exhibit any such copy of 
 the schedules in such his public office, or refusing to permit the same to be inspected by any person 
 interested therein, shall for every such offence forfeit and pay a sum of British sterling money not exceed- 
 ing one half the amount of the salary of such person for 1 year, nor less than the 12th part of such 
 annual salary, at the discretion of the court in which such penalty may be recovered. — § 7. 
 
 Superannuation. — " And whereas it is expedient that his Majesty should be enabled to grant to the 
 said consuls general and consuls, appointed as aforesaid, allowances in the nature of superannuation or 
 reward for meritorious public services ; " it is further enacted, that all the regulations contained in 
 50 Geo. 3. c. 117., 3 Geo. 4. c. 113., 5 Geo. 4. c. 104., respecting superannuation allowances, are hereby 
 extended to the said consuls general and consuls, so far as such regulations can be applied to the cases 
 of such several persons respectively, as fully to all intents and purposes as if the same were repeated and 
 re-enacted in this present act. — § 8. 
 
 Allowances during War. — If it shall at any time happen that by reason of any war which may hereafter 
 arise between his Majesty and any sovereign, or foreign state or power, within the dominions of whom 
 any such consul general or consul shall be appointed to reside, he shall be prevented from residing, and 
 shall in fact cease to reside, at the place to which he may be so appointed, it shall be lawful lor his 
 Majesty, by any order to be issued by the advice of his privy council, to grant to any such consul general 
 or consul, who may have served his Majesty in that capacity for any period not less than 3 years, nor 
 more than 10 years next preceding the commencement of any such war, a special allowance not exceed, 
 ing the proportion of their respective salaries to which such consuls general and consuls would be entitled 
 under the provisions of the said act of 3 Geo. 4., in case the period of their respective service had exceeded 
 10 years and had not exceeded 15 years : provided that in case any such consul general or consul shall 
 have served in such his office for the space of 10 years and more, it shall be lawful for his Majesty, by any 
 such order in council as aforesaid, to grant to him such a proportion of his saiary, which, by the said act 
 is authorised to be granted, as a superannuation allowance, according to the several periods of service 
 exceeding 10 years, in the said act — \ 9. 
 
 Commencement. — This act shall take effect from the 1st of January, 1826, except where any other com- 
 mencement is particularly directed. — § 22. 
 
 Tables of Fees allowed to be taken by Consuls General and Consuls, by the preceding Act of 
 GGeo.'hc.^l. 
 
 Table A. — Certificate of due landing of goods exported from the United Kingdom - - 2 dollars. 
 
 Signature of ship's manifest - - - - - » -2 do. 
 
 Certificate of origin, when required . - - - - 2 do. 
 
 Bill of health, when required - - - - - ..2do. 
 
 Signature of muster roll, when required - - - - - - 2 do. 
 
 Attestation of a signature, when required - - - - - 1 do. 
 
 Administering an oath, when required - - - - . - i do. 
 
 Seal of office, and signature of any other document not specified herein, when required - 1 do. 
 Table B. — Bottomry or arbitration bond - - - - • 2 do. 
 
 Noting a protest - - - - - - - -1 do. 
 
 Order of survey - - - - - - -2 do. 
 
 Extending a protest or survey - - - - • "-Ido. 
 
 Registrations - - - - - - -ido. 
 
 Visa of passport . - - - - - « -|do. 
 
 Valuation of goods - - - - * - 1 percent. 
 
 Attending sales, | per cent, where there has been a charge for valuing ; otherwise, 1 per cent. 
 Attendance out of consular office at a shipwreck, 5 dollars per diem for his personal expei-ses, over and 
 
 above his travelling expenses. 
 Ditto on opening a will 5 dollars. 
 
 Management of property of British subjects dying intestate - - * .2^ per cent. 
 
 The dollars mentioned in the preceding tables are in all cases to be paid by the delivery of doll.»rs, each 
 of which is to be of the value of 4*. 6d. sterling, and no more, according to the rate of exchange prevailing 
 at the place where such payment is made. 
 
 CONTRABAND, in commerce, a commodity prohibited to be exported or imported, 
 bought or sold. 
 
 Contraband is also a term applied to designate that class of commodities which 
 neutrals are not allowed to carry during war to a belligerent power. 
 
 It is a recognised general principle of the law of nations, that ships may sail to and 
 trade with all kingdoms, countries, and states in peace with the princes or authorities 
 whose flags they bear ; and that they are not to be molested by the ships of any other 
 power at war with the country with which they are trading, unless they engage in the 
 conveyance of contraband goods. But great difficidty has arisen in deciding as to the 
 goods comprised under this term. The reason of the limitation suggests, however, tiiC 
 
 2 C 4 
 
S92 
 
 CONTRABAND. 
 
 species of articles to which it principally applies. It is indispensable that those who 
 profess to act upon a principle of neutrality should carefully abstain from doing any 
 thing that may discover a bias in favour of either party. But a nation who should furnish 
 one of the belligerents with supplies of warlike stores, or with supplies of any article, 
 without which that belligerent might not be able to carry on the contest, would obviously 
 forfeit her neutral character ; and the other belligerent would be warranted in preventing 
 such succours from being sent, and in confiscating them as lawful prize. All the best writers 
 on international law admit this principle ; which, besides being enforced during every 
 contest, has been sanctioned by repeated treaties. In order to obviate all disputes as to 
 what commodities should be deemed contraband, they have sometimes been specified 
 in treaties or conventions. — (See the references in Lampredi del Commercio de" Popoli 
 Neutrali, §9.) But this classification is not always respected during hostilities; 
 and it is suflficiently evident that an article which might not be contraband at one time, 
 or under certaiQ circumstances, may become contraband at another time, or under dif- 
 ferent circumstances. It is admitted on all hands, even by M. Hubner, the great 
 advocate for the freedom of neutral commerce — {De la Saisie des Bdtimens Neutres, 
 tom. i. p. 1 93. ) — that every thing that may be made directly available for hostile purposes 
 is contraband, as arms, ammunition, horses, timber for ship-building, and all sorts of 
 naval stores. The greatest difficulty has occurred in deciding as to provisions, which 
 are sometimes held to be contraband, and sometimes not. Lord Stowell has shown that 
 the character of the port to which the provisions are destined, is the principal circumstance 
 to be attended to in deciding whether they are to be looked upon as contraband. A 
 cargo of provisions intended for an enemy's port, in which it was known that a warlike 
 armament was in preparation, would be liable to arrest and confiscation ; while, if the 
 same cargo were intended for a port where none but merchantmen were fitted out, the 
 most that could be done would be to detain it, paying the neutral the same price for it 
 he would have got from the enemy. 
 
 By the ancient law of Europe, a ship conveying any contraband article was liable to 
 confiscation as well as the article. But in the modern practice of the courts of ad- 
 miralty of this and other countries, a milder rule has been adopted, and the carriage of 
 contraband articles is attended only with the loss of freight and expenses, unless when 
 the ship belongs to the owner of the contraband cargo, or when the simple misconduct 
 of conveying such a cargo has been connected with other malignant and aggravating cir- 
 cumstances. Of these a false destination and false papers are justly held to be the worst. 
 — (5 Rob. Adm. Rep. 275.) 
 
 The right of visitation and search is a right inherent in all belligerents ; for it would 
 be absurd to allege that they had a right to prevent the conveyance of contraband goods 
 to an enemy, and to deny them the use of the only means by which they can give effect 
 to such right. — ( Fattel, book iii. c. 7. § 114.) The object of the search is twofold : 
 Jirst, to ascertain whether the ship is neutral or an enemy, for the circumstance of its 
 hoisting a neutral flag affords no security that it is really such ; and, secondly, to ascertain 
 whether it has contraband articles, or enemies' property, on board. All neutral ships 
 that would navigate securely during war must, consequently, be provided with passports 
 from their government, and with all the papers or documents necessary to prove the pro- 
 perty of the ship and cargo (see Ship's Papers) ; and they must carefully avoid taking 
 any contraband articles or belligerent property on board. And hence, as Lampredi has 
 observed, a merchant ship which seeks to avoid a search by crowding sail, or by open 
 force, may justly be captured and subjected to confiscation. — (§ 12.) 
 
 It has, indeed, been often contended that free ships make free goods (que le pavilion 
 couvre la marchandise), and that a belligerent is not warranted in seizing the property 
 of an enemy in a neutral ship, unless it be contraband. The discussion of this important 
 question would lead us into details which do not properly come within the scope of this 
 work. We may, however, shortly observe, that no such privilege could be conceded to 
 neutrals, without taking from belligerents the right, inseparable from a state of war, of 
 seizing an enemy's property if found in places where hostilities may be lawfully carried 
 on, as on the high seas. In fact, were the principle in question admitted, the commerce 
 of a belligerent power with its colonies, or other countries beyond sea, might be pro- 
 secuted in neutral ships, with as much security during war as in peace ; so that neutrals 
 would, in this way, be authorised to render a belligerent more important assistance than, 
 perhaps, they could have done had they supplied him with troops and ammunition ! But 
 it is surely unnecessary to say, that to act in this way is a proceeding altogether at 
 variance with the idea of neutrality. Neutrals are bound to conduct themselves in the 
 spirit of impartiality ; and must not afford such aid or assistance to one party, as may 
 the better enable him to make head against the other. It is their duty " non interponere 
 se bello, non hoste imminente hostem eripere.'^ And yet it is manifest that the lending of 
 neutral bottoms to carry on a belligerent's trade is in direct contradiction to this rule. 
 The ships or cruisers of a particular power may have swept those of its enemy from the 
 
CONVOY. 
 
 39J 
 
 «ea, and reduced him to a state of great difficulty, by putting a stop to his commerce 
 with foreigners, or with his own colonies ; but of what consequence would this be, if 
 neutrals might step in to rescue him from such difficulties, by carrying on that inter- 
 course for him which he can no longer carry on for himself? It is natural enough that 
 such a privilege should be coveted by neutrals : but, however advantageous to them, it 
 is wholly subversive of the universally admitted rights of belligerent powers, as well as 
 of the principles of neutrality ; and cannot, therefore, be truly said to be bottomed on 
 any sound principle. 
 
 In the war of 1756, the rule was laid down by Great Britain, that neutrals are not tc 
 be allowed to carry on a trade during war, that they were excluded from during peace ; 
 so that, supposing a nation at war with Great Britain had, while at peace, prohibitea 
 foreigners from engaging in her colonial or coasting trade, we should not have permitted 
 neutrals to engage in it during war. This rule has been much complained of ; but the 
 principle on which it is founded seems a sound one, and it may in most cases be safely 
 adopted. The claims of neutrals cannot surely be carried further than that they should 
 be allowed to carry on their trade dui'ing war, as they had been accustomed to carry it on 
 during peace, except with places under blockade ; but it is quite a different thing when 
 they claim to be allowed to employ themselves, during war, in a trade in which they had 
 not previously any right to engage. To grant them this, would not be to preserve to 
 them their former rights, but to give them new ones which may be fairly withheld. 
 Supposing, however, that either of the belligerent powers has force sufficient to prevent 
 any intercourse between the other and its colonies, or any intercourse between different 
 ports of the other, she might, in the exercise of the legitimate rights of a belligerent, ex- 
 clude neutrals from such trade, even though it had formerly been open to them ; be- 
 cause otherwise she would be deprived of the advantage of her superior force ; and the 
 neutrals would, in fact, when employed in this way, be acting as the most efficient allies 
 of her enemy. 
 
 For a full discussion of this important and difficult question, and of the various dis- 
 tinctions to which it gives rise, see the work of Hubner {De la Saisie des Bdtimens 
 Neutres, 2 tomes, 12mo. 1757), in which the different arguments in favour of the 
 principle that " the flag covei-s the cargo" are stated with great perspicuity and talent. 
 The opposite principle has been advocated by Lampredi, in his very able treatise Del 
 Commercio rfe' Popoli Neutrali, § 10. : by Lord Liverpool, in his Discourse on the Con~ 
 duct of Great Britain in respect to Neutrals, written in 17v 7; and, above all, by Lord 
 Stowell, in his justly celebrated decisions in the Admiralty Court. Martens inclines to 
 Hubner's opinion. — ( See Precis du Droit des Gens, liv. 8. c. 7. ) 
 
 CONVOY, in navigation, the term applied to designate a ship or ships of war, ap- 
 pointed by government, or by the commander in chief on a particular station, to escort 
 or protect the merchant ships proceeding to certain ports. Convoys are mostly appointed 
 during war ; but they are sometimes, also, appointed during peace, for the security of 
 ships navigating seas infested with pirates. 
 
 Individuals have not always been left to themselves to judge as to the expediency of 
 sailing with oi^ without convoy. The governments of most maritime states have thought 
 proper, when they were engaged in hostilities, to oblige their subjects to place themselves 
 under an escort of this sort, that the enemy might not be enriched by their capture. 
 Acts to this effect were passed in this country during the American war and the late 
 French war. The last of these acts (43 Geo. 3. c. 57.) enacted, that it should not be 
 lawful for any ship belonging to any of his Majesty's subjects (except as therein pro- 
 vided) to depart from any port or place whatever, unless under such convoy as should 
 be appointed for that purpose. The master was required to use his utmost endeavours 
 to continue with the convoy during the whole voyage, or such part thereof as it should 
 be directed to accompany his ship ; and not to separate therefrom without leave of the 
 commander, under very heavy pecuniary penalties. And in case of any ship departing 
 without convoy contrary to the act, or wilfully separating therefrom, all insurances 
 on the ship, cargo, or freight, belonging to the master, or to any other person directing 
 or privy to such departure or separation, were rendered null and void. The customs 
 officers were directed not to allow any ship that ought to sail with convoy to clear out 
 from any place in the United Kingdom for foreign parts, without requiring from the 
 master, bond with one surety, with condition that the ship should not depart without 
 convoy, nor afterwards desert or wilfully separate from it. The regulations of this act 
 did not extend to ships not requiring to be registered, nor to those licensed to sail with- 
 out convoy, nor to those engaged in the coasting trade, nor to those belonging to the 
 East India Company, &c» 
 
 It is very common, during periods of war, to make sailing or departing with convoy 
 a condition in policies of insurance. This, like other warranties in a policy, must be 
 strictly performed. And if a skip warranted to sail with convoy, sail without it, the 
 
394? 
 
 COPAIVA. COPENHAGEN. 
 
 policy becomes void, whether this be imputable to any negligence on the part of the 
 insured, or the refusal of government to appoint a convoy. 
 
 There are five things essential to sailing with convoy : viz. first, it must be with a 
 regular convoy under an officer appointed by government ; secondly, it must be from 
 the place of rendezvous appointed by government ; thirdly, it must be a convoy for the 
 voyage ; fourthly, the master of the ship must have sailing instructions from the com- 
 manding officer of the convoy ; and fifthly, the ship must depart and continue with the 
 convoy till the end of the voyage, unless separated by necessity. 
 
 With respect to the third of these conditions we may observe, that a warranty to sail 
 with convoy generally means a convoy for the voyage ; and it is not necessary to add the 
 words " for the voyage " to make it so. Neither will the adding of these words in some 
 instances, make the omission of them, in any case, the ground of a different construction. 
 A warranty to sail with convoy does not, however, uniformly mean a convoy that is to 
 accompany the ship insured the entire way from the port of departure to her port of 
 destination ; but such convoy as government may think fit to appoint as a sufficient 
 protection for ships going the voyage insured, whether it be for the whole or only a part of 
 the voyage. 
 
 Sailing instructions, referred to in the fourth condition, are written or printed direc- 
 tions delivered by the commanding officer of the convoy to the several masters of the 
 ships under his care, that they may understand and answer signals, and know the place 
 of rendezvous appointed for the fleet in case of dispersion by storm, or by an enemy, &c. 
 These sailing instructions are so very indispensable, that no vessel can have the full pro- 
 tection and benefit of convoy without them : hence, when, through the negligence of 
 the master, they are not obtained, the ship is not said to have sailed with convoy ; and 
 a warranty in a policy of insurance to that effect is held not to be complied with. If, 
 however, the master do all in his power to obtain sailing instructions, but is prevented 
 from obtaining them by any insuperable obstacle, as the badness of the weather ; or 
 if they be refused by the commander of the convoy ; the warranty in the policy is held 
 to be complied Avith. 
 
 For further information as to convoy, see Abbott on the Law of Shipping, part iii. 
 c. 3. ; Marshall on Insurance, book i. c. 9. § 5., and the Act 43 Geo. 3. c. 57, Sfc. 
 COPAIVA. See Balsam. 
 
 COPAL, improperly called gum copal, is a valuable and singular kind of resin, that 
 naturally exudes from different large trees, and is imported partly from America, and 
 partly from the East Indies. The best copal is hard and brittle, in rounded lumps of a 
 moderate size, easily reducible to a fine powder, of a light lemon yellow colour, beauti- 
 fully transparent, but often, like amber, containing parts of insects and other small 
 extraneous bodies in its substance. Its specific gravity varies from 1'045 to 1*1 39. It 
 has neither the solubility in water common to gums, nor the solubility in alcohol common 
 to resins, at least in any considerable degree. It may be dissolved by digestion in drying 
 linseed oil, and other volatile menstrua. This solution forms a beautiful transparent 
 varnish, which, when, properly applied, and slowly dried, is very hard and very durable. 
 Copal varnish was first discovered in France, and was long known by the name of vernis 
 maitin. It is applied to snuff-boxes, tea-boards, and other utensils. It preserves and 
 gives lustre to paintings ; and contributes to restore the decayed colours of old pictures, 
 by filling up cracks, and rendering the surface capable of reflecting light more uniformly. 
 Copal is liable to be confounded with gum anime, when the latter is very clear and good. 
 But it is of importance to distinguish between them, as the anime, though valuable as a 
 varnish, is much less so than the finest copal ; the varnish with the former being darker 
 coloured, and not so hard. Besides the external appearance of each, which is pretty dis- 
 tinct to a practised eye, the solubility in alcohol furnishes a useful test, — the anime being 
 readily soluble in this fluid, whUe the copal is hardly affected by it ; copal is also brittle 
 between the teeth, whereas anime softens in the mouth. — (72ees's Cyclopadia ; lire's 
 Dictionary, ^c.) 
 
 The imports of gum anim^ and copal are not distinguished in the custom-house accounts. The entries 
 of both for home consumption amounted, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1831, to 123,723 lbs. 
 a year. The duty has been judiciously reduced from 56s. to 6s. a cwt Copal fetches in the London 
 market from 6d. to \s. Id. per lb., duty paid. 
 
 COPENHAGEN, the capital of Denmark, situated on the east coast of the island 
 of. Zealand, in the channel of the Baltic called the Sound; in lat. 55° 41' N., Ion. 
 ]2° 35' 46" E. Population about 105,000. It is a well-built, handsome city. In going 
 into Copenhagen, the course is between the buoy on the Stubben Bank to the left, and 
 the buoy on the Middle-grounds, and those in advance of the three Crown batteries on 
 the right, W.S.W. by compass. From the three crowns to the roads the course is 
 S.S.W. The water in the channel is from 6 to 4 fathoms deep ; but it is narrow, and 
 the navigation rather difficult. There is no obligation to take a pilot on board ; but if a 
 vessel wish for one, she may heave to abreast of the battery, when lie will come to her. 
 
COPENHAGEN. 
 
 395 
 
 Vessels not intending to come into harbour bring up in the roads, at from ^ to ^ a mile 
 from shore, in about 4 fathoms, the town bearing S.S.W. In the harbour, within the 
 Ijoom, the water is from 17 to 18 feet deep. Vessels in harljour load and unload along- 
 side the quay. The anchorage in the roads is good and safe. 
 
 Money. — Accounts arc kept in rixdollars of 6 marcs, or 9fi skillings ; the rixdollar being formerly 
 worth about 45. \d. sterling. Hut in 1813, a new monetary system was adopted, according to which the 
 new or Iligshank dollar is worth ^2s. 3\d., being half the value of the old specie dollar, and g of the old 
 current dollar. But the money generally used in commercial transactions is bank money, which is com. 
 monly at a heavy discount. The par of exchange, estimated by the lligsbank dollar, would be 8 dollars 
 7 () skillings per pound sterling. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The commercial weights are, 16 pounds — 1 lispound ; 20 lispound = 
 Ishippound; 1001b. = 110^ lbs. avoirdupois = 134 lbs. Troy = J 01 lbs. of Amsterdam = 103 lbs. of 
 Hamburgh. 
 
 The liquid measures arc, 4 ankers = 1 ahm or ohm; 1^ ahm = 1 hogshead; S.hog.shcads = 1 pipe; 
 2 pipes = l;qnarter. The anker = 10 (very nearly) English wine gallons. A fuder of wine - 1)30 pots ; 
 and lOO.pots = 25J wine gallons. 
 
 The dry measures are, 4 viertels = 1 scheffel ; 8 scheffels = 1 tocndo or ton ; 12 tons = 1 last = 47 r 
 Winchester bushels. The last of oil, butter, herrings, and other oily substances, should weigh 
 21.'4 lbs. nett. 
 
 The measure of length is the Rhineland foot = 12^ inches very nearly. The Danish ell = 2 feet; ICO 
 ells = 68| English yards. 
 
 Trade of Copenhagen. — This is not very considerable, and has latterly declined. 
 Anchor-s, pitch, and tar, are chiefly imported from Sweden and Norway ; flax, hemp, 
 masts, sail-clotli, and cordage, from Russia ; West India produce from the Danish West 
 India islands ; tobacco from America ; wines and brandy from France : coal, earthen- 
 ware, and salt are the principal articles of direct import from England.. Of coal, we 
 sent to Denmark (principally to Copenhagen), in 1830, 100,127 ton.s, and of salt 
 1,272,487 bushels. Owing to the erroneous policy of the Danish government, which is 
 attempting, at a great public loss, to raise and bolster up manufactures, the direct im- 
 ports of woollens and cottons are quite inconsiderable. These articles are not, however, 
 absolutely prohibited ; but are admitted on condition of their being stamped, and put 
 up to auction by the Custom-house, which, after retaining 30 per cent, of the gross pro- 
 duce of the sale, pays over the residue to the importer, who is generally the purchaser. 
 This oppressive regulation reduces the legitimate importation of these articles to next to 
 nothing ; but the illicit importation is very considerable, principally by the Elbe and 
 the Holstein frontier. The exports consist, for the most part, of the produce of the 
 soil, as grain, rapeseed, butter and cheese, beef and pork, hides, horses and cattle, corn, 
 brandy, bones, &c. In 1830, the imports of grain into this country from Denmark 
 were as follows, viz. \Tlieat 88,033 quarters, barley 75,532 do., oats 118,203 do., rye 
 1,151 do., peas and beans 5,182 do., the importation of rapeseed during the same year 
 was 286,569 bushels. — (See Corn Laws.) We subjoin 
 
 An Account, extracted from the Returns published by the Danish Custom-house of the principal Articles 
 of Agricultural Produce exported from Denmark in 1831. 
 
 Articles exported. 
 
 Wheat and wheat flour 
 Rye and rye flour 
 Barley, flour and groats 
 malt 
 
 Oats, meal and groats 
 Buckwheat do. 
 Feas 
 
 Beans and tares 
 Rapeseed 
 Butter 
 Cheese 
 Brandy (corn) 
 Pork, salted 
 
 smoked 
 Beef, salted 
 
 smoked 
 Hides and skins — 
 
 calf, sheep, and lamb 
 
 ox, cow, and horse 
 Wool, sheep 
 Cattle— 
 
 Horses 
 • Oxen 
 
 Cows 
 
 Calves 
 
 Quantities exported. 
 
 Danish Weights British Weights 
 and Measures. and Measures. 
 
 ,696 ton. 
 ,460 — 
 ,384 — 
 ,092 — 
 ,340 — 
 ,98S — 
 ,995 — 
 ,133 •— 
 ,154 — 
 ,658 bar. 
 ,000 lbs. 
 S19|hhd 
 ,787 lbs. 
 ,789 — 
 ,104 — 
 773 — 
 
 1,112,58-2 lbs. 
 1,744,007 — 
 779,488 — 
 
 12,550 head 
 23,013 — 
 8,461 — 
 5,056 — 
 
 113, 
 7s, 
 
 584. 
 19. 
 
 351, 
 6j 
 
 •15, 
 
 3i; 
 
 143, 
 47, 
 872, 
 2, 
 
 1,449. 
 
 365, 
 
 54,952 qrs. 
 37,921 — 
 282,408 — 
 9,228 — 
 169,815 — 
 3,377 — 
 7,730 — 
 .5,047 — 
 71,608 — 
 
 8,590 cw t. 
 1 15,775 galls 
 14,331 cwt. 
 3,603 — 
 6.808 — 
 156 — 
 
 10,960 cwt. 
 16,169 — 
 857,436 — 
 
 Rbd. 
 
 Real or de- 
 clared Value i 
 Rigsbank 
 Dollars. 
 
 >■ 3,964,772 
 
 1,390,487 
 
 2,382,900 
 54,500 
 
 5- 2,885,316 
 
 10,677,97 
 
 Value in Sterling. 
 
 £ S. d. 
 
 446,036 17 0 
 
 156,429 15 9 
 268,076 5 0 
 6,131 5 0 
 
 !24,598 1 0 
 
 .£•1,201,272 3 
 
 •iderable.^* "° means of ascertaining the proportion shipped from Copenhagen, but rt was very con- 
 ^hipping. —In 1831, there entered the port of Copenhagen 1,505 ships ; of which 309 were from Sweden. 
 305 from Prussia, 208 from Norway, 160 from Great Britain, 137 from Russia, 90 from Finland, 'i^ from 
 
S96 
 
 COPENHAGEN. 
 
 France, &c. The tonnage of these ships is not stated; but many were of very small burden, 
 is an 
 
 Subjoined 
 
 Account of the Danish Shipping employed in the Foreign and in the Carrying Trade of Denmark in the 
 
 Year 1830. 
 
 Countries and No. 
 Places. of 
 jShips 
 
 Russia 
 Prussia 
 
 Mecklenburgh 
 
 Lubeck 
 
 Sweden and 7 
 Norway -J 
 
 Hamburgh 7 
 and Bremen J 
 
 Netherlands - 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 Spain 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Mediterranean 
 Brazil - 
 
 Tonnage- 
 
 255 
 
 24,198 
 
 579 
 
 29,836 
 
 114 
 
 2,547 
 
 383 
 
 7,472 
 
 710 
 
 25,696 
 
 ooo 
 
 31 154 
 
 269 
 
 15,159„ 
 
 837 
 
 43,423 
 
 122 
 
 15,858 
 
 76 
 
 8,451 
 
 67 
 
 9,500 
 
 66 
 
 9,637 
 
 11 
 
 2,416 
 
 4<344 
 
 225,354 
 
 Nature of Cargoes exported 
 from Denmark. 
 
 [Ballast, fruit, bricks,7 
 t and piece goods -S 
 C Ballast.herrings, train ^ 
 
 < oil, and colonial > 
 t produce - -j 
 THerrings, train oil 
 
 ■j colonial * produce^ 
 C and provisions 
 r Corn, and provisions, 
 s piece goods, her- 
 t rings, &c. 
 rCorn and provisions,^ 
 
 < wool, piece goods, 5- 
 L and colonial producej 
 rCorn and seeds, but-^ 
 ^ ter, provisions, and > 
 C. piece goods -J 
 
 J Corn, flour and seeds, 7 
 piece goods, &c. -J 
 rCorn, seeds, oilcakes,^ 
 
 < bones, wool, hides, > 
 C &c. - - -3 
 rCorn and provisions, "7 
 
 < piece goods, fish, V 
 L and hides - -J 
 f Ballast, piece goods,? 
 i fish, butter, &c. -J 
 f Ballast, corn, piece") 
 t goods, fish, flax, &c. J 
 
 Fish, pitch, and tar, T 
 timber, train oil, V- 
 piece goods -j 
 f Ballast, wheat, and ) 
 t piece goods -J 
 
 \Vhence 
 arrived. 
 
 61 
 135 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 118 
 
 395 
 173 
 250 
 
 91 
 
 73 
 65 
 
 53 
 
 11 
 
 2586 1458 
 
 Nature of Cargoes imported 
 into Denmark. 
 
 Destin; 
 tion. 
 
 and 
 and 
 
 C Hemp, flax, ashes, tal- ) 
 i iow,seeds,and timber 3 
 f Linen, flax, wood,) 
 i staves, and timber - J 
 
 f Ballast, corn 
 
 < seeds, wool, 
 C piece goods 
 f Piece goods, 
 -4 deals and timber, 
 C salt, &c 
 
 C Iron, tar, deals, tim- 
 
 < her, fish, herrings 
 C train oil 
 
 r Ballast, piece goods, ^ 
 
 < tobacco, colonial V 
 L produce - -j 
 f Ballast, piece goods, 7 
 i and colonial produce 3 
 r Ballast, coals, salt,^ 
 
 < piece goods, and > 
 C colonial produce -J 
 
 ("Wine, salt, piece) 
 (_ goods and ballast -j 
 
 id^ 
 
 iron, T 
 imber, S- 
 
 rOil and fruit 
 t and salt 
 f Wine, piece 
 I salt, fruit, &c. 
 
 wine, I 
 goods, I 
 
 f Ballast, fruit, wine, 7 
 i and piece goods -3 
 Colonial produce 
 
 94 
 158 
 
 -I 
 
 41 1 
 
 151 , 
 
 247 
 177 
 202 
 85 
 
 46 
 
 52 
 
 58 
 9 
 
 27I1I1333 
 
 This return does not, however, include vessels engaged in the fisheries, or in the coasting trade, the 
 latter of which is very considerable. 
 
 About 200 Danish ships are engaged in the carrying trade of the Mediterranean. Latterly, however, 
 the Swedes and Norwegians have obtained an ascendancy in this department. 
 Excluding vessels under 20 tons, there belonged, in 1830, to 
 
 Ships. Tonnage. 
 Denmark - . 1,563 - - 65,375 
 
 Sleswick - - 1,022 - - 33,926 
 
 Holstein . - - 1,106 - . 27,683 
 
 Total 
 
 3,696 
 
 124,984 
 
 Colonial Trade.— 'In the West Indies, the Danes possess the island of St. Croix, which, though small, 
 is fertile, and well cultivated. AU the ports of Denmark may send vessels thither, but the return cargoes 
 must be discharged at places having sugar refineries. The principal part of the trade is in the hands of 
 Copenhagen merchants. St. Croix produces about 25,000,000 lbs. of sugar, and 1,400,000 gallons of rum. 
 In 1831, 23 ships, of the aggregate burden of 5,772 tons, arrived at Copenhagen from St. Croix. A good 
 deal of the colonial produce brought into Denmark is again exported. 
 
 The trade to the settlement of Tranquebar and Serampore, in India, is in the hands of an exclusive 
 company. Whether it be owing to the deadening influence of monopoly, or to the real superiority of the 
 Americans, who supply the Continental markets with tea, &c. at a cheaper rate, only one ship a year has 
 latterly sailed from Copenhagen for India ! The trade to the Danish settlements on the African coast is, 
 if possible, of still less importance. — [N. B. For an account of the trade on the Kiel Canal, see Canals.) 
 
 Port Charges vary according as the vessel has come from this or the further side of Cape Finisterre, 
 or from the Indian seas ; as she is wholly, or only part loaded ; and as she clears out with goods that have 
 been in transitu, and are for the most part free of duty, or has on board a cargo of native produce sub- 
 ject to duty. On a ship of 300 tons belonging to a privileged nation from this side Cape Finisterre, un- 
 loading and loading mixed cargoes in Copenhagen, the different public charge.«, including Sound dues, 
 brokerage, &c., would be about 67Z. 10s. ; and from the further side of Cape Finisterre, the charges 
 would be about 99/. 10s. When a ship is not fully loaded, lastage money and light dues are only charged 
 in proportion to the cargo on board. Lastage money is not charged on ships outward bound, laden with 
 transit goods, as tar, pitch, iron, &c. But notwithstanding these deductions, it is obvious that port 
 charges at Copenhagen are very heavy, and there can be no doubt that they are a material obstacle to the 
 extension of trade. » 
 
 Commission on purchases is generally 2 per cent, and on sales, 3 per cent, including 1 per cent, 
 del credere. 
 
 Citixenship. — To enable a foreigner to trade as a merchant in Denmark, he must become a burgher, 
 which costs about 100/., and it will require about 60/. more to free him from the obligation of serving in 
 the militia. The obstacles in the way of a foreigner establishing himself In Denmark as a manuf acturer 
 are much greater, on account of the exclusive privileges enjoyed by the guilds or corporations into wliich 
 che ]>rincipal crafts or trades are divided. 
 
 Credit. — Goods imported into Copenhagen are commonly sold on credit : 3 months is the term 
 generally allowed on most sorts of goods, and in a few insttyiccs 6 months. The digcount for readT 
 cioncy is 4 per cent. Bankruptcy is ol rare occurrence. 
 
 i 
 
COPENHAGEN. 
 
 397 
 
 Insurance. — Marine insurance is ofTccted on liberal terms, by a company established in 174C A good 
 many risks are, however, insured at Amsterdam arni Hamburgh. 
 
 Careening, SAips' Stores, Sfc. — Copenhagen has good building-yards, and is in all respects an eligible 
 place for the repair of ships, and for supplying them with provisions. Subjoined is an 
 
 Account of the Average Prices of Ships' Provision at Copenhagen in 1831, in Imperial "Weights and 
 Measures, and Sterling Money. 
 
 £ s. d. JB s. d. 
 
 Biscuits, ships', 1st quality _ - - 0 15 0 per cwt. 
 
 Ditto 2d ditto . - - 0 12 0 ditto. 
 
 Butter, 1st quality - . - 2 8 0 to 2 10 0 ditto. 
 
 Ditto, 2d ditto - ... 2 4 0 ditto. 
 
 Cheese - - - - 0 13 5 to 0 17 0 ditto. 
 
 Peas - - - - .189 — 1 12 0 per Imp. qr. 
 
 Beef, salted - - - - 1 18 0 — 1 19 0 per 200 lbs. 
 
 Pork, ditto - - - . - 2 16 0 — 2 18 0 ditto. 
 
 Bacon . - . - - 0 0 3i— 0 0 3iperlb, 
 
 Spirits. — Rum, 2^. to 2*. 6d. French Brandy, 2s. id. to 3s. per gallon. 
 
 Tarei. — Statement of the Tares allowed by the Custom-house at Copenhagen, on the principal Articleg 
 
 of Importation. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Almonds 
 Cassia lifpiea 
 Cinnamon 
 Cocoa 
 Coffee V - 
 
 Colouis.painters' 
 
 Cotton 
 Currants' 
 Delft ware 
 figs 
 
 Hops 
 Indigo 
 Mustard 
 Oclire 
 Olive oil 
 
 Desciiption of Packages. 
 
 Linen bags 
 All sorts of packages 
 do. 
 
 In linen bags ... 
 Casks of 400 lbs. and under 
 
 exceeding 400 lbs. 
 Matted bags ot 150 lbs. & under 
 
 exceeding IsO lbs. 
 East India bags, double 
 
 do. single - 
 
 Unmixed and not enumerated - 
 do. and enumerated, and not 
 being oclire, white lead, or 
 brown red ... 
 Prepared ... 
 Bags, or bales 
 All sorts of packages 
 do. 
 
 i casks ... 
 X do. - - 
 
 Casks 
 
 Baskets, or frails 
 
 Boxes . . . 
 
 Bottles in crates and in straw - 
 
 do. in boxes and in sawdust 
 In casks and boxes 
 Packed in mats, per piece 
 Bags and pockets 
 All sorts of packages 
 Glasses, in boxes and casks 
 All sorts of packages 
 In single and double casks 
 Bottled, in.baskets and straw . 
 
 do. in boxes and sawiiust . 
 
 Tares. 
 
 4 per ct. 
 IG - 
 do. 
 4 per ct. 
 IG - 
 12 — 
 2 lbs. 
 4 — 
 do. 
 2 lbs. 
 10 per ct. 
 
 12 _ 
 do. 
 4 lbs. 
 Ifi per ct, 
 12 - 
 l&lbs. 
 18 - 
 10 per ct. 
 
 .52 — 
 
 20 — 
 
 40 — 
 
 12 - 
 
 Pepper 
 
 Saltpetre 
 Soap, white 
 Sugar, raw 
 
 refined 
 Tobacco 
 
 Description of Packages. 
 
 Bags of 150 lbs. and under 
 exceeding 150 lbs. 
 
 Linen bags 
 do. 
 
 i barrel 
 
 i do. 
 
 Casks exceeding ^ barrel 
 do. under ^ barrel 
 
 Ado. . 
 J do. 
 
 1 do. - 
 
 Bags of lOO'lbs. and not exceed- 
 ing 150 lbs. 
 
 150 lbs. and under 
 All kinds of packages 
 do. 
 
 In casks - . . 
 
 Brazil boxes 
 
 Havannah do. - . . 
 
 Casks (transit) 
 
 do. - - 
 Baskets packed in mats 
 Casks (thick) 
 
 do. . . . 
 
 do. cased - . . 
 
 Glass bottles or flasks in baskets 
 do. in boxes 
 
 do. packed in sawdust 
 Stone bottles ... 
 All kinds of packages 
 
 12 - 
 10 per ct. 
 12 — 
 
 4 — 
 
 2 — 
 10 per ct. 
 14 — 
 17 - 
 
 do. 
 12 — 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 General Remarks. — On the whole, the commerce of Denmark may be pronounced to 
 be in a stationary state. But from her advantageous situation between the Baltic and 
 North Sea, and the industrious, persevering character of the inhabitants, there can be 
 little doubt that it may be materially extended. It is needless, however, to expect any con- 
 siderable improvement till the present system of domestic policy be, in many respects, 
 altogether changed. The Danish government has long been exerting itself to bolster 
 up a manufacturing interest, by laying oppressive duties on most species of manufactured 
 articles. Even under the most favourable circumstances, such conduct, though it may 
 benefit a few individuals, is sure to be productive of great national loss. But in the 
 case of Denmark, the circumstances are such as to render the restrictive system pecu- 
 liarly injurious. All, or nearly all, the branches of industry carried on in the kingdom 
 are subjected to the government of guilds or corporations ; no person can engage in 
 any line of business until he has been authorised by its peculiar guild ; and as the 
 sanction of this body is rarely obtained without a considerable sacrifice, the real effect 
 of the system is to fetter competition and improvement, and to perpetuate monopoly and 
 routine. Even the Danish writers acknowledge that such is the influence of the present 
 regulations. " Nos ouvriers," say they, " sont chers, travaillent lentemeiit, et souvent mal 
 et sans gout; leur education est negligee. On ne les forme point a. penser, et Vappretitif 
 suit machinalement ce qu'il voit faire au mattre." — ( Catteau, Tableau des Etats Danois, 
 tome ii. p. 260. ) It would be idle to imagine that a country which has to import coal, 
 should, however favourably situated in other respects, be able to manufacture cottons, 
 woollens, &c. at so cheap a rate as they may be imported from others enjoying greater 
 natural facilities for their production. But when to the physical obstacles in the way 
 of manufactures, we add others, not less formidable, of a political nature, the attempt 
 to force them into existence by dint of customs duties and regulations becomes absolutely 
 ludicrous. 
 
 The port charges and transit duties are also exceedingly heavy ; and the Soimd duties, 
 being charged on native as well as foreign ships, operate as an inland duty on the trade 
 
398 
 
 COPPER. 
 
 between different parts of the country. "VVe are glad, however, to be able to state, that 
 the more intelligent portion of the Danish people are quite aware of the mistaken 
 policy on which they ai'e now proceeding ; and there is reason to believe that it will, at 
 no distant period, be rendered more in accordance with the spirit of the age, and more 
 conducive to the improvement of the people. In 1832, a petition, signed by almost ull 
 the merchants of Copenhagen, was addressed to the king, containing an able and distinct 
 exposition of the circumstances which depress Danish commerce. The petitioners pray 
 for the emancipation of commercial pursuits from all the restrictions laid upon them by 
 guilds and corporations, or, in other words, for the freedom of industry ; for a revision 
 and reduction of the transit duties, and a change in the mode of charging the Sound 
 duties ; for a reduction of the tonnage duties, and a remission of the charge on account 
 of light money on ships arriving at Copenhagen that have already paid for the lights 
 Elsineur ; they further pray for the abolition of the East India Company's monopoly, 
 and the freedom of trade to the East Indies and China ; and for a reduction of the 
 duties on several articles of domestic produce when exported, and of foreign produce 
 when imported. What is here asked is so reasonable, and, if granted, would add so 
 much to the real prosperity of the country, that we trust the government will earn for 
 itself a new title to the public esteem by honestly endeavouring to meet the wishes of 
 the petitioners. 
 
 In compiling this article, we have consulted Oddi/'s European Commerce, pp. 330 — 369. ; Dictionnaire 
 du Commerce {Ency. Methodique, tome II. pp. 3—16.), Catteau, Tableau des Etats Danois, tome ii. 
 pp 292 — 371.; the Consurs Answers to Circular Qu cries, which do that functionary great credit ; and 
 communications from merchants at Copenhagen. 
 
 COPPER (Ger. Kupfer ; Du. Koper ; Da. Kolber Sw. Kopper Fr. Cuivre ; 
 It. Rame ; Sp. Cohre ; Port. Cohre ; Rus. Mjed, Krasnoi mjed ; Pol. Miedz ; Lat- 
 Cuprum; Arab. Nehass ; Sans. Tamra), a well-known metal, so called from its having 
 been first discovered, or at least wrought to any extent, in the island of Cyprus. It is 
 of a fine red colour, and has a great deal of brilliancy. Its taste is styptic and nauseous ; 
 and the hands, when rubbed for some time on it, acquire a peculiar and disagreeable 
 odour. It is harder than silver ; its specific gravity varies according to its state, being, 
 when quite pure, near 9-000. Its malleability is great : it may be hammered out into 
 leaves so thin as to be blown about by the slightest breeze. Its ductility is also consider- 
 able. Its tenacity is so great, that a copper wire 0*078 of an inch in diameter is capable 
 of supporting 302 '26 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. Its liability to oxidation from 
 exposure to air or damp is its greatest defect. The rust with which it is then covered 
 is known by the name of verdigris, and is one of the most active poisons. — ( Thomson's 
 Chemistry. ) 
 
 If we except gold and silver, copper seems to have been more early known than any 
 other metal. In the first ages of the world, before the method of working iron was 
 discovered, copper was the principal ingredient in all domestic utensils and instruments 
 of war. Ev'en now it is applied to so many purposes, as to rank next, in point of utility, 
 to iron. 
 
 Alloys of Copper are numerous and of great value. Those of tin arc of most importance. Tin added 
 to copper makes it more fusible, less liable to rust, or to be corroded by the air and other common sub- 
 stances, harder, denser, and more sonorous. In these respects the alloy has a real advantage over un- 
 mixed copper : but this is in many cases more than counterbalanced by the great brittleness which even 
 a moderate portion of tin imparts ; and which is a singular circumstance, considering that both metals 
 are separately very malleable. 
 
 Copper alloyed with from 1 to 5 per cent, of tin is rendered harder than before"; its colour is yellow, 
 with a cast of red, and its fracture granular : it has considerable malleabilitj'. This appears to have been 
 the usual composition of many of tiie ancient edged tools and weapons, before the method of working 
 iron was brought to perfection. The %«A <e? of the Greeks, and, perhaps, the as of the Romans, was 
 nothing else. Even their copper coins contain a mixture of tin. The ancients did not, in fact, possess 
 (as has been often contended) any peculiar process for hardening copper, except by adding to it a small 
 quantity of tin. An alloy in which the tin is from 01 to f of the whole is hard, brittle, but still a little 
 malleable, close grained, and yellowish white. When the tin is as much as ^ of the mass, it is entirely 
 brittle ; and continues so in every higher proportion. The yellowness of the alloy is not entirely lost till 
 the tin amounts to 0 3 of the whole. 
 
 Copper (or sometimes copper with a little zinc), alloyed with as much tin as will make from about 01 
 to J of the whole, forms an alloy, which is principally employed for bells, brass cannon, bronze statues, 
 and various other purposes. Hence it is called bronze, ot bell metal ; and is excellently fitted for the 
 uses to which it is applied, by its hardness, density, sonorousness, and fusibility. For cannon, a lower 
 proportion of tin is commonly used. According to Dr. Watson, the metal employed at Woolwich con- 
 sists of 100 parts of copper and from 8 to 12 of tin ; hence it retains some little malleability, and, there- 
 fore, is tougher than it would be with a larger portion of tin. This alloy being more sonorous than iron, 
 brass guns give a louder report than iron guns. A common alloy for bell metal is 80 parts of copper and 
 20 of tin : some artists add to these ingredients zinc, antimony, and silver, in small proportions ; all of 
 which add to the sonorousness of the compound. — (See Bell Metal.) 
 
 When, in an alloy of copper and tin, the latter metal amounts to about J of the mass, the result is a 
 beautiful compound, very hard, of the colour of steel, and susceptible of a very fine polish. It is well 
 adapted for the reflection of light for optical purposes ; and is therefore called .tpeculum metal. Besides 
 the above ingredients, it usually contains a little arsenic, zinc, or silver. The application of an alloy 
 similar to the above, to the construction of mirrors, is of great antiquity, being mentioned by PImy ; who 
 says, that formerly the best mirrors were reckoned those of Brundusium, of tin and copper mixed {stanno 
 et cere mistis). — (llist. Nat. lib. xxxiii. ^ 9.) 
 
 For the alloys of copper with zinc, see the articles Buass, PiNcnnECK. See, also, Thomson's Chemistry , 
 Jiecs's Cyclopedia j Dr. Watson's Chemical Essays, vol. iv., ^c. 
 
uoprEii. 
 
 S99 
 
 British Copper Trade. — Great Britain has various copper mines, 5n Cornwall, Devon.sliire, Wales, &c 
 but particularly in the first. Though known lonf,' before, the Cornish copper mines were not wro'uglit 
 with much spirit till last century. I' rom 172() to 173.0, they i)ro(lucc(l at an average about 700 tons a year 
 of pure copper. During the ten years from 170f5 to 177.0, they produced, at an average, 2,fiOO tons In 
 1798, the produce exceeded 5,000 tons ; and it now amounts to about 12,0(jO tons, worth, at 100/ a ton, no 
 less than 1,200,000/. sterling ! In 17(i8, the famous mines in the I'arys mountain, near Amlwch, in Anglesea, 
 ■were discovered. The supplies of ore furnished by them were for a long time abundant beyond all pre. 
 cedent ; but for many years past the productiveness of the mine has been declining, and it now yieldi 
 comparatively little copper. At present the mines in Anglesea, and other parts of Wales, yield from 1 750 
 to2,0(M) tons of copper ; those of Devonshire yield about 500 tons ; the quantity produced in the other part* 
 of England being quite inconsiderable. The Irish mines produce about 500 toi)g. 'I'hose of Scotland 
 never were productive, and have been almost entirely abandoned. The entire produce of the co|>per 
 mines of the empire may, therefore, be estimated at present at from 14,.0OO to 15,000 tons. 
 
 In consequence of the greatly increased supplies of copper that were thus obtained, England, instead of • 
 being, as formerly, dependent on foreigners for the greater part of her supplies of this valuable metal 
 became, previou.sly to 1793, one of the principal markets for the supply of others. And notwithstandinf^ 
 the vastly increased demand for copper during the war for the sheathing of ships and other purposes the 
 exports continued to increase and the imports to diminish ; the greater productiveness of the Cornish 
 mines having sufficed not only to balance the increased demand, but also to make up for the falling off in 
 the supplies from Anglesea. 
 
 Owing to the want of coal in Cornwall, the ores are not smelted on the spot, but are, for the most part 
 sent to Swansea; it being found cheaper to carry the ores to the coal than the contrary. * 
 
 Account of the Copper produced from the Mines in Cornwall since 1800 ; showing the Quantity of Ore, 
 of Metal or Fine Copi)er, the Value of the Ores in Money, the average Percentage or Produce, and' 
 the average Standard or Miner's Price of Fine Copper, made up to the Fnd of June in each Year. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantity of 
 Ores. 
 
 Metal or Fine Copper. 
 
 Value of the Ores. 
 
 _ 
 
 i rocHce 
 of Ores 
 per cent. 
 
 Average .Standard 
 Price per 'l"on. 
 
 1800 
 
 Tmis. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 crvt. qrs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 .'v5,981 
 
 5,187 
 5,267 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 550,925 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 9i 
 
 133 
 
 3 6 
 
 1801 
 
 .06.611 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 476,313 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 117 
 
 5 0 
 
 1802 
 
 03,937 
 
 5,228 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 to g ' 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 9| 
 
 110 
 
 18 0 
 
 1S03 
 
 60,566 
 64,637 
 
 5,P16 
 5,374 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 
 122 
 
 0 0 
 
 1804 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 507,840 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 n 
 
 138 
 
 5 0 
 
 180.0 
 
 78,452 
 
 6,234 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 862,410 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 
 169 
 
 16 0 
 
 1806 
 
 79,269 
 71,694 
 
 6,863 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 730,845 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 li 
 
 138 
 
 5 0 
 
 1807 
 
 6,716 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 6(-9,002 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 
 120 
 
 0 0 
 
 1808 
 
 67,867 
 
 6,795 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 495,303 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 7 0 
 
 1809 
 
 76,245 
 
 6,821 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 770,028 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 8s 
 
 143 
 
 12 0 
 
 1810 
 
 66,048 
 
 6,682 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 27 
 
 570,035 
 556,723 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 8i 
 
 132 
 
 5 0 
 
 1811 
 
 66,786 
 
 6,141 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 91 
 
 120 
 
 12 0 
 
 1812 
 
 71,547 
 
 5,720 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 549,665 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 9f 
 
 111 
 
 0 0 
 
 1813 
 
 74,047 
 
 6,918 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 594,345 
 627,501 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 9t 
 
 115 
 
 7 0 
 
 1814 
 
 74,522 
 
 6,369 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 130 
 
 12 0 
 
 1815 
 
 78,483 
 
 G,525 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 552,813 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 117 
 
 98 
 
 16 0 
 
 1816 
 
 77,334 
 
 6,697 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 447,959 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 
 13 0 
 
 1817 
 
 76,701 
 
 6,498 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 494,010 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 108 
 
 10 0 
 
 1818 
 
 86,174 
 
 6,8^9 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 686,005 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 'i 
 
 134 
 
 15 0 
 
 1819 
 
 88,736 
 
 6,804 
 7,508 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 623,595 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 127 
 
 10 0 
 
 1820 
 
 91,473 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 602,441 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 113 
 
 15 0 
 
 1821 
 
 98,426 
 104,523 
 
 8,514 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 605,968 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 103 
 
 0 0 
 
 1822 
 
 9,140 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 663,085 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 104 
 
 0 0 
 
 1823 
 
 95,750 
 
 7,927 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 608,033 
 587,178 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 109 
 
 18 0 
 
 1824 
 
 99,700 
 
 7,823 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 P 
 
 110 
 
 0 0 
 
 1825 
 
 107,454 
 
 8,226 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 21 
 
 726,353 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 124 
 
 4 0 
 
 1826 
 
 117,308 
 
 9,026 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 788,971 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 123 
 
 3 0 
 
 1827 
 
 126,710 
 
 10,311 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 745,178 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 ' a 
 
 106 
 
 1 0 
 
 1828 
 
 130,566 
 
 9,921 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 756,174 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 112 
 
 7 0 
 
 1829 
 
 124,502 
 
 9,656 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 717,334 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 109 
 
 14 0 
 
 1830 
 
 133,964 
 
 10,748 
 
 
 
 
 773,846 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 106 
 
 5 0 
 
 1831 
 
 144,402 
 
 12,044 
 
 
 
 
 806,090 
 
 
 
 8? 
 
 100 
 
 0 0 
 
 Exports of British Copper since 1820. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Unwrought. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Sheets, Nails, &c. 
 
 AVire. 
 
 Wrought Copper of 
 other Sorts. 
 
 Total of British 
 Copper exported. 
 
 
 Crvt. 
 
 Crvt. 
 
 Cmt. 
 
 Crvt. 
 
 Crvt. 
 
 Cut. 
 
 1820 
 
 41,155 
 
 10 
 
 58,121 
 66,676 
 
 8 
 
 22,663 
 
 121,953 
 
 1821 
 
 &t,.043 
 
 155 
 
 21 
 
 24,035 
 
 125,431 
 
 1822 
 
 25,829 
 
 
 6.0,070 
 
 40 
 
 22,731 
 
 113,671 
 
 1S23 
 
 24,082 
 
 802 
 
 .06,146 
 
 98 
 
 25,587 
 
 106,516 
 
 1824 
 
 i 19,209 
 
 95 
 
 62,920 
 
 292 
 
 23,580 
 
 106,096 
 
 1825 
 
 10 
 
 2,134 
 1,807 
 
 51,437 
 
 40 
 
 2.0,002 
 
 78,«24 
 
 1826 
 
 2,604 
 
 65,264 
 
 n 
 
 26,307 
 
 95,994 
 
 1827 
 
 26,583 
 
 1,450 
 1,150 
 
 74,943 
 
 8 
 
 40,439 
 48,897 
 
 143,424 
 
 1828 
 
 21,591 
 
 52,412 
 59,871 
 
 71 
 
 124,121 
 
 1829 
 
 52,978 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 46,643 
 
 159,521 
 183,154 
 
 1830 
 
 56,722 
 
 640 . 
 
 66,S31 
 
 16 
 
 56,443 
 
 1831 
 
 67,200 
 
 96 
 
 70,477 
 
 149 
 
 32,690 
 
 170,613 
 
 1832 
 
 77,497 
 
 2 
 
 79,944 
 
 13 
 
 37,155 
 
 194,612 
 
 N.B. — The foreign copper imported is altogether intended for re-exportation. In 1832, 13,894 cwt 
 of copper were smelted from foreign ore. The East Indies and China, France, and the United States, are 
 the great markets for British copper. The exports to these countries, in 1832, were respectively 82,880, 
 35,984, and 31,235 cwt. 
 
 For the following details with respect to the state of the British copper trade in 1830, we are Indebted 
 to Mr. Pascoe Grenfell, who is largely engaged in it, and on whose accuracy every reliance may be 
 placed : — 
 
 " The quantity of copper produced during last year (1830) in Cornwall, from ores raised in tliat county. 
 
400 
 
 COPPERAS. 
 
 exceeded ten thousand tons of pure metal : and if to this be added what has been produced in Wales, in 
 other parts of England, and in Ireland, the whole quantity of fine or pure metal produced in the United 
 Kingdom, in 18^9, may be fairly stated at twelve thousand tons. 
 
 " The quantity of British copper exported in 1829 amounts, according to an account recently laid before 
 the House of Commons, to 7,976 tons of fine metal ; to which adding the exports of foreign copper, the 
 total export was 8,817 tons. The copper imported is altogether intended for re-exportation. I cannot 
 state its precise quantity in fine metal, because the greater part of it arrives in a state of ore, and I have 
 no means of knowing the produce in pure metal of that ore, beyond such part of it as may come into my 
 own possession. 
 
 " The value of the 12,000 tons of copper produced in the United Kingdom, as above stated, at 90/. per 
 ton, is 1,080,000/." 
 
 Foreign Copper. — Copper ores are abundant in Sweden, Saxony, Russia, Persia, Japan, China, Chili, &c. 
 Near Fahlun, in the province of Dalecarlia, in Sweden, is the celebrated copper mine of the same name, 
 supposed to have been wrought nearly 1,000 years. For a long time it was one of the most productive 
 mines in the world. Towards the beginning of the seventeenth century it yielded an annual produce of 
 about 8,000,000 lbs. of pure metal; but it has since greatly declined ; and it is most probable that at no 
 distant period it will be wholly abandoned. — (Thomson's Travels in Sweden, p. 221.) There are still, 
 however, several productive copper mines in other parts of Sweden. The exports of copper from Stock- 
 holm in 1832 amounted to 4,336 skippounds, or 723 tons English, besides the exports from Gottenburgh 
 and other ports. The product of the copper mines in the government of Olonetz, in Russia, is estimated 
 at 210,000 poods, or 3,375 tons (Eng.) a year. — (Schnitzler, Essai d'une Statistique Generate, S(c. p. 41.) 
 The copper mines of Chili are also very rich, and their produce is at present imported into Canton and 
 Calcutta direct from Valparaiso. The copper mines of Japan are said to be among the richest in the 
 world. The Dutch annually import about 700 tons of their produce into Batavia; and; the Chinese 
 from 800 to 1,000 tons into Canton and other ports. In fact, Japan copper is spread over all the East, 
 and is regularly quoted in the Price Currents of Canton, Calcutta, and Singapore. — (See p. 245.) It is 
 purer, and brings a higher price, than any other species of bar or slab copper. It is uniformly met with 
 in the shape of bars or ingots, very much resembling large sticks of red sealing wax. When the copper 
 of South America is worth in the Canton market from 15 to 16 dollars per picul, that of Japan fetches 
 from 18 to 20. Pretty considerable quantities of copper are imported into Calcutta from Bushire and 
 Bussorah. This is mostly the produce of the Persian mines; but a little is understood to come from the 
 Russian mines in Georgia. 
 
 Customs Regulations. — Old copper sheathing, old copper utensils, and old copper and pewter utensils 
 of British manufacture, imported from British plantations, and also old copper stripped off vessels in ports 
 in the United Kingdom, may be admitted to entry, duly free, under the following regulations; viz. — 
 
 1st. Old copper sheathing stripped off British vessels in ports in the British possessions, upon proof to 
 the satisfaction of the Commissioners of Customs, that such sheathing was stripped off in such ports, and 
 also that the said sheathing is the property of the owner of the ship from which it was so stripped, to be 
 delivered to such owner. 
 
 2d. Old copper sheathing stripped off any ship in any port in the United Kingdom, upon the fact being 
 certified by the landing-waiter superintending the process ; the old copper to be delivered only to the 
 coppersmith who may re-copper the vessel from which the copper was stripped, he making proof to that 
 lact 
 
 3d. Old worn-out British copper and pewter utensils to be in all cases delivered when brought from 
 British possessions abroad in British ships, upon the consignee submitting proof that they had been used 
 on a particular estate, and are consigned on account of the o^ner of that estate, and that he (the con- 
 jignee) verily believes them to have been of British manufacture. — Com. Cus., 15th of Feb. 1833.) 
 
 Copper ore may be taken out of warehouses to be smelted, on proper notice being given to the customs 
 officers, and giving sufficient security, by bond, for returning the computed quantity of fine copper in it. 
 ~ (7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 58. § 23.) 
 
 Copper is in extensive demand all over India; being largely used in the dock-yards, in the manufacture 
 ot cooking utensils, in alloying spelter and tin, &c. The funeral of every Hindoo brings an accession to 
 the demand, according to his station ; the relatives of the deceased giving a brass cup to every Brahmin 
 present at the ceremony : so that 5, 10, 50, 100, 1,000, and sometimes more than 10 times this last number, 
 are dispensed upon such occasions. — {Bcirs Conunerce of Bengal.) 
 
 COPPERAS, a term employed by the older chemists, and popularly, as synonymous 
 with vitriol. There are three sorts of copperas : the green, or sulphate of iron ; the blue, 
 or .sulphate of copper ; and the white, or sulphate of zinc. Of these, the first is the most 
 important. 
 
 Sulphate'of iron is distinguished in common by a variety of names, as Martial vitriol, 
 English vitriol, &c. When pure, it is considerably transparent, of a fine bright, though 
 not very deep, grass green colour ; and of a nauseous astringent taste, accompanied with 
 a kind of sweetness. Its specific gravity is 1 '834. It uniformly reddens the vege- 
 table blues. This salt was well known to the ancients ; and is mentioned by Pliny, 
 (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiv. § 12.), under the names of misi/, sory, and calchantum. It is 
 not made in the direct way, because it can be obtained at less charge from the decom- 
 position of pyrites on a large scale in the neighbourhood of collieries. It exists in two 
 states ; one containing oxide of iron, with 0-22 of oxygen, which is of a pale green, not 
 altered by gallic acid, and giving a white precipitate with prussiate of potass. The 
 other, in which the iron is combined with 0'30 of oxygen, is red, not crystallisable, and 
 gives a black precipitate with gallic acid, and a blue with prussiate of potass. In the 
 common sulphate, these two are often mixed in various proportions. 
 
 Sulphate of iron is of great importance in the arts. It is a principal ingredient in 
 dyeing ; in the manufacture of ink, and of Prussian blue : it is also used in tanning, 
 painting, medicine, &;c. Sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, was formerly manufactured 
 from sulphate of iron. — (See Acids.) 
 
 Sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, commonly called Roman or Cyprian vitriol, is of 
 an elegant sappliire blue colour, hard, compact, and .semi-transparent ; when perfectly 
 crystallised, of a flattish, rhomboidal, decahedral figure ; its taste is extremely nauseous, 
 styptic, and acrid; its specific gravity is 2-1943. It is used for various purposes in the 
 arts, and also in medicine. 
 
 Sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol, is found native in the mines of Goslar and other 
 
COPYRIGHT. — CORDAGE. 
 
 401 
 
 places. Sometimes it is met with in transparent pieces, but more commonly in while 
 efflorescences. These are dissolved in water, and crystallised into large irregular masses, 
 somewhat resembling fine sugar, having a sweetish, nauseous, styptic taste. Its specific 
 gravity, when crystallised, is 1'912; when in the state in wliich it commonly occurs in 
 commerce, it is 1 -3275. Sulphate of zinc is prepared in the large way from some varieties 
 of the native sulphuret. The ore is roasted, wetted with water, and exposed to the air. 
 The sulphur attracts oxygen, and is converted into sulphuric acid ; and the metal, being 
 at the same time oxidized, combines with the acid. After some time the sulj)hate is 
 extracted by solution in water ; and the solution being evaporated to dryness, the mass 
 is run into moulds. Thus, the white vitriol of the shops generally contains a small por- 
 tion of iron, and often of copper and lead. — (^Lewis's Mat. Medica ; O'c's Dictionary ; 
 Jtees's Cyclopcedia ; TliomsorCs Chemistry, 8^c. ) 
 COPYRIGHT. See Books. 
 
 CORAL (Ger. Koralkn ; Du. Koraalen ; Fr. Corail ; It. Corah; Sp. and Port. 
 Coral; Rus. Korallii ; Lat. Corallium ; Arab. Besed; Pers. Merjdn ; Hind. Moony a), 
 a marine production, of which there are several varieties. It was well known to tlie 
 ancients, but it was reserved for the moderns to discover its real nature. It is, in fact, the 
 nidus or nest of a certain species of vermes, which has the same relation to coral, that a 
 snail has to its shell. As an ornament, black coral is most esteemed ; but the red is also 
 very highly prized. Coral is found in very great abundance in the Red Sea, the Persian 
 Gulf, in various places in the Mediterranean, on the coast of Sumatra, &c. It grows on 
 rocks, and on any solid submarine body ; and it is necessary to its production, that it 
 should remain fixed to its place. It has generally a shrub-like appearance. In the 
 Straits of Messina, where a great deal is fished up, it usually grows to nearly a foot in 
 length, and its thickness is about that of the little finger. It requires 8 or 10 years 
 to arrive at its greatest size. The depth at which it is obtained is various — from 10 to 
 100 fathoms or more ; but it seems to be necessary to its production that the rays of the 
 sun should readily penetrate to the place of its habitation. Its value depends upon its 
 size, solidity, and the depth and brilliancy of its colour ; and is so very various, that 
 while some of the Sicilian coral sells for 8 or 10 guineas an ounce, other descriptions of 
 it will not fetch Is. a pound. It is highly prized by opulent natives in India, as well as 
 by the fair sex throughout Europe. The inferior or worm-eaten coral is used in some 
 parts of the Madras coast, in the celebration of funeral rites. It is also used medicinally. 
 Besides the fishery in the Straits of Messina already alluded to, there are valuable 
 fisheries on the shores of Majorca and Minorca, and on the coast of Provence. A good 
 deal of Mediterranean coral is exported to India, which, however, draws the largest por- 
 tion of its supplies from the Persian Gulf. The produce of the fishery at Messina is 
 stated by Spallanzani ( Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. iv. p. 308, &c. ) to amount to 1 2 
 quintals of 250 lbs. each. 
 
 The manner of fishing coral is nearly the same every where. That which is most commonly practised 
 in the Mediterranean, is as follows: — Seven or 8 men go in a boat, commanded by the proprietor; 
 the caster throws his net, if we may so call the machine which he uses to tear up the coral from the 
 bottom of the sea ; and the rest work the boat, and help to draw in the net. This is composed of two 
 beams of wood tied crosswise, with leads fixed to them to sink tliem : to these beams is fastened a quan- 
 tity of hemp, twisted loosely round, and intermingled witli some loose netting. In this condition the 
 machine is let down into the sea; and when the coral is pretty strongly entwined in the hemp and nets, 
 they draw it up with a rope, which they unwind according to the dei)th, and which it sometimes requires 
 half a dozen boats to draw. If this rope happen to break, the fishermen run the hazard of being lost. 
 Before the fishers go to sea, they agree for the price of the coral; and the produce of .the fishery is 
 divided, at the end of the season, into 13 parts; of which the proprietor has 4, the caster 2, and the 
 other 6 men 1 each : the thirteenth belongs to the company for payment of boat-hire, &c. — (See Ainslie's 
 Mat. Indica ; Hees's Cyclopedia ; Ency. Metrop. ; Bell's Co?n. of Bengal, Sfc.) 
 
 C0KT)AG1£> {Ger. Tauwerk ; IDu. Ihuwwerk ; Fr. Manoeuvres, Cordage ; It. Caohme ; 
 Sp. Jarcia, Cordnje), a term used in general for all sorts of cord, whether small, middling, 
 or great, made use of in the rigging of ships. Tlie manufacture of cordage is regulated 
 by the act 25 Geo. 4. c. 56., which specifies the sort of materials that are to be employed 
 in the manufacture of cables, hawsers, and other ropes, the marks that are to be afl^ixed to 
 them, and the penalties for non-compliance with the respective enactments. — ( See 
 Cable.) Masters of British ships are obliged, on coming into any port in Great Britain 
 or the colonies, to report, under a penalty of 100/., the foreign cordage, not being 
 standing or running rigging, in use onboard such ship. (3 & 4 Will. 4. cap. 52. § 8.) 
 
 The following table shows how many fathoms, feet, and inches, of a rope of any size, 
 not exceeding 14 inches, make 1 cwt. 
 
 At the top of the table, marked inches, fathoms, feet, inches, the first column is the 
 circumference of a rope in inches and quarters; the second, the fathoms, feet, and inches, 
 that make up 1 cwt. of such a rope. One example will make it plain. 
 
 Suppose it is required how much of a 7-inch rope will make 1 cwt. : find 7, 
 in the 3d column, under inches, or circumference of the rope, and immediately opposite 
 to it you will find 9, 5, 6 ; which shows that in a rope of 7 inches^ there will be 9 fathoms 
 5 feet 6 inches required to make 1 cwt. 
 
 2 D 
 
402 
 
 CORK. — CORN LAWS. 
 
 
 § 
 
 
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 CORK (Ger. Kork Du. Kork, Kurk, Vlothout ; Fr. It. Sughero, Suvero ; 
 
 Sp. Corcho ; Port. Cortica (rfe Sovreiro) ; Rus. Korkowoe derewo ; Lat. Suber), the thick 
 and spongy bark of a species of oak ( Quercus Suber Lin. ), abundant in dry mountainous 
 districts in the south of France, and in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Barbary. The tree 
 grows to the height of 30 feet or more, has a striking resemblance to the Quercus Ilex, 
 or evergreen oak, iind attains to a great age. After arriving at a certain state of matu- 
 rity, it periodically sheds its bark ; but this valuable product is found to be of a much 
 better quality when it is artificially removed from the tree, which may be effected with- 
 out any injury to the latter. After a tree has attained to the age of from 26 to 30 
 years, it may be barked ; and the operation may be subsequently repeated once every 
 8 or 10 years*, the quality of the cork improving with the increasing age of the tree. 
 The bark is taken off in July and August ; and trees that are regularly stripped are 
 said to live for 150 years, or more. — (^Poiret, Hist. Philosophique des Plantes, torn. vii. 419.) 
 
 Cork is light, porous, readily compressible, and wonderfully elastic. It may be cut 
 into any sort of figure, and, notwithstanding its porosity, is nearly impervious to any 
 common liquor. These qualities make it superior to all other substances for stoppers 
 for bottles, in the manufacture of which it is principally made use of. It is also em- 
 ployed as buoys to float nets, in the construction of life-bpats, the making of water- 
 proof shoes, and in various other ways. Before being manufactured into stoppers, the 
 cork is charred on each side ; this makes it contract, lessens its porosity, and consequently 
 fits it the better for cutting off all communication between the external air and the 
 liquid in the bottle. Spanish black is made of calcined cork. 
 
 The Greeks and Romans were both well acquainted with cork. They seem also to 
 have occasionally used it as stoppers for vessels ( Cadorum obturamentts, Plin. Hist. Nat. 
 lib. xvi. cap. 8.) ; but it was not extensively employed for this purpose till the 17th cen- 
 tury, when glass bottles, of which no mention is made before the 15th century, began to 
 be generally introduced. — (Beckmann's Hist. Invent, vol. ii. pp. 114 — 127. Eng. ed.) 
 
 The duty on manufactured cork is prohibitory ; and on the rude article it Is very heavy, being no less 
 than 8s. a cwt. or 8/. a ton. The quantity entered for home consumption amounts, at an average, to from 
 40,000 to 45,000 cwts. Its price, including duty, varies with the variations in its quality, from about 20^ 
 to abo It 70^. a ton. The Spanish is the best, and fetches the highest price. 
 
 CORN (Ger. Corn, Getreide ; Du. Graanen, Koren ; Da. Korn ; Sw. Sad, Spanmal; 
 Fr. Bleds, Grains ; It. Biade, Grani ; Sp. Granos Rus. Chljeb ; Pol. Zboze ; Lat. 
 Frumentum), the grain or seed of plants separated from the spica or ear, and used for 
 making bread, &c. Such are wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, peas, &c. ; which see. 
 
 CORNELIAN. See Carnelian. 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. — From the circumstance of corn forming, 
 in this and most other countries, the principal part of the food of the people, the trade 
 in it, and the laws by which that trade is regulated, are justly looked upon as of the 
 highest importance. 13ut this is not the only circumstance that renders it necessary to 
 enter at some length into the discussion of this subject. Its difficulty is at least equal to 
 its interest. The enactments made at different periods with respect to the corn trade, 
 and the opinions advanced as to their policy, have been so very various and contradictory, 
 that it is indispensable to submit them to some examination, and, if possible, to ascertain 
 the principles which ought to pervade this department of commercial legislation. 
 
 I. Historical Sketch of the Corn Laws. 
 II. Principles of the Corn Laws. 
 
 III. British Corn Trade. 
 
 IV. Foreign Corn Trade. 
 
 • Bcckmann (vol. ii. p. 115. Eng. ed.) says, that " when the tree is 15 ycirs old, it may be barked, and 
 this can be done successively for 8 years." This erroneous statement having been copied into the article 
 CoBK in Ilces's Cyclopaedia, has thence been transplanted to a multitude of other works. 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 403 
 
 I. Historical Sketch of the Corn Laws. 
 
 For a long time the regulations with respect to the corn trade were principally 
 intended to promote abundance and low jjrices. But, though the purpose was laudable, 
 the means adopted for accomplishing it had, for the most part, a directly opposite effect. 
 When a country exports corn, it seems, at first sight, as if nothing could do so much to 
 increase her supplies as the prevention of exportation : and even in countries that do not 
 export, its prohibition seems to be a prudent measure, and calculated to prevent the 
 supply from being diminished, upon any emergency, below its natural level. These are 
 the conclusions that immediately suggest themselves upon this subject ; and it requires a 
 pretty extensive experience, an attention to facts, and a habit of reasoning upon such 
 topics, to perceive their fallacy. These, however, were altogether wanting when the 
 regulations affecting the corn trade began to be introduced into Great Britain and other 
 countries. They were framed in accordance with what were supposed to be the dictates 
 of common sense ; and their object being to procure as large a supply of the prime 
 necessary of life as possible, its exportation was either totally forbidden, or forbidden 
 when the home price was above certain limits. 
 
 The principle of absolute prohibition seems to have been steadily acted upon, as far 
 as the turbulence of the period would admit, from the Conquest to the year 1436, in the 
 reign of Henry VI. But at the last mentioned period an act was passed, authorising 
 the exportation of wheat whenever the home price did not exceed 6s. 8d. (equal in 
 amount of pure silver to 12s. 10|</. present money) per quarter, and barley when the 
 home price did not exceed 3s. 4c?. In 1463, an additional benefit was intended to be 
 conferred on agriculture by prohibiting importation until the home price exceeded that 
 at which exportation ceased. But the fluctuating policy of the times prevented these 
 regulations from being carried into full effect ; and, indeed^ rendered them in a great 
 measure inoperative. 
 
 In addition to the restraints laid on exportation, it has been common in most countries 
 to attempt to increase the supply of corn, not only by admitting its unrestrained import- 
 ation from abroad, but by holding out extraordinary encouragement to the importers. 
 This policy has not, however, been much followed in England. During the 500 years 
 immediately posterior to the Conquest, importation was substantially free ; but it was 
 seldom or never promoted by artificial means : and during the last century and a half it 
 has, for the most part, been subjected to severe restrictions. 
 
 Besides attempting to lower prices by prohibiting exportation, our ancestors attempted 
 to lower them by proscribing the trade carried on by corn dealers. This most useful 
 class of persons were looked upon with suspicion by every one. The agriculturists 
 concluded that they would be able to sell their produce at higher prices to the con- 
 sumers, were the corn dealers out of the way : while the consumers concluded that the 
 profits of the dealers were made at their expense ; and ascribed the dearths that were 
 then very prevalent entirely to the practices of the dealers, or to their buying up corn 
 and withholding it from market. These notions, which have still a considerable degree 
 of influence, led to various enactments, particularly in the reign of Edward VI., by 
 which the freedom of the internal corn trade was entirely suppressed. The engrossing of 
 corn, or the buying of it in one market with intent to sell it again in another, was made 
 an offence punishable by imprisonment and the pillory ; and no one was allowed to can-y 
 corn from one part to another without a licence, the privilege of granting which was 
 confided by a statute of Elizabeth to the quarter sessions. But as the principles of 
 commerce came to be better understood, the impolicy of these restraints gradually grew 
 more and more obvious. They were considerably modified in 1624 ; and, in 1663, the 
 engrossing of corn was declared to be legal so long as the price did not exceed 48s. a 
 quarter — (15 Chas. 2. c. 7.); an act which, as Dr. Smith has justly observed, has, with 
 all its imperfections, done more to promote plenty than any other law in the statute 
 book. In 1773, the last remnant o£ the legislative enactments restraining the freedom 
 of the internal corn dealers, was entirely repealed. But the engrossing of corn has, 
 notwithstanding, been since held to be an offence at common law ; and, so late as 1 800, 
 a corn dealer was convicted of this imaginary crime. He was not, however, brought 
 up for judgment ; and it is not very likely that any similar case will ever again occupy 
 the attention of the courts. 
 
 The acts of 1436 and 1463, regulating the prices when exportation was allowed and 
 when importation was to cease, continued, nominally at least, in force till 1 562, when 
 the prices at which exportation might take place were extended to 10s. for wheat and 
 6s. 8d. for barley. But a new principle — that of imposing duties on exportation — was 
 soon after introduced ; and, in 1571, it was enacted that wheat might be exported, paying 
 a duty of 2s. a quarter, and barley and other grain a duty of Is. 4c?., whenever the home 
 price of wheat did not exceed 20s. a quarter, and barley and malt 12s. At the Restor- 
 ation, the limit at which exportation might take place was very much extended : but as 
 
 2 D 2 
 
404 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 the duty on exportation Avas, at the same time, so very high as to be ahnost prohibitory, 
 the extension was of little or no service to the agriculturists. This view of the matter 
 seems to have been speedily taken by the legislature; for, in 1663, the high duties on 
 exportation were taken off, and an ad valorem duty imposed in their stead, at the same 
 time that the limit of exportation was extended. In 1670, a still more decided step was 
 taken in favour of agriculture ; an act being then passed which extended the exportation 
 price to 53s. 4rf. a quarter for wheat, and other grain in proportion, imposing, at the 
 same time, prohibitory duties on the importation of wheat till the price rose to 53s. 4rf., 
 and a duty of 8s. between that price and 80s. But the real effects of this act were not 
 so great as might have been anticipated. The extension of the limit of exportation was 
 rendered comparatively nugatory, in consequence of the continuance of the duties on 
 exportation caused by the necessities of the Crown ; while the want of any proper method 
 for the determination of prices went far to nullify the prohibition of importation. 
 
 At the accession of William III. a new system was adopted. The interests of agri- 
 culture were then looked upon as of paramount importance : and to promote them, not 
 only were the duties on exportation totally abolished, but it was' encouraged by the grant 
 of a bounty of 5s. on every quarter of wheat exported while the price continued at or 
 below 48s. ; of 2s. 6d. on every quarter of barley or malt, while their respective prices 
 did not exceed 24s. ; and of 3s. 6d. on every quarter of rye, when its price did not exceed 
 32s. — (1 Will. §• Mary, c. 12.) A bounty of 2s. 6d. a quarter was subsequently given 
 upon the exportation of oats and oatmeal, when the price of the former did not exceed 
 15s. a quarter. Importation continued to be regulated by the act of 1670. 
 
 Much diversity of opinion has been entertained with respect to the policy of the bounty. 
 That it was intended to raise the price of corn is clear, from the words of the statute, 
 which states, " that the exportation of corn and grain into foreign parts, when the price 
 thereof is at a loio rate in this kingdom, hath been a great advantage not only to the owners 
 of land, but to the trade of the kingdom in general ; therefore," &c. But admitting this 
 to have been its object, it has been contended that the low prices which prevailed during 
 the first half of last century show that its real effect had been precisely the reverse ; and 
 that it had, by extending tillage, contributed to reduce prices. It will be afterwards 
 shown that this could not really be the case ; and the fell of prices may be sufficiently 
 accounted for by the improved state of agriculture, the gradual consolidation of farms, 
 the diminution of sheep husbandry, &c., combined with the slow increase of the population. 
 In point of fact, too, prices had begun to give way 30 years before the bounty was 
 granted ; and the fall was equally great in France, where, instead of exportation being 
 encouraged by a bounty, it was almost entirely prohibited ; and in most other Continental 
 states. — ( For proofs of what is now stated, see the article Corn Laws, in the new 
 edition of the Ency. Brit. ) 
 
 The Tables annexed to this article show that, with some few exceptions there was, during 
 the first 66 years of last century, a large export of corn from England. In 1 750, the 
 wheat exported amounted to 947,000 quarters ; and the total bounties paid during the 
 10 years from 1740 to 1751 reached the sum of 1,515,OOOZ. But the rapid increase of 
 population subsequently to 1760, and particularly after the peace of Paris, in 1763, when 
 the commerce and manufactures of the country were extended in an unprecedented de- 
 gree, gradually reduced this excess of exportation, and occasionally, indeed, inclined the 
 balance the other way. This led to several suspensions of the restrictions on importation ; 
 and, at length, in 1773, a new act was framed, by which foreign wheat was allowed to be 
 imported on paying a nominal duty of 6d. whenever the home price was at or above 48s. 
 a quarter, and the bounty * and exportation were together to cease when the price was 
 at or above 44s. This statute also permitted the importation of corn at any price, duty 
 free, in order to be again exported, provided it were in the mean time lodged under the 
 joint locks of the king and the importer. 
 
 The prices when exportation was to cease by this act seem to have been fixed too low ; 
 and, as Dr. Smith has observed, there appears a good deal of impropriety in prohibiting 
 exportation altogether the moment jt attained the limit, when the bounty given to force 
 it was withdrawn ; yet, with all these defects, the act of 1773 was a material improvement 
 on the former system, and ought not to have been altered unless to give greater freedom 
 to the trade. 
 
 The idea that this law must, when enacted, have been injurious to the agriculturists, 
 seems altogether illusory : the permission to import foreign grain, when the home price 
 rose to a moderate height, certainly prevented their realising exorbitant profits, in dear 
 years, at the expense of the other classes ; and prevented an unnatural proportion of the 
 capital of the country from being turned towards agriculture. But as tlie limit at which 
 importation at a nominal duty was allowed, was fixed a good deal above the average price 
 
 * The bounty amountocl to Bs. on every quarter of wheat ; 2s. Gd. on every quarter of barley j 3*. Gd. on 
 ©very quarter of rye ; and 2*. Qd. on every quarter of oats. 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 405 
 
 6f the reign of George II., it cannot be maintained that it had any tendency to reduce 
 previous prices, which is the only thing that could have discouraged agriculture : and, in 
 fact, no such reduction took place. 
 
 It is, indeed, true, that, but for this act, we should not have imported so much foreign 
 grain in the interval between 1773 and 1791. This importation, however, was not a 
 consequence of the decline of agriculture ; for it is admitted that every branch of rural 
 economy was more improved in that period than in the whole of the preceding century ; 
 but arose entirely from a still more rapid increase of the manufacturing population, and 
 hence, of the effective demand for corn. 
 
 By referring to the Tables annexed to this article, it will be seen that, in 1772, the 
 balance on the side of wheat imported amounted to 18,515 quarters; and in 1773, 1774 
 and 1775, all years of great prosperity, the balance was very much increased. But the 
 loss of a great part of our colonial possessions, the stagnation of commerce, and difficulty 
 of obtaining employment, occasioned by the American war, diminished the consumption ; 
 and this, combined with unusually productive harvests, rendered the balance high on the 
 side of exportation, in 1778, 1779, and 1789. In 1783 and 1784, the crop was unusually 
 deficient, and considerable importations took place; but in 1785, 1786, and 1787 the 
 exports again exceeded the imports ; and it was not till 1788, when the country had fully 
 recovered from the effects of the American war, and when manufacturing improvements 
 were carried on with extraordinary spirit, that the imports permanently overbalanced the 
 exports. 
 
 The growing wealth and commercial prosperity of the country had thus, by increasing 
 the population and enabling individuals to consume additional quantities of food, caused 
 the home supply of corn to fall somewhat short of the demand ; but it must not, 
 therefore, be concluded that agriculture had not at the same time been very greatly 
 meliorated. " The average annual produce of wheat," snys Mr. Comber, " at the begin- 
 ning of the reign of George III. (1760), was about 3,800,000 quarters, of which about 
 300,000 had been sent out of the kingdom, leaving about 3,500,000 for home con- 
 sumption. In 1773, the produce of wheat was stated in the House of Commons to be 
 4,000,000 quarters, of which tlie whole, and above 100,000 imported, were consumed 
 in the kingdom. In 1796, the consumption was stated by Lord Hawkesbury to be 
 500,000 quarters per month, or 6,000,000 quarters annually, of which about 1 80,000 
 were imported; showing an increased produce in about 20 years of 1,820,000 quarters. 
 It is evident, therefore, not only that no defalcation of produce had taken place in con- 
 sequence of the cessation of exportation, as has been too lightly assumed from the 
 occasional necessity of importation, but that it had increased with the augmentation of 
 our commerce and manufactures." — (^Comber on National Subsistence, p. 180.) 
 
 These estimates are, no doubt, very loose and unsatisfactory ; but the fact of a great 
 increase of produce having taken place is unquestionable. In a report by a cominittee of 
 the House of Commons on the state of the waste lands, drawn up in 1797, the number 
 of acts passed for enclosing, and the number of acres enclosed, in the following reigns, 
 are thus stated : — 
 
 Number of Acts. Number of Acres. 
 
 In the reign of Queen Anne . . 2 1,439 
 
 George I. - - - 16 17,960 
 
 George II. - - 226 318,778 
 
 George III. to 1797 1>532 2,804,197 
 
 It deserves particular notice, that from 1771 to 1791, both inclusive, the period during 
 which the greater number of these impi-ovements were effected, there was no rise of 
 prices. 
 
 The landholders, however, could not but consider the liberty of importation granted 
 by the act of 1773 as injurious to their interests, inasmuch as it prevented prices from 
 rising with the increased demand. A clamour, therefore, was raised against that law ; 
 and in addition to this interested feeling, a dread of becoming habitually dependent on 
 foreign supplies of corn, operated on many, and produced a pretty general acquiescence in 
 the act of 1791. By this act, the price when importation could take place from abroad 
 at the low duty of 6d., was raised to 54s. ; under 54s. and above 50s. a middle duty of 
 2s. 6d. ; and under 50s. a prohibiting duty of 24s. 3d. was exigible. The bounty con- 
 tinued as before, and exportation without bounty was allowed to 46s. It was also 
 enacted, that foreign wheat might be imported, stored under the king's lock, and again 
 exported free of duty ; but, if sold for home consumption, it became liable to a ware- 
 house duty of 2s. 6d. in addition to the ordinary duties payable at the time of sale. 
 
 In 1797, the Bank of England obtained an exemption from paying in specie ; and the 
 consequent facility of obtaining discounts and getting a command of capital, which this 
 measure occasioned, gave a fresh stimulus to agriculture ; the efficacy of which was most 
 powerfully assisted by the scarcity and high prices of 1800 and 1801. An agi-icultural 
 mania now seized the nation ; and as the prices of 1804 would not allow the cultivatiori 
 of the p«or soils, which had been broken up in the dear years, to be continued, a new 
 
 2 D 3 
 
4-06 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 corn law, being loudly called for by the farmers, was passed in 1804. This law imposed 
 a prohibitory duty of 24s. 3d. per quarter on all wheat imported when the home price 
 was at or below 63s. ; between 63s. and 66s. a middle duty of 2s. 6d. was paid, and above 
 66s. a nominal duty of 6d. The price at which the bounty was allowed on exportation 
 was extended to 50s., and exportation without bounty to 54s. By the act of 1791, the 
 maritime counties of England were divided into 1 2 districts, importation and exportation 
 being regulated by the particular prices of each ; but by the act of 1804 they were regu- 
 lated, in England, by the aggregate average of the maritime districts ; and in Scotland by 
 the aggregate average of the 4 maritime districts into which it was divided. The 
 averages were taken 4 times a year, so that the ports could not be open or shut for less 
 than 3 months. This manner of ascertaining prices was, however, modified in the 
 following session ; it being then fixed that importation, both in England and Scotland, 
 should be regulated by the average price of the 12 maritime districts of England. 
 
 In 1805, the crop was very considerably deficient, and the average price of that year 
 was about 22s. a quarter above the price at which importation was allowed by the act of 
 1804. As the depreciation of paper, compared with bullion, was at that time only four 
 per cent., the high price of that year must have been principally owing to the new law 
 preventing importation from abroad till the home price was high, and then fettering 
 mercantile operations ; and to the formidable obstacles which the war threw in the way 
 of importation. In 1806*, 1807, and 1808, the depreciation of paper was nearly 3 per 
 cent. ; and the price of wheat in those years being generally from 66s. to 75s., the im- 
 portations were but small. From autumn 1808, to spring 1814 the depreciation of the 
 currency was unusually great ; and several crops in that interval being likewise deficient, 
 the price of corn, influenced by both causes, rose to a surprising height. At that time 
 no vessel could be laden in any Continental port for England without purchasing a 
 licence, and the freight and insurance were at least 5 times as high as during peace. 
 But the destruction of Napoleon's anti-commercial system, in the autumn of 1813, 
 having increased the facilities of importation, a large quantity of corn was poured into 
 the kingdom; and, in 1814, its bullion price fell below the price at which importation 
 was allowed. 
 
 Before this fall of price, a committee of the House of Commons had been appointed 
 to inquire into the state of the laws aflfecting the corn trade ; and recommended in their 
 Report (dated 11th of May, 1813) a very great increase of the prices at which exportation 
 was allowable, and when importation free of duty might take place. This recommend- 
 ation was not, however, adopted by the House ; but the fact of its having been made 
 when the home price was at least 112s. a quarter, displayed a surprising solicitude to 
 exclude foreigners from all competition with the home growers. 
 
 The wish to lessen the dependence of the country on foreign supplies formed the sole 
 ostensible motive by which the committee of 1813 had been actuated, in proposing an 
 alteration in the act of 1804. But after the fall of price in autumn 1813, and in the 
 early part of 1814, it became obvious, on comparing our previous prices with those of the 
 Continent, that without an alteration of the law in question this dependence would be a 
 good deal increased ; that a considerable extent of such poor lands as had been brought 
 into cultivation during the high prices, would be again thrown into pasturage ; and that 
 rents would be considerably reduced. These consequences alarmed the landlords and 
 occupiers; and in the early part of the session of 1814, a series of resolutions were 
 voted by the House of Commons, declaring that it was expedient to repeal the bounty, 
 to permit the free exportation of corn whatever might be the home price, and to impose 
 a graduated scale of duties on the importation of foreign corn. Thus, foreign wheat 
 imported when the home price was at or under 64s. was to pay a duty of 24s. ; when 
 at or under 65s. a duty of 23s. ; and so on, till the home price should reach 86s., when 
 the duty was reduced to Is., at which sum it became stationary. Corn imported from 
 Canada, or from the other British colonies in North America, was to pay half the duties 
 on other corn. As soon as these resolutions had been agreed to, two bills founded on 
 them — one for regulating the importation of foreign corn, and another for the repeal of 
 the bounty, and for permitting unrestricted exportation — were introduced. Very little 
 attention was paid to the last of these bills ; but the one imposing fresh duties on im- 
 portation encountered a very keen opposition. The manufacturers, and every class not 
 directly supported by agriculture, stigmatised it as an imjustifiable attempt artificially to 
 keep up the price of food, and to secure excessive rents and large profits to the land- 
 holders and farmers at the expense of the consumers. Meetings were very generally 
 held, and resolutions entered into strongly expressive of this sentiment, and dwelling on 
 
 * Several impolitic restraints had been for a long time imposed on the free importation and exportation 
 of corn between Great Britain and Ireland, but they were wholly abolished in ISOfi; and the act of th.it 
 year (46 Geo. 3. c. 97.)» establishing a free trade in corn between the 2 great divisions of the empire, was 
 not only a wise and proper measure in itself, but has powerfully contributed to promote the general 
 advantage. 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 407 
 
 tfee fatal consequences which, it was aftirinod, a continuance of the hif^h prices would 
 have on our manufactures and coinmcrce. This determined opposition, coupled with 
 the indecision of ministers, and perhaps, too, with an expectation on the part of some of 
 the landholders that prices would rise without any legislative interference, caused the 
 miscarriage ot this bill. The other hill, repealing the bounty, and allowing an unlimited 
 freedom of exportation, was passed into a law. 
 
 Committees had been appointed in 1814, by both Houses of Parliament, to examine 
 evidence and report on the state of the corn trade ; and, in consequence, a number of 
 the most eminent agriculturists were examined* The witnesses were unanimous in this 
 only, — that the protecting prices in the act of J 804 were insufficient to enable the farmers 
 to make good the engagements into which they had subsequently entered, and to continue 
 tlie cultivation of the inferior lands lately brought under tillage. Some of them thought 
 that 120a!, ought to be fixed as the lowest limit at which the importation of wheat free of 
 duty should be allowed : others varied from 90s. to 100s. — from 80s. to 90s. — and a 
 few from 70s. to 80s. The general opinion, however, seemed to be that 80s. would 
 suffice ; and as prices continued to decline, a set of resolutions founded on this assump- 
 tion were submitted to the House of Commons by Mr. Robinson, of the Board of 
 Trade (now Lord Ripon) ; and having been agreed to, a bill founded on them was, 
 after a very violent opposition, carried in both Houses by immense majorities, and finally 
 passed into a law (55 Geo. 3. c. 26. ). According to this act, all sorts of foreign corn, 
 meal, or flour, might be imported at all times free of duty into any port of the United 
 Kingdom, in order to be warehoused ; but foreign corn was not permitted to be imported 
 for home consumption, except when the average prices of the several sorts of British 
 corn were as follows : viz. wheat, 80s. per quarter ; rye, peas, and beans, 53s. ; barley, 
 bear, or bigg, 40s. ; and oats, 26s. : and all importation of corn from any of the British 
 plantations in North America was forbidden, except when the average home prices were 
 at or under wheat, 67s. per quarter ; rye, peas, and beans, 44s. ; barley, bear, or bigg, 
 33s. ; and oats, 22s. 
 
 The agriculturists confidently expected that this act would immediately effect arise of 
 prices, and render them steady at about 80s. But for reasons which will be afterwards 
 stated, these expectations were entirely disappointed ; and a more ruinous fluctuation 
 of prices took place during the period while it was in existence, than in any previous 
 period of our recent history. In 1821, when prices had sunk very low, a committee of 
 the House of Commons was appointed to inquire into the causes of the depressed state 
 of agriculture, and to report their observations thereon. This committee, after ex- 
 amining a number of witnesses, drew up a report, which, though not free from error, is 
 a valuable document It contains a forcible exposition of the pernicious effects arising 
 from the law of 1815, of which it suggested several important modifications. These, 
 however, were not adopted ; and as the low prices, and consequent distress of the 
 agriculturists, continued, the subject was brought under the consideration of parliament 
 in the following year. After a good deal of discussion a new act was then passed 
 (3 Geo. 4. c. 60.), which enacted, that after prices had risen to the limit of free im- 
 portation fixed by the act of 1815, that act was to cease and the new statute to come 
 into operation. This statute lowered the prices fixed by the act of 1815, at which im- 
 portation could take place for home consumption, to the following sums, viz. — 
 
 Wheat ... - 705. per quarter. 59*. per quarter. 
 
 Rye, peas, and beans - - 46s. — 39*. — 
 
 Barley, bear, or bigg - - 35s. — 30s. — 
 
 Oats .... 25s. — 20s. — 
 
 But, in order to prevent any violent oscillation of prices from a large supply of grain 
 being suddenly thrown into the market, it was enacted, that a duty of 17s. a quarter 
 should be laid on all wheat imported from foreign countries, during the first 3 months 
 after the opening of the ports, if the price was between 70s. and 80s. a quarter, and of 
 12s. afterwards; that if the price was between 80s. and 85s., the duty should be 10s. 
 for the first 3 months, and 5s, afterwards; and that if the price should exceed 85s., the 
 duty should be constant at Is.; and proportionally for other sorts of grain. 
 
 'i'his act, by preventing importation until the home price rose to 70s,, and then loading 
 the quantities imported between that limit and the limit of 85s- with heavy duties, was 
 certainly more favourable to the views of the agriculturists than the act of 1815. But, 
 unluckily for them, the prices of no species of corn, except barley, were sufficiently high, 
 while this act existed, to bring it into operation. 
 
 In 1825, the first approach was made to a better system, by permitting the import- 
 ation of wheat from British North America, without reference to the price at home, on 
 payment of a duty of 5s. a quarter. But this act was passed with difficulty, and was 
 limited to one year's duration. 
 
 »2 D 4 
 
408 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 Owing to the drought that prevailed during the summer of 1826, there was every 
 prospect that there would be a great deficiency in the crops of that year ; and, in order 
 to prevent the disastrous consequences that might have taken place, had importation been 
 prevented until the season was too far advanced for bringing supplies from the great 
 corn markets in the north of Europe, his majesty was authorised to admit 500,000 
 quarters of foreign wheat, on payment of such duties as the order in council for it* 
 importation should declare. And when it was ascertained that the crops of oats, peas, 
 &c. were greatly below an average, ministers issued an order in council, on their own 
 responsibility, on the 1st of September, authorising the immediate importation of oats 
 on payment of a duty of 2s. 2d. a boll ; and of rye, peas, and beans,, on payment of a 
 duty of 3s. 6d. a quarter. A consideral)le quantity of oats was imported under this 
 order, the timely appearance of which had undoubtedly a very considerable effect in 
 mitigating the pernicious consequences arising from the deficiency of that species of 
 grain. Ministers obtained an indemnity for this order on the subsequent meeting of 
 parliament. 
 
 Nothing could more strikingly evince the impolicy of the acts of 1815 and 1822, 
 than the necessity, imder which the legislature and government had been placed, of 
 passing the temporary acts and issuing the orders alluded to. The more intelligent 
 portion of the agriculturists began, at length, to perceive that the corn laws were not 
 really calculated to produce the advantages that they had anticipated ; and a conviction 
 that increased facilities should be given to importation became general throughout the 
 country. The same conviction made considerable progress in the House of Commons ; 
 so much so, that several members who supported the measures adopted in 1815 and 1822, 
 expressed themselves satisfied that the principle of exclusion had been carried too far, 
 and that a more liberal system should be adopted. Ministers having participated in 
 these sentiments, Mr. Canning moved a series of resolutions, as the foundation of a 
 new corn law, on the 1st of March, 1827. These resolutions were to the effect that 
 foreign corn might always be imported, free of duty, in order to be warehoused ; and 
 that it should always be admissible for home consumption on payment of certain duties. 
 Thus, in the instance of wheat, it was resolved that, when the home price was at or 
 above 70s. a quarter, the duty should be a fixed one of Is. ; and that for every shilling 
 that the price fell below 70s. a duty of 2s. should be imposed ; so that when the price 
 was at 69s, the duty on importation was to be 2s., when at 68s. the duty was to be 4s., 
 and so on. The limit at which the constant duty of Is. a quarter was to take place in 
 the case of barley, was originally fixed at 37s., but it was subsequently raised to 40s. ; 
 the duty increasing by Is. 6d. for every Is. when the price fell below that limit. The 
 limit at which the constant duty of Is. a quarter was to take place in the case of oats 
 was originally fixed at 28s. ; but it was subsequently raised to 33s., the duty increasing 
 at the rate of Is. a quarter for every shilling that the price fell below that limit. The 
 duty on colonial wheat was fixed at 6d. the quarter when the home price was above 
 65s. ; and when the price was under that sum, the duty was constant at 5s. ; the duties 
 on other descriptions of colonial grain were similar. These resolutions were agreed to 
 by a large majority ; and a bill founded on them was subsequently carried through the 
 House of Commons. Owing, however, to the change of ministers, which took place 
 in the interim, several peers, originally favourable to the bill, and some, even, who 
 assisted in its preparation, saw reason to become amongst its most violent opponents ; 
 and a clause moved by the Duke of Wellington, interdicting all importation of foreign 
 corn until the home price exceeded 66s. having been carried in the Lords, ministers 
 gave up the bill, justly considering that such a clause was entirely subversive of its 
 principle. 
 
 A new set of resolutions with respect to the corn trade were brought forward in 1828 
 by Mr. Charles Grant (now Lord Glenelg). They were founded on the same principles 
 as those which had been rejected during the previous session. But the duty was not 
 made to vary equally, as in Mr. Canning's resolutions, with every equal variation of 
 price ; it being 2.3s. Sd. when the home price was 64s. the Imperial quarter ; 16s. 8d. 
 when it was 69s. ; and Is. only when it was at or above 73s. After a good deal of de- 
 bate, Mr. Grant's resolutions were carried ; and the act embodying them (9 Geo. 4. c. 60.) 
 was that by which the corn trade was regulated, till the passing of the act of 1842, 5 Vic- 
 toria, 2 sess. cap. 1 4., an abstract of which will be found in a subsequent part of this article. 
 
 II. Principles of the Corn Laws. 
 
 1 . Internal Corn Trade. — It is needless to take up the reader's time by endeavour- 
 ing to prove by argument the advantage of allowing the free conveyance of corn from 
 one province to another. Every one sees that this is indispensable, not only to the equal 
 distribution of the supplies of food over the country, but to enable the inhabitants of 
 those districts that are best fitted for the raising and fattening of cattle, sheep, &c. to 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 409 
 
 addict themselves to these or other necessary occupations not directly connected with 
 the production of corn. We shall, therefore, confine the few remarks we have to make 
 on this subject, to the consideration of the influence of the specidations of the corn mer- 
 chants in buying up corn in anticipation of an advance. Their proceedings in this respect, 
 though of the greatest public utility, have been the principal cause of that odium to 
 which they have been so long exposed. 
 
 Were the harvests always equally productive, nothing would be gained by storing up 
 supplies of corn ; and all that would be necessary would be to distribute the crop equally 
 throughout the country, and throughout the year. But such is not the order of nature. 
 The variations in the aggregate produce of a countrj-^ in different seasons, though not 
 perhaps so great as are commonly supposed, are still very considerable ; and experience 
 lias shown that two or three unusually luxuriant harvests seldom take place in succession ; 
 or that when they do, they are invarialjly followed by those that are deficient The 
 speculators in corn anticipate this result. Whenever prices begin to give way in con- 
 sequence of an unusually luxuriant harvest, speculation is at work. The more opulent 
 fermers withhold either the whole or a part of their produce from market ; and the more 
 opulent dealers purchase largely of the corn brought to market, and store it up in 
 expectation of a future advance. And thus, without intending to promote any one's inter- 
 est but their own, speculators in corn become the benefactors of the public. They 
 provide a reserve stock against those years of scarcity which are sure at no distant period 
 to recur ; while, by withdrawing a portion of the redundant supply from immediate 
 consumption, prices are prevented from falling so low as to be injurious to the farmers, 
 or at least are maintained at a higher level than they would otherwise have reached ; 
 provident habits are maintained amongst the people ; and that waste and extravagance 
 are checked, which always take place in plentiful years, but which would be carried to 
 a much greater extent if the whole produce of an abundant crop were to be consumed 
 within tlie season. 
 
 It is, however, in scarce years that the speculations of the corn merchants are prin- 
 cipally advantageous. Even in the richest countries, a very large proportion of the 
 individuals engaged in the business of agriculture are comparatively poor, and are totally 
 without the means of withholding their produce from market, in order to speculate upon 
 any future advance. In consequence the markets are always most abundantly supplied 
 with produce immediately after harvest ; and in countries where the merchants engaged 
 in the corn trade are not possessed of large capitals, or where their proceedings are 
 fettered and restricted, there is then, almost invariably, a heavy fall of prices. But as 
 the vast majority of the people buy their food in small quantities, or from day to day as 
 they want it, their consumption is necessarily extended or contracted according to its 
 price at the time. Their views do not extend to the future ; they have no means of 
 judging whether the crop is or is not deficient. They live, as the phrase is, from hand to 
 mouth ; and are satisfied if, in the mean time, they obtain abundant supplies at a cheap 
 rate. But it is obvious, that were there nothing to control or counteract this improvidence, 
 the consequence would very often be fatal in the extreme. The crop of one harvest must 
 support the population till the crop of the other harvest has been gathered in ; and if that 
 crop should be deficient— if, for instance, it should only be adequate to afford, at the 
 usual rate of consumption, a supply of 9 or 10 months' provisions instead of 12 — 
 it is plain that, unless the price were so raised immediately after harvest, as to enforce 
 economy, and put, as it were, the whole nation, on short allovt'ance, the most dreadful 
 famine would be experienced previously to the ensuing harvest. Those who examine 
 the accounts of the prices of wheat and other grain in England, collected by Bishop 
 Fleetwood and Sir F. M. Eden, will meet with abundant proofs of the accuracy of 
 what has now been stated. In those remote periods when the formers were generally 
 without the means of withholding their crops from market, and when the trade of a corn 
 dealer was proscribed, the utmost improvidence was exhibited in the consumption of 
 grain. There were then, indeed, very few years in which a considerable scarcity was not 
 experienced immediately before harvest, and many in which there was an absolute famine. 
 The fluctuations of price exceeded every thing of which we can now form an idea; the 
 price of wheat and other grain being 4 or 5 times as high in June and July as in Sep- 
 tember and October. Thanks, however, to the increase of capital •in the hands of the 
 large farmers and dealers, and to the freedom given to the operations of the corn mer- 
 chants, we are no longer exposed to such ruinous vicissitudes. Whenever the dealers, 
 who, in consequence of their superior means of information, are better acquainted with 
 the real state of the crops than any other class of persons, find the harvest likely to be 
 deficient, they raise the price of the corn they have warehoused, and bid against each 
 other for the corn which the farmers are bringing to market. In consequence of this 
 rise of prices, all ranks and orders, but especially the lower, who are the great consumers 
 of corn, find it indispensable to use greater economy, and to check all improvident and 
 wasteful consumption. Every class being thus immediately put upon short allowance. 
 
410 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE, 
 
 tlie pressure of the scarcity is distributed equally throughout the year ; and Instead of 
 indulging, as was formerly the case, in the same scale of consumption as in seasons of 
 plenty, until the supply became altogether deficient, and then being exposed without 
 resource to the attacks of famine and pestilence; the speculations of the corn merchants 
 warn us of our danger, and compel us to provide against it. 
 
 It is not easy to suppose that these proceedings of the corn merchants should ever be 
 injurious to the public. It has been said that in scarce years they are not disposed to 
 bring the corn they have purchased to market until it has obtained an exorbitant price, 
 and that the pressure of the scarcity is thus often very much aggravated ; but there is no 
 real ground for any such statement. The immense amount of capital required to store 
 up any considerable quantity of corn, and the waste to which it is liable, render most 
 holders disposed to sell as soon as they can realise a fair profit. In every extensive 
 country in which the corn trade is free, there are infinitely too many persons engaged in 
 it to enable any sort of combination or concert to be formed amongst them ; and though 
 it were formed, it could not be maintained for an instant. A large proportion of the 
 farmers and other small holders of corn are always in straitened circumstances, more 
 particularly if a scarce year has not occurred so soon as they expected ; and they are con- 
 sequently anxious to relieve themselves, as soon as prices rise, of a portion of the stock 
 on their hands. Occasionally, indeed, individuals are found, who retain their stocks for 
 too long a period, or until a reaction takes place, and prices begin to decline. But 
 instead of joining in the popular cry against such persons^ every one who takes a dis- 
 passionate view of the matter will perceive that, inasmuch as their miscalculation must, 
 under the circumstances supposed, be exceedingly injurious to themselves, we have the 
 best security against its being carried to such an extent as to be productive of any 
 material injury or even inconvenience to the public. It should also be borne in mind, 
 that it is rarely, if ever, possible to determine beforehand, when a scarcity is to abate in 
 consequence of new supplies being brought to market ; and had it continued a little 
 longer, there would have been no miscalculation on the part of the holders. At all 
 events, it is plain that, by declining to bring their corn to market, they preserved a 
 resource on which, in the event of the harvest being longer delayed than usual, or of any 
 unfavourable contingency taking place, the public could have fallen back; so that, instead 
 of deserving abuse, these speculators are most justly entitled to every fair encouragement 
 and protection. A country in which there is no considerable stock of grain in the barn- 
 yards of the farmers, or in the warehouses of the merchants, is in the most perilous 
 situation that can easily be imagined, and may be exposed to the severest privations, or 
 even famine. But so long as the sagacity, the miscalculation, or the avarice of mer- 
 chants and dealers retain a stock of grain in the warehouses, this last extremity cannot 
 take place. By refusing to sell it till it has reached a very high price, they put an 
 effectual stop to all sorts of waste, and husband for the public those supplies which they 
 could not have so frugally husbanded for themselves. 
 
 We have already remarked that the last remnant of the shackles imposed by statute 
 on the freedom of the internal corn dealer was abolished in 1773. It is true that 
 engrossing, forestalling, and regrating — (see Engrossing, &c.) — are still held to be 
 offences at common law ; but there is very little probability of any one being in future 
 made to answer for such ideal offences, 
 
 2. Exportation to Foreign Countries. — The fallacy of the notion so long entertained, 
 that the prevention of exportation was the surest method of increasing plenty at home, 
 is obvious to every one who has reflected upon such subjects. The markets of no 
 country can ever be steadily and plentifully supplied with corn, unless her merchants 
 have power to exjx>rt the surplus supplies with which they may be occasionally furnished. 
 When a country without the means of exporting grows nearly her own average sup- 
 plies of corn, an abundant crop, by causing a great overloading of the market, and a 
 heavy fall of price, is as injurious to the farmer as a scarcity. It may be thought, 
 perhaps, that the greater quantity of produce in abundant seasons will compensate for 
 its lower price ; but this is not the case. It is uniformly found that variations in the 
 quantity of corn exert a much greater influence over prices, than equal variations in the 
 quantity of almost any thing else offered for sale. Being the principal necessary of 
 life, when the supply of corn happens to be less than ordinary, the mass of the people 
 make very great, though unavailing, exertions, by diminishing their consumption of other 
 and less indispensable articles, to obtain their accustomed supplies of this prime neces- 
 sary ; so that its price rises much more than in proportion to the deficiency. On the other 
 hand, when the supply is unusually large, the consumption is not proportionally extended. 
 In ordinary years, the bulk of the population is about adequately fed ; and though the 
 consumption of all classes be somewhat greater in unusually jDlentlful years, the extension 
 is considerable only among the lowest classes, and in the feeding of horses. Hence it is 
 that the increased supply at market, in such years, goes principally to cause a glut, and 
 consequently a ruinous decline of prices. These statements arc corroborated by the 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 ill 
 
 Widest experience. Whenever there is an inability to exj)ort, from whatever cause it 
 may arise, an unusually luxuriant crop is uniformly accompanied by a very heavy fall of 
 price, and severe agricultural distress ; and when two or three such crops happen to 
 follow in succession, the ruin of a large proportion of the farmers is completed. 
 
 If the miscliiefs resulting from the want of power to export stopped here, they might, 
 though very great, be borne ; but they do not stop here. It is idle to suppose that a 
 system ruinous to the producers can be otherwise to the consumers. A glut of the 
 market, occasioned by luxuriant harvests, and the want of power to export, cannot be of 
 Jong continuance : for, while it continues, it can hardly fail, by distressing all classes of 
 farmers, and causing the ruin of many, to give a check to every species of agricultural 
 improvement, and to lessen the extent of land in tillage. When, therefore, an un- 
 favourable season recurs, the reaction is, for the most part, appalling. The supply, 
 being lessened not only by the badness of the season, but also by a diminution of the 
 quantity of land in crop, falls very far below an average; and a severe scarcity, if not an 
 absolute famine, is most commonly experienced. It is, therefore, clear, that if a country 
 would render herself secure against famine, and injurious fluctuations of price, she must 
 give every possible facility to exportation in years of unusual plenty. If she act upon a 
 different system, — if her policy make exportation in such years impracticable, or very 
 difficult, — she will infallibly render the bounty of Providence an injury to her agricul- 
 turists ; and two or three abundant harvests in succession will be the forerunners of 
 scarcity and famine. 
 
 3. Bounty on the Exportation of Corn. — In Great Britain, as already observed, we 
 have not only been allowed to export for a long series of years, but from the Revolution 
 down to 1815 a bounty was given on exportation, whenever the home prices were 
 depressed below certain limits. This policy, however, erred as much on the one hand as 
 a restriction on exportation errs on the other. It causes, it is true, an extension of the 
 demand for corn : but this greater demand is not caused by natural, but by artificial 
 means ; it is not a consequence of any really increased demand on the part of the 
 foreigner, but of our furnishing the exporters of corn with a bonus, in order that they 
 may sell it abroad below its natural price ! To suppose that a proceeding of this sort 
 can be a public advantage, is equivalent to supposing that a shopkeeper may get rich by 
 selling his goods below what they cost. — (See Bounty.) 
 
 4. Importation from Foreign Countries. — If a country were, like Poland or Russia, 
 uniformly in the habit of exporting corn to other countries, a restriction on importation 
 would be of no material consequence ; because, though such restriction did not exist, 
 no foreign corn would be imported, unless its ports were so situated as to serve for an 
 entrepot. A restriction on importation is sensibly felt only when it is enforced in a 
 country which, owing to the greater density of its population, the limited extent of its 
 fertile land, or any other cause, would, either occasionally or uniformly, import. It is 
 familiar to the observation of every one, that a total failure of the crops is a calamity 
 that but rarely occurs in an extensive kingdom ; that the weather which is unfavourable 
 to one description of soil, is generally favourable to some other description ; and that, 
 except in anomalous cases, the total produce is not very different. But what is thus 
 generally true of single countries, is always true of the world at large. History furnishes 
 no single instance of a universal scarcity ; but it is uniformly found, that when the crops 
 in a particular country are unusually deficient, they are proportionally abundant in some 
 other quarter. It is clear, however, that a restriction on importation excludes the 
 country which enacts it from profiting by this beneficent arrangement. She is thrown 
 entirely on her own resources. Under the circumstances supposed, she has nothing to 
 trust to for relief but the reserves in her warehouses ; and should these be inadequate to 
 meet the exigency of the crisis, there are apparently no means by which she can escape 
 experiencing all the evils of scarcity, or, it may be, of famine. A country deprived of 
 the power to import is unable to supply the deficiencies of her harvests by the surplus 
 produce of other countries ; so that her inhabitants may starve amidst surrounding 
 plenty, and suffer the extreme of scarcity, when, but for the restrictions on importation, 
 they might enjoy the greatest abundance. If the restriction be not absolute, but con- 
 ditional ; if, instead of absolutely excluding foreign corn from the home markets, it 
 merely loads it with a duty, the degree in which it will operate to increase the scarcity 
 and dearth will depend on the magnitude of that duty. If the duty be constant and 
 moderate, it may not have any very considerable effect in discouraging importation : but 
 if it be fluctuating and heavy, it will, by falsifying the speculations of the merchants, 
 and making a corresponding addition to the price of the corn imported, be proportionally 
 injurious. In whatever degree foreign corn may be excluded in years of deficient crops, 
 to the same extent must prices be artificially raised, and the pressure of the scarcity 
 rendered so much the more severe. 
 
 Such would be the disastrous influence of a restriction on importation in a country 
 which, were there no such obstruction in the way, would sometimes import and some- 
 
412 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 times export. But its operation would be infinitely more injurious in a country which^ 
 under a free system, would uniformly import a portion of her supplies. The restriction, 
 in this case, has a twofold operation. By presenting importation from abroad, and 
 forcing the population to depend for subsistence on corn raised at home, it compels 
 recourse to be had to comparatively inferior soils ; and thus, by increasing the cost of 
 producing com above its cost in other countries, adds proportionally to its average 
 price. The causes of fluctuation are, in this way, increased in a geometrical proportion; 
 for, while the prevention of importation exposes the population to the pressure of want 
 whenever the harvest happens to be less productive than usual, it is sure, at the same 
 time, by raising average prices, to hinder exportation in a year of unusual plenty^ until 
 the home prices fall ruinously low. It is obvious, therefore, that a restriction of this 
 sort must be alternately destructive of the interests of the consumers and producers. 
 It injures the former by making them pay, at an average, an artificially increased price 
 for their food, and by exposing them to scarcity and famine whenever the home crop 
 proves deficient ; and it injures the latter, by depriving them of the power to export in 
 years of unusual plenty^ and by overloading the market with produce, which, under a 
 free system, would have met with an advantageous sale abroad. 
 
 The principle thus briefly explained, shows the impossibility of permanently keeping 
 np the home prices by means of restrictions on importation, at the same time that it 
 affords a clue by which we may trace the causes of most of that agricultural distress 
 which has been experienced in this country since the peace. The real object of the 
 Corn Law of 1815 was to keep up the price of corn to 80s. a quarter; but to succeed 
 in this, it was indispensable not only that foreign corn should be excluded when prices 
 were under this limit, but that the markets should never be overloaded with corn pro- 
 duced at home : for it is clear, according to the principle already explained, that if the 
 supply should in ordinary years be sufficient to feed the population, it must, in an 
 unusually abundant year, be more than sufficient for that purpose ; and when, in such a 
 case, the surplus is thrown upon the market, it cannot fail, in the event of our average 
 prices being considerably above the level of those of the surrounding countries, to cause 
 a ruinous depression. Now, this was the precise situation of this country at the end of 
 the war. Owing partly to the act of 1804, but far more to the difficulties in the way of 
 importation, and the depreciation of the currency, prices attained to an extraordinary 
 elevation from 1809 to 1814, and gave such a stimulus to agriculture, that we grew, in 
 1812 and 1813, sufficient com for our own supply. And, such being the case, it is 
 clear, though our ports had been hermetically sealed against importation from abroad, 
 that the first luxuriant crop must have occasioned a ruinous decline of prices. It is the 
 exclusion, not the introduction, of foreign corn that has caused the distress of the agri- 
 culturists ; for it is this exclusion that has forced up the price of corn in this country, 
 in scarce and average years, to an unnatural level, and that, consequently, renders 
 exportation in favourable seasons impossible, without such a fall of prices as is most 
 disastrous to the farmer. It may be mentioned in proof of what is now stated, that the 
 average price of wheat in England and Wales in 1814 was 74s, 4c?. a quarter, and in 1815 
 it had fallen to 65s. Id. But as these prices would not indemnify the occupiers of the poor- 
 est lands brought under tillage during the previous high prices, they were gradually 
 relinquishing their cultivation. A considerable portion of them had been converted into 
 pasture ; rents had been generally reduced ; and wages had begun to decline ; but the 
 legislature having prohibited the importation of foreign corn, the operation of this natural 
 principle of adjustment was unfortunately counteracted, and the price of 1816 rose to 
 78s. 6d. This rise was, however, insufficient to occasion any new improvement ; and as 
 foreign corn was now excluded, and large tracts of bad land had been thrown out of cul- 
 tivation, the supply was so much diminished, that, notwithstanding the increase in the 
 value of money, prices rose in 1817, partly, no doubt, in consequence of the bad harvest 
 of the previous year, to 96s. \ \d.; and in 1818 to 86s. 3d. These high prices had their 
 natural effect. They revived the drooping spirits of the farmers, who imagined that the 
 corn law was, at length, beginning to produce the effects anticipated from it, and that 
 the golden days of 1812, when wheat sold for 126s. 6d. a quarter, were about to return! 
 But this prosperity carried in its bosom the seeds of future mischief. The increased 
 prices necessarily occasioned a fresh extension of tillage ; capital was again applied to the 
 improvement of the soil ; and this increase of tillage, conspiring with favourable seasons, 
 and the impossibility of exportation, sunk prices to such a degree, that they fell, in 
 October, 1822, so low as 38s. Id., the average price of that year being only 44s. 7c?. 
 
 It is thus demonstrably certain, that the recurrence of periods of distress, similar to 
 those that have been experienced by the agriculturists of this country since the peace, 
 cannot be warded off'by restricting or prohibiting importation. A free corn trade is the 
 only system that can give them that security against fluctuations that is so indispensable. 
 The increased importation that would take place, were the ports always open, as soon 
 as any considerable deficiency in the crops was apprehended, would prevent prices from 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 113 
 
 rising to an oppressive height ; while, on the other hand, when the crops were unusually 
 luxuriant, a ready outlet would be found for the surplus in foreign countries, without 
 its occasioning any very heavy fall. To expect to combine steadiness of prices with 
 restrictions on importation, is to expect to reconcile what is contradictory and absurd. 
 Tlie higher the limit at which the importation of foreign corn into a country like 
 England is fixed, the greater will be the oscillation of prices. If we would secure for 
 ourselves abundance, and avoid fluctuation, we must renounce all attempts at exclusion, 
 and be ready to deal in corn, as we ought to be in every thing else, on fair and liberal 
 principles. 
 
 That the restrictions imposed on the foreign corn trade during the last 12 years 
 should not have been productive of more disastrous consequences than those that have 
 actually resulted from them, is partly and principally to be ascribed to the unparalleled 
 hnprovement of tillage in Great Britain during the last 20 years, and partly, also, 
 to the great increase that has taken place in the imports from Ireland. Previously to 
 1806, when a perfectly free corn trade between Great Britain and Ireland was foi- the 
 first time established, the yearly imports did not amount to 400,000 quarters, whereas 
 they now nearly amount to 3,000,000 ; and any one who has ever been in Ireland, or 
 is aware of the wretched state of agriculture in it, and of the amazing fertility of the 
 soil, must be satisfied that a very slight improvement would occasion an extraordinary 
 increase in the imports from that country ; and it is believed by those best qualified to 
 form an opinion on such a subject, that the check that has latterly been given to the 
 pernicious px-actice of splitting farms, and the increase of population, has, in this respect, 
 already had great influence, and that it will eventually lead to the most material im- 
 provements. Hence it is by no means improbable, that the rapid spread of improve- 
 ment at home, and the growing imports from Ireland, may, at no distant period, reduce 
 our prices to the level of those of the Continent, and even render us an occasionally 
 exporting country. These, however, are contingent and uncertain results ; and sup- 
 posing them to be ultimately realised, the corn laws must in the meantime be pro- 
 ductive of great inconvenience, and must, in all time to come, materially aggravate tlie 
 misery inseparable from bad harvests. 
 
 Nothing but the great importance of the subject could excuse us for dwelling so long 
 on what is so very plain. To facilitate production, and to make commodities cheaper 
 and more easily obtained, are the grand motives which stimulate the inventive powers, 
 and which lead to the discovery and improvement of machines and processes for saving 
 labour and diminishing cost ; and it is plain that no system of commercial legislation 
 deserves to be supported, which does not conspire to promote the same objects : but a 
 restriction on the importation of corn into a country like England, which has made a 
 great comparative advance in population and manufacturing industry, is diametrically 
 opposed to these principles. The density of our population is such, that any exclusion, 
 of foreign corn forces us to resort to soils of less fertility than those that are under cul- 
 tivation in the surrounding countries ; and, in consequence, our average prices are 
 comparatively high. We have resolved that our people should not confine their at- 
 tention to the culture of the better class of soils, and to those branches of manufacturing 
 and commercial industry in which they have a decided advantage over every other 
 country ; but that they should, also, be made to force comparatively barren soils that 
 yield but a scanty return for their outlay. If we could, by laying out 1000/. on the 
 manufacture of cottons or hardware, produce a quantity of these articles that would 
 exchange for 500 quarters of American or Polish wheat ; and if the same sum, were it 
 expended in cultivation in this country, would not produce more than 400 quarters ; the 
 prevention of importation occasions an obvious sacrifice of 100 out of every 500 quarters 
 consumed in the empire ; or, which is the same thing, it occasions an artificial advance of 
 20 per cent, in the price of corn. We do not mean to say that this statement exactly 
 represents the amount of injury inflicted by the corn laws ; but, at all events, it clearly 
 illustrates the principle which they embody. In a public point of view, the impolicy of 
 such a system is obvious ; but it seems, at first sight, as if it were advantageous to the 
 landlords. The advantage is, however, merely apparent : at bottom there is no real dif- 
 ference between the interests of the landords and those of the rest of the community. 
 It would be ridiculous, indeed, to imagine for a moment that the landlords can be 
 benefited by a system in which those fluctuations of prices, so subversive of all agricul- 
 tural prosperity, are inherent ; but though these could be got rid of, the result would be 
 the same. The prosperity of agriculture must always depend upon, and be determined 
 by, the prosperity of other branches of industry; and.any system which, like the corn 
 laws, is injurious to the latter, cannot but be injurious to the former. Instead of being 
 publicly advantageous, high prices are in every case distinctly and completely the re- 
 verse. The smaller the sacrifice for which any commodity can ])e obtained, so much 
 the better. When the labour required to produce, or the money required to purchase, 
 a suflScient supply of corn is diminished, it is as clear as the sun at noon-day that more 
 
414 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 labour or money must remain to produce or purchase the other necessaries, conveniences, 
 and amusements of human life, and that the sum of national wealth and comforts must 
 be proportionally augmented. Those who suppose that a rise of prices can ever be a 
 means of improving the condition of a country might, with equal reason, suppose that it 
 would be improved by throwing its best soils out of cultivation, and destroying its most 
 powerful machines. The opinions of such persons are not only opposed to the plainest 
 and most obvious scientific principles, but they are opposed to the obvious conclusions 
 of common sense, and the universal experience of mankind. 
 
 Experience of the injurious effects resulting from the corn laws has induced many 
 that were formerly their zealaus advocates to come round to a more liberal way of 
 thinking. It would, however, be unjust not to mention that there has always been a 
 large and respectable party amongst the landlords, opposed to all restrictions on the 
 trade in corn and who have uniformly thought that their interests, being identified 
 with those of the public, would be best promoted by the abolition of restrictions on im- 
 portation. A protest expressive of this opinion, subscribed by 10 peers, was entered on 
 the Journals of the House of Lords, against the corn law of 1815. This document is 
 said to have been drawn up by the late Lord Grenville, distinguished as an enlightened 
 advocate of sound commercial principles. Its reasoning is so clear and satisfactory, that 
 we are sure we shall gratify our readers, as well as strengthen the statements previously 
 made, by laying it before them. 
 
 " Dissentient — I. Because we are adverse in principle to all new restraints on commerce. We think 
 it certain tliat public prosperity is best promoted by leaving uncontrolled the free current of national in- 
 dustry ; and we wish rather, by well considered steps, to bring back our commercial legislation to the 
 straight and simple line of wisdom, than to increase the deviation by subjecting additional and extensive 
 branches of the public interest to fresh systems of artificial and injurious restrictions. 
 
 " II. Because we thinly that the great practical rule, of leaving all commerce unfettered, applies more 
 peculiarly, and on still stronger grounds of justice as well as policy, to the corn trade than to any other. 
 Irresistible, indeed, must be that necessity which could, in our judgment, authorise the legislature to 
 tamper with the sustenance of the people, and to impede the free purchase of that article on which de- 
 pends the existence of so large a portion of the community. 
 
 " III. Because we thinlc that the expectations of ultimate benefit from this measure are founded on a 
 delusive theory. We cannot persuade ourselves that this law will ever contribute to produce plent}^ 
 cheapness, or steadiness of price. So long as it operates at all, its effects must be the opposite of these. 
 Monopoly is the parent of scarcity, of clearness, and of uncertainty. To cut off any of the sources of sup- 
 ply, can only tend to lessen its abundance ; to close against ourselves the cheapest market for any 
 commodity, must enhance the price at which we purchase it ; and to confine the consumer of corn to the 
 produce of his own country, is to refuse to ourselves the benefit of that provision which Providence itself 
 has made for equalising to man the variations of climate and of seasons. 
 
 " IV. But whatever may be the future consequences of this law at some distant and uncertain period, 
 we see with pain that these hopes must be purchased at the expense of a great and present evil. 
 compel the consumer to purchase corn dearer at home than it might be imported from abroad, is the 
 immediate practical effect of this law. In this way alone can it operate. Its present protection, its pro- 
 mised extension of agriculture, must result (if at all) from the profirts which it creates by keeping up the 
 price of corn to an artificial level. These future benefits are the consequences expected, but, as we con- 
 fidently believe, erroneously expected, from giving a bounty to the grower of corn, by a tax levied on 
 its consumer. 
 
 " V. Because we think the adoption of any permanent law for such a purpose, required the fullest and 
 most laborious investigation. Nor would it have been sufficient for our satisfaction, could we have been 
 convinced of the general policy of a hazardous experiment. A still further inquiry would hare been 
 necessary ta persuade u& that the present moment is fit for its adoption. In such an inquiry, we must 
 have had the means of satisfying ourselves what its immediate operation will be, as connected with the 
 various and pressing circumstances of public difficulty and distress with which the country is surrounded; 
 with the state of our circulation and currency, of our agriculture and manufactures, of our internal and 
 external commerce, and, above all, with tixe condition and reward of the industrious and la,bouring classes, 
 of our community. 
 
 On all these particulars, as they respect this question, we think that parliament is almost wholly 
 uninformed ; on all we see reason for the utmost anxiety and alarm from the operation of this law. 
 
 " Lastly, Because, if we could approve of the principle and purpose of this law, we think that no suf- 
 ficient foundation has been laid for its details. The evidence before us, unsatisfactory and imperfect as 
 it is, seems to us rather to disprove than to support the propriety of the high price adopted as the standard 
 of importation, and the fallacious mode by which that price is to be ascertained. And on all these grounds 
 we are anxious to record our dissent from a measure so precipitate in its course, and, as we fear, so 
 injurious in its consequences." 
 
 Attempts have sometimes been made to estimate the pecuniary burden which the 
 restrictions on importation entail in ordinary years upon that country. This, however, 
 is a subject with respect to which it is not possible to obtain any accurate data. But 
 supposing the total quantity of corn annually produced in Great Britain and Ireland to 
 amount to 62,000,000 quarters, every shilling that is added to its price by the corn laws 
 is equivalent to a tax on corn of 3,100,000^. ; and estimating the average rise on all sorts 
 of grain at 3s. a quarter, the total sum will be 9,300,000/. So great a quantity oi" 
 corn is, however, consumed by the agriculturists themselves as food, in seed, the keep 
 of horses, &c., that not more than a half, perhaps, of the whole quantity produced is 
 brought to market. If we are nearly right in this hypothesis, and in the previous esti- 
 mates, it will follow that the restrictions cost the classes not engaged in agriculture no 
 less than 4,650,000/., exclusive of their other pernicious consequences. Of this sum a 
 fifth, |)robably, or 930,000/. may go to the landlords as rent ; and this is all that tlie 
 agriculturists can be said to gain by the system, for the additional price received by thq 
 farmer on that portion of the produce which is exclusive of rent is no more than thq 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 41.5 
 
 ordinary return for his capital and labour. His profits indeed, like those of all other 
 capitalists, instead of being increased by this system, are really diminished by it; and 
 though, nominally at least, it somewhat increases the rents of the landlords, it is, not- 
 withstanding, abundantly certain that it is any thing but advantageous to them. It 
 would require a far larger sum to balance the injury which fluctuations of price occa- 
 sion to their tenants, and the damage done to their estates by over-croj)ping when prices 
 are high, than all that is derived from the restrictions. 
 
 5. Duties on Importation. — A duty may be equitably imposed on imported corn, for 
 two objects ; that is, either for the sake of revenue, or to balance any excess of taxes 
 laid on the agriculturists over those laid on the other classes. — (See my edition of 
 Wealth of Nations, 1 vol. 8vo. pp. 522 — 524.) With respect, however, to a duty imposed 
 for the sake of revenue, it may be doubted whether corn be a proper subject for taxation. 
 At all events, a duty for such an object should be exceedingly moderate. It would be 
 most inexpedient to attempt to add largely to the revenue by laying heavy duties on 
 the prime necessary of life. 
 
 If it be really true that agriculture is more readily taxed than any other branch of 
 industry, the agriculturists are entitled to demand that a duty be laid on foreign corn 
 when imported corresponding to the excess of burdens affecting them. It has been 
 doubted, however, whether they are in this predicament. But though the question be 
 not quite free from difficulty, it would be easy to shew, were this a proper place for 
 such inquiries, that, owing to the local and other direct and indirect 'burdens laid on 
 the land, those occupying it are really subjected to heavier taxes than any other class. 
 It is difficult, or rather, perhaps, impossible, to estimate with any degree of precision 
 what the excess of taxes laid on the agriculturists beyond those laid on manufacturers 
 and merchants may amount to ; but we have elsewhere shown, that if we estimate it 
 as making an addition of 5s. or 6s. to the quarter of wheat, we shall certainly be beyond 
 the mark. — (Wealth of Nations, ubi supra.) However, we should, in a case of this 
 sort, reckon it safer to err on the side of too much protection than of too little ; and 
 would not, therefore, object to a fixed duty of 5s. or even 7s. a quarter being laid on 
 wheat, and a proportional duty on other species of grain. Under such a system the 
 ports would be always open. The duty would not be so great as to interpose any very 
 formidable obstacle to importation. Every one would know beforehand the extent to 
 which it would operate ; at the same time that the just rights and interests of the agri- 
 culturists and of every other class would be maintained unimpaired. 
 
 When a duty is laid on the importation of foreign corn, for the equitable purpose of 
 countervailing the peculiar duties laid on the corn raised at home, an equivalejit drawback 
 should be allowed on its exportation. " In allowing this drawback, we are merely 
 returning to the farmer a tax which he has already paid, and which he must have, to 
 place him in a fair state of competition in the foreign market, not only with the foreign 
 producer, but with his own countrymen who are producing other commodities. It is 
 essentially different from a bounty on exportation, in the sense in which the word 
 bounty is usually understood ; for, by a bounty, is generally meant a tax levied on the 
 people for the purpose of rendering corn unnaturally cheap to the foreign consumer ; 
 whereas what I propose is to sell our corn at the price at which we can really aflPord 
 to produce it, and not to add to its price a tax which shall induce the foreigner rather 
 to purchase it from some other country, and deprive us of a trade which, under a system 
 of free competition, we might have selected." — ( Ricardo on Protection to Apncultzcre, 
 p. 53.) 
 
 A duty accompanied with a drawback, as now stated, would not only be an equitable 
 arrangement, but it would be highly for the advantage of farmers, without being injurious 
 to any one else. The radical defect, as already shown, of the system followed from 1815 
 down to the present moment, in so far, at least, as respects agriculture, is, that it forces 
 up prices in years when the harvest is deficient, while it leaves the market to be glutted 
 when it is abundant. But while a constant duty of 5s. would secure to the home 
 growers all the increase of price which the regard due to the interests of others should 
 allow them to realise in a bad year, the drawback of 5s. by enabling them to export in 
 an unusually plentiful year, would prevent the markets from being overloaded, and 
 prices from falling to the ruinous extent that they now occasionally do. Such a plan 
 would render the businesses of the dealers in and growers of corn, comparatively secure ; 
 and would, therefore, provide for the continued prosperity of both. We are astonished 
 that the agriculturists have not taken this view of the matter. If they be really entitled 
 to a duty on foreign corn, on account of their being heavier taxed than the other classes 
 of their fellow citizens (and they are not entitled to it on any other ground), they 
 must also be entitled to a corresponding drawback. And it admits of demonstration, 
 that their interests, as well as those of the community, would be far better promoted by 
 such a duty and drawback as we have suggested, than they can ever be by any system 
 of mere duties, how high soever they may be carried. 
 
416 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 The principal objection to this plan is, that it would not be possible to levy the duty 
 when the home price became very high, and that, consequently, it would be every now 
 and then necessary to suspend it. But this objection does not seem to be by any means 
 so formidable as it has sometimes been represented. It may, we think, be concluded on 
 unassailable grounds, that were the ports constantly open under a moderate fixed duty and 
 an equivalent drawback, extreme fluctuations of price would be very rare. Supposing 
 it were enacted, that when the home price rises above a certain high level as 70s., the 
 duty should cease, we believe the clause would very seldom come into operation ; and 
 those who object that it is not fair to the farmers to deprive them of the full advantage 
 to be derived from the highest prices, should recollect that in matters of this sort it is 
 not always either possible, or, if possible, prudent, to carry the soundest principles to an 
 extreme ; and that, generally speaking, the public interests will be better consulted by 
 guarding against scarcity and dearth, than by securing, at all hazards, a trifling though 
 just advantage to a particular class. 
 
 II L British Corn Trade. 
 
 1 . Quantiti/ of Corn consumed in Great Britain. — Attempts have sometimes been 
 made to estimate the quantity of corn raised in a country, from calculations founded on 
 the number of acres in tillage, and on the average produce per acre ; but it is plain 
 that no accurate account can ever be framed of the extent of land under cultivation. It 
 is perpetually changing from year to year ; and the amount of produce varies not only 
 with the differences of seasons, but also with every improvement of agriculture. This 
 method, therefore, is now rarely resorted to, and the growth of corn is generally esti- 
 mated from the consumption. The conclusions deduced from this criterion must indeed 
 be subject to error, as well from variations in the consumption, occasioned by variations 
 in the price of corn, as from the varying extent to which other food is used. But sup- 
 posing the prices of corn to be reduced to an average, if the consumption of a consider- 
 able number of persons, of all ranks and orders, and of all ages and sexes, were accurately 
 determined, we should be able, supposing the census of the population to be nearly 
 correct, to make a pretty close approximation to the total consumption of the country. 
 Mr. Charles Smith, the well-informed and intelligent author of the Tracts on the Corn 
 Trade, made many curious investigations, with a view to discover the mean annual con- 
 sumption of corn ; and reducing it to the standard of wheat, he found it to be at the rate 
 of about a quarter for each individual, young and old. This estimate has been confirmed 
 by a variety of subsequent researches ; and, among others, by inquiries made during the 
 scarcity of 1795 and 1796, by the magistrates of Suffolk, in 42 different parishes, in the 
 view of ascertaining the average consumption of each family, which they found to cor- 
 respond very closely with Mr. Smith's estimate. It is also worthy of remark, that 
 M. Paucton, the intelligent author of the Metrologie, estimates the mean annual average 
 consumption in France, when reduced to the standard of wheat, at about 10 bushels for 
 each individual ; and as the French consume considerably more bread and less animal 
 food than the English, this estimate affords a strong proof of the correctness of that of 
 Mr. Smith. 
 
 Having taken the population of England and Wales in 1765 at 6,000,000, Mr. Smith 
 reckoned the consumers of each kind of grain, the quantity consumed by each individual, 
 and hence, the whole consumed by man to be as follows : — 
 
 Estimated Popu- Average Con- 
 
 iation of England sumption of 
 
 and Wales. each Person. 
 
 3,750,000 consumers of wheat, at 1 quarter each 
 739,000 do. of barley, at If do, - 
 888,000 do. of rye, at 1| do. 
 €23,000 do. of oats, at 2| do. 
 
 Consumed 
 Mem. 
 
 Qrt. 
 
 - 3,750,000 
 
 - 1,016,125 
 
 - 999,000 
 
 - 1,791,225 
 
 Consumed by man - - - - - 7,556,350 
 
 In addition to this, Mr. Smith estimated the wheat distilled, made into starch, &c. - 90,000 
 
 Barley used in malting, &c.- - - - - - - 3,417,000 
 
 Rye lor hogs, &c. - - - ..... 31,000 
 
 Oats for horses, &c. - ...... 2,461,500 
 
 Total of home consumption ..... 13,555,850 
 Add excess of exports over imports - « . - 398,624 
 
 13,954,474 
 
 Add seed (one tenth) ..... 1,395,447 
 
 Total growth of all kinds of grain in England and Wales in 1705 .• - - - 15,349, 921 
 
 This estimate, it will be observed, does not include either Scotland or Ireland ; and 
 later inquiries have rendered it probable that Mr. Smith underrated the population of 
 England and Wales by nearly 1,000,000. The most eminent agriculturists seem also 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 417 
 
 to be of opinion, that the allowance for seed ought to be stated as high as a sixth or a 
 seventh. 
 
 Mr. Chalmers, availing himself of the information respecting the numbers of the 
 people furnished under the population act of 1800, estimated the total consumption of 
 the different kinds of grain in Great Britain at that epoch at 27,185,J}00 quarters 
 whereof wheat constituted 7,676,100 quarters. The crops of 1800 and 1801 being 
 unusually deficient, the importation in these years was proportionally great ; but excluding 
 these scarcities, the total average excess of all sorts of grain imported from Ireland and 
 foreign countries into Great Britain over the exports had previously amounted to about 
 1,000,000 quarters, which, deducted from 27,185,300, leaves 26,185,300, to which if 
 we add one sixth as seed, we shall have 30,549,516 quarters as the average growth of 
 Great Britain in 1800. 
 
 According to Dr. Colquhoun, the consumption of corn in Great Britain and Ireland, 
 in 1814, amounted to about 35,000,000 quarters. We subjoin his estimate : 
 
 Species of Graiii. 
 
 Estimated 
 A verage of the 
 Population of 
 Great Uritain 
 and Ireland. 
 
 Each 
 Person 
 averaged. 
 
 Consumed 
 by Man. 
 
 Consumed by 
 Animals. 
 
 Used in Beer 
 and Spirits. 
 
 Used in va- 
 rious Manu- 
 factures. 
 
 ToUl 
 Quarters. 
 
 Wheat 
 Barley 
 Oats 
 Rye 
 
 Beans and peas - 
 Totals - 
 
 9,000,000 
 1 ,500,000 
 4,500,000 
 500,000 
 500,000 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 il 
 
 Quarters. 
 9,000,000 
 
 1,875,000 
 6,750,000 
 625,000 
 500,000 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 210,000 
 10,200,000 
 59.000 
 1,360,000 
 
 Quarters. 
 4,250,000 
 
 Quarters. 
 170,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 9,170,000 
 6,335,000 
 16,9.50,000 
 685,000 
 1 ,860,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 i 18,750,000 
 
 11,829,000 1 4,250,000 1 171,000 
 
 35,000,000 
 
 But though this estimate be compiled with greater care, and is entitled to more con- 
 fidence, than most of those put forth by its author, it is in some respects grossly inac- 
 curate and defective. There can, for example, be no manner of doubt that the con- 
 sumption of oats is underrated by at least 2,250,000 quarters, or by ^ quarter in the 
 quantity assigned to each of the 4,500,000 individuals Dr. Colquhoun supposed were 
 fed on them. But besides underrating the consumption of oats, the learned Dr. has 
 made no allowance for seed, though it be unnecessary to say that the expenditure of 
 corn as seed is as indispensable, and its consumption as effectual, as if it were employed 
 in the feeding of men or of horses. Adding, therefore, to the 37,250,000 quarters 
 which Colquhoun's estimate should have amounted to, ^th for seed, we have, on his 
 data, 43,458,000 quarters for the total consumption of corn in the U. Kingdom in 
 1814. 
 
 But instead of a population of 16 millions, which is assumed as the basis of the above 
 estimate, the U. Kingdom had, in 1841, a population of 26,861,796. If, therefore, 
 the estimate of Dr. Colquhoun were accurate, and the consumption, as compared 
 with the population, were about the same as in 1814, it should now amount to about 
 70,000,000 quarters. But, during the last 30 years, the proportion of wheat used 
 as food has been materially increased ; and at present the consumers of barley cer- 
 tainly amount to nothing like 1,500,000 individuals; probably to not more than 
 500,000. The proportional consumption of oats has, also, increased very materially,, 
 partly and principally from the great increase in the number of horses, and their better 
 keep, and partly, also, from the increase of population in Ireland ; for, though the in- 
 habitants of that part of the U. Kingdom be principally dependent on the potato, 
 still there can be no doubt that the number of corn, or rather oat-eaters (in Ireland), 
 has been largely augmented since 1814. 
 
 On the whole, we are inclined to think that the consumption of the various kinds of 
 corn in the U. Kingdom may, at present (1842), be estimated as follows : — 
 
 Qrs. Total Qrs. 
 
 I. Consumed by man : — 
 Wheat - - - - - - - 15,000,000 
 
 Oats, rye, and maslin (a mixture of rye and wheat) . - - 15,000,000 
 
 Barley for malting, food, &c. - - 6,000,000 
 
 Beans and peas as meal . . _ _ _ _ 600,000 
 
 36,600,000 
 
 II. Consumed by the lower animals : — 
 
 Corn (principally oats) used in the feeding of horses and other animals, in 
 distillation, manufactories, &c. . . _ . . 18,000,COO 
 
 Total consumed by man and the lower animals, &c. - - 54,600,000 
 
 But it appears from No. VIII. of the subjoined tables, that at an average of the 12 
 years ending with 1841, the annual entries of foreign corn for home consumption were, 
 wheat 1,139,394 quarters, barley 199,405 do., oats 278,820 do., rye 21,046 do., peas 
 71,900 do., and beans 78,013 do., making an aggregate importation of 1,788,579 
 quarters a year. And, therefore, if from the annual consumption by man and the lower 
 
418 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 animals, amounting to 54,600,000 quarters, we deduct the above average annual impor-> 
 tation, we have 52,811,421 quarters for the portion of such consumption supplied by 
 the native corn of the U. Kingdom ; and adding to the latter ^th part, or 8,801,903 
 quarters, for seed, we have 61,613,324 quarters for the total average annual growth of 
 all sorts of corn in the U. Kingdom. 
 
 The total entries of foreign corn in 1839 amounted to 4,615,262 quarters, being the 
 largest quantity ever entered in any single year. But as this quantity does not amount 
 to j'jth part of the entire corn raised at home, it would seem as if the greatest im- 
 portation could have but a very slight influence over prices; but it has been already shown 
 that a very large proportion, perhaps a half, of the corn produced in the empire is never 
 brought to market, but is partly consumed by the agriculturists, and partly used as seed 
 and in the feeding of farm horses, &c. Hence, if we be nearly right in this estimate, it 
 follows that an importation of 4,615,262 quarters is really equivalent to between ith and 
 ^th part of the entire produce brought to market in an average year, and must conse- 
 quently have a very material influence in alleviating the pressure of scarcity in a bad 
 • year, and in checking the rise of prices. 
 
 Regulations under which the Corn Trade of the U. Kingdom is at present conducted.— 
 These regulations are embodied in the act 5 Vict. 2 sess. cap. 14., of which an abstract 
 is subjoined. In principle this act is substantially the same with that of the 9 Geo. 4. 
 cap. 60., by which the trade in corn was previously regulated. It permits, like the 
 former act, the free importation and warehousing of all sorts of foreign corn ; imposing, 
 like it, duties on such corn when entered for consumption, which vary according to the 
 variations of prices in the home market. Thus, there is a duty of 20s. a quarter on 
 wheat, when the home price is at or under 51s. a quarter ; the duty decreasing, though 
 not regularly, till the price reaches 73s. or upwards, when it amounts to Is. only. But 
 though the duties imposed by this act be, in consequence of their reduction, decidedly 
 preferable to those which they superseded, still they are much too high, and must 
 go far, indeed, to prevent all importation under ordinary circumstances, till the home 
 price rises to, or exceeds, 63s. a quarter, when the duty is no less than 10s. ; and be- 
 sides their influence in obstructing importation till the home price rises very decidedly 
 above what would otherwise be its natural level, a variable scale of duties has the incu- 
 rable defect of adding to the uncertainty incident to the corn trade ; and of preventing, 
 so long as it is kept up, its establishment on sound principles. 
 
 From the extreme difficulty of forming any thing like correct conclusions as to the 
 state of the crops at any given period in any extensive country, and still more of es- 
 timating the supply and probable price of corn at any future period, though but a 
 little remote, the risk attending the corn trade is proverbially great. Under such cir- 
 cumstances, if government interfere at all, it should certainly be to lessen such hazards ; 
 and, at all events, it should take especial care to do nothing to increase them. Hence, if a 
 duty be imposed on importation it should be constant, so that its influence may always be 
 estimated beforehand ; for if the amount of duty depend on accidental circumstances, or 
 on anything so fluctuating and incapable of previous estimation as the prices in the home 
 market, it must necessarily, by increasing the hazard of all speculations in corn, tend to 
 augment those inequalities in its supply and price, that should, in as far as possible, be 
 diminished. To show the direct influence of such duties, it may suffice to mention that 
 if, under the late corn law, a merchant had commissioned a quarter of wheat when the 
 home price was 71s. a quarter, he would, in the event of the price falling to 68s. be- 
 fore the importation took place, have lost no less than 13s. a quarter by the transac- 
 tion, viz. 3s. a quarter by the fall of price, and 10s. a quarter by the increase of duty ! 
 The new scale is not, luckily, so bad as this; but still its influence, though diminished, 
 is of the same pernicious kind, and in most cases doubles the risk. Should a merchant, 
 for example, now order a quantity of foreign wheat when the home price is from 57s. to 
 58s. a quarter, he will, in the event of the price falling 3s. a quarter before the wheat 
 can be entered for consumption, lose 6s. a quarter by the speculation, 3s. by the fall 
 of price, and 3s. by the rise of duty. 
 
 It may, perhaps, be said that if, on the one hand, the present scale of duties be in- 
 jurious to the merchant when prices are falling, and when importation is consequently 
 either unnecessary or of less advantage, it is, on the other hand, equally advantageous 
 to him when prices are rising, and when the public interests require that importation 
 should be encouraged : but the prices in the view of the merchant when he gives an 
 order are always such as he supposes will yield a fair profit ; and if they rise, this rise 
 would, supposing the duty to be constant, yield such an extra profit as would make him 
 increase his imports to the utmost. If it were possible to devise a system that should 
 diminish the losses incurred in unfavourable speculations, by making a proportional 
 deduction from the profits of such as were unusually successful, something, perhaps, 
 might be found to say in its favour. But the system we have adopted proceeds on 
 quite opposite principles : its effect is not to diminish risks, but to increase them ; it 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 419 
 
 adds to the loss resulting from an unsuccessful, and to the profit resulting from a suc- 
 cessful, speculation ! 
 
 But there are other considerations that serve to set the pernicious operation of a 
 fluctuating duty in a still more striking point of view. Should a tract of unfavourahle 
 weather occur before harvest, and a deficient crop be anticipated, prices rise, and the 
 duty falls to next to nothing : but now suppose that the weather becomes fine, and 
 that the anticipations of a short crop are dispelled, and observe what, under such 
 circumstances, is the operation of the sliding-scale. In such a case, prices imme- 
 diately begin to give way, and, to avoid the consequent increase of duty, every 
 bushel of foreign corn warehoused in the country, and, indeed, in every contiguous 
 foreign port, is forthwith entered for consumption, and thrown upon a falling 
 market ! With a fixed duty, or with no duty at all, the merchants would distribute 
 the supply of corn according to the best estimate they could form of the real wants and 
 necessities of the people. But the operation of a sliding-scale goes far to exclude 
 such considerations. Besides doubling the hazards of the trade, it tempts the mer- 
 chants, when prices are rising, to hold back, in the expectation of being able to enter , 
 their corn at a reduced duty ; and when, on the other hand, a fall of prices is antici- 
 pated, the market, as already seen, is overloaded, and prices ruinously depressed by the 
 supplies forced upon it to escape the increase of duty ! It is thus alternately injurious to 
 the manufacturing and the agricultural classes ; entailing the severest privations on the 
 former, by making the importers withhold their corn from market till the price at- 
 tains to a ruinously high level ; and, on the latter, by making the same parties throw 
 it on a market which is already depressed. The extreme low prices of 1821 and 1822, 
 and of 1833, 1834, and 1835, were, no doubt, in part occasioned by the excess of the 
 foreign entries for consumption arising out of the circumstances now mentioned. 
 
 Were our ports always open under a moderate duty, nothing, it is plain, would be gained 
 by pouring in supplies at any particular moment ; they would only be furnished when 
 necessary, and would be limited by the necessity ; and when prices were low, or falling, 
 a large proportion of the imports would be warehoused in anticipation of a future rise. 
 But at present there is no room for consideration or combination ; every thing must be 
 done on the moment, and by fits and starts ; we may not have brought a bushel of 
 wheat from the Baltic for a year or two ; but prices have risen in this country, and, 
 the duty having fallen still more rapidly, we have an instantaneous demand for all 
 the corn that can be had ! Not being expected, no provision is made for meeting such 
 sudden and capricious demands ; and prices rise to such a degree as to make our pre- 
 sence in the foreign markets hateful to every one, except the few who may happen to 
 have on hand stocks of corn. It is plain, too, that a commerce, if so we may call it, 
 conducted in this way cannot be carried on by an interchange of goods for corn, as it 
 would be were the ports constantly open. We may have a demand this year for ten 
 times the quantity of Polish corn that we required last year, but it is abundantly cer- 
 tain that the Poles will not reciprocate by taking ofl" corresponding quantities of our 
 cottons, woollens, or hardware. Under ordinary circumstances, an increase of imports 
 is always accompanied by a corresponding increase of exports ; but, to bring this about, 
 the increase must neither be sudden nor excessive ; for, if so, the chances are a thousand 
 to one that the foreign demand for our products will not increase to an equal extent. 
 Corn is the principal means which the Poles have of paying for English goods ; and, as 
 we frequently shut it wholly out, their imports from England are unavoidably below 
 even the average amount of their exports ; so that, when we have an extraordinary de- 
 mand for corn, the greater part of the excess must be paid for in bullion ; and, instead 
 of being benefited by its occurrence, our commercial and manufacturing interests are 
 deeply injured. 
 
 But it is unnecessary to dwell on what is so well known. Most fortunately, we did 
 not require to import any foreign corn in 1835 and 1836 ; for, no one, either in the 
 Bank of England or out of it, acquainted with the circumstances, can have the smallest 
 doubt that, had it been then necessary to make the same payments for foreign corn we 
 had to make in 1830 and 1831, and in 1838 and 1839, the Bank must have stopped 
 payment ; and a shock would have been given to the credit and financial interests of 
 the country, from which they might never have recovered. The severe pressure on 
 the money market in 1839 mainly originated in the same circumstances ; and who can 
 doubt that that pressure was productive of incomparably greater loss and inconvenience 
 to the agriculturists than any advantage they gained by the rise of prices in that year? 
 
 It is in these respects that the existing corn law is most inimical to manufactures and 
 commerce. The disorder occasioned by a sudden and extensive demand for corn affects 
 the prices of every article, and vitiates every speculation. The mischief is sometimes 
 ascribed to the conduct of the directors of the Bank of England ; but they have little 
 or nothing to do in the matter ; they are merely endeavouring to provide, as is their 
 ^ounden duty, for the safety of the Bank, which is suddenly called upon to advance 
 
4.20 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 four, five, or six millions of bullion to be sent abroad in payment of foreign corn ! It is 
 plain that the real origin of the pressure is to be found in that system of commercial 
 legislation that produces every now and then such sudden and heavy drains on the re- 
 sources of the Bank and the country. 
 
 In every point of view, therefore, it is of the highest importance that the regulations 
 as to the corn trade should be placed on such a footing, that, 1st, they may at no 
 time give any serious obstruction to importation ; and 2d, that the supply may be ad- 
 mitted according to our wants, and when it is really required. In their present form, 
 the corn laws are opposed to both the principles now laid down, and are adverse alike 
 to agriculture, commerce, and credit. 
 
 It must not, however, be supposed, from any thing now said, that we mean to state 
 or insinuate that it is possible by any contrivance, or by the utmost possible degree of 
 freedom, to avert all fluctuations in the supply and price of corn. Any such idea would 
 be alike chimerical and absurd. Variations of the harvests, in so rich and populous a 
 country as Great Britain, must always, and under any circumstances, have a powerful 
 influence over prices ; not only here, but also in those foreign markets whence we are 
 in the habit of drawing a portion of our supplies. But it admits of demonstration, 
 that the adoption of a system as to importation, in which there shall be no fluctuation of 
 duties, is the best means by which to mitigate the influence of variations of harvests, 
 and to secure the greatest steadiness of price. Under such a system, the merchants of 
 this and other countries would be able to form their plans without the fear of their 
 being overturned by accident or contingent circumstances ; and the fact that we every 
 now and then require a large supply of foreign corn would make capitalists here and 
 elsewhere warehouse, in abundant years, large supplies, in anticipation of the demand 
 when a deficiency occurs. The merchant would then have to deal only with real wants 
 and necessities ; and these it is comparatively easy to provide against. In a matter of 
 this kind all restrictions and interferences are unalloyed evils. Freedom is all that is 
 required to place the trade on the best possible footing. 
 
 It is, therefore, obvious that a constant duty on importation is, in all respects, pre- 
 ferable to one that fluctuates. When the duty is constant, all classes, farmers as well 
 as merchants, are aware of its amount, and can previously calculate the extent of its 
 influence. But the influence of a duty that fluctuates with fluctuations of price can 
 never be previously appreciated. Its magnitude depends on contingent and accidental 
 circumstances ; and it must, therefore, of necessity, occasion that uncertainty, and those 
 sudden and capricious movements, that are so destructive of the interests of all classes. 
 
 It is farther to be observed that, with a fluctuating duty, there can be no corre- 
 sponding drawback on exportation ; and so long, therefore, as it is maintained, prices, 
 in unusually favourable years, must, as previously explained, sink so low as to be ruinous 
 to the agriculturists ; and that justice will be denied to the latter, to which they have 
 an undoubted claim. 
 
 At the same time it is but fair to state, that the pernicious operation of the com laws 
 has been grossl}^, and indeed stupidly, exaggerated. According to the statements put 
 forth by the demagogues who have of late years been haranguing the public on this 
 favourite theme, one would be led to suppose that the repeal of the corn laws would be 
 a universal panacea ; that it would obviate every abuse or defect in our social system ; 
 and that the price of corn would immediately fall to something like a half or a third 
 part of its present amount ! But every man of sense knows that there is no real room 
 or ground for such statements, which are alike false and deluding. Thanks to the ex- 
 traordinary spread of improvement at home, and to the increased amount of our imports 
 from Ireland, the corn laws, notwithstanding the rapid increase of population, are now 
 far less objectionable than they were a few years ago. The statements that will be laid 
 before the reader in a subsequent part of this article shew, that supposing foreign 
 wheat were always admitted for consumption on payment of a fixed duty of only 5s. a 
 quarter, there are no grounds whatever for thinking that its average price would be 
 under 53s. or 54s. a quarter. 
 
 We do not say this by way of apology for the corn laws, or in extenuation of the 
 serious injury they really occasion. But misrepresentation and misstatements on 
 such subjects cannot be too much condemned. The progress of sound commercial 
 legislation can never be advanced, while it may be and has been very decidedly obstructed 
 by the violence, agitation, and declamatory trash of which the proposed repeal of the 
 corn laws has been the pretext. 
 
 We subjoin an abstract of the act, 5 "Victoria, 2 sess. cap. 14. 
 
 Section 1. repeals the act 9 Geo. 4. c. GO., under which the corn trade had previously been conducted. 
 
 Corn may be imported from Foreign Countries and from British Possessions on Payment of the specified 
 Duties — And whereas it is expedient that corn, grain, meal, and flour, the growth, produce, and manu- 
 facture of any foreign country, or of any British possession out of I^urope, should be allowed to be im- 
 ported into the U. Kingdom for consumption, upon the payment of duties to be regulated from time to time 
 according to the average price of British corn made up and published in manner hereinafter required ; 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 421 
 
 l)fi it thorofore enacted, that from and after the passing of this act there shall be levied and paid upon all 
 corn, grain, meal, or flour entered for home consumption in the U. Kingdom from parts be>;ond the 
 seas, the several duties specified and set forth in the table annexed to this act ; and that the said duties 
 shall be raised, levied, collected, and paid in the same manner in all respects as the several duties of 
 customs enumerated in the table of duties annexed to act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 5G. — 5 2. 
 We subjoin the table referred to. 
 
 An Account of the Duties chargeable on all Kinds of Grain, 
 
 Jfintporled from any Foreign Country. 
 
 Ouart.r. 
 
 WHEATEN FLOUR 
 OR MEAL. 
 
 Duty per 
 Barrel of 
 196 lbs. 
 
 A verage 
 Price i>er 
 Quarter 
 
 Duty per 
 Quarter. 
 
 BARLEY, 
 Mai/e, or Indian 
 Corn, Uuck wheat. 
 Hear or BiKg. 
 
 Average 
 Price per 
 Quarter. 
 
 Duty per 
 Quarter. 
 
 Price poi 
 Quarter. 
 
 Duty per 
 Quarter. 
 
 under 51 
 51 - b-i 
 r,^i — r>^ 
 .LI _ .01 
 .51 _ 55 
 
 55 — 56 
 
 56 _ 57 
 
 57 _ 58 
 
 58 _ 59 
 .59 _ CO 
 
 60 - 61 
 
 61 — 62 
 
 62 — 63 
 6.) _ 64 
 
 64 — 65 
 
 65 — 66 
 
 66 _ 67 
 
 67 .- 68 
 
 68 — 6!) 
 
 69 _ 70 
 
 70 _ 71 
 
 71 - 72 
 
 72 — 73 
 
 73 and 
 upwards. 
 
 </. 
 
 0 0 
 
 19 0 
 
 18 0 
 
 18 0 
 
 18 0 
 
 17 0 
 
 16 0 
 
 15 0 
 
 14 0 
 
 0 6 lOA 
 
 0 6 63 
 
 0 6 2i 
 
 0 6 2} 
 
 0 6 2j 
 
 0 5 loj 
 
 0 5 6 
 
 0 5 15 
 
 0 4 9? 
 
 0 4 5* 
 
 0 12 012 
 0 11 55 
 0 10 9.30 
 0 10 9.30 
 
 0 10 950 
 
 0 10 2 23 
 
 0 9 7 16 
 
 0 9 09 
 
 0 8 52 
 
 0 7 927 
 
 0 7 2 20 
 
 0 6 7 13 
 
 0 6 06 
 
 0 5 4 31 
 
 0 4 9 24 
 
 0 4 217 
 
 0 3 7 10 
 
 0 3 7 10 
 
 0 3 7 10 
 
 0 3 03 
 
 0 2 4 2S 
 
 0 I 9 21 
 
 0 1 211 
 
 0 0 77 
 
 under 30 
 ,■50 — 31 
 31 — .32 
 
 32 — 33 
 
 33 - 34 
 
 34 _ .35 
 ,35 — 36 
 
 36 — 37 
 
 37 — 38 
 
 38 — .39 
 
 39 — 40 
 
 40 — 41 
 
 41 —42 
 
 42 and 
 upwards. 
 
 0 11 6 
 
 0 10 6 
 
 0 10 6 
 
 0 10 6 
 
 0 9 6 
 
 L. I. ,1. 
 
 Iunder26 0 11 0 under 19 0 8 0 0 4 11 
 
 26 _ 27 0 10 0 19 — 20 0 7 0 0 4 3 101 
 
 27 — 28 0 90 20 — 21 0 6 0 0 3 8.52 
 
 28 — 29 0 9 0 21 — 22 0 6 0 0 3 8 52 
 '^0 — 30 0 9 0 22 — 23 0 6 0 0 3 8.52 
 
 30 — 31 0 8 0 23 — 24 0 5 0 0 3 1 3 
 
 31 - 32 0 7 0 24 — 25 0 4 0 0 2 5 75 
 .32 — 33 0 6 0 25 — 26 0 3 0 0 1 10 26 
 
 34 0 5 0 26 _ 27 0 2 0 0 1 2 98 
 
 34 — 35 0 4 0 27 and 0 1 0 0 0 7 49 
 
 35 — 36 0 3 0 upwards 
 37 0 2 0 
 
 .37 and 0 10 
 upwards. 
 
 * The fractions under Oatmeal are so many 121 parts 
 of a penny ; under barrel of flour, so many 32 parts of a 
 penny. 
 
 Note — Flour is rated to pay foreven,- barrel of 196 lbs. 
 a duty equal in amount to the duty payable on 38^ gal- 
 lons of wheat; and oatmeal for every 181.i lbs., a duty 
 equal in amount to the duty payable on a quarter of oats. 
 It is the practice to enter the above by the cwt. 
 
 If the produce of and imported from any British Possession in North America, or elsewhere out cf Europe, 
 d. 
 
 Rye, Pcis, and Beans. 
 
 Wheat. — Wlienever the average price of 
 wheat shall be under 55s. tlie duty 
 shall be .... 
 
 S5s. and luider 56*. ... 
 
 564. — 57s. - 
 
 57j. — 58*. - 
 
 58*. and upwards ... 
 Barley. — Whenever the average price of 
 barley shall be under 28s. the duty 
 shall be - - - - 
 
 28s. and undtr 29s. . 
 
 29s. — 30s. ... 
 
 .30s. — 31s. . 
 
 3ls 
 
 Oats. — Whenever the average price of 
 o.its shall be under 22s. the duty 
 shall be ... - 
 
 22s. and under 23s. ... 
 
 234. 
 
 0 per qr. 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 Whenever the 
 average price of rye, peas, and beans 
 shall be under 30s. the duty shall be 
 30s. and under 31s. . . . 
 5!s. — 32s. . 
 32s. — 33s. . 
 3.'5s. _ 34j. - 
 
 34s 
 
 Wheat Meal and Flout. — For every barrel, 
 being 196 lbs., a duty equal to the 
 duty payable on 38i galls, wheat. 
 Oatmeal. — For every 181.^ lbs. a duty 
 equal to the duty payable on a 
 quarter of oats. 
 Maize or Indian Corn, Buckwheat, Bear 
 or Bigg — For every quarter a duty 
 equal to the duty payable on a 
 quarter of barley. 
 
 Section 3. permits foreign corn to be imported into the Isle of Man, on payment of the duties specified 
 in this act. 
 
 Regulations lobe observed on shipping Corn from any British Possession out of Eu7-ope No corn, 
 
 grain, meal, or flour shall be shipped from any British possession out of Europe as the produce of any 
 such possession until the owner or proprietor or shipper thereof 4iave made and subscribed, before the 
 collector or other chief officer of customs at the port of shipment, a declaration in writing, specifying the 
 quantity of each sort of such corn, grain, meal, or flour, and that the same was the produce of some 
 British possession out of Europe to be named in such declaration, nor until such owner or proprietor 
 or shipper shall have obtained from the collector or other chief officer of the customs of the said port a 
 certificate, under his signature, of the quantity of corn, grain, meal, or flour so declared to be shipped ; 
 and before any corn, grain, meal, or flour shall be entered at any port or place in the U. Kingdom as 
 being the produce of any British possession out of Europe, the master of the ship importing the same 
 shall produce and deliver to the collector or other chief officer of customs of the port or place of import- 
 ation a copy of such declaration, certified to be a true and accurate copy thereof, under the hand of the 
 collector and other chief officer of customs at the port of shipment before whom the same was made, 
 together with the certificate, signed by the said collector or other chief officer of customs, of the quantity 
 of corn so declared to be shipped ; and such master shall also make and subscribe, before the collector 
 or other chief officer of customs at the place of importation a declaration in writing that the several 
 quantities of corn, grain, meal, or flour on board such ship, and proposed to be entered under the 
 authority of such declaration, are the same that were mentioned and referred to in the declaration and 
 certificate produced by him, without any admixture or addition ; and if any person shall in any such 
 declaration wilfully and corruptly make any false statement respecting the place of which any such corn, 
 grain, meal or flour was the produce, or respecting the identity of any such corn, grain, meal, or flour, 
 such person shall forfeit and become liable to pay to her majesty the sum of 100/., and the corn, grain, 
 meal, or flour to such person belonging on board any such ship shall also be forfeited ; and such for- 
 feiture may be sued for, recovered, and applied in the same manner in all respects as any forfeiture in- 
 curred under and by virtue of the said act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 58 — § 5. 
 
 Prohibition of Importation of Malt. — It shall not be lawful to import from parts beyond the seas into 
 the U. Kingdom, for consumption there, any malt, or any corn ground, except wheat meal, wheat flour, 
 and oatmeal ; and if any such article be imported contrary to this provision, the same shall be forfeited ; 
 and such forfeitures shall be sued for, recovered, &c. under the act 3 &- 4 Will. 4. c. 56., in all respects 
 as any forfeiture incurred under and by virtue of the said ci'stoms duties act. — § 6. 
 
 Accounts of Corn itnported, SfC. to be published monthly. — The commissioners of customs shall once in 
 each month publish in the London Gazette an account of the total quantity of each sort of corn, grain, 
 meal, and flour respectively imported into the U. Kingdom, and also an account of the total quantity of 
 
422 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 each sort of corn, grain, meal, and flour upon which duties of importation have been paid in the U. King- 
 dom during the month next preceding, and^fef the several rates of duty which shall from time to time 
 during such month have been payable upon each sort of corn, grain, meal, and flour respectively, with 
 aji account of the total quantity of each sort of corn, grain, meal, and flour remaining in warehouse at 
 
 the end of such next preceding month §7. 
 
 Section 8. enacts, that if any foreign state subject British vessels, goods, &c. to any higher duties or 
 charges than are levied on the vessels of other countries, &c. her majesty may prohibit the importation 
 of corn from such state. 
 
 Section 9. enacts, that weekly returns of purchases and sales of corn shall be made in the places named 
 in the schedule of cities and towns which is here annexed. 
 
 Counties and Towns. 
 
 Counties and Towns. 
 
 Counties and Towns. 
 
 Counties and Towns. 
 
 ClIBSHtRB: 
 
 Tavistock. 
 
 Essex : 
 
 Gainsborough. 
 
 Chester. 
 
 Kingsbridge. 
 
 Chelmsford. 
 
 Glanford Bridge. 
 
 Nantwich. 
 
 •Oakhampton. 
 •Tiverton. 
 
 Colchester. 
 
 Louth. 
 
 Middlewich. 
 
 Romford. 
 
 Boston. 
 
 * Four Lane Ends. 
 
 •Honiton. 
 
 •Chipping Ongar. 
 •Saffron Walden. 
 
 Sleaford. 
 
 *CongIeton. 
 
 
 Stamford. 
 
 •Macclesfield. 
 
 Cornwall : 
 
 •Braintree. 
 
 Spalding. 
 •Barton on Humber. 
 
 ♦Stockport. 
 
 Truro. 
 
 
 Bodmin. 
 
 Kent : 
 
 •Bourne. 
 
 Lancaster : 
 
 Launceiton. 
 
 Maidstone. 
 
 •Grantham. 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Redruth. 
 
 Canterbury. 
 
 •Grimsby. 
 
 Ulverston. 
 
 Helston. 
 
 Dartford. 
 
 •Homcastle. 
 
 Lancaster. 
 
 St. Austell. 
 
 •Chatham and Rochester. 
 
 •Market Raisin. 
 
 Preston. 
 
 •Falmouth. 
 
 •Dover. 
 
 •Caistor. 
 
 Wigan. 
 
 •Callington 
 
 •Gravesend. 
 
 •Alford. 
 
 Warrington. 
 
 •Liskeard. 
 
 •Ashford. 
 
 •Holbech. 
 
 Manchester. 
 
 •St. Columb. 
 
 
 •Long Sutton. 
 
 Bolton. 
 
 
 SussKx ; 
 
 •Blackburn. 
 
 Dorsetshire : 
 
 Chichester. 
 
 York : 
 
 •Bury. 
 •Rochdale. 
 
 Blandford. 
 
 Lewes. 
 
 York. 
 
 Bridport. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Leeds. 
 
 
 Dorchester. 
 
 •Brighton. 
 
 Wakefield. 
 
 Derby : 
 
 Sherborne. 
 
 •East Grinstead. 
 
 Bridlington. 
 
 Derby. 
 
 Shaftesbury. 
 
 •Battle. 
 
 Beverley. 
 
 •Chesterfield. 
 
 Wareham. 
 
 •Arundel. 
 
 Hawden. 
 
 
 •Poole. 
 
 •Hastings. 
 
 Sheffield. 
 
 Nottingham: 
 
 
 •Midhurst. 
 
 Hull. 
 
 Nottingham. 
 
 Hampshire: 
 
 •Shoreham. 
 
 Whitby. 
 New Malton. 
 
 Newark 
 
 Winchester. 
 
 
 •Mansfield. 
 
 Andover. 
 
 Bedford : 
 
 •Bamsley. 
 
 •Rettield. 
 
 Basingstoke. 
 
 Bedford. 
 
 •Bedale. 
 
 Leicester : 
 
 Farehani. 
 
 •Leighton Buzzard. 
 
 •Bradford. 
 
 Havant. 
 
 •Luton. 
 
 •Doncaster. 
 
 Leicester. 
 
 Newport. 
 
 
 • Knaresborough. 
 
 •Loughborough. 
 •Hinckley. 
 
 Ringwood. 
 
 Berkshire : 
 
 •Pickering. 
 
 Southampton. 
 
 Windsor. 
 
 •Richmond. 
 
 •Lutterworth. 
 
 Portsmouth. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 •Ripon. 
 •Selby. 
 
 Northampton : 
 
 • Chris tchurch. 
 
 •Abingdon. 
 
 
 •Maidenhead. 
 
 •Skipton. 
 •Thilrsk. 
 
 Northampton. 
 * Peterborough. 
 •Daventry. 
 
 Rutland : 
 
 •Newbury. 
 
 •Okeham. 
 
 •Wallingford. 
 
 •Rotherham. 
 
 
 •Otley. 
 •Thome. 
 
 * W ellingborough. 
 
 Hereford : 
 
 Bucks: 
 
 •Kettering. 
 
 •Leominster. 
 
 Aylesbury. 
 
 
 
 •Hereford. 
 
 •Buckinfjham. 
 •High Wycombe. 
 
 Durham : 
 
 Warwickshire : 
 
 •ICington. 
 
 Durham. 
 
 Coventry. 
 
 Newport Pagnel. 
 
 Stockton. 
 
 Birmingham. 
 
 Shropshire : 
 
 Darlington. 
 Sunderland. 
 
 •Warwick. 
 
 •Shrewsbury. 
 
 Oxfordshire : 
 
 •Stratford -on- Avon. 
 
 •Ludlow. 
 
 Oxford. 
 
 Barnard Castle. 
 
 Worcester : 
 
 •Newport. 
 
 •Banbury. 
 
 
 •Oswestry. 
 
 •Henley. 
 
 Northumberland : 
 
 W orcester. 
 
 •Wellington. 
 
 •Witney. 
 
 Walsingham. 
 
 •Bromsgrove. 
 
 ,*Wenlock. 
 
 •Chipping Norton. 
 
 Belford. 
 
 * Kidderminster. 
 
 •Whitchurch. 
 
 Hexham. 
 
 •Stourbridge. 
 
 •Market Drayton. 
 
 Huntingdon: 
 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
 
 •Evesham. 
 
 Huntingdon. 
 St. Ive's. 
 
 Morpeth. 
 
 
 Wiltshire : 
 
 Alnwick. 
 
 Gloucester : 
 
 •Swindon. 
 
 
 Berwick. 
 
 Gloucester. 
 
 •Devizes. 
 
 Cambridge : 
 
 
 Cirencester. 
 
 •Salisbury. 
 * Troubridge. 
 
 Carabridee. 
 
 Cumberland : 
 
 1'etbury. 
 
 Ely. ^ 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 Stow-on-the-Wold. 
 
 •Warminster. 
 
 Wisbeach. 
 
 Whitehaven. 
 
 Tewkesbury. 
 
 •Chippenham. 
 
 •Newmarket. 
 
 Cockermouth. 
 
 •Cheltenham. 
 
 
 Penrith. 
 
 •Dursley. 
 
 Staffordshire : 
 
 Suffolk : 
 
 Egremont. 
 •Wigton. 
 •Mary port. 
 
 •North Leach. 
 
 « Stafford. 
 
 Ipswich. 
 Woodbridge. 
 
 •Stroud. 
 
 •Burton-on-Trent. 
 
 Somersetshire ; 
 
 •Lichfield. 
 
 Sudbury. 
 
 •Workington. 
 
 « Newcastle-under-Ly me. 
 
 Hadleigh. 
 
 Bristol. 
 
 •Stone. 
 
 Stowmarket. 
 
 Westmoreland : 
 
 Taunton. 
 
 •Uttoxeter. 
 
 Beccles. 
 
 Appleby. 
 Kendal. 
 
 Wells. 
 
 •Walsall. 
 
 Bungay. 
 
 Hridgewater. 
 
 •Wolverhampton . 
 
 Lowestoft. 
 
 
 Bury St. Edmund's. 
 
 Wales: 
 
 Chard. 
 
 Middlesex : 
 
 Carmarthen. 
 
 •Somerton. 
 
 London. 
 
 Norfolk : 
 
 Carnarvon. 
 
 •Shepton Mallet. 
 •Wellington. 
 
 Uxbridge. 
 
 Norwich. 
 
 Ha verfordwest . 
 
 Yarmouth. 
 
 Cardiff. 
 
 •Wiveliscomb. 
 
 Hertfordshire : 
 
 Lynn. 
 Thetford. 
 
 Denbigh. 
 Wrexham. 
 
 Monmouthshire : 
 
 Hertford. 
 
 Royston. 
 •Bishop Stortford. 
 •St. Alban's. 
 
 Watton. 
 
 •Brecon. 
 
 Monmouth. 
 
 Diss. 
 
 •Mold. 
 
 Abergavenny. 
 
 East Dereham. 
 
 •Bangor. 
 •Cowbridge. 
 
 ("hepstow. 
 
 •Hemel Hempstead 
 
 Harleston. 
 
 Pontypool. 
 
 .•Hitchin. 
 
 Holt. 
 
 •Newtown. 
 
 •Newport. 
 
 
 Aylsham. 
 
 •Corwen. 
 
 
 Surrey : 
 
 Fakenham. 
 
 •Welshpool. 
 •Llangefni. 
 
 Dbvonshirb': 
 
 Guildford. 
 
 North Walsham. 
 
 Exeter. 
 
 •Croydon. 
 
 •Swaffham. 
 
 •Llandillo. 
 
 Barnstable. 
 
 • Kingston. 
 
 
 •Knighton. 
 
 Plymouth. 
 
 •Dorking. 
 
 Lincoln : 
 
 •Swan*ea. 
 
 Totness. 
 
 Lincoln. 
 
 
 • The towns marked with an asterisk were not referred to in taking the averages under the late act. 
 
 Section 10. gives her majesty power of appointing a comptroller of corn returns. 
 
 Section II. enacts that the comptroller shall execute his office in person, but that a deputy may be 
 appointed to act in certain cases. 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 423 
 
 Sections 12. .md 13. authorise the Lord Mayor and aldermen to appoint an inspector of corn returns 
 For the city of London, under the same conditions as tlie general coini)tr()ller. 
 
 Section 14. authorises the chancellors of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge to appoint and 
 remove inspectors of corn returns for the said city and town. 
 
 Section 15. enacts that no person dealing in corn, flour, or malt, be appointed inspector or deputy- 
 inspector of corn returns for the cities of London or Oxford, or town of Cambridge. 
 
 Section IG. enacts that the appointments of inspectors for London, Oxford, and Cambridge, be en- 
 rolled. 
 
 Dealers in Corn in and near London to deliver in a Declaration to the Lord Mayor, &c. — Every 
 person carrying on trade or business in the city of London, or within b miles from the Royal Exchange 
 m the said city, as a corn factor, or as an agent employed in the sale of British corn, and every person 
 who shall sell any British corn within the Corn Exchange in Mark Lane in the said city, or wilhm any 
 other building or place which is or may hereafter be used within the city of London, or within b miles 
 from the Uoyal Exchange in the said city, for such and the like purposes for which the said Corn 
 Exchange in Mark Lane hath been and is used, shall, before he or they shall carry on such trade or 
 business, or sell any corn in manner aforesaid, make and deliver to the Lord Mayor, or one of the 
 aldermen of the city of London, a declaration in the following words ; (that is to say,) 
 
 " \ A. B. declare, that the returns to be by me made, conformably to an act passed in the fifth year 
 :>f the reign of her majesty Queen Victoria, intituled \_kere set furlh the title of this act], of the quan- 
 ities and prices of British corn wliich henceforth shall be by or for me sold or delivered, shall, to the best 
 of my knowledge and belief, contain the whole quantity, and no more, of the corn Ijotui fide sold and 
 delivered by or for me within the periods to which such returns respectively shall refer, with the prices 
 of such corn, and the names of the buyers respectively, and of the persons for whom such corn shall 
 have been sold by me respectively, and to the best of my judgment the said return shall in all respects 
 be conformable to the provisions of the said act." 
 
 Which declaration shall be in writing, and shall be subscribed by the person so making the same ; and 
 the Lord Mayor or alderman aforesaid of the city of London for the time being shall and is hereby 
 required to deliver a certificate thereof, under his hand, to the inspector of corn returns for the city of 
 
 London, to be by him registered in a book to be provided and kept for that purpose \ 17. 
 
 Dealers in Corn to make Returns to Corn Inspector — Every corn factor and other person as aforesaid 
 who is herein -before required to make and who shall have made such declaration as aforesaid, shall and 
 he or she is hereby required to return or cause to be returned, on Wednesday in each and every week, to 
 the inspector of corn returns for the city of London, an account in writing, signed with his or her own 
 name, or the name of his or her agent duly authorised in that behalf, of the quantities of each sort of 
 British corn by him or her sold during the week ending on and including the next preceding Tuesday, 
 with the prices thereof, and the amount of every parcel, with the total quantity and value of each sort 
 of corn, and by what measure or weight the same was sold, and the names of the buyers thereof, and of 
 the persons for and on behalf of whom such corn was sold ; and it shall be lawful for any such inspector 
 of corn returns to deliver to any person making or tendering any such returns a notice in writing re- 
 quiring him or her to declare and set forth therein where and by whom and in what manner any such 
 British corn was delivered to the purchaser or purchasers thereof ; and every person to whom any such 
 notice shall be so delivered shall and he or she is hereby required to comply therewith, and to declare 
 and set forth in such his or her return, or in a separate statement in writing, the several particulars 
 aforesaid. — § 18. 
 
 Section 19. enacts that the present comptroller, deputy-comptroller and inspectors of corn returns for 
 London, Oxford, and Cambridge continue in otfice, and that the appointments of the other inspectors of 
 returns shall cease on the 24th day of June next after the passing of this act. 
 
 Section '20. enacts that in cities and towns, other than London, Oxford, and Cambridge, officers of 
 excise are to act as corn inspectors, and attend at places appointed. 
 
 Section 21 . enacts that the commissioners of excise shall make known the place to be appointed for 
 delivering returns of corn purchased. 
 
 Section 22. authorises the commissioners of treasury to continue, if they think fit, the present 
 inspectors of corn returns in their offices. 
 
 Dealers in Corn in Cities and Touns to make Declaration — Every person who shall deal in British 
 corn at or within any city or town named in the prefixed list of towns, excepting the city of London, or 
 who shall at or within any such city or town engage in or carry on the trade or business of a corn factor, 
 miller, maltster, brewer, or distiller, or who shall be the owner or proprietor, or part owner or pro- 
 prietor, of any stage coaches, waggons, carts, or other carriages carrying goods or passengers for hire to 
 and from any such city or town, and each and every person who, as a merchant, clerk, agent, or other- 
 wise, shall purchase at any such city or town any British corn for sale, or for the sale of meal, flour, 
 malt, or bread made or to be made thereof, shall, before he or she shall so deal in British corn at any 
 such city or town, or shall engage in or carry on any such trade or business as aforesaid, or shall purchase 
 any British corn for any such purpose as aforesaid, at or within any such city or town, make and deliver 
 a declaration in the following words ; (that is to say,) 
 
 " I A. B. do declare, that the returns to be by me made, conformably to the act passed in the fifth year 
 of the reign of her majesty Queen Victoria, intituled [^liere set forth the title of this acf], of the quantities 
 and prices of British corn which henceforward shall by or for me be bought, shall, to the best of my 
 knowledge and belief, contain the whole quantity, and no more, of the British corn bond fide bought for 
 or by me within the periods to which such returns respectively shall refer, with the prices of such corn 
 and the names of the sellers respectively, and to the best of my judgment the said returns shall in all 
 respects be conformable to the provisions of the said act." 
 
 Which declaration shall be in writing, and shall be subscribed with the hand of the person so making the 
 same, and shall by him or her, or by his or her agent, be delivered to the mayor or chief magistrate, or to 
 some justice of the peace for such city or town, or for the county, riding, or division in which the same is 
 situate, who are hereby required to deliver a certificate thereof to the otiicer of excise acting as inspector 
 of corn returns for such city or town as aforesaid, or to such continuing inspector of corn returns as 
 aforesaid for such city or town (as the case may be), to be by such officer or inspector registered in a 
 
 book to be provided and kept for that purpose \ 23. 
 
 Section 24. authorises the inspectors of corn returns to require the above declaration from corn 
 dealers. 
 
 Corn Dealers to make Returns in Writing to Inspectors of the Corn bought by thc?n — All persons who 
 are herein-before required to make and who shall have made such declaration as aforesaid shall and they 
 are hereby required, on the first market day which shall be holden in each and every week within each 
 and every city or town named in the said schedule hereunto annexed, except the city of London, at or 
 within which they shall respectively deal in corn, or engage in or carry on any such trade or business as 
 aforesaid, or purchase any corn for any such purpose as aforesaid, to return or cause to be returned to 
 the officer of excise acting as inspector of corn returns for such city or town, at the place appointed for 
 receiving such returns, or to the continuing inspector of corn returns for such city or town, or to the 
 inspector of corn returns for the city of Oxford or the town of Cambridge (as the case may be), an 
 account in writing, signed with their names respectively, of the amount of each and every p.ircel of each 
 respective sort of British corn so by them respectively bought during the week ending on and including 
 the day next preceding such first market day as aforesaid, with the price thereof, and by what weight or 
 measure the same was so bought by them, with the names of the sellers of each of the said parcels 
 
424- 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 respectively, with the names of the person or persons, if any, other than the person making such return, 
 for or on account of whom the same was so bought and sold ; and it shall be lawful for any officer of 
 excise acting as inspector of corn returns, or any continuing inspector of corn returns as aforesaid, to 
 deliver to any person making or tendering any such return a notice in writing requiring him or her to 
 declare and set forth where and by whom and in what manner any such British corn was delivered to him 
 or her ; and every person to whom any such notice shall be so delivered shall and he or she is hereby 
 required to comply therewith, and to declare and set forth in such his or her return, or in a separate 
 statement in writing, the several particulars aforesaid — § 25. 
 
 Inspectors to enter Returns made to them in a Book, 8fc. — The inspector of corn returns for the city of 
 London, the city of Oxford, and the town of Cambridge, and every officer of excise acting as inspector of 
 corn returns for the several other cities and towns aforesaid, and every continuing inspector of corn re- 
 turns for any of such other cities or towns as aforesaid, shall duly and regularly enter in a book, to be by 
 him provided and kept for that purpose, the several accounts of the quantities and prices of corn returned 
 to him by such persons respectively as aforesaid ; and every inspector of corn returns for any of the cities 
 and towns enumerated in the said schedule shall in each and every week return to the comptroller of 
 corn returns an account of the weekly quantities and prices of the several sorts of British corn sold in 
 the city of London, or in the city or town for which he shall be or act as inspector, according to the re- 
 turns so made to him as aforesaid, and in such form as shall be from time to time prescribed and directed 
 by the said comptroller of corn returns ; and the said returns shall be so made to the said comptroller by 
 the inspector of corn returns for the city of London on Friday in each week, and by the respective 
 inspectors of corn returns for the city of Oxford and the town of Cambridge, and by the respective 
 officers of excise acting as inspectors of corn returns, and by the respective continuing inspectors of corn 
 returns, for the several other cities and towns aforesaid, within three days next after the first market day 
 holden in each and every week in any such city or town — § 26. 
 
 Section 27. enacts that inspectors shall not include returns until they have ascertained that the persons 
 making them have taken the declaration required. 
 
 Average Prices to be made up and published every Week The average prices of all British com, by 
 
 which tiie rate and amount of the said duties shall be regulated, shall be made up and computed on 
 Thursday in each week, in manner following ; (that is to say,) the said comptroller of corn returns shall 
 on such Thursday in each week, from such returns as shall be received by him during the week next 
 preceding, ending on and including the Saturday in such preceding week, add together the total quantities 
 of each sort of British corn respectively appearing by such returns to have been sold, and the total prices 
 for which the same shall thereby appear to have been sold, and shall divide the amount of such total 
 prices respectively by the amount of such total quantities of each sort of British corn respectively, and 
 the sum produced thereby shall be added to the sums in like manner produced in the 5 weeks immediately 
 preceding the same, and the amount of such sums so added shall be divided by 6, and the sum thereby 
 given shall be deemed and taken to be the aggregate average price of each such sort of British corn re- 
 spectively, for the purpose of regulating and ascertaining the rate and amount of the said duties ; and the 
 said comptroller of corn returns shall cause such aggregate weekly averages to be published in the 
 next succeeding Gazette, and shall on Thursday in each week transmit a certificate of such aggregate 
 average prices of each sort of British corn to the collector or other chief officer of the customs at each of 
 the several ports of the U. Kingdom, and to the said functionary at the port of Douglas in the Isle of 
 Man ; and the rate and amount of the duties to be paid under the provisions of this act shall from time 
 to time be regulated and governed at each of the ports of the U. Kingdom by the aggregate average 
 prices of British corn at the time of the entry for home consumption of any corn, grain, meal, or flour 
 chargeable with any such duty, as such aggregate average prices shall appear and be stated in the last of 
 such certificates received by the collector or other chief officer of customs at such port. — § 28. 
 
 How Quantities of Co7 n are to be computed In the returns to be made as aforesaid to the comptroller 
 
 of corn returns, and in the publications to be made from time to time in the London Gazette, and in the 
 certificate to be transmitted to the said comptroller of corn returns to collectors or other chief officers of 
 customs, the quantities of each sort of British corn respectively shall be computed and set forth by, 
 according, and with reference to the imperial standard gallon, as the same is declared and established by 
 the act 5 Geo. IV. cap. 74. amended or altered by the act 6 Geo. 4. cap. 12., and by the act 5 & 6 Will. 4. 
 cap. 63. — § 29. 
 
 Until sufficient Number of Returns are made. Comptroller may use the present Averages. — Until a 
 sufficient number of weekly returns have been received by the said comptroller of corn returns under 
 this act to afford such aggregate average prices of British corn as aforesaid, the weekly average prices of 
 British corn published by him immediately before the passing of this act shall be used and referred to 
 in making such calculations as aforesaid, in such manner as if the same had been made up and taken 
 under this act. — § 30. 
 
 What shall be deemed British Corn. — All corn or grain the produce of the U. Kingdom shall be deemed 
 and taken to be British corn for the purposes of this act. — § 31. 
 
 Any Corn Return believed fraudulent may be omitted in the Computation — If the said comptroller of 
 corn returns shall at any time see cause to believe that any return made to any inspector of corn returns is 
 fraudulentor untrue, the said comptroller is hereby required, with all convenient expedition, to lay before 
 the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council (for Trade) a statement of the grounds of such his belief ; 
 and if upon consideration of any such statement the said Lords of said Committee shall direct the comp- 
 troller to omit any such return in the computation of such aggregate weekly average price, then and in 
 that case, but not otherwise, the said comptroller of corn returns shall be authorised to omit such return 
 in the computation of such aggregate weekly average price — § 32. 
 
 Section 33. enacts that corn dealers having made the declaration previous to this act shall transmit 
 returns, and comply with the rules hereby required. 
 
 Comptroller to issue Directions respecting the Inspection of Books of Inspectors. — The comptroller of 
 corn returns is hereby authorised from time to time, in pursuance of any instructions which he shall 
 receive in that behalf from the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council (for Trade), to issue to the in- 
 spectors of corn returns for the city of London, the city of Oxford, and the town of Cambridge respect- 
 ively, any general or special directions respecting the inspection by any person or persons of the books 
 so directed as aforesaid to be kept by such inspector of corn returns ; and no such inspectors for the city 
 of London, the city of Oxford, or the town of Cambridge, shall permit or suffer any person to inspect 
 any such book, or to peruse or transcribe any entry therein, except in compliance with some such general 
 or special directions from the said comptroller of corn returns. — \ 34. 
 
 Copy of last Return to be offiited on Market Place on each Market Day The inspector of corn returns 
 
 for every city or town other than the city of London shall and is hereby required, on each and every 
 market day, to put up or cause to be put up in the market place of the city or town for which he shall 
 act as inspector, or if there shall be no market place, then in some other conspicuous place therein near 
 to where the corn market is usually held, a copy of the last return made by him to the comptroller of 
 corn returns, omitting the names of the parties who may have sold and bought the said corn ; and every 
 such officer or inspector shall also again put up such account on the market day immediately following 
 that on which it shall first have been put up, in case the same shall from accident or any other cause have 
 been r«;moved, and shall take due care that the same shall remain up for public inspection until a new 
 account for the ensuing week shall have been prepared and set up. — § 35. 
 
 Sections 36, 37, 38. relate to the payment of comjitrollers and inspectors. 
 
 Penalty on Corn Dealers for not making Declarali.ns or Rcturris. — If any person hereby required to 
 make and deliver the declaration or declarations herein- before particularly mentioned and set forth, or 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 425 
 
 either of thom, shall not make and deliver such declaration or declarations at the time and in the form 
 and manner and to the person or persons herein-before dirc-eted and prescribed in that behalf, every 
 person so offending shall forfeit and pay a sum not exceeding 20/. for each and every calendar month 
 during which he shall neglect or delay to make and deliver such declaration ; and if any person who is 
 herein-before required to make any return to any inspector or officer of corn returns shall not make such 
 returns to such inspector or officer at tlic time and in tiie form and manner herein-belore directed and 
 prescribed, every such ofl'ender shall for such his offence forfeit and pay a sum not exceeding 20/. — § 3'J. 
 Section 40. relates to the recovery and application of penalties. 
 
 Penalty on Witnesses not attending when required. — If any person who shall be summoned as a wit- 
 ness to give evidence before anyjustices of the peace, touchingany matter of fact contained in any inform- 
 ation or complaint for any offence against this act, either on the |)art of the prosecutor or of the person 
 or persons accused, shall, after a reasonable sum of money for his or her charges and expenccs shall have 
 been paid or been tendered to him or her, refuse or neglect to appear at the time and place for that 
 purpose appointed, without a reasonable excuse for his, her, or their neglect, or appearing shall refnseto 
 be examined on oath and give evidence before such justices of the peace, then and in either of such cases 
 such person shall forfeit for every such offence any sum not exceeding fO/. — \ 41. 
 
 Punishment for mahingfalse Iteturns. — If any person shall make any false and fraudulent statement 
 in any such return as he is herein-before directed and required to make, or shall falsely and wilfully in- 
 clude, or procure or cause to be included, in any such return, any British corn which was not truly and 
 bond fide sold or bought to, by, or on behalf of the person or persons in any such return mentioned in that 
 behalf, in the quantity and for the price therein stated and set forth, every such offender shall be and be 
 deemed guilty of a misdemeanor. — § 42. 
 
 Section 43. declares that the act shall not affect the practice of measuring or privileges of the city of 
 London. 
 
 Limitation of Actions. — Actions brought under this act must be within 3 months of the matter or 
 thing done. Defendants may plead the general issue; and if judgment be given against the plaintiff's, de- 
 fendants shall have treble costs. — § 44. 
 
 Substitution of Wheat Flour or Biscuit for botided Wheat. — Our readers are, no 
 doubt, generally aware, that of late years efforts have occasionally been made in the 
 House of Commons to get a law enacted authorising the delivery of bonded wheat 
 from the warehouse, on the substitution in its stead of a proportional quantity of wheat 
 flour or biscuit. But this proposal encountered the hostility of the more zealous par- 
 tisans of the corn laws, principally on the alleged ground that it would open a door to 
 fraud, and lead to the clandestine introduction of large quantities of foreign wheat. In 
 the course, however, of the present year (1842), the project was again introduced by 
 the vice-president of the board of trade (Mr. Gladstone), and, having been supported by 
 government, was passed into a law, 5 & 6 Victoria, cap. 92. We believe the measure 
 will be productive of considerable advantage. It will enable millers, bakers, and others 
 in this country to take advantage of such openings in the home and foreign markets as 
 may offer for the manufacture and sale of flour and biscuit ; and to make such changes 
 in the nature of their stocks as may be thought most advantageous. There do not seem 
 to be any very good grounds for thinking that it will afford any considerable facilities 
 for the commission of fraud by the introduction of wheat without a countervailing deposit 
 of flour; but supposing it did, who is to be injured by such introduction? This, in 
 truth, is one of the few cases in which fraud is advantageous rather than otherwise. 
 We subjoin an abstract of the act now referred to. 
 
 Warehoused Wheat to be delivered Duty-free upon substituting an equivalent Quantity of Wheat Flour 
 
 or Biscuit Whereas it will be of advantage to the trade and commerce of the country that wheat may 
 
 be delivered duty-free from the warehouse or from the vessel, upon the deposit in the warehouse, or 
 due exportation therefrom, of an equivalent quantity of wheat flour and biscuit ; be it therefore enacted, 
 that it shall be lawful for the principal officer of customs having charge of any warehouse, in which 
 wheat may be warehoused without payment of duty upon the first entry thereof, to deliver any quantity 
 thereof duty-free, upon there being deposited in warehouse in lieu thereof tine wheat flour or biscuit, as 
 under. 
 
 For every 96 lbs. of kiln-dried wheat, or for every 100 lbs. of wheat not being kiln-dried, not less than 
 78 lbs. of fine wheat flour, or f>8 lbs. of captain's biscuit, or 80 lbs. of biscuit of the standard of the biscuit 
 supplied to her majesty's navy, or 118 lbs. of common ship's biscuit ; and so in proportion for any less 
 quantity than 96 lbs. of kiln-dried wheat, or 100 lbs. of wheat not kiln-dried ; such flour or biscuit having 
 been manufactured in the U. Kingdom, or such Flour having been duly imported and the duty thereon 
 liaving been paid. — § 1. 
 
 Section 2. enacts, that fine wheat flour and biscuit may be deposited in warehouse, and a certificate of 
 such deposit granted, to entitle the holder to an equivalent quantity of warehoused wheat duty-free any 
 time within six weeks of the date thereof. 
 
 Section 3. enacts, that persons making deposits of flour and biscuit be entitled to have equivalent 
 quantities of wheat entered duty-free from the vessel. 
 
 Section 4. orders that three days notice in writing be given to the collector of the quantity of wheat 
 required to be delivered from the warehouse, and of the day of delivery. 
 
 Section 5. orders that no wheat shall be delivered duty-free until the substituted article has been depo- 
 sited and the certificate duly examined. 
 
 Section 6. enacts that substituted flour and biscuit shall be subject to the warehousing laws, but shall 
 not be taken out for home consumption. 
 
 Section 7. enacts that such substituted flour and biscuit shall not be re-imported. 
 
 Section 8. imposes penalties for depositing articles of inferior quality. 
 
 Section 9. enacts that the act shall continue till the 31st of August 1845. 
 
426 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 3. Tables showing the Prices of the different Sorts of Grain in Great Britain 
 THE Quantities imported and exported, &c. 
 
 I. Account of the Prices of Middling or Mealing Wheat per Quarter at Windsor Market, as ascertained 
 by the Audit-books of Eton College. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A verage 
 
 
 Prices of 
 
 Prices of 
 
 of Ten 
 
 
 Price- of 
 
 Prices of 
 
 of Ten 
 
 
 Prices of 
 
 Prices of 
 
 
 
 Wheat at 
 
 Wheat re- 
 
 Years ac- 
 
 
 Wheat at 
 
 Wheat 
 
 re- 
 
 Years ac- 
 
 
 Wheat at 
 
 Wheat 
 
 
 Years ac- 
 
 ears. 
 
 Windsor 
 9 Gallons 
 
 duced to the 
 Winchester 
 
 cordin 
 theW 
 
 !n-° 
 
 y 
 
 e rs. 
 
 Windsor, 
 9 Gallons 
 
 duced to the 
 Winchester 
 
 cording to 
 the Win- 
 
 Years. 
 
 Windsor, 
 9 Gallons 
 
 duced to the 
 Winchester 
 
 cording to 
 the Win- 
 
 
 to the 
 
 Bushel of 
 
 Chester 
 
 
 to the 
 
 Bushe 
 
 of 
 
 chester 
 
 
 to the 
 
 Bushel of 
 
 chester 
 
 
 Bushel. 
 
 8 Gallons. 
 
 Bushel of 
 
 
 Bushel. 
 
 8 Gallons. 
 
 Bushel of 
 
 
 Bushel. 
 
 8 Gallons. 
 
 Bushfl of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 Gallons. 
 
 
 
 
 
 i Gallons. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 Gallons. 
 
 
 £ s 
 
 a. 
 
 £. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1646 
 
 2 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1707 
 
 18 6 
 
 1 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 1767 
 
 3 4 
 
 g 
 
 2 17 
 
 
 
 1647 
 
 ^ ^? 
 
 \ 
 
 3 5 
 
 5f 
 
 
 
 1708 
 
 2 16 
 
 1 16 lOi 
 
 
 
 1768 
 
 3 0 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 1648 
 
 4 5 
 
 0 
 
 3 15 
 
 6f 
 
 
 
 1709 
 
 3 18 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 I* 
 
 
 
 1769 
 
 2 5 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 / 
 
 
 1649 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 11 
 
 
 
 
 1710 
 
 3 18 0 
 
 3 9 
 
 
 
 
 1770 
 
 2 9 
 
 Q 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 8* 
 
 
 1650 
 
 3 16 
 
 8 
 
 3 8 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 1711 
 
 2 14 0 
 
 2 8 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 1771 
 
 2 17 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 1651 
 
 3 13 
 
 4 
 
 3 5 
 
 
 
 
 1712 
 
 2 6 4 
 
 2 1 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 1772 
 
 3 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 1652 
 
 2 9 
 
 6 
 
 2 4 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 1713 
 
 2 11 0 
 
 2 5 
 
 
 
 
 1773 
 
 3 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 1 1. 
 
 
 1653 
 
 1 15 
 
 6 
 
 1 11 
 
 
 
 
 1714 
 
 2 10 4 
 
 2 4 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 1774 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 3^ 
 
 
 1654 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 3 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 1715 
 
 2 3 0 
 
 1 18 
 
 2| 
 
 2 4 
 
 2i 
 
 1775 
 
 0 17 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 
 2 11 3| 
 
 1655 
 
 1 13 
 
 4 
 
 1 9 
 
 
 2 11 
 
 7f 
 
 1716 
 
 2 8 0 
 
 2 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1776 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1656 
 
 2 3 
 
 0 
 
 1 18 
 
 
 
 
 1717 
 
 2 5 8 
 
 2 0 
 
 
 
 
 1777 
 
 9 IC 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 in3 
 
 
 1657 
 
 2 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 1 
 
 5| 
 
 
 
 1718 
 
 1 18 10 
 
 1 14 
 
 '4 
 
 
 
 1778 
 
 2 9 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0' 
 
 
 1658 
 
 3 5 
 
 0 
 
 2 17 
 
 
 
 
 1719 
 
 115 0 
 
 1 11 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 1779 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 1 3 
 
 
 1659 
 
 3 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 18 
 
 
 
 1720 
 
 117 0 
 
 1 12 
 
 Klf 
 
 
 
 1780 
 
 2 8 
 
 fa 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 ? 
 
 \l 
 
 
 1660 
 
 2 16 
 
 6 
 
 2 10 
 
 
 
 
 1721 
 
 1176 
 
 1 13 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 1781 
 
 2 19 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 9? 
 
 
 1661 
 
 3 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 2 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 1722 
 
 116 0 
 
 1 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 1782 
 
 3 0 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 1662 
 
 3 14 
 
 0 
 
 3 5 
 
 
 
 
 1723 
 
 114 8 
 
 1 10 lOi 
 
 
 
 1783 
 
 3 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 1663 
 
 2 17 
 
 0 
 
 2 10 
 
 
 
 
 1724 
 
 117 0 
 
 1 12 
 
 
 
 
 1784 
 
 3 0 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 9? 
 
 
 1664 
 
 2 0 
 
 6 
 
 1 16 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 1725 
 
 2 8 6 
 
 2 3 
 
 'ft 
 
 1 15 
 
 4| 
 
 1785 
 
 2 14 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 u 
 
 2 7 8J 
 
 1665 
 
 2 9 
 
 4 
 
 2 3 lOi 
 
 2 10 
 
 5f 
 
 1726 
 
 2 g 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 lOf 
 
 
 
 1786 
 
 2 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 of 
 
 
 1666 
 
 1 ,15 
 
 0 
 
 1 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 1727 
 
 2 2 0 
 
 1 17 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 1787 
 
 2 11 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 1667 
 
 1 16 
 
 0 
 
 1 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 1728 
 
 2 14 6 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 
 
 1788 
 
 2 15 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 4* 
 
 
 1668 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 15 
 
 6f 
 
 
 
 1729 
 
 2 6 10 
 
 2 1 
 
 
 
 
 1789 
 
 3 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 16 
 
 it 
 
 
 1669 
 
 2 4 
 
 4 
 
 1 19 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 1730 
 
 116 6 
 
 1 12 
 
 
 
 
 1790 
 
 3 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 16 
 
 J* 
 
 
 1670 
 
 2 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 17 
 
 
 
 
 173] 
 
 1 12 10 
 
 1 9 
 
 
 
 1791 
 
 2 15 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 1671 
 
 2 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 17 
 
 t' 
 
 
 
 1732 
 
 16 8 
 
 1 3 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 1792* 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 Q 
 
 
 1672 
 
 2 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 16 
 
 
 
 
 1733 
 
 18 4 
 
 1 5 
 
 
 
 
 1793 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 1673 
 
 2 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 1 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 1734 
 
 118 10 
 
 1 14 
 
 
 
 
 1794 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 1674 
 
 3 8 
 
 8 
 
 3 1 
 
 
 
 
 1735 
 
 2 3 0 
 
 1 18 
 
 
 1 15 
 
 2 
 
 1795 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 b 
 
 2 14 3f 
 
 1675 
 
 3 4 
 
 8 
 
 2 17 
 
 
 2 0 111 
 
 1736 
 
 2 0 4 
 
 1 15 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1796 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 1676 
 
 1 18 
 
 0 
 
 1 13 
 
 si 
 
 
 
 1737 
 
 118 0 
 
 1 13 
 
 
 
 
 1797 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 1677 
 
 2 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 17 
 
 
 
 
 1738 
 
 1 15 6 
 
 1 11 
 
 
 
 
 1798 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 
 1678 
 
 2 19 
 
 0 
 
 2 12 
 
 
 
 
 1739 
 
 1 18 6 
 
 1 14 
 
 
 
 
 1799 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 
 1679 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 13 
 
 ^* 
 
 
 
 1740 
 
 2 10 8 
 
 2 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 
 1680 
 
 2 5 
 
 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 1741 
 
 2 Q 8 
 
 2 1 
 
 
 
 
 1801 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 1681 
 
 2 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 1 
 
 
 
 
 1742 
 
 114 0 
 
 1 10 
 
 2f 
 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1682 
 
 2 4 
 
 0 
 
 1 19 
 
 
 
 
 1743 
 
 1 4 10 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1803 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1683 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 15 
 
 ?f 
 
 
 
 1744 
 
 1 4 10 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1804 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 
 1684 
 
 2 4 
 
 0 
 
 1 19 
 
 
 
 
 1745 
 
 1 7 6 
 
 1 4 
 
 5i 
 
 1 12 
 
 1 
 
 1805 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 4 191 
 
 1685 
 
 2 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 1 
 
 
 2 1 
 
 4| 
 
 1746 
 
 1 19 0 
 
 1 14 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1806 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 1686 
 
 1 14 
 
 0 
 
 1 10 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 1747 
 
 1 14 10 
 
 1 10 1|A 
 
 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 
 1687 
 
 1 5 
 
 2 
 
 1 2 
 
 
 
 
 1748 
 
 1 17 0 
 
 1 12 
 
 IGf 
 
 
 
 1808 
 
 
 
 3 19 
 
 2 
 
 
 1688 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 .SI 
 
 
 
 1749 
 
 1 17 0 
 
 1 12 
 
 lOf 
 
 
 
 1809 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 1689 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1126 
 
 1 8 
 
 lOf 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 1690 
 
 1 14 
 
 8 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 
 
 1751 
 
 1 18 6 
 
 1 14 
 
 2f 
 
 
 
 1811 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 
 1691 
 
 1 14 
 
 0 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 
 
 1752 
 
 2 1 10 
 
 1 17 
 
 2A 
 
 
 
 1812 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 
 1692 
 
 2 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 1 
 
 
 
 
 1753 
 
 2 4 8 
 
 1 13 
 
 H 
 
 0, 
 
 
 
 1813 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1693 
 
 3 7 
 
 8 
 
 3 0 
 
 
 
 
 1754 
 
 1 14 8 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 
 1814 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 
 1694 
 
 3 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 16 
 
 
 
 
 1755 
 
 1 13 10 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 2f 
 
 1815 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 4 17 G 
 
 1695 
 
 2 13 
 
 0 
 
 2 7 
 
 
 1 19 
 
 6| 
 
 1756 
 
 2 5 2 
 
 2 0 
 
 If 
 
 
 
 18;6 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 1696 
 
 3 11 
 
 0 
 
 3 3 
 
 
 
 
 1757 
 
 3 0 0 
 
 2 13 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 1817 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 
 1697 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 13 
 
 
 
 
 1758 
 
 2 10 0 
 
 2 4 
 
 5i 
 
 
 
 1818 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 
 1698 
 
 3 8 
 
 4 
 
 3 0 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 1759 
 
 1 19 8 
 
 1 15 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 
 1699 
 
 3 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 16 101 
 
 
 
 1760 
 
 1 16 6 
 
 1 12 
 
 
 
 
 1820 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 
 1700 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 15 
 
 6f 
 
 
 
 1761 
 
 1 10 2 
 
 1 6 
 
 9i 
 
 
 
 1821 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 
 1701 
 
 1 17 
 
 8 
 
 1 13 
 
 
 
 
 1762 
 
 1 19 0 
 
 1 14 
 
 8* 
 
 
 
 1822 
 
 
 
 2 13 
 
 0 
 
 
 1702 
 
 1 9 
 
 6 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 
 
 1763 
 
 2 0 8 
 
 1 16 
 
 If 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 
 1703 
 
 1 16 
 
 0 
 
 1 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 1764 
 
 2 6 8 
 
 2 1 
 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 1704 
 
 2 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 1765 
 
 2 14 0 
 
 2 8 
 
 ? 
 
 1 19 
 
 3^ 
 
 1825 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 IS 8;^ 
 
 1705 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 11 
 
 1766 
 
 2 8 6 
 
 2 3 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 
 1706 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Eton Account of Prices commenced in 1595 ; the accuracy of the returns in the first years cannot, 
 however, be so implicitly relied on, as those quoted above. — liisliop Fleetwood and Sir F. M. Eden have 
 collected, with great industry, almost all the existing information respecting the state of prices in England 
 during the last six hundred years. 
 
 * From mis year, inclusive, the account at Eton College has been kept according to the bushel of 8 
 gallons, under the provision of the act 31 Geo. 3. c. 30. § 82. 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 427 
 
 II. Account of the Average Prices of British Corn per Imperial Quarter, in England and Wales, since 
 1771, as ascertained by the Receiver of Corn Returns. 
 
 Years. 1 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 *. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 d. 
 
 1771 
 
 2 8 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 1772 
 
 2 12 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 \ 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 1773 
 
 2 12 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 1774 
 
 2 14 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1775 
 
 2 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 1776 
 
 1 19 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 1777 
 
 2 6 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 1778 
 
 2 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 1779 
 
 1 14 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 1780 
 
 1 16 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 1781 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 1782 
 
 2 9 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 1783 
 
 2 14 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 1784 
 
 2 10 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 [ 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 1785 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 • 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 
 n 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 1786 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 1787 
 
 2 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 1788 
 
 2 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 ; 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 1789 
 
 2 12 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 1790 
 
 2 14 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 1791 
 
 2 8 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 1792 
 
 2 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 IJ 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 1793 
 
 2 9 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 1794 
 
 2 12 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 1795 
 
 3 15 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1796 
 
 3 18 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1797 
 
 2 13 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1798 
 
 2 11 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1799 
 1800 
 
 3 9 
 5 13 
 
 0 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 19 
 
 2 
 10 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 7 
 19 
 
 6 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1801 
 
 5 19 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1802 
 
 3 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1803 
 1804 
 
 2 18 
 
 3 2 
 
 10 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 5 
 11 
 
 4 
 0 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1805 
 
 4 9 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1806 
 
 3 19 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1807 
 
 3 15 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1808 
 
 4 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1809 
 
 4 17 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 5 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 1811 
 
 4 15 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 1) 
 
 1812 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 1813 
 
 5 9 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1814 
 
 3 14 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 1815 
 
 3 5 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 1816 
 
 3 18 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 1817 
 
 4 16 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 1818 
 
 4 6 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1819 
 
 3 14 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 1820 
 
 3 7 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 1821 
 
 2 16 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 1822 
 
 2 4 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1823 
 
 2 13 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 1824 
 
 3 3 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 1825 
 
 3 8 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 1826 
 
 2 18 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 1827 
 
 2 18 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 1828 
 
 3 0 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 1829 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 1830 
 
 3 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 1831 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1832 
 
 2 18 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 1833 
 
 2 12 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 1834 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 1835 
 
 1 19 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 li 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 1836 
 
 2 8 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 1837 
 
 2 15 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 1838 
 
 3 4 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 
 17 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1839 
 
 3 10 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1840 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1841 
 
 3 4 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 N.B. — The Imperial bushel contains 2218 192 cubic inches, the Winchester bushel 2150-42 do., the 
 
 former being about one thirty-secondth part larger than the latter (See Bushel, and Weights and 
 
 Measures.) 
 
 III. Account of the Average Prices of British Corn, per Imperial Quarter, from the 15th of July 1828, 
 to the 29th April 1842, being the whole Period during which the act 9 Geo. 4. cap. 60. was in operation. 
 {Pari. Paper, No. 511. Sess. 1842.) 
 
 Wheat. Barley Oats. Rye. 
 
 59s. 4rf. 32s. Id. 22s. 8rf. 35s. bd. 
 
428 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 IV. — Current Prices of Grains, Seeds, &c. per Imperial Quarter. London, 23d of August, 1842. 
 
 British. 
 
 Perg 
 
 uar- 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Free 
 Per Qr. 
 
 in Bond 
 PerQr. 
 
 Wheat, Essex, Kent, and Suffolk, old red 
 
 
 «. 
 
 fa 
 
 Wheat, Dantzic and Konigsberg, 
 
 *• *• 
 
 
 ». 
 
 do. do. white 
 
 
 
 finest high mixed 
 
 50 to 56 
 
 42 
 
 to 48 
 
 do. do. new red 
 
 
 56 
 
 do. good mixed 
 
 48 — 50 
 
 40 
 
 — 42 
 
 do. do. white 
 
 
 
 do. red mixed 
 
 45 — 48 
 
 57 
 
 — 40 
 
 Norfolk and Lincolnshire, old 
 
 
 48 
 
 Stettin ... 
 
 48 — 50 
 
 40 
 
 — 42 
 
 Northumberland, Berwick, and Scot., do. 
 
 40 Z 
 
 46 
 
 Danish - - 
 
 38 — 43 
 
 30 
 
 _ 35 
 
 Gal way and Limerick, white and red! 
 
 
 
 Hamburgh and Pomeranian 
 
 40 — 45 
 
 32 
 
 — 37 
 
 Cork and Youghal do. i - 
 
 36 — 
 
 40 
 
 Zealand and Brabant 
 
 44 — 46 
 
 
 _ 38 
 
 Dublin, Watertord, and Clonmel,do.J 
 
 
 
 Odessa, soft 
 
 38 — 42 
 
 30 
 
 — ."54 
 
 Rye, new .... 
 Barley, Kent, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new 
 
 
 
 Riga, Petersbnrgh, and Lie- 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 ban, soft ... 
 
 38 — 42 
 
 
 
 Lincolnshire, and Yorkshire do. 
 
 tja — 
 
 
 Archangel 
 
 36 — 38 
 
 28 
 
 — 30 
 
 stained and grinding - do. 
 
 
 OT 
 
 Tuscan, red ... 
 
 44 — 46 
 
 36 
 
 — 38 
 
 Scotch - - 
 
 
 97 
 
 Canada - - - 
 
 46 — 50 
 
 38 
 
 _ 4'i 
 
 Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk 
 
 
 It 
 
 Spanish, soft 
 
 50 _ 52 
 
 42 
 
 — 44 
 
 I^ngslon and VVare - - 
 Oats, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Lin-") r. . 
 colnshire, and Yorkshire . J ^ 
 
 
 
 Buck or brank 
 
 31 — 36 
 
 22 
 
 — 27 
 
 17 - 
 
 22 
 
 Indian com - - 
 
 28 — 34 
 
 18 
 
 — 20 
 
 Rye, Baltic, dried 
 
 26 — 28 
 
 19 
 
 — 20 
 
 do. - - Poland 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 do. undried 
 
 
 
 Northumberland, Berwick, and") 
 
 <*r.«*^v. >■ potato 
 ocotcn - - * J 
 
 22 _ 
 
 25 
 
 Barley, Hamburgh, Dantzic, Konigs- 
 
 
 
 
 berg, and Riga, malting * 
 
 2z — 26 
 
 15 
 
 - 18 
 
 do. - - feed 
 
 
 ii 
 
 do. grinding 
 Danish do. 
 
 
 
 Devonshire, and West Country feed, or 
 
 
 
 21 — 23 
 
 14 
 
 _ 16 
 
 black .... 
 
 - 
 
 18 
 
 Oats, Dutch brew and thick 
 
 23 — 26 
 
 17 
 
 — 20 
 
 Dnndalk, Newry, and Belfast, potato. 
 
 
 
 Danish - - - 
 
 18 22 
 
 12 
 
 — 18 
 
 to 22*. 6c/. - - teed 
 
 
 
 Friesland brew and thick 
 
 22 — 24 
 
 15 
 
 — 19 
 
 Limerick, Sligo, and Westport, feed 
 
 11 — 
 
 
 Russian ... 
 
 19 — 20 
 
 12 
 
 — 14 
 
 do. do. potato 
 Cork, Waterford, Dublin,") black 
 
 
 
 Beans, tick - - 
 
 23 — 26 
 
 15 
 
 _ 18 
 
 14 — 
 
 17 
 
 small - - - 
 
 30 _ 32 
 
 22 
 
 — 24 
 
 Youghal and Clonmel J white 
 
 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
 28 — 30 
 
 20 
 
 — 26 
 
 Galway . - - - 
 
 9 — 
 
 Peas, white, boiling ... 
 
 32 — 34 
 
 24 
 
 
 Beans, tick, new - • ■ 
 
 
 
 grey or hog 
 
 26 _ 28 
 
 18 
 
 — 20 
 
 old * " 
 
 3o 
 
 
 Tares (duty 10s.) 
 
 24 — 30 
 
 16 
 
 — 18 
 
 narrow and small, new 
 
 29 — 
 
 
 Flour, Dantzic, per barrel 
 
 25 _ 27 
 
 22 
 20 
 
 — 24 
 
 do. old ... 
 
 35 — 
 
 58 
 
 American, sour, do. 
 
 26 — 27 
 
 . 
 
 Peas, boiling - - 
 
 hog, grey, and maple , - . - 
 
 32 — 
 
 32 
 
 do. sweet, do. - 
 
 28 — 30 
 
 24 
 
 — 26 
 
 28 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tares - ... 
 
 36 — 
 
 44 
 
 
 L. 
 
 
 L. s. 
 
 Flour, English, per s ck of 280 lbs. 
 
 45 — 
 
 50 
 
 Linseed, Russian, crushing (duty 
 
 U, per 
 
 
 do. fine do. - - 
 
 
 
 quarter), per quarter 
 
 - 2 
 
 2 U, 
 
 2 6 
 
 Scotch and North Country 
 
 40 — 
 
 44 
 
 do. sowing, per barrel 
 
 
 
 
 Irish - - - 
 
 38 _ 
 
 40 
 
 Mediterranean, per quarter 
 
 - 2 
 
 6 _ 
 
 2 8 
 
 Linseed, crushing, per quarter 
 
 43 — 
 
 45 
 
 Rapeseed (duty Is. per qr.), crushing, new. 
 
 
 
 sowing, do. - - 
 
 46 - 
 
 50 
 
 per last ... 
 
 - 25 
 
 a — 
 
 30 0 
 
 cake, per 1,000 of 3 lbs. each, 71. to 
 
 
 
 Linseed cake (duty 2</. per cwt.), per ton - 6 
 
 0 — 
 
 8 0 
 
 71. 10s. 
 
 
 
 Rape cake (duty 2a. per cwt.) do. 
 
 - 5 
 
 5 — 
 
 6 0 
 
 Cloverseed, old English white, per cwt. - 
 
 50 - 
 
 66 
 
 Cloverseed, red (duty 20*. per cwt.), per cwt. 2 4 — 
 
 3 10 
 
 do. red do. 
 
 50 — 
 
 70 
 
 white (duty 20*. per cwt.) 
 
 do. - 2 10 — 
 
 2 18 
 
 foreign white do. 
 
 48 - 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 do. red do. 
 
 50 — 
 
 ,0 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rapeseed, crushing, new per last, 251. to 28/. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cake, per ton, 5/. to 51. 5s. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V. — Account of the Quantity of Wiieat and Wheat Flour exported, and of Foreign Wheat and Wheat 
 Flour imported, in the following Years (Winchester Measure). 
 
 Years. 
 
 Wheat 
 and Flour 
 exported. 
 
 Foreign 
 Wheat and 
 Flour im- 
 ported. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Wheat 
 and Flour 
 exported. 
 
 Foreign 
 Wheat and 
 Flour im- 
 ported. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Wheat 
 and Flour 
 exported. 
 
 Foreign 
 Wheat and 
 Flour im- 
 ported. 
 
 England. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 England. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Gt. Britain 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1697 
 
 14,699 
 
 400 
 
 1732 
 
 202,0.58 
 
 
 1766 
 
 164,939 
 
 11,020 
 
 1698 
 
 6,857 
 
 845 
 
 1733 
 
 427,199 
 
 7 
 
 1767 
 
 5,071 
 
 497,905 
 
 1699 
 
 557 
 
 486 
 
 1734 
 
 498,196 
 
 6 
 
 1768 
 
 7,433 
 
 349,268 
 
 1700 
 
 49,056 
 
 5 
 
 1735 
 
 153,343 
 
 9 
 
 1769 
 
 49,892 
 
 4,378 
 34 
 
 1701 
 
 98,324 
 
 1 
 
 1736 
 
 118,170 
 
 16 
 
 1770 
 
 75,449 
 
 1702 
 
 90,230 
 
 
 1737 
 
 461,602 
 
 32 
 
 1771 
 
 10,089 
 
 2,510 
 
 1703 
 
 166,615 
 
 50 
 
 1738 
 
 580,-596 
 
 2 
 
 1772 
 
 6,959 
 7,637 
 
 25,474 
 
 1704 
 
 9't,313 
 
 2 
 
 1739 
 
 279,542 
 
 5,423 
 
 1773 
 
 56,857 
 
 1705 
 
 96,185 
 
 
 1740 
 
 .54,390 
 
 7,-568 
 40 
 
 1774 
 
 15,928 
 
 289,149 
 
 1706 
 
 188,332 
 
 77 
 
 1741 
 
 4.5,417 
 
 1775 
 
 91,037 
 
 660,988 
 
 1707 
 
 74,1.55 
 
 
 1742 
 
 293,260 
 
 1 
 
 1776 
 
 210,664 
 87,686 
 
 20,578 
 
 1708 
 
 83,406 
 
 86 
 
 1743 
 
 371,431 
 
 2 
 
 1777 
 
 233,323 
 
 1709 
 
 169,680 
 
 1,552 
 
 1744 
 
 231,984 
 
 2 
 
 1778 
 
 141,070 
 
 106,394 
 
 1710 
 
 13,924 
 76,949 
 
 400 
 
 1745 
 
 324,839 
 
 6 
 
 1779 
 
 222,261 
 
 5,039 
 
 1711 
 
 
 1746 
 
 130,646 
 
 
 1780 
 
 224,059 
 
 3,915 
 
 1712 
 
 145,191 
 
 
 1747 
 
 266,907 
 
 
 1781 
 
 103,021 
 
 159,866 
 
 1713 
 
 176,227 
 
 
 1748 
 
 543,387 
 
 385 
 
 1782 
 
 145,152 
 
 80,695 
 
 1714 
 
 174,821 
 
 16 
 
 1749 
 
 629,049 
 
 382 
 
 1783 
 
 51,943 
 
 584,183 
 
 1715 
 
 166,490 
 
 
 1750 
 
 947,602 
 
 279 
 
 1784 
 
 89,288 * 
 132,685 
 
 216,947 
 
 1716 
 
 74,926 
 
 
 1751 
 
 661,416 
 429,279 
 
 3 
 
 1785 
 
 li 0,863 
 
 1717 
 
 22,954 
 
 
 1752 
 
 
 1786 
 
 205,466 
 120,536 
 
 51,463 
 
 1718 
 
 71,800 
 
 
 1753 
 
 299,609 
 356,270 
 
 
 1787 
 
 59,339 
 
 1719 
 
 127,762 
 
 20 
 
 1754 
 
 201 
 
 1788 
 
 82,971 
 
 148,710 
 
 1720 
 
 83,084 
 
 
 Gr. Britain. 
 
 
 
 1789 
 
 140,014 
 
 112,6.56 
 
 1721 
 
 81,033 
 
 
 1755 
 
 237,466 
 
 
 1790 
 
 30,892 
 
 222,-5.57 
 
 1722 
 
 178,880 
 
 
 1756 
 
 102,752 
 
 5 
 
 1791 
 
 70,626 
 
 469,056 
 
 1723 
 
 157,720 
 
 
 1757 
 
 11,-545 
 
 141, .562 
 
 1792 
 
 300,278 
 
 622,417 
 
 1724 
 
 245,865 
 
 148 
 
 1758 
 
 9,234 
 
 20,353 
 
 1793 
 
 76,629 
 
 490,.S98 
 
 1725 
 
 204,413 
 
 12 
 
 1769 
 
 227,641 
 
 162 
 
 1791 
 
 1.55,048 
 
 327,902 
 
 1726 
 
 142,183 
 
 
 1760 
 
 393,614 
 
 3 
 
 1795 
 
 18,8.39 
 
 313,793 
 
 1727 
 
 30,315 
 
 
 1761 
 
 441,9,56 
 
 
 1796 
 
 24,679 
 
 879,200 
 
 1728 
 
 3,817 
 
 74,574 
 
 1762 
 
 295,385 
 
 56 
 
 ■ 1797 
 
 54,525 
 
 461,767 
 
 1729 
 
 18,993 
 93,971 
 
 40,315 
 
 1763 
 
 429,538 
 
 72 
 
 1798 
 
 59,782 
 
 396,721 
 
 1730 
 
 76 
 
 1764 
 
 396,857 
 
 1 
 
 1799 
 
 39,362 
 
 463,18.5 
 
 1731 
 
 130,025 
 
 4 
 
 1765 
 
 167,126 
 
 104,547 
 
 1800 
 
 22,013 
 
 1,264 ,.520 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 429 
 
 VI. Account of the Quantities of Grain, Flour, Meal, and Malt of Irish Growth, annually imported into 
 Great Britain from Ireland, from 1800 to 1841, both inclusive. 
 
 1 
 
 Years. 
 
 1 
 
 AVTieat and 
 Wheat Floui* 
 
 Barley, 
 including 
 Bear or Bigg. 
 
 Oats and 
 Oatmeal. 
 
 Rje. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Malt. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1800 
 
 749 
 
 78 
 
 2,411 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,238 
 
 1801 
 
 150 
 
 - 
 
 375 
 
 
 
 
 
 525 
 
 1802 
 
 108,751 
 
 7,116 
 
 341,151 
 
 282 
 
 113 
 
 1 ,655 
 
 2,303 
 
 461,371 
 
 1803 
 
 61,267 
 
 12,879 
 
 266, .359 
 
 753 
 
 611 
 
 1 ,653 
 
 25 
 
 .343,-547 
 
 1804 
 
 70,071 
 
 2,521 
 
 240,022 
 
 206 
 
 1 ,078 
 
 3,060 
 
 - 
 
 316,958 
 
 1805 
 
 84,087 
 
 15,656 
 
 203,302 
 
 235 
 
 1 ,(;34 
 
 2,010 
 
 - 
 
 306,924 
 
 1806 
 
 102,276 
 
 3,237 
 
 357,077 
 
 330 
 
 1,389 
 
 2,361 
 
 - 
 
 466,760 
 
 1807 
 
 44,900 
 
 23,048 
 
 389,649 
 
 431 
 
 1,390 
 
 3,777 
 
 - 
 
 463,195 
 
 1808 
 
 43,497 
 
 30,586 
 
 579,974 
 
 .573 
 
 75 
 
 2,065 
 2,669 
 
 - 
 
 656,770 
 
 1809 
 
 66,944 
 
 16,619 
 
 845,783 
 
 425 
 
 38 
 
 - 
 
 932,478 
 
 1810 
 
 126,388 
 147,245 
 
 8,321 
 
 492,741 
 
 20 
 
 216 
 
 3,541 
 
 - 
 
 631,227 
 
 1811 
 
 2,713 
 
 275,757 
 
 21 
 
 50 
 
 4,081 
 
 - 
 
 429,867 
 
 1812 
 
 158,352 
 
 43,138 
 
 390.629 
 
 178 
 
 51 
 
 5,008 
 
 - 
 
 .597,356 
 
 1813 
 
 217,154 
 
 63,560 
 
 691,498 
 
 420 
 
 77 
 
 4,455 
 
 - 
 
 977,164 
 
 1814 
 
 225,478 
 
 10,779 
 
 564,010 
 
 4 
 
 460 
 
 5,731 
 
 - 
 
 812,462 
 
 1815 
 
 189,544 
 
 27,108 
 
 597,537 
 
 207 
 
 425 
 
 6,371 
 
 - 
 
 821,192 
 
 1816 
 
 121,631 
 
 62,254 
 
 683,714 
 
 43 
 
 239 
 
 5,984 
 
 - 
 
 873,865 
 
 1817 
 
 55,481 
 
 26,766 
 
 611,117 
 
 - 
 
 12 
 
 2,275 
 
 - 
 
 695,651 
 
 1818 
 
 105,179 
 
 25,387 
 
 1 ,069,385 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4,768 
 
 - 
 
 1,204,733 
 
 1819 
 
 153,850 
 
 20,311 
 
 789,613 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 3,904 
 
 - 
 
 967,080 
 
 1820 
 
 403,407 
 
 87,095 
 
 916,251 
 
 131 
 
 4.39 
 
 8,,'596 
 
 - 
 
 1,415,722 
 
 1821 
 
 569,700 
 
 82,884 
 
 1,162,249 
 
 550 
 
 2,474 
 
 4,959 
 
 - 
 
 1,822,816 
 
 1822 
 
 463,004 
 
 22,532 
 
 569,237 
 
 353 
 
 728 
 
 7,235 
 
 • 
 
 1 ,063,089 
 
 1823 
 
 400,068 
 
 19,274 
 
 1,102,487 
 
 198 
 
 586 
 
 5,540 
 
 - 
 
 1,528,153 
 
 1824 
 
 356,384 
 
 44,699 
 
 1,225,085 
 
 112 
 
 756 
 
 5,791 
 
 1,173 
 
 1,6.34,000 
 
 1825 
 
 396,018 
 
 154,256 
 
 1,629,856 
 
 220 
 
 1,431 
 
 11, .355 
 
 10,826 
 
 2,203,962 
 
 1826 
 
 314.851 
 
 64,885 
 
 1,303,7.34 
 
 77 
 
 1 ,452 
 
 7,190 
 
 1,203 
 
 1,693,392 
 
 1827 
 
 405,255 
 
 67,791 
 
 1 ,343,267 
 
 256 
 
 1,282 
 
 10,037 
 
 572 
 
 1,828,460 
 
 1828 
 
 652,584 
 
 84,204 
 
 2,075.631 
 
 1,424 
 
 4,826 
 
 7,068 
 
 853 
 
 2,826,.590 
 
 1829 
 
 519,017 
 
 97,140 
 
 1,673,628 
 
 568 
 
 4,435 
 
 10,445 
 
 2,01 1 
 
 2,307,244 
 
 18:!0 
 
 529,717 
 
 189,745 
 
 1,471,252 
 
 414 
 
 2,520 
 
 19,053 
 
 2,820 
 
 2,215,521 
 
 1831 
 
 .657,498 
 
 185,409 
 
 1,655,701 
 
 515 
 
 4,142 
 
 15,029 
 
 10,888 
 
 2,429,182 
 
 1832 
 
 790,293 
 
 123,639 
 
 2,051,867 
 
 294 
 
 1,915 
 
 14, .530 
 
 8,229 
 
 2,990,767 
 
 1833 
 
 844 211 
 
 101 767 
 
 1 "190 
 
 1,1 U.5,''ZU 
 
 1,769,503 
 
 166 
 
 2 646 
 
 19 114 
 
 7 017 
 
 2 737 441 
 
 1834 
 
 779^505 
 
 217^855 
 
 983 
 
 
 18;771 
 
 3*865 - 
 
 2792,658 
 
 1835 
 
 661,776 
 
 156,242 
 
 1,822,767 
 
 614 
 
 3,447 
 
 24,235 
 
 10,357 
 
 2.679,438 
 
 1836 
 
 598,757 
 
 184,156 
 187,473 
 
 2,132,138 
 
 4J^3 
 
 2,920 
 
 17,604 
 
 22,214 
 
 2,958,272 
 
 1837 
 
 534,465 
 
 2,274,675 
 
 i,aj6 
 
 60 
 
 25,630 
 
 4,174 
 
 3,030,293 
 3,474,302 
 
 1838 
 
 542,583 
 
 156,467 
 
 2,742,807 
 
 628 
 
 5,232 
 
 21 ,.584 
 
 5,001 
 
 1839 
 
 258,331 
 
 61,676 
 
 1,904,933 
 
 2,331 
 
 1,484 
 
 11,535 
 
 2,801 
 
 2,243,151 
 
 1840 
 
 174,439 
 
 95,954 
 
 2,037,835 
 
 122 
 
 1,403 
 
 14, .573 
 
 3,456 
 
 2,327,782 
 
 1841 
 
 218,708 
 
 75,568 
 
 2,539,380 
 
 172 
 
 855 
 
 15,907 
 
 4,935 
 
 2,855,525 
 
 VII. Account of the Quantities of Wheat imported into the U. Kingdom during each of the Twelve Years 
 ending with 1840, exhibiting the Quantity brought from each Country; and exhibiting, also, the Total 
 Imports of Wheat Flour during each of the above Years. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 1 1840. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qra. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs- 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1 Or*. 
 
 Russia - 
 
 33fi,j87 
 
 2.'!5,.502 
 
 464,901 
 
 91,290 
 
 18,656 
 
 
 
 10,36 
 
 11,244 
 
 41,339 
 
 371,6931 268.263 
 
 Sweden 
 
 16,543 
 
 2,937 
 
 71 
 
 357 
 
 1 
 
 
 251 
 
 392 
 
 1 2 
 
 Norway - 
 
 42,3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 360 
 
 Denmark - 
 
 82,910 
 
 88,032 
 
 55,960 
 
 .33,.548 
 
 7,958 
 
 11,732 
 
 9*758 
 
 1,0258 
 
 18,240 
 
 111,499 
 
 196,730 
 
 150,351 
 
 Prussia - 
 
 353,906 
 
 517,844 
 364,961 
 
 298,605 
 
 119,320 
 
 87,903 
 
 29,826 
 
 3,236 
 
 100,199 315,121 
 
 550,826 
 
 740.203 
 
 S00.508 
 
 Germany - 
 
 306,691 
 
 219,773 
 
 43,046 
 
 49,421 
 
 42,770 
 
 11,577 
 
 61,562 
 
 87,665 
 
 312,442 
 
 409,729 364,553 
 
 Holland - - ■» 
 Belgium - J 
 
 144,549 
 
 70,711 
 
 30,249 
 
 
 { /-'^ 
 
 
 8 
 111 
 
 3,984 
 
 10,741 
 420 
 
 82,010 
 17,396 
 
 116,480 
 2,3,141 
 
 50,612 
 7,627 
 
 France - 
 
 45,916 
 
 15,219 
 
 101,075 
 
 475 
 
 692 
 
 
 
 
 746 
 
 53,190 
 
 278,182 
 
 48,350 
 
 Portugal, Proper - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,158 
 
 1^593 
 
 
 15 
 
 26,382 
 
 1,396 
 
 Azores - 
 
 
 1,141 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,561 
 
 
 M^'deira 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 616 
 
 
 Spain, and the Ba- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 learic Islands - 
 
 145,136 
 
 39,493 
 
 146,134 
 
 1,763 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 421 
 
 17,741 
 
 46,939 
 
 Spain, and the Ca 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 naries - 
 
 
 
 1,082 
 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gibraltar - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,573 
 
 1 
 
 Italy, and the Ita- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lian Islands 
 
 75,65.3 
 
 28,fil2 
 
 253,0,59 
 
 2,304 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4,483 
 
 30,264 
 
 3.35.612 
 
 149.328 
 
 Malta 
 
 65 
 
 7,268 
 
 13,339 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,390 
 
 11,647 
 
 16.570 1.544 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 
 
 249 
 
 1,062 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,370 
 
 13.928 
 
 1,960 
 
 Turkey 
 
 6,931 
 
 
 7,383 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 257 
 
 3,150 
 
 43.740 4.802 
 
 Kgypt - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 1,729 
 
 2,874 
 
 Tripoli, Tunis, Al- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 giers, and Mo- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,36u 
 3 
 
 
 Caj>e of Good Hope 
 
 4,803 
 
 
 2,178 
 
 1,642 
 
 
 1,616 
 
 1,107 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Mauritius - 
 
 668 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 East India Com- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pany's Territories 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Cevlon 
 
 49 
 
 656 
 
 1,368 
 
 945 
 
 2,696 
 
 471 
 
 336 
 
 
 310 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 British Settlements 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in .Australia 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 25 
 
 7.52 
 
 1,766 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 British North .Ame- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rican Colonies - 
 
 4,055 
 
 58,963 
 
 190,796 
 
 89,516 
 
 79,410 
 
 41,907 
 
 14,326 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 8,192 
 
 United SUtcs of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 America 
 
 577 
 
 6,086 
 
 42,736 
 
 6,286 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 555 
 
 3,766 
 
 73,755 
 
 Chili 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 ISO 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 Peru 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12,233 
 
 Isles of Guernsey, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jersey, .Alderney 
 and Man (foreign 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 goods) 
 
 19,701 
 
 32,079 
 
 7,329 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,531 
 
 28,236 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,544,969 
 
 1,475,314 
 
 1,8.36,529 
 
 391,417 
 
 248,171 
 
 133,091 
 
 42,628 
 
 168,647 
 
 455,871 
 
 1,241,460 '2,6.34,556 
 
 1,993,3S3 
 
 Total of flour"! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -■ 
 
 
 
 and whcatnieal > 
 
 461,S9.''> 
 
 707,082 
 
 1,636,059 
 
 191,896 
 
 172,877 
 
 151,306 
 
 84,969 
 
 255,831,364,248 
 
 456,739 
 
 843,046 
 
 1,.53 ,838 
 
 in cwts. - - J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
430 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 VIII. Account showing the Quantities of the different Varieties of Foreign and Colonial Grain entered 
 for Consumption in the U. Kingdom in each of the Twelve Years endmg with 1841, with the Total 
 Quantities so entered, and the Annual Entries at an Average of the above Period. (Compiled from 
 the Pari. Paper, No. 18. sess. 1842.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 \\''heat and 
 Flour. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats and 
 Oatmeal. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Total entered. 
 
 18.30 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 183.5 
 1836 
 1837 
 18.38 
 1839 
 1840 
 1841 
 
 Totals - 
 
 Average annual en-^ 
 tries for consump- S- 
 tion J 
 
 Qrs. 
 1,727,847 
 1,506,740 
 376,7.55 
 84,036 
 64,974 
 28,554 
 30,107 
 244,272 
 1,848,475 
 2,711,723 
 2,401,436 
 2,647,808 
 
 Qrs. 
 48,.505 
 514.610 
 77,988 
 1,226 
 11,071 
 136,8.53 
 110,021 
 47,475 
 8,192 
 594,301 
 619,801 
 222,837 
 
 Qrs. 
 904,472 
 355,492 
 3,082 
 975 
 55,620 
 176,142 
 97,197 
 334,024 
 11,072 
 862,789 
 517,052 
 27,918 
 
 Qrs. 
 19,189 
 56,2'^'-3 
 60 
 1 
 
 22 
 3 
 18 
 19. .576 
 2,517 
 1.52,182 
 1,857 
 518 
 
 Qrs. 
 44.507 
 57,977 
 lf),.595 
 18,092 
 57,702 
 2.5,184 
 80,928 
 87,615 
 11,618 
 170,270 
 1.59,457 
 132,857 
 
 Qrs. 
 18,697 
 17,678 
 7,439 
 6,028 
 44,,566 
 69,824 
 87,796 
 109,076 
 54,240 
 123,597 
 129,517 
 267,697 
 
 Qrs. 
 2,763,217 
 2,508,700 
 481,919 
 110,358 
 233,955 
 436,-560 
 406,067 
 842,038 
 1,936.114 
 4,615,262 
 3,829,120 
 3,299,635 
 
 13,672,727 
 
 2,392,880 
 
 3,345,835 
 
 252,546 
 
 862,802 
 
 936,155 
 
 21,462,945 
 
 1,139,39311 
 
 199,40&^ 
 
 278,819^2 
 
 21,045^ 
 
 71,900-^ 
 
 78,01211 
 
 1,788,.578 92 
 
 IX. Account of the Total Quantities of Foreign and Colonial Wheat and other Grain and Pulse, entered for 
 Consumption in the U. Kingdom, from the time that the Act 9 Geo. IV. cap. 60. came hito operation 
 to the 5th of January, 1842 ; exhibiting also the Total Amount of Duty paid upon each Species of 
 Corn and Pulse and the Average Rate of Duty during the whole Period. 
 
 
 Foreign Com, Meal and Flour. 
 
 Corn, Meal and Flour, the Produce of, 
 and imported from, British Possessions 
 out of Europe. 
 
 Quantities charged 
 with Duty for 
 
 Home 
 Consumption, 
 
 under Act 9 G. 4. 
 c. 60. from the 
 
 passing of the Act 
 
 (15th July, 1828) 
 to the 
 
 5th January, 1S42. 
 
 Amount of 
 Duty 
 received 
 thereon. 
 
 Rates 
 of Duty, 
 taken on 
 
 the 
 Average of 
 the whole 
 period. 
 
 Quantities charged 
 with Duty for 
 
 Home 
 Consumption, 
 under Act 9 G.4. 
 
 c. CO. from the 
 passing of the Act 
 (15th July, 1828) 
 
 to the 
 5th January, 1842. 
 
 Amount of 
 Duty 
 received 
 thereon. 
 
 Rates 
 of Duty, 
 taken on 
 the 
 Average of 
 the whole 
 period. 
 
 
 
 
 Per Qr. 
 
 
 
 Per. Qr. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 13,.555,471 
 
 3,779,417 
 
 5 7 
 
 589,012 
 
 104,639 
 
 3 7 
 
 Barley 
 
 2,826,397 
 
 659,5.59 
 
 4 8 
 
 839 
 
 89 
 
 2 1 
 
 Oats 
 
 3,.5.34,627 
 
 1,137,940 
 
 6 5 
 
 9,060 
 
 303 
 
 0 8 
 
 Rye 
 
 319,842 
 
 49,195 
 
 3 1 
 
 
 
 
 Peas 
 
 919,227 
 
 266,374 
 
 5 10 
 
 25,872 
 
 1,786 
 
 1 5 
 
 Beans 
 
 1,071,369 
 
 371,698 
 
 6 11 
 
 57 
 
 1 
 
 0 6 
 
 Indian corn 
 
 140,164 
 
 26,940 
 
 3 10 
 
 8,365 
 
 456 
 
 1 1 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 40,024 
 
 12,357 
 
 6 2 
 
 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 
 Per Cwt. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 
 PerCwt. 
 
 Wheat, meal and 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 flour 
 
 4,303,981 
 
 428,083 
 
 2 0 
 
 1,704.528 
 
 81,479 
 
 0 11 
 
 1 Oatmeal 
 
 1,422 
 
 253 
 
 3 7 
 
 18,877 
 
 932 
 
 1 0 
 
 IV. Foreign Corn Trade. 
 
 Polish Corn Trade. — Dantzic is the port whence we have hitherto always derived the 
 largest portion of our supplies in deficient seasons ; and as it is most probable that our 
 principal importations will continue to be drawn from the same source, it becomes 
 peculiarly important to ascertain the cost of wheat in Dantzic, and the expense of its 
 importation into this country. 
 
 According to the data collected by Mr. Jacob in his reports on the agriculture and 
 corn trade of the north of Europe, the ordinary ijrice of wheat at Dantzic free on board 
 would amount to about 40s. a quarter, made up as follows : — 
 
 Cost of wheat at Warsaw - - - ... . 2S*. Od. per quarter. 
 
 Conveyance to the boats, and charges for loading and stowing, and securing it with mats - - 0 6 — 
 
 Freight to Dantzic - . - - - - - - 5 0 — 
 
 Loss on the passage by pilfering, rain, 6ec. - - - - -30 — 
 
 Expenses at Dantzic in turning, drying, screening, warehousing, and loss of measure - - 2 0 — 
 
 Profit or commission, as the case may be, to the merchant in Dantzic - . -.16 — 
 
 Cost at Dantzic, exclusive of shipping charges, which amotmt to about lOd. a quarter - - 40 0 — 
 
 Now, if to this we add 12s. or 13s a quarter for the expense of importing the wheat into England, in- 
 cluding the profit of the importer, it is plain that it could not, supposing Mr. Jacob's estimate of the cost 
 to be nearly accurate, be sold in London, even without any duty for loss than .53s. or .54s. a quarter. 
 
 It has, no doubt, been alleged that the cost of wheat in Dantzic is overrated in the above estimate; 
 and in seasons when there is little or no demand for corn from abroad, this allegation is certainly well 
 foimdcnl. But this estimate is not meant to apply to such years, but to those when there is some con- 
 siderable foreign demand ; and whenever this is the case, it will be found, that though some of the 
 items which go to make up the cost may be erroneous, tlie result is nearly correct ; and that there are 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 4S1 
 
 really no good grounds for supposing that corn could, in the seasons in question, be shipped from 
 Dantzic for less than about AOs. a quarter. 
 
 Mr. Grade, of Dantzic, turnished the Agricultural Committee of 1831 with the following Table of the 
 average prices of corn in that city, free on board, in decennial periods from 1770 to 1820. 
 
 Average Price, from Ten to Ten Years, of the different Species of Corn, free on board, per Quarter, in 
 Sterling Money, at Dantzic. 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 OaU. 
 
 
 S. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 From 1770 to 1779 
 
 33 9 
 
 21 8 
 
 IG 1 
 
 11 I 
 
 1780 — 1789 - 
 
 33 10 
 
 22 1 
 
 17 11 
 
 12 4 
 
 1790— 1799 - - 
 
 43 8 
 
 26 3 
 
 19 3 
 
 12 6 
 
 1800—1809 - - - 
 
 60 0 
 
 34 10 
 
 25 1 
 
 13 1 
 
 1810—1819 . . . - 
 
 55 4 
 
 31 1 
 
 26 0 
 
 20 4 
 
 Aggregate Average Price of 49 Years 
 
 45 4 
 
 27 2 
 
 20 10 
 
 13 10 
 
 It appears from this table that at an average of the 20 years ending with 1819, the price of corn in 
 Dantzic was no less than 57*. 8rf. a quarter ! This, however, would not be a fair test of the price of 
 wheat in Dantzic under ordinary circumstances, as it was powerfully influenced by the scarcity and high 
 price in this country in 1800 and 1801, and by the extreme high prices that prevailed during the latter 
 years of the war, and the obstructions which it threw in the way of agriculture, and of the conveyance 
 of corn to Dantzic. But the prices of wheat at this great emporium have not latterly been subject to 
 any such disturbing influences. The countries whence Dantzic draws her supplies of corn have enjoyed 
 uninterrupted tranquillity during the last 10 years ; and though during some of these years we have 
 made large importations, we have hardly, in a still greater number, brought away a single bushel of 
 corn ; so that the average prices of this period may be taken as pretty correctly representing the prices 
 of corn in Dantzic in seasons when the export is rather under a medium. 
 
 Account exhibiting the Lowest, the Highest, and the Average Prices of Wheat in Dantzic in Sterling 
 Money, per Imperial Quarter, in each of the eleven Years, from 1831 to 1841, both inclusive, with 
 the Averages for the whole Period. 
 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Highest 
 
 Average 
 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Highest 
 
 A verage 
 
 Vears. 
 
 Prices per 
 
 Prices per 
 
 Prices per 
 
 Years. 
 
 Pric;s per 
 
 Prices per 
 
 Prices \>et 
 
 
 Quarter. 
 
 Quarter. 
 
 Quarter. 
 
 
 Quarter. 
 
 Quarttr. 
 
 Quarter. 
 
 
 *. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 ». d. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1831 
 
 41 1 
 
 51 6 
 
 46 3h 
 
 1S39 
 
 31 9 
 
 61 1 
 
 46 5 
 
 
 32 5 
 
 43 7 
 
 38 0 
 
 1810 
 
 39 0 
 
 62 9 
 
 60104 
 
 1833 
 
 28 5 
 
 32 9 
 
 30 7 
 
 1841 
 
 45 9 
 
 57 0 
 
 51 4.< 
 
 1S34 
 
 25 1 
 
 29 11 
 
 27 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1S3.5 
 
 21 OJ 
 
 26 3i 
 
 23 8 
 
 Average of I 
 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 22 3 
 
 35 7 
 
 28 11 
 
 1 1 Years from V 
 
 30 Sa 
 
 45 2 
 
 37 11 
 
 1837 
 
 24 9 
 
 34 8i 
 
 29 8i 
 44 1| 
 
 1831 to 1841 J 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 26 6i 
 
 61 9" 
 
 
 
 
 
 It appears from this table that the average price of wheat in Dantzic during the 11 years ending with 
 1841 was 375. llrf. a quarter; making, with the addition of lOrf. a quarter for shipping charges, its 
 average price free on board, 38s. 9rf. a quarter. Now, if to this last sura we add 12s. or 13*. for the 
 expense of its importation and delivery to the millers in London, it is plain, judging from the experience 
 of the last 11 years, that the average cost of Dantzic wheat in England, independent of duty, may be 
 estimated, in round numbers, at from 51s. to 52s. a quarter. 
 
 It is material, however, to bear in mind that no very large quantity could be shipped at the above 
 prices. They represent only average years ; and whenever there is any unusual demand for corn, or 
 when from 150,000 to 300,000 quarters are wanted for this country, the price immediately rises, as seen 
 above, to from 45s. to 50s. a quarter, and upwards. 
 
 That the charges on importation into England, warehousing here, and then deliver- 
 ing to the millers, exclusive of duty and profit, would amount to about 10s. a quarter, 
 appears from the following statements * : — 
 
 Account of the Ordinary Charges on 100 Quarters of Wheat, shipped from Dantzic on Consignment, and 
 landed under Bond in London {Pari. Paper, No. 333. Sess. 1827. p. 28.) 
 
 One hundred quarters, supposed cost at Dantzic, free on board, 30s. 
 Freight at 5s. per quarter, and 10 per cent. ... 
 Metage ex ship, &c., 6s. 6d. per last - . . . 
 
 Lighterage and landing, M. per quarter - - _ 
 
 Insurance on 180/., including 10 per cent, imaginary profit, at 80s. 7 
 per cent. ; policy 5s. per cent. - - j 
 
 Granary rent and insurance for one week - - . 
 
 Turning and trimming, about - - - . 
 
 Delivering from granary, 3d. per quarter - . _ 
 
 Metage, &c. ex granary, 2s. per last - - - - 
 
 Commission on sale, Is. per quarter - - _ 
 
 Del credere, 1 per cent, on, suppose, 40s. . . . 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 27 10 
 3 5 
 
 Total cost to importer if sold in bond 
 Imaginary profit, 10 per cent. 
 
 150 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 0 
 
 51 16 0 
 
 201 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 221 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 Would produce, at 44s. 4d. per quarter, .£221 13 4 
 
 N. B. — Loss on remeasuring not considered. 
 
 Freight and insurance are ta^en in this statement at an average, being sometimes higher and sometimes 
 lower. 
 
 * The first of the following statements was furnished by Messrs. Richard Birkett and Sons to the 
 Lords' Committee of 1827, on the price of foreign corn. The other statement was obligingly furnished 
 by Mr. Irvine, corn factor, in 1841. 
 
432 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 Account of the Ordinary Charges on 100 Quarters of Wheat imported from Dantzic, for Sale on Con- 
 signment in London, in May, 1841. 
 
 One hundred quarters fine high mixed wheat, weighing about 61 lbs. 
 
 per bushel, would cost 40s. "per quarter - - 
 
 Sound dues, 6rf. per quarter . - . - - 
 
 Freight, at present, 3s. 3d., but, on an average, supposed 4$. 6d. 
 Insurance 12s. 6d. per cent., but, on an average, 20s. - .£"2 5 0 
 Policy, 2s. 6d. - - - - - 0 7 6 
 
 Metage and dues ex ship, 6s. M. per ten quarters 
 
 Lighterage and landing, 9d. - - - - - 
 
 Granary rent and fire insurance for three weeks, at 5s. per one hundred 
 
 quarters per week 
 
 Turning and trimming, same period - - . . 
 
 Seller's metage ex granary, 2s. per ten quarters - - . 
 
 Delivering from granary, 3d. - - - - 
 
 Commission or factorage on sale. Is. per quarter . . ■ 
 
 Del credere, 1 per cent, (on 55s.), 275/. - - . . 
 
 10 0 
 10 0 
 
 12 6 
 
 6 8 
 
 15 0 
 
 15 0 
 
 4 6 
 
 0 0 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 200 0 0 
 
 According to this statement, the cost of importation would be 9s. 1 ^d. per quarter ; 
 but to this has to be added an allowance for waste, and 2s. 6d. or Ss. a quarter for profit, 
 which would raise the cost to about 12s. 6d. or 13s. a quarter. 
 
 We are well convinced that it is not possible successfully to controvert any portion 
 of these statements ; and such being the case we are entitled to say that nothing can be 
 more perfectly unfounded than the notions so prevalent in this country as to the 
 extreme cheapness of corn in Dantzic. The truth is, that no considerable quantity of 
 corn can be derived from her without resorting to Gallicia and other provinces from 
 500 to 700 miles inland. The corn is thence conveyed to the city in boats suited to 
 the navigation of the rivers ; but, owing to the uncertain supply of water in the latter, 
 the communication is sometimes entirely broken off, and it is always very tedious and 
 expensive. In proof of this, we may mention that, in November, 1838, when wheat 
 sold in Dantzic for 41s. 6d. a quarter, it was selling in Lemberg, the principal corn 
 market of Gallicia, for 15s. ; the difference, amounting to 26s. 6d., being the measure of 
 the cost and risk of conveyance from Lemberg to Dantzic ! It is, in fact, quite nuga- 
 tory to suppose that any large supplies should be furnished by Dantzic, were the ship- 
 ping price under 40s. or 45s. But, supposing that we could in ordinary years ship 
 considerable supplies even for 35s., still it is plain it could not be sold in London 
 under a low duty of 5s. or 7s., for less than 53s. or 55s. a quarter. 
 
 It is difficult to draw any conclusions on which it would be safe to place much reliance 
 as to the supplies of corn that might be obtained from Dantzic, were our ports con- 
 stantly open under a reasonable duty. Mr. Jacob gives the following 
 
 Account of the Total annual Average Quantity of Wheat and Rye exported from Dantzic, in Periods 
 of 25 Years each, for the 166 Years ending with 1825. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Wheat. Quarters. 
 
 Rye. Quarters. 
 
 Total. Quarters. 
 
 1651 to 1675 
 
 81,775 
 
 225,312 
 
 307,087 
 
 1676 — 1700 
 
 124,897 
 
 227,482 
 
 352,379 
 
 1701 — 1725 
 
 59,795 
 
 170,100 
 
 229,895 
 
 1726 — 1750 
 
 80,624 
 
 119,771 
 
 200,395 
 
 1751 _ 1775 
 
 141,080 
 
 208,140 
 
 349,220 
 
 1776 — 1800 
 
 150,299 
 
 103,045 
 
 253,344 
 
 1801 — 1825 
 
 200,330 
 
 67,51 1 
 
 267,841 
 
 " The average of the whole period," Mr. Jacob observes, " gives an annual quantity 
 of wheat and rye of 279,794 quarters ; and this surplus may be fairly considered as the 
 nearest approach that can be made, with existing materials, to what is the usual ex- 
 cess of the produce of bread corn above the consumption of the inhabitants, when no 
 extraordinary circumstances occur to excite or check cultivation." — (Eeport, p. 49.) 
 
 We incline, however, to think that Mr. Jacob has underrated the capabilites of im- 
 provement of the countries traversed by the Vistula, the Bug, &c., and that were our 
 ports open under a fixed duty of 5s. or 7s. a quarter on wheat, and other grain in pro- 
 portion, we might, supposing our average prices not to fall below 50s. or 55s. a quarter, 
 reckon upon getting from Dantzic an annual supply of from 350,000 to 450,000 quar- 
 ters. It should, however, be observed, that Mr. Meek, who visited the N. of Europe 
 in the latter part of 1841 and early in 1842, concurs with Mr. Jacob in thinking it im- 
 probable that any increase of exportation would take place from Dantzic under any 
 modification of our corn laws. (Pari. Paper, No. 7. sess. 1842, p. 31.) But it is dif- 
 ficult to believe that such should be the case. Hitherto, owing to the fluctuating and 
 capricious nature of our demand, it has proved of little advantage to the Polish cul- 
 tivators ; and but little corn has been raised in the expectation of its finding its way 
 to England. But it might be quite anotlier thing were our ports always open. Tlie 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 433 
 
 supply of our markets might, under such circumstances, be an object of importance to 
 the Polish agriculturists; and if so, there can be little doul^t, tliey would endeavour to 
 extend and improve their tillage, and the means of bringing corn to market. At the 
 same time, however, nothing positive can be stated on the subject, inasmuch as the 
 stimulus given to Polish agriculture by any change in our corn laws would wholly 
 depend on the extent of our demand ; and if, as we apprehend would be the case, it 
 should, in ordinary seasons, be much more limited than is commonly supposed, it would 
 have comparatively little influence. We subjoin an 
 
 Account exhibiting the Quantities of the different Varieties of Corn and the Quantities of Flour 
 shipped from Dantzic during each of the Seven Years ending with 1840, with the Prices of Wheat 
 in Dantzic during the same Period. 
 
 Vears. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rje. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Average 
 Price of 
 Wheat. 
 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1840 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 71,043 
 45,129 
 129,035 
 314,601 
 458,440 
 419,055 
 496,776 
 
 24,811 
 13,860 
 70,812 
 109,989 
 31,290 
 134,253 
 131,880 
 
 Qr.,. 
 
 326 
 95 
 7,317 
 2,357 
 2,509 
 65,919 
 37,054 
 
 Qrt. 
 
 1,522 
 
 2,898 
 
 7,224 
 
 8,085 
 
 1,206 
 
 8,379 
 
 2,735 
 
 Barrett. 
 33,803 
 28,392 
 58,891 
 67,612 
 78,274 
 45,251 
 21,809 
 
 L. ». d. 
 1 7 6 
 1 3 8 
 1 8 11 
 
 1 9 8| 
 
 2 4 If 
 2 6 5 
 2 10 lOj 
 
 Totals 
 
 1,934,079 
 
 511,895 
 
 117,597 
 
 31,749 
 
 334,092 
 
 1 17 lOi 
 
 Quality of Dantzic Wheat. — The price of wheat at Dantzic is usually about 7s. a 
 quarter above its average price at Hamburgh, and about 2s. above the average of 
 Amsterdam. This difference is entirely owing to the superior quality of the Dantzic 
 wheat. Though small grained, and not so heavy as several other sorts, it is remark- 
 ably thin-skinned, and yields the finest flour. Some of the best white, or, as it is 
 technically termed, " high mixed " Dantzic wheat, is superior to the very best Eng- 
 lish ; but the quantity of this sort is but limited, and the average quality of all that 
 is exported from Dantzic is believed to approach very nearly to the average quality 
 of English wheat. Allowing for its superior quality, it will be found that wheat is, 
 .speaking generally, always cheaper in Dantzic than in any of the Continental ports 
 nearer to London. There are but few seasons, indeed, in which Dantzic wheat is not 
 largely imported into Amsterdam ; and it frequently, also, finds its way into Hamburgh. 
 But it is quite impossible that such should be the case, unless, taking quality and other 
 modifying circumstances into account, it were really cheaper than the native and other 
 wheats met with in these markets. When there is any considerable importation into 
 England, it is of every-day occurrence for merchants to order Dantzic wheat in pre- 
 ference to that of Holstein, or of the Lower Elbe, though the latter might frequently 
 be put into warehouse here for 20s. a quarter less than the former ! It is, therefore, 
 quite indispensable, in attempting to draw any inferences as to the comparative prices of 
 corn in different countries, to make the requisite allowances for differences of quality. 
 Unless this be done, whatever conclusions may be come to can hardly fail of being false 
 and misleading ; and when they happen to be right, they can only be so through the 
 merest accident. 
 
 Dantzic being by far the greatest port for the exportation of corn in the north of 
 Europe, its price may be assumed as the general measure of the price in other shipping 
 ports. At all events, it is certain that when Dantzic is exporting, wheat cannot be 
 shipped, taking quality into account, at a cheaper rate from any other place. The 
 importer invariably resorts to what he believes to be, all things considered, the cheapest 
 market ; and it is a contradiction and an absurdity to suppose that he should burden him- 
 self with a comparatively high freight, and other charges for wheat in Dantzic, pro- 
 vided he could buy an equally good article in so convenient a port as Hamburgh at the 
 same or a lower price. 
 
 If, therefore, we are right in estimating the lowest price at which wheat could be 
 imported from Dantzic under a duty of 5s. or 7s,, at from 5Ss. to 55s., we may be 
 assured that this is the lowest importation price. The greater cheapness of the im- 
 ports from other places is apparent only ; and is uniformly countervailed by a cor- 
 responding inferiority of quality. — ( For further details as to the Polish corn trade, 
 see Dantzic, Konigsberg, &c.) 
 
 Russian Corn Trade. — Russia exports large quantities of wheat, rye, oats, and meal. 
 The wheat is of various qualities ; but the greater portion of it is small-grained, coarse, 
 brown, and very badly dressed. The hard, or Kubanka, is the best ; it keeps well, 
 and is in considerable demand for mixing with other wheats that are old or stale. Rus- 
 sian oats are very thin ; but, being dried in the straw, they weigh better than could be 
 expected from their appearance, and are reckoned wholesome food. Our imports from 
 Russia in 1839 were unusually large, she having supplied us with no fewer than 
 
4.34 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 371,693 quarters wheat, 316,823 do. oats, and 14,000 do. rye. Generally, however, 
 our imports do not exceed a fifth part of this quantity. — (The reader will find notices 
 of the Russian corn trade under the articles Archangel, Petersbu rgh, and Riga. 
 For an account of the corn trade by the Black Sea, see post, and the article Odessa.) 
 
 Danish Corn Trade. — The export of wheat from Denmark Proper, that is, from Jut- 
 land and the islands, is but inconsiderable. There is, however, a pretty large exportation 
 of wheat and other grain, as well as of butter, cheese, beef, &c., from Sleswick and 
 Holstein. As already stated, the quality of the wheat is inferior ; for, though it looks 
 plump, it is coarse and damp. The chief shipping port for Danish corn is Kiel ; but, 
 owing to the superior facilities enjoyed by Hamburgh, the greater portion of it is con- 
 signed to that city. In 1839 we imported from Denmark 196,730 quarters wheat, 
 210,134 do. barley, 46,235 do. oats, and 16,460 do. rye. — (For an account of the ex- 
 ports of raw produce from Denmark, see Copenhagen. ) 
 
 Corn Trade of the Elbe, ^c. — Next to Dantzic, Hamburgh is, perhaps, the greatest 
 corn market in the north of Europe, being a depot for large quantities of Baltic corn, 
 and for the produce of the extensive countries traversed by the Elbe. The exports 
 of wheat from Hamburgh amounted, as seen below, at an average of the 11 years 
 ending with 1841, to 210,871 quarters a year. The price of wheat, as already stated, 
 is frequently less in Hamburgh than in Dantzic ; but this lowness of price is altogether 
 ascribable to the inferiority of the Holstein and Hanover wheats, which are generally 
 met with in great abundance in Hamburgh. Wheat from the Upper Elbe is of a 
 better quality. Bohemian wheat is occasionally forwarded by the river to Hamburgh ; 
 but the charges attending its conveyance from Prague amount to full 15s. a quarter, 
 and prevent its being sent down, except when the price is comparatively high. In 
 1841, the shipments of wheat from Hamburgh amounted to 507,400 quarters, of 
 which 460,900 were for England. Perhaps we might be able, did our prices average 
 about 55s., to import in ordinary years from 350,000 to 450,000 quarters of wheat 
 from Denmark and the countries intersected by the Weser and the Elbe. 
 
 Account of the Exports of the various Descriptions of Corn from Hamburgh during each of the Eleven 
 
 Years ending with 1841. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Malt. 
 
 Buck 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rape 
 Seed. 
 
 Tares. 
 
 
 Qys 
 
 Qi-s. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 18.31 
 
 '220,697 
 
 75,3-^3 
 
 80,660 
 
 6,426 
 
 759 
 
 154 
 
 202 
 
 23 
 
 871 
 
 15.1 
 
 1852 
 
 159,082 
 
 32,418 
 
 9,213 
 
 14,605 
 
 75 
 
 53 
 
 136 
 
 37 
 
 1,294 
 
 72 
 
 1833 
 
 95,447 
 
 29,518 
 
 9,100 
 
 3,662 
 
 671 
 
 258 
 
 109 
 
 284 
 
 1,002 
 
 85 
 
 1834 
 
 68,113 
 
 24,376 
 
 7,530 
 
 5,528 
 
 994 
 
 603 
 
 154 
 
 21 
 
 268 
 
 178 
 
 1835 
 
 40,631 
 
 19,508 
 
 8,394 
 
 5,812 
 
 198 
 
 315 
 
 91 
 
 23 
 
 1,242 
 
 304 
 
 1836 
 
 101,180 
 
 26,537 
 
 34,932 
 
 8,076 
 
 1,097 
 
 185 
 
 121 
 
 179 
 
 2,522 
 
 142 
 
 1837 
 
 110,178 
 
 37,730 
 
 21,510 
 
 6,085 
 
 616 
 
 556 
 
 69 
 
 26 
 
 1,618 
 
 150 
 
 1S38 
 
 276,901 
 
 34,853 
 
 8,679 
 
 4,697 
 
 622 
 
 91 
 
 151 
 
 17 
 
 2,165 
 
 91 
 
 1S39 
 
 379,401 
 380,550 
 
 43,236 
 
 32,816 
 
 8,110 
 
 968 
 
 445 
 
 118 
 
 133 
 
 618 
 
 147 
 
 1840 
 
 54,875 
 
 33,146 
 
 19,257 
 
 1,596 
 
 267 
 
 189 
 
 127 
 
 441 
 
 473 
 
 1841 
 
 507,400 
 
 61,600 
 
 43,400 
 
 5,600 
 
 12,700 
 
 1,900 
 
 
 
 13,400 
 
 13,000 
 
 Average Exports of Wheat for the above 11 Years, 210,870j^ quarters. 
 
 N. B. The Hamburgh last is equal to about 11-2 imperial quarters. 
 
 Amsterdam is an important depot for foreign corn, every variety of which may be found 
 there. Only a small part of its consumption is supplied by corn of native growth ; 
 so that the prices in it are for the most part dependent on those at which corn can 
 be brought from Dantzic, Kiel, Hamburgh, and other shipping ports. During 1840, 
 they fluctuated from 35s. to 58s. a quarter. The corn trade of Holland was formerly 
 conducted under a fixed duty; but in 1836 a law was enacted which imposes duties 
 on exportation and importation which vary with the price. We subjoin 
 
 A Statement of the existing Duties on the Importation, Exportation, and Transit of Wheat in Holland. 
 
 When the Average Price is 
 
 The Import Duty is 
 
 The Export is 
 
 The Transit 
 duty is 
 
 Per Last Per Quarter. 
 Above - - 270 fl. or 42«. lOrf. 
 From 270 fl. and above 240 fl. — 42s. \0d. to 38*. Id. 
 
 240 fl. _ 210fl. — 38s. Irf. ^ 33s. 4rf. 
 
 210 fl. — 180 fl. — 33s. 4d. _ 28s. 7d. 
 
 180 fl. _ 165 fl. — 28s. 7rf. — 26s. 2rf. 
 
 165 fl. — 150 fl. — 26s. 2rf. — 23s. 9d. 
 
 150 fl. lower 23s. 9d. 
 
 Per Last. Per Qr. 
 
 7-50 fl. or Is. Hd. 
 15 fl. — 2s. ild. 
 ,30 fl. — 4s. 9d. 
 45 fl. _ 7s. lid. 
 60 fl. _ 9s. 6d. 
 75 fl. _ lis. lOirf. 
 90 fl. — 14s. 3d. 
 
 Per Last. Per Qr. 
 15 fl. or 2s. 4.id. 
 Free. 
 
 Per Last. Per Qr. 
 3 H. or 5?d. 
 3fl. — 5|(/. 
 
 3tl. _ Sjd. 
 3fl. — .5|rf. 
 3fl. — 5?rf. 
 3fl. _ bid. 
 
 Rotterdam is a very advantageous port for warehousing foreign corn, being con- 
 veniently situated, and the warehouse rent low, not exceeding 2d. or 2\d. per quarter 
 per month. 
 
 French Corn Trade. — It appears, from the accounts given by the Marquis Gamier in 
 the last edition of his translation of the Wealth of Nations, that the price of the hectolitre 
 of wheat in the market of Paris amounted, at an average of the 19 years ending 
 with 1819, to 20 fr. 53 cents; equal to 30 fr. 80 cents the scptier ; or, taking the ex- 
 change at 25 fr., to 45s. 6d, the quarter. Chaptal, in liis valuable work, Sur /'/«- 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 435 
 
 dustrie Frangaise (torn. i. p. 226.), published in 1819, estimates the ordinary averap;c 
 price of wheat throughout France at 18 fr. the hectolitre, or 42s. \0d. the quarter. In 
 1840, however, the price of wheat in I'aris in June varied from Gfis. to 6'4s. 6d., falling 
 to about 45s. after harvest. The various expenses attending the imj)ortation of a 
 quarter of French wheat into London and its delivery to the millers may be taken, 
 at a medium, at about 8s. a quarter. France, however, has but rarely any surplus 
 produce to dispose of ; so that it would be impossible for us to import any considerable 
 quantity of French corn without occasioning a great advance of price ; and in point of 
 fact, our imports from France have been generally inconsiderable, except in years when 
 our prices were mucli above an average. 
 
 The mean of the different estimates framed by Vauban, Quesnay, Expilly, Lavoisier, 
 and Arthur Young, gives 61,519,672 septiers, or 32,810,000 quarters, as the total 
 average growth of the different kinds of grain in France. — {Peuchet, Statistique Ele- 
 mentaire, p. 290. ) We, however, took occasion formerly to observe ( Supp. to Encyc. 
 Brit. art. Corn Laws) that there could not be a doubt that this estimate was a great 
 deal too low; and the more careful investigations of late French statisticians fully 
 confirm this remark. The annual produce of the harvests of France is at present 
 (1842) estimated from returns obtained under official authority, at 69,558,000 
 hectolitres of wheat, and 112,958,000 do. of other sorts of grain; making in all 
 182,517,000 hectolitres, or 62,740,000 Imp. quarters. Of this quantity it is sup- 
 posed that about 16 per cent, is consumed as seed, 19 per cent, in the feeding of 
 different species of animals, and 2 per cent, in distilleries and breweries. 
 
 The reader will not fail to observe that, according to this statement, the consumption 
 of corn in France, which has a population of about 34,000,000, is not more than equal 
 to that of the U. Kingdom, the population of which may, at present (1842) be taken 
 at 27,000,000. And we have no doubt that such is the fact ; for, though the con- 
 sumption of corn in France materially exceeds its proportional consumption in Ireland, 
 it is very far below the proportional consumption of Great Britain. The corn ex- 
 pended in this country in the keep of horses and in distilleries, would of itself suffice 
 to feed a third part of the people of France. 
 
 The foreign corn trade of France was regulated till within these few years by a law 
 which forbade exportation, except when the home prices were below certain limits; and 
 which restrained and absolutely forbade importation except when they were above certain 
 other limits. The prices regulating importation and exportation differed in the different 
 districts into which the kingdom was divided. Latterly, however, importation has 
 been at all times allowed under graduated duties, which, however, like those of this 
 country, become prohibitory when the prices sink to a certain level. The frontier de- 
 partments are divided into four separate districts, the prices in each district governing 
 the duties on importation into it, so that it sometimes happens that corn ware- 
 housed in a particular port, where it is not admissible except under a high duty, 
 has been carried to another port in another district, and admitted at a low duty. An 
 official announcement is issued on the last day of each month, of what the duties are to 
 be in each district during the succeeding month. 
 
 Spanish Corn Trade. — The exportation of corn from Spain was formerly prohibited under the se- 
 verest penalties. But in 1820, grain and flour were both allowed to be freely exported ; and in 1823, this 
 privilege was extended to all productions (frutos), the growth of the soil. There is now, in fact, no ob- 
 stacle whatever, except the expense of carriage, to the conveyance of corn to the sea-ports, and thence 
 to the foreigner. Owing, however, to the corn-growing provinces being principally situated in the inte- 
 rior, and to the extreme badness of the roads, which renders carriage to the coast both expensive and 
 difficult, the exports are reduced within comparatively narrow limits ; the same dilKculty of carriage fre- 
 quently gives rise to very great differences in the prices in markets, in all parts of the country, only a 
 few leagues distant. Were the means of communication improved, and any thing like security given to 
 the husbandman, Spain would, in no long time, become one of the principal exporting: countries of Europe. 
 Old Castile, Leon, Estremadura, and that part of Andalusia to the south andej\st oi Seville, are amongst 
 the finest corn countries of Europe, and might be made to yield immense supplies. But owing to the 
 disturbed state of the country, and the want of a market for their produce, they can hardly be said to be 
 at all cultivated. And yet such is their natural fertility, that in good seasons the peasants only reap 
 those fields nearest to the villages ! 
 
 In 1831 we imported 146,134 quarters of wheat from Spain, principally from Bilbao, Santander, and 
 other northern towns. But from that period down to 1840, when we imported 46,939 quarters, export- 
 ation from Spain had almost entirely ceased. (See Bilbao.) 
 
 Corn Trade of Odessa. — Odessa, on the Black Sea, is the only port in Southern Europe from which 
 any considerable quantity of grain is exported. But the exports from her are not nearly so extensive as 
 is generally supposed, and they cannot be materially increased without a previous increase in the fa- 
 cilities of conveying corn from the interior. At present it is almost wholly brought to the town in carts 
 drawn by oxen ; and the supply of corn depends almost as much on the number of cattle that may be 
 employed for this purpose as on the productiveness of the harvests. It appears, from an official state- 
 ment published in Odessa, that the quantity of corn brought to the town in the undermentioned .years 
 has been — 
 
 1834 - - 091,000 chetwerts.* I 1838 - - 1,241,000 chetwerts. 
 
 1835 - - 378,700 1839 - - 1,1.^0.000 
 18.3G - - 878,700 1840 - - 6S0,000 
 1837 - - 950,498 | 
 
 * A chctwert is aboiit 5-8 bushels. 
 
436 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 During the three years, ending with 1840, the average price of the best Odessa wheat, which, however, 
 is inferior to that of England, was 34s. 6d. per quarter on the spot ; and owing to the length and tedious- 
 ness of the voyage from Odessa, and the risk of the grain heating on the passage, the charges attending 
 its importation, including insurance, &c., amount to from 15s. to 16s. a quarter. It is plain, therefore, 
 that the Odessa wheat brought to England during the above three years must, speaking generally, have 
 cost the importer about 50s. a quarter exclusive of profit ; and, supposing its price in Odessa to be re- 
 duced under a system of free intercourse to 30s. a quarter, still it is plain it could not be sold in London, 
 under a duty of 5s. or 7s. a quarter, for less than from 52s. to 54s. a quarter ; that is, for less than the 
 price of Dantzic wheat, whicli is superior to it by at least 5s. or 6s. a quarter. 
 
 Both soft and hard wheat are exported from Odessa ; but the former, which is by far the most 
 abundant, is only brought to England. Supposing British wheat to sell at about 60s., Odessa wheat, in 
 good order, would not be worth more than 52s. in the London market ; but it is a curious fact, that in 
 the Mediterranean the estimation in which they are held is quite the reverse ; at Malta, Marseilles, 
 Leghorn, &c., Odessa wheat fetches a decidedly higher price than British wheat. 
 
 The hard wheat brought from the Black Sea comes principally from Taganrog. It is a verj' fine 
 species of grain, being full 10 per cent, heavier than British wheat, with not more than half the bran. 
 It is used in Italy for making macaroni and vermicelli, and things of that sort ; very little of it has found 
 its way to England. 
 
 The voyage from Odessa to Britain is of uncertain duration, but generally very long. It is essential 
 to the importation of the wheat in a good condition, that it should be made during the winter months. 
 When the voyage is made in summer, unless the wheat be very superior, and be shipped in exceedingly 
 good order, it is almost sure to heat ; and has sometimes, indeed, been injured to such a degree as to 
 require to be dug from the hold with pickaxes. Unless, therefore, means be devised for lessening the 
 risk of damage during the voyage, there is little reason to think that Odessa wheat will ever be largely 
 imported into Britain. — (See the evidence of J. H. Lander, Esq. and J. Schneider, Esq. before the 
 Lords' Committee of 1827, on the price of foreign corn.) 
 
 We subjoin a statement of the probable cost of importing 2,000 chetwerts, or 1,453 quarters of wheat 
 from Odessa to London. 
 
 Charges in London, 
 Policy duty on 1,200/. at i per cent. 
 Insurance on 1,150/. at 2/. 2s. per cent. 
 
 Commission do. i - - - - 
 
 Freight on 1,453 quarters wheat, at 12s. per quarter - 
 
 Primage, 10 per cent. . . . 
 
 Gratification - - - - 
 
 Charter-party, 1/.; custom-house entries, lOs. 
 
 Metage on ship, at 4s. 3^d. per last 
 
 Lastage - - - • - 
 
 Lighterage of 1,453 quarters at 4t/. 
 
 Landing, wharfage, housing, and delivering, at 9d. 
 
 Rent 4 weeks, at 5s. per 100 quarters per week 
 
 Metage, &c. ex granary 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 871 10 0 
 87 3 7 
 10 10 0 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 27 3 0 
 5 15 0 
 
 969 
 1 
 31 
 1 
 
 24 
 54 
 
 14 10 
 7 5 
 
 £\Am 15 0 
 
 Or per quarter 
 
 And in addition to the above, the charge for probable damage on the voyage may 
 
 be estimated at 2s. a quarter. 
 And the factorage in London at Is. per quarter. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 American Corn Trade. — The prices of wheat at New York and Philadelphia may be taken, at an 
 average, at from 40s. to 43s. a quarter ; and as the cost of importing a quarter of wheat from the United 
 States into England amounts to from 13s. to 14s., it is seen that no considerable supply could be obtained 
 from that quarter, were our prices under 53s. or 56s. It ought also to be remarked, that prices in Ame- 
 rica are usually higher than in the Baltic ; so that but little can be brought from the former, except when 
 the demand is sufficient previously to take off the cheaper wheats of the northern ports. 
 
 The exports of wheat from the United States are, however, comparatively trifling ; it being in the shape 
 of flour that almost all their exports of corn are made. The shipments of this important article from 
 Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, New Orleans, and other ports, have occasionally been very lar^e 
 though latterly they have been rather decreasing, and in some late years there was, in fact, a considerable 
 exportation of corn from England, the Hanse towns, &c., for the United States. In proof of this it may 
 be mentioned, that in the year ending the 30th of September, 1837, 3,921,259 bushels of foreign wheat 
 were imported into the U. States, of which 792,675 bushels were from England. The British West In- 
 dies, Cuba, Mexico, Brazil, England, and France, are the principal markets to which American flour is 
 sent. All sorts of flour, whether made of wheat, rye, Indian corn, &c., exported from the United States 
 must previously be submitted to the inspection of officers appointed for that purpose. The law further 
 directs, that the barrels, in which it is shipped, shall be of certain dimensions, and that each barrel shall 
 contain 196 lbs. of flour, and each half barrel 98 lbs. The inspector, having ascertained that the barrels 
 correspond with the regulations as to size, weight, &c., decides as to the quality of the flour : the first 
 or best sort, being branded Superfine ; the second, Fine j the third. Fine Middlings j and the fourth, or 
 lowest quality. Middlings. Such barrels as are not merchantable are marked Bad ; and their exporta- 
 tion, as well as the exportation of those deficient in weight, is prohibited. Rye flour is divided into 2 
 sorts, being either branded Superfine Rye Flour, or Fine Rye Flour. Maize flour is branded Indian 
 Meal ; flour made from buck-wheat is branded B. Meal. Indian meal may be exported in hhds. of 800 
 lbs. Flour for home consumption is not subjected to inspection. The inspection must take place at 
 the time and place of exportation, under a penalty of 5 dollars per barrel. Persons altering or counter- 
 feiting marks or brands forfeit 100 dollars ; and persons putting fresh flour into barrels already 
 marked or branded, or offering adulterated wheaten flour for sale, forfeit in either case 5 dollars for each 
 barrel. 
 
 The fees of branding were reduced in 1832. They amount, in New York, to 3 cents for each hogshead 
 and 1 cent for each barrel and half barrel of full weight. A fine of 30 cents is levied on every barrel or 
 half barrel below the standard weight, exclusive of 20 cents for every pound that it is deficient. 
 
 The act 5 Vict. sess. ii. c. 14. enacts, that every barrel of wheaten flour imported shall 
 be deemed equivalent to ,38.^ gallons of wheat, and shall be charged with a corresponding 
 
CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. [435] 
 
 duty {ante, p. 421 . ). Hence, when the price of British wheat per quarter is between 
 5'2s, and 53s., the duty on the barrel of flour is 10s. D'StZ.; when wheat is between 60s. 
 and 61s,, the duty on flour is 7s. 2rf. ; and when wheat is between 69s. and 70s., the 
 duty on flour is 3s. 3d. We subjoin 
 
 An Account of the Exports of Wheat and Wheat-floiir from the United States in each year, from 1810 to 
 1840, both inclusive, with the Prices of Wheat per Barrel in Philadelphia, and the Annual Shipments of 
 Flour for England. 
 
 
 Bushels of Wheat exported. 
 
 Barrels of Flour exported. 
 
 Average Price of Flour per 
 Barrel each year in Philadelphia. 
 
 Average Price of Flour per 
 Barrel each year in British 
 
 currency. | 
 
 Quantity of Flour shipped to \ 
 England. 
 
 Exports of Flour from Canada, j 
 
 Years. j 
 
 Bushels of ^\'heat exported. 
 
 Barrels of Flour exported. 
 
 Average Price of Flour per 
 Barrel each year in Phii idelphia. 
 
 Average Price of Flour per 
 Barrel each year in British 
 
 J 
 
 QuanUty of Flour shipped to 
 England. 
 
 Exports of Flour from Canada. 
 
 
 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 L. ». 
 
 (/. 
 
 Barrels.^ Barrels. 
 
 
 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 1810 
 
 325,924 
 
 798,431 
 
 9-37 
 
 2 0 
 
 7 
 
 92,1.36 
 
 12,519 
 
 1S26 
 
 45,166 
 
 857,820 
 
 4-65 
 
 I 0 
 
 1 
 
 18, .3.55 
 
 33,610 
 
 ISll 
 
 216,8.33 
 
 1,445,012 
 
 9-95 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 
 
 .38.183 
 
 10,340 
 
 1827 
 
 22,182 
 
 868,496 
 
 5-23 
 
 1 2 
 
 7 
 
 5.3,129 
 
 54,023 
 
 1812 
 
 .5.5,832 
 
 1,443,492 
 
 9-83 
 
 2 2 
 
 7 
 
 28,429 
 
 37,625 
 
 1828 
 
 8,906 
 
 860,809 
 
 5-60 
 
 1 4 
 
 3 
 
 23,258 
 
 .35,720 
 
 1813 
 
 288,535 
 
 1,260,942 
 
 8-92 
 
 • 1 18 
 
 7 
 
 517 
 
 1829 
 
 4,007 
 
 8.37,385 
 
 6-33 
 
 1 7 
 
 5 
 
 221,176 
 
 11,783 
 
 1814 
 
 
 19.3,274 
 
 8 60 
 
 1 17 
 
 
 
 1,217 
 
 18.30 
 
 45,289 
 
 1,227,434 
 
 4-83 
 
 10 11 
 
 .326,182 
 
 71,749 
 
 181.0 
 
 ' 17,6.34 
 
 862,7.39 
 
 8-71 
 
 1 17 
 
 8 
 
 104,885 
 
 1,920 
 
 1831 
 
 408,910 
 
 1,806,529 
 
 5-67 
 
 1 4 
 
 6 
 
 879,4.-0 
 
 
 1816 
 
 62,.321 
 
 729,0.'j3 
 
 9-78 
 
 2 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 1832 
 
 88,.304 
 
 864,919 
 
 5-72 
 
 1 4 
 
 9 
 
 95,958 
 
 31,419 
 
 1817 
 
 96,407 
 
 1,479,198 
 
 11-69 
 
 2 11 
 
 5 
 
 706,601 
 
 38,'oV7 
 
 18.33 
 
 .32,421 
 
 955,768 
 
 5-63 
 
 1 4 
 
 4 
 
 22,207 
 
 51,4.35 
 
 18IS 
 
 196,808 
 
 1,157,697 
 
 9-96 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 
 
 .389,530 
 
 30,543 
 
 18.34 
 
 36,948 
 
 835,.352 
 
 5-17 
 
 1 2 
 
 4 
 
 19,687 
 
 26,812 
 
 181 'J 
 
 82,065 
 
 750,660 
 
 7-11 
 
 1 10 
 
 9 
 
 51,847 
 
 J 2,0S5 
 
 18.35 
 
 47,762 
 
 779,.396 
 
 5-88 
 
 1 5 
 
 5 
 
 5,376 
 
 16,976 
 
 18'20 
 
 22,1.37 
 
 1,177,0.36 
 
 4-72 
 
 1 0 
 
 5 
 
 171,772 
 
 4.5,369 
 
 1836 
 
 2,062 
 
 505,400 
 
 7-99 
 
 1 14 
 
 7 
 
 161 
 
 
 185!1 
 
 25,821 
 
 1,0.56,119 
 
 4-78 
 
 1 0 
 
 8- 
 
 94,541 
 
 22,6.35 
 
 1837 
 
 17,.303 
 
 318,719 
 
 9-37 
 
 2 0 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 1822 
 
 4,418 
 
 827,865 
 
 6-.58 
 
 J 8 
 
 4 
 
 12,096 
 
 47,247 
 
 1838 
 
 6,291 
 
 448,161 
 
 7-79 
 
 1 13 
 
 9 
 
 8,295 
 
 
 1823 
 
 4,272 
 
 756,702 
 
 6-82 
 
 1 9 
 
 6 
 
 4,252 
 
 46,250 
 
 18.39 
 
 96,325 
 
 923,1.51 
 
 
 
 
 167 ,.082 
 
 
 1824 
 
 20,373 
 
 996,792 
 
 5-62 
 
 1 4 
 
 4 
 
 70,873 
 
 41,901 
 
 1840 
 
 1,720,860 
 
 1,807,501 
 
 
 
 
 620,919 
 
 
 1825 
 
 17,990 
 
 813,9061 
 
 5-10 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 
 
 27,272 
 
 40,00.'. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mr. Reuss (p. 120.) gives the following pro forma account of the expenses attending the importation 
 of a cargo of .5,000 bushels of wheat from New York, supposing it to cost 1 dol. 12 cents a bushel, which, 
 however, is below its average price. 
 
 5,000 bushels, at 1 dol. 12 cents per bushel 
 Winnowing, measuring, and deli- 
 
 very on board 
 Brokerage, 4 ])er cent. 
 Insurance, 6,000 dols- at IJ per cent. 
 
 150-00 
 
 28-00 
 90-000 
 
 Commission, 5 per cent 
 
 Exchange, 110 per cent. L. 
 
 L. s. d. L. s. d. 
 
 Freight, 125 tons at 15*. per 
 ton - - 93 15 0 
 
 Primage, 5 per cent. - 4 13 9 
 
 98 8 9 
 
 Entry, officer's fees, and city dues - 1 10 0 
 Metage from the ship at 2i. 8d. per 
 lastoflOqrs. - - - 6 18 4 
 
 ll7 7 1 
 
 Dollars. 
 5,600-00 
 
 Brought forward - 117 7 
 Petty charges, at 1*. per last of 10 qrs. 2 12 
 Lighterage and porterage to granary, 
 
 9rf. per quarter - - 19 10 
 
 Granary rent and fire insurance, say, 
 
 4 weeks at2*. per 100 qrs. per week 2 2 
 Turning, at 2i. per 100 quarters - 0 10 
 Metage and porterage to the granary, 
 
 at 4s. per 100 quarters - - 10 8 
 Do. do. from the do. at ,5*. per qr. 11 16 
 Postage and stamps - - 1 7 
 
 Factorage, Is. per quarter - - 26 0 
 ■ • 1. '4l>« 
 
 Commission, 
 
 \ \ieT cent. 
 
 4J p. cent. 63 Oil 
 
 In London. 
 
 103-06 quartersjWinchester measure, equal to 
 
 100 quarters Imperial 
 5,000 bu-hels Winchester measure, equal to 
 
 604 quarters Imperial measure, costing 49s. 
 
 9.Jd. per quarter in bond 
 
 The usual price of wheat in Canada, when there is a demand for the English market, is about AOs. a 
 quarter ; hut taking it as low as 3.5s., if we add to this ISi.aquarter as the expenses of carriage and ware- 
 housing, it will make its price in Liverpool, when delivered to the consumer, 48s.; and being spring 
 wheat, it is not so valuable, by about 6*. a quarter, as English wheat. The duty on corn imported from 
 a British colony being, when the home price is under 55s., only 5s., it is suspected that a good deal of 
 the flour brought from Canada has been really furnished by the United States. Occasionally too wheat 
 has been sent from Russia to Canada, in the view (as is alleged) of its being re-shipped, under the low 
 duty, to British ports ; the saving of duty being supposed sufficient to countervail the cost of a double 
 voyage across the Atlantic ! But grain from the colonies is not admitted into England at the low duty, 
 without the exporters subscribing a declaration that it is the produce of such colonies, any wilful in- 
 accuracy in such document being punished by the forfeiture of the corn so imported, and of 100/. of 
 penalty ; and in addition to this, the corn, flour, &c. must also be accompanied by a certificate of origin 
 subscribed by the collector or comptroller at the port of shipment. It is, therefore, difficult to see how 
 the importers of European corn into Canada are to succeed in getting it shipped for England as colonial 
 corn ; and we believe that most of it goes to the West Indies. 
 
 We subjoin a statement, compiled by authority,, from returns made by the British 
 consuls in 1841, exhibiting the probable amount of corn which they suppose might be 
 furnished by the principal continental ports, in the event of importation being always 
 free in England under a moderate duty, and the probable average price of such corn 
 free on board. There may be and probably are errors in this statement ; but, on the 
 whole, its general correctness may be depended on ; and it strikingly corroborates the 
 statements already laid before the reader. 
 
; [436] 
 
 CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE. 
 
 Petersburgh * - 
 Riga 
 Liebau * 
 Odessa 
 Stockholm 
 Dantzic - 
 Konigsberg 
 Stettin 
 
 Meinel - - 
 
 Klsinore 
 
 Hamburgh * - 
 
 Rotterdam 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Palermo 
 
 Total 
 
 General average 
 
 Quantity of Grain of each Kind that 
 could be exported to England, from the 
 Consular Districts, if the Trade in Com 
 in England were constantly open, 
 at a moderate Duty. 
 
 Average Prices, free on Board, per 
 Imperial Quarter. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Barley, j Oats. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Qrs. 
 192,500 
 Uncert. 
 
 .50,000 
 150,000 
 1,000 
 315,000 
 
 65,000 
 260,000 
 5,961 
 175,000 
 538,000t 
 Uncert. 
 Uncert. 
 200,000^ 
 
 Qrs. 
 122,500 
 Uncert. 
 170,000 
 Uncert. 
 
 2,000 
 105,000 
 100,000 
 40,000 
 45,759 
 
 97.000 
 Uncert. 
 Uncert. 
 
 Qrs 
 47,000 
 Uncert. 
 200,000 
 Uncert. 
 10,000 
 42,000 
 20,000 
 30,000 
 15,4661 
 275,000 
 195,700 
 Uncert. 
 Uncert. 
 
 Qrs. 
 245,000 
 Uncert. 
 
 60,000 
 Uncert. 
 12,000 
 10,500 
 40,000 
 20,000 
 20,024i 
 225,000 
 158,700 
 Uncert. 
 Uncert. 
 
 3. d. 3. d. 
 
 39 1 
 49 7 
 43 7 
 
 26 6 
 
 .30 0to35 0 
 
 40 0 
 
 40 Oto45 0 
 40 0 
 35 0 
 
 30 0 to 36 0 
 35 0to46 0 
 
 55 0 
 
 56 5 
 38 0 
 
 d. g. d. 
 
 19 4 
 
 26 4 
 25 9 
 
 22 Oto24 0 
 
 20 0 
 
 18 Oto20 0 
 
 22 0 
 
 27 0 
 
 22 0to25 0 
 
 23 0to30 0 
 
 32 1 
 
 s. d. 3. d. 
 
 17 11 
 21 10 
 
 18 7 
 
 15 0 to 18 0 
 18 0 
 
 14 0 to 18 0 
 20 0 
 
 15 0 
 
 16 0to24 0 
 20 Oto25 0 
 
 28 9 
 
 3. d. a. d. 
 12 5 
 18 0 
 11 4 
 
 11 0 to 12 0 
 
 12 0 
 
 10 0tol4 0 
 
 14 0 
 
 10 0tol2 0 
 12 0 to 15 0 
 
 11 Oto 16 0 
 
 15 Oto 22 0 
 22 I 
 
 2,222,464 
 
 912,259 
 
 852,566.Jj 808,714^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24*. 0\d. 1 19j. 6J<i. 
 
 14j. l|(i. 
 
 Inferences from the above Review of Prices. — We may, we think, satisfactorily con- 
 clude, from this pretty lengthened review of the state of the foreign corn trade, that in 
 the event of all restrictions on the importation of corn into our markets being abolished, 
 it could not, in ordinary years, be imported for less than 50s. or 52s. a quarter. But 
 taking it so low as 48s., it is plain it could not, in the event of its being charged with a 
 duty of 5s. or 7s., be sold for less than 53s. or 55s, 
 
 Now, it appears, from the previous account. No. III., that the average price of wheat 
 in England and Wales, during the whole period (from the 15th of July 1828 to the 28th 
 of April 1842) that the late corn act, the 9 Geo. IV. cap.-60., was in operation, amounted 
 to 59s. 4c?. a quarter; and it will be observed that the crops from 1828 to 1831, and 
 from 1837 to 1841, inclusive, were very deficient, and that the importations in those 
 years were extremely large. But without taking this circumstance into account, it is 
 clear, from the previous statements, that the opening of the ports under a fixed duty of 
 5s. or 7s. could not occasion a reduction of more than 4s., or at the outside of 6s., a quarter 
 in the average prices of the above period. 
 
 We feel pretty confident that these statements cannot be successfully controverted ; and 
 they show, conclusively, how erroneous it is to suppose that the repeal of the existing corn 
 laws, and the opening of the ports for importation, under a low duty of 5s. or 7s., would 
 cause a ruinous decline in the price of corn, or give any serious check to agriculture. 
 The price of wheat in England, at an average of the ten years ending with 1820, was 
 no less than 86s. 3d. a quarter. Its average price has since, as we have just seen, been 
 reduced to 59s, 4c?, a quarter ; and yet, notwithstanding this tremendous fall, a most ex- 
 traordinary improvement has taken place in agriculture since 1 820 ; so much so that 
 we now provide for an additional population of above seven millions, with but a slight 
 increase of importation in unfavourable years, and in favourable years with no import- 
 ation at all. Under such circumstances can any thing be more childish than to suppose 
 that a fall of 5s. or 6s, a quarter in the average price of corn should have any disastrous, 
 or indeed sensible, influence over agriculture? Improvements of all sorts were never more 
 vigorously prosecuted than in 1836 and 1837, and yet the average price of corn in those 
 years did not exceed 52s. 2c?. ; that is, it did not exceed its probable future price with 
 open ports, and a fixed duty of only 5s. a quarter ! 
 
 It is, also, seen from the previous account. No. IX., that at an average of very nearly the 
 whole period during which the late corn law was in operation, the rate of duty on 
 wheat imported amounted to only 5s. 7c?, a quarter ; and it has now been suflficiently 
 established, that with a fixed duty of this amount, average prices would undergo very 
 little variation. It is plain, therefore, that the system we have ventured to recommend 
 would occasion little or no inconvenience ; at the same time, however, it would have 
 the advantage of obviating the injurious fluctuations that grow out of the present sys- 
 tem, and of getting rid of the eternal agitation of this question. 
 
 At all events the landlords and farmers may dismiss their unreasonable fears 
 and apprehensions. Their prosperity does not depend on restrictive regulations, but 
 is the effect of the fertility of the soil which belongs to thein, of the absence of all 
 oppressive feudal privileges, and of the number and wealth of the consumers of their 
 produce. It would, for the reasons already stated, be unjust wholly to deprive them 
 of protection ; but we arc well convinced that, though it were entirely abolished, their 
 interests would not be' seriously compromised ; and that in no very lengthened period 
 agriculture would be as flourishing as ever. 
 
 * In the answers from Petersburgh, Ijiebau, xnA Hamburgh, the gross ,iniount that could be exported to Foreign Countries 
 seems to have been given, not the (juiintity which might be shipped to England, 
 j The return from Hamburgh includes those from Lubeck, Bremen, Rostock, &c. 
 \ This quantity cuuld be exported in years of abundant harvest only. 
 
COTTON. 
 
 437 
 
 COTTON (Gcr. Baumwolle ; Du. Katoen. Boomwol ; Da. Bomuld ; Sw. Bomull ; 
 Fr. CotoH ; It. Cotone, Bambagia Sp. Algodon ; Port. Algoddo ; Ilus, Ctdubtscluitaja 
 humaga ; Pol. Bawelna ; Lat. Gossypium, Bomhax ; Arab. Kutun ; Sans. Kajxisa ; Hind. 
 Ruhi ; Malay, Kapas), a species of vegetable wool, the produce of the Gossypium herha- 
 ceurn, or cotton shrub, of which there are many varieties. It is found growing naturally 
 in all the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and America, whence it has been transplanted, 
 and has become an important object of cultivation, in the southern parts of the United 
 States, and to some extent also in Europe. 
 
 Cotton is distinguished in commerce by its colour, and the length, strength, and fine- 
 ness of its fibre. White is usually considered as characteristic of secondary quality. 
 Yellow, or a yellowish tinge, when not the effect of accidental wetting or inclement 
 seasons, is considered as indicating greater fineness. 
 
 There are many varieties of raw cotton in the market, their names being principally 
 derived from the places whence they are brought. They are usually classed under the 
 denominations of long and short stapled. The best of the first is the sea-island cotton, or 
 that brought from the shores of Georgia ; but its qualities differ so much,-that the price 
 of the finest specimens is often four times as great as that of the inferior. The superior 
 samples of Brazil cotton are reckoned among the long stapled. The upland or bowed 
 Georgia cotton forms the largest and best portion of the short stapled class. All the 
 cottons of India are short stapled. 
 
 The estimation in which the different kinds of cotton wool are held may be learned 
 from their prices at the time in any great market. The inferiority of Bengal and Surat 
 cotton is sometimes ascribed to the defective mode in which it is prepared ; but Mr. 
 Horace H. Wilson doubts whether it can be grown in India of a better kind. 
 
 The manufacture of cotton has been carried on in Hindostan from the remotest anti- 
 quity. Herodotus mentions (lib. iii. c. 106.) that in India there are wild trees that 
 produce a sort of wool superior to that of sheep, and that the natives dress themselves in 
 cloth made of it. — (See, to the same effect, Arrian Indie, c. 16. p. 582.) The manu- 
 facture obtained no footing worth mentioning in Europe till last century. 
 
 1 . Rise and Progress of the British Cotton Manufacture. — The rapid growth and pro- 
 digious magnitude of the cotton manufacture of Great Britain are, beyond all question, 
 the most extraordinary phenomena in the history of industry. Our command of the 
 finest wool naturally attracted our attention to the woollen manufacture, and paved the 
 way for that superiority in it to which we have long since attained : but when we im- 
 dertook the cotton manufacture, we had comparatively few facilities for its prosecution, 
 and had to struggle with the greatest difficulties. The raw material was produced at an 
 immense distance from our shores ; and in Hindostan and China the inhabitants had 
 arrived at such perfection in the arts of spinning and weaving, that the lightness and 
 delicacy of their finest cloths emulated the web of the gossamer, and seemed to set com- 
 petition at defiance. Such, however, has been the influence of the stupendous discoveries 
 and inventions of Hargraves, Arkwright, Crompton, Cartwright, and others, that we 
 have overcome all these difficulties — that neither the extreme cheapness of labour in 
 Hindostan, nor the excellence to which the natives had attained, has enabled them to 
 withstand the competition of those who buy their cotton ; and who, after carrying it 
 5,000 miles to be manufactured, carry back the goods to them. This is the greatest 
 triumph of mechanical genius ; and what perhaps is most extraordinary, our superiority 
 is not the late result of a long series of successive discoveries and inventions ; on the con- 
 trary, it has been accomplished in a very few years. Little more than half a century has 
 elapsed since the British cotton manufactory was in its infancy ; and it now forms the 
 principal business carried on in the country, — affording an advantageous field for the 
 accumulation and employment of millions upon millions of capital, and of thousands 
 upon thousands of workmen ! The skill and genius by which these astonishing results 
 have been achieved, have been one of the main sources of our power : they have con- 
 tributed in no common degree to raise the British nation to the high and conspicuous 
 place she now occupies. Nor is it too much to say that it was the wealth and energy 
 derived from the cotton manufacture that bore us triumphantly through the late dreadful 
 contest, at the same time that it gives us strength to sustain burdens that would have 
 crushed our fathers, and could not be supported by any other people. 
 
 The precise period when the manufacture was introduced into England is not known ; 
 but it is most probable that it was some time in the early part of the 17th century. The 
 first authentic mention is made of it by Lewis Roberts, in his Treasure of Traffic, pub- 
 lished in 1641, where it is stated, " The town of Manchester, in Lancashire, must be also 
 herein remembered, and worthily for their encouragement commended, who buy the 
 yarne of the Irish in great quantity, and weaving it, returne the same again into Ireland 
 to sell. Neither doth their industry rest here ; for they buy cotton wool in London that 
 comes first from Cyprus and Smyrna, and at home work© the same, and perfect it into 
 
 *2 F 3 
 
438 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 fustians, vermillions, dimities, and other such stufFes, and then return it to London, where 
 the same is vented and sold, and not seldom sent into forrain parts, who have means, at 
 far easier termes, to provide themselves of the said first materials." — (Orig. ed. p. 32.) 
 It is true, indeed, that mention is frequently made by previous writers, and in acts of the 
 legislature passed at a much earlier period *, of " Manchester cottons," " cotton velvets," 
 " fustians," &c. ; but it is certain that these articles were wholly composed of wool, and 
 had most probably been denominated cottons from their having been prepared in imi- 
 tation of some of the cotton fabrics imported from India and Italy. 
 
 From the first introduction of the cotton manufacture into Great Britain down to the 
 comparatively late period of 1773, the weft, or transverse threads of the web, only, were 
 of cotton ; the warp, or longitudinal threads, consisting wholly of linen yarn, principally 
 imported from Germany and Ireland. In the first stage of the manufacture, the weavers, 
 dispersed in cottages throughout the country, furnished themselves as well as they could 
 with the warp and weft for their webs, and carried them to market when they were 
 finished: but about 1760, a new system was introduced. The Manchester merchants 
 began about that time to send agents into the country, who employed weavers, whom they 
 supplied with foreign or Irish linen yarn for warp, and with raw cotton, which being 
 carded and spun, by means of a common spindle or distaff, in the weaver's own family, 
 was then used for weft. A system of domestic manufacture was thus established ; the 
 junior branches of the family being employed in the carding and spinning of the cotton, 
 while its head was employed in weaving, or in converting the linen and cotton yarn into 
 cloth. This system, by relieving the weaver from the necessity of providing himself 
 with linen yam for warp and raw cotton for weft, and of seeking customers for his cloth 
 when finished, and enabling him to prosecute his employment with greater regularity, 
 was an obvious improvement on the system that had been previously followed ; but it is 
 at the same time clear that the impossibility of making any considerable division among 
 the different branches of a manufacture so conducted, or of prosecuting them on a large 
 scale, added to the interruption given to the proper business of the weavers, by the ne- 
 cessity of attending to the cultivation of the patches of ground which they generally occu- 
 pied, opposed invincible obstacles to its progress, so long as it was conducted in this mode. 
 
 It appears from the Custom-house returns, that the total quantity of cotton wool an- 
 nually imported into Great Britain, at an average of the Jive years ending with 1 705, 
 amounted to only 1,170,881 lbs. The accounts of the imports of cotton from 1720 to 
 1770 have not been preserved; but until the last 2 or 3 years of that period the 
 manufacture increased very slowly, and was of very trifling amount. Dr. Percival, 
 of Manchester, who had the best means of being accurately informed on the subject, 
 states that the entire value of all the cotton goods manufactured in Great Britain, at the 
 accession of George III. in 1760, was estimated to amount to only 200,0O0Z. a year, 
 and the number of persons employed was quite inconsiderable : but in ] 767, a most 
 ingenious person, James Hargraves, a carpenter at Blackburn in Lancashire, invented 
 the spinning jenny. At its first invention, this admirable machine enabled eight threads 
 to be spun with the same facility as one ; and it was subsequently brought to such per- 
 fection, that a little girl was able to work no fewer than from eighty to one hundred and 
 twenty spindles. 
 
 The jenny was applicable only to the spinning of cotton for weft, being unable to give 
 to the yarn that degree of firmness and hardness which is required in the longitudinal 
 threads or warp : but this deficiency was soon after supplied by the introduction of the 
 spinning-frame, — that wonderful piece of machinery which spins a vast number of 
 threads of any degree of fineness and hardness, leaving to man merely to feed the ma- 
 chine with cotton, and to join the threads when they happen to break. It is not difficult 
 to understand the principle on which this machine is constructed, and the mode of its 
 operation. It consists of two pairs of rollers, turned by means of machinery. The 
 lower roller of each pair is furrowed or fluted longitudinally, and the upper one is 
 covered with leather, to make them take a hold of the cotton. If there were only one 
 pair of rollers, it is clear that a carding of cotton passed between them would be drawn 
 forward by the revolution of the rollers, but it would merely undergo a certain degree 
 of compression from their action. No sooner, howevex*, has the carding, or roving, as it 
 is technically termed, begun to pass through the first pair of rollers, than it is received 
 by the second pair, which are made to revolve with (as the case may be) 3, 4, or 
 5 times the velocity of the first pair. By this admirable contrivance, the roving is 
 drawn out into a thread of the desired degree of tenuity ; a twist being given to it by the 
 adaptation of the spindle and fly of the common flax-wheel to the machinery. 
 
 Such is the principle on which Sir Richard Arkwright constructed his famous spin- 
 ning frame. It is obvious that it is radically and completely different from the previous 
 
 * In an act of 5&6 Edw. 6. (1552), entitled, for the true making of woollen cloth, it is ordered, " Thai 
 all cottons called Manchester, 'Lancashire, and Cheshire cottons, full wrouglit for sale, shall be in length," 
 &c. This proves incontcstably, that wliat were then called cottons were made wholly of wool. 
 
COTTON. 
 
 439 
 
 methods of spinning, either by the common hand-wheel or distaff, or by tlic jenny, wliich 
 IS only a modification of the common wheel. Spinning by rollers was an entirely 
 original idea; and it is difficult which to admire most — the ])rofound and fortunate 
 sagacity w^liich led to so great a discovery, or the consummate skill and address by which 
 it was so speedily perfected, and reduced to practice.* 
 
 Since the dissolution of Sir Richard Arkwright's patent, in 1785, the progress of dis- 
 covery and improvement in every department of the manufacture has been most rapid. 
 The mule-jenmj- — so called from its being a compound of the jenny and the spinning 
 frame — invented by Mr. Crompton, and the power-loom, invented by the llev. Mr. Cart- 
 wright, are machines that have had the most powerful influence on the manufacture ; 
 and in consequence of their introduction, and of innumerable other inventions and im- 
 provements, the prices of cotton cloth and yarn have gone on jjrogressively diminishing. 
 But as the demand for cottons has been, owing to their extraordinary chea[)ncss, extended 
 in a still greater degree, the value of the goods produced, and the number of persons 
 employed in the manufacture, are now decidedly greater than at any previous period. 
 
 2. Imports of Cotton Wool. Countries whence it is imported. Prices, Duties, ^c. — The 
 following Tables have been partly taken from official documents, and partly from the 
 accounts of merchants of great experience. We believe they may be relied on as ap- 
 proaching as near to accuracy as it is possible to attain to in such matters, 
 
 Account of the Imports and Exports of Cotton Wool to and from Great Britain, from 1781 to 1812, 
 
 both inclusive. 
 
 1781 
 1782 
 1783 
 1784 
 1785 
 1786 
 1787 
 1788 
 1789 
 1790 
 1791 
 1792 
 1793 
 1794 
 1795 
 1796 
 
 Imported. 
 
 5,198,778 
 11,828,039 
 
 9,735,663 
 11,482,083 
 18,400,384 
 19,475,020 
 23,250,268 
 20,467.436 
 32,576;023 
 31,447,605 
 28,706,675 
 34,907,497 
 19,040,929 
 24,358,567 
 26,401,340 
 32,126,357 
 
 Eiported. 
 
 Lbt. 
 
 96,788 
 421,229 
 177,626 
 201,845 
 407,496 
 323,153 
 1,073,381 
 853,146 
 297,837 
 844,154 
 363,442 
 1,485,465 
 1,171,566 
 1,349,950 
 1,193,737 
 694,962 
 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1804 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 23,354,371 
 31,880,641 
 43,379,278 
 56,010,732 
 56,004,305 
 60,345,600 
 53,812,284 
 61,867,329 
 69,682,406 
 58,176,283 
 74,925,306 
 43,605,982 
 92,812,282 
 132,488,935 
 91,576,535 
 63,025,935- 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Lbs. 
 609,058 
 001,159 
 844,671 
 4,416,610 
 1,860,872 
 3,730,480 
 1,561,053 
 503,171 
 804,243 
 651,867 
 2,176,943 
 1,644,867 
 4,351,105 
 8,787,109 
 1,266,867 
 1,740,912 
 
 Account of the Imports of Cotton Wool into Great Britain, of the Stocks on hand on the 31st of 
 December, of the Annual and Weekly Delivery for Consumption, the Amount of the Crops of 
 
 i Cotton in North America, and the Average Price of Uplands, each Year from 1814 to 1832, both 
 inclusive. — (Furnished by Mr. Cook, of Mincing Lane ) 
 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 I8i>l 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Total Imports 
 into Great 
 Britain. 
 
 73,728,000 
 96,200,000 
 97,310,000 
 126,240,000 
 173,940,000 
 137,592,000 
 147,576,000 
 126,420,000 
 141,510,000 
 183,700,000 
 147,420,000 
 244,360,000 
 170,520,000 
 264,330,000 
 222,750,000 
 218,324,000 
 259,856,000 
 280,080,000 
 270,690,000 
 
 Stock in the 
 Ports, 
 31st of December. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 22,272,000 
 22,360,000 
 22,355,000 
 31,034,000 
 85,800,000 
 88,452,000 
 103,458,000 
 106,800,000 
 76,362,000 
 105,875,000 
 64,428,000 
 123,968,000 
 100,548,000 
 134,244,000 
 120,582,000 
 84,966,000 
 95,360,000 
 84,090,000 
 73,560,000 
 
 Total Deliveries 
 for Consump- 
 tion. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 80,640,000 
 85,800,000 
 88,631,000 
 108,356,000 
 111,800,000 
 108,864,000 
 125,646,000 
 126,420,000 
 144,180,000 
 147,125,000 
 174,174,000 
 169,264,000 
 164,640,000 
 211,167,000 
 217,701,000 
 221,676,000 
 242,000,000 
 257,500,000 
 259,980,000 
 
 Estimated 
 weekly 
 Consumption. 
 
 Lbs. 
 1,664,000 
 1,612,000 
 1,709,500 
 2,051,400 
 2,132,000 
 2,116,800 
 2,322,000 
 2,476,800 
 2,750,100 
 3,025,000 
 3.166,800 
 3,456,000 
 3,410,400 
 3,801,600 
 4,158,000 
 4,263,000 
 4,768,000 
 5,047,700 
 5,330,500 
 
 Amount of 
 Crop in 
 North America. 
 
 No correct 
 returns. 
 
 110,910,000 
 121,485,000 
 136,125,000 
 152,880,000 
 169,860,000 
 211,680,000 
 285,120,000 
 213,840,000 
 2.'')5,780,000 
 292,040,000 
 311,655,000 
 296,245,000 
 
 Average 
 Price of 
 Uplands. 
 
 Per lb. 
 2Srf. 
 20|rf. 
 ISitf. 
 20rf. 
 QOd. 
 ISld. 
 llR. 
 
 sy. 
 
 Sid. 
 8id. 
 
 Ofrf. 
 6id. 
 6id. 
 Bid. 
 6|rf. 
 
 (^id. 
 
 * There is, in the new edition of the Encyclopcedia Britannica, a pretty full account of the life of Sir 
 Richard Arkwright. The question as to his merit as an original discoverer is still undecided. Recently, 
 however, it has been ascertamed that a patent for spinning by rollers, revolving Avith different degrees of 
 velocity, was taken out by Messrs. Wyatt and Paul, so early as 1738. — (See the excellent Account of the 
 Cotton Manufacture, by Edward Raines, jun., Esq.) But it docs not appear that the inventor.s liad"becn 
 able to give effect to their happy idea, and all traces of the invention seem to have been lost. The state- 
 ments in the case printed by Sir Richard Arkwright and his partners in 1782, show, that he was awaie of 
 the attempts made ir. the reign of George II. to spin by machinery ; but there is no evidence to prove that 
 he was acquainted with the principle on which these attempts had been made, or that he had seen the 
 patent referred to. Undoubtedly, however, the probability seems to be that he had. But admitting this 
 to be the case, it detracts but little from the substantial merits of Sir Richard Arkwright. If the idea of 
 spinning by rollers did not spring up spontaneously in his mind, he was, at all events, the first who made 
 It available in practice; and showed how it might be rendered a most prolific source of wealth. 
 
 2 F 4 
 
COTTON. 
 
 In 1786, the supplies of cotton wool were derived from the following sources 
 
 lbs. 
 
 From the British West Indies - - 6,800,000 
 
 French and Spanish colonies - - 5,500,000 
 
 Dutch colonies - - - 1,600,000 
 
 Portuguese colonies - - 2,000,000 
 
 Smyrna and Turkey - - 5,000,000 
 
 19,900,000 lbs. 
 
 Previously to 1790, North America did not supply us with a single pound weight of 
 raw cotton. A little had, indeed, been raised in some of the Southern States, for domestic 
 use, before the revolutionary war, but the quantity was quite inconsiderable. In 1791, 
 it began, for the first time, to be exported; the trifling quantity of 189,316 lbs. having 
 been shipped in the course of that year, and 138,328 lbs. in 1792. Such was the late 
 and feeble beginning of the American cotton trade. There is nothing in the history 
 of industry to compare with its subsequent increase, unless it be the growth of the 
 manufacture in this country. 
 
 American cotton is generally known by the names of sea-island and upland. The 
 first, which is the finest cotton imported into Britain, grows on the small sandy islands, 
 and along the low sandy shores of Carolina and Georgia. It is long in the staple, of 
 an even silky texture, and is easily separated from the seed. Unluckily, however, it can 
 be raised only in certain situations ; so that its quantity is limited, and has not, in fact, 
 been increased since 1805. The upland, of which the supply may be considered as un- 
 limited, though of varying qualities, is all short stapled; and its separation from the seed 
 is so very difficult, that if it be done by the hand, the cotton is hardly worth the labour. 
 This, however, was the only way in which it could be made available for home use, or 
 exportation, previously to 1793 ; and had any one then ventured to predict that 
 10,000,000 lbs. of upland cotton would ever be exported, he would have been looked 
 upon as a visionary dreamer. But the genius of Mr. Eli Whitney did for the planters 
 of the Southern States what the genius of Arkwright and "Watt did for the manufac- 
 turers of England. He invented a machine by which the wool of the upland cotton is 
 separated from the seed with the greatest facility and expedition, and by so doing laid the 
 foundations of a new and most important branch of industry, and doubled the wealth 
 and means of employment of his countrymen ! — {Pitkhi's Statistics of the United StateSy 
 p. 109. ed. 1835.) Whitney's invention came into operation in 1793, and in 1794, 
 1,601,760 lbs., and, in 1795, 5,276,300 lbs. of cotton were exported. And so astonishing 
 has been the growth of cotton in the interval, that the exports from the United States in 
 1837 amounted to the prodigious quantity of 444,21 1,537 lbs. ! of which 438,924,566 lbs. 
 were upland ! 
 
 AccoiTNT of the Quantities of Cotton Wool imported into the United Kingdom during the Six Years 
 ending with 1837, specifying the Quantities brought from different Countries, the Total Quantities ex- 
 ported, and the Quantities left for Consumption. — (Compiled from Farl. Papers.^ 
 
 Countries. 
 
 -1832. 
 
 1833. ; 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 183T. 
 
 Cotton wool from foreign countries, viz. — 
 
 United States of America 
 
 Brazil - - - - - 
 
 Turkey and Egypt 
 
 Otiier foreiijn countries 
 Cotton wool from Britisli possessions, viz. — 
 
 East Indies and Mauritius 
 
 British West Indies, the j^rowth of - 
 Ditto, ditto, imported from - 
 
 Other British possessions ... 
 
 Total quantities imported 
 Quantities exported ... 
 
 Left for consumption ... 
 
 lbs. 
 219,756,753 
 20,109,560 
 9,113,890 
 .598,048 
 
 35,178,625 
 1,708,764 
 331,664 
 35,221 
 
 lbs. 
 237,506,758 
 28,463,821 
 987,262 
 1,696,108 
 
 32,755,164 
 1,653,166 
 431,696 
 162,862 
 
 lbs. 
 269,203,075 
 19,291,396 
 855,167 
 2,260,852 
 
 32,920,865 
 1,672,211 
 624,314 
 47,545 
 
 lbs. 
 284,455,812 
 24,986,409 
 5,738,966 
 5,207,389 
 
 41,474,909 
 1,495,517 
 319,753 
 24,208 
 
 Iht. 
 
 289,615,69!^ 
 27,501,272 
 5,426,721 
 6,734,413 
 
 75,957,887 
 1,312,806 
 401,531 
 8,735 
 
 Ibi. 
 
 320,651,716 
 20,940,145 
 7,881,540 
 4,616,829 
 
 51,577,197 
 1,199,162 
 396.540 
 23,654 
 
 286,832,525 
 18,027,940 
 
 303,656,837 
 17,363,882 
 
 326,875,425 
 24,461,963 
 
 363,702,963 
 32,779,734 
 
 406,959,057 
 31,739,763 
 
 407,286,783 
 39,722,031 
 
 268,804,585 286,292,955 
 
 302,414,462 
 
 330,923,229 
 
 375,219,294 
 
 367,564,752 
 
 It has been the practice for many years past to levy a duty on cotton wool, when im- 
 ported. The policy of such a duty is very questionable ; and it would be quite intole- 
 rable, were it not kept at a low rate. For a number of years previously to 1831, it 
 amounted (on foreign cotton) to 6 per cent ad valorem ; but, in order to make up, in 
 part, at least, for the loss of revenue caused by the repeal of the duty on printed cottons 
 — (see Calico), it was raised in that year to 5s. lOd. a cwt. Such a duty would have 
 materially affected the imports of the inferior species of cotton, and the price of coarse 
 goods; and being, in consequence, justly objected to, it was reduced in 1833 to 2s. lid. 
 a cwt. The duty on cotton from a British possession is little more than nomin.il, being 
 only 4d. a cwt. At an average of 1836 and 1837, the duties on cotton produced 
 440,332/. a year. 
 
 The subjoined statement is taken from the circular of George Holt and Co., eminent 
 cotton brokers at Liverpool, dated 31st of December, 183S. It contains some additional 
 
COTTON. 
 
 441 
 
 and instructive details. Its near agreement with the previous statements affords a strong 
 proof of their and its accuracy. 
 
 Statement of the Consumption, Exportation, &c. of the diflfercnt Sorts of Cotton Wool, In and from 
 Great Britain, in different Years, from 1816 to 1839, both inclusive. 
 
 ATerape weekly con- 
 sumption* 
 
 1816. 
 
 1820. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Upland 
 
 
 2,918 
 
 3,713 
 
 5,452 
 
 6,896 
 
 4,7X7 
 
 4,438 
 
 5,505 
 
 5,4 »; 4 
 
 Orleans and Alabama 
 
 990 
 
 1,192 
 
 2,442 
 
 4,756 
 
 
 9,'^04 
 
 10,2--i3 
 
 11,712 
 
 9,915 
 
 Sea-bland 
 
 
 
 
 460 
 
 354 
 
 379 
 
 310 
 
 317 
 
 
 Total United Btates 
 
 
 4 519 
 
 6 515 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 li589 
 
 2)408 
 
 2)502 
 
 '3)602 
 
 '2,'339 
 
 '2)508 
 
 '2)18.3 
 
 '2)460 
 
 '2)373 
 
 Esypt 
 
 
 
 891 
 
 508 
 
 446 
 
 641 
 
 779 
 
 781 
 
 .548 
 
 Eagt India 
 
 207 
 
 1,518 
 
 1,096 
 
 940 
 
 1,069 
 
 1 ,4 92 
 
 1,63'J 
 
 1,760 
 
 2,142 
 
 Demerara. Wett In-1 
 dia, Sec. • -J 
 
 656 
 
 534 
 
 527 
 
 284 
 
 421 
 
 438 
 
 461 
 
 039 
 
 723 
 
 Total 
 
 6,483 
 
 8,979 
 
 11,531 
 
 16,002 
 
 18,348 
 
 19,452 
 
 20,333 
 
 23,204 
 
 21,430 
 
 Packages annually con-|^ 
 
 337,400 
 
 466,900 
 
 599,600 
 
 832,100 
 
 954,100 
 
 1,011,500 
 
 1,057,300 
 
 1,206,600 
 
 1,114,400 
 
 Average ^-"f packages ^ 
 
 
 258 
 
 278 
 
 298 
 
 333 
 
 343 
 
 316 
 
 346 
 
 343 
 
 Weekly consumption 1 
 in packages, average K 
 343 lbs. - - \ 
 
 Average wt.ofpackagesY 
 imported, in lbs. - f 
 
 Packages exported 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.973 
 
 6,741 
 
 9,353 
 
 13,901 
 
 17,813 
 
 19,451 
 
 20,511 
 
 23,407 
 
 21,430 
 
 256 
 
 249 
 
 270 
 
 300 
 
 331 
 
 342 
 
 347 
 
 350 
 
 348 
 
 29,300 
 
 28,400 
 
 72,800 
 
 33.400 
 
 102,800 
 
 105,900 
 
 123.400 
 
 103.300 
 
 117,300 
 
 Lbs. weight annually! 
 imported in millions J- 
 and tenths - - J 
 
 93-9 
 
 143-9 
 
 222-4 
 
 261-2 
 
 361-7 
 
 401-8 
 
 408-2 
 
 501-0 
 
 388-C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lbs. wt. consumed, do. 
 
 88-7 
 
 120-3 
 
 166-8 
 
 247-6 
 
 318-1 
 
 347-4 
 
 365-7 
 
 416-7 
 
 381-7 
 
 Lbs. wei;;ht in ports, ■) 
 31st of Dec. do.l 
 
 19-2 
 
 110-5 
 
 107-0 
 
 91-4 
 
 73-3 
 
 92-0 
 
 82-1 
 
 1101 
 
 98-5 
 
 Lbs. weight in Great) 
 Britain • do. J 
 
 
 127-0 
 
 115-5 
 
 118-8 
 
 89-6 
 
 116-3 
 
 1156 
 
 160-9 
 
 125-8 
 
 Average price per lb. of j. 
 uplands in Liverpool J 
 
 18icf. 
 
 11 Jd. 
 
 n-6d. 
 
 6-9cJ. 
 
 md. 
 
 9-85rf. 
 
 7d. 
 
 7d. 
 
 7-875 
 
 Do. do. Pemams 
 
 26d. 
 
 15W. 
 
 mid. 
 
 
 14-l<f. 
 
 12-85(i. 
 
 9ld. 
 
 9-375(1. 
 
 lOd. 
 
 Do. do. Surats 
 
 
 
 S-9d. 
 
 If 
 
 7irf. 
 
 6jrf. 
 
 4-85(f. 
 
 5d. 
 
 5jd. 
 
 N. B. Messrs. Holt and Co. estimate the average weight of the packages imported in 1839 at 330 lbs. 
 )er bag Upland ; 411 lbs. Orleans and Alabama ; 325 lbs. Sea-island : 173 lbs. Brazil ; 215 lbs. Egyptian 1 
 154 lbs. East Indian ; and 154 lbs. West Indian. 
 
 We subjoin, from Bums Glance, a tabular statement, annually published at Man- 
 chester, and admitted to be drawn up with great care, an account of the cotton spun in 
 Great Britain and Ireland in 1838, and how that spun in England was disposed of, 
 with several other interesting particulars. 
 
 Statement of Cotton spun in England, Scotland, and Ireland, in 1838, showing the Quantity of Yarn pro- 
 duced, and how that spun in England was disposed of. 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Bags 
 consumed. 
 
 Average 
 Weight of Bags 
 in lbs. 
 
 Total Weight in lbs. 
 
 Weekly Consumption 
 of Bags, describing 
 each sort. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 American cotton .... 
 Brazil ditto • • 
 Egyptian ditto .... 
 East India ditto .... 
 West India ditto .... 
 
 9.'?8,168 
 147,392 
 40,273 
 94,468 
 16,519 
 
 373 
 171 
 284 
 363 
 316 
 
 349,M6,664 
 25,204,032 
 11,437,532 
 34,291,884 
 5,220,004 
 
 18,011-36 
 2,834-24 
 774-25 
 1,816-36 
 317-35 
 
 Total number of bags consumed 
 
 l,236,8iiO 
 
 .346 
 
 426,090,116 
 
 23,785 
 
 Allowed for loss in spinning 1| oz. per lb. 
 
 
 
 
 46,603,606 
 
 
 Total quantity spun in England and Scotland 
 Deduct quantity spun in iscotland 
 
 
 
 
 
 379,486,510 
 .34,823,466 
 
 Total quantity spun in England in 1838 
 
 
 
 
 
 344,663,044 
 
 Horn dispoted of. 
 
 Exported in yam during the year - ... 
 Ditto in thread 
 
 Ditto in manufactured goods - - . - 
 Estimated quantity of yam sent to Scotland and Ireland 
 
 Exported in mixed manufactures, not stated in the above-named articles, 
 consumed in cotton banding, healds, candle and lamp wick, waddings, 
 flocks, calender bowls, paper, umbrellas, hats, and loss in. manufacturing 
 goods ...... 
 
 Balance left for home consumption and stock, 1st January, 1839 
 
 113,753,197 
 
 2,362,983 
 120,784,629 
 6,875,962 
 
 16,753,000 
 84,13.-5,283 
 
 344,663,044 
 
 Ditto ditto 
 Ditto ditto 
 Ditto ditto 
 
 ditto 183S 
 ditto 1837 
 ditto 1836 
 
 
 63,657,902 
 43,486,686 
 49,932,800 
 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Gross weight of cotton spun in Ireland in 1838 
 Allowed for loss in spinning 1| oz. per lb. 
 
 
 
 
 4,412,860 
 482,056 
 
 
 Total quantity of yam spun in Ireland in 1838 
 
 
 
 3,930,204 
 
 
 In 1832 the quantity spun was 222,596,907 lbs., giving a weekly supply of 4,280,709 lbs. Mr. Burns esti- 
 mates the quantity spun per spindle, per week, at 8^oz., making the total number of spindles employed 
 in England and Wales, in 1832, 7,949,208. Those employed in Scotland, during the same year, arc esti. 
 jnated, in the same way, at 881,020. Mr. Burns further calculates the number of loom* employed in 
 England and Wales, in 1832, at 203,703. The consumption of flour in the manufacture is much greater 
 than any one not pretty well acquainted with it would readily suppose. The average quantity required 
 for each' loom is estimated at 4 lbs. per week ; making the total annual consumption in England and 
 Wales, in 1832, 42,301,584 lbs., or 215,824 barrels of 196 lbs. each ! 
 
442 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 Account of the Consumption of the various Descriptions of Cotton In the undermentioned Coimtriei 
 
 in 1837, and of the Stocks on hand on the 1st of January, 1838, in Bales (From the Circular of Messrs. 
 
 Colmar and Stolterhoft, Liverpool.) 
 
 
 
 
 W. Indies. 
 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 
 Consumption in Great Britain 
 
 Ditto France 
 
 Ditto Holland 
 
 l)it*n Belgium 
 
 Ditto (Jermany 
 
 Ditto Trieste 
 Shipped from Great Britain toplaces 
 not mentioned ... 
 
 805,648 
 25o,S05 
 18,709 
 22,738 
 27,892 
 18,332 
 
 1 1,400 
 
 129,605 
 22,638 
 409 
 1,119 
 3,610 
 917 
 
 2,700 
 
 29,228 
 22,437 
 3,705 
 2,637 
 10,971 
 
 ■ 
 
 500 
 
 85,923 
 
 " 17,005 
 17,016 
 19,943 
 1,056 
 
 11,250 
 
 39,C79 
 66,809 
 1,063 
 40 
 315 
 75,228 
 
 1,089,483 
 357,689 
 40,S91 
 43,550 
 62,731 
 95,533 
 
 25,850 
 
 Total Consumption, 1837 
 
 1,160,521 
 
 160,998 
 
 69,478 
 
 152,193 
 
 172,534 
 
 1,715,727 
 
 Stock 1st Jan. 1838. 
 Great Britain 
 
 France - . - 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium ... 
 Germany . - . 
 Trieste - - 
 
 88,160 
 28,938 
 4,815 
 1,250 
 6,265 
 5,165 
 
 28,460 
 2,217 
 653 
 113 
 3,101 
 712 
 
 14,520 
 11,863 
 3,132 
 1,151 
 6,087 
 
 109,210 
 
 8,510 
 2,008 
 4,700 
 112 
 
 18,990 
 20,504 
 575 
 200 
 13 
 14,250 
 
 259,340 
 63,542 
 17,685 
 4,722 
 20,166 
 20,239 1 
 
 Total 
 
 134,613 
 
 35,256 
 
 36,753 1 
 
 124,540 1 
 
 54,532 
 
 385,694 j 
 
 3. Vahie of the British Cotton Manufacture in 18S3. Amount of Capital, and Number 
 of Persons employed in it. — It would be very desirable to be able to form a tolerably 
 accurate estimate of the present value of the cotton manufacture, and of the number of 
 persons employed in its diiFerent departments; but the data on vv^hich such estimates are 
 founded being necessarily very loose, it is impossible to arrive at any thing like precision. 
 Perhaps, however, the following calculations are not very wide of the mark. 
 
 In 1817, Mr. Kennedy, one of the best informed cotton manufacturers in the empire, 
 in a paper published in the Manchester Transactions, estimated the number of persons 
 employed in the spinning of cotton in Great Britain at 1 10,763 ; the aid they derived 
 from steam engines as equal to the power of 20,768 horses ; and the number of spindles 
 in motion at 6,645,833. Mr. Kennedy further estimated the number of hanks of yarn 
 annually produced at 3,987,500,000 ; and the quantity of coal consumed in their pro- 
 duction at 500,479 tons. We subjoin Mr. Kennedy's statement for the year 1817 : — 
 
 Raw cotton converted into yam in the United Kingdom - - 110,000,000 lbs. 
 
 Loss in spinning estimated at IJ oz. per lb. - 10,512,500 
 
 quantity of yam produced .... 99,687,500 lbs. 
 
 Numberof hanks, taking the average at 40 per lb. . - - 3,987,500,000 
 
 Number of spindles employed, each spindle being supposed to produce 2 hanks per day, at 500 work- 
 ing days in the vear - ... 6,645,855 
 Numbei of persoiis employed in spinning, supposing each to produce 120 hanks per day - J 10,753 
 Horse ^.ower eraiiloyed, equal in number to - . . 20,768 
 Four lunces and a half of coal estimated to produce one hank of No. 40 ; and 130 lbs. of coal per day equal to one hori^ 
 po^er. 
 
 But the cotton manufacture has increased rapidly since 1817. Mr. Huskisson stated, 
 in his place in the House of Commons, in March, 1824, that he believed the total value 
 of the cotton goods then annually manufactured in Great Britain amounted to the pro- 
 digious sum of thirty-three and a half millions ; and we believe we shall be about the 
 mark, if we estimate their present value at thirty-four millicns ! If, indeed, we took the 
 increase in the imports of the raw material as a test of the increase in the value of the 
 inanufacture, we should estimate it a great deal higher. But it will be afterwards seen 
 that the improvements that have been made in the different processes, and the fall in the 
 pn>e of raw cotton, have had so powerful an influence in reducing the price of the goods 
 brought to market, that, notwithstanding the increase of their quantity, their total value 
 must have remained nearly constant. 
 
 The average annual quantity of cotton wool imported, after deducting the exports, 
 may be taken at about 260,000,000 lbs. weight. It is supposed, that of this quantity 
 ab'mt 20,000,000 lbs. are used in a raw or half manufactured state, leaving a balance of 
 240 000,000 for the purposes of manufacturing, the cost of which may be taken, on an 
 average, at Id. per lb. Deducting, therefore, from the total value of the manufactured 
 goods, or 34,000,000/., the value of the raw material, amounting to 7,000,000/., there 
 remains 27,000,000/. ; which, of course, forms the fund whence the wages of the 
 persons employed in the various departments of the manufacture, the profits of the 
 capitalists, the sums required to repair the wear and tear of buildings, machinery, &c., 
 tl)p expense of coals, &c. &c., must all be derived. If, then, we had any means of as- 
 certaining how this fund is distributed, we should be able, by taking the average of 
 wages and profits, to form a pretty accurate estimate of the number of labourers, and the 
 quant'ty of capital employed. But here, unfortunately, we have only probabilities and 
 analogies to guide us. It may, however, be confidently assumed, in the first place, that 
 in consequence of the extensive employment of highly valuable machinery in all the 
 departments of the cotton ipanufacture, the proportion which the profits of capital, and 
 
COTTON. 
 
 443 
 
 the sum to be set aside to replace its wear and tear, bears to the whole value of the 
 manufacture, must be much larger than in any other department of industry. We have 
 heard this proportion variously estimated, at from a fourth to a half of the total value of 
 the manufactured goods, exclusive of the raw material ; and as the weight of authority 
 seems to be pretty much divided on the subject, we shall take an intermediate proportion. 
 Assuming, therefore, that the profits of the capital employed in the cotton manufacture, 
 the wages of superintendence, &c., the sum required to rei)lace the wear and tear of 
 macliinery, buildings, &c., and to furnish coals, &c., amount together to one third of the 
 value of the manufactured goods, exclusive of the raw material, or to 9,000,000/., a 
 sum of 18,000,000Z. will remain as the wages of the spinners, weavers, bleachers, &c. 
 engaged in the manufacture ; and taking, inasmuch as a large proportion of children 
 imder 16 years of age are employed, the average rate of wages at only 22/. 10s. a year, 
 we shall have (dividing 18,000,000 by 22-5), 800,000 as the total number of persons 
 directly employed in the different departments of the manufacture. 
 
 We should mistake, however, if we supposed that this number, great as it certainly 
 is, comprised the whole number of persons to whom the cotton manufacture furnishes 
 subsistence, exclusive of the capitalists. Of the sum of 9,000,000/. set apart as the 
 profit of the capitalists, and the sum required to furnish coal, and to defray the wear 
 and tear of machinery, &c., a large proportion must annually be laid out in paying the 
 wages of engineers, machine-makers, iron-founders, smiths, joiners, masons, bricklayers, 
 &c. It is not easy to say what this proportion may amount to ; but taking it at a third, 
 or 3,000,000/., and supposing the rate of wages of each individual to average SO/, a year, 
 the total number employed in the various capacities alluded to will be (3,000,000 divided 
 by 30) 100,000 ; and a sum of 6,000,000/. will remain to cover the profits of the capital 
 employed in the various branches of the manufacture, to repair the different parts of the 
 machinery and buildings as they wear out, and to buy coal, flour, &c. The account will, 
 therefore, stand as under : — 
 
 Total value of every description of cotton goods annually manufactured in Great Britain 34,000,000* 
 
 Raw material, 240,000,000 lbs. at Id. per lb. . - - - £ 7,000,000 
 
 Wages of 800,000 weavers, spinners, bleachers, c<!jc. at 22/. 105. a year each - 18,000,000 
 Wages of 100,000 engineers, machine-raiikers, smiths, masons, joiners, &c. at 30/. 
 
 a year each - - - - 3,000,000 
 
 Profits of the manufacturers, wages of superintendence, sums to purchase the 
 
 materials of machinery, coals, &c. - - - - 6,000,000 
 
 34,000,000 
 
 The capital employed may be estimated as follows : — 
 
 Capital employed in the purchase of the raw material - - . . 4,000,000 
 
 Capital employed in payment of wages - - - - - _ 10,000,000 
 • Capital vested in spinning-mills, power and hand looms, workshops, warehouses, stocks on 
 
 hand, &c. - - - 20,000,000 
 
 .£34,000,000 
 
 Now, this sum of 34,000,000/., supposing the interest of capital, inclusive of the 
 Trages of superintendence, &c., to amount to 10 per cent., will yield a sum of 3,400,000/. ; 
 which being deducted from the 6,000,000/. profits, &c., leaves 2,600,000/. to purchase 
 materials to repair the waste of capital, the flour required for dressing, the coals neces- 
 sary in the employment of the steam engines, to effect insurances, and to meet all other 
 outgoings. 
 
 The aggregate amount of wages, according to the above estimate, is 21,000,000/- •, 
 but there are not many departments of the business in which wages have to be advanced 
 more than 6 montlis before the article is sold. We, therefore, incline to think that 
 10,000,000/. is a suflScient (perhaps too great) allowance for the capital employed in the 
 payment of wages, 
 
 • Mr. Kennedy, to whose opinion, on a matter of this sort, the greatest deference is due, considers this 
 estimate as a great deal too high. We cannot, however, bring ourselves to believe that such is really the 
 case. It appears from the official accounts, that the real or declared value of the cotton fabrics exported 
 in 1832 amounted to 12,fi22,8<S0/., and that of the twist to 4,726,79fi/. Now it appears from the state- 
 ments in Burns' Glance, and other good authorities, that the weight of the cotton yarn retained at home 
 to be wrought up into fabrics for domestic use is about 10 or 12 per cent, greater than the weight of the 
 yarn exported in the shape of manufactured goods. But without taking this greater weight into account, 
 if we suppose that the fabrics retained at home are nearly equal in point of quality to those exported, 
 the value of the manufacture must be at least 30,000,000/., viz. fabrics exported 12,622,000/., twist ex- 
 ported 4,721,000/., and fabrics consumed at home 12,622,000/. But a very large proportion of our exports 
 consist of comparatively coarse fabrics destined for the West Indies, Brazil, ^tc. ; and we have been 
 assured by those well acquainted with the trade, that the value of the fabrics made use of at home 
 cannot be less, at an average, than from SO to 40 per cent, above the value of those exported ; but taking 
 it at only SO per cent., it will make the total value of the manufacture 34,000,000/. We do not well see 
 how this statement can be shaken. The exporters have no motive to exaggerate the real value of the 
 goods and yarn sent abroad ; but unless they have done so to a very great extent, it will be difficult to nij- 
 peach the above conclusions. 
 
444 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 If we are nearly right in these estimates, it will follow — allowance being made for 
 old and infirm persons, children, &c. dependent on those actually employed in the 
 various departments of the cotton manufacture, and in the construction, repair, &c. of 
 the machinery and buildings required to carry it on — that it must furnish, on the most 
 moderate computation, subsistence for from 1,200,000 to 1,400,000 persons! And for 
 this new and most prolific source of wealth we are indebted partly and principally, as 
 already shown, to the extraordinary genius and talent of a few individuals ; but, in a 
 great degree, also, to that security of property and freedom of industry which give 
 confidence and energy to all who embark in industrious undertakings, and to that 
 universal diffusion of intelligence which enables those who carry on any work to press 
 every power of nature into their service, and to avail themselves of productive capacities 
 of which a less instructed people would be wholly ignorant. 
 
 The effect that the sudden opening of so vast and profitable a field for the employ- 
 ment of capital and labour has had on the population of the different towns of Lan- 
 cashire and Lanarkshire, the districts where the cotton manufacture is principally carried 
 on — has been most striking. In 1774, for example, the parish of Manchester is esti- 
 mated to have contained 41,032 inhabitants — a number which was swelled, in 1831, to 
 187,019, having more than quadrupled in the space of 57 years! The population of 
 Preston, in 1780, is said not to have exceeded 6,000; whereas it amounts, at present, to 
 33,112. In like manner, the population of Blackburn has increased from 11,980, in 
 1801, to 27,091, in 1831 ; that of Bolton has increased in the same period, from 17,416 
 to 41,195 ; that of Wigan, from 10,989 to 20,774, &c. But the progress of Liverpool 
 is most extraordinary, and can be matched only by the progress of one or two cities 
 in the United States. Liverpool is not properly one of the seats of the cotton manu- 
 facture ; but it is, notwithstanding, mainly indebted to it for the unparalleled rapidity 
 of its growth. It is the grand emporium of the cotton district — the port where almost 
 all the raw cotton, and the various foreign articles required for the employment and 
 subsistence of the persons engaged in the manufacture, are imported, and whence 
 the finished goods are exported to other countries. It has, therefore, become a place 
 of vast trade, and is now, in that respect, second only to London. In 1700, according 
 to the best accounts that can be obtained, the population of Liverpool amounted to 
 only 5,145 ; in 1750, it had increased to 18,450; in 1770, it amounted to 34,050. The 
 cotton manufacture now began rapidly to extend, and, in consequence, the population 
 of Liverpool increased, in 1801, to 77,653; in 1821, to 118,972; and, in 1831, it 
 amounted to 165,175. The propress of population in Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire 
 has been equally striking. In 1780, the city of Glasgow contained only 42,832 in- 
 habitants ; in 1801, that number had increased to 83,769; and, in 1831, it amounted 
 to nearly 203,000. The growth of Paisley is similar. In 1782, it contained, inclusive 
 of the Abbey Parish, only 17,700 inhabitants; in 1801, it contained 36,722; in 1821, 
 it contained about 47,000; and, in 1831, 57,466. 
 
 Since the repeal of the absurd system of Irish protecting duties, in 1823, the cotton 
 manufacture has begun to make considerable progress in Ireland. This is proved by 
 a statement laid before the House of Commons, which shows that the number of yards 
 of cotton goods, manufactured chiefly from yarn sent from England, exported from 
 Ireland to Great Britain, in 1822, amounted to 406,687; in 1823, to 556,6^^6 ; in 
 1824, to 3,840,699; and in 1825, it amounted to no less than 6,418,645 ; — having 
 increased in nearly a twelvefold proportion in 2 years, by the abolition of duties that were 
 intended to protect the industry of Ireland ! But the unsettled state of the country and 
 the want of coal are insuperable obstacles to the continued increase of the manufacture. 
 
 Exports of Cotton Goods and Yarn. Fall of Prices, 8fc. — For a very long period 
 the woollen manufacture was the great staple of the country. But the progress of 
 improvement in the spinning and manufacturing of cotton, since 1770, being so much 
 more rapid than any that has taken place in the woollen manufacture, the value of the 
 former is now vastly greater than that of the latter. It appears, from the accounts of 
 the declared or real values of the different sorts of exported commodities given by the 
 Custom-house, that the exports of cotton goods, including yarn, amount, at an average, 
 to about 17,000,000/. sterling, being about half the value of the whole manufacture ; and 
 form of themselves about two thirds of the total value of all the wove fabrics exported 
 from the empire. We subjoin a statement, compiled from the Annual Finance Accounts, 
 of the official and the declared or real values of the cotton manufactured goods, cotton 
 yarn, woollen and silk manufactures, and the totals of all other articles of British pro- 
 duce and manufacture, exported from Great Britain to all parts of the world (except 
 Ireland) annually since 1816. 
 
COTTON. 
 
 415 
 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 18ly 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 
 m-25 
 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 ^1832 
 
 ^m6 
 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 , 1823 
 ( 1824 
 ^ 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 16,335,124 
 20,357,1^7 
 21,6-27,936 
 16,876,206 
 20,704,600 
 21,630,493 
 24,566,920 
 24,117,549 
 27,170,107 
 26,597,574 
 21,445,5(i5 
 29,203,138 
 28,989,976 
 31,810,436 
 35,395,400 
 33,682,475 
 37,060,750 
 
 13,072,757 
 14,178,022 
 16,643,579 
 12,388,833 
 13,843,569 
 13,786,957 
 14,534,253 
 13,751,415 
 15,240,006 
 15,034,138 
 10,522,357 
 13,956,825 
 13,545,638 
 13,420,544 
 15,203,713 
 13,207,947 
 12,622,880 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 Woollen. 
 
 1,380,486 
 1,12^;,257 
 1,296,776 
 1,585,753 
 2,022,153 
 1,898,695 
 2,353,217 
 2,425,419 
 2,984.529 
 2,897,706 
 3,748,526 
 3,979,759 
 4,485,841 
 5,4.58,985 
 5,655,569 
 5,674,600 
 6,725,505 
 
 2,628,448 
 2,014,182 
 
 2,385,305 
 2,516,783 
 2,826,643 
 2,307,830 
 2,700,437 
 2,625,947 
 3,135,496 
 3,206,729 
 3,491,268 
 3,545,568 
 3,594,945 
 3,974,039 
 4,132,258 
 3,974,989 
 4,721,796 
 
 .£ 
 
 5,586,364 
 5,676,920 
 6,344,1 (JO 
 4,602,270 
 4,363,973 
 5,500,922 
 5,943,612 
 5,539,789 
 6,136,092 
 5,929,342 
 5,041,585 
 5,979,701 
 5,720,079 
 5,361,997 
 5,5.51,644 
 6,187,979 
 6,666,700 
 
 7,844,855 
 ?,163,472 
 8,143,193 
 5,986,807 
 5,583,430 
 6,461,567 
 6,488,523 
 .5,634,137 
 6,011,534 
 6,193,775 
 4,982,898 
 5,277,861 
 5,120,226 
 4,656,809 
 4,847,398 
 5,385,811 
 5,475,298 
 
 Linen. 
 
 Silk. 
 
 1,559,367 
 1,943,194 
 2,153,309 
 1,547,352 
 1,935,186 
 2,303,443 
 2,594,783 
 2,654,098 
 3,283,403 
 2,709,772 
 2,056,760 
 2,808,081 
 3,118,270 
 3,003,394 
 3,101,031 
 3,662,945 
 2,649,343 
 
 1,4.52,667 
 1,703,632 
 1,949,815 
 1,391,245 
 1,653,804 
 1,981,465 
 2,192,772 
 2,095,574 
 2,442,440 
 2,130,705 
 1,489,647 
 1,895,186 
 2,000,033 
 1,885,831 
 1,926,256 
 2,301,803 
 1,655,478 
 
 161,874 
 152,734 
 167,5,59 
 126,809 
 118,370 
 156,402 
 141,007 
 141,390 
 159,648 
 1.50,815 
 106,738 
 173,334 
 178,871 
 220,436 
 435,04.5 
 469,076 
 474,509 
 
 480,522 
 408,523 
 499,175 
 376.798 
 374,114 
 373,938 
 381,455 
 350,880 
 442,582 
 296,677 
 168,453 
 236,092 
 255,755 
 267,192 
 519,919 
 578,260 
 .529,808 
 
 25,023,215 
 29,255,253 
 31,589,683 
 24,738,390 
 29,144,283 
 31,478,955 
 35,59fA.539 
 34,878,175 
 
 38,285,209 
 32,399,174 
 42,144,013 
 42,493,037 
 45,8.55,248 
 50,148,689 
 49,704,075 
 53,576,807 
 
 25,479,252 
 25,467,827 
 29,621,067 
 22,660,467 
 24,278,570 
 24,911,759 
 26,297,429 
 24,457,952 
 27,272,059 
 26,862,024 
 20,652.623 
 24,911,532 
 24,516,647 
 24,204,415 
 26,629,544 
 25,448,810 
 25,005,260 
 
 Total of all 
 other Articles 
 
 It will be observed, from the above Table, that while the official value of the cotton 
 goods exported has been rapidly increasing, their declared or real vahie has been about 
 stationary, or has rather diminished. This circumstance has given rise to a great deal 
 of irrelevant discussion ; and has even been referred to as proving that the manufacture 
 is in a declining state ! But it proves precisely the contrary. It shows that the decline 
 in the price of the raw material, and the improvements in the machinery and processes 
 used in the manufacture have been so great, that we are now able to export and sell 
 with a profit, (for, unless such were the case, the exportation would very speedily cease,) 
 nearly double the quantity of cotton goods we exported in 1816, for about the same 
 price. Had the Table been carried further back, the result would have been still more 
 striking. 
 
 ] n illustration of this view of the matter, we beg to subjoin the following statement 
 of the production and cost of the different species of cotton yarn in England, in 1812 
 and 1830. It was furnished by Mr. Kennedy, of Manchester, to the committee on the 
 East India Company's affairs, so that no doubt can be entertained of its accuracy. 
 
 Hanks per Day, per Spindle. 
 
 Price of Cotton and 
 Waste per lb. 
 
 Labour per lb.* 
 
 Cost per lb. 
 
 Description of 
 Yarn. 
 
 1812. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1812. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1S12. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1812. 
 
 1S30. 
 
 No. 
 40 
 60 
 80 
 100 
 120 
 150 
 200 
 2;3() 
 
 2- 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-4 
 
 1-25 
 
 1- 
 
 075 
 005 
 
 2-75 
 
 2-5 
 
 2- 
 
 1-8 
 
 1-65 
 
 1-33 
 
 0-90 
 
 0-06 
 
 S. d. 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 0 
 2 2 
 2 4 
 2 6 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 4 
 
 4 0 
 
 S. d. 
 0 7 
 0 10 
 
 0 \l\ 
 
 1 If 
 1 4 
 
 1 8 
 3 0 
 3 8 
 
 S. d. 
 1 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 2 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 6 
 6 6 
 
 16 8 
 31 0 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 7i 
 
 1 ?l 
 
 2 2| 
 2 8 
 4 11 
 
 11 6 
 24 6 
 
 S. d. 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 4 
 
 5 2 
 
 6 0 
 9 4 
 
 20 0 
 35 0 
 
 «. d. 
 
 1 10| 
 
 2 6f 
 
 3 4i 
 
 4 0 
 6 7 
 
 14 6 1 
 28 2 1 
 
 The following Table is interesting, from its exhibiting the state of our trade in 
 wrought cottons with the different countries of the world. It sets the importance of 
 the markets of Brazil, Chili, and the other states of South America, as outlets for our 
 cottons, in a very striking point of view. 
 
 * Wages are estimated at the same rate, or at 20rf. a day, for every person employed, men, women, and 
 children, in 1812 and 1830 ; the saving being entirely in the better application of the labour. 
 
446 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 Account of the Exports of Cotton Goods and Yarn from the United Kingdom in 1837; specifying the 
 Quantity and declared Value of those shipped for each Country. 
 
 Countries to which exported- 
 
 and 
 
 Russia 
 Sweden 
 Norway 
 Denmark 
 Prussia 
 Germany 
 Holland 
 Belgium 
 France 
 
 Portugal, Proper 
 
 Azores 
 
 Maderia 
 Spain and the Balearic Islands - 
 
 Canaries 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italy and the Italian Islands 
 Malta 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 Morea and Greek Islands 
 Turkey 
 
 Syria and Palestine 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, 
 '• _ Morocco 
 
 Western Coast of Africa 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 St. Helena 
 Mauritius 
 
 East India Company's territories 
 
 and Ceylon 
 Sumatra, Java, and other Islands 
 
 of the Indian Sea 
 Philippine Islands 
 China 
 
 New South Wales, Van Diemen's 
 Land, and other Australian 
 Settlements 
 
 British North A merican Colonies 
 
 British "West Indies 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Cuba and other Foreign West 
 
 Indian Colonies 
 United States of America 
 States of Central and South 
 America : 
 
 jMexico 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Brazil 
 
 States of the Rio de la 
 
 Plata 
 Chili 
 Peru 
 
 Isles of (Guernsey, Jersey, Alder- 
 ney, Man, &c. 
 
 Totals 
 
 WTiite or Plain 
 Cottons. 
 
 980,779 
 62,939 
 
 164,63-1 
 43,992 
 
 14,203,855 
 16,382,581 
 865,339 
 1,169,753 
 15,966,118 
 541,605 
 519,315 
 151,380 
 471,917 
 13,956,830 
 24,976,414 
 1,108,032 
 1,497,260 
 9,054 
 23,727,096 
 5,140 
 5,559,900 
 
 2,928,580 
 607,843 
 2,293,943 
 18,816 
 3,053,808 
 
 46,366,175 
 
 5,952,848 
 473,370 
 8,519,245 
 
 1,275,348 
 6,319,864 
 19,69r>,492 
 1,246,463 
 
 6,798,703 
 5,471,788 
 
 2,713,901 
 1,436,553 
 25,387,191 
 
 10,923,196 
 7,825,718 
 3,655,774 
 
 833,701 
 
 286,164.256 
 
 40,203 
 1,717 
 4,081 
 1,033 
 
 294,378 
 341,448 
 32,271 
 25,683 
 268,189 
 11,789 
 8,255 
 4,047 
 10,763 
 310,777 
 526,881 
 21,638 
 26,314 
 256 
 482,438 
 330 
 107,125 
 
 41,552 
 15,783 
 54,567 
 519 
 78,395 
 
 ,040,018 
 
 144,962 
 10,075 
 193,075 
 
 36,561 
 161,392 
 417,580 
 
 28,421 
 
 55,651 
 32,630 
 436,192 
 
 207,714 
 150,492 
 88,013 
 
 L. 
 
 145,760 
 48,552 
 
 347,809 
 71,569 
 
 28,967,374 
 11,588,241 
 1,998,160 
 1,269,924 
 15,748,216 
 731,946 
 649,954 
 205,986 
 435,599 
 12,681,183 
 17,631,057 
 562,773 
 841,686 
 67,794 
 9,423,139 
 
 693,240 
 
 253,009 
 4,365,569 
 3,136,936 
 5,326 
 2,237,689 
 
 17,847,458 
 
 2,620,300 
 613,421 
 2,445,178 
 
 1,335,325 
 7,950,884 
 17,998,452 
 1,612,897 
 
 11,966,502 
 12,010,067 
 
 4,227,065 
 2,675,164 
 23,380,427 
 
 9,260,258 
 9,356,806 
 5,611,351 
 
 Declared 
 Value. 
 
 L. 
 
 7,590 
 1,850 
 9,964 
 1,369 
 
 713,771 
 322,400 
 72,528 
 35,529 
 369,712 
 18,740 
 12,767 
 5,694 
 12,234 
 375,367 
 481,915 
 17,364 
 19,955 
 2,664 
 288,230 
 
 ' 23,207 
 
 4,892 
 119,540 
 80,483 
 141 
 73,556 
 
 488,231 
 
 97,620 
 17,695 
 79,300 
 
 44,889 
 222,001 
 465,449 
 
 63,270 
 
 293,865 
 407,237 
 
 143,805 
 58,136 
 551,258 
 
 237,557 
 240,267 
 165,804 
 
 Hoisery 
 and Small 
 Wares. 
 
 Declared 
 Value. 
 
 3,106 
 70S 
 1,68 
 
 162,263 
 50,205 
 102,233 
 93,768 
 21,084 
 838 
 1,068 
 221 
 924 
 17,271 
 40,910 
 2,208 
 790 
 33 
 2,297 
 
 349 
 
 407 
 391 
 9,589 
 
 5,931 
 1,115 
 1,012 
 
 15,809 
 39,068 
 43,812 
 2,751 
 
 11,608 
 117,572 
 
 13,3.39 
 
 4,085' 
 26,987, 
 
 18,818! 
 18,21 7 1 
 14,300, 
 
 Twist and Yam. 
 
 Pounds. I>;clar^ 
 
 24,108,593 
 734,336 
 197,700 
 57,470 
 4,924 
 34,272,607 
 15,993,072 
 67,397 
 94,707 
 323,262 
 17,840 
 1,358 
 687 
 1,071 
 225,939 
 8,775,028 
 176,260 
 297,980 
 1,800 
 3,527,538 
 
 660,700 
 
 2,982 
 9,314 
 
 10,400 
 
 8,478,021 
 
 127,620 
 
 1,873,965 
 
 13,625 
 260,732 
 55,649 
 
 6,250 
 219,712 
 
 1,654,867 
 188,283 
 560 
 
 7,255 
 
 912,192 103,455,138 
 
 L. 
 
 1,612,956 
 55,060 
 10,474 
 2,870 
 502 
 2,177,823 
 1^86,388 
 8,752 
 31,364 
 23,612 
 786 
 78 
 45 
 63 
 14,729 
 477,882 
 9,729 
 14,303 
 100 
 180,225 
 
 41,3*72 
 
 468 
 602,293 
 7,858 
 103,90,S 
 
 14,307 
 4,487 
 
 309 
 13,359 
 
 144,489 
 12,488 
 
 48 
 
 Total 
 Declared 
 Value. 
 
 L. 
 
 1,669,855 
 59,355 
 26,201 
 5,357 
 502 
 3,348,235 
 2,100,441 
 216 
 184,344 
 t82,597 
 32,153 
 22,168 
 10,007 
 23,984 
 718,144 
 1,527,588- 
 50,939 
 61,362 
 5,053 
 953,190 
 330 
 172,053 
 
 46,851 
 136,109 
 145,33» 
 679} 
 1G0,1 
 
 2,160,986 
 
 256.371 
 28,885 
 S77,'<95 
 
 98,0401 
 456,768 
 931,328 
 
 84,442 
 
 4")3,806' 
 
 7<;5, 
 
 .367,284 
 107,339 
 1,014,485 
 
 464,473 
 408,976 
 268,11 
 
 65,003 
 
 Such being the vast extent and importance of the cotton manufacture, ihe probability 
 of our preserving our ascendancy in it becomes a very interesting topic ot inquiry. But 
 it is obvious, that a great deal of conjecture must always insinuate itself into cu" reason- 
 ings with respect to the future state of any branch of manufacturing industry. They are 
 all liable to be affected by so many contingent and unforeseen circumstances, that it is 
 impossible to predicate, with any thing like certainty, what may be their condition a few 
 yeai'S hence. But abstracting from the effect of national struggles and commotions, 
 which can neither be foreseen nor calculated, we do not think that there is any thing in 
 our state, or in that of the different commercial and manufacturing countries of tlie 
 world, that should lead us to anticipate that the gloomy forebodings of those who con 
 tend that the cotton manufacture of England has reached its zenith, and that it mus« 
 now begin to decline, will be realised. The natural capabilities we possess for carrying 
 on the business of manufacturing are, all things considered, decidedly superior to those 
 of any other people. But the superiority to which we have already arrived is, perhaps, 
 the greatest advantage in our favour. Our master manufacturers, engineers, and arti- 
 sans, are more intelligent, skilful, and enterprising, than those of any other country ; and 
 the extraordinary inventions they have already made, and their familiarity with all the 
 principles and details of the business, will not only enable them to perfect the processes 
 already in use, but can hardly fliil to lead to the discovery of others. Our establish- 
 ments fur spinning, weaving, printing, bleaching, &c. are infinitely more complete and 
 perfect than any that exist elsewhere ; the division of labour in tliem is carried to an 
 
COTTON. 
 
 4-17 
 
 incomparably greater extent ; the workmen arc trained from infancy to industrious 
 habits, and have attained that peculiar dexterity and sleight of hand in the performance 
 of their separate tasks, that can only be acquired by long and unremitting application 
 to the same employment. Why, then, having all* these advantages on our side, should 
 we not keep the start we have already gained ? Every other people that attempt to 
 set up manufactures must obviously labour under the greatest difficulties as comj^ared 
 with us. Their establishments cannot, at first, be sufficiently large to enable the divi- 
 sion of emi)loyments to be carried to any considerable extent, at the same time tliat ex- 
 pertncss in manipulation, and in the details of the various processes, can only be attained 
 by slow degrees. It appears, therefore, reasonable to conclude that such new beginners, 
 having to withstand the competition of those who have already arrived at a very high 
 degree of perfection in the art, must be immediately driven out of every market equally 
 accessible to both parties ; and that nothing but the aid derived from restrictive regu- 
 lations and prohibitions will be effectual to prevent the total destruction of their establish- 
 ments in the countries where they are set up. 
 
 4. Progress of the Manufacture in other Countries. — But notwithstanding what has now 
 been stated, a notion seems to be spreading abroad, that we shall have no little difficulty 
 in maintaining our ground against the competition of the Americans, Swiss, Austrians, 
 French, &c., and a good deal of evidence upon this subject was taken before the com- 
 mittee of the House of Commons appointed in 1833 to inquire into the state of manu- 
 factures, commerce, and shipping. Such apprehensions appear to us to be quite destitute 
 of any real foundation. Provided we have no agitation, that public tranquillity and 
 security in fact and opinion be maintained unimpaired, we need be under no sort of un- 
 easiness as to any competition to which we can be exposed. The tariff forced cotton, 
 woollen, iron, and other manufactures, into a premature existence in the United States ; 
 but we have little doubt that, except in the coarser fabrics, and those where it is necessary 
 to use large quantities of the raw material, the late modifications of the tariff have given 
 a death-blow to the American manufacturing system. Independent, however, of this, 
 there was nothing whatever to fear from that quarter. During the year ended the 30th 
 of September, 1829, the exports of all sorts of cotton goods from America amounted 
 to 1,259,457 dollars; while during the year ended the 30th of September, 1832, they 
 amounted to 1,229,574 dollars. — (^Papers laid before Congress, 5th of February, 
 1830, and 15th of February, 1833.) It is plain, therefore, notwithstanding the pro- 
 tection of the tariff, that the exports of manufactured cottons from America have not 
 increased any thing during the last 3 years ; and it is very luilikely that even the 
 trifling quantity now exported will be maintained. They have been exported only 
 because the fabrics contained a great deal of the best cotton, which made them more 
 durable and heavy than those manufactured here. But goods of this sort are in very 
 limited demand ; and the Manchester manufacturers have already produced an article 
 similar to and cheaper than the American " domestics," which will go far to expel them 
 from the market. 
 
 Among the singular statements that have been put forth as to the cotton manufactures 
 of America, one is, that the wages of labour are lower there than here ! To dwell on 
 the absurdity of such a statement would be an insult to our readers. But though it were 
 true that wages are as low in Massachusetts as in England, that would afford no real 
 ground for anticipating any formidable competition from America in this department. 
 The price of cottons depends more on the profits of stock than on the wages of labour ; and, 
 so far as we know, it has not yet been alleged that they are lower in America than here. 
 Suppose an English and an American manufacturer have each 100,000/. vested in cotton 
 mills, and in the floating stock required to carry on the business ; if profits in England be 
 1 per cent, less than in America, the English manufacturer can afford, cceteris paribus, to 
 sell his goods for 1,000/. less than th» American. We are very far from insinuating or 
 believing that this lowness of profit is an advantage ; but whatever may be its influence 
 in other respects, so long as it continues, it gives our manufacturers a decided superiority 
 over those of every other country where profits are higher, in the manufacture and sale 
 of all articles, such as cotton yarn and stuffs, principally produced by machinery. It 
 is ludicrous, indeed, to suppose that a half-peopled country like America, possessed of 
 boundless tracts of unoccupied land of the highest degree of fertility, should be able 
 successfully to contend in manufacturing industry, with an old settled, fully peopled, and 
 very rich country like Great Britain. The government which encourages such a mis- 
 direction of the public capital and industry, and those who suppose it can end in any 
 thing else than ruin to the parties, are ignorant of the merest elements of the science of 
 wealth. 
 
 The following results as to the state of the American cotton manufacture in 1S31 have been deduce*.! 
 from the Report o-f a Committee of Congress in 1832 : — 
 
448 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 In 12 states they had, mills 
 
 — spindles 
 
 — looms 
 
 The weight of cotton consumed 
 Allowing 2 oz. per lb. for loss 
 
 Total weight-of yarn produced 
 Weekly amount 
 Averaging 16f oz. per spindle weekly. 
 
 795 
 1,246,503 
 33,506 
 
 - 77,557,316 lbs, 
 
 9,694,664 
 
 - 67,862,652 
 
 1,305,051 
 
 If the 33,506 looms were employed, and the whole 1,305,051 lbs. of yam manufactured, each loom mudt 
 have consumed at an average 39 lbs. weekly, showing that the goods manufactured were of a very heavy 
 description. It also appears from statements made by the same committee, that 
 
 The number of males employed were 
 
 — females - - - - 
 
 Total number employed in spinning and manufacturing 
 
 57,466 
 
 The amount paid for wages in the year was 10,294,444 dollars, or 2,144,780/., being 42,895/. per week j 
 averaging 14s. lid. for each person employed. 
 
 They state that the consumption of flour in their manufacture was 1,641,253 lbs , or 8,374 barrels 
 (196 lbs. each), averaging weekly 31,562 lbs., or nearly lib. for each loom. 
 
 Note. — By the new American tariff, plain calicoes, &c. imported, not exceeding in value Is. 3d. the 
 square yard, to nay S^d. per yard duty. Printed or coloured calicoes, &c., not exceeding Is. B^d. the square 
 yard, to pay 4f a. per yard duty. Cotton yarn, unbleached and uncoloured, not exceeding in value 2s. 6d. 
 per lb., to pay 7|rf. per lb. duty. If bleached or coloured, not exceeding 3s. l^d. per lb., to pay 9f rf. per lb! 
 duty. 
 
 Little as we have to fear from American, we have still less to fear from Swiss of Austrian 
 competition. America has some advantage over England in the greater cheapness of the 
 raw material ; bui Switzerland and Austria, situated almost in the very centre of Europe, 
 can only draw their supplies of raw cotton by a distant land carriage by way of Mar- 
 seilles, Genoa, and Trieste ; or by a lengthened navigation up the Rhine or the Elbe ; 
 and we have the best authority for affirming, that a bale of cotton may Ije conveyed at 
 a less expense from Charleston to Manchester, than from Genoa or Trieste, Amsterdam 
 or Hamburgh, to Switzerland or Austria. Switzerland is altogether destitute of coal ; 
 all that she does is done by water power, and that is already pretty well exhausted. It 
 is not, however, to be wondered at that the Swiss and Austrians should have succeeded 
 in supplying their own markets, and some of those immediately contiguous, with certain 
 species of yarn ; but it seems to us quite visionary to suppose that they will ever do much 
 more than this. 
 
 It was stated before the committee of 18.33, that the French cotton manufacture had 
 increased, between 1812 and 1826, in the ratio of 310 per cent., while in England its 
 increase was only 270 per cent. This statement is, we believe, accurate as far as it goes; 
 and yet it is eminently calculated, although, no doubt, without being so intended, to 
 mislead. In 1812, and for some years previously, it was hardly possible to import 
 cotton wool into France, and its price was quite excessive. When, therefore, the ma- 
 nufacturers got wool after the return of peace at an ordinary price, it was impossible, 
 seeing that foreign cottons are excluded from France, but that the manufacture should 
 increase with extraordinary rapidity, until the home demand was pretty well supplied 
 An advance of this sort is assuredly no proof of the capacity of France to prosecute 
 the manufacture with advantage, or to export cottons without the aid of a bounty. Had 
 the manufacture gone on increasing in the above, or even in a very inferior ratio, down 
 to the present time, the circumstance might have justly excited attention ; but such has 
 not been the case ; on tlie contrary, it has been nearly stationary from 1 822 down to the 
 present time. In proof of this, we beg to refer to the following account, published by 
 the merchants of Havre, of the imports of cotton into France, the deliveries from the 
 warehouses, and the stocks on hand, in each year from 1822 : — 
 
 Years . 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Deliveries. 
 
 Stocks, 31st. Dec. 
 
 i Years. 
 
 e 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Deliveries. 
 
 Stocks, 3l9t Dec. 
 
 1822 
 182,3 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 jl827 
 1828 
 
 Balct. 
 205,861 
 169,845 
 251,074 
 204,572 
 320,174 
 290,617 
 206,132 
 
 Bales. 
 215,199 
 172,312 
 243,958 
 216,460 
 281,001 
 279,693 
 239,723 
 
 Bales. 
 42,545 
 40,078 
 47,194 
 35,306 
 74,479 
 85,403 
 54,812 
 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 
 
 Bales. 
 264,750 
 250,784 
 243,843 
 272,463 
 276,587 
 301,652 
 S08,736 
 
 BaUt. 
 
 29,292 
 61,260 
 35,810 
 22,506 
 51,75.S 
 24,4<;7 
 40,096 
 
 It is supposed by some, that the competition we have to fear from the Continent does 
 not consist so much in the spinning as in the weaving of cottons ; and that the probabihty 
 i.s, that our exports of yarn will increase, and our exports of manufactured goods di- 
 minish. We (lo not, however, imagine there is much in this. Our power looms are 
 superior to those of any other country ; and it is unhappily true, that the wages of lituid 
 
COTTON. 
 
 449 
 
 loom weavers here are sunk below the general level of Europe.* There is not, in fac^ 
 with the exception of the dyes, a single particular connected with the cotton manufacture 
 in which we have not a manifest superiority over tlic Swiss, Austrians, French, Prussians, 
 and every Continental nation. Certainly, however, we are inferior to some of them in 
 the brilliancy and durability of their dyes ; and this circumstance occasioned a con- 
 siderable demand for German and Swiss printed cottons in many parts of tlie East, 
 where vivid colours are held in the highest estimation. But even there, the greater 
 cheapness of our goods is proving an overmatch for the greater brilliancy of those of 
 our rivals. 
 
 On the whole, therefore, we see no reason to think that the British cotton manufacture 
 has reached, much less passed, its zenith. At the same time, however, it can hardly be 
 necessary to ob*;erve, considering the vast importance of the trade, that while, on the one 
 hand, nothing should be left undone that may serve to widen its foundations, and to pro- 
 mote its prosperity, on the other, nothing should be attempted that may, by possibility, 
 have an opposite effect. The subsistence of 1,400,000 people is not to be endangered on 
 slight grounds. The abuses even of such a business must be cautiously dealt with, lest, 
 in eradicating them, we shake or disorder the whole fabric. We admit, however, that 
 the case of children employed iii the cotton factories is one of those that call fairly for 
 legislative regulation. But it may be questioned whether the plan for having relays of 
 children is the best that might be devised. The general opinion seems to be, that it will, 
 in most instances, be found impossible to carry it into effect. The whole subject, as to 
 the limitation of hours, is confessedly one of great difficulty ; and it would perhaps be 
 better, before taking any very decisive steps in the matter, to try the effect of the system 
 of inspection, and of the publication of the inspectors' reports as to the condition of the 
 children employed. 
 
 5. Statutory Regulations as to the Employment of Childuen in Factories. 
 No statutory restrictions respecting the employment of children in the mills and factories of the United 
 Kingdom existed until the year 1802, when an act of parliament was passed (42 Goo. 3.) for the pre- 
 servation of the health and morals of apprentices and others employed in cotton and other factories, and 
 directing the local magistrates to report whether the factories were conducted according to law, and to 
 adopt such sanitary regulations as they might think fit. This act was followed, in 1816, by an act, gene- 
 rally called Sir Robert Peel s Act, imposing various regulations on the employment of children in cotton 
 mills. 
 
 Both of these acts were repealed in 1831, by an act 1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 39., commonly called Sir John 
 Hobhouse's Act, which provided, that in cotton factories, to which alone it related, no child could legally 
 be employed till it had attained the age of 9 years ; and that no person under 18 years of age could be 
 suffered to remain in the factories more than 12 hours in one day ; and that on Saturdays they shoidd only 
 be employed in the factories for 9 hours. 
 
 Sir John Hobhouse's act was repealed in 1833, by the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 103., which contains the fol- 
 lowing provisions, comprehending the whole statutory regulations at present applicable to cotton and other 
 factories in the United Kingdom : — 
 
 1. That after the 1st of January, 1834, no person under 18 years of age shall be allowed to work in the 
 night, that is, between | past 8 p. m. and ^ past 5 a. m., in any cotton or other factory in which steam or 
 water, or any other mechanical power, is or shall be used to propel the machinery, excepting in late fac- 
 tories. 
 
 2. That no person under 18 shall be employed more than 12 hours in one day, nor more than 69 horns 
 in one week. 
 
 3. That there shall be allowed, in the course of everyday, not less than li hour for meals to eveiy 
 person restricted to the performance of 12 hours' work. 
 
 4. That after the 1st of January, 1834, no child, except in silk mills, shall be employed, who shall 
 not be 9 years old. 
 
 5. That after the 1st of March, 1834, no child, except in silk mills, shall be employed in any factory more 
 than 48 hours in any one week, nor more than 9 hours in any day, who shall not be 11 years old ; nor 
 after the 1st of March, 1835, who shall not be 12 years old ; nor after the 1st of March, 1836'. who shall not 
 be 13 years old; and that these hours of work shall not be exceeded, even if the child has worked 
 during the day in more factories than one. 
 
 6. That children and young persons, whose hours of work are regulated, shall be entitled to 2 holi- 
 days and 8 half holidays in every year. 
 
 7. That children, whose hours of work are restricted to 9 hours a day, are not to be employed without 
 obtaining a certificate from a physician or surgeon, certifying that they are of the ordinary strength and 
 appearance of children of the age before mentioned, which certificate is to be countersigned by some 
 inspector or justice. 
 
 8. That it shall be lawful for his Majesty to appoint, during pleasure, 4 persons to bo inspectors of fac- 
 tories, with extensive powers, as magistrates, to examine the children employed in the factories, and to 
 inquire respecting their condition, employment, and education ; and that one of the secretaries of state 
 shall have power, on the application of an inspector, to appoint superintendents to superintend the exe- 
 cution of the act. 
 
 9. That those inspectors are to make all rules necessary for the execution of the net, and to enforce the 
 attendance at school, for at least 2 hours daily out of 6 days in the week, of children employed in factories 
 from whose weekly wages a deduction, not exceeding 1 penny in every shilling, for schooling, shall be 
 made. 
 
 10. That no child shall be employed, who shall not, on Monday of every week, give to the factory master 
 a certificate of his or her attendance at school for the previous week. 
 
 11. That the interior walls of every mill shall be whitewashed every year. 
 
 12. That a copy or abstract of the act shall be hung up in a conspicuous part of every mill 
 
 13. That the inspectors shall regularly, once a year, report their proceedings to one' of the secretaries 
 of state. 
 
 For an account of the circumstances which have occasioned this depression, we be^' to refer the reader 
 o_ .... „ 
 
 2 G 
 
 to an article on manufactures, commerce, &c. in the 117th No. of the Edinburgh Review Some of tt^e 
 above statements are taken from that article. 
 
4;50 
 
 COWHAGE. — CREDIT. 
 
 The act also contains regulations extending the hours of work where time shall be lost by the want of, 
 or an excess of, water, in mills situated upon a stream of water ; respecting the steps to be taken in order 
 to obtain regular certificates of age for the children requiring them ; respecting the erection of schools, 
 where necessary ; and respecting the proceedings to be had before inspectors and magistrates for enforcing 
 the act, and the right to appeal from their decisions. 
 
 COWHAGE, OR COWITCH (Hind. Kiwach), the fruit or bean of ^ perennial 
 cKmbing plant (^Dolichos pruriens Lin.). It is a native of India, as well as of several 
 other eastern countries, and of America. The pod is about 4 or 5 inches long, a little 
 curved, and contains from 3 to 5 oval and flattish seeds ; the outside is thickly covered 
 with short, bristly, brown hairs, which, if incautiously touched, stick to the skin, and 
 occasion intolerable itching. Syrup thickened with the hairs is prescribed in certain 
 complaints {Ainslie's Materia Indica.) 
 
 COWRIES (Ger. Kauris; Du. Kauris; Fr. Com, Cauris, Bouges ; It. Cori, Por- 
 cellane ; Sp. Bucios Zimhos) are small shells brought from the Maldives, which pass 
 current as coin in smaller payments in Hindostan, and throughout extensive districts in 
 Africa. They used to be imported into England previously to the abolition of the slave 
 trade, in which they were subsequently employed. They are an article of trade at Bom- 
 bay. The best are small, clean, and white, having a beautiful gloss ; those that are 
 yellow, large, and without lustre, should be rejected. The freight is calculated at 20 
 cwt. to the ton. — {Milburn's Orient, Com.') 
 
 CRANBERRIES, or RED WHORTLEBERRIES, the fruit of a moss plant, 
 the Vaccinium oxycoccus of Linnaeus. The berries are globular, about the size of cur- 
 rants ; are found in mossy bogs in different parts of Scotland, but not in great numbers : 
 they were once common in Lincolnshire, and the northern parts of Norfolk ; but since 
 the bogs have been drained and cultivated, they are rarely met with. Cranberries have 
 a peculiar flavour, and a sharp, acid, agreeable taste ; they are easily preserved, and are 
 extensively used in making tarts. They are very abundant in North America, and in 
 the northern parts of Russia ; the latter being of a superior quality. We import from 
 30,000 to 35,000 gallons annually. It is said that some very fine ones have recently 
 been brought from New South Wales. 
 
 CRAPE (Fr. Crepe; Ger. Flohr, Krausflohr ; It. EspumiUa, Soplillo ; Rus. Flior ; 
 Sp. Crespon), a light transparent stuff, in manner of gauze, made of raw silk, gummed 
 and twisted on the mill and woven without crossing. It is principally used in mourning. 
 Crape was originally manufactured in Bologna ; but that made in this country is now 
 deemed superior to any made in Italy. 
 
 CREAM OF TARTAR. See Argal. 
 
 CREDIT, the term used to express the trust or confidence placed by one individual 
 in another, when he assigns him money, or other property in loan, or without stipulating 
 for its immediate payment. The party who lends is said to give credit, and the party 
 who borrows to obtain credit. 
 
 Origin and Nature of Credit. — In the earlier stages of society, credit is in a great 
 measure unknown. This arises partly from the circumstance of very little capital being 
 then accumulated, and partly from government not having the means, or not being suf- 
 ficiently careful, to enforce that punctual attention to engagements so indispensable to 
 the existence of confidence or credit. But as society advances, capital is gradually ac- 
 cumulated, and the observance of contracts is enforced by public authority. Credit then 
 begins to grow up. On the one hand, those individuals who have more capital than 
 they can conveniently employ, or who are desirous of withdrawing fi-om business, are dis- 
 posed to lend, or to transfer, a part or the whole of their capital to others, on condition 
 of their obtaining a certain stipulated premium or interest for its use, and what they 
 consider sufficient security for its repayment ; and, on the other hand, there are always 
 individuals to be met with, disposed to borrow, partly (and among merchants principally) 
 in order to extend their business beyond the limits to which they can carry it by means 
 of then- own capital, or to purchase commodities on speculation, and partly to defray 
 debts already contracted. These different classes of individuals mutually accommodate 
 each other. Those desirous of being relieved from the fatigues of business, find it very 
 convenient to lend their capital to others ; while such as are anxious to enlarge their 
 businesses, obtain the means of prosecuting them to a greater extent. 
 
 It is plain, that to whatever extent the power of the borrower of a quantity of produce, 
 or a sum of money, to extend his business may be increased, tliat of the lender must be 
 equally diminished. The same portion of capital cannot be employed by two individuals 
 at the same time. If A. transfer his capital to B., he necessarily, by so doing, deprives 
 himself of a power or capacity of production wliich B. acquires. It is most prol)abIe, 
 indeed, that this capital will be more productively employed in the hands of B. than of 
 A. ; for the fiict of A. having lent it shows that he either had no means of employing 
 it advantageously, or was disinclined to take the trouble ; while the fact of B. having 
 borrowed it sliows that he conceives he can advantageously employ it, or that he can 
 ill vest it so as to make it yield an interest to the lender, and a profit to himself. It is 
 
CREDIT. 
 
 451 
 
 obvious, however, that except in so far as credit contributes, in the way now mentioned, 
 to bring capital into the possession of those wlio, it may be fairly presumed, will employ 
 it most beneficially, it conduces nothing to the increase of wealth. 
 
 The most common method of making a loan is by selling commodities on credit, or 
 on condition that they shall be paid at some future period. Tlie price is increased pro- 
 portionally to the length of credit given ; and if any doubt be entertained with respect 
 to the punctuality or solvency of the buyer, a further sum is added to the price, in order 
 to cover the risk that the seller or endcr runs of not receiving payment, or of not 
 receiving it at the stipulated period. This is the usual method of transacting where 
 capital is abundant, and confidence general ; and there can be no manner of doubt that 
 the amount of property lent in Great Britain, the Netherlands, and most other com- 
 mercial countries, in this way, is infinitely greater than all that is lent in every other 
 way. 
 
 When produce is sold in the way now described, it is usual for the buyers to give their 
 bills to the sellers for the price, payable at the period when the credit is to expire ; and 
 it is in the effects consequent to the negociation of such bills that much of that magical 
 influence that has sometimes been ascribed to credit is believed to consist. Suppose, to 
 illustrate this, that a paper-makei-. A., sells to a printer, B., a quantity of p^er, and that 
 he gets his bill for the sum, payable at 12 months after date : B. could not have entered 
 into the transaction had he been obliged to pay ready money ; but A., notwithstanding 
 he has occasion for the money, is enabled, by the facility of negociating or discounting 
 bills, to give the requisite credit, without disabling himself IVom prosecuting his business. 
 In a case like this, both parties are said to be supported by credit ; and as cases of this 
 sort are exceedingly common, it is contended that half the business of the country is 
 carried on by its means. All, however, that such statements really amount to is, that 
 a large proportion of those engaged in industrious undertakings do not employ their 
 own capital, bvit that of others. In the case in question, ihe printer employs the capital 
 of the paper-maker, and the latter employs that of the banker or broker who discounted 
 the bill. This person had most likely the amount in spare cash lying beside him, which 
 he might not well know what to make of ; but the individual into whose hands it has 
 now come, will immediately apply it to useful purposes, or to the purchase of the ma- 
 terials, or the payment of the wages of the workmen employed in his establishment. It 
 is next to certain, therefore, that the transaction will have been advantageous. But still 
 it is essential to bear in mind that it will have been so, not because credit is of itself a 
 means of production, or because it can give birth to capital not already in existence ; but 
 because, through its agency, capital finds its way into those channels in which it has the 
 best chance of being profitably employed. 
 
 The real advantage derived from the use of bills and bank not-es as money consists, as 
 has been already shown, in their substituting so cheap a medium of exchange as paper, 
 in the place of one so expensive as gold, and in the facilities which they give to the 
 transacting of commercial aflTairs. If a banker lend A. a note for ICOZ. or 1,000/., the 
 latter will be able to obtain an equivalent portion of the land or produce of the country 
 in exchange for it ; but that land or produce was already in existence. The issue of the 
 note did not give it birth. It was previously in some one's possession ; and it will 
 depend wholly on the circumstance of A.'s employing it more or less advantageously 
 than it was previously employed, whether the transaction will, in public point of view, 
 be profitable or not. On analysing any case of this kind, we shall invariably find that 
 all that the highest degree of credit or confidence can db, is merely to change the dis- 
 tribution of capital — to transfer it from one class to another. These transfers are 
 occasionally, too, productive of injurious results, by bringing capital into the hands of 
 spendthrifts : this, however, is not, except in the case of the credit given by shopkeepers, 
 a very common effect; and there can be no doubt that the vast majoiity of regular 
 loans are decidedly beneficial. 
 
 Abuses of the present Credit System in Great Britain. Means of obviating tliem. — 
 The previous observations refer rather to the credit given to individuals engaged in 
 business, who mean to employ the capital which they borrow in industrious undertakings, 
 than to that which ''^ given to individuals not so engaged, and who employ the advances 
 made to them in irupporting themselves and their families. In neither case is credit of 
 advantage, unless it be granted with due discrimination, and with reference to the cha- 
 racter, condition, and prospects of those receiving it. In this coinitry, however, these 
 considerations have been in a great measure lost sight of, in the granting of credit by 
 shopkeepers and tradesmen of all descriptions. Owing to the competition of such 
 persons, their extreme eagerness to secure customers, and the general indolence of 
 opulent persons, which disinclines them to satisfy eyery small debt when it is contracted, 
 the system of selling upon credit has become almost universal. Few among us think of 
 paying ready money for any thing ; seven tenths of the community are in the constant 
 practice of anticipating their incomes ; and there is hardly one so bankrupt in character 
 
 2 G 2 
 
452 
 
 CREDIT. 
 
 and fortune as to be unable to find grocers, bakers, butchers, tailors, &c. ready to furnish 
 him upon credit with supplies of the articles in which they respectively deal. We look 
 upon this facility of obtaining accommodations as a very great evil. They are not, in 
 one case out of five, of any real advantage to the parties receiving thenn, while they are 
 productive of very pernicious results. The system tempts very many, and sometimes 
 even the most considerate individuals, to indulge in expenses beyond their means ; and 
 thus becomes the most fruitful source of bankruptcy, insolvency, and bad faith. To 
 guarantee themselves from the extraordinary risk to which such proceedings expose them, 
 tradesmen are obliged to advance the price of their goods to a most exorbitant height ; 
 so that those who are able, and who really mean to pay the debts they contract, are, in 
 fact, obliged to pay those of the hosts of insolvents and swindlers maintained by the 
 present system. Many tradesmen consider themselves as fortunate, if they recover from 
 two thirds to three fourths of the sums standing in their books, at the distance of several 
 years. 
 
 The extraordinary extent to which the credit practice is carried may be learned from 
 the inquiries of the Parliamentary Committee on Small Debts. It appears from them, 
 that hatters, shoemakers, &c. in the metropolis, have often 4,000Z. and upwards on their 
 books in debts below 10/., and that five sixths of their book debts are below that sum! A 
 large proportion of these debts are irrecoverable ; but owing to the artificial enhance- 
 ment of prices, those that are good are sufficient to indemnify the traders for the loss of 
 the bad. 
 
 It is not easy, we think, to imagine any system better fitted to generate improvidence 
 and fraud. The vast majority of those who become insolvent, or are imprisoned for 
 debt, consist of labourers, artisans, half-pay officers, clerks in public and other offices, 
 annuitants, &c. — persons whom no prudent shopkeeper would ever allow to get perma- 
 nently into his debt. The following Table exhibits some of the efl^ects resulting fi-om this 
 sy stem : — 
 
 Number of Persons committed for Debt to the several Prisons of the Metropolis in the Year 1827, and the 
 Sums for which they were committed. — {Faii. Paper, No. 76. Sess. 1828.) 
 
 
 For Sums' 
 above 100/. 
 
 For Sums 
 between 
 hQl. Si lOOi. 
 
 For Sums 
 between 
 50Z. & 20Z. 
 
 For Sums 
 under 20Z. 
 
 Total. 
 
 In Custody 
 January 1. 
 1828. 
 
 King's Bench prison 
 Fleet prison - -_ - 
 Whitecross Street prison 
 Marshalsea prison . - . 
 Horsemonger Lane prison 
 
 474 
 
 206 
 206 
 20 
 57 
 
 354 
 141 
 
 273 
 30 
 58 
 
 550 
 223 
 816 
 166 
 1;34 
 
 213 
 113 
 600 
 414 
 
 923 
 
 1,591 
 683 
 .1,893 
 630 
 
 1,172 
 
 G74 
 253 
 378 
 102 
 105 
 
 Total 
 
 963 
 
 856 
 
 1,889 
 
 2,263 
 
 5,969 
 
 1,512 
 
 It is time, certainly, that something effectual were done to put an end to such flagrant 
 abuses — to a system that sends 923 persons to a single prison for debts under 20/. ! 
 We do not mean to say or insinuate that credit may not frequently be given to the 
 labouring classes vidth the best effects: but it is of its abuse that we complain, — of its 
 being indiscriminately granted to everyone; to those whom it encourages to continue in 
 a course of idleness and profligacy, as well as to those industrious and deserving persons 
 to whom it may occasionally be of the greatest service. To secure the advantages of 
 credit to the public, free from the enormous evils that result from its abuse, is an object 
 of the highest importance ; and few things, we believe, would do so much to secure it, 
 as the taking from creditors the power to arrest and imprison for debt. — (See Bank- 
 
 RUPTCT.) 
 
 It was stated in the House of Commons, (19th of February, 1827,) that in the space 
 of 2^ years, 70,000 persons were arrested in and about London, at an expense to the 
 parties, it may be estimated, of between 150,000/. and 200,(X)0/. ! In 1827, in the 
 metropolis and two adjoining counties, 23,515 warrants to arrest were granted, and 
 11,317 bailable processes were executed. Hence it maybe concluded, that in this single 
 year, within the above limits, no fewer than 12,000 persons were deprived of their 
 liberty, on the mere allegation of others, without any jyroof that they owed them a 
 farthing I Well might Lord Eldon say " that the law of arrest is a permission to commit 
 acts of greater oppression and inhumanity than are to be met with in slavery itself, and that 
 the redress of such a grievance would not be attended with any fatal consequences to the 
 country." 
 
 'J'he following Table, which shows that 1,120 persons were committed to Horsemonger 
 Lane prison, in 1831, for debts amounting, in all, to only 2,417/. 7s. 5d., being, at an 
 average, no more than 21. 3s. 2d. each, proves that the discussions which liave taken placo 
 with respect to the law of arrest and imprisonment, have not, in any degree, lessened its 
 mischievous operation. Whatever else may be dear in England, the fact that thousands 
 of people are annually imprisoned for such miserable trifles, shows that personal liberty 
 IS, at at all events, abundantly cheap. 
 
CREDIT. 
 
 453 
 
 A Return of the Number of Debtors committed to Ilorsemongcr Lane PriBon, on Process out of the 
 Courts of Requests, during the Years ending 1st of January, 18.'32 and I8'33 ; Btating the aggregate 
 Amount of Debts and Costs, separately, in each Year ; showing, in Classes, the Number confined irom 
 One to less than Ten I)ays, for Ten l)ays and less than Thirty, Fifty, Seventy, and One Hundred 
 Days ; stating, also, the Amount paid out of the County or other Rates for the Maintenance and 
 Support of such Prisoners, as accurately as possible. 
 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 Number committed in the year • • • 
 
 1,120 
 
 945 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Aggregate amount of debts 
 
 2,417 7 
 
 5 
 
 2,039 14 
 
 9 
 
 costs - - . - 
 
 096 2 
 
 7 
 
 566 18 
 
 2 
 
 Number confined from 1 to less than 10 days 
 
 610 
 
 
 394 
 
 
 for 10 and . . 30 - 
 
 336 
 
 
 317 
 
 
 30 - - 50 - 
 
 77 
 
 
 119 
 
 
 50 - . 70 - 
 
 47 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 70 - - 100 - 
 
 26 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 100 days and more - - 
 
 24 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 Amount paid out of the county or other rates for the main- 1 
 
 je 
 
 
 
 
 tenance and support of such prisoners - -j 
 
 208 
 
 
 226 
 
 
 We defy any one to show that the law of arrest and imprisonment has a single good 
 consequence to be placed as a set-ofF against the intolerable evils of which it is productive. 
 Tradesmen depend, as is clearly evinced by the above statements, upon the despotical 
 power which it puts in their hands, to get them out of scrapes ; and believe that the fear 
 of being subjected to arrest will stimulate even the most suspicious portion of their 
 debtors to make payment of their accounts. The records of our prisons, and of our 
 insolvent and other courts, show how miserably these expectations are disappointed. We 
 believe, indeed, that we are warranted in affirming that the more respectable classes of 
 shopkeepers and tradesmen are now generally satisfied that the present system requires 
 some very material modifications. The law of arrest and imprisonment is, in fact, 
 advantageous to none but knaves and swindlers, and the lowest class of attorneys, who 
 frequently buy up small accounts and bills, that they may bring actions upon them, and 
 enrich themselves at the expense of the poor, by the magnitude of their charges. Such 
 oppressive proceedings are a disgrace to a civilised country. Were the law in question 
 repealed, credit would be granted to those only who deserved it ; for, generally speaking, 
 tradesmen, supposing they had nothing to trust to but their own discretion, would not 
 deal, except for ready money, with those of whose character and situation they were not 
 perfectly informed ; and the difficulty imder which all idle and improvident persons 
 would thus be placed of obtaining loans, would do much to wean them from their vicious 
 courses, and to render them industrious and honest. " Those," says Dr. Johnson, " who 
 have made the laws, have apparently considered that every deficiency of payment is the 
 crime of the debtor. But the truth is, that the creditor always shares the act, and often 
 more than shares the guilt of improper trust. It seldom happens that any man imprisons 
 another but for debts which he suflPered to be contracted in hope of advantage to himself, 
 and for bargains in which he proportioned his profit to his own opinion of the hazard • 
 and there is no reason why one should punish another for a contract in which both con- 
 curred." 
 
 The power of taking goods in execution for debts is also one that requires to be 
 materially modified. At present, the household furniture of every man, and even the 
 implements used in his trade, should there be nothing else to lay hold of, may be seized 
 and sold in satisfaction of any petty claim. It seems to us quite clear that some limits 
 should be set to this power ; and that such articles as are indispensable either to the 
 subsistence or the business of any poor man OMght to be exempted from execution, and, 
 perhaps, distress. The present practice, by stripping its victims of the means of support 
 and employment, drives them to despair, and is productive only of crimes and disorders. 
 
 We are glad to observe that there seems to be a growing conviction among mercantile 
 men, of the inconveniences arising from the present practice. A petition against im- 
 prisonment for small debts, subscribed by many of the most eminent merchants, manu- 
 facturers, bankers, &c. of the city of Glasgow, was presented to the House of Commons 
 in 1833. It contains so brief, and at the same time so forcible, an exposition of the 
 evils resulting from the present system, that we shall take the liberty of laying it before 
 our readers. 
 
 " Your petitioners have been long and seriously impressed with the belief that very great evils have 
 arisen and do arise from the imprisonment of debtors in Scotland, especially for small sums 
 
 " The petitioners will not here question the policy of the existing laws which authorise" the impri'son 
 ment of debtors for considerable sums, nor do they intend to object to the creditor rctainin<' the fullest 
 power over the property and effects of his debtor ; but thev are humbly of opinion that in -solar as these 
 laws give creditors the power to imprison debtors for small sums, such as for 8/. and under^ thev are not 
 only injurious to the public, and ruinous to the debtor, but even hurtful to the creditor himself " 
 
 9. G S 
 
454 
 
 CREDIT. 
 
 It would be a waste of time to dwell upon the hardship of subjecting debtors to iraprisoimient for 
 small debts, contracted sometimes certainly under circumstances of real distress, but more frequently from 
 the improper use of credit, with which they are too readily supplied. The creditor takes care that his 
 profit shall be commensurate with his risk; and the debtor is induced to purchase freely, and at any price, 
 that which he is not immediately called upon to pay ; the creditor coolly and cruelly calculates upon the 
 power which the law has granted him over the person of his debtor if he fail to discharge his debt to him, 
 while the debtor forgets that, by the credit so imprudently afforded him, he is preparing theuway for his 
 own ruin, and that of all who have any dependence upon him. 
 
 " The total number of debtors imprisoned in the gaol of Glasgow alone, for debts of 8^. and under, was, 
 in the year 1830, 353 ; in 1831, 419 ; and in 1832, 437 ; while the whole number of incarcerations in that 
 gaol for sums of every description were, in the year 1830,557; in 1831,630; and in 1832,696; the proportion 
 of sums of 81. and under being nearly two thirds of the whole on the average of these 3 years. 
 
 " To remedy these evils, your petitioners humbly submit that means should be adopted for the repeal of 
 the laws at present in force, in so far as they sanction the recovery of small debts by imprisonment, 
 reserving their effect in every other respect; the result of which would be, that credit for small sums 
 would be greatly limited, if not entirely extinguished, and the poorer classes rendered more provident; 
 and by purchasing with money at a cheaper rate what they now buy at an extravagant price, they would 
 be enabled to procure for themselves additional comforts, from the more economical employment of their 
 small incomes. 
 
 " May it therefore please your Honourable House to take this matter into your consideration, and to 
 adopt such means as you in your wisdom shall see proper, to prevent the incarceration of debtors for sums 
 under SI., and thereby remove or greatly mitigate the evils of improvidence on the part of the debtor, and 
 of oppression on the part of the creditor, which necessarily arise under the present system." 
 
 So reasonable a proposal, .supported by such conclusive statements, could not fail to 
 make a deep impression ; and a bill was consequently introduced by the solicitor general, 
 taking away the power to arrest and imprison for petty debts. This bill was after- 
 wards withdrawn ; but there can be no doubt that it will be brought forward again, 
 unless it be resolved to apply a still more radical cure to the abuses complained of. 
 
 Propriety of placing all small Debts beyond the Pale of the Law. — The taking away 
 the power of arrest and imprisonment, except in the case of fraudulent bankruptcy 
 would certainly be a material improvement upon the existing system. But we are satis- 
 fied that it does not go far enough ; and that by far the most desirable and beneficial 
 reform that could be effected in this department would be to take away all action for debts 
 tinder a given sum, as 50l. or 100/. The only exception to this rule should be in the 
 case of claims for wages, or labour done under executory contracts. To prevent the 
 measure from being defeated, no action should be granted on bills imder 501. or 100/., 
 except upon those drawn by or upon regular bankers. This would be a radical change 
 certainly ; but we are fully satisfied that it would be highly advantageous to every class 
 of the community, and most of all to labourers, retail dealers, and small tradesmen. It 
 would protect the former from oppression, at the same time that it would tend power- 
 fully to render them more provident and considerate ; it would teach the latter to ex- 
 ercise that discretion in the granting of credit which is so very indispensable; and it 
 would be publicly beneficial, by strengthening the moral principle, and making the 
 contraction of debts for small sums, without the means of paying them, at once difficult 
 and disgraceful. 
 
 We agree entirely in opinion with those who think that it is to no purpose to attempt 
 to remedy the defects now pointed out, by multiplying courts and other devices for 
 facilitating the speedy recovery of small debts. This is beginning at the wrong end ; 
 or rather it is attempting to obviate the influence of one abuse by instituting another. 
 No wise statesman will ever be easily persuaded to fill the country with petty local 
 courts ; for these, when not absolutely necessary, are the merest nuisances imaginable ; 
 and he would, at all events, exert himself, in the first instance, to do away, in so far 
 as possible, with the circumstances that make individuals resort to them. But it is 
 certain that nine tenths of the cases in county courts originate in questions as to simple 
 contract debts under 50l. ; and were such debts placed, as they ought to be, beyond the 
 pale of the law, the courts would be wholly unnecessary. Our object ought not to be 
 to provide means for enforcing payment of trifling debts, but to prevent their contraction. 
 We believe, indeed, that, instead of lessening, the multiplication of district courts will 
 materially aggravate, all the evils of the present credit system. The belief that they 
 may readily enforce their claims by resorting to them will make shopkeepers and trades- 
 men still more disposed than at present to give credit, while the unprincipled, the incon- 
 siderate, and the necessitous will eagerly grasp at this increased facility. What there is 
 of caution amongst our retail dealei"s is in no inconsiderable degree owing to the want 
 of those petty tribunals so many are anxious to have universally established. The more 
 they are increased, the less will caution prevail. But instead of diminishing this virtue, 
 
 for such it really is, — it cannot be too much increased. Nothing will ever deter those 
 
 who ought not to obtain credit from taking it while in their power ; but those who 
 give it may be made to exercise greater discretion ; they may be made to know that it 
 is a private transaction between themselves and those to whom they grant it ; and that 
 in the case of petty debts they have only their own sagacity to look to, such transactions 
 not being cognizable by law. A measure of the sort here proposed would not, as some 
 appear to imagine, annihilate credit. It would, no doubt, annihilate that spurious 
 indiscriminating species of credit, that is as readily granted to the spendthrift and pro- 
 
CREW.— CUDBEAR. 
 
 digal, as to the frugal and industrious individual ; but to the same extent that it de- 
 prived the former of the means of obtaining accommodation, it would extend those of 
 the latter. Nothing short of this — nothing but the placing all small debts beyond 
 the pale of the law — will ever fully impress tradesmen with a conviction of the vast 
 advantages that would result to themselves from their withdrawing their confidence from 
 courts and prisons, and preventing every one from getting upon their books, of whose 
 situation and circumstances they are not fully aware ; nor will any thing else be able 
 comj)letely to eradicate the flagrant abuses inherent in the present credit system, and 
 which have gone far to render it a public nuisance. 
 
 One of the worst consequences of the present system is the sort of thraldom in wliich 
 it keeps thousands of labourers and other individuals, whom the improper facilities for 
 obtaining credit originally led into debt. Such persons dare not leave the shops to 
 which they owe accounts ; and they dare neither object to the quality of the goods 
 offered to them, nor to the prices charged. Dr. Johnson has truly observed, that " he 
 that once owes more than he can pay, is often obliged to bribe his creditor to patience 
 by increasmg his debt. Worse and worse commodities at a higher and higher price are 
 forced upon him ; he is impoverished by compulsive traffic ; and at last overwhelmed in 
 the common receptacles of misery by debts, which, without his OAvn consent, were accu- 
 mulated on his head." By taking away all right of action upon small debts, this system 
 of invisible but substantial coercion would be put an end to. The tradesman would 
 take care who got, in the first instance, upon his books ; and instead of forcing articles 
 upon him, would cease to furnish him with any unless he found he was regular in 
 making his payments ; while the customer, to whom credit was of importance, would 
 know that his only chance of olitaining it would depend upon his character and re- 
 putation for punctuality. The abuses of the sort now alluded to, that grew out of 
 what has been denominated the truck system, justly occasioned its abolition ; hut these 
 were trifling compared with those that originate in the bringing of petty debts within the 
 pale of the law. 
 
 When the former edition of this work was published, we were not aware that it had been previously pro- 
 posed to take away all action for debts under 501. or 100/. ; but we have since met with a pamphlet, entitled 
 Credit Pernicious, published in 1823, in which this plan is proposed and ably supported. There are 
 also some valuable remarks and observations on the topics now treated of, in the Treatise on thp Police, 
 SfC. of the Metropolis, by the author of the " Cabinet Lawyer," pp. 114 — 134. 
 
 CREW, the company of sailors belonging to any ship or vessel. No ship is admitted 
 to be a British ship, unless duly registered and navigated as such by a crew, three 
 fourths of which are British subjects, besides the master. — (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 54. § 12.) 
 The ipaster or owners of any British ship having a foreign seaman on board not allowed 
 by law, shall for every such seaman forfeit lOZ. ; unless they can show, by the certificate 
 of the Briti.sh consul, or of two British merchants, or shall satisfactorily prove, that the 
 requisite ntxmber of British seamen could not be obtained at the place where the foreign 
 seaman was taken on board. It is also ordered that the master of every British vessel 
 arriving from the West Indies shall deliver, within 10 days after arrival, to the Custom- 
 house, a list of the crew on board at the time of clearing out from the United Kingdom, 
 and of arrival in the West Indies, and of every seaman who has deserted or died during 
 the voyage, and the amount of wages due to each so dying, under a penalty of 501. — 
 (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 54. § 19. ; 3 & 4 WiU. 4. c. 52. § 16.) 
 
 CUBEBS (^Ger. Kuhehen; Fr. Cubebes ; It. Cubebi ; Sp. Cubebas ; Rus. Kubebu j 
 Lat. Piper Cubeba ; Arab. Kebdbeh ; Javan, Kumunkus ; Hind. Cubab-chinie), the 
 produce of a vine or clim.ber, the growth of which is confined exclusively to Java. It 
 is a small dried fruit, like a pepper corn, but somewhat longer. Cubebs have a hot, 
 pungent, aromatic, slightly bitter taste ; and a fragrant, agreeable odour. They should 
 be chosen large, fresh, sound, and the heaviest that can be procured. The quantity 
 entered for home consumption, in 1830, amounted to 18,540 lbs., producing a nett 
 revenue of 1,854?. 6s. Their price in the London market, in bond, varies from 21. 10s. 
 to 41. 4s. per cwt. 
 
 CUCUMBER, a tropical plant, of which there are many varieties, largely cultivated 
 in hothouses in England. 
 
 CUDBEAR, a purple or violet coloured powder used in dyeing violet, purple, and 
 crimson, prepared from a species of lichen (Lichen tartareus Lin.), or crustaceous moss, 
 growing commonly on limestone rocks in Sweden, Scotland, the north of England, 
 &c. About 130 tons of this lichen are annually exported from Sweden. It commonly 
 sells in the port of London for about 201. per ton ; but to prepare it for yse it must be 
 washed and dried ; and by these operations the weight is commonly diminished a half, 
 and the price, in effect, doubled. Though possessing great beauty and lustre at first, 
 the colours obtained from cudbear are so very fugacious, that they ought never to be 
 employed but in aid of some other more permanent dye, to which they may give body 
 and vivacity. In this country it is chiefly used to give strength and brilliancy to the 
 blues dyed with indigo, and to produce a saving of that article ; it is also used as a around 
 
 2 G 4 
 
456 CUMMIN SEED.— CUSTOM-HOUSE. 
 
 for madder reds, which commonly incline too much to yellow, and are maae rosy by this 
 addition. The name cudbear was given to this powder by Dr. Cuthbert Gordon, who, 
 having obtained a patent for the preparation, chose in this way to connect it with his 
 own name. — {Bancroft, Philosophy of Permanent Colours, vol. i. pp. 300 — 304.) 
 
 CUMMIN SEED (Ger. Kumin ; Fr. Cumin; It. Comino, Cumino ; Sp. Comino ; 
 Arab. Kemun), the seeds of an annual plant (Cuminum Cyminum Lin.), a native of 
 Egypt, but extensively cultivated in Sicily and Malta. They have a strong, peculiar, 
 heavy odour, and a warm, bitterish, disagreeable taste. They are long and slender. 
 
 CURRANTS (Fr. Raisins de Corinthe ; Ger. Korijithen ; It. Uve passe di Corinto ; 
 Lat. PassulcB CorinthiaccB ; Rus. Korinka, Opoek ; Sp. Pasas de Corinto), a small species of 
 grape, largely cultivated in Zante, Cephalonia, and Ithaca, of which islands they form 
 the staple produce ; and in the Morea, in the vicinity of Patras. The plant is delicate ; 
 and as 6 or 7 years must elapse, after a plantation has been formed, before it begins to 
 produce, its cultivation requires a considerable outlay of capital. The crop is particularly 
 liable to injury from rains in harvest, and is altogether of a very precarious description. 
 After being dried in the sun, the currants are exported packed in large butts. They 
 are in extensive demand in this country ; and, when mixed with ffour and suet, make a 
 dish that is peculiarly acceptable to the lower classes. But, as if it were intended to 
 put them beyond the reach of all but the richest individuals, they are burdened with the 
 enormous duty of 44s. 4(i. a cwt. ! The fact, that in despite of this anti-consumption 
 impost, the entries of currants for home consumption amounted, at an average of the 
 3 years ending with 1831, to 127,084 cwt. a year, producing an annual revenue of 
 281,787/., shows that the taste for them is both deeply rooted and widely diffused. With 
 one or two exceptions, they are the most grossly over-taxed article in the British tariff. 
 Their price in bond, in London, varies from 20a'. to 27s. a cwt, ; so that the duty 
 amounts to more than 200 per cent, on the importation price ! So exorbitant a tax 
 admits of no justification. It is highly injurious to the consumers in Great Britain, 
 to the merchants engaged in the Mediterranean trade, to the producers in the Ionian 
 Islands and Greece, and, we may add, to the revenue : for, considering how highly 
 esteemed the article is by all classes, and that it might be imported in much larger 
 quantities without any considerable rise of price, there can be no manner of doubt that 
 were the duty reduced to lOs. or 12s. a cwt. the consumption would be so much increased, 
 that in a few years the revenue would be materially greater than at present. 
 
 By referring to the article Ionian Islands, it will be seen that the duty has been 
 peculiarly hostile to their interests. It has, in fact, gone far to countervail all the advan- 
 tages they have, in other respects, derived from our protection ; and has done much 
 to estrange the affections of the inhabitants, and to excite and keep alive a jealousy of this 
 country. 
 
 The Mediterranean merchants, in a petition presented to the House of Commons last 
 session, prayed for the repeal of the duty imposed since 1806, being 16s. 4c?. a cwt., 
 leaving a duty of 28s. a cwt. A reduction to this extent would, no doubt, be a con- 
 siderable relief to the growers and importers ; but it would be quite inadequate to bring 
 the article fairly into consumption among the mass of the people. To accomplish this 
 most desirable object, the duty ought not to exceed 10s. or 12s. ; and we are well con- 
 vinced it would yield more revenue at this rate than at 28s. A duty of 50 per cent, is 
 surely high enough upon an article fitted to enter largely into the consumption of the 
 iabouring classes. 
 
 No abatement of duties is made on account of any damage received by currants. 
 
 Currants, the produce of Europe, are not to be imported for home use except in British ships, or in 
 ships of the country of which they are the produce, or of the country whence they are imported. — 
 (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 54. \ § 2. 22.) 
 
 A Treasury letter of the 30th of March, 1816, directs the following tares to be allowed, with liberty to 
 the merchant and officers to take the actual tare when either party is dissatisfied. 
 
 Currants in casks from Zante - - 13 per cent. 
 
 Leghorn - - 10 — 
 Trieste - . 10 _ 
 
 CUSTOM-HOUSE, the house or office where commodities are entered for im- 
 portation or exportation ; where the duties, bounties, or drawbacks payable or receivable 
 upon such importation or exportation are paid or received ; and where ships are cleared 
 out, &c. 
 
 For information as to the proceedings necessary at the Custom-house on importing or 
 exporting commodities, see the article Importation and Exportation. 
 
 The principal British Custom-house is in London ; but there are Custom-houses 
 subordinate to the latter in all considerable sea-port towns. 
 
 CUSTOMS, are duties charged upon commodities on their being imported into or 
 exported from a country. 
 
 Custom duties seem to have existed in every commercial country. The Athenians 
 laid a tax of a fifth on the corn and other merchandise imported from foreign countries, 
 and also on several of the commodities exported from Attica. The portaria, or customs 
 
CUSTOMS. 
 
 457 
 
 payable on the commodities imported into, and exported from, the different ports in the 
 Roman empire, formed a very ancient and important part of the public revenue. The 
 rates at which they were charged were fluctuating and various, and little is now known 
 respecting them. Cicero informs us, that the duties on corn exported from the ports of 
 Sicily were, in his time, 5 per cent. Under the Imperial government, the amount of 
 the portaria depended as much on the caprice of the prince as on the real exigencies of 
 the state. Though sometimes diminished, they were never entirely remitted, and were 
 much more frequently increased. Under the 13yzantine emperors, they were as high as 
 1 2i per cent. — ( Supp. to Encyc. Brit. art. Taxation. ) 
 
 Customs seems to have existed in England before the Conquest ; but the king's claim 
 to them was first established by stat. 3 Edw. 1. These duties were, at first, principally 
 laid on wool, woolfels (sheep-skins), and leather when exported. There were also ex- 
 traordinary duties paid by aliens, which were denominated parva costuma, to distinguish 
 them from the formei', or magna costuma. The duties of tonnage and poundage, of 
 which mention is so frequently made in English history, were custom duties j the first 
 being paid on wine by the tun, and the latter being an ad valorem duty of so much a 
 pound on all other merchandise. When these duties were granted to the Crown, they 
 were denominated subsidies ; and as the duty of poundage had continued for a lengthened 
 period at the rate of Is. a pound, or 5 per cent., a subsidy came, in the language of the 
 customs, to denote an ad valorem duty of 5 per cent. The new subsidy granted in the 
 reign of William III. was an addition of 5 per cent, to the duties on most imported 
 commodities. 
 
 The various custom duties were collected, for the first time, in a book of rates pub- 
 lished in the reign of Charles II. ; a new book of rates being again published in the 
 reign of George I. But, exclusive of the duties entered in these two books, many more 
 had been imposed at different times ; so that the accumulation of the duties, and the 
 complicated regulations to which they gave rise, were productive of the greatest embar- 
 rassment. The evil was increased by the careless manner in which new duties were 
 added to the old ; a percentage being sometimes added to the original tax ; while at 
 other times the commodity was estimated by a new standard of bulk, weight, number, 
 or value, and charged with an additional impost, without any reference to the duties 
 formerly imposed. The confusion arising from these sources was still further aug- 
 mented by the special appropriation of each of the duties, and the consequent neces- 
 sity of a separate calculation for each. The intricacy and confusion inseparable from 
 such a state of things proved a serious injury to commerce, and led to many frauds and 
 abuses. 
 
 The Customs Consolidation Act, introduced by Mr. Pitt in 1 787, did much to remedy 
 these inconveniences. The method adopted was, to abolish the existing duties on -all 
 articles, and to substitute in their stead one single duty on each article, equivalent to the 
 aggregate of the various duties by which it had previously been loaded. The resolutions' 
 on which the act was founded amounted to about 3,000. A more simple and uniform 
 system was, at the same time, introduced into the business of the Custom-house. These 
 alterations were productive of the very best effects ; and several similar consolidations 
 have since been effected ; particularly in 1 825, when the various statutes then existing 
 relative to the customs, amounting, including parts of statutes, to about 450, were con- 
 solidated and compressed into only 1 1 statutes of a reasonable bulk, and drawn up with 
 great perspicuity. Since then, a few statutes were passed, amending and changing 
 some of the provisions in the consolidated statutes ; and these have been again embodied 
 in consolidated acts passed last session.* 
 
 The Board of Customs is not to consist of more than 13 commissioners, and they 
 are to be reduced to 11 as vacancies occur. The Treasury may appoint 1 commis- 
 sioner, and 2 assistant commissioners, to act for Scotland and Ireland. 
 
 Officers of customs taking any fee or reward, whether pecuniary or of any other sort, 
 on account of any thing done, or to be done, by them in the exercise of their duty, from 
 any one, except by the order or permission of the commissioners of the customs, shall 
 be dismissed their office ; and the person giving, offering, or promising such gratuity, 
 fee, &c. shall forfeit 100/. 
 
 Any officer of customs who shall accept of any bribe, recompence, or reward, to in- 
 duce him to neglect his duty, or to do, conceal, or connive at any act whereby any of 
 the provisions of the customs laws shall be evaded, shall be dismissed the service, and be 
 rendered incapable of serving his Majesty in future in any capacity whatever ; and the 
 person offering such bribe, recompence, &c. shall, whether the offer be accepted or not, 
 forfeit 500/. 
 
 Custom duties, like all duties on particular commodities, though advanced in the first 
 instance by the merchant, are ultimately paid by those by whom they are consumed. 
 
 * 3 & 4 Will. 4. cap. 51, 52. 56. and 58. 
 
4.58 
 
 CUSTOMS. 
 
 When a government lays a duty on the foreign commodities which enter its ports, the 
 duty falls entirely on such of its own subjects as purchase these commodities ; for the 
 foreigners would cease supplying its markets with them, if they did not get the full 
 price of the commodities, exclusive of the tax ; and, for the same reason, when a govern- 
 ment lays a duty on the commodities which its subjects are about to export, the duty 
 does not fall on them, but on the foreigners by whom they are bought. If, therefore, 
 it were possible for a country to raise a sufficient revenue by laying duties on exported 
 commodities, such revenue would be wholly derived from others, and it would be totally 
 relieved from the burden of taxation, except in so far as duties might be imposed by 
 foreigners on the goods it im»ports from them. Care, however, must be taken, in im- 
 posing duties on exportation, not to lay them on commodities that may be produced at 
 the same, or nearly the same, cost by foreigners ; for the effect of the duty would then 
 be to cause the market to be supplied by others, and to put an entire stop to their export- 
 ation. But in the event of a country possessing any decided natural or acquired advan- 
 tage in the production of any sort of commodities, a duty on their exportation would 
 seem to be the most unexceptionable of all taxes. If the Chinese chose to act on this 
 principle, they might derive a considerable revenue from a duty on exported teas, which 
 would fall entirely on the English and other foreigners who buy them. The coal and 
 tin, and perhaps, also, some of the manufactured goods produced in this country, seem 
 to be in this predicament. 
 
 The revenue derived from the custom duties in 1590, in the reign of Elizabeth, 
 amounted to no more than 50,0007. In 1613, it had increased to 148,075/. ; of which 
 no less than 109,572/. were collected in London. In 1660, at the Restoration, the 
 customs produced 421,582/. ; and at the Revolution, in 1688, they produced 781,987/. 
 Durinp- the reigns of William III. and Anne, the customs revenue was considerably 
 augmented, the nett payments into the exchequer in 1712 being 1,315,423/. During 
 the war terminated by the peace of Paris in 1763, the nett produce of the customs 
 revenue of Great Britain amounted to nearly 2,000,000/. In 1792, it amounted to 
 4,407,000/- In 1815, at the close of the war, it amounted to 11,360,000/. ; and last year 
 (1832) it amounted to about 17,000,000/., and, including Ireland, to about 1 8,500,000/. ! 
 
 Astonishing, however, as the increase of the customs revenue has certainly been, it is 
 not quite so great as it appears. Formerly the duties on some considerable articles, such 
 as sugar, brandy, wine, &c. imported from abroad, were divided partly into customs 
 duties charged on their importation, and partly into excise duties on their being taken 
 into consumption. But these duties have now, with the exception of tea*, been trans- 
 ferred wholly to the customs; the facilities afforded, by means of the warehousing 
 system, for paying the duties in the way most convenient for the merchant, having 
 obviated the necessity of dividing them into different portions. 
 
 It will be seen from various articles in this work~(see Brandy, Geneva, Smuggling, 
 Tea, Tobacco, &c.) — that the exorbitant amount of the duties laid on many articles 
 imported from abroad leads to much smuggling and fraud ; and requires, besides, an 
 extraordinary expense in many departments of the customs service, which might be 
 totally avoided were these duties reduced within reasonable limits. This, however, is the 
 business of government, and not of those entrusted with the management of the customs; 
 and it would be unjust to the latter not to mention that this department has been essen- 
 tially improved, during the last few years, both as respects economy and efficiency. The 
 following extracts from a letter to the Right Hon. H. Goulburn, ascribed to the present 
 chairman of the Board of Customs (R. B. Dean, Esq.), give a brief but satisfactory 
 view of the improvements that have been effected : — 
 
 « As regards the department of customs in 1792, the principal officers engaged in the 
 receipt of the duties in the port of London were patent officers. 
 
 " The first Earl of Liverpool was collector inwards. 
 
 " The late Duke of Manchester, collector outwards. 
 
 " The Duke of Newcastle, and afterwards the Earl of Guilford, comptroller inwards 
 and outwards. 
 
 " Lord Stowell, surveyor of subsidies and petty customs. 
 
 " These noblemen took no part in the official duties, but merely exercised the right oi 
 appointing deputies and clerks. 
 
 " Both principals and deputies were remunerated by fees. The patentees received 
 the fees denominated patent, and the deputies retained the fees called the fees of usage 
 for their own use. In addition to these fees, both deputies and clerks received fees for 
 despatch. 
 
 " The same system prevailed throughout the whole department. The salaries of the 
 oflRcers were nominal ; and the principal proportion of all official income was derived 
 
 * From the 22d of April, 1834, the collection of the tea duties by the excise is to cease ; and they art 
 to be transferred to the customs. — (See Tea.) 
 
CUSTOMS. 
 
 459 
 
 from fees. These fees were constantly varying both in rate and amount, and formed a 
 continual source of dispute and complaint between the merchant and the officer. 
 
 " Tliis system (after having been repeatedly objected to by various commissions of 
 inquiry, and finally by the committee of finance in 1797,) was put an end to in the 
 year 1812, by the act 51 Geo. 3. c. 71., by which all patent offices and fees were 
 abolished, and compensation allowances granted to the patent officers, and fixed salaries 
 established. 
 
 " The additional salaries granted under this arrangement amounted to about 200,000/., 
 and the temporary compensation allowances to about 40,000/. per annum. 
 
 " The fees abolished, and from which the public were relieved, amounted to about 
 160,000/. per annum. 
 
 " In addition to the amount of fees from which the public were relieved, various 
 allowances made by the Crown to officers for quarantine, coal poundage, poundage on 
 seizures, and many other incidental allowances, which did not appear on the establish- 
 ment, were also abolished, and the salaries of every officer placed at one view upon the 
 establishment. 
 
 " The effect of these salutary measures has been to give a great apparent increase to 
 ofBcers' salaries since 1792; and, upon a mere comparison of the establishment of 1792 
 with 1830, without the above explanation, it would appear that the pay of the officers 
 had been most materially augmented, whereas, in point of fact, the difference is in the 
 mode of payment : and the incomes of the officers at the present period (as compared 
 with 1792) are in general less; and, consequently, the public are less taxed for the per- 
 formance of the same duty now than in 1792. 
 
 " In the year 1792, the warehousing system had not been established. Officers were 
 admitted at all ages, and there was no system of classification or promotion. The officers 
 at the out-ports and in London were generally appointed through local influence ; and 
 were too often persons who had failed in trade, or had been in menial service, and who 
 regarded their situations rather as a comfortable provision for their families than as offices 
 for which efficient services were required. The superintendence and powers of the 
 Board were cramped and interfered with by circumstances and considerations which 
 prevented the enforcement of wholesome regulation. The whole system was so imper- 
 fect, so far back only as 1818, that a special commission was appointed to inquire into 
 the department ; and, upon the recommendation of that commission, various regulations 
 have been adopted. 
 
 " The age of admission has been limited ; a system of classification and promotion of 
 officers, and a graduated scale of salaries, established throughout the whole department ; 
 and, by this means, local interference in the promotion of officers has been abolished ; 
 the attendance of officers increased, regulated, and strictly enforced ; holidays reduced 
 from 46 in the year to 3 ; viz. Good Friday, the King's birthday, and Christmas-day ; 
 useless oaths, and bonds, and forms of documents of various kinds, discontinued ; in- 
 creased facility and despatch afforded to the merchant's business ; the accounts kept in 
 the different offices, and returns of all kinds revised, simplified, and reduced ; and various 
 minor regulations of detail established ; the whole machinery of the department re- 
 modelled, and adapted to the trade and commerce of the country. 
 
 " In Ireland, the number of officers employed at all the ports, in the year ended the 
 5th of January, 1830, and the salaries and charges, did not much exceed the number and 
 expense at the port of Dublin alone in 1818 : and, within the space of 11 j'^ears, nearly 
 two thirds of the officers employed at the ports in Ireland have been discontinued ; 
 the number having been, in 1818, 1755 ; in 1829, 544: and an annual reduction in sa- 
 laries and charges has been effected to the extent of 173,724/. ; the amount having been, 
 in 1818, 285,115/. ; in 1829, 111,391/. (103,813/. of that amount having been reduced 
 between the years 1823 and 1828), upon an expenditure of 285,115/. ; and the receipts 
 were nearly equal, in 1827, to those of 1818 and 1823, notwithstanding the total repeal 
 of the cross Channel duties, amounting to about 340,000/. per annum, subsequent to the 
 latter period. 
 
 " Already has government relinquished, it may be said, any interference with pro- 
 motion in the department of the customs, and the road is open to advancement to the 
 meritorious officer. 
 
 " Influence is no longer allowed to prevail ; and in many cases w,hich have recently 
 occurred, and in which the patronage of government might have been fairly exercised, 
 it has been at once abandoned, in order to give way to arrangements by which the services 
 of some very intelligent and highly respectable officers, whose offices had been abolished, 
 could be again rendered available, with a matei-ial saving to the public. 
 
 " By a recent order from the Lords of the Treasury, of the 20th of February, 1830, the 
 salaries of the commissioners, and of other officers, have been prospectively reduced, and 
 directions given to revise the whole establishment in the spirit of that order, with a view 
 to every possible reduction." 
 
460 
 
 CUSTOMS. 
 
 These are very great improvements, certainly, and reflect much credit on the govern- 
 ment, and on the Board by whom its efforts have been zealously seconded ; but we are, 
 notwithstanding, satisfied that very great reductions may still be made in the cost of the 
 establishment. These, however, are not to be effected by reducing the salaries of the 
 officers, which, if any thing, are now too low ; but by lessening the demand for their 
 services, by reducing and simplifying the duties. The coast guard and coast blockade 
 (the latter is under the orders of the Admiralty), costing together about 400,000Z. a year, 
 might be wholly dispensed with, were it not for the exoi-bitant duties on brandy, gin, and 
 tobacco — -duties which seem to be intended only to encourage smuggling; and which it 
 is quite certain would be 3 times as productive as they are at this moment, were they 
 reduced to one third of their present amount. The duties on a great variety of small 
 articles might also be entirely repealed, without any sensible loss of revenue, and with 
 great advantage to commerce : and were these alterations effected, and the proceedings 
 with respect to the entry and clearing out of ships and goods adequately simplified, a very 
 great saving might be made in this department, and the services of a large number of 
 those now employed in it might be dispensed with. 
 
 In Scotland, separate Custom-houses seem to be multiplied to an absurd .extent. 
 Within these few years, indeed, a very considerable change for the better was effected 
 in the Scotch Custom-house ; but it is still susceptible of, and ought to be subjected to, 
 great curtailment. 
 
 The reader will find, in the accounts of most imported articles of any consequence 
 given in this work, statements of the customs duty paid on their importation. It may 
 be gratifying, however, to have them all brought together in one point of view, as in 
 the following Table : — 
 
 An Account of the Gross Receipt and Net Produce of the Revenue of Customs in Great Britain 
 in the Year ending the 5th of January, 1833; distinguishing the Amount collected on each Article 
 usually producing 1,000/. or more per Annum. 
 
 List of Articles. 
 
 Duties Inwards. 
 Acid, boracic - - 
 Alkanet root ... 
 Almonds - - 
 Aloes - 
 Angelica - 
 
 Annotto - - • 
 
 Apples, not dried 
 
 Argol 
 
 Arrow root or powder 
 Ashes, pearl and pot 
 Bacon and hams * - 
 Balsams - - 
 Barilla and alkali 
 Bark for tanners' or dyers' use 
 Baskets 
 Beef, salted 
 
 Beer, spruce ... 
 Berries of all sorts ■ . 
 Books . - - 
 
 Boots, shoes, and calashes 
 Borax . - - 
 
 Boxes of all sorts 
 Brimstone . . . 
 
 Bristles . . . 
 
 Bugles 
 Butter 
 
 Canes of all sorts 
 
 Cantharides . i . 
 
 Capers - - 
 
 Cassia lignea - - 
 
 Cheese 
 
 China ware, porcelain, and 
 
 earthenware 
 Cinnamon - • - 
 Clocks 
 Cloves 
 
 Cochineal, granilla, and dust - 
 
 Cocoa, cocoa nut husks, shells, 
 and chocolate 
 
 Coftee - . . . 
 
 Coral beads . - - 
 
 Cordage and cables 
 
 Cork, unmanufactured - 
 
 Corks, ready made 
 
 Com, grain, meal, and flour 
 (including hunk wheat) 
 
 Cotton manufactures (not other- 
 wise described ) 
 
 Cream of tartar 
 
 Cubebs 
 
 Currants . . . 
 
 Dye and hard woods ; yiz. 
 .... Boxwood . . • 
 
 Cedar, under 8 i 
 
 Fustic 
 
 JyOgwood . 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 Ilosewoo<l 
 
 . square 
 
 Gross Receipt. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 L. t. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 4,183 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 4,183 0 
 
 0 
 
 4,183 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 4,183 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,755 18 
 
 0 
 
 57 
 
 18 
 
 ' 8 
 
 1,791 16 
 
 8 
 
 1,729 6 
 
 0 
 
 57 18 
 
 8 
 
 1,7.S7 4 
 
 8 
 
 10,'J75 16 
 
 7 
 
 497 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 11,470 18 
 
 6 
 
 10,775 10 
 
 8 
 
 478 5 
 
 0 
 
 H.^IS 15 
 
 8 
 
 2,1S4 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 2,184 5 
 
 5 
 
 1,810 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1,8 !0 5 
 
 2 
 
 5i75 2 10 
 
 
 
 
 275 2 
 
 10 
 
 275 2 10 
 
 
 
 275 2 
 
 10 
 
 671 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 671 0 
 
 1 
 
 671 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 071 0 
 
 1 
 
 2,996 12 
 
 8 
 
 " 299 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 3,296 7 
 
 8 
 
 2,912 19 
 
 7 
 
 298 2 
 
 0 
 
 3,211 1 
 678 3 
 
 7 
 
 678 18 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 
 686 18 
 
 6 
 
 670 3 
 
 6 
 
 8 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 787 19 
 
 9 
 
 64 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 852 19 
 
 1 
 
 787 12 
 
 4 
 
 61 IS 
 
 8 
 
 849 11 
 
 0 
 
 1,887 14 
 
 4 
 
 163 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 2,050 16 
 
 11 
 
 1.877 0 11 
 
 163 2 
 
 7 
 
 2,040 3 
 
 6 
 
 1,762 15 5 
 
 198 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1,960 18 
 
 11 
 
 1,761 13 
 
 1 
 
 198 3 
 
 6 
 
 1,959 16 
 
 7 
 
 2,490 14 
 
 11 
 
 57 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 2,547 17 
 
 6 
 
 2,583 6 
 
 4 
 
 57 2 
 
 7 
 
 2,440 8 
 
 
 15,166 16 
 
 7 
 
 174 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 15.341 1 
 
 4 
 
 15,156 16 
 
 7 
 
 172 11 
 
 7 
 
 15,329 8 
 
 2 
 
 19,001 0 
 
 0 
 
 3,340 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 22,341 13 10 
 
 18,970 2 
 
 8 
 
 3,280 17 
 
 9 
 
 22,251 0 
 
 5 
 
 1,043 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 1,014 10 
 
 9 
 
 1,043 6 
 
 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 7 
 
 1,014 7 
 
 9 
 
 300 19 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 312 11 
 
 7 
 
 500 19 
 
 4 
 
 11 12 
 
 3 
 
 312 11 
 
 7 
 
 5,956 6 
 
 3 
 
 892 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 6,848 16 
 
 1 
 
 5,950 17 
 
 0 
 
 890 6 11 
 
 6,841 3 
 
 11 
 
 3,037 11 11 
 
 25 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 3,062 12 
 
 4 
 
 3,057 11 
 
 11 
 
 25 0 
 
 5 
 
 3,062 12 
 
 4 
 
 8,843 4 
 
 7 
 
 86 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 8,929 9 
 
 11 
 
 8,824 1 
 
 10 
 
 85 8 
 
 5 
 
 8,909 10 
 
 3 
 
 3,748 16 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 3,751 16 
 
 6 
 
 3,743 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 6 
 
 3,746 4 
 
 6 
 
 875 6 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 8S2 15 
 
 1 
 
 875 6 
 
 
 7 9 
 
 0 
 
 882 15 
 
 1 
 
 3,342 1 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 3,378 8 
 
 9 
 
 3,521 4 
 
 9 
 
 36 7 
 
 0 
 
 3,357 11 
 
 9 
 
 6,256 6 
 
 5 
 
 1,536 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 7,792 14 
 
 9 
 
 6,253 18 
 
 5 
 
 1,530 11 
 
 10 
 
 7,784 10 
 
 3 
 
 25,185 16 
 
 1 
 
 428 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 25,614 4 
 
 4 
 
 25,184 14 
 
 7 
 
 428 8 
 
 3 
 
 25,613 2 
 
 10 
 
 3,075 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3,075 6 
 
 0 
 
 3,042 16 
 
 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 
 
 3,043 0 
 
 0 
 
 127,773 19 10 
 
 556 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 128,330 9 
 
 8 127,739 16 
 
 7 
 
 553 19 
 
 10 
 
 128,293 16 
 
 5 
 
 3,590 8 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 3,631 4 
 
 6i 3.569 17 
 
 7 
 
 40 16 
 
 4 
 
 3,610 13 
 
 11 
 
 1,869 18 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 1,882 7 
 
 
 1,858 19 
 
 4 
 
 12 9 
 
 0 
 
 1,871 8 
 
 4 
 
 1,534 4 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1,553 5 
 
 
 1,534 4 
 
 4 
 
 19 1 
 
 0 
 
 1,553 5 
 
 4 
 
 1,663 1 
 
 10 
 
 144 
 
 
 0 
 
 1,807 2 
 
 10 
 
 1,663 1 
 
 10 
 
 144 1 
 
 0 
 
 1,807 2 
 
 10 
 
 62,367 2 
 
 11 
 
 6,808 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 69,175 16 
 
 ' 
 
 62,248 19 
 
 7 
 
 6,794 13 11 
 
 69,043 13 
 
 6 
 
 4,369 18 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4,381 19 
 
 8 
 
 4,200 17 
 
 7 
 
 12 1 
 
 3 
 
 4,212 18 
 
 10 
 
 416 16 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 416 16 
 
 10 
 
 416 16 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 416 16 10 
 
 5,938 7 
 
 11 
 
 " 154 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 6,093 1 
 
 8 
 
 5,868 14 
 
 
 ' 154 13 
 
 9 
 
 6,023 8 
 
 2 
 
 7,643 13 
 
 9 
 
 66 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 7,709 15 
 
 9 
 
 7,514 16 
 
 9 
 
 66 2 
 
 0 
 
 7,580 18 
 
 9 
 
 4,217 18 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 4,217 18 
 
 
 4,195 15 
 
 
 
 
 4,195 15 
 
 1 
 
 14,501 19 
 
 9 
 
 44 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 14,546 1 
 
 4 
 
 11,485 15 
 
 10 
 
 40 8 
 
 
 14,526 3 
 
 11 
 
 548,092 8 
 
 11 
 
 28,165 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 576,247 10 
 
 8 547,106 13 
 
 8 
 
 28,158 5 
 
 0 
 
 575,264 18 
 
 8 
 
 2,140 18 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 2,140 18 
 
 1 
 
 2,140 18 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2,140 18 
 
 1 
 
 22 18 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 24 14 
 
 7 
 
 22 IS 
 
 4 
 
 1 16 
 
 3 
 
 24 14 
 
 7 
 
 12,990 14 
 
 3 
 
 2,876 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 15,867 10 
 
 4 
 
 12,988 IS 
 
 7 
 
 2,869 15 
 
 9 
 
 15,858 14 
 
 4 
 
 264 19 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 274 8 
 
 
 264 19 
 
 0 
 
 9 9 
 
 0 
 
 274 8 
 
 0 
 
 279,954 7 
 
 4 
 
 29,956 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 309,910 13 
 
 : 
 
 278,005 9 
 
 4 
 
 29,910 5 
 
 2 
 
 307,915 14 
 
 6 
 
 2,930 11 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 13 10 
 
 2,937 5 
 
 7 
 
 2,903 1 
 
 9 
 
 6 13 
 
 10 
 
 2,909 15 
 
 7 
 
 1,.374 12 
 
 2 
 
 291 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 1,666 2 
 
 
 1,354 18 
 
 9 
 
 291 10 
 
 3 
 
 1,646 9 
 
 0 
 
 1,208 18 
 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1,244 4 
 
 6 
 
 1,208 18 
 
 6 
 
 35 6 
 
 0 
 
 1,244 4 
 
 6 
 
 312,749 17 
 
 2 
 
 2,382 12 
 
 4 
 
 315,132 9 
 
 6 
 
 311,948 2 
 
 6 
 
 2,376 12 
 
 4 
 
 314,324 14 10 
 
 1,868 15 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 1,868 15 
 
 7 
 
 1,868 15 
 
 7 
 
 'Excess of re- 
 
 1,867 17 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ijayments.) 
 
 
 
 2,531 10 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 2,549 19 
 
 11 
 
 2,531 10 
 
 9 
 
 18 9 
 
 2 
 
 2,549 19 
 
 1 
 
 913 7 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 9ii2 4 
 
 4 
 
 905 18 
 
 9 
 
 8 12 
 
 3 
 
 914 II 
 
 0 
 
 2,307 15 
 
 
 137 
 
 8 10 
 
 2,445 4 
 
 3 
 
 2,302 19 
 
 0 
 
 1.36 0 
 
 0 
 
 2,1.18 19 
 
 0 
 
 39,543 17 
 
 1 
 
 5,923 11 
 
 6 
 
 45,467 8 
 
 7 
 
 39(501 7 
 
 
 5,903 19 
 
 6 
 
 45,40') 6 
 
 
 815 12 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 815 12 
 
 8 
 
 806 12 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 806 12 
 
 5 
 
 ■ 8,027 11 
 
 10 
 
 lit 
 
 4 
 
 f 
 
 S?78 16 
 
 4 
 
 8,027 11 
 
 10 
 
 ' 348 14 
 
 6 
 
 8,376 6 
 
 4 
 
CUSTOMS. 
 
 461 
 
 LiHt 01 Articl6S* 
 
 Gross Utccipt. 
 
 
 
 
 Nelt Produce. 
 
 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Duties /7ifi'ar</j— continued. 
 EgKS 
 
 L. 
 
 e. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 
 
 «. 
 
 tl 
 
 
 <. 
 
 d 
 
 L. 
 
 >. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 
 
 t. 
 
 d 
 
 /.. «. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 21,505 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 21,537 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 21,537 2 
 
 0 
 
 Klephants' teeth 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 2,712 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 2,690 2 
 
 10 
 
 Embroidery and needlework - 
 
 6,'3U0 
 
 12 
 
 l"l 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 5,302 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 6,' 195 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 5,197 12 
 
 4 
 
 Essence of berKamot and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lemons. (Sic Essential oils.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,116 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Feathers for beds 
 
 4,121 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 580 
 
 0 
 
 4,702 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 672 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4,089 2 
 
 7 
 
 ostrich 
 
 6'26 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 626 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 026 
 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 020 6 
 
 2 
 
 Figs 
 
 Fish, anchovies 
 
 22,371 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 270 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 22,642 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 22,131 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 270 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 22,402 0 
 
 10 
 
 827 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 829 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 815 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 817 I 
 
 1 
 
 eels 
 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 940 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 940 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 940 10 
 
 0 
 
 oysters - - - 
 
 5,846 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 5,846 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 6,846 
 
 
 9 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 6,846 5 
 
 9 
 
 Flax, and tow, or codilla of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,405 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hemp and flax ... 
 
 1,412 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2,703 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 4,115 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2,CG9 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 4,076 9 
 
 3 
 
 Flowers, artilirial (not of silk) - 
 Furs 
 
 fil.'j 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 616 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 614 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 615 0 
 
 0 
 
 34,331 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 34,079 10 
 
 0 
 
 Ginger, dry - . 
 Ulass; viz. bottles, gieen or 
 common - . - 
 
 3,450 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 63 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3,514 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3,428 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 03 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3,492 1 
 
 0 
 
 9,15() 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 633 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 9,790 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 9,145 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 031 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 9,770 13 
 
 9 
 
 of all other sorts . 
 
 4,fi80 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 83 
 
 16 
 
 c 
 
 4,764 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4,674 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 83 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 4,757 17 
 
 6 
 
 Grains, Guinea 
 
 1,633 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 1,633 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 1,633 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 1,033 10 
 
 0 
 
 Grapes ... 
 
 1,580 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 102 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 1,683 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 1,559 
 
 8 
 
 
 102 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 1 ,002 2 
 
 8 
 
 Gum, animi and copal . 
 Arabic 
 
 1,508 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 1,508 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 1,496 3 
 
 3 
 
 2,657 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 114 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 2,771 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 2,636 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 114 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 2,750 18 
 
 3 
 
 Senegal 
 lac dye 
 
 shellac - - 
 
 5,788 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 6,788 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6,633 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 5,633 11 
 
 5 
 
 1,447 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 1,447 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 1,447 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 1,417 4 
 
 8 
 
 2,046 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 2,046 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 2,046 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 2,046 3 
 
 8 
 
 tragacanth ... 
 
 1,066 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 1,066 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 986 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 9H6 14 
 
 9 
 
 Hair, horse 
 
 243 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 247 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 243 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 247 10 
 
 7 
 
 human 
 
 701 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 701 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 700 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 700 3 
 
 9 
 
 Hair or goats' wool, manufac- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tures of - - - . 
 
 2,482 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 2,514 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 2,474 
 
 6 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 2,606 12 
 
 6 
 
 Hats of chip and straw 
 
 16,707 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 16,707 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 16,707 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 16,707 3 
 
 2 
 
 Hemp 
 
 28,427 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 4,325 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 32,753 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 23,381 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 3,181 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 26,562 12 
 
 6 
 
 Hides, not tanned 
 
 21,988 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 1,984 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 23,972 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 21,794 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 1,963 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 23,768 2 
 
 6 
 
 tanned - . . 
 
 1,164 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,170 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 1,164 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,170 13 
 
 2| 
 
 Horns, horn tips, and pieces 
 
 1,715 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1,758 16 
 
 Horses ... 
 
 945 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 57 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,002 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 937 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 57 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 994 0 
 
 0 
 
 Jalap . . . 
 
 2,536 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 71 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2,607 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 2,531 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 71 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2,602 7 
 
 I 
 
 India rubbers 
 
 772 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 772 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 765 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 763 0 
 
 10 
 
 Indigo - - 
 
 30,597 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 140 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 30,738 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 30,539 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 130 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 30,670 14 
 
 10 
 
 Iron, in bars . . - 
 
 20,338 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 1,011 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 21,350 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 20,233 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1,010 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 21,244 8 
 
 2 
 
 of all other sorts - 
 
 707 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 740 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 704 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 757 0 
 
 4 
 
 Isinglass 
 
 3,858 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 3,850 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 3,836 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 3,848 14 
 
 8 
 
 Juice of lemons, limes, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ oranges - 
 
 1,041 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 114 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 1,156 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1,041 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 114 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 1,156 3 
 
 4 
 
 ^-uniper berries. {See Berries.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lace thread 
 
 358 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 360 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 358 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 360 19 
 
 8 
 
 Lacquered ware 
 
 1,008 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 1,016 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 997 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 1 ,006 5 
 
 3 
 
 Lead, black 
 
 2,347 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2,352 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 2,292 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 2,297 2 
 
 6 
 
 Leather gloves 
 
 27,220 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 27,220 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 27,105 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 27,105 16 
 
 3 
 
 manufactures of, except 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 boots, shoes, and gloves 
 
 1,050 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1,064 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1,050 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 ,064 2 
 
 10 
 
 Lemons and oranges 
 
 50,255 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 2,315 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 52,570 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 49,852 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 2,305 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 52,158 13 
 
 1 
 
 Linens, foreign 
 
 17,429 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 43 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 17,473 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 17,190 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 43 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 1 7,254 1 
 
 11 
 
 Liquorice juice 
 
 19,924 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 1,888 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 21,812 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 19,924 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 1,888 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 21,812 9 
 
 8 
 
 Mace - . . 
 
 2,613 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 2,613 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 2,613 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 2,613 8 
 
 11 
 
 Madder and madder root 
 
 18,976 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 "2,754 
 
 5' 
 
 3 
 
 21,750 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 18,856 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2,723 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 21,580 3 
 
 8 
 
 Manna ... 
 
 505 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 505 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 480 
 
 8 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 4S0 8 
 
 7 
 
 Mats of Russia 
 
 4,119 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 700 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 4,820 
 
 0 
 
 
 3,987 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 668 
 
 3 
 
 
 4,656 0 
 
 3 
 
 other sorts 
 
 815 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 838 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 814 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 837 8 
 
 2 
 
 Melasses ... 
 
 128,216 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 126,459 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 254,655 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 128,089 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 125,841 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 253,931 11 
 
 6 
 
 Musical instruments 
 
 1,508 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 1,512 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1,492 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 1,495 13 
 
 5 
 
 Myrrh 
 
 663 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 063 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 495 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 495 4 
 
 11 
 
 Nutmegs ... 
 
 14,505 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 14,555 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 14,502 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 14,552 10 
 
 9 
 
 Nuts, chesnuts 
 
 2,333 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 18 
 
 0 
 
 2,546 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 2,310 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 2,521 12 
 
 10 
 
 small 
 
 12,679 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 57 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 12,737 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 12,610 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 62 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 1 2,663 3 
 
 1 
 
 walnuts 
 
 1,454 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 49 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 1,503 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 1,437 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 48 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 1,486 7 
 
 8 
 
 Oil, castor ... 
 
 2,422 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 127 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2,549 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 2,412 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 127 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2,539 8 
 
 7 
 
 chemical, essential, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 perfumed of all sorts 
 
 9,061 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 91 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 9,153 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 9,000 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 91 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 9,092 0 
 
 3 
 
 olive 
 
 42,580 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 384 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 42,964 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 42,505 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 383 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 42,888 15 
 
 
 palm 
 
 27,559 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 27,559 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 27,541 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 27,541 10 
 
 7 
 
 train, spermaceti and blub- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ber 
 
 2,277 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 429 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2,706 
 
 '7 
 
 5 
 
 2,272 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 427 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2,699 8 
 
 3 
 
 Oker 
 
 507 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 50P 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 507 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 509 2 
 
 0 
 
 Opium 
 
 5,933 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 52 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5,985 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5,929 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 62 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6,981 0 
 
 6 
 
 Orchal and orchelia 
 
 288 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 288 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 283 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 283 7 
 
 S 
 
 Paper ... 
 
 801 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 801 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 801 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 801 8 
 
 1 
 
 of the Isle of Man 
 
 969 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 969 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 969 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 969 0 
 
 0 
 
 for hangings 
 
 851 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 851 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 851 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 851 10 
 
 Id 
 
 Pepper of all sorts 
 
 91,995 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 '8,227 
 
 8* 
 
 8 
 
 100,223 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 91,844 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 8,227 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 100,071 15 
 
 10 
 
 Pictures 
 
 2,011 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 53 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 2,064 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 2,010 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 63 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 2,064 6 
 
 8 
 
 Pimento ... 
 
 5,769 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 296 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 6,066 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 6,767 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 2S7 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 6,054 10 
 
 6 
 
 Pitch 
 
 368 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 93 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 402 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 368 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 89 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 458 1 1 
 
 10 
 
 Platting of chip or straw 
 
 15,209 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 15,209 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 15,198 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 15,198 6 
 
 9 
 
 Plums, dried 
 
 470 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 472 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 470 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 472 0 
 
 9 
 
 Prints and drawings 
 
 1,309 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 1,319 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 1,302 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 1,311 14 
 
 2 
 
 Prunes ... 
 
 6,730 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 361 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 6,092 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 5,718 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 356 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 6,075 0 
 
 9 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 2,678 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 2,678 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 2,674 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 
 2,fi74 18 
 
 6 
 
 Quills, goose 
 
 3,609 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 592 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 4,202 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 3,609 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 692 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 4,202 1 ; 
 
 2 
 
 Radix ipecacuanhse 
 
 986 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 986 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 977 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 977 6 
 
 11 
 
 Rags, (Sec. for paper 
 
 1,401 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 318 
 
 15' 
 
 10 
 
 1,719 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 1,375 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 518 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 ,693 8 
 
 9 
 
 Raisins 
 
 141,537 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 4,177 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 145,715 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 140,vS5 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 4,057 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 144,343 0 
 
 7 
 
 Rapeseed and other oil cakes - 
 
 3,232 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 388 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 3,621 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 3,221 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 386 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3,607 1 
 
 3 
 
 Rhubarb 
 
 4,213 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 4,213 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 4,207 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 4,207 2 
 
 10 
 
 Rice ... 
 
 6,508 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 237 
 
 15" 
 
 8 
 
 6,746 
 
 8 
 
 
 6,417 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 237 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 6,654 15 
 
 11 
 
 in the husk 
 
 28,187 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 28,187 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 20,095 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,095 9 
 
 8 
 
 Sago ... 
 
 913 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 916 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 913 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 916 17 
 
 0 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 5,144 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 5,154 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6,123 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 6,133 1 
 
 1 
 
 Sarsaparilla 
 
 4,275 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 54 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 4,329 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 4,007 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 64 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 4,061 7 
 
 
 Scammony 
 
 1,477 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 1,481 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 1,384 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 1,388 13 
 
 11 
 
 Seeds of all sorts (including 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tares) 
 
 93,244 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 9,887 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 103,131 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 92,723 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 9,S38 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 102,561 18 
 
 2 
 
 Senna ... 
 
 6,631 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 175 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 6,806 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 6,503 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 175 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 6,679 11 
 
 9 
 
 Ships' hulls and materials 
 
 726 
 
 7 
 
 
 205 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 929 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 637 
 
 10 
 
 
 179 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 816 12 
 
 3 
 
 Shumac ... 
 
 5,561 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 656 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 6,218 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 5,311 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 622 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6,9.>3 16 
 
 4 
 
 Silk, raw 
 
 14,202 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 14,202 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 14,159 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 14,159 5 
 
 3 
 
 waste, knubs and husks - 
 
 294 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 294 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 293 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 293 18 
 
 3 
 
 thrown 
 
 52,013 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 52,013 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 14,052 
 
 6 
 
 
 (Excess of 
 
 
 12,097 18 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 drawbacks.) 
 
 
 
462 
 
 CUSTOMS. 
 
 List of Articles. 
 
 Duties Inwards— continued. 
 Silk manufactures. East Indian 
 
 not do. 
 Skins ( not being furs ) 
 Smalts 
 
 Soap, hard and soft, foreign 
 Spelter 
 
 Spirits, foreign, viz. rum 
 
 brandy 
 Geneva 
 of all other sorts 
 of the manufacture of 
 Guernsey and Jersey 
 Sponge - - . 
 
 Stones, viz. buiTs for millstones 
 marble blocks 
 
 Succades 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Tamarinds 
 
 Tar 
 
 ^Balks and ufers, under 
 inches square 
 Battens and batten ends 
 Deals and deal ends 
 Firewood 
 Fir quarters 
 Knees of oak 
 Lathwood 
 Masts and spars 
 Oak plank 
 Oars 
 Staves 
 Teak 
 
 Timber, fir,8 inches square 
 or upwards 
 
 oak do. 
 of other sorts, do. 
 Wainscot logs, do. 
 Tobacco and snutf 
 Tortoiseshell 
 Toys 
 
 Turpentine, common 
 
 Valonia 
 
 V erdigris 
 
 Vermicelli and maccaroni 
 Vinegar 
 
 of the manufacture of 
 Guernsey and Jersey 
 Water, Cologne, in flasks 
 Wax, bees', &c. 
 Wines of all sorts - -| 
 Wool, cotton 
 
 sheep's and lambs' 
 Woollen manufactures, not 
 otherwise described, includ- 
 ing carpets 
 Yarn, cotton 
 
 linen, raw 
 Yellow berries. (See Berries.) 
 Zaffre 
 
 All other articles 
 
 Total duties, inwards,") 
 carried forward -J 
 
 Coals and culm exported 
 British sheep and lambs' wool, 
 
 woollen yam, &c. exported - 
 Skins, do. - . 
 
 Per centage duty on British 
 
 goods exported 
 
 Total duties outwards,? 
 carried forward - J 
 
 Canal and dock duty. Isle of 
 Man duties, rent of quays, 
 goods sold for duty, &c. 
 
 Total, United ICingdom 
 
 Gross Receipt. 
 
 England. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 19,296 15 8 
 149,079 11 
 16,289 15 11 
 6,053 3 6 
 1,277 10 6 
 5,578 17 6 
 1,520,102 1 11 
 1,697,444 16 5 
 15,577 8 1 
 9,126 16 1 
 
 21,071 IS 1 
 2,147 11 7 
 1,315 0 9 
 688 4 11 
 899 8 8 
 4,437,812 6 2 
 175,848 11 11 
 679 0 11 
 5,539 6 1 
 
 1,230 5 7 
 81,366 9 11 
 479,819 19 8 
 4,518 3 1 
 5,429 0 2 
 1,356 8 9 
 25,510 2 5 
 13,917 19 10 
 3,658 12 6 
 780 16 2 
 43,930 4 2 
 6,696 3 6 
 
 362,447 1 2 
 29,999 10 7 
 5,944 12 £ 
 7,453 4 10 
 2,146,442 0 9 
 458 10 7 
 3,456 19 6 
 73,707 11 2 
 6,908 2 10 
 2,468 4 0 
 1,407 7 2 
 216 13 0 
 
 16 0 
 4,032 11 
 778 6 
 1,331,584 16 
 142,613 4 
 591,435 17 
 102,276 19 
 
 11,907 18 9 
 499 12 5 
 634 8 0 
 
 16,419,796 6 2 
 
 113,660 12 0 
 
 16,419,796 6 2 
 113,660 12 0 
 
 16,533,456 18 2 
 156,294 15 2 
 
 16,689,751 13 4 
 
 2,104 
 512 
 33 
 125 
 50,411 
 68,799 
 7,956 
 734 
 
 4 6 
 7 
 0 
 14 
 0 
 
 16 9 
 2 10 
 
 .31 12 
 50 15 
 62 14 
 508,660 15 
 9,151 10 11 
 114 r - 
 1,130 11 1 
 
 113 
 28,362 
 9,683 
 39 
 14 
 518 
 2,381 
 1,199 
 3,594 
 101 
 2,943 
 665 
 
 13 1 
 5 9 
 
 1,687 
 353 
 291,392 
 
 30 
 38 
 79 
 123 
 
 0 14 4 
 
 112 7 0 
 
 49 1 1 
 
 104,259 8 6 
 
 1 1 
 
 303 15 
 118 14 9 
 
 3,194 17 11 
 
 1,467,803 6 6 
 
 5,573 14 10 
 38 17 0 
 
 2,553 15 3 
 8,166 7 1 
 
 ,475,969 13 7 
 1,944 1 9 
 
 1,477,913 15 4 
 
 i. s. d. 
 
 19,296 15 8 
 149,088 15 9 
 18,393 16 5 
 5,565 8 0 
 1,310 18 - 
 5,703 17 11 
 1,570,513 16 
 1,766,243 16 9 
 23,534 4 10 
 9,860 18 11 
 
 21,071 18 1 
 2,147 11 7 
 1,346 13 ^ 
 739 0 
 962 2 10 
 4,946,473 1 
 185,000 2 10 
 793 8 11 
 6,669 17 2 
 
 1,343 7 7 
 109,7'.i8 17 3 
 489,503 10 
 4,557 11 
 3,443 12 
 1,875 6 10 
 27,891 15 7 
 15,117 10 10 
 7,253 
 882 15 9 
 46,873 
 7,361 9 3 
 
 423,494 12 11 
 38,174 1 10 
 7,531 15 1 
 
 7.506 11 1 
 2,437,834 5 1 
 
 458 19 
 
 3.507 4 I 
 73,707 
 
 6,938 
 2,506 
 1,486 
 340 
 
 11 2 
 2 10 
 13 
 11 
 
 2 0 
 
 16 14 10 
 4,144 li 
 827 7 10 
 ,435,844 4 11 
 142,613 ' 
 629,270 10 11 
 102,277 0 2 
 
 11,909 0 6 
 803 7 
 653 2 
 
 17,887,599 12 8 
 
 56,616 2 10 
 
 62,251 0 5 
 
 121,826 
 
 17,887,599 12 8 
 121,826 19 1 
 
 18,009,426 11 9 
 
 158,238 16 11 
 
 18,167,665 8 
 ,516,988 16 2 
 
 19,684,654 4 10 
 
 Nett Produce. 
 
 L. 
 
 19,262 
 148,667 
 16,047 
 5,051 
 1,277 
 5,573 
 1,518,994 
 1,697,095 
 15,567 
 9,020 
 
 17 10 
 5 
 17 
 
 7 10 
 10 6 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 7 2 
 9 8 
 1 11 
 
 21,054 0 
 2,097 4 
 1,309 15 2 
 665 7 6 
 889 4 11 
 3,571,449 11 
 175,484 7 2 
 676 12 8 
 5,506 6 
 
 ,685 
 
 5 7 
 15 5 
 
 16 
 
 12 9 
 
 9 
 13 
 11 
 
 6 
 10 
 
 5 0 
 17 10 
 
 3 6 
 
 314,238 15 0 
 29,966 7 10 
 5,903 4 ' 
 7,391 17 9 
 2,137,242 10 1 
 457 13 1 
 .3,418 16 
 73,558 14 
 6,907 7 10 
 2,457 0 0 
 1,401 13 10 
 215 10 6 
 
 16 0 6 
 
 4,031 5 2 
 
 774 1 7 
 
 1,277,196 15 6 
 
 142,613 4 7 
 
 588,449 11 1 
 
 102,027 19 4 
 
 11^879 I 10 
 499 12 
 534 8 0 
 
 416 12 10 
 
 88,852 ' 
 
 15,363,788 2 9 
 
 2,827 4 9 
 15 2 7 
 
 53,513 6 6 
 
 15,363,788 2 9 
 105,278 14 3 
 
 15,469,066 17 2 
 117,948 6 2 
 
 15,587,015 
 
 9 ■ 
 2,045 15 11 
 512 4 6 
 
 53 
 liiS 
 50,408 
 
 7,946 18 9 
 
 31 12 
 60 6 
 62 14 
 415,069 1 
 9,111 18 
 H2 0 
 1,094 4 
 
 38 4 
 14 12 
 515 5 
 2,346 6 1 
 1,177 15 
 3,549 16 
 101 19 
 2,938 15 1 
 662 9 5 
 
 60,671 11 
 8,082 1 
 ,I,-561 0 
 353 I 
 291,289 17 
 0 8 
 50 5 
 
 30 0 0 
 38 9 
 76 15 
 121 16 0 
 
 0 14 4 
 109 19 0 
 49 1 1 
 
 37,305 1 7 
 (Excess of 
 repayments.) 
 
 1 1 9 
 
 303 15 2 
 118 6 7 
 
 ,364,002 15 10 
 
 5,407 14 1 1 
 38 17 0 
 
 1,364,002 15 10 
 7,969 17 " 
 
 1,371,972 13 6 
 1,648 17 6 
 
 1,373,616 11 0 
 
 L. 
 
 19,262 
 148,676 
 18,093 
 5,563 
 1,310 
 5,698 
 1,669,402 
 1,765,889 
 23,514 
 9,741 
 
 10 
 13 
 12 
 18 
 
 17 : 
 10 3 
 10 0 
 8 5 
 17 10 
 
 21,054 0 7 
 
 2,097 4 1 
 
 1,341 7 G 
 
 715 13 6 
 
 951 19 1 
 
 3,986,618 12 8 
 
 184,596 6 7 
 788 12 10 
 
 6,600 9 8 
 
 1,343 7 
 108,488 4 
 485,260 5 
 4,513 17 
 3,384 2 
 1,869 19 
 26,609 18 
 15,046 1 
 7,206 7 
 873 4 
 46,825 13 
 7,347 12 
 
 374,910 
 38,048 
 7,464 
 7,744 : 
 2,428,632 
 458 
 3,469 
 73,568 
 6,937 
 2,495 
 1,478 
 337 
 
 4,141 
 823 
 1,377,025 
 142,613 
 626,754 
 102,027 
 
 6 7 
 9 
 
 5 4 
 18 10 
 
 7 7 
 1 7 
 1 7 
 
 14 3 
 7 10 
 9 0 
 9 
 6 
 
 ,880 3 7 
 803 7 7 
 652 14 7 
 
 6,727,790 18 
 
 2,866 1 9 
 15 2 7 
 
 56,036112 3 
 
 113.248 11 11 
 
 16,840,433 10 8 
 120,198 3 8 
 
 16,960,631 14 < 
 1,507,249 li:i 
 
 8,467,881 6 3 
 
 Inspector General's Office, Custom House, 
 London, 25th of March, 1833. 
 
 WILLIAM IRVING, 
 Inspector General of Imports and Exports. 
 
 The charges of collection on the customs revenue of the United Kingdom during the 
 
 same year were — 
 
 Civil department 
 Harbour vessels 
 Cruisers 
 
 Preventive water guard 
 Land guard 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 • 734,793 10 llf 
 
 - 5,187 17 1 
 
 - 229,789 12 l| 
 
 - 18,352 0 8 
 
 ^6" 1,124,037 4 1 
 
 Ireland, 
 
 £ S. 
 130,044 18 
 2.'33 12 
 9,m 6 
 112,189 1 
 
 ^£•25 2,327 19 li 
 
CUTLERY. — CYPRESS. 
 
 463 
 
 Inspector General of Imports and Exports. Miserable Attempt at Economy in this 
 Department. — The office of inspector general of imports and exports was established in 
 1696. The accounts of the trade and navigation of the country, annually laid before 
 parliament, are furnished by this office ; and, owing to the ability of the officers, the 
 improved manner in which these accounts are now made out, and the practice of giving 
 statements of the quantities of the principal articles exported and imported, and the 
 declared or real value of the former, they have become of great jjublic importance. It 
 is singular, however, that after having existed for about 1 35 years, and being gradually 
 brought to a high pitch of perfection, this office was, in 1830, rendered nearly useless 
 by a pitiful attempt to save the salary of a couple of clerks ! Previously to that year, the 
 accounts of the trade and revenue of the two great divisions of the empire were exhibited 
 separately and jointly ; so that if any one, for example, wished to know the quantity of 
 sugar entered for home consumption in 1829, in Great Britain and in Ireland, he would 
 have found the results separately stated ; and in the same way for the produce of any article 
 or tax. Nothing, it is plain, could be more desirable than an arrangement of this sort ; 
 which, indeed, considering the entirely different situation of the two great divisions of the 
 empire, is the only one capable of affijrding the means of drawing any useful conclusions. 
 But in 1830, ministers, in order to accomplish the miserable object already alluded 
 to, had all the accounts consolidated into one mass (rudis et indigesta moles) ; so that it 
 became impossible to tell what was the consumption of any article, or the produce of 
 any tax, either in Great Britain or in Ireland, — the only information communicated being 
 the general result as to the United Kingdom ! Nothing more absurd was ever imagined. 
 On the principle that Ireland is taken into the same average with Great Britain, we 
 might take in Canada ; for there is decidedly less difference between the condition 
 and habits of the people of Canada and those of Britain, than there is between those 
 of the British and Irish. But this measure was not objectionable merely from its con- 
 founding such dissimilar elements, and laying a basis for the most absurd and unfounded 
 inferences : it rendered all the previous accounts in a great measure useless ; and would, 
 had it been persevered in, have effectually deprived statesmen and statisticians of some 
 of the very best means of instituting a comparison between the past and future state 
 of both divisions of the empire. Happily, however, this abortive attempt at economy 
 has been relinquished. The moment Mr. Poulett Thomson attained to office, he took 
 measures for the restoration of that system which had been so unwisely abandoned ; 
 and every one in any degree conversant with matters of finance, commerce, or statistics, 
 will agree with us in thinking that the Right Hon. Gentleman could have rendered few 
 more acceptable services. The public accounts for 1830, the only ones made out on the 
 new system, were a disgrace to the country. We are glad, however, to have to add that 
 they have been withdrawn, and replaced by others. 
 
 CUTLERY, a term used to designate all manner of sharp and cutting instruments 
 made of iron or steel, as knives, forks, scissors, razors, shears, scythes, &c. Shefiield is 
 the principal seat of the cutlery manufacture ; but the knives and other articles made 
 in London are said to be of superior quality. 
 
 The act 59 Geo. 3. c. 7. gives the manufacturers of cutlery made of wrowg^^ steel, the privilege of mark- 
 ing or stamping them with the figure of a hammer; and prohibits the manufacturers of any articles of 
 cutlery, edge tools, or hardware, cast or formed in a mould, or manufactured otherwise than by means of 
 a hammer, from marking or impressing upon them the figure of a hammer, or any symbol or device re- 
 sembling it, on pain of forfeiting all such articles, and 5l. for every dozen. A penalty of 10/. per dozen, 
 exclusive of forfeiture, is also imposed upon every person having articles of cutlery in his possession for 
 the purpose of sale, marked with the words London, or London made, unless the articles so marked have 
 been really manufactured within the city of London, or a distance of 20 miles from it. 
 
 CYPRESS, a forest tree of which there are many varieties, the species denominated 
 the evergreen cypress ( Cupressus sempervirens) and the white cedar ( Cupressus Thyoides) 
 being the most celebrated. 
 
 The cypress is indigenous to the southern parts of Europe, to several parts of Asia, 
 and to America. It grows to a great size, and is a most valuable species of timber. It 
 is never attacked by worms ; and exceeds all other trees, even the cedar, in durability. 
 Hence the Athenians, when desirous to preserve the remains of their heroes and other 
 great men, had them enclosed in cypress coffins ; and hence, also, the external covering 
 of the Egyptian mummies is made of the same enduring material. The cypress is said 
 to live to a great age ; and this circumstance, combined with its thick dark green foliage, 
 has made it be regarded as the emblem of death and the grave. 
 
 In his Geography and History of the Western States of Americay Mr. Timothy Flint 
 has given the following account of the cypress trees found in the southern parts of the 
 valley of the Mississippi : — " These noble trees rear their straight columns from a large 
 cone-shaped buttress, whose circumference at the ground is, perhaps, 3 times that of 
 the regular shaft of the tree. This cone rises from 6 to 10 feet, with a regular and sharp 
 taper, and from the apex of the cone towers the perpendicular column, with little taper 
 after it has left the cone, from 60 to 80 feet clear shaft. Very near the top it begins to 
 
464- 
 
 DAMAGED GOODS. — DANTZIC. 
 
 throw out multitudes of hoi izontal branches, which interlace with those of the adjoining 
 trees, and, when bare of leaves, have an air of desolation and death, more easily felt 
 than described. In the season of vegetation the leaves are short, fine, and of a verdure 
 so deep as almost to seem brown, giving an indescribable air of funereal solemnity to this 
 singular tree. A cypress forest, when viewed from the adjacent hills, with its numberless 
 interlaced arms covered with this dark brown foliage, has the aspect of a scaffolding of 
 verdure in the air. It grows, too, in deep and sickly swamps, the haunts of fever, mos- 
 quitoes, moccassin snakes, alligators, and all loathsome and ferocious animals, that 
 congregate far from the abodes of man, and seem to make common cause with nature 
 against him. The cypress loves the deepest, most gloomy, inaccessible swamps ; and, 
 south of 33°, is generally found covered with sable festoons of long moss, hanging, 
 like shrouds of mourning wreaths, almost to the ground. It seems to flourish best 
 when water covers its roots for half the year. Unpromising as are the places and cir- 
 cumstances of its growth, no tree of the country where it is found is so extensively 
 useful. It is free from knots, is easily wrought, and makes excellent planks, shingles, 
 and timber of all sorts. It is very durable, and incomparably the most valuable tree in 
 the southern country of this valley." — (Vol. i. p. 62.) 
 
 D. 
 
 DAMAGED GOODS, in the language of the customs, are goods, subject to duties, 
 that have received some injury either in the voyage home or in the bonded warehouses. 
 
 It is enacted by the 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52., that if any goods rated to pay duty according to the number, 
 measure, or weight thereof (except those after mentioned), shall receive damage during the voyage, an 
 abatement of such duties shall be allowed proportionally to the damage so received ; provided proof be 
 made to the satisfaction of the commissioners of customs, or of officers acting under their direction, that 
 such damage was received after the goods were shipped abroad in the ship importing the same, and 
 before they were landed in the United Kmgdom ; and provided claim to such abatement of duties be made 
 at the time of the first examination of such goods.— § 30. 
 
 It is further enacted, that the officers of customs shall examine such goods, and may state the damage 
 which, in their opinion, they have so received, and may make a proportionate abatement of duties; but 
 if the officers of customs be incompetent to estimate such damage, or if the importer be not satisfied with 
 the abatement made by them, the collector and comptroller shall choose 2 indifferent merchants ex- 
 perienced in the nature and value of such goods, who shall examine the same, and shall make and sul)- 
 scribe a declaration, stating in what proportion, according to their judgment, the goods are lessened in 
 value by such damage, and the officers of customs may make an abatement of the duties according to 
 the proportion of damage declared by such merchants. — ^ 31. 
 
 Provided always, that no abatement of duties shall be made on account of any damage received by any 
 of the sorts of goods herein enumerated ; viz. cocoa, coffee, oranges, pepper, currants, raisins, figs, 
 tobacco, lemons, and wine. — ^32. 
 
 DAMAR, a kind of indurated pitch or turpentine exuding spontaneously from 
 various trees indigenous to most of the Indian i-slands. Different trees produce dif- 
 ferent species of resin, which are designated according to their colour and consistence. 
 " One is called Damar-hatu in Malay, or Damar-selo in Javanese, which means hard or 
 stony rosin ; and another in common use Damar-puteh, or white rosin, which is softer. 
 The trees which produce the damar yield it in amazing quantity, and generally without 
 the necessity of making incisions. It exudes through the bark ; and is either found 
 adhering to the trunk or branches in large lumps, or in masses on the ground under 
 the trees. As these often grow near the sea-side, or on the banks of rivers, the damar 
 is frequently floated away, and collected in distant places as drift. It is exported in 
 large quantities to Bengal and China ; and is used for all the purposes to which we apply 
 pitch, but principally in paying the bottoms of ships. By a previous arrangement, 
 almost any quantity may be procured at Borneo, at the low rate of ^ dollar per 
 picul." — {Crawfurd, East. Archip. vol. i. p. 455., vol. iii. p. 420.) 
 
 DAMASK (Ger. Damasten Tafelzeug ; Du. Damaskwerk ; Fr. Venise, Damas ; It. 
 Tela damaschina ; Sp. Tela, adamascada ; Rus. Kamtschatnii'd salfftki), a species of table 
 linen. — (See Linen.) 
 
 DANTZIC, one of the principal emporiums of the north of Europe, in West 
 Prussia, in lat. 54° 20' 48" N., Ion. 18° 38' E. Population about 56,000. It is 
 situated on the left or western bank of the Vistula, about 4 miles from where it falls 
 into the sea. The harbour is at the mouth of the river, and is defended on each side 
 by pretty strong forts. The town is traversed by the small river Motlau, which has been 
 rendered navigable for vessels drawing 8 or 9 feet water. 
 
 Roads, Port, ^c. — The road or bay of Dantzic is covered on the west side by a long, narrow, low, 
 sandy tongue of land, extending from Ileserhoft Point (on whicii is a liKht-houso), in lat. .54° 50|', Ion. 
 180 23 15", upwards of 90 miles; in an E. by S. direction, having the smalltown of Heela, or Heel, near its 
 termination. A light-house, elevated 123 feet (Eng.) above the level of the sea, has been erected within 
 about i mile of the extremity of this point. The flashes of the light, which is a revolving one, succeed 
 each other every \ minute. Dantzic lies about S. \ W. from the Heel j its pert, denominated the Fairwater- 
 
DANTZIC. 
 
 465 
 
 being distant sftout 4 leagues. There is good anchorage in tlie roads for sliipa of any burden ; but they 
 are exposed, except imincdiately under the Heel, to the north and north-easterly winds, 'l licre are har- 
 bour lights at the entrance to the port. All ships entering the Vistula must heave to about a mile off the 
 rort, and take a pilot on board ; and pilots must always be employed in moving ships in the harbour, or 
 in gomg up and down the river. The usual depth of water at the mouth of the river is from 12 to 13 
 feet (Eng.) ; in the harbour, from 13 to 14 feet ; at the confluence of the Motlau with the Vistula, from 
 9 to 9| (eet ; and in town from 8 to 9 feet. Moles have been erected on both sides the entrance to the 
 harbour : that on the eastern side, which is most exposed, is constructed of granite, but is not yet com- 
 pleted i the other is partly of stone and partly of timber. 
 
 Trade of Dantzic. — Next to PeterSburgh, Dantzic is the most important commercial 
 city in the north of Europe. It owes its distinction in this respect to its situation ; 
 the Vistula, with its important tributaries the Bug, Narew, &c., giving it the com- 
 mand of a great internal navigation, and rendering it the entrepot where the surplus 
 products of West Prussia, Poland as far as Hungary, and part of Lithuania, are ex- 
 changed for those imported from the foreigner. The exports of wheat from Dantzic 
 are greater than from any other port in the world. There are four sorts of wheat dis- 
 tinguished here ; viz. white, high-mixed, mixed, and red, according as the white or red 
 predominates. The quality of the Dantzic wheat is for the most part excellent ; for, 
 though small in the berry, and not so heavy as many other sorts, it is remarkably thin 
 skinned, and yields the finest flour. The wliite Polish wheat exported here is the 
 best in the Baltic. Rye is also very superior, being both clean and heavy ; and the ex- 
 ports are very large. The exports of barley and oats are comparatively inconsiderable, 
 and the qualities but indifferent. Very fine white peas are exported. Next to grain, 
 timber is the most important article of export from Dantzic. The principal supply of 
 fir timber, masts, &c. is brought by the River Narew, which, with its branches, rise 
 in Old Prussia and Lithuania, and falls into the Bug near the confluence of the latter 
 with the Vistula. Oak plank, staves, &c. are brought down from the higher parts 
 of the Vistula, and the tributary streams of Dunajetz, Wieprez, &c. Weed ashes, pearl- 
 ashes, bones, zinc, wool, spruce beer, feathers, &c. are also exported. 
 
 Money. — Accounts used formerly to be wholly kept in guldens, guilders, or florins of 30 groschen. The 
 rixdoUar = 3 florins = 90 groschen = 270 schillings = 1,620 pfennings. The florin or guilder = 9d. ster- 
 ling, and the rixdollar = 2s. 3d. 
 
 A new system was, however, introduced into all parts of the Prussian dominions, conformably to the 
 decrees of the 30th of September, 1821, and of the 22d of June, 1823 ; but it has not hitherto entirely super- 
 seded the method of accounting previously in use. 
 
 The Cologne mark (containing 3,609 Eng. grains) is the weight at present used in the Prussian mint 
 in weighing the precious metals. The fineness of the coins is not determined, as previously, by carats or 
 loths, but the mark is divided for this purpose into 288 grains. Accounts are now kept in the public offices 
 in thalers or dollars (R.), silver groschen, and pfennings : 1 dol. = 30 sil. gr. ; 1 sU. gr. = 12 pf. 
 
 The only silver monies now coined are dollars and dollar pieces ; but smaller coins are in circulation, 
 of former coinages. 
 
 The Prussian silver coins have j of alloy ; and as the mark is coined into 14 dollars, each should contain 
 257 68 Eng. grains pure silver, and be worth about 2s. Uld. sterling; but the assays do not always strictly 
 coincide with the mint valuation. 
 
 The gold coins are Frederick d'ors, double, single, and half pieces. The mark of 288 grains, having 
 260 grains of fine gold, is coined into 35 Fred, d'ors. The Fred, d'or is worth from 5 dol. 18 siL gr. to 
 5 dol. 22 sil. gr., according to the demand. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The commercial weights are, 
 
 32 Loths = 1 Ounce. I 20 Pounds = 1 Small stone. 
 
 16 Ounces = I Pound. 33 Pounds = 1 Large stone. 
 
 16| Pounds = 1 Lispound. | 
 
 110 lbs. = 1 centner; 3 centners = 1 shippound (330 lbs.); 100 lbs. of Dantzic = 103-3 lbs. avoirdupois = 
 46-85 kilog. = 94-7 lbs. of Amsterdam = 96 6 lbs. of Hamburgh. 
 
 The liquid measures are, for beer, 
 
 5 Quarts = 1 Anker. | 2 Hhds. = 1 Both. 
 4 Ankers = 1 Ahm. 2 Both = 1 Fuder. 
 
 li Ahm = 1 Hhd. | 2 Fuder = 1 Last = 620*4 Eng. wine gallons. 
 In wine measure, which is less than beer measure, the ahm = 391 Eng. gallons. The pipe = 2 ahms. 
 
 The last of corn = 3f malters = 60 schefFels = 240 viertels = 960 metzen ; and weighs 4,680 lbs. Dantzic 
 weight in rye. The scheffel = '547 of a hectolitre = 1-552 Winchester bushel. Hence the last of 60 
 scheffels ~ 11 quarters 3 bushels ; the last of 56^ scheffels = 10 quarters 7 bushels. 
 
 The Dantzic foot = 11-3 Eng. inches, or 100 Dantzic feet = 9416 Eng. feet. The ell is 2 feet Dantzic 
 measure. The Rhineland or Prussian foot — -3138 French metres, or 12 356 Eng. inches: hence 100 
 Prussian = 102 8 English feet. The Prussian or Berlin ell has 25^ Prussian inches = 26-256 Eng. ditto. 
 100 Berlin ells = 7293 Eng. yards; and 137 142 Berlin ells 100 Eng. yards. 14f Prussian miles are 
 equal to 15 geographical miles. 
 
 Oak planks, deals, and pipe staves, are sold by the shock of 60 pieces ; wheat, rye, &c. are sold by the 
 last of 56| w:heflels. — (A:e//y'* Cambist; Nelkenbreckei\ Manuel Universel.) 
 
 Imports. — We regret our inability to lay before the reader any account of the quan- 
 tities of the different articles usually imported into Dantzic. They consist of sugar» 
 cofTee, wine, oil, brandy, spices, copper, lead, furs, cotton stuffs and cotton yarn, woollens^ 
 hardware, silks, indigo, dye woods, &c. 
 
 We subjoin an 
 
 2 H 
 
466 
 
 DANTZIC. 
 
 Af'count of the principal Articles exported from Dantzic during each of the Three Years endiny n iih 
 1831, with their Prices and Values in Sterling Money. 
 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Articles! • 
 
 Quan- 
 
 Avernge 
 Prices in 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 Quan- 
 
 Average 
 Prices in 
 
 Va'iie. 
 
 
 Quan- 
 
 Average 
 Priceo in 
 
 Value 
 
 
 
 tity. 
 
 Sterling 
 
 
 tity. 
 
 Sterling 
 
 
 Uty. 
 
 Sterling 
 
 
 
 Money. 
 
 
 
 
 flloney . 
 
 
 
 
 Money. 
 
 
 
 Wheat, Imp. qr. at IO3 
 
 per last 
 Kye, ditto 
 Barley, ditto 
 OaU, ditto 
 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 L, s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 L. s 
 
 d. 
 
 t. t. 
 
 d. 
 
 50C,7C6 
 
 2 7 
 
 1 
 
 722,178 5 
 
 10 
 
 398,588 
 
 2 2 
 
 2 
 
 840,356 7 
 
 4 
 
 133,800 
 
 2 10 
 
 2 
 
 3.35,615 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 17 
 
 4 
 
 67,838 6 
 
 8 
 
 85,074 
 
 1 0 
 
 3 
 
 86,137 8 
 
 6 
 
 12,530 
 
 1 8 
 
 6 
 
 17,855 5 
 
 Q. 
 
 6,675 
 
 0 13 
 
 8 
 
 4,561 5 
 
 0 
 
 7,368 
 
 0 15 
 
 0 
 
 5,526 0 
 
 0 
 
 11,680 
 
 1 1 
 
 3 
 
 12,410 0 
 
 0| 
 
 9,19-7 
 
 0 10 11 
 
 5,020 0 
 
 7 
 
 21,462 
 
 0 11 
 
 2 
 
 11,982 19 
 
 0 
 
 2,220 
 
 0 15 
 
 8 
 
 1,739 0 
 
 ul 
 
 Peas, diito 
 
 
 0 18 
 
 8 
 
 2,652 10 
 
 8 
 
 16,916 
 
 1 0 
 
 8 
 
 17,479 17 
 
 4 
 
 15,850 
 
 1 7 
 
 7 
 
 21,859 15 
 
 lOi 
 
 Flour, barrels of 196 lbs. 
 
 2,016 
 
 1 3 
 
 0 
 
 2,318 8 
 
 0 
 
 11,810 
 10,359.i 
 
 1 1 
 
 6 
 
 12,695 15 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 
 
 13 4 
 
 0 
 
 Biscuits, bags of 1 cwt. 
 
 3,221 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 1,C12 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 5,179 15 
 
 0 
 
 6,932 
 
 0 11 
 
 
 3,812 12 
 
 0 
 
 Kir timber, squared, 
 
 pieces 
 Fir deals, long, short. 
 
 64,794 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 61,794 0 
 
 0 
 
 47,548 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 47,548 0 
 
 0 
 
 37,497 
 
 1 0 
 
 Q 
 
 37,497 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and cuts, ditto 
 
 290,258 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 
 
 58,051 12 
 
 0 
 
 270,309 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 
 
 54,061 16 
 
 0 
 
 179,166 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 
 
 35,833 4 
 
 0 
 
 IVJ asts and spars, ditto 
 Oak plank, ditto 
 timber, ditto 
 
 1,()01 
 
 1 15 
 
 0 
 
 1,751 15 
 
 0 
 
 2,707 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 4,060 10 
 
 0 
 
 313 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 626 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 8 10 
 
 4,518 5 
 
 8 
 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 2,042 
 
 1 5 
 
 0 
 
 2^318 6 
 
 0 
 
 1,'675 
 
 1 3 
 
 0 
 
 1,926 5 
 
 0 
 
 l,'l97 
 
 1 3 
 
 0 
 
 1,376 11 
 
 0 
 
 staves, shock of 60 
 pieces 
 Clapboaitds, ditto 
 Treenails, ditto 
 
 17,464 
 
 1 15 
 
 6 
 
 30,998 12 
 
 0 
 
 11,018 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 22,036 0 
 
 0 
 
 6,210 
 
 2 14 
 
 6 
 
 16,922 5 
 
 0 
 
 117 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 585 0 
 
 0 
 
 28 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 140 0 
 
 0 
 
 52 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 260 0 
 
 0 
 
 5,66 1^ 
 
 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 424 12 
 
 3 
 
 2,855 
 1,102^ 
 
 U I 
 
 6 
 
 214 2 
 
 6 
 
 .5,420 
 
 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 406 10 
 
 0 
 
 J,athwood, fathoms 
 
 933 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,86G 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 2,205 0 
 
 0 
 
 936 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,872 0 
 
 0 
 
 Weed-ashes, barrel of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 about 3 cwt. • 
 
 8,330 
 
 1 13 
 
 0 
 
 13,744 10 
 
 0 
 
 6,587 
 
 1 13 
 
 0 
 
 10,868 11 
 
 0 
 
 5,078 
 
 1 13 
 
 0 
 
 8,378 14 
 
 0 
 
 Pearlashes, cwt. 
 
 13,570 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 
 
 14,927 0 
 
 0 
 
 2,485 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 
 
 2,733 10 
 
 0 
 
 369 
 
 1 3 
 
 0 
 
 424 7 
 
 0 
 
 Bones, ditto 
 
 5,563J 
 
 2 5 
 
 0 
 
 12,517 17 
 
 6 
 
 4,232 
 
 2 8 
 
 0 
 
 10,375 4 
 
 0 
 
 2,867 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 9,667 10 
 
 0 
 
 Zinc, ditto 
 
 28,510 
 
 0 12 
 
 8 
 
 1S,056 6 
 
 8 
 
 29,767 
 
 0 12 
 
 8 
 
 18,852 8 
 
 8 
 
 2,946 
 
 0 12 
 
 4 
 
 1,816 14 
 
 0 
 
 Wool, ditto 
 
 1,2S2A 
 
 7 13 
 
 6 
 
 9,843 4 
 
 0 
 
 1,835 
 
 7 15 
 
 2 
 
 14,2.36 10 10 
 
 454 
 
 8 8 
 
 0 
 
 3,813 12 
 
 0 
 
 Feathers, pounds 
 
 36,010 
 
 0 1 
 
 2 
 
 2,100 11 
 
 8 
 
 22,825 
 
 0 1 
 
 2 
 
 1,331 9 
 
 2 
 
 13,530 
 
 0 1 
 
 2 
 
 789 5 
 
 0 
 
 Salted provisions, bar- 
 rel of iiOO pounds - 
 
 157 
 
 ■2 4 
 
 0 
 
 345 8 
 
 0 
 
 376 
 
 2 4 
 
 0 
 
 827 4 
 
 0 
 
 45 
 
 2 4 
 
 0 
 
 99 0 
 
 0 
 
 Spruce beer, kegs 
 
 25,460 
 
 0 6 
 
 6 
 
 8,274 10 
 
 0 
 
 30,039 
 
 0 6 
 
 6 
 
 9,762 13 
 
 6 
 
 26,191 
 
 0 6 
 
 6 
 
 8,512 1 
 
 6 
 
 Total value 
 
 
 
 
 1,052,511 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 1,185,085 12 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 526,952 10 
 
 41 
 
 Account, showing the Countries for which the principal Articles exported from Dantzic during the 
 Three Years ending with 1831 were shipped, and the Quantities shipped for each. 
 
 Wheat, Imp. qr. at 10^ 
 
 per last 
 Rye, ditto 
 Barley, ditto 
 Oats, ditto 
 Peas, ditto 
 
 Flour, barrels of 196 lbs. 
 
 Biscuits, bags of 1 cwt. 
 
 Fir timber, squared, 
 pieces 
 
 Fir deals, long, short, 
 and cuts, ditto 
 
 Masts and spars, ditto 
 
 Oak plank, ditto 
 timber, ditto 
 staves, shock of 60 
 pieces 
 
 Clapboards, ditto 
 
 Treenails, ditto - 
 
 Lathwood, fathoms - 
 
 VVeed-ashes, barrel of 
 about 3 cwt. - 
 
 Pearlashes, cwt. 
 
 Bones, ditto 
 
 Zincj ditto 
 
 Wool, ditto 
 
 FeatLnTS, pounds 
 
 Salted provisions, bar- 
 rel of 200 lbs. 
 
 Spruce beer, kegs 
 
 Britain 
 and her 
 Posses- 
 sions. 
 
 214,933 
 8,980 
 3,648 
 8,923 
 2,444 
 2,016 
 3,224 
 
 31,232 
 
 98,609 
 111 
 8,128 
 1,170 
 
 7,873 
 107i 
 
 5,285J 
 929 
 
 2,073 
 
 *5,563J 
 24,629 
 1,219^ 
 30,810 
 
 157 
 24,950 
 
 24,169 
 9,455 
 237 
 274 
 
 92,090 
 750 
 2,273 
 872 
 
 7,786^ 
 
 64,594 
 iO,866 
 2,118 
 
 6,245 
 10,436 
 
 37 
 5,100 
 
 Other 
 Coun- 
 tries. 
 
 3,070 
 28,974 
 672 
 
 38,835 
 100 
 2,268 
 
 12 
 3,1M 
 
 3,881 
 26 
 100 
 
 80 430 29 
 
 Britain 
 and her 
 Posses- 
 sions. 
 
 ,982 
 ,453 
 ,128 
 ,997 
 ,312 
 ,926 
 ,287^ 
 
 ,639 
 
 2,288 
 1,096^ 
 
 2,720 
 21^ 
 1,323 
 j,689 
 1,769 
 1,093 
 
 8,913 
 2,323 
 2,31 
 1,227 
 
 43,970 
 28,753 
 
 66 
 1,402 
 
 Other 
 Coun- 
 tries. 
 
 4,163 
 47,816 
 2,452 
 465 
 836 
 108 
 72 
 
 46,994 
 81 
 3,235 
 351 
 
 212i 
 4,078 
 330 
 
 719 
 
 1831. 
 
 Britain 
 and her 
 
 Posses- 
 
 125,330 
 2,510 
 11,380 
 2,220 
 14,780 
 10 
 6,732 
 
 33,642 
 
 111,347 
 169 
 8,724 
 311 
 
 5,462 
 44 
 4,712 
 936 
 
 3,867 
 1,946 
 454 
 13,530 
 
 11,005 18,292 
 60 1 18 
 263 - - 
 
 Other 
 Coun- 
 tries. 
 
 562 
 5,456 
 500 
 
 510 
 2 
 200 
 
 38,522 
 66 
 1,719 
 618 
 
 318 
 
 70s 
 
 Remarks on Tariff.— 'T^e following Table affords a pretty sufficient specimen of the sort of tariff which 
 the Prussian government are so anxious to extend all over Germany ; and in furtherance of which object 
 they have displayirl equal address and perseverance. Some of the duties are abundantly moderate; but 
 those on cotton goods, wrought iron, and woollen goods, are quite exorbitant. It is obvious too, that 
 from their being imposed according to the weight, they fall principally on the coarser fabrics, or those 
 worn by the mass of the people. The high duties on wrought iron are particularly objectionable. If 
 Prussia wish to become a manufacturing country, she ought to open her ports for the reception of all 
 articles made of iron, from wherever they may be had cheapest. They are the principal instruments 
 by which manufactures are carried on; and if one were to set about contriving methods for depressing 
 the latter, they would not easily find one better fitted to effect their object than by confining the manu. 
 facturers in their choice of tools and instruments, and making them adopt those that were bad and dear, 
 because they happened to be made at liome. The tlutics on sugar and coffee are also, in the circum- 
 itances of Prussia, quite excessive. We are, indeed, astonished that so liberal and intelligent a govern- 
 ment as that of Berlin sliould, at this late period, become the patron of tiie exploded errors and absurdities 
 of the mercantile system. 
 
DANTZIC. 
 
 407 
 
 Rates of Duty on the chief Articles imported for Home Consumption into the Eastern Prussian 
 
 I'rovinces in 1832. 
 
 Anise seed, per centner of 
 
 110 lbs. Vrusblan 
 Alum do. 
 Almonds do. 
 llriinstune do. 
 OoHee do. 
 Tacao do. 
 ("assia do. 
 Currants do. 
 Cotton goods do. 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 yarn, sewinj;, do. 
 twist do. do. 
 Coals do. do. 
 
 Earthenware do. do. 
 
 do. 
 
 (Jinper do. do. 
 Herrings, per barrel 
 Hardware, percwt.of 110 lbs. 
 
 Prussian 
 Indigo do. do. 
 Iron, unwrought, (in b<irs,)do. 
 
 wrought do. 
 Logwood do. 
 Lead do. 
 Linen do. 
 Oil, Provence, in flaslcs,&c. do, 
 
 Prussian 
 Currency. 
 
 Makes in 
 British Money, 
 
 Articli 
 
 
 PruH]>ian 
 Currency. 
 
 Makes in 
 liritisli Money, 
 
 per 
 
 about 
 
 
 per 
 
 about 
 
 H. ti): 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 li. M.K 
 
 rf- 
 
 
 L. 1. d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oil, Provence, in 
 
 casks, per 
 
 
 
 
 0 2 lOA 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 n 9 ini 
 
 cwt. of 110 lbs. 
 
 Prussian • 
 
 I 0 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 A 1? 
 
 
 — 
 
 n T 1(1 
 n ^ 'i n 
 
 green 
 
 do. 
 
 1 (J 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 2 lOA 
 
 4 15 
 
 0 
 
 — 
 
 
 Orange peel 
 
 do. - 
 
 4 15 
 
 0 
 
 — 
 
 0 13 10 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 
 
 — 
 
 
 Pimento 
 
 do. 
 
 7 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 1111 
 
 
 
 
 (1 1« u 
 
 Pepper 
 
 do. - 
 
 7 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 1 li 
 
 6 1^ 
 
 '0 
 
 
 (1 18 Q 
 
 Porter and ale 
 
 do. 
 
 2 15 
 
 0 
 
 
 n 1? f^* 
 
 7 10 
 
 0 
 
 — 
 
 1 1 li 
 
 l\ 1ri }\ 
 
 Kaisins 
 
 do. 
 
 4 15 
 
 0 
 
 — 
 
 
 4 15 
 
 0 
 
 — 
 
 
 Kice 
 
 do. - 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 8 8 
 
 55 0 
 
 0 
 
 — 
 
 7 18 0 
 
 Kum and brandy 
 
 do. - 
 
 8 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 3 OA t 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 17 3 
 
 Sugar, manufactured, do. - 
 
 11 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 11 8 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 5 9 
 
 raw 
 
 do. 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 _. 
 
 0 U 5 
 
 0 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 0 0 li 
 
 Syrup 
 
 do. 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 11 5 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 0 114 
 
 SalH)etre 
 
 do. 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 0 Hi 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 8 8 
 
 Shot 
 
 do. - 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 5 'J 
 
 7 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 1 1^ 
 
 Steel, unwrought 
 
 do. 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 2 lOi 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 brls. 
 
 0 2 11 
 
 wrought 
 
 do. 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 17 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silk goods 
 
 do. 
 
 110 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 15 17 8 
 
 55 0 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 7 18 5 
 
 Tta 
 
 do. 
 
 11 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 11 8 
 
 0 15 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 15 
 
 Tin, in bars 
 
 do. 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 5 9 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 2 10^ 
 
 in plates 
 
 do. 
 
 3 20 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 10 7 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 17 3 
 
 Vitriol 
 
 do. 
 
 0 0 
 
 ^0^ 
 
 
 0 0 8.i 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 0 5| 
 
 White lead 
 
 do. 
 
 2 0 
 
 
 
 0 5 9 
 
 0 15 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 1 5 
 
 Woollen goods 
 
 do. 
 
 33 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 4 15 0 
 
 11 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 H 8 
 
 Wine 
 
 do. 
 
 8 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 3 O^i 
 
 8 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 3 04 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 With the exception of wool and bones, almost all articles of export are duty free. 
 
 Corn Trade of Dantxic— The reader will find, under the head Corn Laws and Corn Trade ^'pp. 427— 
 430.), a pretty full account of the Polish corn trade. But the importance of the subject will excuse our 
 giving a few additional details. Grain is almost wholly brought to Dantzic by water, in fiat-bottomed boats 
 suited to the navigation of the Vistula, Bug, &c. Mr. Consul Gibson estimates the expense of the con- 
 veyance of wheat and rye thither, including tlie duty at Thorn and the charges of turning on the river, 
 till put into the granary, as follows : — 
 
 From the upper provinces on the Bug, a distance! „ „ , 
 of from 700 to 500 miles - . 
 
 From the provinces of Cracow, Sendomir, andl/- (• 
 
 Lublin, 550 to 350 miles - - - ° 
 
 From Warsaw and its neighbourhood, about 2401 ^ y 
 miles - - - - J 
 
 • 7 10 
 5 4 
 3 11 
 
 From Wlacia week and its neighbourhood, about! ^ o ~ k. 
 
 140 miles - - - >i -i to o ^ 
 
 From Grandentz, a distance of about 70 miles, / 
 
 no duty at Thorn, and when not turned on >0 10 - 0 9 
 the river - - • - j 
 
 ■ N.B. — These are the ordinary charges. They are higher when there is any unusual demand for 
 exportation. 
 
 The Bug has many windings, and its navigation, which is tedious and uncertain, can only be attempted 
 in the spring, when the water is high. It is the same, though in a less degree, with some of the rivers that 
 fall into the Vistula before it reaches Warsaw ; and towards Cracow the Vistula itself is frequently un- 
 navigable, especially in dry seasons, except in spring, and after the midsummer rains, when the snow melts 
 on the Carpathian mountains. The navigation of the Polish rivers in 18S2 was more than usually bad. 
 The corn from the upper provinces did not reach Dantzic till from 2 to 4 months later than usual, and 
 was burdened with a very heavy additional expense. In fact, the supplies of grain at Dantzic depend 
 quite as much on the abundance of water in the rivers, or on their easy navigation in summer, as on the 
 goodness of the harvests. 
 
 " There are," says Mr. Jacob, " two modes of conveying wheat to Dantzic by the Vistula. That which 
 grows near the lower parts of the river, comprehending Polish Russia, and part of the province of Plock, 
 and of Masovia, in the kingdom of Poland, which is generally of an mferior quality, is conveyed in 
 covered boats, with shifting boards that protect the cargo from the rain, but not from pilfering. These 
 vessels are long, and draw about 15 inches water, and bring about 150 quarters of wheat. They are not, 
 however, so well calculated for the upper parts of the river. From Cracow, where the Vistula first be- 
 comes navigable, to below the junction of the Bug with that stream, the wheat is mostly conveyed to 
 Dantzic in open flats. These are constructed on the banks, in seasons of leisure, on spots lar from the 
 ordinary reach of the water, but which, when the rains of autumn, or the melted snow of the Carpathian 
 mountains in the spring, fill and overflow the river, are easily floated. 
 
 " Barges of this description are about 15 feet long, and 20 broad, with a depth of 2| feet. They are 
 made of fir, rudely put together, fastened with wooden treenails, the corners dovetailed and secured with 
 slight iron clamps, — the only iron employed in their construction. 
 
 " A large tree, the length of the vessel, runs along the bottom, to which the timbers are secured. This 
 roughly cut keelson rises 9 or 10 inches from the floor, and hurdles are laid on it, which extend to the 
 sides. I'hey are covered with mats made of rye straw, and serve the purpose of dunnage ; leaving below 
 a space in which the water that leaks through the sides and bottom is received. The bulk is kept from 
 the sides and ends of the barge by a similar plan. The water which these ill-constructed and imper- 
 fectly caulked vessels receive, is dipped out at the end and sides of the bulk of wheat. 
 
 " Vessels of this description draw from 10 to 12 inches water, and yet they frequently get aground in 
 descending the river. The cargoes usually consist of from 180 to 200 quarters of wheat. 
 
 " The wheat is thrC"r;;ion the mats, piled as high as the gunwale, and left uncovered, exposed to all the 
 inclemencies of the weather, and to the pilfering of the crew. During the passage, the barge is carried 
 along by the force of the stream, oars being merely used at the head and stern, to steer clear of the sand 
 banks, which are numerous and shifting, and to direct the vessel in passing under the several bridges. 
 These vessels are conducted by 6 or? men. A small boat precedes with a man in it, who is employed 
 sounding, in order to avoid the shifting shoals. This mode of navigating is necessarily very slow ; and • 
 during the progress of it, which lasts several weeks, and even months, the rain, if any fall, soon causes 
 the wheat to grow, and the vessel assumes the appearance of a floating meadow. The shooting of the 
 fibres soon forms a thick mat, and prevents the rain from penetrating more than an inch or two. I'he 
 main bulk is protected by this kind of covering, and, when that is thrown aside, is found in tolerable con. 
 dition. . 
 
 * A cask, or 1| barrel, weighs about 5| cwt. 
 
 t A puncheon of 90 to 100 gallons weighs 8 to 9 cwt., according to the degree of strength. 
 X A hogshead weighs about 5^ cwt. 
 
 2 H 2 
 
468 
 
 DANTZIC. 
 
 " The vessels are broken up at Dantzic, and usually sell for about § of their original cost. The men 
 who conduct them return on loot. 
 
 " When the cargo arrives at Dantzic or Elbing, all but the grown surface is thrown on the land, spread 
 abroad, exposed to the sun, and frequently turned over, till any slight moisture it may have imbibed ii 
 dried. If a shower of rain falls, as well as during the night, the heaps of wheat on the shore are thrown 
 together in the form of a steep roof of a house, that the rain may run off, and are covered with a linen 
 cloth. It is thus frequently a long time after the wheat has reached Dantzic, before it is fit to be placed 
 in the warehouses. 
 
 " The warehouses {speichers) are very well adapted for storing corn. They consist generally of 7 
 stories, 3 of which are in the roof The floors are about 9 feet asunder. Each of them is divided by per- 
 pendicular partitions, the whole length, about 4 feet high, by which diS'erent parcels are kept distinct 
 i'rom each other. Thus the floors have 2 divisions, each of them capable of storing from 150 to 200 quar- 
 ters of wheat, and leaving sufficient space for turning and screening it. There are abundance of windows 
 on each floor, which are always thrown oi)en in dry weather to ventilate the corn. It is usually turned 
 over 3 times a week. The men who perform the operation tlirow it with their shovels as high as they can, 
 and thus the grains are separated from each other, and exposed to the drying influence of the air. 
 
 " The whole of the corn warehouses now lell (for many were burnt during the siege of 1814), are 
 capable of storing 500,000 quarters of wheat, supposing the quarters to be large enough to fill each of the 
 2 divisions of the floors with a separate heap; but as of late years it has comedown from Poland in 
 smaller parcels than formerly, and of more various qualities, which must of necessity be kept distinct, 
 the present stock of aliout 280,000 quarter.s is found to occupy nearly the whole of those warehouses which 
 are in repair, or are advantageously situated for loading the ships. Ships are loaded by gangs of porters, 
 with great despatch, who will complete a cargo of 500 quarters in about 3 or 4 hours." — [First Report.) 
 
 We extract from the work of Mr. Oddy, the following additional information with respect to the 
 Dantzic warehouses: — " The warehouses for linens, ashes, hemp, &c., and the extensive granaries, are 
 situated in an island formed by the Motlau. To guard these warehouses, from 20 to 30 ferocious dogs of 
 a large size, amongst which are blood-hounds, are let loose at 11 o'clock at night. To keep the dogs within 
 their districts, as well as to protect the passengers, large high gates run across the end of each of the streets 
 leading to the main one : no light is allowed, nor any person suffered to live on this island. These dogs 
 prowl about the whole night, and create great terror. It would be impossible otherwise to keep property 
 secure amongst the hordes of Poles, Jews, &c. met with here ; no punishment would have half the effect 
 that the dread of the dogs produces. In winter, when the v/ater is frozen over, there are keepers placed 
 at particular avenues, with whips, to keep the dogs in their range. 
 
 " No fire or robbery was ever known ; and the expense to each building, with the immense property 
 they contain, is very reasonable. Vessels, either from the interior, or other quarters, lying alongside these 
 warehouses, are not allowed to have a fire, or light of any kind, on board, nor is a sailor or any other person 
 suffered even to smoke. These regulations partly extend to all shipping lying in the harbour." — {European 
 Commerce, p. 249.) 
 
 Timber Trade, Brack. — Fir timber is usually brought down in its natural state, and is squared into 
 logs, or sawn into planks, in winter, when the labourers cannot be otherwise employed. The staves shipped 
 here are carefully assorted, and are reckoned superior to those of America. 
 
 The expenses of the water conveyance of squared timber, Including duty at Thorn, are — 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 
 From the Bug - - from about 6 0 to 5 9 per piece. 
 
 — Wieprez (above Warsaw) - — 4 6 - 4 4 do. 
 
 — Vistula (above do. ) - — 3 0 - 2 4 do. 
 
 Being higher when the demand is unusually great, or when hands are scarce. 
 
 At Dantzic, as well as at Petersburgh (which see), Riga, and several other Baltic ports, sworn inspectors 
 ifirackers) are appointed by authority to examine certain articles intended for exportation, and to classify 
 them according to their qualities. Staves and timber of all sorts, with the exception of pine wood, is sub- 
 jected to the brack. Prime quality is branded Krohn or Crown ; second quality. Brack ; and the third or 
 lowest quality, Bracks Brack. All unmerchantable article.* are rejected by the brackers, and are not 
 allowed to be exported. 
 
 The gauge for crown pipe staves, which the bracker has always in his hand, is4| inches broad. If thick, 
 and 64 inches in length, which they must be at least; but they are expected to be larger in every 
 respect. 
 
 Pipe staves are from 64 to 68 inches long ; 6, 5, and 4^, at least, broad ; and from 1| to 3 inches thick. 
 Brandy staves are at least 54 to 58 inches long, as thick and broad as pipe staves. 
 Hogshead staves are 42 to 45 inches long, as thick and broad as pipe staves, all English measure. 
 The quality is ascertained by marks, to distinguish each sort, as follows : — 
 
 Crown pipe staves, stamped at the end, K. Hogshead bracks brack, II. 
 
 — brack, in the middle, I. Brandy hogshead crown, at the end, B K. 
 
 — bracks brack, il. — brack, in the middle, JxJ. 
 Hogshead crown, at the end, OK. — bracks brack, X X. 
 
 — brack, in the middle, I. 
 
 Oak planks are assorted in the same manner. Crown plank is marked in the middle, C. Brack, in the 
 end and middle, B. Bracks brack, B B. 
 
 To distinguish 1^ from 2, and 2^ from 8 inches, the 1| are marked with I, and 21 X. 
 
 At the end, in rough strokes, with coloured paint, brack is yellow I; bracks brack, white II; crown, 
 red III. 
 
 Ashes are suljjocted to the brack. The calcined are opened, and the crust taken off; others are not ex- 
 amined unless there be any suspicion of their quality, or the staves of the hogshead be supposed to be too 
 thick. Every cask of potashes is opened. 
 
 Shipping Charges and Duties, exclusive of Commission. 
 
 On Wheat 
 Ilyc 
 Barley 
 I'eas 
 r)ats 
 
 about 2 22i ■] 
 
 2 20 > per last of about IO5 Imp. qrs. 
 
 &scuit}5P--'- 
 
 Pearlashes about 0 10 per shippound of .^,10 lbs. 
 Weed ashes — Of. — barrel <lo. 
 Fir timber — 0 10 — load. 
 
 On Deck deals 7 
 Short deals > 
 Deal ends ) 
 Lathwood - — 
 
 Clapboards • — 
 
 Oak plank 1 _ 
 Oak ends J 
 
 Staves - - — 
 HI ack or spru ce lieer — 
 Feathers . . _ 
 
 about 0 2ri.J per load. 
 
 1 0 
 
 2 0 
 1 10 
 
 fathom. 
 
 shock of 60 pieces, 
 load. 
 1 — millepipe. 
 _ last of 1 1 >eR3. 
 
 IV. /?. — The Prussian pound is about .^i per cent, heavier than the English pound. The expenses of sending goods down 
 lare taken at about an average rate ; but if the whole, or the greater part of the cargo, were loaded in the Fairwater or roadfc 
 the ex|ieiise>i would be somewhat more. 
 
DANTZIC. 
 
 4G9 
 
 Sfiii^ipinfT. — Account of tlic Number of Ships, specifying tlie Countries towTiicli they belonged, with their 
 
 'lonna^e in Lasts, of 4,000 1 russian lbs. that arrived at, and departed from, Duntzic in 183-t [I'rus- 
 
 sian Official Accounts.) 
 
 
 
 Ships 
 
 
 
 Oi these 
 
 
 
 Ships 
 
 
 Of U.cm: 
 
 
 
 Arrived 
 and 
 
 Lasts. 
 
 leaden. 
 
 l!alla>i(. 
 
 Flags. 
 
 Arrived 
 aiKl 
 
 Lasts. 
 
 Laden. 
 
 liiillast. 
 
 
 
 SaiKd. 
 
 
 Ships. 
 
 T.asls. Sliip.s. 
 
 leasts. 
 
 Sailed. 
 
 
 Ships. 
 
 LaoK. 
 
 Shipb. 
 
 1..-UU. 
 
 Danisli 
 Mecklenburg 
 H.inse-Towns 
 Uusbian - 
 
 Arr. 
 Dep. 
 Arr. 
 Dep. 
 Arr. 
 Dep. 
 Arr. 
 Dep. 
 Arr. 
 Dep. 
 Arr. 
 Dep. 
 r Arr. 
 Dep. 
 Arr. 
 Dep. 
 
 25 
 25 
 4 
 4 
 7 
 
 .7 
 
 2 
 15 
 21 
 62 
 68 
 38 
 38 
 
 l,8a'j 
 1,813 
 281 
 270 
 .384 
 5fi5 
 200 
 l.Vi 
 84 f. 
 1,180 
 1 843 
 1,841 
 
 4,749 
 3,040 
 2,917 
 
 1(5 
 22 
 1 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 1 
 13 
 9 
 fil 
 29 
 17 
 38 
 20 
 50 
 
 C>(■,'^ 
 l,(i92 
 29 
 270 
 270 
 .Ofi.5 
 UH 
 Ck> 
 622 
 661 
 1,797 
 865 
 1,7.34 
 4,749 
 782 
 2,917 
 
 2 
 
 '2 
 12 
 
 29 
 21 
 
 1,113 
 121 
 
 252 
 
 114 
 
 32 
 93 
 224 
 519 
 46 
 976 
 2,798 
 
 Oldenburg j^^- 
 Netherlands jj^^J^- 
 Belgian - Urr. 
 French - [^l'^' 
 
 13 
 12 
 1.33 
 132 
 4 
 4 
 1 
 3 
 
 492 
 470 
 7,3 1 1 
 7,393 
 234 
 210 
 50 
 197 
 
 6 
 12 
 
 132 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 214 
 470 
 2,764 
 7,393 
 
 240 
 
 197 
 
 78 
 4 
 1 
 
 278 
 4,577 
 234 
 50 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Norwegian 
 
 British 
 
 Total Foreign ("Arr. 
 
 Ships - (.Dep. 
 Prussian Ships arrived 
 
 and departed 
 
 .359 
 361 
 
 571 
 
 21,048 
 21,791 
 
 80,841 
 
 196 
 316 
 
 .383 
 
 9,025i 
 20,082 
 
 "^3,575 
 
 163 
 45 
 
 188 
 
 12.026 
 1,709 
 
 27,26.5 
 
 Hanoverian 
 
 54 
 60 
 
 34 
 
 2,258 
 
 Grand Total arrived 
 and departed 
 
 1,291 
 
 123,679 
 
 895 
 
 82,679 
 
 596 
 
 41,000 
 
 Porl Chur/;es. — The charges on a ship of 200 lasts, or about 
 300 tons burden, are — 
 
 R. S.g. Rf. 
 
 Harbour money - - - - 88 26 8 
 
 Ditto in gold (say in Fred, d'ors, reckoned at 
 
 5 r., in which this must be paid) • - 14 6 8 
 River uvsney - - .000 
 
 Commercial contribution • - - 3 10 0 
 
 Expedition expenses • - - 13 10 0 
 
 Captain's allowance for expenses on shore - 16 20 0 
 Tracking the ship into the harbour (Fair- 
 water) . - -.200 
 Ballast money, &c. - . - 10 24 0 
 Pilot to the ballast wharf - - - 4 0 0 
 Ditto moving the ship in Fairwater - - 2 15 0 
 Police passport - - - - 3 5 0 
 Clearing the vessel in and out - - - 16 20 0 
 
 Making 25/. 6». 6d. sterling, at the exchange 
 of 6 r. 28 s. gr. - - - 175 17 4 
 
 The charges on the sliips of all countries having reciprocity trea- 
 ties with Prussia (which is generally the case) are the same, 
 only Dautzic captains receive no allowance for shore exj.ensts. 
 Kiver or stream money is only paid by vessels that bring goods 
 to town, or load in the Mptfau (above the blockhouse) : if a 
 ship remain in the Fairwater or Vistula, the river money 
 is levied on the craft carrying the goods, and falls on the 
 latter. 
 
 Dantzic is a favourable place for ships careening and re- 
 pairing, and for obtaining supplies of all sorts of sea stores at 
 a reasonable rate. 
 
 There belong to the port 75 ships, measuring about 16,000 
 lasts = 24,000 tons, navigated by about 950 men. They are 
 employed in foreign trade. The port has no fishery, and no 
 coasting trade worth mentioning. 
 
 Custom-house Renulations. ~- The shipmaster must, within 
 24 hours after arrival in port, make a declaration of the 
 cargo on board, and of the ship's provisions, and he incurs a 
 severe penalty if the declaration do not prove csrrect. 
 The ship's hatches (if goods are on board) are sealed on 
 arrival, and an additional declaration is accepted before 
 they are unsealed ; but no later declaration, siipplementary, 
 or explanatory, of the first, and no submitting the goods to 
 investigation by the officer^, is received or allowed. If the 
 shipmaster be unable to make a complete declaration on ar- 
 rival, a Custom-house officer is put on board, who remains 
 until the ship is unloaded, at an expense to her of about 2s. 
 per day and night. The cargo can only be discharged in pre- 
 Sence of a customs officer- 
 
 The shipmaster, and not the receiver of the goods, is made 
 responsible, if the contents of the packages do not correspond 
 with his declaration ; and he is only exonerated from this by 
 solemnly averring, on making the declaration, that the con- 
 tents are unknown to him. An evident mistake or oversight 
 is treated as rigorously as an intentional fraud. 
 
 On commencing to loud, the shipmaster receives a blank 
 loading list, in which he must daily note the articles he takes 
 on board, or he is liable to fine; but this regulation is not very 
 rigidly enforced. On clearing out, this list is compared with 
 the goods entered by the vessel, when the sea passport is 
 given. 
 
 Ballast can be discharged only at stated places, on pain of 
 the shipmaster being fined. 
 
 It is material, however, to observe, that the whole Custom- 
 house business of the shipmaster is conducted by Custom- 
 house brokers, so that he is never at a loss, being informed by 
 the one he .selects what he has to do. Alterations are fre- 
 quently made in the Custom-house regulations. 
 
 The shipmaster receives, on arrival, fj^m the pilot commo- 
 dore, a copy of the harbour regulations, m his own language, 
 ■with instructions how to act as to ballast. 
 
 Warehousitig. — Such goods as pay a higher duty than ^ a 
 dollar per centner (about Is. 5^il. for about 113 lbs. English) 
 inay be placed in the king's stores {no where else), and re- 
 main there for 2 years without payment of duty. No allow- 
 ance is made for waste or damage in these stores. Other 
 goods, not capable of being changed, may be placed in private 
 Stores, under the king's lock ; but not elsewhere, without per- 
 mission. No rent is charge<l for goods in the king's stores, 
 during the first 3 months; afterwards about IJrf. monthly 
 rent is charged for the first, and about 3rf. monthly for the 
 second year, per centner of about 115 lbs. English. 
 
 In private warehouses, the monthly rent for 10 quarters of 
 »htat or other iJTain is fvom about 3Jd. to 7</., or more, ac- 
 
 cording as warehouse room is abundant or otherwise, (nhi r 
 goods do not usually pay by the piece, but part of a store is 
 hired for them, and the rent generally comes somewlmt 
 higlier in proportion. 
 
 The cost of rent and turning giain is from Is. '2d. lo 1*. Gd. 
 monthly, for 10 quarters, according to the season of the year 
 and other circumstances ; but more when granary room is 
 scarce, and wages high. 
 
 Banking Etlablishments . — There is none such here, except- 
 ing a branch of the Iloyal or Government Bank of Berlin. 
 This was founded partly in the view of receiving deposits of 
 money under litigation in the courts of the province ; monies 
 the property of minors and charitable institutions, the former 
 until disposable or placed on good security ; and monies 
 belonging to individuals not merchants, and at times, also, 
 those of the latter. Interest is paid on such deposits as 
 follows : viz. 
 
 3 per cent, on sums belonging to minors. 
 
 2i do. do. charitable institutiona 
 
 churches, and sums deposited by the courts of justice, and 
 2 do all other deposits. 
 
 The principal is demanclable at pleasure, tmless otherwise 
 stipulated. The bank makes advances on grain and some 
 other kinds of goods at 5 per cent, inteiest ; discounts bills 
 with 3 signatures, not having more than 2 months to run, at 
 6 per cent., and sometimes, when money is plenty, at a lower 
 rate. It also makes advances at 4 per cent, on deposits of 
 Fred, d'ors and certain foreign rnonies ; and it occEisionally buys 
 bills for account of, and sells bills on, the Berlin bank. It does 
 not issue notes. The amount of its capital is not fixed ; but 
 government guarantees its transactions. It is relieved from 
 the payment of postage on money, and it is not required to 
 use the stamps fixed by law, on bills for its depos.it trans- 
 actions, but only those of 10 s. gr., (about 11^(,' ) ; while indi- 
 viduals must use stamps for such bills of 5 s. gr. for every 
 400 r., of not longer date than 3 months, and lor every 2U0 r. 
 of longer date. 
 
 On negotiable bills, however, the bank must use the stamps 
 fixed by law, say of 5 s. gr. (about b^d.) for sums of oOdoI. to 
 400 dol.,and nt the same rate for every additional sum between 
 100 dol. and 400 dol- 
 
 Bills from and on foreign places, negotiated at Dantzic, are 
 not subject to tbe stamp uty. 
 
 The affairs of ih.. >ia. ' are not made public. Being a go- 
 vernment concern, there are no dividends. It is not supposed 
 to be very profitable, at least in the present circumscrilied 
 state of trade, althoui^h enjoying the advantages of exemption 
 from postage of monies, and pacing less stamp duty. It is 
 true, however, that the direct advemtage of the lower stamp 
 duty is enjoyed by the borrower. 
 
 Credit, Bnikera/^e, <Ji c. — Very few goods are consigned from 
 abroad for sale,. for such consignments rarely turn to good 
 account. Imports are seldom sold^for cash, but f;enerally at 
 1, 2, and 3 months' credit, or longer. 'I'he discount allowed 
 for cash payments, when sold on lime, is usually 6 per cent-, 
 but it varies according as money is plentiful or otherwise. 
 
 Any person, being a burgher of the town (which any one 
 of good character may become), may transact business as a 
 commission merchant or factor; but brokers must be chosen 
 by the elders of the Corporation of Merchants, approved by 
 the regency of the province, and sworn in by the magistracy 
 of the town. 
 
 The usual rates of commission are — 
 3 per cent, on wood articles! „^„„^„i 
 '2 do. other goods je^'POrted, 
 2 dm. goods imported, 
 
 with from from 1 to 2 per cent on 'do. for del credere, or 
 guarantee of debts. 
 The com factor receives r. 1-7 (about 4*-. 9rf. sterling) 
 per last (of 60 scheffels) of all grain, from the buj-er, and 
 1 per cent, from the seller. 
 
 The rates of brokerage are — 
 12.i s. gr. (nearly Is. 2id.) per \00!. 
 7* _ ( _ S-7<'.) per 100/. 
 55 — ( — 4-3£/.) per lOOr. 
 1 per mille for bills on Berlin, Warsaw, and Paris. 
 
 4 per cent, on monies placed at interest, for a period not less 
 than 6 months, from the borrow er, and 
 
 1 per mille from the lender. 
 
 1 per mille usually for short discounts, fi-om both parties. 
 
 1 per cent, on the" actual or the computed amount of trans- 
 actions in public fimds, fipm both parties. 
 
 ^ per cent, usually (sometimes more or less) for merchandise. 
 On gr;.in for exportation, the brokerage is recently fixed at 1 
 
 2 H 3 
 
470 
 
 DANTZIC. 
 
 r* cent., to be jiaid by ttic seller, the buyer refunding to him 
 s.gr. per last of 56i sclieft'els. 
 
 Burghers being merchants, may act as brokers, without 
 direct authority, in the purchase from, and sale of goods to, 
 Poles, receiving 1 per cent, on goods bought, and 1 to 2 
 per cent, on poods sold, according to circumstances. 
 
 Dankmiitcies are not of frequent occurrencejiere. Their 
 most prevalent sources at present are speculations in grain, 
 and general badness of trade. Bankrupts cannot obtain a 
 discharge except by private composition, without which they 
 always remain responsible to each individual creditor, who 
 can attach them at any time, if he can show that they possess 
 property, although their affairs have been settled by judicial 
 authority. This, and the tediousness of settlements in court, 
 make both debtor and creditor desirous of settling by compo- 
 sition ; and hence few insolvents are made bankrupt, by their 
 affairs being brought into court. It is to be observed, that 
 creditors, having claims by bills in force, must by law be paid 
 to the full, before those with only book claims receive any 
 thing; but to avoid the tardiness of the court, bill creditors 
 here generally agree to let book creditors receive half as much 
 in composition as they themselves get. It is, however, diffi- 
 cult to arrange a composition, as each creditor can make his 
 own terms ; and those who hold out, generally get more, at 
 least privately, than the ostensible rate of composition offered 
 by the debtor. 
 
 If a private composition cannot be effected, and the insol- 
 vent is regularly made bankrupt, by his affairs being put into 
 court, the law prescribes that, if a small portion of the cre- 
 ditors will not accept the dividend with which the greater 
 ))ortion are satisfied, the latter can require the former to con- 
 sent, or become resjionsible for the estate producing as much 
 finally ; but so many objections may be made, that this com- 
 pulsive measure is very seldom resorted to. A private compo- 
 sition is, however, generally preferred by all parties, more 
 particularly by the debtor, as being the only means by which 
 he can become entirely free, and get a general discharge. 
 
 Honest bankrupts, whose affairs are brought into court, 
 may be freed from personal arrest by faithfully delivering up 
 all their property. Dishonest ones, upon conviction,' are 
 punished by being sent t-o the House of Correction ; but they 
 often escape punishment, from the too great laxity in enforcing 
 the laws in criminal matters. 
 
 The creditors of a bankrupt estate brought info court, rank 
 under 8 different classes, each prior class enjoying a prece- 
 dency of claim over those following, to the full amount. The 
 two most considerable classes, in general, are the Cth and 7th, 
 the former being that of the bill, the latter that of the book, 
 creditors. 
 
 Tares, Sfc. — The duties are in general payable on the gross 
 weight ; a fixed allowance being made, in many cases, ac- 
 cording to the packages; in others, there is no allowance. 
 Tlie tariir specifies the particular regulations on this point. 
 The tare on goods in single sacks is 4 lbs. uer centiipr 'abou* 
 
 113 lbs. English), it being left to the oirtion of the receiver to 
 
 have the ncu weight ascertained. 
 In trade there are fixed rates of tare only on the following 
 
 foods ; viz. 
 oiashes, 6 per cent., when sold by a merchant. 
 Dye wood, ground, S to 11 per bale. 
 
 in whole butts. 
 
 . half do. 
 
 - Jandl-Sthnio. 
 
 • casks. 
 
 . whole and half butts. 
 
 - i and l-8th. 
 
 • pipes. 
 
 Currants 14 per cent. 
 
 16 _ - 
 
 18 — . 
 
 Figs and raisins 10 — 
 Olive oil 16 — 
 
 18 to 20 - 
 
 16 — 
 
 Seed oil, latterly the tare is ascertained. 
 Pepper, English, in double bags, 7 lbs. 
 
 — Danish, in bags and mats, 11 lbs. 
 Orange and lemon peel, 6 per cent., or tare ascertained. 
 Rice from Unglarid or Hamburgh, the tare as on the 
 casks, less 2 lbs. per cask on that from England, and in pro- 
 portion to the weight on that from Hamburgh. Danish 
 should give 10 per cent, tare, but the buyers are in general 
 not satisfied with this. 
 Tallow, 10 per cent., or nett tare. 
 Tea, Danish bohea, 78 lbs. if in linen and mats. 
 
 — 24 lbs. in chests above 100 lbs. 
 
 — 22 lbs. ~ of about 80 lbs. 
 Most frequently the tare is ascertained. 
 
 Vitriol, 10 per cent. 
 
 Raw sugar, 12 to 16 per cent, according to the size of the 
 chests. 
 
 Candied sugar, tare by invoice, adding in that proportion for 
 
 the difference in the weight usually heavier. 
 Syrup in whole casks, 10 per cent. 
 
 — in ^ ditto, and barrels, 12 per cent. 
 On the sale of lnipon>, 1 per cent, on the nett weight (called 
 
 good weight) is allowed in favour of the buyer. 
 
 Insnrayice. — There are no insurance companies nor pri- 
 vate insurers here ; but there are agents of insurance com- 
 panies in Hamburgh for ships, and of those of London and 
 other places for houses and lives. 
 
 Wages of common Labinirers in Dantzic vary from 9d. to lid 
 a day, and those of carponters, masons, &c., from 1*. firf. to 
 2j. Wages in all the large Prussian towns are higher than in 
 the stnall towns of the country, from the price of flour, bread, 
 and butcher's meat beinj; higher in them. This is occasioned 
 partly by the latter being subject to octrois or excise duties on 
 entering the great towns, from which the country districts and 
 smaller towns are exempted. The king receives 2-5ds of 
 these duties, and the towns the other l-5d. This duty is a 
 great obstacle to the free intercourse with the country. 
 
 (We have derived these details from different sources, but 
 principally from the valuable Ansrvert made by the Consul to 
 the Circular Queries.) 
 
 Prussian Shipping. — Sumir.ary Statement of the Arrivals of Ships at, and of their Departures from, 
 the different Prussian Ports, in 1834. — (From the Official Accounts furnished by the Prussian Govern- 
 ment.) 
 
 Names of Ports. 
 
 Memcl 
 Pillau - - 
 Dantzic 
 Stolpmiinde 
 Riigcnwalde 
 Colhcrg 
 Swineniiinde 
 Wolgast 
 Greifswnlde 
 Stralsund - 
 
 Ent 
 Sail. 
 fEnt. 
 I Sail. 
 CEnt 
 I Sail. 
 fEnt. 
 I Sail. 
 CEnt. 
 ISail. 
 CEnt. 
 iSail 
 CEnt. 
 1 Sail. 
 fEnt. 
 I Sail. 
 5" Ent. 
 I Sail 
 C Ent 
 I Sail, 
 
 Arrivals - 
 Departures 
 
 1i 
 
 633 
 648 
 381 
 362 
 649 
 642 
 81 
 81 
 84 
 82 
 88 
 90 
 817 
 842 
 100 
 114 
 150 
 167 
 388 
 390 
 
 3,371 
 3,418 
 
 I. 
 
 78,257 
 80,937 
 27,211 
 24,728 
 62,342 
 61,337 
 2,202 
 2,232 
 3,142 
 3,164 
 3,273 
 3,415 
 .58,702 
 59,80 
 5,321 
 6,408 
 11,591 
 12,314 
 19,506 
 19,890 
 
 271,547 
 274,232 
 
 Laden. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 228 
 630 
 287 
 296 
 309 
 5S6 
 76 
 32 
 33 
 67 
 SO 
 
 714 
 47 
 
 87 
 38 
 127 
 1,59 
 300 
 
 1,815 
 2,921 
 
 4,736 
 
 25,634 
 80,248 
 19,540 
 16,620 
 23,658 
 59,021 
 1,999 
 736 
 1,232 
 2,503 
 653 
 2,756 
 42,077 
 50,472 
 2,063 
 4,955 
 1,495 
 7,059 
 6,926 
 12,732 
 
 125,27' 
 237,102 
 
 In Ballast. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 405 
 18 
 94 
 66 
 
 340 
 56 
 5 
 49 
 51 
 15 
 58 
 81 
 
 209 
 
 128 
 53 
 27 
 
 112 
 40 
 
 229 
 90 
 
 1,556 
 497 
 
 2 ,(\'5.'; 
 
 52,623 
 689 
 
 7,671 
 
 8,108 
 38,684 
 
 2,316 
 203 
 
 1,496 
 
 1,910 
 661 
 
 2,620 
 659 
 16,62 
 
 9,335 
 
 3,2 
 
 1,453 
 10,096 
 
 5,255 
 12,.580 
 
 7,158 
 
 Among theie were Foreign 
 
 270 
 272 
 iS8 
 232 
 559 
 361 
 1 
 1 
 31 
 31 
 18 
 18 
 296 
 297 
 33 
 36 
 28 
 29 
 138 
 129 
 
 146,2704 1,412 
 37,130| 1,406 
 
 . 
 
 26,483 
 26.892 
 ll,.03O 
 10,789 
 21,048 
 21,791. 
 55 
 55 
 1,264 
 1,264 
 642 
 642 
 17,715 
 18,003 
 1,045 
 1,168 
 1,348 
 1,029 
 4,82(1 
 4,652 
 
 85,9.'50 
 80,285 
 
 ]83,40(Y 2,818 1 172,2;55 
 
 Ships. I Lasts. 
 
 100 
 261 
 189 
 206 
 196 
 316 
 1 
 
 30 
 3 
 18 
 214 
 219 
 23 
 18 
 15 
 18 
 100 
 79 
 
 6,905 
 26,518 
 8,2.'38 
 9,693 
 9,022 
 20,0"' 
 55 
 
 416 
 1,217 
 101 
 642 
 13,185 
 13,681 
 701 
 537 
 401 
 601 
 3,691 
 1,898 
 
 Ships. I Lasts . 
 
 850 42,77. 
 1,165 74,809 
 
 2,015 I 117,644 
 
 170 
 11 
 49 
 26 
 
 163 
 45 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 I 
 15 
 
 82 
 78 
 10 
 18 
 13 
 11 
 38 
 50 
 
 19,57» 
 374 
 3,292 
 1,096 
 
 12,026 
 1,709 
 
 55 
 848 
 
 47 
 591 
 
 4,.'530 
 4,322 
 344 
 631 
 887 
 428 
 1.129 
 2,754 
 
 562 43,175 
 241 11,416 
 
 803 I 54,591 
 
 Coiinlries to which Foreign Vessels belonged. — Of the foreign vessels that entered and were despatched 
 [«n Prussian Ports in 1834, there were — 
 
 frmn 
 
 Arrivals. Departures. 
 
 British - . 244 - 246 
 
 Netherlands - 324 - 331 
 
 Danish - . 202 - 200 
 
 Hanoverian - 1-96 - 188 
 
 Swedish . - 97 - 99 
 
 Norwegian - 194 - 197 
 
 Then follow the ships of the Hmseatic cities, Russia, Mecklenburg, &c. 
 
DATES. 
 
 471 
 
 Ships bclonf^ing to Prussia. — M. Furbcr gives the following Tabic of Ihc sliiiiping of Prussia : — 
 
 Summary Indication of the Vessels belonging to Prussian Owners, in the Years 1825, 1826, 1827, 1828, 
 1829, \830, and 1831. — {Ferber, p. 174.) 
 
 Kcinigsberg 
 Fillau - 
 Memel - 
 Elbing - 
 Dantzic • 
 Stettin . 
 Cos) in - 
 Stralsund - 
 (iriefswaldc 
 VVolgast - 
 Barth - _ 
 
 Total 
 
 182'> 
 
 Ships. Lasts. [Ships. Lasts, 
 
 1,617 
 1,767 
 4,229 
 1,430 
 \2,'.m 
 20,559 
 1,724 
 6,235 
 2,957 
 1,626 
 3,554 
 
 576 '58,007 
 
 2,368 
 2,026 
 4,278 
 2.178 
 14,934 
 22,808 
 1,637 
 5,983 
 3,069 
 1,540 
 3,572 
 
 Ships. Lasts. 
 
 589 64,393 623 
 
 2,539 
 2,670 
 4,076 
 2,f).50 
 15,386 
 25,024 
 2,764 
 6,324 
 3,928 
 1,.586 
 3,784 
 
 70,731 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Sliips. 
 
 LasU. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Lasts. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Lasts. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Lasts. 
 
 17 
 
 2,738 
 
 18 
 
 3,026 
 
 20 
 
 3,008 
 
 11 
 
 3,228 
 
 14 
 
 2,468 
 
 15 
 
 %cm 
 
 15 
 
 2,fi«J 
 
 14 
 
 2,589 
 
 36 
 
 4,377 
 
 36 
 
 4,815 
 
 38 
 
 5,095 
 
 38 
 
 4,5+3 
 
 19 
 
 3,175 
 
 18 
 
 2,941 
 
 19 
 
 3,106 
 
 20 
 
 3,J.'54 
 
 76 
 
 15,999 
 
 78 
 
 16,0.95 
 
 76 
 
 
 76 
 
 15,9.'34 
 
 238 
 
 25,057 
 
 235 
 
 25,014 
 
 244 
 
 25,4(50 
 
 2.">2 
 
 26,398 
 
 35 
 
 2,792 
 
 39 
 
 3,045 
 
 39 
 
 2,909 
 
 41 
 
 3,181 
 
 81 
 
 6,1<S6 
 
 76 
 
 6,(X)1 
 
 75 
 
 6,310 
 
 81 
 
 7,248 
 
 54 
 
 4,070 
 
 52 
 
 4,103 
 
 52 
 
 4,185 
 
 52 
 
 4,179 
 
 20 
 
 1,78S 
 
 22 
 
 1,992 
 
 21 
 
 1,919 
 
 23 
 
 2,164 
 
 41 
 
 3,784 
 
 41 
 
 3,784 
 
 44 
 
 4,369 
 
 44 
 
 4,369 
 
 631 
 
 72,434 
 
 630 173,418 
 
 643 
 
 75,079 
 
 652 
 
 76,987 
 
 Influence qf Reciprocity Treaties. — This Table is important, as exhibiting the utter groundlessness 
 of the clamour raised in this couiitry as to the recijirocity treaty with Prussia. Taking the last at I| 
 ton, the total increase of Prussian shipping, from 1825 to 1831 inclusive, will be 76 ships and 28,470 
 tons, which is very little more than the increase, during the same period, of the shipping belonging 
 to the port of Newcastle! It will be observed, too, that the increase since 1827 has only amounted to 
 29 ships and 9,384 tons. If, therefore, our shipping be distressed, it is quite impossible it should have 
 been occasioned by the increase of shipping in Prussia. Considering, indeed, the extent of sea coast 
 now in possession of that kingdom, the tranquillity she has enjoyed sincethe peace, and her rapid progress 
 in manufactures and commerce, the small increase of her shipping is not a little surprising. It could 
 not well have been less, though the reciprocity treaty had never been heard of. Indeed, many of the 
 Prussian ship owners think, and, perhaps, justly, that it would have been greater had that treaty not 
 been entered into. It must also be kept in view, that this trifling increase in the shipping of Prussia 
 is the only increase that has taken place in the shipping of any country of the north of Europe since 
 18SJ5. The mercantile navies of Sweden, Denmark, and Russia, have undergone little or no change; 
 but it is a fact, that the shipping of Norway has fallen off even more rapidly than that of Prussia 
 lias increased, and yet wc have a reciprocity treaty with her! Is not this sufficient to show that the 
 influence of these treaties has been grossly exaggerated by our ship owners ? and that they cannot 
 really have done them any injury ? 
 
 DATES (Ger. Datteln ; Fr. Dattes ; It. Datteri ; Sp. Datiles), the fruit of the 
 palm tree (Phcenix dactylifera Lin.). This tree is abundant in Egypt, Barbary, Arabia, 
 Persia, and the adjacent countries, particularly on the confines of the desert, and wher- 
 ever there is sufficient moisture. It is a tall majestic tree ; and repeated references 
 are made to it in the sacred writings (Ecclus. xxiv. 14.), and in the Koran. Moham- 
 med, in one of his sayings, beautifully compares the upright and generous man to the 
 palm tree. " He stands erect before his Lord ; in his every action he follows the im- 
 pulse received from above, and his whole life is devoted to the welfare of his fellow- 
 creatures." But the veneration in which the palm tree is held in the East is to be 
 ascribed more to its utility than to its beauty. Dates form the principal part of the 
 subsistence of the inhabitants of many parts of Arabia and Barbary, and they are held 
 in the highest estimation wherever they are met with. " They are," says Burckhardt, 
 " by far the most essential article of food for the lower classes of Medina ; their harvest 
 is expected with as much anxiety, and attended with as much general rejoicing, as the 
 vintage in the south of Europe ; and if the crop fails, which often happens, as those 
 trees are seldom known to produce abundantly for 3 or 4 successive years, or is eaten 
 up by the locusts, universal gloom overpreads the population, as if a famine were appre- 
 hended." — ( Travels in Arabia, vol. ii. p. 214.) 
 
 There is an endless variety of dates. Generally, however, they may be described as 
 being somewhat in the shape of an acorn, but usually larger, consisting of a thick 
 fleshy substance, including and freely separating from an oblong stone or kernel, having 
 a furrow on the one side. Their taste is agreeably sweet, accompanied with a slight 
 astringency. The new ii-uit is called by the Arabs riiteh. When the dates are allowed 
 to remain on the tree till they are quite ripe, and have become soft and of a high red 
 colour, they are formed into a hard solid paste or cake called adjoue. This is formed 
 by pressing the rij^e dates forcibly into large baskets, each containing about 2 cwt. 
 " In this state," says Burckhardt, " the Bedouins export the adjoue : in, the market 
 it is cut out of the basket, and sold by the pound. It forms part of the daily food 
 of all classes of people : in travelling it is dissolved in water, and thus affords a sweet 
 and refreshing drink. During the monsoon, the ships from the Persian Gulf bring 
 adjoue from 13ussorah to Djidda for sale in small baskets weighing about 10 lbs. each ; 
 this kind is preferred to every other. Ships bound from Arabia for India take with them 
 a considerable quantity of adjoue, which is readily disposed of amongst the Mohammedans 
 of Hindostan." — ( Travels in Arabia, vol. i. p. 57.) 
 
 The Arabians and Egj^ptians use the leaves of the tree in the preparation of bags and 
 baskets ; the boughs, the outer and inner bark of the trunk, and the fleshy substance at 
 the root of the leaves, where they spring from the trunk, luivo all their respective uses • 
 
 2 H 4 
 
472 
 
 DEALS. —DEMURRAGE. 
 
 and besides this, tiie kernels of the fruit, notwithstanding their hardness, are used as 
 food for cattle ; they are soaked for two days in water, when they become softened, and 
 are given to camels, cows, and sheep, instead of barley : they are said to be much more 
 nutritive than that grain. There are shops at Medina in which nothing else is sold but 
 date kernels ; and the beggars are continually employed in all the main streets in picking 
 up those that are thrown away. — {Burckhardt, vol. ii. p. 212.) 
 
 All the refinements of Arabian cookery are exhausted in the preparation of dates ; and 
 the Arabs say that a good housewife will daily supply her lord, for a month, with a dish 
 of dates differently dressed. 
 
 Palm trees are raised by shoots ; and Dr. Shaw mentions that they arrive at their 
 vigour in about 30 years, and continue so 70 years afterwards, bearing yearly 15 or 20 
 clusters of dates, each of them weighing 15 or 20 lbs. : after this period, they begin to 
 decline. — ( Travels in the Levant, p. 142. 4to ed.) 
 
 The best dates imported into Great Britain are said to come from Tunis, but they 
 are most commonly brought from Smyrna and Alexandria. They should be chosen 
 large, softish, not much wrinkled, of a reddish yellow colour on the outside, with a 
 whitish membrane betwixt the flesh and the stone. Those that are dry and hard are of 
 little value. 
 
 DEALS, OR DEAL BOARDS (Ger. i)je?e« 'Dn. Deelen ; Da. Dceler j Sw. Til- 
 jor ; Fr. Planches minces ; It. Tavole, Piane ; Rus. Doski ; Pol. Tarcice), a thin kind 
 of fir planks, much used in carpentry : they are formed by sawing the trunk of a tree 
 into longitudinal divisions, of greater or less thickness, according to the purposes they are 
 intended to serve. They are imported from Dantzic, Petersburgh, Narva, and many 
 other ports in the Baltic, and from North America ; but those from Christiania, the 
 capital of Norway, are the best, and bring the highest price. They are distinguishable 
 from those produced in the contiguous provinces of Norway ; their superiority has been 
 said to depend principally on their being more perfectly sawed ; but it really depends on 
 the greater care with which the sap-wood and other defective portions of the timber is 
 cut away, and on tlie quality of the timber. 
 
 A Russian standard deal is 12 feet long, 11 inches wide, and 1| inch thick; 400 feet of If inch plank 
 make a load. 
 
 A Christiania standard deal is 11 feet long, 9 inches wide, and 1^ inch thick. There is another standard 
 of Norway deals at Dram, 10 feet long, 9 inches wide, and 1| inch thick. — (See Christiania.) 
 
 DEBENTURE, a term used at the Custom-house to signify the certificate sub- 
 scribed by the customs ofiicers, and given to the exporter of goods on which a bounty 
 or drawback is allowed, bearing that the exporter has complied with the required 
 regulations, and that he is entitled to such bounty or drawback. 
 
 It is enacted by 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52. § 86., that no drawback or bounty shall be allowed upon the export- 
 ation of any goods, unless: entered in the name of the real owner thereof, or of the person who had actually 
 purchased and shipped the same, in his own name and at his own risk, on commission. 
 
 Such owner or commission merchant shall make and subscribe a declaration on tlie debenture that the 
 goods have been actually exported, and are not to be relanded in any part of the United Kingdom, 
 &c. ; and if such owner or commission merchant shall not have purchased the right to such drawback or 
 bounty, he shall declare under his hand in the entry, and in his oath upon the debenture, the person who 
 is entitled thereto; and the name of such person shall be inserted in the cocket, and in the debenture, 
 and his receipt on the latter shall be tlie discharge of such drawback or bounty. — \ 87. 
 
 For these and the other clauses in the act relating to debentures, see Importation and Exportation. 
 
 All debentures must be on 5s. stamps. 
 
 Debentures or certificates for bounty on the exportation of linens or sailcloth exempted from duty, 
 DELFT, OR DELF (Ger. Fai/ence, Unachtes Porzellan ; Du. Belfs porcelyn ; Fr. 
 Faience), a coarse species of porcelain originally manufactured at Delft, whence its name. 
 It is now rarely used in this country. 
 
 DEMURRAGE, in commercial navigation, is an allowance made to the master or 
 owners of a ship by the freighter, for detaining her in port longer than the period 
 agreed upon for her sailing. It is usually stipulated in charterparties and bills of 
 lading, that a certain number of days, called running or working days, shall be allowed 
 for receiving or discharging the cargo, and that the freighter may detain the vessel for a 
 further specified time, or as long as he pleases, on payment of so much per diem for 
 such over-time. "When the contract of affreightment expressly stipulates that so many 
 aays shall be allowed for discharging or receiving the cargo, and so many more for over- 
 time, such limitation is interpreted as an express stipulation on the part of the freighter, 
 that th vessel shall in no event be detained longer, and that if detained he will be liable 
 for demurrage. This holds even in cases whore the delay is not occasioned by any fault 
 on the freighter's part, but is inevitable. If, for example, a ship be detained, owing to 
 the crowded state of the port, for a longer time than is allowed by the contract, demur- 
 rage is due; and it is no defence to an action for demurrage, that it arose from port 
 regulations, or even from the unlawful acts of the Custom-house oflficers. Demurrage 
 is not, however, claimable for a delay occasioned by the hostile detenti'ni of the ship, or 
 the hostile occupation of the intended port ; nor is it claimable for any delay wilfully 
 occasioned by the master, or owners, or crew of the vessel. The claim for demurrage 
 
DENARIUS. — DIAMOND. 
 
 473 
 
 ceases as soon as the ship is cleared out and ready for sailing, though she should be de- 
 tained by adverse winds, or tempestuous weatlier. — ( Chitt^'s Commercial Law, vol. iii. 
 pp. 426—431.) 
 
 DENARIUS, a Roman coin, estimated by Dr. Arbuthnot to have been woith 7|ri. ; 
 but its value differed at different periods. 
 
 DENIER, a small French coin, of which there were 12 to a sol. 
 
 DIAMOND (Ger. Du. Da. and Fr. Diamant ; Sw. Ifemant, Diamant ; It. Sp. and 
 Vort. Diamante ; Rus. Almas ; Vol. Dyamant ; Lat. Adamus ; Hind. //ir«), a precious 
 stone, which has been known from the remotest ages. Pliny has described it (Hist. Nat. 
 lib. 37. § 4. ) ; but his account is, in many respects, inaccurate. It is found in difl'erent 
 parts of India, and in Borneo ; it is also found in Brazil, on which, indeed, Europe may 
 be said to be at present entirely dependent for supplies of diamonds. Hitherto, however, 
 it has not been met with any where except within the tropics. It is the most beautiful 
 and most valuable of precious stones. Its most common colours are white and grey of 
 various shades. It occurs also red, blue, brown, yellow, and green. The colours are 
 commonly pale. It is always crystallised, but sometimes so imperfectly that it might 
 pass for amorphous. It is the hardest body in nature. External lustre from splendid 
 to glimmering ; internal always splendid. It is brittle ; its specific gravity is 3 '5. When 
 rubbed, it becomes positively electric, even before it has been cut by the lapidary, which 
 is not the case with any other gem. — ( Thomson's Chemistry. ) 
 
 According to Mr. Milburn ( Orient. Com. ), the colour should be perfectly crystalline, 
 resembling a drop of clear spring water, in the middle of which you will perceive a strong 
 light playing with a great deal of spirit. If the coat be smooth and bright, with a little 
 tincture of green in it, it is not the Avorse, and seldom proves bad ; but if there be a 
 mixture of yellow with the green, then beware of it — it is a soft, greasy stone, and will 
 prove bad. 
 
 Tests of Diamonds. Cutting, ^c. — To ascertain whether any specimen is a true diamond or not, a 
 fine file may be used ; and it the surface of the stone be the least abraded or scratched by its action, it is 
 not a diamond. The difterence will also appear upon close examination without this instrument ; the 
 rays of light easily pass through other gems, but in the diamond they are refracted to the surface, which 
 occasions its superior brilliancy. If the specimert under examination be very minute, it may be placed 
 between 2 half-crowns, or other flat metallic surfaces, and pressed with the thumb and finger ; if a diamond, 
 it will not be injured, but if otherwise, it will break and fall to powder. On account of the extreme 
 hardness of the diamond, the art of cutting and polishing it was for a long time unknown in Europe. But, 
 in 1456, a young man of the name of Louis Berghcn, a native of Bruges, is said to have constructed a 
 polishing wheel for the purpose, which was fed with diamond powder instead of corundum, which the 
 Chinese and Hindoos had been long accustomed to employ. Berghen was led to this discovery by ob- 
 serving the action produced by rubbing 2 rough diamonds together. Diamonds are cut into brilliants and 
 rose diamonds ; the former being, for the most part, made out of the octahedral crystals, and the latter 
 from the spheroidal varieties. — (Joyce's Practical Mineralogy; Eees's CyclopcBdia, i^c.) 
 
 " Commercial Value of Diamonds. — In the great or wholesale trade there is but little fluctuation in 
 the price of those diamonds which may be termed stones in general demand. I will begin with brilliants 
 from 1 grain to 2| grains each. — Such brilliants, double cut, and what may be termed fine, are worth 
 from 71. to SI. per carat Needy sellers may take 10 per cent, less for cash ; but this is the general average 
 price for a lot of 10, 20, or 50 carats of well-made stones, if the quality be good. 
 
 " Brilliants, from 2 grains to 3, may be bought in lots, at from 71. is. to 8/. per carat. It is to be under- 
 stood, that diamonds in a lot are never all quite free from faults ; hence there may arise a difference of 
 10 per cent, in the price. Stones of 3 grains, if fine and perfect, are always in demand, at 8/. or 9/. 
 per carat. 
 
 " Brilliants, from 3 grains to 4, if very fine and well proportioned, are worth from 8/. to 9/. per carat. 
 Those of a carat each, if very fine and well selected, are worth 9/. or 101. Three years ago I ofiered 121. 
 each for 8, and could'not obtain them. 
 
 " Brilliants, from 5 grains to 6, if pure, are worth from 13/. to 14/ ; if perfectly fine, and of the full 
 weight of 6 grains, they are worth from 17/. to 18/. each : I have, for such, paid 20/. 
 
 " Brilliants, of 2 carats each, are worth from 27/. to 30/. Stones of this weight, if well proportioned, 
 are considered of a fine size, and well calculated for pins, or the centre of clusters; indeed, well propor- 
 tioned diamonds, from 6 grains to 2 carats each, are always in demand, and are retailed at from 20/. to 
 55/. each, according to their degree of perfection, or as the retailer may think fit to charge them. 
 
 " For brilliants of 3 carats, if fine and well formed, from 70/. to 80/. may be obtained. Stones of this 
 size, and larger, are more liable to capricious fluctuations of price than the smaller ones before named, 
 being chiefly required for the centre stones of saleable necklaces. 
 
 " Brilliants of 4 carats, if fine, are worth from 100/. to 130/. I have sold stones, single cut, a little ojT 
 colour, of this weight, at 80 guineas. I possessed one of 17 grains, perfectly white, having a surface as 
 large as that of a 7 carat stone ought to be; it was, consequently, very thin, but being much in request, 
 on account of its great spread, or surface, it was sold for 160/. 
 
 " Brilliants of 5 carats are not frequently met with in general trade, and are valuable in price ; as the 
 dealers exact more if they know that such stones are wanted, than they would in the regular course of 
 business. The prices may be said to vary from ISO/, to 200/. 
 
 " Brilliants of 6 carats, as before stated, are not common : they are suitable for centre stones of ex- 
 pensive necklaces, and single stone rings ; if perfect and well shaped, they sell for -ZSCI. to 250/. or 
 more. 
 
 " For estimating the value of peculiarly fine diamonds, there is no fixed standard. Rough diamonds, 
 selected as fine, and well formed for cutting, may be estimated as follows : — Square the weight of the 
 stone, multiply the product by 2, and the result will be the value in pounds sterling. Brilliants, if fine, 
 m.iy be estimated by squaring the weight in carats, and multiplying the product by 8, which will give the 
 amount in pounds sterling. 
 
 " As a very large property, both in this kingdom and in other countries of Europe, is vested in dia- 
 monds, it may be interesting to be informed, that not only the price of these gems has for several years 
 been, upon the whole, gradually rising, but that it is likely to continue on the advance. At the present 
 time, indeed, and for the last few years, there has been a dull sale of diamonds in England, nor did the 
 coronation occasion a demand worth notice ; but on the Continent the trade has been steady, and rough 
 diamonds have been constantly rising in price. That this advance will be progressive, may be assumed 
 
DIAPER. — DISCOUNT. 
 
 from the fact, that the best diamond ground now known, the Serro do Frio in Brazil, has assuredly passed 
 the zenith of its prosperity. 1 went over the greater part of what is yet reserved, and still remains to be 
 worked, and 1 conceive that there would be no difficulty in calculating the length of time in which the 
 present number of workmen may reduce it to a state of exhaustion, like that of the far-famed Golconda. 
 The average annual produce of future years may be estimated by the amount obtained from that portion 
 which has been already worked. Brazil may be said to furnish Europe with 25,000 or 30,000 carats per 
 annum of rough diamonds j which, if reduced to brilliants, may make an influx into the market of 8,000 
 or 9,000 carats annually." — {Mawe's Treatise on Diamonds, 2d ed. pp. 9 — 14. and p. 60.) 
 
 The rule stated by Mr. Mawe, and adopted by the jewellers, for estimating the value of diamonds (mul- 
 tiply the square of the weight in carats by 2, and the product is the value in pounds sterling), can only 
 hold in the case of those that are of a small size, or do not weight more than 20 carats. The value of the 
 largest diamonds, which are exceedingly rare, (iioti nisi rcgihns, etiis admodum paucis cognitus, Pliny,) 
 can, it is clear, depend upon nothing but the competition of the purchasers. The diamond belonging to 
 the Emperor of Brazil is the largest in the world. It is still uncut, and weighs 1,680 carats ; so that, 
 according to the jewellers' rule, it must be worth the enormous sum of 5,644,800/. ! It may, however, be 
 doubted, whether his Imperial Majesty would have any disinclination to i)art with it for the odd sum of 
 644,800/. The famous diamond belonging to the Emperor of Russia, which the jewellers tell us is worth 
 4,804,000/., did not cost 150,000/. 
 
 Diamonds are not used exclusively as articles of ornament or luxury. They are frequently employed 
 with great advantage in the arts. " Bad, discoloured diamonds," says Mr. Mawe, "are sold to break into 
 powder, and may be said to have a more extensive sale than brilliants, with all their captivating beauty. 
 In many operations of art they are indispensable ; the fine cameo and intaglio owe their perfection to the 
 diamond, with which alone they can be engraved. The beauty of the onyx would yet remain dormant, 
 had not the unrivalled power of the diamond been called forth to the artist's assistance. The carnelian, 
 the agate, or cairngorm, cannot be engraved by any other sutestance; every crest or letter cut upon hard 
 stone is indebted to the diamond. This is not all; for without it, blocks of crystal could not be cut into 
 slices for spectacles, agate for snuff-boxes, &c." 
 
 Diamonds may be landed without report, entry, or warrant. — (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52. \ 2.) 
 
 The carat grain used in weighing diamonds is different from the Troy grain, 5 diamond grains being 
 only equal to 4 Troy grains. 
 
 DIAPER (Ger. Drell ; Du. Drel ; Fr. Linge ouvre ; It. Tela tessuta a opere ; 
 Sp. Manteles alemaniscas ; Rus. Salfetotsschnoe), a sort of fine flowered linen, commonly- 
 used for table-cloths, napkins, &c., brought to the highest perfection in the manufac- 
 tories in the north of Ireland, in Germany, and Scotland. 
 
 DICE (Ger. Wiirfel; Du. Taarlingen ; Fr. Bes (d jouer) ; It. JDadi ; Sp. Dados ; 
 Rus. Kosti), cubical pieces of bone or ivory, marked with dots on each of their sides, 
 from 1 to 6, according to the number of the face. The regulations as to the 
 manufacture and sale of dice are the same as those with respect to Cards (which see). 
 Every pair of dice is to pay a duty of 20s. All pieces of ivory, bone, or other matter, 
 used in any game, having letters, figures, spots, or other marks denoting any chance, 
 marked thereon, to be adjudged dice ; and if more than 6 chances are signified on any 
 one piece, then such piece to be charged with the full duty of a pair of dice. — 
 (9 Geo. 4. c. 18.) 
 
 DIMITY (Fr. Basin; It. Dobletto ; Sp. Dimite), a species of cross-barred stuff en- 
 tirely composed of cotton, similar in fabric to fustian. 
 
 DISCOUNT, an allowance paid on account of the immediate advance of a sum of 
 money not due till some future period. It is usually said to be of two kinds ; viz. dis- 
 count of bills, and discount of goods ; but they are essentially the same. 
 
 When a bill of exchange is presented at a banker's for discount, it is the practice to 
 calculate the simple interest for the time the bill has to run, including the days of grace, 
 which interest is called the discount ; and this being deducted from the amount of the 
 bill, the balance is paid over to the presenter of the bill. This is the method followed 
 by the Bank of England, the London and provincial bankers, and by comm.ercial men 
 in general. But it is, notwithstanding, inaccurate. The true discount of any sum for 
 any given time is such a sum as will in that time amount to the interest of the sum to be 
 discounted. Thus, if interest he five percent., the proper discount to be received for 
 the immediate advance of 100?. due 12 mgnths hence is not 51., but Al. 15s. 2},d. ; for 
 this sum will, at the end of the year, ainount to 5l., which is what the lOOZ. would 
 have produced. Those, therefore, who employ their money in discounting, make some- 
 what more than the ordinary rate of interest upon it ; for a person discounting 100/. 
 due at the end of a year, advances, supposing interest to be 51. per cent., only 95?. ; so 
 that, as this 951. produces 100/. at the period in question, the interest received has really 
 been 51. 5s. Sd. per cent. 
 
 The rule for calculating discount on correct principles is as follows : — 
 As the amount of 100/. for the given rate and time 
 Is to the given sum or debt ; 
 So is 100/. to the present worth, or 
 So is the interest of 100/. for the given time 
 To the discount of the given sum. 
 
 Mr. Smart has calculated, on this principle, a Table of the discount of 1/. for any 
 number of days, at 2, 2^, 3, 3^, &c. to 10 per cent., to 8 decimal places. But the simple 
 interest of the sum being the only thing looked to in practice, such Tables are hardly 
 ever referred to. 
 
 Bills in the highest credit are discounted on the lowest terms ; the discount in- 
 creasing according to the suspicions entertained of the punctuality or solvency of the 
 parties subscribing the bills. During the war, the rate of interest, or, which is the 
 
DIVIDEND.— .DOCKS. 
 
 475 
 
 same thing, of discount, was comparatively hi<rh; but since 1818, tlic rate of discount 
 ui)on good bills has seldom been above 4, and has often been as low as 3 and even 2^ 
 per cent. 
 
 Discount on merchandise takes place when, after making a purchase of goods at a fixed 
 term of credit, the buyer finds means to make his payment before the expiration {)f tliat 
 term, receiving from the seller a discount or allowance, which is commonly a good deal 
 above the current rate of interest. The discount on goods varies, of course, according 
 to the interest of money. During the late war, the loans to government were so large, 
 and the facility of investing money was such, that the discount on goods was often as 
 In'gh as 5 per cent, for 6, and 10 per cent, for 12 months. Now, however, the discount 
 on goods has fallen, with the fall in the rate of interest, to 7 or T-^- per cent, ibr 12 
 months; being about double the current interest arising from funded property, or the 
 discount of good mercantile bills. 
 
 Long credits and discounts upon goods have, for a lengthened period, been usual in 
 England. This arose from a variety of causes, but principally, perhaps, from the mag- 
 nitude of our exports to the United States, Russia, and other countries where there is a 
 great demand for capital ; but in whatever causes it originated, it has latterly been car- 
 ried to what seems to be an injurious extent. — (See Credit. ) In France and Germany, 
 the manufacturers, in general bare of capital, are obliged to stipulate with the merchants 
 for short credits. In Holland, the usage of the exporting merchants has been to pay 
 either in ready money, or at so short a date as to put discounting out of the question, 
 the manufacturer setting at once the lowest price on his goods. 
 
 DIVIDEND, the name given to the payment made to creditors out of the estate of 
 a bankrupt, and to the annual interest payable upon the national debt, and other public 
 funds. 
 
 DJIDDA, a town of Arabia, on the Red Sea, about 21 miles from Mecca, of which 
 it is the sea-port, in lat. 21° 29' N., Ion. 39° 14' E. It is well built; the streets are 
 impaved, but spacious and airy ; the houses high, and constructed, for the most part, of 
 madrepores and other marine fossils. The supply of water is scanty, and its quality in- 
 different. Small vessels approach close to the quays ; but large vessels are obliged to 
 anchor in the roads, about 2 miles off, loading and unloading by means of lighters. The 
 entrance to the roads is difficult, and should not be attempted without a pilot. Djidda 
 is a place of considerable commercial importance. It is the entrepot in which is centred 
 the greater part of the commerce between India, Egypt, and Arabia. Many of its 
 merchants possess large capitals ; some of them as much as from 150,000Z. to 200,000?. 
 The trade in coffee brought from Mocha, and other ports in Yemen, is the most con- 
 siderable, but it is said also to be the most hazardous. The returns are principally made 
 in cash. The trade with India and the Gulf of Persia is safer than the coffee trade, and 
 is very considerable. Djidda has also a good deal of intercourse with the ports of Cos- 
 seir, Souakin, and Massouah, on the opposite coast of the Red Sea. The imports from 
 the last two principally consist of slaves, gold, tobacco, dhourra or barley, hides, butter 
 (of which immense quantities are made use of in Arabia), mats, &c. ; in return for which 
 the Africans receive Indian goods suitable for their markets, dresses and ornaments for 
 their women, dates (which are not produced in any part of Nubia), iron. Sec. The 
 principal article of import from Cosseir is wheat ; and not only Djidda, but the whole 
 , Hedjaz, or Holy Land of Arabia, is almost entirely dependent upon Egypt for corn. 
 Coffee is the principal article sent in return. Business is transacted at Djidda with ease 
 and expedition. The number of ships belonging to the port is estimated at 250. Owing 
 to the scarcity of timber, none of them are built at Djidda ; those belonging to it being 
 either pixrchased at Bombay or Muscat, or at Mocha, Hodeida, or Suez. For a con- 
 siderable period each year, before and after the feast of Ramadhan, when pilgrims come 
 from all quarters to visit Mecca, the town is thronged with strangers, and a great deal of 
 mercantile business is transacted. Djidda is at present, and has been for a number of 
 years, under the government of Mohammed Ali, pacha, of Egypt. The moneys, iceightsy 
 and measures of the latter country (for wliich, see Alexandria), are now generally used 
 in Djidda, the commerce of which has been much improved and extended in consequence 
 of the comparative security and good order enforced by the pacha. — (We have gleaned 
 these details from the different works of Burckhardt, particularly from his Travels in 
 Arabia, vol. i. pp. 1 — 100.) 
 
 DOCKS are artificial basins for the reception of ships. The term has been supposed 
 by some to be derived from the Greek Se/co/xai, to receive ; but it is obviously no other 
 than the Teutonic dock, originally perhaps derived from dekken, to cover, enclose, or 
 protect. 
 
 Docks are of 2 sorts — ivet and dry. Wet docks are generally constructed with gates 
 to retain the water. Ships are admitted at high water ; and the gates being shut, they are 
 kept constantly afloat. A dry dock is intended for the building, repairing, or examination 
 of ships. The ships to be repaired or examined an: admitted into it at high water j and 
 
476 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (WEST INDIA), 
 
 the water either ebbs out with the receding sea, or is pumped ovit after the gates are 
 shut. 
 
 Utility of Docks. — The construction of wet docks, has done much to facilitate and 
 promote navigation. A large vessel, particularly if loaded, could not be allowed to come 
 to the ground,- or to lie on the beach, without sustaining considerable injury, and perhaps 
 being destroyed ; and even the smaller class of vessels are apt to be strained, and other- 
 wise hurt, if they are left dry, unless the ground be very soft. Hence, when large vessels 
 have to be loaded or unloaded where there are no docks, and where the water close to the 
 shore or quay is not sufficiently deep, the work can only be carried on during a particular 
 period of each tide ; it being necessary, in order to keep the vessel afloat, that she should 
 leave the shore with the ebbing tide. Attempts have sometimes been made to obviate 
 this inconvenience, by running jetties or piers to such a distance into the sea, that there 
 might always be a sufficient depth of water at their heads : but this can only be done in 
 peculiar situations; and it requires that the ship's position should be frequently changed. 
 It is in most cases, too, impossible properly to protect the cargoes of ships loading or un- 
 loading at quays, or on the beach, from depredation. Previously to the construction of 
 the wet docks on the Thames, the property annually pillaged from ships was estimated 
 to amount to 500,000^. a year, though this is probably much exaggerated. 
 
 I. Docks on the Thames. 
 1. West India Docks. I 6. London Port Dues. — Charges 
 
 2. London Docks, 
 
 3. East India Docks. 
 
 4. St. Katherine's Docks 
 
 5. Commercial Docks. 
 
 II. Liverpool Docks, Shipping, etc. 
 
 III. Bristol Docks, Shipping, etc. 
 
 IV. Hull Docks, Shipping, etc. 
 V. GooLE Docks, Shipping, etc. 
 
 VI. Leith Docks, Shipping, etc. 
 
 on Account of Lights, Pilotage, 
 ^c. in the Thames. — Ship- 
 ping, Sfc. of London. 
 
 I. Docks on the Thames. 
 
 It is singular that, notwithstanding the obvious utility of wet docks, and the vast trade 
 of the metropolis, there was no establishment of this sort on the Thames till nearly a 
 century after a wet dock had been constructed at Liverpool. The inconvenience arising 
 from the crowded state of the river, at the periods when fleets of merchantmen were 
 accustomed to arrive, the insufficient accommodation affijrded by the legal quays and 
 sufferance wharfs, the necessity under which many ships were placed of unloading in the 
 river into lighters, and the insecurity and loss of property thence arising, had been long 
 felt as almost intolerable grievances : but so powerful was the opposition to any change, 
 made by the private wharfingers and others interested in the support of the existing order 
 of things, that it was not till 1793 that a plan was projected for making wet docks for 
 the port of London ; and 6 years more elapsed before the act for the construction of the 
 West India Docks was passed. 
 
 1. West India Docks. — These were the first, and continue to be the most extensive, of the 
 great warehousing establishments formed in the port of London. Their construction 
 commenced in February, 1 800, and they were partially opened in August, 1 802. They 
 stretch across the isthmus joining the Isle of Dogs to the Middlesex side of the Thames. 
 They originally consisted of an Import and Export Dock, each communicating, by means 
 of locks, with a basin of 5 or 6 acres in extent at the end next Blackwall, and Avith 
 another of more than 2 acres at the end next Limehouse ; both of these basins com- 
 municate with the Thames. To these works the West India Dock Company have 
 recently added the South Dock, formerly the City Canal, which runs parallel to the 
 Export Dock. This canal was intended to facilitate navigation, by enabling ships to 
 avoid the circuitous course round the Isle of Dogs. It was, however, but little used for 
 that purpose, and is now appropriated to the wood trade, for the greater acconnnodation 
 of which, a pond of 19 acres has been recently formed on the south side for the re- 
 ception of bonded timber. The Export Dock, or that appropriated for ships load- 
 ing outwards, is about 870 yards in length, by 135 in width; so that its area is 
 near 25 acres : the North, or Import Dock, or that appropriated for ships entering 
 to discharge, is of the same length as the Export Dock, and 166 yards wide; so 
 that it contains nearly 30 acres. The South Dock, which is appropriated both to im- 
 port and export vessels, is 1,183 yards long, with an entrance to the river at each end; 
 both the locks, as well as that into the Blackwall Basin, being 45 feet wide, or large 
 enough to admit ships of 1,200 tons burden. At the higliest tides, tlie depth of water 
 in the docks is 24 feet; and the whole will contain, with ease, 600 vessels of from 250 
 
LIBRARY 
 OF THE 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (WEST INDIA). 
 
 477 
 
 to 500 tons. The separation of the homeward l)oun(l shijis, wliich is of the utmost im- 
 portance for preventing plunder, and giving additional security to tlie revenue and the 
 merchant, was, for the first time, adopted in this establishment. Tlie Import and 
 Export Docks are parallel to each other, being divided by a range of warehouses, prin- 
 cipally appropriated to the reception of rum, brandy, and otiier spirituous liquors. 'I'here 
 are smaller warehouses and sheds on the quays of the Ex])ort and South Docks, for the 
 reception of goods sent down for exportation. The warehouses for imported goods are 
 on the four quays of the Import Dock. They are well contrived, and of great 
 extent, being calculated to contain 160,000. hhds. of sugar, exclusive of coffee and 
 other produce. There have been deposited, at the same tirne, upon the quays, under the 
 sheds, and in the warehouses belonging to these docks, 148,563 hhds. of sugar, 70,875 
 casks and 433,648 bags of coffee, 35,158 puncheons of rum and pipes of Madeira wine, 
 14,021 logs of mahogany, 21,350 tons of logwood, &c. The whole area occupied i)y the 
 docks, warehouses, &c. includes about 295 acres; and the most effectual precautions 
 are adopted for the prevention of fire and pilfering. 
 
 This spacious and magnificent establishment was formed by subscription, the property 
 being vested in the West India Dock Company, the affairs of which are managed by 21 
 directors, as a body corporate. The right of voting is vested in those shareholders only 
 who hold 500/- of the Company's stock. The Company's capital is 1,380,000/. 
 
 The West India Docks have proved a very successful undertaking, and have been 
 highly beneficial to the original shareholders. All West India ships frequenting the 
 Thames were obliged to use them for a period of 20 years from their completion. The 
 dividend on the Company's stock was limited to 10 per cent. ; and, after making dividends 
 to the full amount, with the exception of the first half year, they had, in 1819, an accu- 
 mulated fund of near 400,000Z. But they then diminished their charges, at the sug- 
 gestion of the committee of the House of Q)mmons on the foreign trade of the country, 
 so as to give the trade using the docks the benefit of the surplus fund, which was to 
 be reduced to 100,000/. before the SOtli of January, 1826. Latterly the Company 
 have been obliged, in consequence of the competition of the other Companies, to make 
 further reductions of dividend. It now amounts to 51. per cent. At present, the 
 Company's stock sells at about par. 
 
 The nearest dock gate at Limehouse is about 3 miles from the Exchange ; and the 
 other, next Blackwall, about ^ a mile more. This distance has the disadvantage of 
 increasing the expense of cartage, and of being inconvenient to the merchants and 
 others using tlie docks. On the oth^r hand, however, ships entering the West India 
 Docks avoid a considerable extent of troublesome, if not dangerous, navigation, that mi^t 
 be undertaken by those bound for the St. Katherine's and London Docks. 
 
 ' Contrivance for clearing Water in the West India Docks. — 
 In almost all docks and harbours, a serious evil is felt from 
 the constant accumulation of mud, and the consequent ex- 
 pense of preserving the proper depth of water. In A'arious 
 situations, provision has been made for scouring out or raising 
 mud and sdt by means of back-water, dredgers, &c., accord- 
 ing to local circumstances ; but, in the West India Docks, the 
 evil has been entirely obviated : a brief notice of the 
 in which so important an objt 
 be both interesting and useful. 
 
 The water of the Thames is generally very muddy, and 
 ■when it is admitted into the basins and docks in large quan- 
 tities, to replace the water lost by evaporation, leakage, 
 locking vessels in and out, &c., the cleposit is very great. In 
 the W est India Docks, the accumulation of mud, from this 
 cause, was most considerable in the Eastern or Blackwall 
 Basin ; and the annual cost of clearing out the same was 
 between 3,000/. and 4,000/. 
 
 And yet the process by which that basin was cleared, was 
 probably the most economical which could be adopted. A 
 floating dredger, of the usual description, raised the mud, 
 ■which was thrown into barges ; and these, when loaded, were 
 emptied by a stationary engine, ■working an endless chain of 
 buckets, similar to those of the dredger. But the field where 
 the mud was deposited having become full, additional ex- 
 
 pense was likely to be incurred by renioving the mud to a 
 p-eater distance, so that the subject called for and received 
 more attention ; and the result will show, that the Com- 
 I'any have at length provided the most effectual remedy. 
 
 All the gates of the locks point inwards, to sustain the 
 water of the docks ; as long as the level of the water within. 
 
 is higher than the level of the river, those gates „„. 
 
 closed ; but as soon as the river rises above the level of the 
 Blackwall Basin, the gates of the outer lock are thrown open : 
 while the gates of the two locks at the west end of that basin 
 
 remain closed, the influx from the river would not be con- 
 siderable; but when the tide has risen al>ove the level of the 
 Import and Export Docks, those gates would also be thrown 
 open, and then the river would flow in with considerable 
 force ; the muddy water discolouring that of the docks, and 
 of course depositing the silt or mud held in susuension. 
 
 These facts showed that the exclusion of the river water 
 was the only effectual cure for the evil ; but the loss or waste 
 of water from the docks was equal, on an average, to 5 
 inches over the whole surface in 24 hours, and this loss had 
 to be supplied ; and not only that, but to keep the river out, 
 it was necessary at all times to keep the water of the ducks 
 and basins up to a higher point than that to which the river 
 would rise at the highest spring tides. 
 
 After long consideration, the following plan was matured 
 for effecting this object : — 
 
 The Company's spare land on the north side of the Black- 
 wall Basin lay below high water mark, and there three re- 
 servoirs were formed : the two next the basin receive the 
 water from the river by a culvert with sluices, which are 
 closed as soon as they are filled ; from these ihe water is 
 pumped by an engine of 36 horse power, after having had 
 time to deposit the silt into the elevated reservoir, from 
 whence it flows by a conduit into the basin, and thence into the 
 dock, and thus the level of the whole is kept up to the highest 
 point which can be desired, and the river Thames with its 
 mud is no longer admitted. 
 
 The great body of water in the docks is thus constantly 
 maintained, and is at all times clear and sweet, and no mud 
 will hereafter be deposited ; great advantage arises, however, 
 from the depth of water, which is preserved from fluctuating 
 with the level of the neap and spring tides, as the deepest 
 laden ship can at all times be transported,— the depth tlirough- 
 out being from 23 to 26 feet. 
 
 Rules and Regulations to be observed, and Rates to be paid, by the SnippixG frequenting 
 THE West India Docks. 
 
 Rules AND Orders to be observed by Masters, Pilots, and other Persons having the Charge of Ships, 
 Vessels, Lighters, or Craft, coming into, lying in, and going out of, the West India Docks, pursuant to 
 Act 1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 52. 
 
 T/ie Compani/'s Moorings. — The moorings in the river, within 200 yards of each of the entrances at 
 Blackwall, and that into Limehouse Basin, and within 150 yards of the Limehouse entrance of the South 
 Dock, are reserved for the exclusive use of vessels entering into» or which Jiave recently come cut of, the 
 docks. 
 
 Every master or person in charge of any ship, lighter, barge, boat, or other vessel, of any description 
 whatsoever, lying within the above distance, shall immediately remove the same, when required by the 
 dock masters or their assistants. Penalty 51. for every hour which such vf>'sel may remain. 
 
4-7S DOCKS ON THE THAMES (WEST INDIA). 
 
 Pilots shall not attempt to place ships inside the buoys, if other ships have previously brought up, but 
 shall bring them to their berths in due succession on the outside, unless they shall be expressly .ordered 
 by the dock master to take a berth inside the tier for the convenience of docking. 
 
 All parties creating obstructions will be prosecuted, and the penalties will be rigidly enforced. 
 
 Vessels about to enter the Docks, S(c. Signals. — The red flag on the flag-statf at tlie entrance is the 
 signal for ships to prepare. A blue flag will be kept flying the whole time proper for docking ; when the 
 tide has reached high water mark, that flag will be struck, after which no ship can be taken in. 
 
 Declaration Book. — When ships have brought up properly at the moorings, an officer will deliver the 
 Company's regulations, and the commander or pilot of every vessel exceeding 100 tons must certify in 
 the Declaration Book her drauglit of water ; that she is provided with all necessary and sufficient warps, 
 ropes, and tackle, to remove and moor her in safety ; and that her anchors are (or shall be before leaving 
 the moorings) so secured and stowed as not to endanger the works, the ships therein, or the vessel 
 herself. 
 
 Preparing Ships for Admission. — Every master or pilot, in charge of a ship, should lose no time in 
 making the following preparations, viz. her anchors to be properly secured and stowed ; her sails all furled ; 
 all quarter boats lowered down, guns unloaded, gunpowder put out, fires extinguished, and such other 
 precautions taken as the dock master may direct : when these preparations are completed, a flag must be 
 hoisted at the fore, as a signal that the ship is ready. 
 
 All ships are required to send down top-gallant yards and strike top-gallant masts, and to have their jib 
 and mizen booms rigged close, in, boilakins, martingales, and all out-riggers unshipped, if time will permit, 
 and at all events immediately after entering. Vessels will, however, be exempted from striking lower 
 yards and top-masts, upon the master certifying that the same may be safely dispensed with, and en- 
 gaging to be answerable for all consequences; but before being placed at the quay, the yards must be 
 topped well up, and the yard-arms lashed close in to the rigging. 
 
 Docking Tickets and Order of Admission. — In fixing the order of admission, and issuing the-docking 
 tickets, regard will be had to the state of the tides, and the size and draught of water of each vessel, as 
 well as the time of arrival : the largest ships must necessarily be taken in when the tides are highest, al. 
 though they may have arrived subsequent to smaller vessels. Loaded vessels must always have the pre- 
 ference over light ships. 
 
 No ship can be admitted, if neither the master nor pilot are on board. 
 
 The docking ticket will only remain in force for the tide for which it is granted. 
 
 At the proper time for the admission of each ship, notice will be given by hoisting her ticket number 
 at the pier head, provided she has made the signal for being properly prepared. 
 
 If any vessel shall attempt to gain admittance before her number is hoisted, the owners, and the master, 
 pilot, or other person in charge, must be responsible for all consequences of such misconduct. 
 
 Entering. — When a ship's number is hoisted, she must drop up to the entrance, and have good and 
 sufficient warps ready to send to each pier, when ordered by the dock masters. If the ship shall not so 
 come to the entrance^she shall forfeit her turn. 
 
 When within the piers, proper ropes will be sent on board to guide and check the vessel through the 
 lock : the master and pilot will be held responsible for making these, as well as the sliip's warps, properly 
 fast on board : the vessel must be hauled ahead by her own warps, and they are on no account to be cast 
 ofl; unless ordered by the dock master, until the ship is in the basin. 
 
 Every pilot must bring his boat into the basin, or South Dock, as it is a most essential part of his duty 
 to moor the ship. 
 
 The owners must be answerable for all ships' boats, and none can be admitted into the Import Dock 
 except such as are conveniently stowed on deck. All other boats must be sent out of the docks. 
 
 The boats of ships in the South Dock which cannot be securely stowed on deck, must be hauled up on 
 the north bank, or secured afloat in such manner as the dock master may direct, after the ship is moored. 
 Ships, however, which are not lying at a jetty, will be allowed to employ 1 boat during the legal hours 
 of business, which boat must be chained by the Company's officers to the north bank as soon as that time 
 has expired. 
 
 Any boats found afloat in any of the docks or basins, contrary to these regulations, will be removed by 
 the dock master, and will be detained until the charges occasioned by such removal shall be paid. 
 
 The hatches of all loaded ships are to be locked down, and the keys delivered to the officer appointed 
 to receive the same. 
 
 Import Dock. — No person whatever can be allowed to remain in this dock after the established hours 
 of business : nor can any person be permitted to have access to vessels therein, excepting the owner, 
 master, or chief officer, without a pass. 
 
 Passes wUl be given on the application of the captain or chief mate, to admit the ship's apprentices, or 
 other persons, to prepare the ship for discharging, or to do any other work which may be unavoidably 
 necessary ; but, to prevent the abuses which sometimes occur, it is strongly recommended that the C^om- 
 pany's labourers be employed. 
 
 Skips discharging. — Previously to any ship being quayed, the decks must be cleared, and every thing 
 prepared to begin working out the cargo. If, through want of proper tackle, or any neglect, a ship be not 
 in readiness to take her turn, another will be quayed in the mean time. 
 
 It is desirable that all baggage or presents should be sent, as promptly as possible, to the Company's 
 baggage warehouse, where an authority from the master for the delivery thereof must be lodged. Master? 
 are particularly cautioned against signing such authorities in blank, or allowing themselves to be in- 
 fluenced by the importunity of brokers j and it is most desirable that one agent only should be appointed 
 for each sliip. 
 
 Packages of bullion or specie (whether cargo or private proj>erty) must be delivered by the captain, 
 under his own responsibility, unless from their being liable to examination or other circumstance he 
 may be desirous of placing tlie same in the Company's charge, in which case such packages, or any other 
 of considerable value, should be particularly specified, and, if bills of lading have been granted for them, 
 inserted in the regular manifest of the ship. The delivery of goods overside will also rest with the master, 
 and he must take such steps as he may think necessary to protect his owners in respect to their freight. 
 
 An officer of the revenue is authorised to forward all despatches for the dejxirtments of government; 
 packets so addressed will therefore be delivered into his charge, unless the Company receive express 
 directions to the contrary. 
 
 ^hen a ship is finally discharged and moored in the Export Dock, or either of the basins, for the pur- 
 pose of going out to the river, all the services provided for in the import rate are completed. 
 
 For the more expeditious discharge of vessels, or despatcii in reloading, every assistance will be given 
 in clearing the decks, or stiffening them ; coopering water casks, and sliipi)ing them, when filled ; clearing 
 the hold after discharge; shipping and stowing the outward cargo, under the directions of the ship's 
 officers; and any other services which can be reasonably required. — Should the Company's movable 
 machinery be desired, it will be lent upon application to the principal dock master. — The following 
 charges will be made for such services : — 
 
 S. ll. 
 
 Two tons, and under /) tons - - 1 8 
 
 (and not less than 1 ton to l>e charged.) 
 Movable machinery lent, each jigger with its gear, 
 
 Ver day - - - - - 10 0 
 
 Tlie ii.<e of the floatinff engine for washing ships, in- 
 eluding the attendance of the man in ch.ir^e, |>er day 20 0 
 (and not iaa than 1 day to be charged.) 
 
 For labourers hired to work under the directions of tlie 
 coininandinf; officer of the ship, each man per day, 
 of tlie.re/nulated hours of attendance 
 
 (and not less lhan ^ day to lie charged. Over-lime 
 will boM;har;;ed in proportion.) 
 .A nicies loaded, ship)ic(l, or struck down by the dock 
 craiu ii or jigycts, under !4 ton.s, per ton 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (WEST INDIA). 479 
 
 Conditions' to hcohscrvcdly Ships taking in Cargoes fro7n the Import Warehouses. ~1. 'I'hc taking the 
 eliip in and out of dock, or to and from the quay, to be performed by the master and crew, as directed by 
 the dock masters. 
 
 2. The goods to be taken from the slings, and to be stowed away by the crew, under the orders of tJie 
 master. 
 
 3. If a sufficient crew he not on board to receive and stow away the goods as delivered, or to transput L 
 tlie vessel, a further numtxjr of men shall be provided by the Company, at the charge of 3s. &d. per man 
 per day, to work under the direction ami responsibility of the master and his officers. 
 
 4. The vessel to be hauled into the basin or Export Dock after the usual hours of business, by her own 
 ollicers arid crew, and to continue in tlieir charge. 
 
 Ships, from the Export or South Docks, will be allowed to go into the Import Dock to load, without 
 anv addition to the rate to which they may be liable for the use of the docks. 
 
 Goods sent by land carriage will be shipped in either of the docks, on payment of the usual charges. 
 
 To prevent delay in loading export vessels, the shippers should pay up the rent and charges upon the 
 goods J or where the amount cannot be ascertained without weighing, &c., make a deposit to cover the 
 
 '^^TjBorf and South Docks. — All vessels entering or lying in these docks are in charge of the masters and 
 owners ; and it is the duty of tiie pilots, or olficers and crews, to transport their respective vessels, under 
 their own responsibility, as directed hy the dock master, to or from tlie river, and to or from any part ot 
 the docks or basins. 
 
 Ligiit ships on entering from the river must be provided with sufficient hands to dock and transport 
 them, and should move in due time into the dock ; otherwise they will be removed by the dock master, 
 and the owners charged with the opense. 
 
 Vessels discharged of their inward cargoes by the Company in these docks will be regarded as privTleged 
 ships, and all transporting within the docks will be performed by the dock master, assisted by the crew, 
 gratuitously; but unless there are sufficient crew on board to assist in transporting the outward-bound 
 ships, they will not be moved. 
 
 Whenever assistance is required by other vessels, it will be furnished by the dock master on the fol- 
 ing terms : viz. — 
 
 A boat with warp and 2 hands - - 10s. Od. 
 
 — and 4 hands - - 15s. Qd. 
 
 And for every additional jiand employed, either on board or in the boats, Qc^ per hour. 
 The warps are only lent in aid of the ship's warps. 
 
 Ships taking in cargoes will be moored at the quays in due rotation. Light ships not taking in goods 
 shall be moored in either of the docks or basins, as the dock masters may judge convenient. 
 
 While ships are lying at, or moving to or from the quay, all out-riggers should be got in and made 
 snug ; and sails are by no means to he loose while so moving. 
 
 No ship must be removed from her berth without notice being given to the dock master, and his assent 
 as to the time of removal being obtained. 
 
 Craft must be fastened to the ships from which they are receiving, or to which they may be delivering 
 goods : the charge upon craft which shall not be bond fide so engaged, will be the same as the rent upon 
 sloops and craft coastwise, and, as usual, not less than 1 week's rent will be charged. To obviate any 
 doubt as to the time for which they may be fairly entitled to exemption, 24 hours will be allowed, from 
 the time of entering the dock, for receiving goods, and 24 hours after being loaded or discharged, fur 
 going out of the docks. 
 
 Convenient receptacles on the quays and craft are provided, wherein all dust, ashes, &c. are to be de- 
 posited, and which shall be cleared by the persons appointed by the Company, and by no one else. 
 No vessel shall be permitted to take in ballast after daylight, or before daybreak. 
 
 Ships' provisions or stores cannot be permitted to pass the gates without an order signed by the captain 
 or owner. 
 
 No repair or caulking can be permitted without the special permission of the court of directors, to whom 
 ai)plication should be made through the principal dock master. 
 
 The Jetties. — Ships landing cargoes in the South Dock, or taking in goods by land, shall have the pre- 
 ferable use of the jetties. 
 
 Ships which are fitting out, but have not commenced loading, shall be accommodated as far as possible ; 
 but such ships must be removed to make room for vessels about to discharge or take in cargo by land. 
 
 In other respects, preference will be given to ships intended for sale, over those which are merely lying 
 up ; and as between ships which are similarly circumstanced, the priority of their entering the dock shall 
 determine the preference. 
 
 The captains or commanding officers of ships are cautioned to be attentive and careful to boom of? 
 v/hen the ship is fast loading down in the water, or on the approach of neap tides. 
 Fire and Candle. — Vessels in these docks shall be considered as forming 3 classes : viz. — 
 
 I. Vessels actually discharging, having their crews on board, or loading outwards. 
 
 II. Vessels rigging or fitting out, but which shall not have commenced taking in goods. 
 Ill Vessels for sale or lying up. 
 
 To each of these classes special licences will be granted. 
 
 Every such licence will express theplace in which fire maybe kept, and the circumstances under which 
 it may be used : upon the slightest infringement of the conditions, the penalty prescribed by law will be 
 rigidly enforced. 
 
 Every application for a licence must be made by the master or owner, specifying the names and capacit" 
 of the persons in charge of the ship, and engaging to be responsible for their attention to the regulations 
 
 Opening and shutting the Gates. — The gates of the Export and South Docks will be opened at 6 o'clock 
 in the morning and shut at 8 o'clock in the evening, from the 1st of March to the 10th of November ; and, 
 from the 11th of November to the last day of February, opened at 8 in the morning and shut at 7 in th^ 
 evening. 
 
 Captains and mates may be furnished with tickets upon applying at the police office, at the Impor* 
 Dock, which will entitle them to admission till 9 o'clock p. M., but no person whatever can be allowed to 
 go out after the hour for closing the gates. 
 
 Vessels about to leave the Docks. — Export vessels should be hauled out in sufficient time to be at the 
 River Locks, at Blackwall, at low water ; to prevent the inconvenience of hauling down the Blackwall 
 Basin or South Dock during the time that other vessels are requiring admission, which must have the 
 preference. 
 
 Vessels can only be let out after high water, upon the special request of the officers in charge of them. 
 Ships going into the river must use their own ropes, as they are out of the dock master's charge when 
 clear of the outer gates. 
 
 Notice. — Two true copies of the manifest of the cargo must be delivered into the General Office, at 
 the West India Dock House, within 12 hours after every vessel shall enter the docks, or after the cargo 
 shall have been repotted at the Custom-house, which shall first happen. Tcnalty for refusal or neglect, 
 any sum not exceeding 5/. — (I & 2 Will. 4. c. 52. § 84.) 
 
 No manifests will be required for ships discharging by their own crews. 
 
 No ships can receive their rotation, or be allowed to break bulk until their cargoes are duly entered ; 
 and such cargoes will be landed in due succession, according to the strict order in which the manifests are 
 delivered and entries completed. 
 
480 
 
 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (WEST INDIA). 
 
 If such manifest, or bill of lading, or copy, shall be false; or if anj' bill of lading be uttered by any 
 master, and the goods expressed therein shall not have been bona fide shipped on board such ship; or if 
 any bill of lading uttered or produced by any master shall not have been signed by him ; or any such copy 
 shall not have been received or made by him previously to his leaving the place where the goods expressed 
 in such bill of lading, or copy, were shipped ; penalty 100/. — (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52. \ II.) 
 
 Hours of Attendance are, from the 10th of May to the 9th of November inclusive, 8 in the morning to 4 
 in the afternoon ; from the 10th of November to the 9th of May inclusive, 9 in the morning to 4 in the 
 afternoon ; and there is to be no intermission of business during these hours. 
 
 No holidays are to be kept, except Sundays, Christmas-day, Good Friday, fast days appointed by royal 
 proclamation, and the King's or Queen's birthdays. 
 
 In all cases not specified or provided for in the foregoing rules and orders, application must be made to 
 tl»e principal dock master. Charles C. Parish, Principal Dock Master. 
 
 The foregoing regulations approved and confirmed by the Court of Directors of the West India Dock 
 Company. H. Longlands, Secretary. 
 
 West India Dock House, September 24th, 183S. 
 
 N. B. —Ships entering the West India Docks are permitted to retain their crews on board, when re- 
 quired by the owners; and the directors have fitted up the ship Waterloo, in the South Dock, for the 
 accommodation of junior officers and apprentices, while their ships are discharging their cargoes in the 
 Import Dock. 
 
 The captains, officers, and crews of ships are requested not to give either wine, spirits, or grog, to the 
 servants of the Company, as, by so doing, they expose them to the certain and immediate forfeiture of 
 their situations. 
 
 No fee, perquisite, or reward, of any kind or denomination vvliatsoever, is to be taken by the Company's 
 officers, or any persons who shall be employed in the service of the Company, for any act done within the 
 docks. Penalty, forfeiture of the sum taken, and any sum not exceeding 51. for each offence. 
 
 Dock Rates. — Import Vessels, when discharged by 
 the Compant/, including docking, mooring, and 
 removing within the docks until discharged. 
 
 ships' cooperage or mending, and the use of the 
 docks, if from Hamburgh or the Mediterranean, 
 for 6 weeks from the date of entrance; if from 
 any other port or place, for 4 weeks from the 
 final discharge ; viz. 
 
 Per Ton reg. 
 
 Ships laden entirely, or in part, with hogsheads and 
 
 tierces of sugar or molasses - - - 2 6 
 
 laden entirely, or in part, with chests of sugar 
 
 above 5 cwt. - - - 2 0 
 
 entirely, with chests under 5 cwt., or bags of 
 sugar, coffee, spirits, wine, iron, copper, brass, 
 lead, spelter, or other metal, in pigs, bars, rods, 
 plates, or similar pieces, rice, or other goods, 
 (except oil, tallow,, or ashes,) packed in bales, 
 bags, serons, casks, cases, chests, or simHar 
 packages, or wood in planks or billets, such as 
 dye wood, staves, &c. - - - 1 6 
 
 laden entirely or in part, with mahogany, tim- 
 ber, or other wood in logs - - 2 6 
 
 entirely with hemp, or entirely or in part with 
 
 goods in bulk - - - - 1 9 
 
 laden entirely or in part with tobacco or oil, not 
 including ship's cooperage - - 1 6 
 
 entirely with tallow, not including ship's cooper- 
 age - - - - - 1 3 
 
 laden entirely with mixed cargoes of hemp and 
 tallow, or ashes, not including ship's cooper- 
 age; viz. 
 
 or pine timber (for every load of hard wood 
 and pine timber W. in addition) - - 1 6 
 entirely with hard wood or pine timber -20 
 
 For every ton of hemp 
 For every ton of tallow 
 or ashes 
 
 2 01 The number of tons charged 
 J. not to exceed the register 
 1 3j tonnage. 
 
 Ships Wood laden from Europe, or the North Ame- 
 rican Colonies, when discharged by the Company, 
 including docking, mooring, and removing within 
 the docks, until discharged ; unloading the car- 
 goes, and the use of the docks for any period not 
 exceeding 4 weeks from the date of the final dis- 
 charge. Per Ton reg. 
 
 «. d. 
 
 Laden entirely with deals, planks, staves,, or wood in 
 
 billets - - - - - 1 6 
 
 principally with ditto, and bringing hard wood 
 
 Ships discharged in either of the Docks or Basins 
 by their own Crews, the expense of docking, 
 mooring^ unmooring, and removing, not in- 
 eluded. 
 
 ) Per Ton reg. 
 
 For the use of the docks for any period not exceeding, 
 if from the iWediterranean, 6 weeks, from other 
 ports or places 4 weeks, from the date of entrance 0 9 
 
 Vessels from any port in the United lOngdom, or Eu- 
 ropean port, outside the Baltic, between the North 
 Cape and Ushant, with cargoes for trans-shipment, 
 for delivery on board ships, or for landing in either 
 dock (except when wood laden), not remaining be- 
 yond, if from Hamburgh, 6 weeks, if from any other 
 port or place, 4 weeks, from the dateof entrance - 0 6 
 
 Sloops and craft coastwise, with bricks for delivery on 
 board ships and vessels with broken granite or paving- 
 stones, not remaining beyond 1 week - - 0 3 
 
 Vessels entirely com laden (in lieu of tonnage rate), of 
 
 100 tons and upwards, each - . - 21 0 
 
 Under 100 tons, each - . - 10 6 
 
 Rent to commence after 1 clear day from final discharge. 
 Vessels two thirds laden with com, will be charged the 
 
 usual tonnage rates in proportion to the other part of their 
 
 cargoes. 
 
 Vessels entering to load from the Import WarC' 
 houses only. 
 
 Per Ton oi» 
 gr. wt. shipped. 
 i ». d. 
 
 For the use of the dock for 1 week - • .06 
 
 Light Vessels, the expense of docking, mooring 
 unmooring, and removing, not included. 
 
 Per Ton reg. 
 s. d. 
 
 Not having discharged in either of the docks, for any 
 period not exceeding 4 weeks from the date of en- 
 tering - - - - - 0 C 
 
 Dock Rent. 
 
 For remaining over the periods specified, per week -01 
 Vessels which re-enter after having been out for repair, will 
 be allowed their privilege without reckoning the time they 
 remained out. 
 
 Table for imported Goods. 
 
 The Prime ^a^e includes all expenses for landing, wharfage, weighing, or gauging at landing, cooper- 
 ing, marking, sampling, housing, weighing for actual delivery, and delivering; furnishing landing and 
 delivery weights or gauges, surveying and furnishing certificates of damage, and rent for 12 weeks from 
 the date of the ship's commencement of discharge. 
 
 This rate will be charged on all goods imported from the East or West Indies, the Mauritius, Mexico, 
 or South America, and upon wood, spirits, or wine, and tobacco, from whatever place of importation, 
 unless notice be given by the importers, of their desire to have them placed tmd^r the landing rate, or 
 their intention to remove them without housing or piling. If such notice is given before housing or piling, 
 the rate in the second column will be discharged. 
 
 The Landing Rate includes landing, wharfage, and housing, or delivering from the quay, and furmshing 
 landing accounts. 
 
 This rate will attach to all other merchandise than as above specified, which may be imported ; to East 
 India cotton, to hides and skins, hair, horns and tips, to manufactures returned, and to every description 
 of goods relanded, or removed in bond or coastwise into the docks, unless the importers signify their wish 
 that they should be warehoused under the prime or consolidated rates. 
 
 The Rates for Unhousing and Loading, or Unloading and Housing, when not otherwise spetnfied, are 
 each one third of the landing rate; and that for unhousing, wharfage, and shipping, is the whole rate, 
 as stated in the second column. When the prime rate has not been paid, those charges will be made, 
 together with reasonable charges for coojKiring, sampling, and other operations contingent on housing. 
 
 The Charges for Weighing and Rehousing are each one third of the rate in the second column. Foi.* 
 repilir.g or weighing wood, one fourth of that rate is charged. 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (WEST INDIA). 
 
 481 
 
 Goods sold from the Landing Scale, or not intended to be warehoused, will be allowed 4 clear days from 
 the final weighing of the parcel for removal ; in default of which, they will be housed or piled. If in. 
 tended for immediate trans-shipment, they may remain on the quay, subject to the same regulations as 
 goods prepared for shipment, paying rent as if housed at landing. 
 
 Warehouse Rent, on goods to which the prime rate does not attach, will be charged from the date of the 
 ship's breaking bulk ; but when goods sold from the landing scale are housed, the rent will be charged 
 (rom the final weighing of the parcel. 
 
 A week's rent will be charged for all fractions of a week. 
 
 Before the transfer by the Company, or delivery of any goods can take place, the charges on the quantity 
 10 be transferred or delivered must be paid either to the collector, at the General Office in London, or to 
 the comptroller, at the General Office at the docks. 
 
 Rates on Goods imported. 
 
 N. B. — All sorts of goods may be imported into and warehoused at the West India Docks, on about the 
 same terms as at the other docks. We have given, under the head London Ducks, a Table of the dock 
 dues, &c. on most articles commonly imported, which may be applied, with very trifling modifications, 
 either to the West India or St. Katharine's Docks. The following Table includes merely the dock charges 
 on the importation, warehousing, &c. of the principal articles of West India produce: — 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Nclt per 
 
 Annotto - - tor 
 
 bask, and pack, under 1 cwl, 
 Arrow root - - tor 
 
 Canella alba - - cwt. 
 
 !' Chocolate - - box 
 Cochineal - - cwt. 
 
 Cocoa and coffee, casks — 
 bags - - — 
 
 Cotton wool, press packed - — 
 not press packed - — 
 Ginger, casks - - — 
 bags - - 
 ! preserved. See Succades. 
 i Jalap - - — 
 
 ! Indian rubbsr • hhd. or pipe 
 
 case 2 to 1 cwt. 
 case 1 to 2 cwt. 
 bag or barrel 
 loose, cwt. 
 
 Ipecacuanha 
 Molasses 
 
 Rate 
 
 21 0 
 
 0 0 
 20 0 
 
 1 8 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 La 
 
 ndg. 
 
 Rent per 
 
 Rate. 
 
 Week. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 Gross per s. d. 
 
 7* 
 
 0 
 
 ton - 0 7 
 
 
 ]^ 
 
 lOOpckgs.4 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 ton - 0 7 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 cwt. - 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 box - 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 cwt. -0 1^ 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 ton -06 
 
 0 
 
 C, 
 
 - - 0 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 _ -05 
 
 0 
 
 ^6^ 
 
 — - 0 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 — - 0 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 - - 0 6 
 
 0 lOA 
 
 bale,3cwt.O 1 
 
 
 6 
 
 hhd. or 
 
 
 
 pipe - 0 4 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 case 1 to 2 
 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 bariel - 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 in bottle 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 10^ 
 
 ton - 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 pun. - 0 2J 
 
 
 
 hhd.ortrc.O U 
 
 
 
 jar.or keg 0 0| 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Netl per 
 
 Mother-o'-pearl shells 
 
 ware - - chest 
 
 box 
 
 Piccaba - - cwt. 
 
 Pickles, cases - doz. bottles 
 
 barrels - . gallon 
 Pimento, casks - - cwt 
 
 bags - - — 
 
 Snake root - — 
 
 Succades, under 28 lbs. package 
 28 lbs. to 1 cwt. — 
 1 cwt. and upwards cwt, 
 
 Sugar, casks - - — 
 chests above 5 cwt., or 
 
 baskets - - — 
 chests und. 5 cwt.,orbags — 
 candy - — 
 
 Tobacco. See London Docks. 
 
 Wood. See separate Table, p 
 
 Prime Landg 
 Rate. Rates. 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 o' 
 0 6 
 0 6 
 0 lOi 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 0 3 
 U 4^ 
 
 Week 
 
 Criiss per ». d. 
 ton - 0 4 
 hest - 0 2 
 box - 0 1 
 ton - 0 4 
 doz.botts.O Oi 
 barrel 0 1 
 ton - 0 e 
 - - 0 C 
 barrel or 
 
 ibale 0 1 
 trc.orbaleO 2 
 0 3 
 0 0| 
 0 0| 
 - 0 Oi 
 0 5 
 
 . 0 5 
 0 4 
 
 cwt. - 0 Oi 
 
 hhd 
 cwt. - 
 
 Rates on Sugar. 
 
 Sugar, 4 to 5 cwt. bag or basket 
 about 2 cwt. do. or mat 
 boxes or chests - ton 
 bastards, 14 cwt. and upwards, 
 cask 
 
 12 and not exceeding 14 cwt. 
 
 cask 
 
 under 8 - . tierce 
 not exceeding 2| -barrel 
 refined, 18 cwt to 24 cwt. cask 
 
 Wharfage 
 
 and 
 Porterage. 
 
 Rent 
 per Week. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 5. d. 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 3 4 
 
 0 5 
 
 1 8 
 
 
 
 |o 5 ton 
 
 1 2 
 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 1 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 7 
 
 Sugar, refined, 14 and under 
 18 cwt. - - cask 
 
 12 and under 14 cwt. do, 
 
 Do. packed in hhds. or vat8,to 
 be housed for exportation. 
 Housing - . . 
 Weighing or re-weighing - 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 shipping - - - 
 Rent - per week 
 
 Porterage.! P« ^e.k. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 Vat. 
 
 Hhd. 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 3 0 
 
 1 8 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 Crushing Sugar. — The following charges include all expenses for receiving, delivering, coopering, 
 and rent, for two weeks : viz. 
 
 Crushed fine by the mill and packed into 
 
 Havannah cases - - . ton 21 0 
 
 partly crushed and packed with lumps — 16 0 
 
 crushed rough - - 19 0 
 
 crushed fine - . - 22 0 
 
 ground by the mill - . _ 16 0 
 broken and packed, rough and not to par- 
 ticular weights - - ton 14 0 
 
 broken small and rammed with entire 
 
 lumps - - - ton 14 
 
 broken large and rammed with entire 
 
 lumps 
 Transferring 
 Rent per week 
 Sampling 
 Papering 
 
 . ton 12 
 
 — 0 
 
 — 0 
 cask 0 
 
 — 0 
 
 Rates on Dye Woods. 
 
 
 Prime Rate, viz. 
 Landing, Wharfage, 
 Piling, 12 Weeks- 
 Rent, & Delivering. 
 
 Landing, Wharfage, 
 Weighing, and 
 Delivering. 
 
 Kent per Week, 
 after the first 
 12 Months. 
 
 
 Prime Rate, viz. 
 Landing, Wharfage, 
 
 Piling, 12 Week.s- 
 Rent, & Delivering. 
 
 
 Rent per Week, 
 after the first 
 12 Months. 
 
 Dyers' wood, &c. 
 Bar wood - 
 Box wood - 
 Brazil wood, large 
 Cam wood - - 
 Cocus wood 
 
 Ebony - - 1 ton 
 Fustic - - f under cover 
 Lignum vitffi 
 Logwood 
 
 Nicaragua, large - 
 Quassia 
 
 Sanders wood --' 
 
 «. d. 
 
 6 G 
 
 7 0 
 
 s. d. 
 4 6 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 Ij 
 
 Dyers' wood. Sec. 
 Bvaziletto - • ton 
 Brazil wood, small - - — 
 Fustic, young • • — 
 Nicaragua wood, sir.all - — 
 Sapan - • - — 
 Sassafras - - - — 
 Sandal - - - - _ 
 
 Other wood, chsjrgetl with dutv, at 
 per ton. 
 
 IMahogany, cedar, jacaranda, rose 
 wood, satin wood,iulip, zebra,i"tc. 
 
 d. 
 8 0 
 8 0 
 8 0 
 8 0 
 8 0 
 8 0 
 8 0 
 
 7 0 
 
 s. d. 
 
 S 6 
 5 6 
 
 5 6 
 
 6 6 
 5 6 
 5 6 
 5 6 
 
 5 0 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 2 
 '0 2 
 
 0 3 
 0 2 
 0 2 
 0 3 
 0 3 
 
 0 l.J 
 
 2 I 
 
482 
 
 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (WEST INDIA). 
 
 Wood Bates. — The West India Dock Company having appropriated the South Dock to the timber trade, 
 and afforded other facilities for carrying it on with ease and expedition, we subjoin a Table of the dock 
 rates on wood imported. N. B. — For the rates on ships laden with wood, see ante, p. 480. 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 «. 
 
 d. 
 
 «. 
 
 d. 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 2 10 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 n 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 6 ■ 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 f 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 1 11 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 2 11 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 32 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 40 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 If! 
 
 Deals, 
 
 American, Rassian, and Prussian deals, 
 and deal ends, per standard hundred 
 12 feet long and 1.^ thick 
 
 Spruce deals from Quebec, 12 + 3+ 9 
 
 per 120 
 
 Swedish deals from ports in the Baltic, 
 2.i and 3 inches thick, 14 feet long 120 
 l^and2 do. do. — 
 
 Norway and Swedish, from ports in 
 the North Sea, 
 I and 1 in. thick, under 10 ft. long 120 
 
 — — 10 to 12 - — 
 
 — exceeding 12 to 14 - — 
 _ — 14 to 16 - — 
 _ — 16 to IS ~ 
 
 — — IS to 20 . - 
 
 — — 20 to 21 
 
 li Inch thick, under 1 0 feet long — 
 _ _ 10 to 12 - - 
 
 — exceeding 12 to 14 
 
 _ — 14 to 16 . — 
 
 _ _ 16 to 18 - — 
 
 — — IS to 20 - — 
 
 — — 20 to 21 - — 
 U aixJ 2 in. thick, under 10ft. long 
 
 _ _ 10 to 12 - — 
 
 — exceeding 12 to 14 - — 
 
 — — 14 to 16 - — 
 _ _ 16 to 18 - — 
 
 — _ 18 to 50 - — 
 _ _ 20 to 21 - - 
 
 2J and 3 in. thick, under 10 ft. long 
 
 — _ 10 to 12 - — 
 
 — exceeding 12 to 14 - — 
 _ — 14 to 16 - — 
 
 — _ 16 to 18 - — 
 
 — _ 18 to 20 - — 
 
 — — 20 to 21 - — 
 Deal ends, 6 feet and under - — 
 Deck deals, 
 
 3 inches thick, 30 to 45 feet long each 
 
 f z z :z 
 
 stands 22to30 - - 
 
 Battens from all ports, 
 
 4 and 1 inch thick, under 10 ft. long 120 
 
 — — 10 to 12 - — 
 
 — exceeding 12 to 14 - — 
 
 — — 14 to 16 - — 
 
 — — 1610 18 - — 
 
 — — 18 to 20 - — 
 _ — 21 - — 
 
 14 inch thick, under 10 feet long 
 
 _ _ 10 to 12 - _ 
 
 — exceeding 12 to 14 - — 
 _ - 14 to 16 - _ 
 
 — — 16 to 18 - _ 
 
 — — 18 to 20 - _ 
 _ _ 21 - — 
 
 IJ and 2 in. thick, under 10 ft. long 
 _ _ 10 to 12 - _ 
 
 — exceeding 12 to 14 - — 
 
 — — 14 to 16 . _ 
 
 — — 16 to 18 - — 
 
 — — 18 to 20 - _ 
 _ _ 21 - _ 
 
 2i and 3 in. thick, under 10 ft. long 
 
 — - 10 to 12 . _ 
 
 — exceeding 12 to 14 - — 
 
 — — 14 to 16 - _ 
 
 — _ 16 to 18 - _ 
 
 — _ 18 to 20 . _ 
 _ _ 21 - — 
 
 — _ 22 to 30 - each 
 Batten ends - - - 120 
 Paling boards, not exceeding 7 feet — 
 
 Fir, thick stuff and plank . load 
 
 Fir boards, U inch thick and under - — 
 Lathwood, under 5 feet - - fm. 
 
 5 feet and not exceeding 8 feet - — 
 Firewood - - - — 
 
 Balks above 24 feet and under 5 inch — 
 
 under 21 feet and under 5 inch - — 
 Norway timber in balks - - load 
 
 Spars under 6 and above 4 inches - 120 
 
 Lanrewood - - - — 
 
 Rickers, under 4 inch, 24 feet long 
 
 and upwards - - 120 
 
 under 21 feet long - - — 
 
 Ufers, under 24 feet long - - — 
 
 V4 lo ditto - - - — 
 
 ajmve .'52 ditto - - - _ 
 
 Sjiarliolt/ and 10 ells, one third more 
 l_ t han Ufers. 
 
 Oak, African and other Csquare, per load 
 timber charged with<of 50 ft. round 
 duty at per load - ( per load of 40 
 Black birch 
 
 under cover 
 Wainscot logs, 14 feet long (greater 
 
 length in proportion) - - each 
 7 feet long . - - — 
 
 Oak and other planks (except fir 
 
 planks) • - load 
 
 Clap boards, 6 feet long 
 
 3 feet long 
 Handsjrikes 
 Spokes 
 
 Oars, under 24 feet long 
 
 above 24 feet long 
 Treenails, 2 feet ani under 
 
 above 2 feet 
 
 oad7 
 nd,J. 
 
 - each 
 
 - 120 
 
 - 1,200 
 
 - 120 
 
 ,lj2'0O 
 
 Staves, 
 Quebec, pipe 
 
 3to 4 inch pr. 1,200 
 r 2 to 2» — — 
 
 
 d. 
 
 ■ 
 
 d. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 t 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 ■J 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 0.4 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 ^ 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 g 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 80 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 0 
 
 s 
 
 
 35 
 
 0 
 
 
 4 
 
 70 
 
 0 
 
 
 c 
 
 45 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 0 
 
 < 
 
 S. 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 40 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 35 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 25 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 48 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 35 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 60 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 & 
 
 under 
 
 cover 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 4' 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 ,1 to 1. 
 
 hogshead - ^3 to 4 — 
 /2to2i - 
 tltolj — 
 barrel and beading 3 to 4 — 
 2 to 2i _ 
 1 to IJ — 
 
 North American, 
 
 puncheon and hogshead, 1 inch 
 and under 
 
 barrel and heading ditto 
 Hamburgh and Baltic, pipe - 
 
 hogshead 
 
 barrel 
 
 heading 
 
 pipe, thin 1 to IJ inch thick 
 hogshead ditto 
 barrel and heading ditto 
 Billet staves, oak or ash, 
 
 "'"tToil'"- l-t 4 ft.V 
 
 under l| - S I 
 Pipe boards 3* inches thick - — 
 
 Packs, 
 
 pipe - - each 
 
 half pipe - - - — 
 
 quarter pipe - • — 
 
 The Company will be answerable for 
 the number of pieces only of lath- 
 wood, and cannot be responsible for 
 the dimensions of Quebec or bUlet 
 staves. 
 
 Fir staves ... fm. 
 
 Heading and stave ends, 
 not exceeding 20 inches long 1,200 
 
 Floated Timber. 
 Rafting, including ropes, staples, laving up 
 or towing to the dock gates, or to the 
 pond : — 
 
 East Country, Swedish and American 
 timber and masts, per load 
 
 Norway timber • — 
 
 Spars, 6 inch and upwards — 
 Rafted timber floated from the river 
 Delivering stored timber at the dock gatesf 
 East Country, Swedish, and American 
 timber and masts - per load 
 
 Norway timber and spars — 
 Rent on stored goods to commence from 
 the final discharge of the ship, and to 
 be charged likewise on goods not 
 stored, unless they are removed within 
 14 days after delivery from the ship. 
 Repairing floats for delivery : — 
 No charge to be made during the 1st and 
 2d quarter's rent, but at the com- 
 mencement of the 3d quarter the charge 
 to be - - per load 
 
 And at the commencement of every suc- 
 ceeding quarter - per load 
 Round masts to be reckoned at 40 feet to the 
 loud. 
 
 Special Charge). 
 Rummaging timber .and other measured wood, as 
 us»al per ton or load ... 
 Delivering into decked vessels 
 
 Sticking deck deals, when retpiired • each 
 
 — oak plank and fir thick stuff per load 
 
 Sorting Quebec and billet staves for freight per 1 ,200 
 Turning' to measure for sale at landing, oak, black 
 
 birch, African, and other timber - per load 
 
 Marking lots of Aniencan and other timber piled in 
 
 tiers (one lot to a tier), or floated timber, per lot 
 
 ♦ The quarter to be calculated from the date of the ship's breaking bulk. " 
 
 t If not removed within 2 tides after being brought for delivery, to be diargcd per title per load Zd. 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 483 
 
 lUmontnda for the Information of the consignees and pro- 
 prietors of Roods imported In ships which discharKe tlieir 
 cargoes in the West India Doclis. 
 
 No ship is allowed to break bulk until her cargo is duly en- 
 tered; it Is therefore important that consigtiees should give 
 ilirections for the entry of their respective consignments at the 
 Custom-house as soon as the ship is reported. 
 
 Baggage and presents may be cleared at the baggage ware- 
 house at the doi^ks, after examination by the revenue. 
 
 Theoriginal bills of lading umst be deposited, when required, 
 except where a part of the goods are intended to be placed 
 under the Kast India Company's care ; in that case the original 
 bill must be exhiliited, and a true copy thereof denosited. 
 Should the original bill have been previously delivered at the 
 JJast India House, a certified copy must be obtained from the 
 accountant general of the Honourable Company. 
 
 Particular attention is necessary to the regularity of the 
 indorsements, as the Company's officers cannot pass any bill of 
 lading, on which the authority from the shipper to the holder 
 Is not deduced by a complete and accurate chain of indorse- 
 ment. 
 
 Every bill of lading should be specially indorsed, so as clearly 
 to designate the party to whose order the contents are to be 
 delivered. 
 
 In all cases of informality in bills of lading, from want of 
 indorsement. Sic, or of their being lost, application must be 
 made to the court by letter, stating the circumstances, and 
 enclosing any documents which will show the title to the goods; 
 in every such case the applicant must engage to indemnify the 
 Company by bond, or otnerwise, as the Court may direct. 
 
 When bills of lading are produced, which are at variance 
 with the manifest, as to the original consignee, the Company 
 v.iU not pass any delivery order founded thereon, until 3 clear 
 tlavs shall have elapsed. 
 
 The delivery of goods afloat will be the act of the captain or 
 ofRcer in charge of the vessel. 
 
 No order can be received until the manifest of the cargo, 
 duly certified by the captain, has been deposited at the West 
 India Dock House ; but the orders of the importers of all goods 
 entrusted to the West India Dock Company's management 
 may then be passed. 
 
 When parties holding orders for delivery from the quays 
 wish the goods housed in their own names or in the names of 
 other parties, they must lodge the order indorsed to that 
 effect, and warrants will be granted accordingly. 
 
 All merchandise warehoused under the care of the West 
 India Dock Company is deliverable in the ordinary course of 
 business by warrant, with the exception of muscovado sugar, 
 ■wood*, returned manufactures, and articles imported in bulk, 
 of which the weight or measure is liable to increase or decrease 
 from natural causes, and goods which are not to be ware- 
 housed, or are intended for immediate shipment ; in the latter 
 case, the importers must state on their orders that " warrants 
 are not required." 
 
 All goods entrusted to the management of the East India 
 Company, although deposited in the West India Docks, will be 
 delivered in th« usual course of the Honourable Company's 
 business by East India warrants. 
 
 To facilitate passing orders and paying the charges due upon 
 the goods, the Company will open deposit accounts upon request 
 from the merchants as herein-after noticed. 
 
 That the course of business, as respects the West India Dock 
 Company, may be fully understood, the attention of importers 
 and purchasers of produce is particularly requested to the fol- 
 lowing memoranda : — 
 
 The AV'est India Dock warrants for goods which are usually 
 sold without lotting, will be made out for such quantities as 
 have been found generally convenient to the importers. War- 
 rants or cheques for smaller quantities, or single packages, 
 may, however, be granted, on paying for the extra number, at 
 tlie rates herein fixed. 
 
 For goods which are lotted, made merchantable, &c., the 
 warrants will be made out as soon as the operations are per- 
 formed. When directions from the importer are requireJ, 
 notice will be given on the landing accounts ; it is desirable 
 that particular and early attention should be paid to such 
 notices, and that the importers of cotton, pepper, or other 
 articles which usually require being made merchantable, 
 should lodge a general order directing that operation to be per- 
 formed to all their importations. 
 
 The first warrants of the West India Dock Company will be 
 issued to the order of the importers or their assigns (provided 
 there is no stop upon the goods for freight or otherwise), upon 
 payment of the prime rates or landing charges. 
 
 Such payments must include all charges to the time of 
 housing, and those for lotting or making merchantable for the 
 importer, but, if the goods are deliverable by warrant, are not 
 to include rent ; — charges accruing subsequently, and the 
 rent, must be paid by the holders of the warrants before deli- 
 very of the goods. The proprietors of goods may, however, 
 clear the rent and incidental charges to any desired date, and 
 have new warrants or cheques accordingly. 
 
 When the assignment or removal of part of the goods only is 
 intended, the warrants or cheques should be divided at "the 
 dock house in London, as hereafter provided. 
 
 If the delivery of the whole of the contents is directed and 
 the goods are not removed within 2 days, a new warrant or 
 cheque for the remainder of the parcel must be taken out. 
 
 In the case of casks of liquids used to fill up others, the war- 
 rant must be lodged, and the proprietor may either have a new 
 ■warrant for the Iremainder, or it may be delivered (if not re- 
 quired again to be used in the same way) to his order. 
 
 When the holders of warrants or cheques are desirous of 
 assigning part of their contents, without delivery, rewcighing, 
 rehousing,, &c., new documents will be given in exchange, 
 on lodging the originals, duly indorsed. The indorsement 
 
 should specially direct the manner in which the contenu are 
 to be dl^vided, and state the names of the parties in whf»« 
 favour the new warrants or chfoues are to be issued, in the 
 following form : — " Please to divide the within ; " or w hen 
 part is to be delivered, " Deliver to bearer (state how many 
 I>ackages), and grant new one for (state how 
 
 many iiackages) in favour of oi* 
 fur,'' &c. 
 
 Warrants may he exchanged or divided w ifhout assignmg 
 the goods, when desired by the holder, at the same rate of 
 
 cnarge. 
 
 The original warrant is not charged for ; but the charges 
 for dividing or issuing new documents, or transferring, are — 
 For each warrant or transfer. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 (f. 
 
 1 or 2 packages or quanti- 
 
 1 
 
 26 to 30 packages or quan- 
 
 
 
 tities 
 
 8 
 
 3 or 4 do. - - - 
 
 2 
 
 ."51 —35 do 
 
 •J 
 
 5 to 7 do. 
 
 3 
 
 36 - 40 do. 
 
 10 
 
 8 - 10 do. 
 
 4 
 
 41—45 do. 
 
 11 
 
 11 — 15 do. 
 
 
 46 and upwards 
 
 ii 
 
 16-20 do. 
 
 6 
 
 Goods in bulk, per ton 
 
 2 
 
 21 - 25 do. 
 
 7 
 
 Every new cheque granted 
 
 2 
 
 If from the nature of the contract between the seller and 
 buyer, reweighing, &c. may be necessary, the warrants should 
 be deposited indorsed with directions to that eflisct, and new 
 wanants will be issued, containing the landing weights and 
 reweights, as soon as the operations are completed. 
 
 When any alterations, such as repacking, &c., are to be made 
 (except when preparatory to immediate delivery), the ■warrants 
 must be lodged ; and others, representing the goods correctly, 
 issued in the same manner. 
 
 The warrants must likewise be lodged on giving orders fo 
 vat, but if immediate shipment is not intended, new w arrants 
 will be issued as soon as the casks are refilled. 
 
 In the 3 last- mentioned cases the charges for performing 
 the operations include the expense of the new warrants. 
 
 When warrants or cheques are lost or mislaid, the Com- 
 pany require that they should be advertised in the Public 
 Ledger, the paper containing the advertisement, and an en- 
 gagement to indemnify the Company, by bond or otherw ise, to 
 be enclosed with the application for duplicates. The new 
 documents not to be issued (unless the original shall be found 
 and delivered up) until 7 clear days shall have elapsed from the 
 date of notice by advertisement- Upon notice of the loss, the 
 goods will be stopped ; and the original document can on no 
 account be acted upon. When East India warrants are lost, 
 the notice should be given to the Honourable Company's 
 warehouse keeper. 
 
 Irregularities in the indorsements lessen the security of the 
 proprietors of goods, and render the documents incomplete as 
 authorities. 1 he attention of the holders is therefore particu- 
 larly called to that point, to prevent the impediments which 
 must otherwise arise to the regular despatch of business. 
 
 Any attempt to remove such impediments by indorsing any 
 warrant, order, or cheque without due authority, even although 
 no fraud may be intended, will be invariatily noticed in the 
 most serious manner by the directors of the Vvest India Dock 
 Company. 
 
 Forms on which persons may be authorised to sign for others, 
 may be obtained in the general office at the dock house ; and 
 as no signature but that of the pariy named on the warrant, 
 delivery order, or cheque, can be acted upon, when goods are 
 made deliverable to order, persons so authorised should adhere 
 to the following form : — " For (name or firm.) 
 
 (Signature of the person authorised.)" 
 
 Deposit Accotinls may be opened with such deposits as the 
 merchants think proper ; when the balance is reduced below 
 10/., a further deposit must be made.. 101. being the smallest 
 sum which can be received at a time. 
 
 Parties having deposit accounts with the Company, must 
 transmit a note of advice on the proper form with each depo- 
 sit, and it will be nei essary that they should invariably state 
 on their orders or warrants whom tlie charges are to be pzud 
 by, thus : — 
 
 " Charges to the (date) to our account. (Signature.)" 
 Or, " Charges to be paid by the holder. (Signature.)" 
 By opening such accounts, the business of merchants with 
 the Company, particularly where goods are upon rent, is much 
 facilitated. The proper torms and pass books may be obtained 
 on application at the dock house. 
 
 Orders fin- Extra WorAf. — The charges for repacking, oi 
 preparing for exportation, and all work not comprised in these 
 Tables, will be fixed from time to time, with reference to the 
 cost of labour and materials. No such work, however, can be 
 done but by the order of the proprietors of goods, or parties 
 duly authorised by them. The warrants, or ott er documents, 
 must therefore be produced, to show their authority, e> cept 
 for tasting of wine, and sampling wine and spirits; in these 
 cases the number of the warrant must be inserted on the 
 order. 
 
 The charges under this head must be paid by the parties 
 giving the order or clearing the goods. 
 
 Goods prepared for Shipment — A\ hen goods hoiL«ed in the 
 import warehouses are prepared for shipment, and are not 
 taken away within the fixed number of days, they w ill be re- 
 housed at the expense of the proprietor, and the charge for 
 such rehousal, and any additional rent which may have 
 accrued, must be paid before delivery. 
 
 The time allowed to elapse belore rehousing, or restow ing, 
 is as follows : mahogany and other measured wood, 4 days ; 
 dye woods, and all other goods, 7 clear days: when the expoit 
 vessel loads in the docks, the time will be extended to the 
 date of her departure. 
 
 2. London Docks. — These were the next undertaking of this sort set on foot in thtj 
 Thames. They are situated in Wapping, and Avere principally intended for the recejjtion 
 of ships laden with wine, brandy, tobacco, and rice. The western dock covers a space 
 
 - * Warrants will be granted, howevpr, at the desire of the proprietor, for dye wood imported from the 
 East Indies, or any article that can bo separated into distinct and corresponding parcels, on his paying the 
 expenses of making such allotment. 
 
 c I 2 
 
484 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 of above 20 acres ; and the new or eastern dock covers about 7 acres. The tobacco dock 
 lies between the above, and exceeds 1 acre in extent, being destined solely for the recep- 
 tion of tobacco ships. The entire space included within the outer dock wall is 71 acres 
 and 3 roods. The warehouses are capacious and magnificent. The great tobacco 
 warehouse, on the north side of the tobacco dock, is the largest, finest, and most con- 
 venient building of its sort in the world. It is calculated to contain 24,000 hhds. 
 of tobacco, and covers the immense space of near five acres ! There is also a very lar^e 
 tobacco warehouse on the south side of the tobacco dock. These wareh'juses are wholly 
 under the management of the officers of customs ; the Dock Company having nothing 
 whatever to do with them, save only to receive the rent accruing upon the tobacco 
 deposited in them. The vaults are under the tobacco and other warehouses ; they 
 include an area of about \S\ acres, and, after allowing for gangways, &c., have stowage 
 for 6G,000 pipes of wine and spirits! These docks were opened in 1805. All ships 
 bound for the Thames, laden with wine, brandy, tobacco, and rice (except ships from the 
 East and West Indies), were obliged to unload in them for the space of 21 years: but 
 this monopoly expired in January, 1826 ; and the use of the docks is now optional. 
 
 The only entrances to the London Docks were, until lately, by the basins at Her- 
 mitage and Wapping. Recently, however, another entrance has been completed from 
 old Shadwell Dock, through what was formerly Milkyard, to the eastern dock. This 
 new entrance is | of a mile lower down than Wapping entrance, and is a most material 
 improvement. 
 
 The capital of the Company amounts to 3,238,310?. 5s. \0d. A considerable portion 
 of this vast sum, and of a further sum of 700,000Z. borrowed, was required for the pur- 
 chase of the houses, about 1,300 in number, that occupied the site of the docks. The 
 present dividend is 2| per cent., and a 100/. share is worth about 55/. 10s. The Board of 
 directors consists of 25 members, of whom the Lord P.Iayor, as conservator of the river 
 Thames, is one. 
 
 The Regulations to be observed by Ships in the different Docks being very much alike, as are also the 
 regulations as to loading and unloading, working hours, &c., it seems unnecessary, having already given 
 those issued by the West India Dock Company, to do more than refer to them. 
 
 Tonnage Rates. 
 
 Vessels are not permitted to leave the dock until the tonnage dues and other expenses have been paid; 
 for which purpose the register must be produced at the superintendent's office, if British, or a certificate 
 of admeasurement by the proper officer of the customs, if foreign ; when a pass will be granted, which 
 must be lodged with the dock master on leaving the dock. 
 
 First Class. — Vessels arriving from any port in the United Kingdom, Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey, 
 Alderney, Sark, or other European ports outside the Baltic, between the North Cape and Ushant (Ham- 
 burgh excepted, see Second Class), with liberty to reload for any port, for every register ton of the vessel 
 6d. ; and rent, after 4 weeks from date of entrance, if cargo discharged by own crew ; from the date of 
 final discharge, if cargo discharged by the Dock Company, Id. per register ton per week. If with part 
 of their cargoes, for every ton of goods landed, 6d. ; and rent, after 1 week from date of entrance, Id. per 
 register ton per week. 
 
 Vessels loading for any of those places, not having previously discharged their cargoes in the docks, 
 for every register ton of the vessel, 6d. ; and rent, after 4 weeks from date of entrance. Id. per register 
 ton per week. 
 
 Second Class. — Vessels arriving from Hamburgh, with liberty to reload, for every register ton of 
 the vessel, 6d. ; and rent, after 6 weeks from date of entrance. Id. per register ton per week. 
 
 Vessels loading for Hamburgh, not having previously discharged their cargoes in the docks, for every 
 register ton of the vessel, 6d. ; and rent, after 4 weeks from date of entrance. Id. per register ton 
 per week. 
 
 Third Class. — Vessels arriving from any port in the Mediterranean, with liberty to reload for any port, 
 for every register ton of the vessel, 9d. ; and rent, after 6 weeks from date of entrance, \d. per register 
 ton per week. 
 
 Vessels loading for any port in the Mediterranean, not having previously discharged their cargoes in 
 the docks, for every register ton of the vessel, 9c?. ; and rent, after 4 weeks from date of entrance, Id. per 
 register ton per week. 
 
 Fourth Class. — Vessels arriving from any other port or place whatsoever (with the exceptioh of those 
 hereafter enumerated), with liberty to reload, for every Register ton of the vessel, 9rf. ; and rent, after 
 4 weeks from date of entrance, if cargo discharged by own crewj from date of final discharge, if cargo 
 discharged by Dock Company, Irf. per register ton per week. 
 
 Vessels loading for any other port or place whatsoever (with the exception of those hereafter enu- 
 merated), not having previously discharged their cargoes in the dock, for every register ton of the vessel, 
 Qd. ; and rent, after 4 weeks from date of entrance, \d. per register ton per week. 
 
 E.vceptions. — Vessels from Spain, laden with cork or wool, for every register ton of the vessel, 6d. , 
 and rent, after the exjjration of 3 weeks, \d. per register ton per week. 
 
 Vessels to or from the whale fisheries, for every register ton of the vessel. Is. ; and rent, after the 
 expiration of 0 weeks, \d. per register ton per week ; for every tun of oil delivered into craft, 6rf. 
 
 Vessels (excepting coasters, for which see First Class), landing part of their cargoes, for every ton of 
 goods landed, 9d. ; and rent, after 1 week from date of entrance. Id. per register ton per week. 
 
 Vessels loading part of their cargoes, for every ton of goods taken on board from the quays or by craft, 
 9d. ; and rent, after 1 week from date of entrance, Id. per register ton per week. 
 
 Vessels two thirds laden with corn will be charged dock dues on the proportion which the other part of 
 the cargo bears to the register tonnage. 
 
 No tonnage rates will be charged on vessels wholly corn-laden, but they will be charged for docking 
 and undocking as under : — 
 
 Vessels of 100 tons and upwards, \l. Is. 
 
 Do. under 100 tons, 10s. Gd. 
 with liberty to remain in the dock, without further charge, for 24 hours after final discharge. Rent 
 after the expiration of that period. Id. per register ton per week. Should the vessel load outwards, th 
 usual tonnage rates, according to the port of destination, will be charged, instead' of the rate for docking 
 and u/ulocUing. 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 485 
 
 Vessels coal laden, for docking and iindocking, 21.v. each ; for every ton of coals landed, C.d. ; for every 
 ton of coals transhii)pcd, Gd. ; and rent, af ter 1 week, Id. jior register ton per week. 
 
 Vessels wliicli enter the docks light, and load out, pay dues according to their ports of destination, 
 inste.id of those on light vessels. 
 
 Light vessels entering the dock to lie up, for every register ton of the vessel, (id. ; and rent, after 4 
 weeks from date of entrance, \d. per register ton per week. 
 
 Whenever required, the Company will discharge the cargo of a vessel upon the following terms ; viz. 
 Cargoes consisting, either in the whole or in part, of hogsheads or tierces of sugar (includnig ship cooi)er- 
 
 age), 1*. 9d. per register ton. 
 Cargoes consisting of sugar in chests, 5 cwt. and upwards (including ship cooperage). Is. 3d. per register 
 
 ton. 
 
 Cargoes consisting of sugar in bags or chests, under 5 cwt., or other goods (not being oil direct from the 
 fisheries, tallow, hemp, ashes, corn, wood goods, pitcli, tar, hay, or straw), contained in casks, bales, 
 serous, chests, cases, bags, baskets, mats, bundles, or similar i)ackages; also, spelter or metal in pigs, 
 bars, rods, plates, &c., 9d. per register ton. 
 
 Cargoes consisting of mahogany timber, or other wood, in logs, 1,?. 9<7. per register ton. 
 
 Blue gum wood, or large timber, additional for every load delivered, 6d. m 
 
 Cargoes consisting of hemp only, or merchaadise, in bulk, 1*. per register ton. 
 
 Cargoes consisting of tallow only, 6d. per register ton. 
 
 Mixed cargoes j hemp. Is. 3d. per ton of goods ; tallow, 6d. per ditto ; ashes, Gd. per ditto. 
 Mixed cargoes, part being in bulk, on the latter, 1*. per ton of goods. 
 
 (No charge made for excess beyond the register tonnage.) 
 
 Vessels which leave the docks for repairs are not charged rent while absent. 
 
 Memoranda. — Registers of ships inwards and outwards are kept in the superintendent's office. 
 
 The wicket gates at the north-west principal entrance, at Wapping, and on the east side of the eastern 
 dock, are opened and closed as under : — 
 
 From 22d Sept. to 20th Oct., both inclusive, opened at 6 o'clock, closed at 6 o'clock 
 21st Oct. 20th March — 7 _ 6 — 
 
 Visiters are not admitted on Sundays. 
 
 No person is permitted to quit a vessel after the wicket gate is closed. 
 
 The hours for the commencement of business, and opening and closing the barrier gate, are. 
 From 1st March to 31st Oct., both inclusive, opened at 8 o'clock, closed at 4 o'clock. 
 1st Nov. 28th Feb. — 9 _ 4 _ 
 
 Lodgment of Manifest. — Masters of ships are required to deliver at the superintendent's office, 
 within 12 hours after the arrival of the vessel in the dock, or reporting at the Custom-house, (which 
 shall first happen,) a true copy of the manifest or report of the cargo, signed by themselves. 
 
 Discharge of Vessels. — Vessels are not to break bulk, without the pern)ission of the superintendent, 
 until the whole of the cargo has been entered at the Custom-house. 
 
 Upon application of the master, the Company will pass a warehousing entry for such goods as the 
 owners or consignees may have neglected or refused to enter within 48 hours; and will also land goods 
 not entered within 7 days ; both periods to be computed from the date of the report. 
 
 Labourers or lumpers are not allowed to work on board vessels, on the quays, or in the warehouses, un- 
 less engaged by the Company; but maybe hired of the Company, to work under the direction and respon- 
 sibility of the master, the charge being 3s. M. per day for each man : and should not a sufficient number 
 be employed for the timely discharge of the cargo, additional hands will be provided by the Company, at 
 the expense of the vessel. 
 
 The decks are to be speedily cleared of such articles as may impede the discharge ; and the master 
 mate, or some person duly authorised by the owners, is to remain on board during the unloading. 
 
 Stops for Freight. — Goods landed will be detained for the freight, on due notice in writing, by the 
 owner, master, or other person interested therein ; and will not be delivered, nor warrants granted for 
 them, until orders shall have been given for the release of the goods, or the freight deposited with the 
 Company ; nor can a stop be received after the goods have been transferred in the Company's books, or a 
 warrant has l>een granted for them. 
 
 Goods delivered into craft to be landed elsewhere, cannot be detained for freight 
 
 Vessels leaving the dock for repairs are not charged rent whilst absent ; nor is any charge made for 
 ballast, chalk, or flints, received from or dehvered into craft. 
 
 Water is supplied from the reservoir, and delivered into the ships' boats, at Is. per tun, on applicatioQ 
 to the dock master. 
 
 Abstracts of cargoes, for the purpose of making up freight accounts, will be supplied on application 
 
 at the comptroller's office, at the following charge : — s. d. 
 
 If the goods have 10 marks or under - - - - 2 0 
 
 — 1 1 to 20 marks - - . . -SO 
 
 — 21 and upwards, '2d. each mark or parcel. 
 
 Steam boats are furnished by the Company, in certain cases, to vessels (not laden with corn or timber) 
 proceeding to these docks, arriving from North and South America, the West India Islands, the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and all ports to the eastward thereof, upon application to the secretary, the superintendent, 
 or the agent of the Company. 
 
 Regulations regarding Goods and the Rates and Charges thereon. 
 
 Rent is charged on goods from the day on which the importing vessel breaks bulk. If goods be landed 
 by a duty paid, a sight, or a warehousing entry, and taken away within 3 days, no rent is payable; 
 but if they remain on the quay after that time, quay rent or watching is charged for such longer period. 
 
 Goods landed by Dock Order. — Before goods which have been landed by the Company for want of 
 entry, can be delivered or transferred, the bill of lading must be lodged at the warehouse, and the goods 
 entered at the Custom-house : and such goods are subject to an additional chai-ge for porterage. 
 
 Orders for transfer or delivery (the forms of which may be obtained at the comptroller's office^, unless 
 the goods are to be delivered from the landing scale," cannot be accepted until the goods have been 
 landed. 
 
 Neither can orders for transfer be received, until the charges due on the goods comjiosing the whole 
 of the entry have been paid; goods landed under the consolidated rate, and wines and spirits, excepted. 
 
 Orders for delivery cannot be acted upon, unless signed by the party in whose name the goods stand in 
 the Company's books, or by a person duly authorised to sign them : and should any interlineation, 
 erasure, or alteration have been made in an order, it can only be accepted with the initials of the party 
 set against such alteration. 
 
 Payment of Charges and Deposit Accou7its. — The only persons authorised to receive money are, the 
 collectors at the superintendent's office, and wine and spirit department; the deputy warehouse-keeper 
 at the tobacco warehouse ; the dock master (for water furnished to vessels in the dockl ; and the ware- 
 house-keeper at the eastern dock ; except for consolidated rates, which may be paid at the London 
 Dock House, in New Bank Buildings. 
 
 Deposit accounts may be opened at the superintendent's office. 
 
 If the order does not specify the party by whom the charges due at the date of the order or transfer 
 are to be paid, the amount thereof will be placed to the deposit account of the party transferring. 
 
 2 1*? 
 
486 
 
 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 Warrants and Transfers. — Warrants for goods in general, are granted on written application at the 
 dock, in favour of such person as the party in whose name they stand in the Company's books may 
 direct. The first are issued free of charge ; on all subsequent warrants and transfers, the charges are as 
 follow : — 
 
 For each warrant or transfer containing s. d. 
 
 1 or 2 packages - - -01 
 
 3—4 - - - -02 
 
 5 to 7 - - - - 0 3 
 
 8 — 10 - - - - 0 4 
 
 11 — 15 - - - - 0 5 
 
 16 — 20 - - . - 0 6 
 
 21 — 25 . - - 0 7 
 
 For each warrant or transfer containing «. d. 
 26 to 30 packages - ..08 
 
 31 — 35 - - . - 0 9 
 
 36 — 40 . . . 0 10 
 
 41—45 . - - 0 11 
 
 46 and upwards - - 1 0 
 
 and for goods in bulk, per Ion - - 0 2 
 
 The contents of one warrant may be divided into warrants for smaller quantities, at the will of the 
 holder. 
 
 Whenever housing, taring, weighing, dipping, rehousing, or counting of gooti's is required, the oper- 
 ation must be performed before a warrant can be issued ; and if re weighing, &c. be required, a new one 
 must be obtained. 
 
 Applications for duplicate warrants, in consequence of the originals being lost or mislaid, must be 
 addressed to the secretary, at the London Dock House, who will make known the conditions on which the 
 Company will issue them. 
 
 H eights of Goods. — Duplicates are furnished, upon reasonable cause for requiring them being 
 assigned. 
 
 Second Samples of Goods. — Orders for second samples, if the goods are for " exportation only," arc 
 issued at the comptroller's office, the proprietor paying the customs' duty thereon. 
 
 Empty Casks and Packages. — If not removed from the dock within 7 days, are sold by the Company, 
 and the proceeds paid to the owners, after deducting the sale charges and other expenses. 
 
 Explanation of the following Table of Rates and Charges on Goods imported into the London Docks. 
 
 The consolidated rate is charged upon the nett weight, and includes landing, wharfage, and housing, or 
 piling on the quay, coopering, samphng, weighing for delivery, delivery, and 12 weeks' rent from the 
 date of the importing ship breaking bulk; which may be paid on each mark separately, and will attach 
 unless notice be given to the contrary, prior to final weighing or gauging. 
 
 The import rate is charged upon the gross weight, and includes landing, wharfage, and housing, or 
 piling on the quay, or loading from the landing scale, and furnishing the landing weights or tales ; to be 
 paid before the delivery of any part of an entry can take place. 
 
 The charges for reweighing, rehousing, unhousing and loading;, or repiling, are each one third of the 
 import rate ; those for unhousing or unpiling, wharfage and shipping, the same as the import rate; when 
 not otherwise specified. 
 
 Table op Rates and Charges on Goods imported into the London Docks. 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Per 
 
 Alkanet root - cwt. 
 
 Almonds, from Africa, ton 
 in boxes and barrels, cwt. 
 
 Aloes, in gourds - ton 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 
 ZO.t. per ton nett. 
 In chests or casks - ton 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 
 20s. per ton nett. 
 
 Alum - - ton 
 
 Alva rnarina, 
 in bales press-packed, ton 
 in bags not press-packed, 
 ton 
 
 Amber and beads, package 
 Ambergris, in boxes or kegs 
 pau;kage 
 
 Anchovies - - cwt. 
 
 Angelica root 
 
 Aniseed 
 
 star 
 Annotto 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 21 ». per ton nett in casks 
 in baskets or small pack- 
 ages - - cwt. 
 
 Antimony - - ton 
 ore - - ton 
 
 if loose, filling and weigh- 
 ing, "2 J. per ton. 
 i Apples basket or barrel 
 tierce 
 hogshead 
 
 Argol • - ton 
 
 Arrow root 
 or a c;onsolidated rate of 
 20<. per ton nett in 
 casks, or 30«. in boxes or 
 cites ts. 
 
 1 7i 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 4 
 2 0 
 
 1 3 
 0 2 
 0 0^ 
 0 2 
 0 U 
 0 1 
 
 0 ? 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 1^ 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 Per 
 cwt. 
 ton 
 
 100 boxes 
 
 100 half boxes 
 
 brl. 2 cwt. 2 qrs.to 3 cwt. 
 
 \ barrel 
 
 large bale 
 
 small bale 
 
 half bale or seron 4 to 
 
 1^ cwt. 
 score gourds 
 
 package under 3 cwt. 
 ditto 5 & under 5 cwt. 
 ditto 5 & under 8 cwt. 
 ditto 8 cwt. & upwards 
 ton 
 
 ton 
 
 box or case 
 
 package 
 
 100 brls. or double brls. 
 100 kegs 
 
 cask under 1 J cwt. 
 0 1"| barrel 
 0 2 tierce 
 0 .'5 hogshead 
 0 6 ton 
 0 10 I ton 
 0 7 
 
 0 2 
 0 
 
 cask 3 to 8 cwt. 
 mat or basket 1 cwt 
 and under 
 ton 
 ton 
 
 basket or barrel 
 
 tierce 
 
 hogshead 
 
 ton in casks 
 
 100 cases under 2 cwt. 
 
 100 bags or cases 2 cwt 
 
 and under 4 cwt. 
 ton 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Per 
 
 Arsenic - - ton 
 
 Asafoetida - - cwt. 
 
 Ashes, from America, ton 
 Russia - - ton 
 
 Odessa - - ton 
 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 shipping, 2s. per ton. 
 
 Asphaltum - - ton 
 
 Bacon - - hogshead 
 bale 
 side 
 
 middles, 3 cwt. tierce 
 ditto, 1 to 2 cwt. - cask 
 
 Baggage, including delivery 
 and one week's rent. 
 
 presents, samples, parrels 
 of papers, and other 
 small articles, package 
 
 cases, trunks, boxes, bun- 
 dles of bedding, and 
 wearingapparel,package 
 
 middle-sized ditto, and 
 chesU - package 
 
 larger packages in pro- 
 portion. 
 Bags, empty - - score 
 Balsam capivi, in jars, cwt. 
 
 in barrels - - cwt. 
 
 Peru, in jars - cwt. 
 
 Cooper''s attendance at 
 landing and delivery is a 
 separate charge. 
 Canada - - package 
 Bamboos. See Canes. 
 Bark, oak, in bags or 
 loose - - ton 
 in casks - - ton 
 in cases about 1 cwt. 
 2 qrs. - - cwt. 
 Jesuits' or Peruvian, cwt. 
 
 Barilla, loose - - ton 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 
 slii])ping, 3«. per ton. 
 Filling and weighing, 2*. 
 
 per ton. 
 in serons - - ton 
 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 
 •hipping, 2». C</. per ton. 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 2J 
 
 0 Si 
 
 0 6 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 1 n 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 IJ 
 
 0 1 
 lo 1^ 
 
 0 0 
 0 Oi 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 cwt. 
 cask 
 cask 
 ton 
 
 Unhousing, 
 Wharfage, and 
 Shipping. 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 IJ 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 package 
 package 
 
 package 
 
 score 
 jar 
 
 barrel, under 2 cwt. 
 barrel, 3 cwt. fit upwards 
 jar 
 
 package 
 
 case 
 chest 
 
 k chest or seron 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 487 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Baskets 
 
 Per 
 . bale 
 i bale 
 large bundle 
 small bundle 
 Beads, jet, or other kinds, 
 not described package 
 Beans, in bags - bag 
 
 castor - - cwt. 
 
 Beef and pork - tierce 
 barrel 
 
 tub, kit, or half barrel 
 Berries, juniper - ton 
 
 yellow or bay - ton 
 
 Betel nuts - - ton 
 Biscuits - - cwt. 
 
 Banes - - 1,000 
 
 in bags • • bag 
 Books • - cwt 
 
 Boracic acid - - tor 
 Borax, rough or refined, ton 
 Bottles, empty glass gross 
 Brass - - ton 
 
 Brimstone, loose - ton 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 
 shipping, 3s. per ton. 
 Filling and weighing, 2». 
 
 per ton. 
 in casks or cases • ton 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 shipping, 2s. 6d. per ton. 
 
 Bristles, in packages above 
 5 cwt. 
 under 5 cwt. 
 Bronze - case 
 
 cjise 
 
 Bucco leaves • cwt. 
 
 Bugles - • ton 
 
 Bullion • cask or c£ise 
 small package 
 smaller pack^es, not 
 exceeding 5/. in value. 
 Burr stones. See Stone. 
 Butter, foreign, 
 Friesland or Holstein, 
 landing, wharfage, and 
 housing, or loading, 
 and furnishing landing 
 weights to the import- 
 ers - - ^cask 
 the like - half qr. cask 
 Loading from the ware- 
 house. Id. per cask. 
 Weighing on delivery, if 
 required, and furnishing 
 delivery weights to the 
 buyer. Id. per cask. 
 Emden or Holland, 
 landing, wharfage, and 
 housing or loading, 
 and furnishing landing 
 weights - firkin 
 
 Loading from the ware- 
 house, lid, per firkin. 
 Weighing on delivery, 
 when required, per 
 firkin. 
 
 Irish - score firkins 
 Weighing upon delivery, 
 
 hi. per cask or firkin. 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 shippmg, l^d. per cask 
 or firkin. 
 Cables, iron • ' ton 
 hempen - - ton 
 coir - - ton 
 
 Cambric - - package 
 Camels' hair - - cwt, 
 Camphor - - cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 U. 8d. per cwt. nett 
 Canes, common rattan, 
 
 1,000 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 
 3s. 6rf. per 1,000. 
 ground - - 1,000 
 reed, in bundles, 25 each 
 100 bundles 
 whanghee, bamboo, and 
 Jumlto - 1,000 
 
 Canilla alba - cwt 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 1*. Sd. per cwt. nett. 
 Cantbarides - - cwt. 
 
 Capers 
 
 Cards, playtag package 
 small package 
 Cardamoms - - cwt. 
 
 bag 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 8^ 
 
 I. d. 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 li 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 1 
 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 6 
 0 
 4 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 Per 
 
 bale 
 
 k bale 
 
 large bundle 
 small bundle 
 
 package 
 
 bag 
 
 ton 
 
 tierce 
 
 100 barrels 
 
 100 barrels 
 
 100 bags under 2 cwt. 
 
 100 bai5s2 to 4 cwt. 
 
 ton 
 
 ton 
 
 keg 
 
 bag or barrel 
 
 1,000 
 
 bag 
 
 bale or box 
 
 package or chest 
 
 ton 
 
 ton 
 
 gross 
 
 ton 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 ton in casks 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 100 cases of about 2 cwt. 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 100 boxes about 1 cwt. 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 100 boxes about.66 lbs. 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 ton 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 ton 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 case 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 box 
 
 0 
 
 
 case or barrel 2 cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 case 3 to 6 cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 ton 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 5 0 0 3 
 
 10 0 0 4 
 
 12 6 0 5 
 
 2 6 0 4 
 
 OlOJ 0 2 
 
 0 6 OlOJ 
 
 0 n 
 
 0 3 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 2 
 0 0| 
 
 100 
 
 loy 
 
 No rent or watch- 
 ing will be 
 charged if taken 
 away from the 
 quay within six 
 working days 
 from the period 
 of the importing 
 ship breaking; 
 bulk. 
 
 Watching on the 
 quays, after the 
 expiration of one 
 week, per night, 
 on any number 
 of casks or fir- 
 kins, s. d. 
 
 Not exceeding 
 25 ... 0 6 
 26&not50 0 9 
 51 — 75 1 0 
 76 _ 100 1 6 
 
 On any numbei 
 above 100, in 
 like proportion. 
 
 ton 
 
 package 
 bale or case 
 ton 
 
 1,000 
 
 100 bundles 
 
 0 3 I case or cask under 4 cwt 
 0*4 case or cask 4 and under 
 8 cwt. 
 
 0 6 I case or cask 8 cwt. and 
 
 I upwards 
 0 6 butt 
 0 4 puncheon 
 0 3 hogshead 
 0 1 barrel 
 0 2 package 
 0 1 small package 
 0 l\ chest 
 0 1 , bag 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Per 
 
 Carpets, bale above 70 square 
 yards 
 
 ballot, under 70 square 
 yards 
 
 Carraway seed • ton 
 
 Cashew nuts • cwt. 
 
 Cask.s landed empty, or cask 
 cases, if not delivered with- 
 in 6 days (and includes 
 delivery) 
 butt, pipe, or puncheon 
 smaller cask or case 
 iV. «. — If taken away 
 within 6 days, half the 
 above charges, and no 
 rent. 
 
 wine or spirit, small ul- 
 lages (including turning 
 over the contents 
 and deliv 
 Cassia lignea - cwt. 
 
 buds • - cwt. 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 
 \s. 6d. per cwt. nett. 
 fistula - - cwt. 
 Castor beans - • ton 
 Castorum, keg or small l)ox 
 Catlings - case or chest 
 Caviare • - package 
 Chaises or carriages, with 
 2 wheels - - each 
 4 ditto - - each 
 Chalk, French - ton 
 Chassum - - bale 
 Cheese, foreign • ton 
 
 Landing, wharfage, and 
 housing, or loading, 
 and furnishing landing 
 weights to the import- 
 
 Turning, each time, per 
 ton, 9d, 
 
 On delivery, weighing, per 
 ton, \s. 4d. 
 
 Unhousing and loading, 
 
 per ton, Is. -Id. 
 in tub or case • cwt. 
 
 Chicoree, under 1 cwt. 2 qrs. 
 
 case or cask 
 under 3 cwt. case or cask 
 3 and under 5 cwt. case 
 or cask 
 
 5 cwt. and above, cask 
 Chillies - - cwt. 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 l6. per cwt. nett. 
 China root - - cwt. 
 China ware or porcelain, 
 case 
 small case 
 box 
 
 Chii-aveta • cwt. 
 Chocolate - box 
 Cinnabar - - cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 4s. 6d. per cwt. nett. 
 Cinnamon - - cwt 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 3s. per cwt. nett. 
 Citron, in salt - - pipe 
 hogshead 
 Cooper's attendance is 
 
 separate charge, 
 preserved. See Succades. 
 Clocks, wooden - chest 
 Cloth, woollen, case or large 
 bale 
 
 from 8 to 12 pieces, ordi 
 nary bale 
 under 8 pieces, small bale 
 Cloves - - cwt. 1 
 
 or a consolidated rate of I 
 2s. 3d. per cwt. nett. I 
 Cobalt - - ton 
 
 Cochineal • • cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 
 3«. per cwt. 
 dust 
 
 Cocoa and coffee, all kinds, 
 cwt. 
 
 or a consolidated rate, 
 in casks. Is. 6d. per cwt. 
 nett; in bags, Ij. 2rf.per 
 cwt. nett. 
 Cocque de perle chest 
 Coculus Indicus - cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 It. 6(2. per cwt. nett. 
 
 d.\ «• d. 
 0 0 4 
 
 4i' 0 2 ballot 
 0 0 6 I ton 
 G 0 Oi cwu 
 
 QuanUUet, &c 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 Oi 
 0 6 
 0 1 
 0 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 1 0 
 1 6 
 0 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 1 6 
 4 0 
 
 2 0 
 4 2 
 
 }o Oi 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8i 0 
 9 0 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 .^ 0 10 
 
 8^1 0 1 
 
 6^04 
 0 i 0 3 
 
 0^02 
 0 I 0 3 
 
 ! 0 2 
 
 9 n 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 8i 0 1 
 
 0 10 5 
 9 0 li 
 
 each 
 ton 
 
 ton, in chests 
 100 bags 
 
 cwt. 
 
 ton 
 
 keg or small box 
 case or chest 
 package 
 
 ton 
 bale 
 ton 
 
 To be housed in a well 
 lighted and ventilated 
 warehouse, with the 
 use of scaflblding,upon 
 w hich the cheese will 
 be stowed, so as to 
 admit of separate and 
 tonvenienr examin- 
 ation ; and the rent to 
 commence after one 
 week from the day of 
 landing. 
 
 N. B. — By this mode of 
 stowage and well re- 
 gulated ventilation,the 
 loss in weight usually 
 sustained upon hous- 
 ing will be materially 
 diminished. 
 
 tub or case 
 
 100 small ditto 
 
 100 sacks 
 
 100 bags 
 
 100 barrels 
 
 case or cask 
 
 cwt. 
 
 case 
 
 small case 
 box 
 
 cask or case 
 box 
 
 chest 
 
 case or large bale 
 
 ordinary bale 
 small bale 
 cwt. 
 
 100 bags 
 0 6 ton 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 2 14 
 
488 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Per 
 
 Coir, unwrought, press- 
 packed • - ton 
 rope, under 6 inches girth, 
 ton 
 
 yarn - - ton 
 
 Cokernuts - - 100 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 3s. id. per 100. 
 Coloquintida - - cwt. 
 
 Copper - ton 
 
 VVharfage and shipping 
 copper slabs, when piled 
 on the quay, 34. 4d. per 
 ton. 
 
 Copperas - - ton 
 Coquilla nuts - 1,000 
 
 Counting the whole parcel 
 is a separate charge. 
 Coral, fragments - cwt. 
 beads - - case 
 box 
 
 Cordage, hempen, under 6 
 inches - - ton 
 
 Cork - - ton 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 shipping, 4*. per ton. 
 
 Corks - - cwt. 
 
 Cornelians and beads, chest 
 box 
 
 Corpses - - each 
 
 Cortex Wintfranus - cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 li. 6(/. per cwt. nett. 
 Cotton goods - bale 
 
 box or case 
 trunk 
 
 Cotton wool, press-pckd.cwt. 
 not press-packed - cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate on 
 press-packed, 9d. per 
 cwt. nett ; not press- 
 packed. Is. per cwt. nett. 
 
 Cotton yarn " " 
 
 Cowha^e 
 
 Cowries 
 
 Cows 
 
 Cranberries 
 
 W^t. GuanUties, 
 
 Cream of tartar 
 
 Cubebs 
 Cummin seed 
 
 - cwt. 
 - ton 
 
 - each 
 
 - keg 
 barrel 
 
 ton 
 
 Currants, 23 cwt. and up- 
 wards - - butt 
 15 to 23 cwt. - butt 
 9 to 15 cwt. - 1 
 5 to 9 cwt. - -cai 
 Deals. See Wood Goods. 
 Deer ... each 
 Diamonds - - package 
 Dragons' blood - cwt. 
 Dripstones - - each 
 Dye flower - - ton 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 14s. 6d. per ton nett. 
 Eau de Cologne - case 
 small case 
 Eggs - - - box 
 Klephants' teeth. See Ivory. 
 Emery stone. See Slone. 
 Essences, 1 cwt. and up- 
 wards - - case 
 under 1 cwt. - case 
 Extract from oak bark, cwt. 
 
 0 7 
 
 it 
 
 0 lOJ 
 
 0 5J 
 0 6 
 5 0 
 10 0 
 0 6 
 
 0 0| 
 
 rhatania 
 Jtsuits' bark 
 Fans 
 
 Feathers, bed 
 
 - cwt. 
 
 - cwt. 
 • case 
 
 box 
 cwt. 
 
 package 
 
 'ulture, not exceeding 2 
 cwt. - - package 
 not exceeding 50 lbs. bag 
 
 Figs, 5 qrs. to 1 cwt. 1 qr., 
 
 chest 
 
 about 50 lbs. <l chest 
 
 i chest — 28 lbs. ' score 
 drums - - score 
 4 and i drums - score 
 iialf qr. drums - score 
 tapncts - - store 
 
 2 0 
 1 6 
 0 3 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 0 
 1 0 
 0 lOJ 
 
 case or cask under 1 cwt. 
 case or cask 1 and under 
 
 3 cwt. 
 case or cask 3 cwt. and 
 
 upwards, 
 cwt. 
 ton 
 
 case or cask 
 
 case 
 
 box 
 
 bag 1 cwt. 
 bag 56 lbs. 
 hogshead 
 chest 
 box 
 
 bale 
 
 box or case 
 trunk 
 
 cask under 13 cwt. 
 cwt. 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Per 
 - ton 
 
 - tieice 
 
 - barrel 
 
 - tierce 
 kit 
 
 stock, or sturgeon 1,000 
 
 Fish, cod 
 herrings 
 mackerel 
 salmon 
 
 not otherwise described, 
 tierce 
 barrel 
 box 
 
 roes - - barrel 
 
 Flax (including weighing), 
 ton 
 
 If sold from landing scale, 
 to importer, per ton, 
 3s. 6d. ; to buyers, ditto. 
 Is. 6rf. 
 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 shipping, 4s. 6d. per ton 
 Flour - - - ton 
 including delivery by land 
 
 or water. 
 Repiling, Is. per ton. 
 Weighing on delivery, if 
 required. Id. per barrel 
 or chest. 
 Flowers, artificial • case 
 box 
 
 Forest seeds, nuts and 
 acorns - - barrel 
 Frankincense - - chest 
 Fruit. See the species of 
 fruit. 
 
 Furniture, very large case 
 
 ordinary case 
 middling case 
 intermediate package 
 small case 
 
 Furs. SeeSArins. 
 Galangal - - cwt. 
 Galbanum - - cwt. 
 Galls - - cwt. 
 
 Gamboge - - cwt. 
 
 Gentian root • - ton 
 Ginger - - cwt. 
 
 a consolidated rate of, 
 in casks, Is. 6d. per cwt. 
 nett; in bags. Is. 2d. 
 do. 
 
 Ginseng root - • ton 
 Glass - - cask or chest 
 case 
 box 
 
 G'.ae - - - ton 
 Granilla - - cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 3s. per cwt. nett. 
 
 Grapes 
 
 cwt 
 
 case 
 
 small case 
 box 
 
 case 
 
 small case 
 cask about 4 cwt. 
 cask above 6i cwt. 
 cwt. 
 cwt. 
 case 
 box 
 
 small bale 
 
 bag 1^ and under 2 cwt. 
 bag 2 and under 3 cwt. 
 bale 3 and under 5 cwt. 
 bale 
 package 
 
 package 
 
 bag not exceeding 50 lbs. 
 
 Grease - 
 
 Greaves 
 
 Guinea grains 
 
 Gum, in serons, bags, or in 
 cases, chests or casks, from 
 Africa - - ton 
 in cases, chests, or barrels, 
 from other places cwt. 
 
 loose or in hogsheads ton 
 Guns, carronades, 6 cwt. 
 and upwards - - each 
 Other sizes are charged in 
 proportion. 
 Hair, horse, ox, or cow. 
 
 Quantities, &Ci 
 
 ton 
 
 lUO tierces 
 
 100 barre.s 
 
 100 tierces 
 
 100 kits 
 
 1,000 stock 
 
 100 kegs sturgeon 
 
 loo barrels stock or stur- 
 
 100 tierces 
 100 barrels 
 100 boxes 
 100 barrels 
 
 i Hams 
 
 Unhsg 
 and 
 
 J.ndg. 
 0 OJ 
 0 0^ 
 0 0 
 0 (i 
 0 6 
 0 0 
 0 6 
 
 Rent 
 per Week 
 s. </. 
 
 - hogshead 
 tierce 
 barrel or basket 
 
 0 4 
 0 3 
 0 2 
 0 1^ 
 0 1 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 0 o| 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 o.v 
 
 0 10 
 0 6 
 
 large case 
 ordinary caso 
 middling case 
 intermediate package 
 small case 
 
 barrel 
 
 cask or chest 
 
 case 
 
 box 
 
 ton 
 
 barrel 
 
 100 boxes 
 100 jars 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 Oi 
 0 2 
 
 loose - - - € 
 Hats, Leghorn - 10 
 
 chip - tubofSOdoz. 
 Hellebore root - cwt. 
 
 Hemp (including weighing) 
 ton 
 
 If sold from landing scale : 
 to importer, ton 3«. 6rf. ; 
 to buyer, ton Is. 
 
 Weighing in the ware- 
 house, ton, 2s. 
 
 Loading, ton, 2s. 
 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 shipping, 4s. per ton. 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 
 
 0 2 
 
 
 
 0 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 C 
 
 0 10 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 5 
 
 no rent if taken away in 
 7 days 
 
 bale under 3 cwt. 
 
 bale 3 and under 5 cwt. 
 
 bale 5 cwt. and upwards 
 
 cwt. loose 
 
 bale 
 
 Unhsg. 
 
 Whfge, 
 and 
 Shipg, 
 s. d. 
 1 6 
 0 8 
 0 4 
 
 hogshead 
 tierce 
 
 barrel or basket 
 
 each 
 10 dozen 
 
 middling case or package 
 large case or package 
 Uib of 80 dozen 
 ton 
 
 ton 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 489 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Per 
 
 Hemp — continued. 
 press-packed • ton 
 coiiilla, hemp or flax ton 
 If sold from landing 
 scale : 
 to importer, ton 5*. 
 to buyer, ton Is. 
 Weighing, 'is. per ton. 
 l.oacUng, 3s. per ton 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 shi|)ping; bs. per ton. 
 Consolidated rate, on 
 Kast India, press- 
 packed, 1 1*. per ton. 
 Hides, horse - bale or chest 
 
 loose ... each 
 
 from Hambro', dry 100 
 bundle of 2 hides 
 
 horse, ox, cow, or buf- 
 falo, wet salted . each 
 
 ox, cow, or ijutfalo, with 
 short horns - each 
 
 other hides, not enume- 
 rated, dry, or dry sailed, 
 averaging more than 22 
 lbs. - - each 
 
 do. averaging 12 lbs. and 
 not exceeding 22 lbs. 100 
 
 do. 7 lbs. and under 12 lbs. 
 
 100 
 
 do. under 7 lbs. . 100 
 in bales, about 8 cwt. bale 
 al)0Ut4cwt. bale 
 small bale 
 losh - bale or chest 
 Honey - . cwt. 
 
 Hoofs - . cwt. 
 
 Hops ... cwt. 
 
 Horns, and horn tips, or 
 I plates, including counting 
 cwt. 
 
 in packages . . cwt. 
 hart, stag, or deer, 
 
 100 pair 
 in bales under 2 cwt. 
 
 bale 
 
 2 cwt. and above bale 
 Horses ... each 
 Jalap . . cwt. 
 
 Jewellery • - package 
 box 
 
 i ndian rubber, hhd. or pipe 
 2 to 4 cwt. rase 
 1 to 2 cwt. case 
 barrel 
 
 loose . . cwt. 
 
 Indian com . - bag 
 Indigo, not East India, cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 
 \s. 6d. per cwt. nett. 
 East India, in chests cwt 
 or a consolidated rate, 
 including all opera- 
 tions incident on tar- 
 ing, raising, repack- 
 ing, stowing, and at- 
 tendance whilst on 
 show, nailing down, 
 lotting, and piling 
 away, of 17*. 6d. per 
 chest. 
 
 Ink - - . cwt. 
 Inkle - - - cwt. 
 
 Ipecacuanha - - cwt. 
 I ton (including mi eighing), 
 ton 
 
 if landed for transit, and 
 not weighed - ton 
 
 when shipped from land- 
 ing scale (including de- 
 livery) - . ton 
 
 Unpiling, wharfage, and 
 shipping,without weigh- 
 ing, 2«. 6d. per ton. 
 
 When weighed on board, 
 (including use of scales 
 and weights), 2s. per 
 ton. 
 
 old . . ton 
 
 ore 
 steam 
 
 cyhnders, and other 
 heavy machinery, ton 
 if discharged from the 
 vessel Into craft, with- 
 out landing or weigh- 
 ing . . ton 
 Isinglass - - cwt. 
 Ivory . . cwt 
 J ink, or old rope - tor 
 Jute, press p.ncked - tor 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 per ton nett. 
 
 
 Rent. 
 
 Imp( 
 Rat 
 
 Per 
 Week. 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 «. d. 
 
 3. d. 
 
 Per 
 
 4 0 
 6 0 
 
 0 4 
 0 6 
 
 ton 
 ton 
 
 2 8J 
 
 0 0| 
 7 6 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 J 
 
 containing 150 or under, 
 larger bale in proportion 
 
 100 
 
 0 IJ 
 
 0 10 
 
 100 hides 
 
 0 2 
 
 2 C 
 
 100 
 
 0 n 
 
 0 10 
 
 100 
 
 9 0 
 
 0 10 
 
 100 
 
 6 3 
 4 2 
 3 0 
 1 6 
 
 1 3 
 
 2 0 
 0 6 
 
 0 6 
 0 4J 
 
 0 6 
 0 6 
 0 3 
 0 n 
 0 1 
 
 0 1 
 0 OA 
 0 10 
 0 2 
 0 1 
 
 100 
 100 
 bale 
 bale 
 
 small bale 
 
 barrel 
 keg or jar 
 ton 
 bag 
 pocket 
 
 0 lOJ 
 0 6 
 
 0 10 
 0 5 
 0 Oi 
 
 ton horns 
 ton tips 
 bag 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 5 
 
 100 pair 
 
 1 0 
 1 6 
 
 12 6 
 
 0 10^ 
 
 1 6 
 1 6 
 1 6 
 1 6 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 3 
 0 9 
 
 0 1 
 0 1^ 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 oa 
 0 5" 
 0 2 
 0 4 
 0 1 
 0 1 
 0 0\ 
 0 1 
 0 0| 
 0 0 
 0 1" 
 
 bale 
 bale 
 
 bale about 3 cwt. 
 bale about 1^ cwt. 
 package 
 box 
 
 hogshead or pipe 
 
 case 
 
 case 
 
 barrel 
 
 cwt. in bottle 
 cwt. solid 
 
 jbag 
 seron 
 
 0 8^ 
 
 0 1^ 
 
 chest 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 10^ 
 
 0 2 
 0 \\ 
 0 1 
 0 10 
 
 cask 
 case 
 
 box or keg 
 ton 
 
 3 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 ton 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 ton 
 
 4 2 
 
 none 
 
 if shipped within one 
 week from the last day 
 of landing. 
 
 3 4 
 3 0 
 
 0 2 
 0 2 
 
 ton 
 ton 
 
 7 6 
 
 
 
 6 0 
 0 lOA 
 0 lOj 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 10 
 0 1 
 0 3 
 0 4 
 
 T 
 
 cwt. 
 ton 
 ton 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Per- 
 
 Kelp - - ton 
 Filling and weighing, 
 jier ton. 
 Knives . - package 
 
 Lac dye or lake - chest 
 Lace - - case or box 
 Lacquered ware - chtst 
 box 
 
 Lard . - bladder 
 
 Lead ... ton 
 Unpiling, wharfage, and 
 shipping, 1*. StZ. per ton. 
 ore - . ton 
 
 black - . ton 
 
 white - - ton 
 
 Leather, foreign (tanned) 
 bale 
 
 demi ... bale 
 loose - - ton 
 Irish (tanned) bale, under 
 1 cwt. 
 
 bale, 1 cwt. to 2 cwt. 
 bale, 2 cwt. to 4 cwt. 
 small or middling crate 
 large crate 
 Lemons. See Oranges. 
 Lexia ... ton 
 Limes . . barrel 
 
 Lime juice - 100 gallons 
 Laying up to gauge, and 
 cooper's attendance at 
 landing and delivery, 
 form a sejjaiate charge 
 
 Linen, German - 
 
 loose or in bags 
 
 bale 
 A bale 
 J bale 
 - roll 
 chest 
 h chest 
 I chest 
 
 Pvussia - - bale 
 i bale, containing 10 
 pieces, or boarded bale 
 ^ bale 
 
 crash . - bale 
 
 A bale 
 I bale 
 
 sail cloth . bolt or roll 
 mats, 2 pieces - each 
 Irish . - case or bale 
 box cr bundle 
 sample box 
 Linseed. See Wheat. 
 
 cakes - - ton 
 
 Liquorice - • cwt. 
 root - . cwt. 
 
 Mace - . cwt. 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 Zs. per cwt. 
 Madder • . ton 
 
 roots . - cwt. 
 
 Maiden hair - - bale 
 Manna . - cwt. 
 
 Marbles . - ton 
 Marble baths . - each 
 mortars - . ton 
 sculptured works of art : 
 import rate according 
 to the size and value . 
 
 cwt. 
 
 rough, in cases 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 0 
 2 6 
 
 5 0 
 0 8^ 
 2 1 
 
 0 8^ 
 
 1 2i 
 
 f. 
 
 d. 
 
 Per 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 ton 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 rase 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 barrel 
 
 0 
 
 "1 
 
 box 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 chest 
 
 0 
 
 G 
 
 case or box 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 chest 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 box 
 
 0 
 
 f> 
 
 100 bladders 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 ton 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1.1 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 01 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 l.i 
 
 0 li 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 2 
 
 3 6 
 0 3J 
 
 0 
 
 1 0 0 
 0 10| 0 
 
 5 0 0 
 
 6 0 
 
 5 0 0 
 
 blocks, under 2 tons, ton 6 
 above 2 tons . ton 10 
 above 10 tons . ton 20 
 
 Mastic • . cwt. 
 Mats - - 100 
 
 Indian . . chest 
 
 box 0 
 from com vessels, bundle 
 
 of 10 0 
 Delivery by land, Xd. \>ex 
 bundle ; by water. Id. 
 per bundle. 
 Melting pots . • cask 4 
 Minerals - . case 1 
 Mohair yam . - cwt. L 0 
 Molasses. See West India 
 
 Dock Charf;es. 
 Moss, rock or Iceland, ton 
 
 Mother-o'-pearl, shells, i 
 or a consolidated rate of i 
 18s. 6(i. jier ton nat. | 
 ware - - clu-sfs 1 
 box , 1 
 
 0 3 
 0 2 
 0 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 «i 0 6 
 
 0 0 2 
 
 9 0 1 
 
 0 0 4 
 0 0 2 
 7h 0 I 
 
 Quantities, 
 
 ton 
 ton 
 ton 
 
 hale 
 bale 
 ton 
 
 bale under 1 cwt. 
 bale 1 to 2 cwt. 
 bale 2 to 4 cwt. 
 small or middling crate 
 large crate 
 
 ton 
 
 barrel 
 
 puncheon 
 
 hogshead 
 
 barrel 
 
 bale 
 i bale 
 J bale 
 100 rolls 
 thest 
 i chest 
 J chest 
 bale 
 
 h bale 
 J bale 
 bale 
 4 bale 
 I bale 
 
 100 bolts or rolls 
 100 mats (2 pieces) 
 case or bale 
 box or bujuUe 
 sample box 
 
 ton 
 
 case or barrel 
 
 loose, ton 
 
 bale under 2 cwt. 
 
 chest 
 
 cask about 1 cwt. 
 ton 
 
 bale under 3 cwt. 2 qrs. 
 bale 3 cwt. 2 qrs. and 
 
 under 5 cwt. 
 bale 5 cwt. and upwards 
 
 bale 
 
 chest or cask 
 
 ton 
 
 each 
 
 case 
 
 small case 
 case 
 
 Delivered 
 
 
 into Craft, per 
 
 Wharfage 
 
 Ton of 2.5 
 
 and 
 
 Palms or 12 
 
 Shipping. 
 
 Cubic Feet. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 *. d. 
 
 3 0 
 
 4 6 
 
 5 0 
 
 7 6 
 
 10 0 
 
 15 0 
 
 case or chest abt. 3 cwt. 
 
 1 00 bundles 
 
 chest 
 
 box 
 
 9 ton, in bags 
 6 100 casks i.l^o^ltS4 lbs. 
 0 100 casks about 2 cwt. 
 4 j ton 
 
490 
 
 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Per 
 
 Mxmjeet, in bales cwt. 
 in a coivsolidated rate of 
 
 13. Orf. per cwt. nett. 
 in bundles - - cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 2s. per cwt. nett. 
 Musk - - chest 
 
 box 
 
 Myrabolans - - cwt. 
 Myrrh - • cwt. 
 
 Nails • - cwt. 
 
 Nankeen • - chest 
 Natron, loose - - ton 
 Filling and weighing, 2i. 
 per ton. 
 Nutmegs - - cwt. 
 a consolidated rate of 
 1«. 6d. per cwt. nett. 
 Nuts - - bushel 
 
 barrel 
 bag or sack 
 castania - - bushel 
 Nux vomica - - cwt 
 Oakom - - ton 
 
 Oatmeal, about 2J cwt., in- 
 cluding delivery - ton 
 Weighing for delivery, \d. 
 per sack or barrel. 
 Ochre - . • ton 
 Oil, bay - - cask 
 
 castor 
 
 • cwt. 
 
 chemical, 1 cwt. and up- 
 wards - - package 
 under 1 cwt. - package 
 
 Landing, wharfage, and 
 laying up to gauge 
 
 Coopers attendance, if de- 
 livered from the quay - 
 
 Searching and filling up 
 (if done) 
 
 Loading or housing 
 
 Cooper's attendance at 
 housing, and at delivery 
 from the vault 
 
 Unhousing and loading - 
 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 shipping - 
 
 Rent per week 
 
 N.B. - Fourteen days 
 allowed from final day of 
 landing previous to the 
 commencement of rent ; 
 but the Company are at 
 liberty to house 6 days 
 after gauging, unless de 
 tained by written order 
 previously. 
 
 Kent on the quantity re 
 maining will be charged 
 from the day of the vessel 
 breaking bulk. 
 
 olive, in jars : 
 common jars - cwt. 
 * jars - - cwt 
 large jars - - cwt, 
 cases containing 30 
 quart bottles - case 
 salacf, 4 chesi of 30 
 bottles 
 
 palm and cocoa nut, ton 
 in large casks, for every 
 cwt. above 30 cwt. 
 seed - - tun 
 
 Oil cake. See Lirueed Cakes. 
 Olibanuni. See Gum, in cases 
 
 or chests. 
 OUves, about 12 galls, i brl. 
 
 _ C _ I brl. 
 - 2| - keg 
 about 6 quarts small keg, 
 scort 
 
 3 pint jars - - score 
 in larger packages, gallon 
 
 Onions - - bushel 
 Opium - - cwt. 
 
 Oranges and lemons, chest 
 box 
 
 Oranges, in casea case 
 Urange huds - - cwt. 
 
 0 % 
 
 0 1} 
 0 
 
 0 2* 
 
 0 4| 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 0| 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 0 Oh 
 
 0 0^ 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 1 
 2 0 
 
 1 0 
 0 OJ 
 0 4 
 
 0 2J 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 chest 
 box 
 cwt. 
 cwt. 
 
 barrel or 1 
 
 chest 
 
 ton 
 
 100 sacks 
 barrel 
 100 bags 
 100 bushels 
 cwt. 
 ton 
 
 ton, if not cleared within 
 14 days of breaking 
 bulk. 
 
 ton 
 
 cask 
 
 puncheon or hhd. 
 ton, in jars or duppers 
 tierce 
 
 barrel under 2 cwt. 
 barrel above 2 cwt. 
 case 12 bottles 
 
 large case 
 small case 
 
 Per Tun of 232 Imp. Gals. 
 
 Olive 
 
 in 
 Casks. 
 s. d. 
 
 Fish. 
 *. d. 
 
 Newfound- 
 land. 
 
 *. d. 
 
 4 6 
 
 3 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 0 
 1 6 
 
 1 0 
 1 6 
 
 1 0 
 1 2 
 
 *. d. 
 
 0 8| 
 
 0 81 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 Rent 
 
 0 3i 
 
 0 2i 
 0 
 
 Orchella weed 
 Or|>iment 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 2i 
 
 1 6 
 0 9 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 o; 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 9 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 0 4 
 
 common jar 
 h jar. 
 large jar 
 
 score cases 
 
 * barrel 
 J barrel 
 keg 
 
 score 
 score 
 tierce 
 
 barrel, 30 gallons 
 
 J barrel 
 
 basket or barrel 
 
 chest under 3 cwt. 
 
 chest 
 
 box 
 
 case 
 
 tierce 
 
 hogshead 
 
 bafe 
 
 ton 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Orsidew 
 
 package 
 
 Otto of roses - package 
 middling package 
 small package 
 Oxen - . - each 
 Paddy, in bulk . quarter 
 Paper ... cwt. 
 Pearl barley . . keg 
 barrel 
 
 Peas - tierce or barrel 
 bag 
 
 Pepper (unsifted) . ton 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 9d. ppr cwt. nett ; or of 
 2i. 3d. per cwt. nett, in- 
 cluding ordinary sifting 
 and bagging 
 long or Cayenne - cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 1*. per cwt. nett. 
 Piano-fortes - - each 
 Piccaba - - cwt. 
 Pickles . dozen bottles 
 in barrels - gallon 
 
 large bottles or jars, 
 under 2 gallons - gallon 
 2 and under .5 do., gallon 
 5 and upwards - gallon 
 Pictures, large bale or case 
 middling bale or case 
 small bale or case 
 Piece goods - - bale 
 Pill boxes . large vat 
 
 small vat 
 Pimento - . cwt. 
 
 or a consolidated rate, 
 in bags - 1*. "id. cwt. 
 in casks • Is. 6d. cwt. 
 Pink root - - cwt. 
 
 Pitch . • - ton 
 Plaster of Paris . ton 
 
 Plums, Portugal, in boxes, 
 dozen 
 
 Porcelain - - case 
 small case 
 Potatoes . . ton 
 
 Potash. See Ashes. 
 Preserves, 
 under 28 lbs. -package 
 28 to 112 lbs. -package 
 1 cwt. & upwards, package 
 or a consolidated rate, 
 under 28 lbs. package, 6d, 
 28 to 11 2 lbs. do. 1*. 
 112 lbs. and upwards, 
 package,li.per cwt. nett 
 
 Prunes or French plums, 
 about 8 cwt., hhd. or pun. 
 5 to 7 cwt. - barrel 
 2 to 5 cwt. - i barrel 
 under 2 cwt. - J barrel 
 about 1 cwt., containing 
 boxes or cartoons - case 
 about 50 lbs. - box 
 
 about 28 lbs. 
 
 - 1 chest 
 
 4 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 21 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 u 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 0| 
 4 6 
 3 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 6 
 1 0 
 3 6 
 
 0 3 
 0 C 
 0 6 
 
 0 04 
 
 0 04 
 
 0 1 
 
 2 6 
 
 U 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 01 
 
 0 of 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 n 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 6 
 
 Prussiate of potash - ton 
 Puree - - chest 
 
 Pyrolignate of lead • ton 
 
 euassia . - cwt. 
 
 uicksilver, in bottles, bott. 
 containing 1 skin - case 
 Quills - • . vat 
 small vat 
 hogshead or barrel 
 case 
 bale 
 
 Quinine, sulphate of, con- 
 taining about 3 quarts, case 
 
 Radix contrayervae - cwt. 
 senekae - - barrel 
 
 Rags or old ropes - ton 
 
 Raisins, 12 to 20 cwt., butt 
 9 to 12 cwt. - pipe 
 
 5 to 9 cwt. - carotel 
 
 2 cwt. 2 qrs. to 4 cwt. 2 qrs. 
 
 barrel 
 
 1 cwt. 2 qrs. to 2 cwt. 2 qr. 
 
 A barrel 
 
 under Icwt. 2 qrs., } barrel 
 Weighing do. Is. score. 
 Cape, casks under 3 cwt., 
 cask 
 
 3 cwt to ,') cwt., cask 
 boxes, about GO lbs., score 
 
 0 li 
 
 Unhsg 
 and 
 
 Ldng. 
 s. d. 
 0 6 
 0 3 
 0 2 
 0 2 
 
 0 2 
 0 6 
 score 
 0 6 
 score 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 6 
 4 6 
 3 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 0 
 0 6 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 6 
 
 3 0 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 Per 
 hogshead 
 tierce 
 
 barrel or seron 
 large case 
 small case 
 
 package 
 
 quarter 
 ton 
 keg 
 barrel 
 
 tierce or bairel 
 100 bags 
 ton 
 
 bag of 317 lbs. nett 
 ton 
 
 each 
 ton 
 
 dozen bottles 
 barrel 
 
 bottle or jar 
 bottle or jar 
 bottle or jar 
 large bale or case 
 middling bale or case 
 small bale or case 
 bale 
 
 large vat 
 small vat 
 ton 
 
 bale 
 
 100 barrels 
 ton 
 
 100 boxes 
 case 
 
 small case 
 ton 
 
 Rent 
 
 A^eek. 
 s. d. 
 0 2 
 0 IJ 
 0 I 
 4 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 0 
 
 hhd. or pun. 
 
 barrel 
 4 barrel 
 
 V^eek, 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 0 nl 
 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 OA 
 
 0 3 
 
 Unhsg 
 
 and 
 Ldn^. 
 
 0 2 
 0 Oi 
 
 ton 
 
 chest 
 
 ton 
 
 cwt. 
 
 bottle 
 
 case 
 
 vat 
 
 small vat 
 
 hogshead or barrel , 
 
 case 
 
 bale 
 
 case 
 case 
 barsel 
 
 Rent 
 
 wFeek. 
 0 4 
 0 3 
 0 2 
 
 0 01 
 
 0 0\ 
 
 0 03 
 
 0 2 
 
 1 8 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 491 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Per 
 
 Raisins — continued. 
 Denia and Valencia, boxes, 
 score 
 
 Weighing do. Sd. score. 
 ^ and ^ boxes - score 
 frails or baskets - score 
 AVeifjhing do. 6d. score. 
 X and i trails or baskets, 
 score 
 
 Weighing do. 4d. score. 
 
 Malaga, boxes • score 
 i and \ boxes - score 
 Weighing do. 8d. score. 
 
 Smyrna, drums - score 
 Weighing do. \0d, score 
 i and h drums • score 
 Weighing do. 6d. score. 
 
 Rhatania extract - cwt. 
 
 root - - cwt. 
 
 Rhubarb - - cwt. 
 A consolidated rate on 
 East India, including 
 also starting into bulk, 
 taring, repairing, re- 
 taring, refilling, nail- 
 ing down, reweighing, 
 and piling away, of 6i. 
 per chest. 
 Rice - - - cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of, 
 in casks - 13*. 4(Z. ton 
 in bags - 10*. 6i ton 
 Roots, sassafras or winters 
 cwt. 
 
 Rosin • - ton 
 
 Rues - - bale 
 
 i bale 
 
 Rushes 
 
 for polishing 
 Sac Satumi 
 Saffron 
 Safflower - • ton 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 14<. 6<i. per ton nelt. 
 Sago ... cwt. 
 Sal ammoniac - ton 
 
 Salop - - package 
 Saltpetre •• - ton 
 
 SalU - - cwt- 
 
 Samiiles which are by law 
 
 exempted from duty, free. 
 Saphora - - package 
 SaxsapariUa 
 
 ?2 
 Cuts 
 
 load 
 bundle 
 - cwt. 
 . cwt. 
 
 - cwt. 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 4*. 6d. per cwt. nett. 
 
 Reweighing bales 4 cwt. 
 and upwards Is. 6d. 
 per bale. 
 
 under 4 cwt., 1*. 
 Scaleboards - 100 bundles 
 Scammony - - cwt, 
 Seed, agricultural (or not 
 otherwise rated), 
 in bags 
 in casks - - ton 
 
 Seed lac - - cwt, 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 2*. per cwt. nett. 
 Senna - - cwt. 
 
 Shawls - small box or bale 
 large box or bale 
 Bhaja root, press-packed 
 ton 
 
 Shellac - - cwt. 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 2*. per cwt- nett- 
 Ships' stores warehoused 
 consolidated rate, 2 cwt. 
 and upwards - , 
 
 under 2 cwt. - package 
 under 28 lbs. - pack^e 
 if liquids • gallon 
 
 Shot ... ton 
 Shurf - - ton 
 Silk, raw or thrown, cwt 
 
 manufactured, 1 cwt. and 
 upwards - bale or case 
 under 1 cwt., small bale 
 or case 
 vaste, 4 cwt. & upw< 
 
 bale 
 
 2 and under 4 cwt. bale 
 1 and under 2 cwt. bale 
 Silk ribands 
 Skint, calf or kip, 4 cwt. 
 and upwards - bale 
 about 2 cwt. 
 
 middline bale 
 small bale 
 salted, wet - dozen 
 loose, dry - dozen 
 
 dry salted - dozen 
 
 Weighing and loading. Id 
 per dozen each charge 
 
 Rent 
 
 VlFeJk. 
 0 1 
 
 0 OJ 
 0 10 
 
 0 6 
 0 6 
 
 cask or case 
 ton, loo,se 
 100 barrels 
 bale 
 ibale 
 load 
 
 100 bundles 
 chest 
 
 bale or case 
 
 package 
 
 0 1 package 
 
 0 1 cwt. 
 
 0 10 100 bundles 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 OA 
 
 0 o| 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 lA 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 li 
 
 0 li 
 
 small box or bale 
 \axge box or bale 
 
 package 
 package 
 package 
 
 tun 
 ton 
 ton 
 
 bale above 2 cwC 
 bale under 2 cwt. 
 
 bale or case 
 
 0 li small bale or case 
 
 1 bale 
 1 bale 
 04 bale 
 1 lease 
 
 14 bale 
 
 OJ middling bale 
 Oi small bale 
 4 I 120 
 0,V dozen 
 4 1 120 skin« 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Per 
 
 Skins — continued. 
 
 Mogadore, dry salted, 
 loose - - dozen 
 cat or fitch, cask or case 
 chinchilli, bale, cask, or 
 case 
 
 deer, pun., hhd., or bale 
 case or pack 
 bundle 
 
 dog fish - - bale 
 
 elk, loose - - 120 
 furs, large bale, case, or 
 cask 
 
 middling bale, case, or 
 cask 
 
 small bale, case, or cask 
 goat, Trieste, bale about 
 8 cwt. 
 
 Hamburgh, bale of 100 
 skins and under 
 bale above 100 skins 
 Mogadore, above IdO 
 skins ■ - bale 
 above 60 to 100 skins, 
 bale 
 
 above 30 to 60 skins, 
 bale 
 
 of 30 and under, bale 
 loose - - dozen 
 hare and coney, -500 skins, 
 bale 
 
 under 500 skins, bale 
 large cask 
 middling cask 
 small cask 
 kangaroo . - dozen 
 kid or lamb, hhd., pun., 
 or bale 
 tierce 
 barrel 
 large bundle 
 ordinary bundle 
 small bundle 
 Iamb, Hamburgh or Co- 
 penhagen, under 200 
 skins - - bale 
 
 above 200 skins, bale 
 leopard, lion, and tiger, 
 each 
 
 nutria - . hogshead 
 barrel 
 
 about 150 dozen skins, 
 bale 
 
 about 100 dozen skins, 
 bale 
 
 about 50 dozen skins, 
 bale 
 
 opossum, about 50 skins, 
 bundle 
 
 Quebec or Hudson's Bay, 
 case, bale, or puncheon 
 large bundle 
 ordinary bundle 
 small bundle or keg 
 seal - . pipe 
 
 puncheon or hogshead 
 barrel 
 
 loose - .120 
 
 South Seas, wigs 
 middlings • 120 
 
 smalls and pups - 120 
 Greenland, loose . 120 
 sheep, Hamburgh bale 
 sheep or goat. 
 Cape - bale, 100 skins 
 75 skins 
 50 skins 
 25 skins 
 loose, dry - dozen 
 salted - - dozen 
 India, loose . 120 
 
 about 4 cwt. large 
 bale 
 
 small calf, Russia, 
 
 100 skins, bundle 
 swan, bale con tg. 150 skins 
 100 skins 
 
 V'icienia, loose 
 Smalts 
 Snake root 
 
 Soap 
 
 Soy 
 f in casks 
 
 120 
 
 . chest 
 • gallon 
 
 Spelter - - ton 
 
 Wharfage and shipping, 
 
 2s. per ton, when piled 
 
 on the quay. 
 Sponge - - cwt 
 
 Squills - . ton 
 
 dried, about 4 cwt. • case 
 about 2 cwt. - case 
 in bags • cwt. 
 
 I 6 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 2 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 0 
 
 2 0 
 1 6 
 1 0 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 1 6 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 0 
 0 9 
 0 6 
 
 0 li 
 
 1 6 
 1 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 1 6 
 1 0 
 1 6 
 5 0 
 0104 
 
 1 
 
 0 04 
 0 1 
 
 0 04 
 
 0 4 
 0 1 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 bale, cask, or case 
 
 pun., hhd., or bale 
 
 case or pack 
 
 bundle 
 
 bale 
 
 120 
 
 large bale, case, or cask 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 2 
 0 V 
 0 i 
 0 0^ 
 0 " 
 0 
 0 
 
 120 skins 
 120 skins 
 120 ikins 
 
 bale 
 bale 
 
 large cask 
 middling cask 
 small cask 
 bale 
 
 hhd., pun., or bale 
 
 tierce 
 barrel 
 
 large bundle 
 ordinary bundle 
 small bundle 
 
 each 
 
 hogshead 
 barrel 
 
 bale of 150 dozen 
 bale of 100 dozen 
 bale of 50 dozen 
 bundle 
 
 case, bale, or puncheon 
 large bundle 
 ordinary bundle 
 small bundle or keg 
 pipe 
 
 puncheon or hogshead 
 
 barrel 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 bale 
 
 bale 
 bale 
 bale 
 bale 
 
 bale 
 
 bundle 
 
 bale 
 
 bale 
 
 120 
 
 ton 
 
 J bale or barrel 
 
 tierce 
 
 bale 
 
 hogshead 
 
 case imder 6 cwt« 
 
 ton 
 
 chest 
 
 puncheon 
 
 hogshead 
 
 kit or barrel 
 
 ton, in casks 
 
 ISqrs. 
 
 case or bale under 1 cwt. 
 large case or task 
 ton 
 
 cEtse 
 rase 
 bag 
 
492 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Starch - - ton 
 
 Steel - - - ton 
 Stick lac - - cwt. 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 '2s. per cwt. nett. 
 Sticks, walking - 1,000 
 Stock fish. See Fish. 
 Stone, burr - - each 
 emery - - ton 
 
 Filling and weighing, 2s. 
 
 p-r ton. 
 lithographic - - ton 
 pumice - - ton 
 
 Turkey - - cwt. 
 Straw, manufactured, 
 
 under 1 cwt. - case 
 1 and under 2 cwt. case 
 2—3 cwt. case 
 
 3 — 4 cwt. case 
 
 4 cwt. and upwards, case 
 unmanufactured, 
 
 1 to 2 cwt. - - case 
 
 2 to 3 cwt. - - case 
 
 3 cwt. and upwards, case 
 Sugar, in casks - cwt. 
 
 in chests, 5 cwt.and above, 
 or in baskets of any size, 
 
 chests, mats, or bags under 
 
 5 cwt. - - cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of — 
 
 in casks, Sc/. cwt. nett ; 
 in chests, .0 cwt. and 
 above, or in baskets of 
 any size, Id. cwt. nett; 
 in chests, mats, or ba;;s, 
 under 5 cwt., 6<i. cwt. 
 nett. 
 
 candy - . cwt. 
 
 Sulphate of zinc - ton 
 
 Sumach - - ton 
 
 Tallow, in casks - ton 
 
 if sold from the landing 
 scale to the importer, ton 
 also to the buyer, - ton 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and 
 shipping, 2*. 6(/. per ton. 
 Wharfage and shipping, 
 2s. id. per ton. 
 
 in skins • - ton 
 MediteiTanean, Cape, or 
 American, packages un- 
 der 5 cwt. - ton 
 
 Tamarinds. See Preserves. 
 Tapes - - bale 
 
 Tapioca - - cwt. 
 
 Tar . barrel of 32 gallons 
 Tares - - quarter 
 
 Working out and deliver- 
 ing into craft, 5d. per qr. 
 Terra japonica - ton 
 
 sienna - - ton 
 
 Terde - - - ton 
 umbra and Pozzolani, ton 
 Weighing Pozzolani on 
 board, 1*. per ton. 
 Thread - - bale 
 
 Timber. See Wood. 
 Tin - . . ton 
 ore - - - ton 
 Tobacco.a consolidated rate, 
 
 see page 49 1. 
 Tongues, about 2 doz., bale 
 dozen 
 ■ tierce 
 casY 
 - chest 
 
 cwt. 
 
 loose 
 3 cwt. 
 1 to 2 cwt. 
 Tonquin beans 
 
 in casks 
 Tortoiseshell 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 is. Qd. per cwt. nett. 
 Tow, in bales - cwt. 
 
 Toys - large case or vat 
 middling case or vat 
 small case or vat 
 Trees, live plants, &c. 
 
 large case 
 small case 
 Turmeric - - cwt. 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 1». per cwt. nett. 
 Turpentine - - ton 
 Delivery by land or water, 
 ' .ad. per ton. 
 
 bale 
 
 Twine 
 Valerian 
 
 Valonia ... ton 
 l-'illing and weighing, 2s. 
 per ton. 
 
 t. d. 
 
 5 0 
 
 4 6 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 0 
 1 6 
 
 1 9 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 0 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 0 3 
 
 0 4i 
 5 0 
 3 9 
 3 6 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 8J 
 
 0 3 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 8i 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 6 
 1 0 
 1 0 
 
 0 4^ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 OA 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1, 
 
 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 li 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 5; 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 0^ 
 0 5 
 0 2 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 O.i 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 0.V 
 
 0 11 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 ton 
 ton 
 cwt. 
 
 Three working days 
 from the last day of 
 weighing at the landing 
 scale, will be allowed to 
 clear tallow from the 
 quays; no rent will be 
 charged for that period, 
 it so cleared : when not 
 so cleared, rent will be 
 charged from vessel 
 breaking bulk. 
 
 package under 3 cwt. 
 package above 3 cwt. 
 
 bale 
 barrel 
 100 barrels 
 quarter 
 
 bale 
 
 dozen 
 
 tierce 
 
 cask 1 to 2 cwt, 
 
 chest 
 
 cwt. 
 
 case 
 
 cwt. in casks 
 
 bale 4 cwt. and under 
 bale above 4 and under 
 
 6 cwt. 
 bale C cwt. and upwards 
 
 I or vat 
 
 middling case or vat 
 small case or vat. 
 
 chest 1 cwt. 2 qrs. 
 
 100 tierces 
 100 barrels 
 
 100 casks, from France 
 
 mat or bundle 
 
 bale 
 
 ton 
 
 Goods in: ported. 
 
 Per 
 
 Vanelloes, case or canister 
 Verdigris - - tor 
 Vermilion . . cwt 
 
 Vermicelli, case under 1 cwt 
 cwt 
 
 1 to 2 cwt. - - case 
 
 2 cwt. and upwards, cwt^ 
 
 Vinegar, pun. of 100 galls. 
 
 hogshead 
 tierce or barrel 
 \ cask 
 
 Cooper's attendance in 
 addition, hee Wines aaA. 
 Spirits. 
 
 If housed, includinj; at- 
 tendance at delivery, 
 puncheon 2s. ; hhd. Is. 
 bd. ; tierce Is. 
 Walnuts - - bushel 
 
 sealing 
 Weld 
 Whalebone 
 Whale fins 
 
 Wheat, &c. 
 Seed, heavy grain, &c. qr. 
 Oats, light grain, &c. qr. 
 
 *. d. 
 
 Filling and porterage 
 
 at landing, qr. 0 8 
 Ditto at delivery, qr. 0 2 
 Turning each time 
 
 100 qrs. 2 6 
 Screening, 100 qrs. 6 6 
 One turning to be 
 charged on screen • 
 
 Transferring 
 
 100 sacks 0 6 
 
 Peeling over heavy 
 grain - qr. 0 5 
 
 Ditto light - qr. 0 4^ 
 
 If imported in bags, 
 an additional charge 
 of ^d. per bag, for 
 cutting open and 
 shooting out. 
 
 Collecting empty 
 bags and packing 
 into bundles, bdle. 0 1 
 
 Loading or shipping, 
 
 bdle. 0 1 
 
 Working out and deliver- 
 ing into craft, 3d, per 
 quarter. 
 
 Whisks for brooms, 
 
 100 bundles 
 loose • • 1,000 
 bale 
 h bale 
 i bale 
 
 one eighth of a bale 
 manufactured - 100 
 Wine in casks, see csnsoli- 
 dated rate, p. 491, 
 in cases, see p, 494, 
 Wire, iron - . cwt. 
 
 plated or gilt . cwt. 
 Woad. See Weld. 
 AV'ool, sheep or lamb, 
 German - • cwt. 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 5s. per bale of about 
 4 cwt. 
 
 Unhousing or loading by 
 land or water, and 
 mending at delivery, 
 when charged under 
 consolidated rate, per 
 bale of about 4 cwt.. Is. 
 
 Australian . . cwt. 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 4r. per bale of about 2\ 
 cwt-, including landing, 
 wharfage, housing, and 
 12 weeks' rent from the 
 date of the ship breaking 
 bulk^k landing weiehts, 
 
 *. d. 
 g 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 0\ 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 n 
 
 Landing, 
 Wharfage, 
 Housing, and 
 Delivering, 
 
 In a 
 Ship. 
 s. d 
 0 9 
 0 8 
 
 3 0 
 3 0 
 1 lOJ 
 1 0 
 0 9 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 4^ 
 
 0 4i 
 
 In a 
 Barge. 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 box under 56 lbs. 
 case under 2 cwt. 
 case 2 and under 4 cwt. 
 case 4 and under 6 cwt. 
 case 6 cwt. and upwards 
 puncheon 
 hogshead 
 tierce or barrel 
 icask 
 
 100 sacks 
 100 bags 
 dozen bottles 
 ton 
 cwt. 
 
 Rent 
 per 100 
 
 fa.' 
 
 VVe^« 
 
 0 3 
 0 4 
 0 3 
 0 1^ 
 0 1 
 0 0^ 
 0 2 
 
 Rent com- 
 mences from 
 the last day 
 of landing. 
 
 Risk from 
 fire for ac. 
 count of pro- 
 prietors. 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 cask 3 to 5 cwt. 
 case or cask 1 cwt. 
 
 100 bundles 
 1,000 
 bale 
 h bale 
 4 bale 
 
 one eighth of a bale 
 100 
 
 bale under .'5 rurU 
 
 bale 3 to 4 cwt. 
 
 bale 4 tofi cwt. 
 
 bale 6 cwt. and upwards 
 
 bale under 3 cw*. 
 
 bale 3 to 4 cwt. 
 
 bale 4 to 6 cwt. 
 
 bale 6 cwt. and upwards 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 493 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Per 
 
 Wool — continued. 
 
 original warrants, certl 
 ficate of damage, or sur- 
 vey after landing, mend- 
 ing at landing, taring, 
 lotting, sampling, un- 
 piling for show, show- 
 ing, repiling, mending, 
 and filling in, reweigh- 
 ing, and any other usual 
 operation performed by 
 order of tlie importer. 
 
 Unhousing and loading by 
 land, or direct into ship 
 or lighter, and mending, 
 8</. per bale of about 
 24 cwt. 
 
 goats' - - cwt. 
 
 hair or beards I- cwt. ! 
 
 Spanish - - cwt. ; 
 
 or a consolidated rate of : 
 4s. per bale of about j 
 2 cwt., and 3s. per half 
 bale, including the same 
 operations as to Austra* 
 lian wool. 
 
 Unhousing, &c., 6^/. per 
 bale, ill. per half bale. 
 
 Vigonia - - cwt. 
 
 WooUen cloth. See Cloth. 
 Wood. For consolidated rate 
 on staves, deals, &c. see 
 below. 
 
 Barwood - 
 
 Boxwood 
 
 Brazil, large 
 
 Camwood - 
 
 Cocus wood 
 
 Ebony 
 
 Fustic, large 
 
 Lignum vitae 
 
 Logwood 
 
 Nicaragua, large 
 
 0 4i 
 
 Per 
 Week. 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 03 
 
 0 
 
 bale about 2 cwt. 
 bale above 2 cwt. 
 case 
 
 bale 2 cwt. 2 qrs. 
 
 ton ; if under cover, l^d. 
 per ton 
 
 Black ebony, from the 
 East Indies, and lig- 
 num vitae, rent after 
 1 year from vessel 
 breaking bulk. Id. per 
 ton per week. 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 - ton 
 
 Per 
 
 Wood — continued. 
 
 Unhousing or unpiling, 
 
 wharfage, and shipping, 
 
 2s. Gd. per ton. 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 
 6s. 6d. per ton. If under 
 
 cover, 7*. per ton. 
 Braziletto 
 Brazil wood, small 
 Fustic, young - ton 
 
 Nicaragua, small - ton 
 Sandal - - ton 
 
 Sassafras - - ton 
 Sapan - - ton 
 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 
 8«. per ton. 
 Jaccaranda - 
 Mahogany 
 Maple 
 llosewood 
 Satin 
 Tulip 
 Zebra 
 Bird's-eye 
 Cedar and other 
 
 woods charged 
 
 with duty, or sold 
 
 at - 
 or a consolidated rate of 
 
 7s. per ton. 
 Rummaging mahogany 
 
 timber, or other mea- 
 sured woods. Is. per ton 
 Delivering into decked 
 
 vessels, 6d. per ton extra 
 Yarn, in vats not above 20 
 
 cwt. - - ton 
 above 20 cwt. - ton 
 additional for every cwt 
 
 above 1 ton 
 in bales - - cwt. 
 Zatf'res - - ton 
 
 Zinc. See Spelter. 
 
 )ton 
 
 Per 
 Week. 
 
 Quantities, 
 
 ton 
 
 ton, after 1 year from 
 vesse Ibreaking bulk. 
 
 Consolidated Rates on "Wood Goods. — Transferring, One Penny per Load. 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Steves, 
 from America, 
 pipe 
 
 hogshead 
 barrel or heading 
 barrel logs 
 double barrel 
 from Quebec, 
 pipe logs - - 
 double pipe 
 single - 
 housliead logs - 
 double hogshead 
 single - 
 barrel logs 
 double barrel 
 single - 
 heading logs - 
 double heading 
 single 
 
 3 to 4 inches thick 
 2- 
 1 . 
 
 3 — 4 
 
 1 
 
 ? 
 
 1-1; 
 3-4- 
 
 2 - 2f 
 1 
 
 from Hambro' and Dantzic, 
 
 ipe 
 
 lOgsliead - - - — 
 
 barrel - ... — 
 
 heading - - - — 
 
 thin pjpe - 1 to 1 J inch thick — 
 hogsb.eaa - — — 
 
 barrel and heading — — 
 sorting, per 1,200 - - 7s. 
 
 Deals, standard hundred of 1 20 
 
 Russia and Prussia deals and deal ends, 
 
 1^ inch thick and 12 feet long - — 
 Swedish deals from ports in the Baltic, 
 2A and 3 inches thick, 14 feet long ~ 
 ljand2 _ 14 — — 
 
 Quebec, Norway, and Swedish deals 
 from ports iii the North Sea, 
 2i and 3 in. thick, 10 and 12 feet long — 
 to 14 — — 
 -16 - - 
 -18 — - 
 
 - 20 — - 
 
 Battens from all ports, 
 
 2^ and 3 in. thick, 10 and 12 feet long — 
 tol4 _ _ 
 
 - 16 _ _ 
 
 J and 3 inch half dealsj 
 deal ends 
 batten ends 
 paUng boards 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 18 
 
 50 
 0 125 
 0 [15 
 
 0 144 
 
 0 j22 
 0 13 
 0 144 
 0 1 22 
 0 |13 
 
 0 20 
 6 18 
 6 117 
 0 16 
 0 13 
 0 12 
 0 10 
 
 0 11 
 0 12 
 0 14 
 
 6 ! 8 
 9 9 
 0 10 
 0 4 
 
 c' 
 
 s. d. 
 
 5 0 
 4 0 
 3 0 
 
 14 8 
 
 7 4 
 
 20 0 
 
 10 8 
 
 6 0 
 16 8 
 
 8 4 
 
 15 0 
 12 6 
 10 0 
 10 0 
 10 6 
 10 0 
 8 0 
 
 Goods imported. 
 
 Deck deals, 
 
 3 in. thick, 30 to 40 feet long < 
 2^ _ 30-40 _ 
 
 2 — 50 — 40 — 
 
 3 — 20 — 30 — 
 2^ _ 20 — 30 — 
 2 — 20 — 30 — 
 
 Dunnage boards - - .120 
 
 Norway timber and balks 
 Spars under 6 and above 4 inches - 120 
 Kickers, under 4 inches, and 24 feet long 
 
 and upwards - - 
 under 24 feet long ~ - 
 Handspikes - - 
 Ufers, under 24 feet long 
 
 from 24 to 32 — - 
 
 32 feet lon^ and upwards 
 Sparholtz and 10 ells to add on^ third 
 
 to the rates on ufers. 
 Oars under 24 feet long 
 
 from 24 to 52 — 
 
 32 feet long and upwards 
 Lancewood spars - - - 
 
 Gun stocks - ... 
 Lathwood under 5 feet long - fethom 
 
 from 5 to 8 — 
 Fir staves .... 
 Treenails, large, above 2 feet long . 1,200 
 
 small, under 2 — - — 
 
 Wainscot logs, 7 feet long - - each 
 
 Clap boards 3 — - - — 
 
 6 — - - - — 
 Oak and other timber charged with duf j 
 by the load, 
 
 square, per load of 50 feet 1 
 round, per load of 40 feet J 
 including under cover, per load - 
 Deal plank and boards - - — 
 
 Firewood - - - fathom 
 
 Spokes, American . - - 1,200 
 
 Teakwood, planks of, not under cover - load 
 imder cover - — 
 
 Tumirg to measure for sale at Iandi%, oak 
 or other timber. Is. per load. 
 
 Sorting staves for freight, 7s. per 1,200. 
 Marking lots on limber piled in tiers, 4rf. 
 per lot. 
 
 il 
 lit 
 
 *. d. 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 71 
 
 0 6 
 
 12 6 
 
 40 
 
 25 0 
 
 12 0 
 
 6 0 
 
 25 0 
 
 40 0 
 
 66 0 
 
 a 
 
 SI 
 
 K 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 6 
 0 5 
 
 12 6 
 
 6 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 12 6 
 
 20 0 13 4 
 
 33 0 20 0 
 
 8 4 
 4 0 
 2 0 
 
494 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 Rates and Charges on Cigars and Tobacco. 
 
 Cigars. 
 
 Import rate ; including landing, whcirfage, bousing, weighing^rMJ ; and 
 examining, or sampling, ona side ... 
 
 both sides - - . . 
 
 Unpacking, weighing nett, repacking (when in bundles *), and coopering 
 • If loose, an extra charge is made. Garbling, or sorting, is also an 
 extra charge. 
 
 Examining, or resampling, one side .... 
 
 both sides ... 
 Unhouslng, wharfage, and shipping .... 
 Ditto, and loading ..... 
 Transferring ..... 
 Boxes or chests, not of the above specified weights, charged in proportion. 
 
 Chests 
 containing 
 ifrom 500 
 to 600 lbs. 
 
 Boxes containing 
 
 Above 300 
 and not 
 
 exceeding 
 400 lbs. 
 
 t. d. 
 
 4 0 
 
 5 0 
 4 0 
 
 Above 200 
 and not 
 
 exceeding 
 300 lbs. 
 
 2 9 
 
 3 9 
 2 9 
 
 1 0 
 
 2 0 
 2 0 
 0 9 
 0 2 
 
 .Above 100 ! 
 and not | 
 exceeding .1 
 200 lbs. 1 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Landing charges and coopering, weighing, sam- 
 pling, and making merchantable at landing 
 scale, per 100 lbs. nett - - - 
 
 On delivery for exportation, including cooper- 
 ing, per 100 lbs. nett 
 
 Ditto, if resampled, ditto ... 
 
 Unhousing and loading, per hogshead 
 
 Resampling ... 
 
 Weighed gross when an average tare is taken, 
 importer's charge - - - -_ 
 
 t. 
 
 d. 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 .1* 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Warrant, 
 
 1 hogshead 
 
 2 — . 
 
 3 — - 
 Any quantity exceeding 3 hogsheads, id. pei 
 
 hogshead additional 
 Transfer, per hogshead 
 
 Hates and Charges on Wines and Spirits. 
 
 The Landins and Delivery Rate includes landing, wharfage, laying up to gauge, watching, cooper's 
 attendance at landing, delivery, and while on the quay; the privilege of lying on the quay 14 days from 
 the vessel breaking bulk, or the first landing from craft ; original warrants, gauges, strengths of spirits, 
 and first sainples. 
 
 the landing and,Housmg Rate includes landing, wharfage, laying up to gauge, cooperage, cooper's 
 attendance at landing and housing, superintendence in the vaults for the first 18 months ; original 
 warrants, gauges, strengths of spirits, and first samples. This rate attaches after the expiration of one 
 calendar month from the ship breaking bulk, or the first landing from craft. 
 
 Note. — Merchants requiring wines or spirits to be housed within the time allowed, (one calendar 
 month,) are particularly requested to leave a written order to that effect, when this late will become im- 
 mediately chargeable. 
 
 The Consolidated Rate on Rum includes landing, wharfage, housing, cooper's attendance, coopering, 
 furnishing original warrants, gauges, strengths, first samples, and 12 weeks' rent from the ship breaking 
 bulk, or the first landing from the craft. 
 
 Rent attaches to Wines and Spirits, charged with the landing and delivery rate, after 14 days ; 
 charged with the landing and housing rate, from the ship breaking bulk, or the first landing from craft ; 
 on rum charged with the consolidated rate, after 12 weeKs from the ship breaking bulk. 
 
 Note. — Rent is in all cases calculated from the date of the ship breaking bulk, or the first landing from 
 craft, such day being included in the term. 
 
 Racking. — Forty-eight hours' notice wiU be given when racking is necessary, to enable the proprietor 
 to send his own casks, or they will be supplied by the company, at the prices stated herein. The proceeds 
 of the racked casks, when sold, will be paid to the proprietors, upon application, after deducting the 
 expenses of sale, &c. 
 
 No charge is made on wines and spirits racked in the vaults within 6 months from the period of the 
 landing and housing rate attaching, those for exportation or to be sent coastwise excepted. 
 
 Tasting is not permitted without a written order, the usual charge for which is not made, when the 
 tasting is by the proprietor or his clerk, (authorised to sign delivery and all other orders,) provided he is 
 not accompanied by any other person. 
 
 Coopering and Repairs, S(c. wlien required for the preservation of the property on landing, examin- 
 ation, or delivery, will be performed, uiiless directions are received from the proprietor to the contrary, 
 and charged at the rates specified herein ; and any work required to be performed, not particularly 
 described, will be charged at a proportionate rate. 
 
 Unsizeable casks, at the rate of 210 gallons per tun, for 2 pipes or 4 hogsheads. 
 
 Deficiencies. — The company make good the following deficiencies from whatever Cause arising, if the 
 casks are of oak timber, but not otherwise; also, provided the claim be made within 6 months from 
 delivery, viz : — 
 
 Exceeding one gallon each cask, for any period not exceeding one year. 
 
 Two gallons, if more than one and not exceeding two years, and in like proportion for each succeeding 
 year. 
 
 Payment of Charges. — Previous to warrants being issued, or the transfer or delivery of any wines 
 or spirits taking place, the landing and housing rate on the whole of the mark or parcel housed, 
 must be paid ; the rent and other charges on the quantity delivered or transferred. 
 
 Wines and Spirits in Cases. 
 
 
 Containing 6 Dozen. 
 
 Containing 3 Dozen. 
 
 
 Quarts. 
 
 Pints. 
 
 Quarts. 
 
 Pints, 
 
 Landing and delivery rate; including landing, wharfage, and loading - 
 Landing and housing rate ; including landing, wharfage, housing, ex- 
 amining, coopering, and first tasting - - - - 
 Examining and coojiering . . . - 
 K«nt, from the date of ship breaking bulk, per week 
 Wharfage and shipping, in addition to landing and delivery rate 
 Breaking out and opening for samples, or second tasting, nailing down, 
 and restowing ... - - 
 Lotting for public sale . . . • - 
 Unhousing and loading .... 
 Unhousing, wharfage, and shipping - - - 
 Dividing 6-do^cn cases into two 3-dozcn cases, including new ends, 
 uniiacking, and repacking, each new case 3«. 3rf. 
 
 Cases containing quantities not specified above, are cliargeable in the 
 like projiortion. 
 
 s. d. 
 1 6 
 
 3 6 
 1 6 
 0 3 
 0 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 1 0 
 1 6 
 
 *. d. 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 9 
 
 0 9 
 0 li 
 0 3 
 
 0 6 
 0 2 
 0 fi 
 0 9 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 9 
 
 0 9 
 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 6 
 0 2 
 0 6 
 0 9 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 0 
 0 6 
 0 1 
 0 2 
 
 0 4 
 0 2 
 0 4 
 0 6 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 495 
 
 Landing and delivery rate, on wines 
 and spirits, except rum, by land 
 carriage . . - 
 
 Shipping Trom the quay, additional - 
 
 guay rent, after 1 1 days, per week - 
 anding and housing rate, on port, 
 Lisbon, sherry, Malaga, Marsala, 
 Spanish red, Sicilian, and other 
 wines, in wood bound casks; and 
 sherry in iron bound casks - 
 Ditto, on Madeira, Cane, Tenerifte, 
 Canary, Marsala, Sicilian, and 
 other wines, in iron bound casks - 
 Ditto, on Claret - - - 
 
 Ditto, on suirits, (except rum) 
 Casks lanaed with less than the 
 standard number of iron hoops, 
 pay in addition, for each hoop de- 
 ficient * - 
 Delivery from the vault, and cooper's 
 attendance ... 
 If shipped, additional 
 Rent, from the ship breaking bulk, 
 per week ... 
 Cooper's superintendence commences 
 after ■• ■ • - 
 
 able 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aums. 
 
 Casks 
 per Tun 
 of 
 
 210 galls. 
 
 Flpei. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Thirds. 
 
 Casks. 
 
 Half Qr. 
 Casks. 
 
 Double. 
 
 Single. 
 
 Half. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 0 
 1 4 
 1 0 
 
 0 8 
 0 6 
 
 2 1 
 
 0 5 
 0 3i 
 
 1 9 
 0 5 
 0 3i 
 
 0 4 
 0 2i 
 
 0 3 
 0 2 
 
 2 6 
 0 6 
 0 4 
 
 1 6 
 0 4 
 0 3i 
 
 1 2 
 0 3 
 0 2^ 
 
 20 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 6 0 
 
 4 3 
 
 3 8 
 
 2 10 
 
 
 
 
 16 0 
 18 6 
 
 8 0 
 
 9 0 
 
 4 10 
 
 5 0 
 5 5 
 
 3 8 
 
 4 0 
 3 10 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 0 
 3 3 
 
 2 1 
 
 2 6 
 
 5 6 
 
 2 9 
 
 2 0 
 
 
 0 4?t 
 
 0 4i 
 
 0 4i 
 
 0 4i 
 
 0 4i 
 
 0 4 .i 
 
 0 4 .i 
 
 0 4i 
 
 5 0 
 1 4 
 
 2 6 
 0 8 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 5 
 
 1 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 1 1 
 0 4 
 
 0 9 
 0 3 
 
 1 9 
 10 6 
 
 1 2 
 0 4 
 
 0 10 
 0 3 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 2J 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 li 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 14 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 04 
 
 * The standard number of iron hoops is as follows : viz. port and Lisbon pipes, ten ; sherry butts, eight ; Spanish red, brandy, 
 ' Geneva ptmcbeons, tix ; aums, hogsheads, and smaller casks, six. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Consolidated rate - 
 
 Rent, after 12 weeks, per week - - 
 
 Cooper's superintendence, ditto .... 
 
 Landing and delivery rate .... 
 
 100 
 Gallons. 
 
 Butts. 
 
 Funs. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 t. d. 
 
 10 0 
 
 3 6* 
 
 *. d. 
 
 0 6 
 0 1 
 
 J. d. 
 
 0 4 
 0 1 
 
 i oo 
 
 1. d. 
 
 0 u 
 0 o| 
 
 Bottling. 
 
 
 
 Magnums. 
 
 Quarts. 
 
 Pints. 
 
 Consolidated rate for bottling, per dozen 
 
 ITnhousing, wharfage, Emd shipping, ditto 
 
 Rent to commence the day after bottling, per dozen per week 
 
 Ditto, per case of 6 dozen, ditto ... 
 
 
 s. d. 
 1 6 
 0 4 
 0 1 
 
 ». d. 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 3 
 0 04 
 
 t. d. 
 
 0 10 
 0 2 
 
 0 2 
 
 Vatting Rum. 
 
 Vattmg rum, including removing to the warehouse, drawing off, refilling, bunging up, the use of the vat for 
 one night, and delivery by land or water ..... 
 
 Ditto, for government contracts ..... 
 
 Ditto, when brought into the dock, including the foregoing operations, and the privilege of lying in the w 
 house 4 days ....... 
 
 Water for reducing the strength, per puncheon 
 
 Remaining in the vat the second night ..... 
 Ditto, more than two nights, per night . . > . 
 Coopering for exportation, on delivery, per puncheon .... 
 Ditto, per hogshead - ..... 
 Old iron hoops - - - - - - - 
 
 Surveys and Certificates. 
 
 Under 5 casks 
 
 Above 5 casks and under '. 
 
 20 and upwards 
 
 2 6 
 5 0 
 7 6 
 
 Cooperage, and Extra Rates and Charges on Wines and Spirits. 
 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Thirds. 
 
 Qr.'Casks. 
 
 Half 
 Qr. Casks. 
 
 
 
 Aums. 
 
 
 
 Double. 
 
 Single. 
 
 Half. 
 
 Trimming, including wood hoops, or 
 
 4 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 r. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bough ing off ... 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 fi 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 Driving .... 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 34 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Pitching and turning 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Breaking out for coopering 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 34 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 i^' 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Ditto for delivery, inspection, re- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dipping or racking, and laying up 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 again ... 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 G 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Filling up . - - 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Casing or uncasing 
 
 Ditto in canvass ... 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 .5 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 Ditto and cases ... 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Racking .... 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 Racking from the lees 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Ditto and repairing casks 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 Ditto and new casks in bond 
 
 27 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 Ditto and new casks on the quay 
 
 24 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 fi 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 Trimming cask cases 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sampling in the vault, or second sam- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pling on the quay - . . 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Tasting in store, each time 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 C 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Ditto at public sale ... 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Painting casks ... 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Painting the heads - . each 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Bark hoops . . . — 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Iron hoops • . . 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 New heads • - . _ 
 
 3 
 
 r, 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Overdrawing and brandying, or fining 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 b 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
498 
 
 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Packages landed in good condition. 
 
 200 lbs. 
 gross and 
 upwards. 
 
 130 lbs, 
 and under 
 '200 lbs, 
 Gross. 
 
 80 lbs. 
 and under 
 130 lbs. 
 Gross. 
 
 60 lbs. I 40 lbs. 
 and under and under 
 80 lbs. 60 lbs. 
 Gross. Gross. 
 
 30 lbs 
 and under 
 40 lbs. 
 Gross. 
 
 20 lbs. 
 and under 
 30 lbs. 
 Groa. 
 
 Under 
 20 lbs. 
 Gross. 
 
 Landing ; comprising landing, wharf- 
 age, weighing, furnishing landing 
 weights, and delivery by land from 
 the quay . . - 
 
 Additional, if shipped 
 
 Landing and housing ; comprising 
 landing, wharfage, weighing, fur- 
 nishing landing weights, housing, 
 and delivery by land 
 
 Additional, if shipped 
 
 Management ; comprising landing, 
 wharfage, weighing, and furnishing 
 landing weights, housing, ordinary 
 mending, tarring, placing on show, 
 extra warehouse room, and attend- 
 ance whilst on show, lotting, nailing 
 down, re-weighing and piling away, 
 and delivery by land 
 
 Additional, if shipped 
 
 Rent, per week - - 
 
 t. d. 
 
 0 7J 
 0 21 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 7 6 
 1 0 
 
 0 n 
 
 I 8 
 
 0 10 
 
 5 6 
 0 . 8 
 0 1 
 
 3 8 
 0 6 
 0 Oh 
 
 3 0 
 0 5 
 0 OJ 
 
 2 4 
 0 4 
 
 0 0| 
 
 2 0 13 
 
 0 3 0 2 
 0 0^ 0 0\ 
 
 0 0\ 
 
 Rates on Goods sent to the London Docks for Exportation. 
 Which, if cleared, may be shipped on board until sunset. 
 If goods be not shipped at the expiration of 3 weeks, rent is charged \ipon them. Goods not enume- 
 rated in the following Table, are charged by the package, see post. 
 
 Goods for Exportation. 
 
 Acids 
 
 Per 
 
 • middling case 
 small case 
 Almonds, in serons ton 
 in boxes or barrels cwt. 
 
 Alum - - ton 
 
 Anchors or grapnels, ton 
 Anchovies, case containing 
 8 barrels 
 double barrel 
 keg or single barrel 
 Aniseed - - chest 
 ^ chest 
 
 Annotto - small basket 
 
 Axle trees 
 
 Baggage 
 
 each"^ 
 
 package-^ 
 
 Bagging, about 2 qrs., roll 
 Bark - - - chest 
 J chest or seron 
 tierce 
 small cask 
 sack 
 
 jug or barrel^ 
 - each 
 
 Barley 
 
 Barrows 
 
 Beef and pork 
 
 eachi 
 
 Beer 
 
 erce 
 barrel 
 kilderkin 
 barrel 
 hogshead 
 butt or puncheon 
 bottled, in casks, doz. bott. 
 in cases, bottles, or 
 hampers, doz. bottles 
 Bees' wax, in casks ■ ion 
 5 to 6 cwt. bale 
 about 4 cwt. bale 
 
 Bellows, smiths' 
 
 - pair< 
 
 each-: 
 
 Blacking 
 
 - firkin 
 barrel 
 small cask 
 from .0 to 7 cwt. cask 
 about 8 cwt. cask 
 9 cwt. cask 
 from 10 to 1.5 cwt. cask 
 15 and under 20 cwt. c.isk 
 about 20 cwt. cask 
 
 Rent after Three Weeks. 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 8 
 
 4 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 j05 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 IJ 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 1 
 to 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 0^ 
 
 0 1 
 
 to 
 
 0 6 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 n 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 3 
 to 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 1 
 to 
 
 0 3 
 
 8 0 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 n 
 
 0 2' 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 0; 
 
 to 
 
 1 0 
 0 0^ 
 0 1 
 0 1^ 
 
 Per 
 middling case 
 small case 
 ton 
 \no 
 
 luO half ditto 
 
 {barrel about 
 2 cwt. 2 qrs. 
 .j or J barrel 
 large bale 
 small ditto 
 f^balefrom3qrs 
 I to 1 cwt. 2 qrs 
 ton 
 ton 
 
 case 
 score 
 chest 
 
 ^package 
 
 100 rolls 
 chest 
 
 ^ chest or seron 
 tierce 
 small cask 
 sack 
 
 >score 
 
 ^each 
 
 100 tierces 
 
 100 barrels 
 
 kilderkin 
 
 barrel 
 
 hogshead 
 
 butt or puncheon 
 
 dozen bottles 
 
 doze.i bottles 
 
 ^each 
 
 firkin 
 
 barrel 
 
 small C£ 
 
 cask 
 
 cask 
 
 cask 
 
 cask 
 
 cask 
 
 ca-,k 
 
 Goods for Exportation. 
 
 Per 
 
 Bottles, empty glass, con- 
 taining from 15 to 20 
 dozen - - crate 
 from 2 1 to 29 dozen, crate 
 30 to 44 dozen, crate 
 45 to 60 dozen, crate 
 
 small basket or box-j^ 
 
 Bran - - - . sack 
 Bread - - - bag 
 Bricks - - 1,200 
 
 if shipped by crew, 1,200 
 Brooms, birch, 1 doz. bundle 
 2 dozen bundle 
 hair or house bundle 
 Bullion - large package 
 small package 
 Butter - tub or firkin 
 J cask 
 
 Cables, hemp - ton 
 chaun - - ton 
 
 Camphor - - chest 
 Candles, less than 28 lbs. box 
 28 lbs. to I cwt. box 
 above 1 cwt. box 
 Canes, common rattan,!, 000 
 Cannons, under 2 tons, each 
 under 4 toni * - each 
 * Larger in proportion. 
 Canvass ... bolt 
 
 Cart wheels 
 
 pair<! 
 
 Cassia 
 
 under 1 cwt 
 Cement 
 
 Casks, empty sugar hhd. 
 
 butt or puncheon 
 hogshead 
 barrel 
 - chest 
 ^ chest 
 barrel 
 J barrel 
 Chaff cutters according to) 
 size - eachl 
 
 Chairs, single or mahogany 
 each 
 
 common, bundle contain- 
 ing 2 
 
 other bdls. in proportion. 
 Chaises with 4 wheels, each 
 2 wheels, each 
 Chalk, in casks - ton 
 Chariots . each 
 
 Cheese, loose - cwt. 
 
 hamper 
 about 1 cwt. basket 
 2 qrs. basket 
 Cider - - pipe 
 
 hogshead 
 
 Cinnamon - single bale 
 double bale 
 3 or 4 bolts, package 
 6 bolts, package 
 case or chest 
 i chest 
 
 Rent after ThreeWeeks 
 
 
 Per 
 Week. 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 
 *. d. 
 
 Per 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 2 
 
 crate 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 2* 
 
 crate 
 
 1 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 crate 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 crate 
 
 0 1 
 
 
 
 to 
 0 2 
 
 jooj 
 
 sm. basket or box 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 sack 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 0 ,^ 
 
 bag 
 
 7 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 1,200 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 1,200 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 bundle 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 of 
 
 bundle 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 0^ 
 
 bundle 
 
 1 0 
 
 
 
 0 8 
 
 
 
 0 2 
 
 3 0 
 
 100 firkins or tub 
 
 0 4 
 
 6 0 
 
 100 quarter casks 
 
 3 4 
 
 0 8 
 
 ton 
 
 3 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 ton 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 1^ 
 
 chest 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 box 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 box 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 W box 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 1,000 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 G 
 
 each 
 
 0 1 
 
 1 3 
 
 100 bolts 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 |each 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 j-pair 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 1.^ 
 
 sugar hogshead 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 butt or puncheon 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 hogshead 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 score 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 2 
 
 chest 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 i- chest 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 barrel 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 4 barrel 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 >each 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 O.J 
 
 each 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 0}j 
 
 bundle 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 10 
 
 each 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 each 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 ton 
 
 8 6 
 
 1 0 
 
 each 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 hamper 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 basket 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 basket 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 pipe 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 2 
 
 hogshead 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 2 
 
 single bale 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 double bale | 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 package i 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 8 
 
 package | 
 
 I 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 case or chest 
 
 0 S 
 
 0 2 
 
 4 chcsi 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 497 
 
 Goods for Exportation. 
 
 Cloves - - small baff 
 about 2 cwt. bag 
 6 or G cwt. ca.sk 
 Coaches, staf^e - each 
 private • each 
 
 Coals - - hogshead 
 Coffee . bag 
 small bale 
 3 cwt. 2 qrs. to 4 cwt. bale 
 6 cwt. bale 
 
 fans 
 
 each< 
 
 engines or shellers, each'^ 
 
 Coke - chaldron 
 Colours, in casks - ton 
 Copper, in casks, 4 to 6 cwt. 
 
 ton 
 
 in cases, 5 to 7 cwt. case 
 7 to 8 cwt. case 
 9 to 10 cwt. case 
 bottoms, 1 cwt. bottom 
 i cwt. bottom 
 bolts . 2 cwt. bundle 
 sheets, loose ton 
 cakes • ton 
 
 Cork 
 Corks 
 
 bag or cask.* 
 
 Com, in sacks - each 
 Cotton, East India - bale 
 J bale 
 
 American - - bale 
 twiat, under 2 cwt. 2 qrs. 
 
 bale 
 
 presses, wooden - each 
 iron . - each 
 Cows, shipped by machine 
 each 
 
 Cowries ... ton 
 Currants - - butt 
 pipe 
 carotel 
 
 Dampers, iron • each-|^ 
 
 Dogs - - each 
 
 Drips and pots - 1,000 
 Drugs, imder 2 cwt. 2 qrs. 
 
 chest 
 
 2 cwt. 2 qrs. to 5 cwt. 
 
 chest 
 
 crate< 
 
 Earthenware 
 
 Engines, fire 
 
 gMden 
 Felt - 
 Fire-arms 
 
 Fire or flagstones 
 Fish, loose 
 
 each< 
 eacl 
 
 - - bale| 
 - large chest 
 case or chest 
 ton 
 
 ton 
 
 barrel or box< 
 
 Flax - - - 
 
 1 cwt. 2 qrs. bag 
 Flints, under 1 cwt. keg 
 Flour - - - barrel 
 Furniture in packages, ac- 
 cording to size. 
 Ginger - - -ton 
 Glass - box or ^ box 
 crate 
 J crate 
 butt or hogshead 
 pipe or puncheon 
 tierce 
 
 small cask^ 
 
 Rent after Three M'eeks. 
 
 5 0 
 
 3 4 
 
 4 0 
 0 2 
 
 to 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 4 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 8 
 10 0 
 20 0 
 
 8 6 
 
 3 4 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 6 
 1 0 
 0 4 
 
 to 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 6 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 to 
 
 1 4 
 
 6 0 
 to 
 
 10 0 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 8 
 to 
 
 1 0 
 1 4 
 
 0 8 
 to 
 
 1 0 
 
 3 4 
 
 5 0 
 0 3 
 
 to 
 
 0 4 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 0 
 0 8 
 
 0 4 
 |o 6 
 
 1 0 
 1 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 0 
 0 1 
 
 to 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 n 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 2 
 
 1 0 
 1 6 
 
 plate 
 
 small case 
 middling case 
 large case 
 
 Grates and stoves 
 
 each-< 
 
 Grindstones, for every six 
 
 inches in diameter 
 Gritts - - firkin 
 Gum . . seron 
 
 chest 
 
 Guns. See Fire-armi. 
 great. See Camunu. 
 
 Per 
 
 ^cach 
 
 s.nall bag 
 
 bag 
 
 cask 
 
 each 
 
 each 
 
 hogshead 
 ton 
 
 ^each 
 
 chaldron 
 ton 
 
 ton 
 ton 
 
 bundle 
 ton 
 
 including weigh- 
 ing 
 ton 
 ton 
 ton 
 
 ^bag or cask 
 
 each 
 bale 
 ^ bale 
 bale 
 
 bale 
 each 
 each 
 
 ton 
 
 butt 
 pipe 
 carotel 
 
 0 3 
 e 6 
 to 
 
 0 9 
 0 3 
 0 2 
 to 
 
 0 3 
 0 3 
 0 2 
 to 
 
 0 3 
 0 3 
 0 8 
 0 0 
 to 
 
 0 1 
 0 8 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 0 10 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 to 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 2 
 to 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 0^ 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 ton 
 
 > barrel or box 
 
 cwt. cask 
 8 to 9 cwt. cask 
 9 to 12 cwt. cask 
 12 to 15 cwt. cask 
 16 to 17 cwt. cask 
 
 Harps or harpsichords,) 
 ccording to size, each^ 
 
 Harrows - - pair 
 Hats - . case 
 
 Hat boxes - - each 
 Hay - load of 36 trusses 
 bale of 3 trusses 
 truss 
 
 Hemp - - ton 
 
 screws • each 
 
 Herrings - - barrel 
 Hides or skins. East India, 
 ' -■■ 100 
 each 
 100 
 bundle 
 bundle 
 bag 
 pocket 
 
 Horn, tips and plates, hhd. 
 Horses - - each 
 
 cob or pony • eacli 
 Indian rubber - barrel 
 Indigo - - seron 
 about 3 qrs. ^ chest or 
 box 
 chest 
 
 Iron, bars and unmanu- 
 factured - - ton 
 hoops - 1 cwt- bundle 
 3 qrs. bundle 
 2 qrs. bundle 
 pots - . - 100 
 
 3 
 
 ton 
 
 box or J box 
 crate 
 ^ crate 
 butt or hogshead 
 pipe or puncheon 
 tierce 
 
 ^small cask 
 
 small case 
 middling case 
 large case 
 
 ton 
 
 seron 
 
 chest 
 
 11 
 
 lU-nt after Three Weekj 
 
 Goods for Exportation.^ 
 
 Gypsum 
 Hams, loose 
 
 Hardware, .5 to 
 
 Per 
 ■ hogshead 
 puncheon 
 - each 
 
 - cask-i 
 
 5 to 7 lbs. 
 
 10 to 12 lbs. 
 
 ox and cow 
 Hoops, wood 
 
 truss 
 Hops 
 
 tire 
 
 bundle-^ 
 
 heavy manufactured ma- 
 chinery, mill work, &c. 
 &c., pieces above 1 ton 
 ton 
 
 under 1 ton - ton 
 ♦scrap, loose - ton 
 in bags - . ton 
 hurdles - . each 
 * Weighing Is. 6d. per ton. 
 Ivory - - . cwt. 
 Knives, Malay - small cask 
 Lac dye - 3 cwt. chest 
 about 1 cwt. 2 qrs. chest 
 
 Lace 
 
 packag( 
 
 4 
 
 Laths - - bundle 
 
 Lead, in pigs - . ton 
 black - 40 lbs. cask 
 shot, bars, or rolls, ton 
 Lime - - puncheon 
 hogshead 
 
 small cask-j 
 
 Logwood - ton 
 Mace and nutmegs, small 
 cask 
 
 Mangles - - each 
 Manure, about 1 ton cask 
 ]\Ielting pots - - ton 
 
 Mill cases 
 
 - each 
 
 gudgeons - - eac 
 stones, about 1 ton each 
 Mineral brown (in turpen- 
 tine casks) ■ 3 cwt. barrel 
 Molasses - - puncheon 
 Mother-o'-pearl shells, ton 
 Mules ... each 
 Musk • • - box 
 Mustard - - keg 
 not exceeding 2S lbs. keg 
 Nails - - 2 qrs. keg 
 1 cwt. 2 qrs. keg 
 1 cwt. 2 qrs. to 2 cwt. cask 
 ton 
 
 Nankeens, not exceedhig 
 1 cwt. case or chest 
 Negro clothing, puncheon 
 Nutria skins - 4 cwt. bale 
 5 cwt. bale 
 Oakum - 2 qrs 
 Oil cake 
 
 hogshead 
 puncheon 
 - tun 
 
 3 to 7 gallons, jug 
 
 Oil 
 
 1 Wharf 
 1 and 
 Shippi 
 
 Per 
 Week. 
 
 Ouant'tics &c 
 
 *. <I. 
 
 *. d. 
 
 Per 
 
 1 b 
 
 0 4 
 
 hogshead 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 2 
 
 puncheon 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 6 
 
 score 
 
 0 (i 
 
 0 1 
 
 7 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 J.ca.sk 
 
 1 G 
 
 0 4 
 
 s 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 2i 
 
 cask 
 
 1 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 cask 
 
 1 G 
 
 0 4 
 
 cask 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 cask 
 
 2 G 
 
 0 G 
 
 cask 
 
 2 G 
 
 0 G 
 
 ) 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 >each 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 pair 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 case 
 
 0 2 
 
 
 
 4 0 
 
 7 
 
 
 0 4 
 
 yo 3 
 
 score trusses 
 
 0 2 
 
 S 
 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 8 
 
 ton 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 each 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 barrel 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 C 
 
 100 
 
 
 0 6 
 
 100 
 
 6 0^ 
 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 score bundles 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 3 
 
 score bundles 
 
 0 8 
 
 
 bag 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 pocket 
 
 1 4 
 
 0 4 
 
 hogshead 
 
 10 0 
 
 
 
 5 6 
 
 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 1^ 
 
 barrel 
 
 
 0 l| 
 
 seron 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 1^ 
 
 2 chest or box 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 2 
 
 chest 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 ton 
 
 0 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 5>0 6 
 
 ton 
 
 0 2 
 
 i 
 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 9 
 
 100 
 
 0 2 
 
 l 
 
 
 10 
 
 >0 OJ 
 
 bundle 
 
 0 4 
 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 ton 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 ton 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 ton 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 ton 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 5 
 
 score 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 cwt. 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 2 
 
 small cask 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 chest 
 
 
 0 IJ 
 
 chest 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 4 
 
 7 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 V- pack age 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 9 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 1 6 
 
 100 bundles 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 ton 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 cask 
 
 3 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 ton 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 3 
 
 puncheon 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 hogshead 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 7 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 >small cask 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 2 
 
 i 
 
 2 3 
 
 0 6 
 
 ton 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 2 
 
 small cask 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 each 
 
 2 G 
 
 0 4 
 
 cask 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 G 
 
 ton 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 7 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 >each 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 i ^ 
 
 
 0 3 
 
 each 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 each 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 ton 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 3 
 
 puncheon 
 
 a 0 
 
 0 8 
 
 ton 
 
 2 6 
 
 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 2 
 
 box 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 keg 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 0, 
 
 keg 
 
 0 2 
 
 3 0 100 kegs 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 cask 
 
 
 0 6 
 
 ton 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 V 
 
 case or chest 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 puncheon 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 2 
 
 bale 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 bale 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 0, 
 
 bundle 
 
 3 6 
 
 0 G 
 
 ton 
 
 1 C 
 
 0 4 
 
 hogshead 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 3 
 
 1 puncheon 
 
 5 6 
 
 0 8 
 
 ; tun 
 
 0 2 
 
 
 
 0 4 
 
 VO 04 gallon 
 
 0 G 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 K 
 
498 
 
 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (LONDON). 
 
 Goods for Exportation. 
 
 Per 
 
 Oil — continued. 
 
 11 to 12 gallons, jug 
 chest 
 i chest 
 
 Organs 
 
 each-^ 
 
 Osnaburgs, loose - piece 
 Ox bows or yokes, 1 dozen 
 bundle 
 
 Oxen ... each 
 Paint, in small kegs - ton 
 in casks containing do., ton 
 Paper ... bale 
 small bale 
 Pearl barley, 1 cwt. barrel 
 or kei 
 
 Pepper 
 
 bag 
 
 Rent after Three Weeks, 
 
 Perry - - butt 
 
 Piano-fortes, grand, each 
 cabinet . - each 
 square - - each 
 
 Pickles - large package 
 middling package 
 small package 
 Pigs ... each 
 Pipeclay, loosa . ton 
 hogshead 
 puncheon 
 
 small cask.|^ 
 
 Pipes, empty - each 
 Pitch - - . barrel 
 Plants, about 5 cwt. package 
 middling package 
 small package 
 Ploughs - . each 
 Potatoes, about 1 cwt. 
 
 basket 
 3 bushels, sack 
 ton 
 
 Quicksilver - iron bottle 
 Rags - - 3 cwt. bag 
 Rice . . . bag 
 Rigging ... cwt. 
 Rosin . • barrel 
 Satflower, under 2 cwt. 
 2 qrs. - - bale 
 above 2 cwt. 2 qrs. bale 
 Sago, in boxes about 1 cwt. 
 
 box 
 
 Sail-cloth - . bolt 
 Saltpetre, rough, in bags, 
 ton 
 
 refined, 1 cwt. barrel 
 above 1 to 2 cwt. cask 
 10 cwt. . - cask 
 Saws ... bundle 
 Seed, clover or other bale 
 Seed lac, 2 cwt. to 2 qrs. bag 
 Sheep - - each 
 
 Shellkc, in bags or bundles, 
 ton 
 
 Skins - la to 20 cwt. cask 
 15 cwt. cask 
 vat 
 hoshead 
 tierce 
 
 goat and Mogadore, about 
 . bale 
 large bale 
 hogshead 
 puncheon 
 id under, 
 small box 
 57 and under 112 lbs. box 
 
 1 and under 2 cwt. chest 
 
 2 and under 3 cwt. chest 
 
 3 to 5 cwt. - • chest 
 
 2 cwt. 2 qrs. 
 
 Slates 
 
 Soap, 56 lbs. 
 
 Sofas 
 Spades 
 
 • each-^ 
 
 1 doz. bundle 
 
 2 doz. bundle 
 Spelter ... ton 
 Spirits, see Wiitet. 
 Starch . 1 cwt. box 
 
 under 1 cwt. box 
 Staves, wine hogshead, pack 
 • pipe, leager, or sugar 
 hogshead - pack 
 Steel, in bars - . ton 
 in bundles, 1 cwt. bundle 
 
 Stovrs and grates each.| 
 
 Straw ... truss 
 
 0 3 
 
 10 0 
 
 8 0 
 
 3 4 
 
 Quantities, &c, 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 6 
 2 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 0 
 1 0 
 
 to 
 
 1 6 
 0 4 
 
 0 8 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 4 
 
 3 4 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 6 
 to 
 
 1 0 
 0 1 
 
 0 Oi gallon 
 
 0 04 chest 
 
 0 0| 1 chest 
 
 0 Gj-^ 
 
 to >each 
 
 1 0 ! \ 
 
 0 0^ piece 
 
 0 01 bundle 
 
 1 0 ton 
 
 0 6 I ton 
 
 0 2 bale 
 
 0 li small bale 
 
 0 1 ! barrel or keg 
 
 0 o| 7 ^ 
 
 to 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 4 
 
 1 0 
 0 9 
 0 6 
 0 2 
 0 1 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 0^ 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 li 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 o; 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 i; 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 to 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 butt 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 
 large package 
 middling pckge. 
 small package 
 
 ton 
 
 hogshead 
 puncheon 
 
 >small cask 
 
 each 
 
 100 barrels 
 package 
 middling pckge. 
 small package 
 each . 
 
 each 
 bag 
 
 bale 
 bale 
 
 ton 
 barrel 
 cask 
 cask 
 
 score bundles 
 bale 
 
 vat 
 
 hogshead 
 tierce 
 
 bale 
 
 large bale 
 hogshead 
 puncheon 
 
 small bos 
 
 box 
 
 chest 
 
 chest 
 
 chest 
 
 ^each 
 
 bundle 
 bundle 
 ton 
 
 box 
 box 
 pack 
 
 pack 
 
 ton 
 
 ton 
 
 Goods for Exportation. 
 
 Per 
 
 Sugar - - mat or bag 
 4 or 5 cwt. mat or ba^k. 
 boxes or chests - ton 
 bastard, not exceed. 2 cwt. 
 2 qrs. . . . barrel 
 under 8 cwt. . tierce 
 12 and under 14 cwt. 
 
 cask 
 
 14 cwt. and upwards, 
 cask 
 
 refined - hogshead 
 12 andund. 14 cwt. cask 
 14 _ 18 cwt. cask 
 18 — 24 cwt. cask 
 
 Refined, packed in hogs- 
 heads or vats, to be housed Per 
 for exportation. hhd. 
 
 Housuig 
 
 Weighing or re-weighing 
 Unhousing, -wharfage, and 
 
 shipping 
 Ren t - - per week 
 
 Tallow . . ton 
 
 Tar . . - barrel 
 Tea - . chest 
 h chest 
 I chest 
 small box 
 Tiles, Welch, about 1 foot 
 square • - 100 
 Tin - . . box 
 barrel 
 block 
 
 Tombstones . each 
 Tripe ... keg 
 
 Turmeric 
 
 Turpentine 
 
 bag 
 
 carboy 
 
 Varnish - - barrel 
 Vermilion, 2 to 3 cwt. 
 
 chest or package 
 Vinegar . ■ puncheon 
 hogshead 
 barrel or ^ hogshead 
 Vitriol, carboys - gallon 
 middling case 
 small case 
 
 Wagons - - each I 
 
 Whalebone - 5 cwt. bale 
 
 Wheels, according to 
 
 size,3 
 pair| 
 
 Wheelbarrows . each 
 Wine, bottled, in casks, 
 dozen bottles 
 in cases - dozen bottles 
 Spirits, pipe, puncheon, 
 or butt 
 hogshead 
 No charge is made for 
 wharfage of wines and 
 spirits landed at the docks, 
 and carted to the export 
 quay, except for " strik- 
 ing and shipping," viz. 
 pipe, butt, and pun- 
 cheon - - Sd. 
 hogshead . . 4(/. 
 Wire, iron, 1 cwt. 2 qrs. 
 
 bundle 
 
 Wood - . ton 
 
 When not cleared the 
 same day as sent down, 
 
 is charged, 
 ood hoops . bundle 
 truss bundle 
 Wool, English, 3 cwt. to 
 3 cwt. 2 qrs. - bale 
 3 cwt.2 qrs. to Scwt.bale 
 Spanish - 1 cwt. bag 
 2 cwt. bag 
 2 cwt. 2 qrs. bag 
 German, under 4 cwt. bag 
 4 to 6 cwt. bag 
 6 cwt. and upwards, bag 
 
 Shipg. 
 /. d 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 1 0 
 0 8 
 0 6 
 0 4 
 
 2 0 
 0 4 
 0 6 
 0 2 
 5 0 
 0 2 
 0 Oi- 
 
 to 
 
 0 2 
 0 6 
 to 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 4 
 0 8 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 3 0 
 
 2 0 
 7 6 
 
 to 
 
 10 0 
 
 1 0 
 5 0 
 0 4 
 
 Rent after Three Weeks. 
 
 0 Oi 
 0 
 0 
 
 W^o'f 
 
 0 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1< 
 
 0 1' 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 OA 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 0\ 
 
 U 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 1 0 
 0 1 
 
 to 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 0^ 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 Quantities, 6ec. 
 
 Per 
 
 mat or bag , 
 mat or basket ' 
 ton 
 
 barrel 
 tierce 
 
 hogshead 
 cask 
 cask 
 cask 
 
 ton 
 
 100 barrels 
 chest 
 ichest 
 I chest 
 small box 
 
 100 
 
 box 
 
 barrel 
 
 score 
 
 each 
 
 keg 
 
 ton 
 
 •carboy 
 barrel. 
 
 chest or package 
 
 uncheon 
 
 lOgshead 
 barrel or J hhd. 
 gallon 
 
 middling case 
 small case 
 
 -each 
 
 pair 
 each 
 
 dozen bottles 
 dozen bottles 
 
 nipe, pun. or butt 
 hogshead 
 
 3 score bundles 
 5 score bundles 
 
 * N. B. — " Persons sending to the dock, for shipment, aqua fortis, oil of vitriol, or other goods of a 
 dangerous quality, and neglecting to distinctly mark, or state, the nature of such goods on the outside 
 of the package, or otherwise give due notice thereof to the superintendent, aresubjct t to a penalty of 20/." 
 — (See act 9 Geo. 4. c. 116. ^ 132.) 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (EAST INDIA;. 
 
 499 
 
 When charged by the Package. 
 
 
 1 
 
 tD 
 C 
 
 Rent after Three Weeks. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Rent after Three Weeks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Goods for Exportation. 
 
 
 
 
 Goods for Exportation. 
 
 PI 
 
 Per 
 Week. 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 111 
 ? ijj 
 
 Per 
 Week. 
 
 Quantities, &c. 
 
 Per 
 
 Bags, small - - each 
 Bales, small - - each 
 middling - - each 
 large, 5 and under 7 cwt. 
 
 each 
 
 7 and under 8 cwt. each 
 
 8 and luider 1 2 c w t . each 
 12 and under 14 cwt. 
 
 each 
 
 14 and under 16 cwt. 
 
 each 
 
 16 cwt. and upwards 
 each 
 
 E. I. goods, single, each 
 double . - - each 
 half bales repacked, 
 each 
 
 Barrels ... each 
 Baskets, small . each 
 middling - - each 
 large - - each 
 Bottles or jars, 1 to 3 gallons, 
 each 
 
 4 to 7 gallons - each 
 7 to 10 gallons • each 
 11 to 12 gallons - each 
 
 Boxes • - each< 
 
 L 
 
 Bundles, large - each 
 middling - - each 
 small - • each 
 
 Cases, small - - each 
 middling • - each 
 large, 5 to 6 cwt- - each 
 6 to 7 cwt. - each 
 
 d. 
 0 4 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 4 
 
 0 6 
 0 6 
 0 2 
 0 4 
 0 6 
 
 0 2 
 0 4 
 0 6 
 0 8 
 0 2 
 to 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 0 
 0 9 
 0 6 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 0 
 1 4 
 1 6 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 2 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 |o Oi 
 
 J 
 
 0 2 
 0 3 
 
 0 14 
 0 l| 
 0 OA 
 0 1 
 0 li 
 
 |ooi 
 
 0 Oi 
 to 
 
 0 2 
 0 3 
 T 2i 
 H li 
 0 2 
 0 3 
 0 3 
 0 Oi 
 
 Per 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 
 each 
 
 cwt. 
 
 each 
 each 
 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 
 gallon 
 
 ^each 
 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 eacli 
 each 
 each 
 cwt. 
 
 Per 
 
 Cases — continued. 
 extra large, 7 to 8 cwt. each 
 9 to 12 cwt. . each 
 above 12 cwt. - each 
 Casks, l>utts - - each 
 hogslieau - each 
 pil)e or puncheon - each 
 tierce or wine hhd. each 
 
 small - - each|^ 
 
 Chests, small - each 
 middling - - each 
 larf,'e . - each 
 
 Hogsheads, not exceeding 
 8 or 9 cwt. • each 
 
 Jars, see Bottlet. 
 
 Kegs - - each< 
 
 Packs, vats, &c. • bale< 
 
 Pipes ... each 
 Portmanteaus, ord. size each 
 Other sizes will be 
 charged in proportion, and 
 rent one fourth of the rate 
 
 Puncheons • - ''each 
 
 Tierces . - each-|^ 
 
 Trunks . • each 
 
 Trusses - - each^ 
 
 1. d. 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 0 
 1 6 
 1 2 
 1 4 
 0 8 
 0 4 
 
 to 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 0 
 1 4 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 2 
 to 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 9 
 to 
 
 1 0 
 1 4 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 4 
 
 0 8 
 to 
 
 1 0 
 0 6 
 
 0 6 
 to 
 
 1 0 
 
 ». d. 
 
 jooi 
 
 0 4 
 0 3 
 0 4 
 0 2 
 0 1 
 to 
 0 li 
 0 2 
 0 3 
 0 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 0\ 
 to 
 
 0 1 
 0 1 
 to 
 0 2 
 0 4 
 0 li 
 
 0 4 
 0 2 
 
 to 
 0 3 
 0 14 
 0 6 
 
 to 
 0 li 
 
 Per 
 
 cwt. 
 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 
 l^each 
 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 
 eaih 
 
 >each 
 
 >bale 
 
 each 
 each 
 
 each 
 j-each 
 each 
 ^each 
 
 Goods not inc uded in the foregoing Tables pay in proportion to the rates therein contained, according 
 to weight or size. 
 
 3. East India Docks. — These docks, situated at Blackwall, were originally intended 
 for the accommodation of ships employed by the East India Company, or in the East 
 Indian trade i but they are now open to vessels from all parts. There are 2 docks ; 1 
 for ships unloading inwards, and 1 for those loading outwards. The Import Dock con- 
 tains about 1 8 acres, and the Export Dock about 9 acres. The entrance basin, which 
 connects the docks with the river, contains about 2^ acres : the length of the entrance 
 lock is 210 feet, the width of the gatea.48 feet clear. The depth of water in the East 
 India Docks is never less than 23 feet ; so that they can accommodate ships of greater 
 burden than any other establishment on the river. There is attached to them a splendid 
 quay fronting the river, nearly 700 feet in length, with water sufficient at all times 
 of the tide to float the largest steam ships ; and the Export Dock is furnished with a 
 machine for masting and dismasting the largest ships. The Company have, also, since 
 the termination of the East India Company's trade, purchased 3 of the bonded ware- 
 houses belonging to that body, situated in the heart of the city, in which they warehouse 
 and show tea and other goods, on the same terms as at the London or St. Catherine's 
 Docks. — ( See Rates below. ) 
 
 The discharging of ships in the Import Dock is wholly performed by the servants of 
 the Company, and the regulations as to fire, cooking, &c. are similar to those in the 
 other docks. 
 
 The docks are distant miles from the Royal Exchange, and coaches run every half 
 hour between those places, at the moderate charge of 6d. Should the projected railway 
 to Blackwall be completed, the journey to the docks, or from them to the Exclmnge, 
 will be accomplished in less than 10 minutes. Were this effected, no steamers, or at 
 least none above 100 tons burden, should be allowed to come higher up than Blackwall. 
 It will, we apprehend, be found to be quite impossible, so long as they are allowed to 
 . come further up than this, to regulate their speed, or to prevent the perpetual recur- 
 rence of accidents. 
 
 The Company's capital, including the cost of the city warehouses, is 623,000Z. The 
 present dividend is 6 per cent. ; and the stock is now (December, 1836,) worth from 
 116/. to 117Z. The management is committed to 12 directors, each holding 2,000Z. stock. 
 
 Rates of Charge. — The charges on goods exported are the same as at the other docks. 
 Inwards they are, as before stated, the same as at the other docks, when the goods are 
 brought up to the city warehouses ; but if kept down at the docks, or while they are there, 
 the charges and rent are considerably lower. 
 
 2 K 2 
 
500 DOCKS ON THE THAMES (ST. KATHERINE'S). 
 
 Tonnage Rates, 8(c. 
 
 Vestels Inwards. s. d. 
 
 For discharging carsoes, and for the use of the dock for 
 twenty-eight days from the date of final discharge, with 
 liberty to load for any port, per register ton - - 1 6 
 
 N. B Ship cooperage, when incurred, will be 
 
 charged ; and vessels discharging the whole, or 
 greater part of their cargoes into lighters, will be 
 subject to such terms as shall be agreed upon between 
 the' shipowners and the Dock Company. 
 Rent, after the expiratioti of twenty-eight days from 
 
 the time of final discharge, per register ton ])er week 0 1 
 Vessels of 600 tons and upwards (having landed the 
 greater part of their import cargoes in the East India 
 Dock} when lying up, per register ton per week - 0 J 
 Vessels Outwards. 
 Entering to load, that have not discharged their import 
 cargoes in the docks, for any period not exceeding 
 twenty-eight days from the date of entrance, per 
 register ton - - - - 0 6 
 
 Rent, after the expiration of twenty-eight days, per re- 
 gister ton per week • - - - 0 1 
 
 Vessels Lying up. 
 
 Light vessels (other than steam vessels) entering the dock 
 to lie up for any period not exceeding twenty-eight 
 days, per register ton - - - - 0 6 
 
 Rent, after the expiration of twenty-eight days, per 
 register ton per week • - - 0 1 
 
 Steam Vessels. 
 
 Rent, from date of entrance, per register ton per week - 0 1 
 The charge for getting out and landing, lifting, or ship- 
 ping boilers and heavy machinery (including the use of 
 gear) is, per ton - - - - - 5 0 
 
 Use of wharf for ditto, per ton per week - - 0 6 
 
 Coasters and Craft. 
 Other than lighters, with cargo for outward bound ships, 
 
 with liberty to remain for one week, per register ton, 0 G 
 Other than lighters loading from the Import Ware- 
 houses, with the hke privilege, on the gross weightthey 
 take on board, per ton - - - - 0 6 
 
 In either case, rent, after the expiration of one week, 
 per register ton - - - - 0 1 
 
 Water. 
 
 Supplied from the reservoir, per tun - • - 1 0 
 Filtered water, do. - - - - 2 0 
 
 ,, on Shipping. 
 
 Charges for Masting or Dismasting at the Matt-Building. 
 
 
 Main 
 
 Fore 
 
 Mizen 
 
 Bow- 
 
 
 Mast. 
 
 Mast. 
 
 Mast. 
 
 sprit 
 
 Ships of 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 t. s. d. 
 
 L... d. 
 
 1,000 to 1,500 tons 
 
 9 0 0 
 
 8 2 0 
 
 3 12 0 
 
 4 10 0 
 
 800—1,000 — 
 
 6 15 0 
 
 6 6 0 
 
 3 3 0 
 
 3 12 0 
 
 650— 800 — 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 3 12 0 
 
 2 0 0 
 
 2 0 0 
 
 500— 650 — 
 
 3 4 0 
 
 2 16 0 
 
 112 0 1 1 12 0 
 
 300— 500 — 
 
 2 12 6 
 
 2 5 0 
 
 1 6 3 
 
 1 6 3 
 
 under 300 — 
 
 1 17 6 
 
 1 13 9 
 
 1 2 6 
 
 12 6 
 
 For putting on or taking off Tops. 
 
 For Ships of 
 
 1,000 to 1,500 tons 
 800— 1,000 — 
 500— 800 — 
 under 500 — 
 
 Main. 
 
 Fore. 
 
 Miren. 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 0 15 0 
 0 10 0 
 0 7 6 
 in proport 
 
 L. s. d. 
 0 15 0 
 0 10 0 
 0 7 6 
 
 OIL. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 0 10 0 
 0 5 0 
 0 5 0 
 
 The prices of the above Tables are for each operation, which 
 includes the use of masting-fall and slings. 
 
 N.B. — Owners of ships may purchase not less than half a 
 fall, at 25 per cent, under the ready money cost price. 
 
 Rates on Goods in up-iown Warehouses. 
 
 
 Landing 
 
 and 
 Housing. 
 
 Manage- 
 ment. 
 
 Rent per 
 Week. 
 
 Tea, in packages of 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 200 lb gross, and upwards 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 1.30 and under 200 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 80 — 130 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 60 _ 80 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 oj 
 
 40—60 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 0 
 
 04 
 
 30 — 40 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0* 
 
 20—30 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 under 20 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 .Silk, Bengal, per bale. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 lbs and upwards 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 6' 
 
 
 ♦0 
 
 
 101 to 150 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 
 
 i! 
 
 under 104 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 China, per bale. 
 
 
 
 
 
 4| 
 
 
 
 101 lbs. and upwards - 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 If 
 
 0 
 
 
 under 1 04 - 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 4. St. Katharine's Docks. — The Company for the construction of these docks was in- 
 corporated by the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 105. (local), and they were partially opened on the 
 25th of October, 1828. They are situated immediately below the Tower, and are con- 
 sequently the most contiguous of any to the city, the Custom-house, and other places 
 where business is transacted. The capital raised by shares amounts to 1,352,800Z. ; but 
 an additional sum of 800,000?. has been borrowed, on the security of the rates, for the 
 completion of the works, and the purchase of a freehold property possessing river frontage 
 from the Tower to the corner of Lower East Smithfield, of the value of upwards of 
 100,000/., but not required for the immediate purpose of the act. A portion of this 
 property has beon appropriated as a steam packet wharf, where passengers embark and 
 land without the nid or ri.sk of boat conveyance. The purchase of the numerous houses 
 that stood upon the ground occupied by the docks proved, as in the case of the London 
 Docks, a heavy item of expense. The space included within the outer wall is about 24 
 acres, nearly 1 1 of which are water. There are 2 docks, communicating by a basin. 
 The lock leading from the river is 1 80 feet long, and 45 broad : it is so constructed, that 
 ships of upwards of 600 tons burden may pass in and out 3 hours before high water, so 
 that outward-bound ships haye the opportunity of reaching Blackwall before the tide 
 begins to recede. Ships of upwards of 800 tons register are docked and undocked with- 
 out difficulty, and the depth of water at the entrance exceeds that of any other wet dock 
 in the port of London. Vessels are also docked and undocked by night as well as by 
 day, — an advantage peculiar to this establishment. A clear channel of not less than 300 
 feet in width is at all times to be kept in the pool; and vessels drawing 18 feet water 
 may lie afloat at low water at the principal buoy off the dock entrance. The warehouses 
 and vaults are upon a very large scale ; far more so than one might be disposed to infer 
 from the extent of water. The warehouses are exceedingly well contrived and commodious ; 
 and, owing to their being built partly on pillars (within which what is called the quay 
 work of the other docks is transacted), close to the water's edge, goods are hoisted direct 
 from the hold of the vessel, without its being necessary, as in the West India and London 
 Docks, to land them on quays ; so that there is in this way a great saving both of room, 
 time, and labour. The whole establishment is exceedingly complete, and reflects the 
 greatest credit on the public spirit, enterprise, and skill, of those by whom it was projected 
 and executed. 
 
 I'he regulations to be observed by vessels using the St. Katharine's Docks are Similar 
 to those enforced in the West India Docks, to which, as in the case of the London Docks, 
 we beg to refer. 
 
DOCKS ON THE THAMES (COMMERCIAL). 501 
 
 Table of Tonnage Rates chargeable on Vessels entering the St. Katharine Docks and also of the llate* 
 for discharging Cargoes landed by the Company, subject to such Revision, from Tunc to lime, OS 
 shall be found expedient. 
 
 Venett Inward: 
 
 On Vessels laden, 
 arriving from 
 
 Per Ton 
 
 Register 
 
 Firal Class. — Any 
 port of the Uni 
 ted Kingdom, Isle 
 of Man, Jersey, 
 Guernsey, Alder- 
 ney, Sark, or other 
 Euronean jiorts out- 
 side the Baltic, be- 
 tween the North 
 Cape and Ushant 
 
 Second CUut. — Aoy 
 other port 
 
 Privilege. 
 
 Vesielt rvhvse carfroes are dis 
 charged by the Dock Company. 
 
 Use of the Docks to vessels ar- 
 riving from Hambro', or from 
 any port in the Mediterranean, 
 for 6 weeks from the date of 
 entrance; if arriving from any 
 other port, 4 weeks from 
 the date of final discharge, 
 with liberty to load outwards 
 for any port or place, and to 
 quit the docks for repairs, and 
 re-enter ; the period of absence 
 from dock for such purposes 
 not to artiect the privilege. 
 
 V<:ssels tvhote car/^ves are dis 
 charged by their crews. 
 
 The like privilege, but to com- 
 mence froui the date of en- 
 trance. 
 
 Rent, in each case, after the expiration of the 
 privilege, per week ... 
 For partial remissions and exemptions 
 vessels partly laden, or arriving from 
 Spain or Portugal, wool or cork laden, 
 or vessels with corn, see annexed Table. 
 Rates fur discharging Cargoes by the Company. 
 Cargoes, consisting, in the whole or in part, 
 I of sugar in hogsheads or tierces, including 
 I ship cooperage - - 
 
 Cargoes, consisting of sugar in chests of 5 cwt 
 I and upwards, including ship cooperage 
 Cargoes, consLsting of sugar in bags, mats, or 
 chests under 5 cwt., or other goods (not 
 being hemp, tallow, ashes, wood goods, 
 com, pitch, tar, hay, or straw), contained 
 in casks, bales, serons, chests, cases, bags, 
 baskets, or similar packages ; also spelter, 
 or metal in pigs, bars, rods, plates, &c. 
 Cargoes, consisting of hemp only, or mer- 
 chandise ia bulk, wholly or in part - 
 tallow only - 
 
 s. d. 
 
 (hemp • - I 31 
 Mixed cargoes of< tallow - - 0 6 V 
 (.ashes - - 0 6^ 
 Blue gum wood, or large timber, 
 
 additionzd for every load delivered 0 6 
 No chEirge upon excess landed beyond a ship's 
 
 register tonnage. 
 Oil, additional for every tun delivered 
 into craft - - - -06 
 
 Vessels Outwards, 
 entering the Docks without Cargoes. 
 
 Per Ton 
 Register. 
 
 s. d. 
 0 6 
 
 Privilege. 
 
 Use of dock to ■ 
 load 4 weeks 
 from date of , 
 entrance • 
 
 Use of dock to | 
 load 1 week 
 from 
 trance 
 
 Per Ton 
 Register. 
 
 1 9 
 1 3 
 
 Per ton of 
 goods, charge 
 in no case to 
 exceed the re- 
 gister tonnage 
 of the vessel. 
 
 Rent after ex- 
 piration of the 
 privilege, Id. 
 per ton register 
 per week. 
 
 Tablb of special Regulations, Remlssttms, and Exemptions, and i 
 Miscellaneous Charges applicable to Vessels inwards, not being 
 fully laden, or laden with the Articles enumerated, ur entering 
 the Docks light, S^c. 
 
 No tonnage rate will be charged on vessels wholly com ladf n , 
 whose cargoes shall be landed in the docks ; but a charge will 
 in such case be made for docking and undocking, as under : 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 Vessels of 100 tons and upwards - -,-110 
 Vessels under 100 tons - - - -0106 
 with liberty to remain in dock without further charge foi 24 
 hours after final landing. Rent, after expiration of that pe- 
 riod. Id. per ton register per week. Should the vessel load 
 out\'»ards, the usual tonnage rates, acccrdiiig to the port of 
 destination, will be charged, instead of the rate for docking 
 and undocking. The Dock Company rese>rve the jiower of I 
 refusing the admission of ships laden entirel/ with corn. 
 
 Other vessels, not being fully laden at the time of entering the I 
 docks, will be charged tonnage rate only, on the proportion of i 
 cargo brought in ; the amount of rate to be determined by the 
 port fi-om whence the vessel has arrived ; and if discharged 
 by the Company, rates for unloading in addition, according to j 
 the description of the cargo and quantity so discharged, i 
 Rent, after I week, \d. per ton register per week. . 
 
 Vessels laden with cork or wool from Spain or Portugal will be 
 charged only dd. per ton register. R!ent, after 3 weeks from 
 date of entrance, \d. per ton register per week. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 Light vessels entering the dock to lie «p. will be 
 charged, for any period not exceeding 4 weeks, per 
 ton register - - - - -006 
 
 Rent per week, after the expiration of the' 4 weeks, 
 on the register tonnage, per ton - • - 0 0 1 
 
 Vessels two thirds laden with com will be charged tonnage rate 
 only on the proportion which the other part of the cargo 
 bears to the register tonnage. 
 
 Vessels chiefly laden with wood goods, pilch, tar, hay, straw, 
 or intending to discharge the whole of their cargoes into 
 ffghters, will only be permitted to enter or depart the doc'ks, 
 subject to such terms as shall be first mutually agreed upo9 
 between the owners and the Dock Company. 
 
 Miscellaneous Chargti. s. J 
 
 For labourers hired of the Company, to work on board, 
 and who shall be under the directions and responsi- 
 bility of captains or owners of vessels, both or either 
 (which rule applies to all over-board deliveries), a 
 charge will be made for each man per day, of - - 3 6 
 Thames water supplied to vessels by the Companv, per 
 
 tun • . . . ."-10 
 
 For an abstract of a ship's cargo inwards, and weights thereof, 
 for the purpose of making up freight accounts, the following 
 charge will be made :— 
 
 ». d. 
 
 If the goods have 10 marks, or under - 2 0 
 11 marks to 20 marks - 3 6 
 21 maiks and upwar is - 0 2 each mark or 
 parcel. 
 
 If. B. — The dock-dues, rent, &c. of most articles landed, 
 warehoused, or shipped at the different docks, being, in genera' 
 
 5. Commercial Docks. — Exclusive of the previously mentioned docks, which are all 
 on the north side of the river, there are on the south side the Commercial Docks, opposite 
 to the wesi end of the West India Docks. These docks are of large extent ; the space 
 included within the outer wall being about 49 acres, of which nearly 38 acres are water. 
 They are principally intended for the reception of vessels with timber, corn, and other 
 bulky commodities. They have but little accommodation for warehoTising ; and their 
 establishments are not constructed so as to entitle them to bond all goods. The Surrey 
 Canal Company also admit vessels to be docked in the basin of their car.al. 
 
 6. London Port Dues ; Charges on Account of Lights, Pilotage, 8fc, in the Thames ; 
 Shipping, 8fc. of London. 
 
 It is highly desirable that expert pilots, brilliant lights, and every oth^r means that it 
 is possible to devise, should be afforded to render navigation safe and expeditious. But 
 to secure these advantages, it is indispensable that the charges on their account should be 
 moderate. If they be otherwise, navigators are not unfrequently tempted to resort to what 
 
 2 K 3 
 
b02 DOCKS (LONDON PORT DUES). 
 
 are less expensive, though less secure, channels. This principle has not, however obvious, 
 been always kept sufficiently in view either in this or in other countries. During the 
 latter years of the war, and down to 1825, the charges on account of docks, lights, pilot- 
 age, &c. on ships in the Thames, and most other British ports, were exceedingly heavy ; 
 and would, no doubt, had they been maintained, have materially injured our commerce. 
 Instead, also, of encouraging the resort of foreign ships to our ports, a contrary policy 
 was adopted ; the charges laid on them being usually about double those laid on British 
 ships. This regulation was intended to promote the employment of the latter ; but, as it 
 led to reprisals in other countries, its real influence is believed to have been quite differ- 
 ent ; while by driving away foreigners, it injured the trade of the country, and prevented 
 our ports from becoming, what they are so well fitted to be, the emporiums of the 
 world. We are glad, however, to have to state that the circumstances now alluded to 
 have been materially changed within the last dozen years. In 1 825, the various dock 
 monopolies expired ; and a very great reduction has been made in the charges on account 
 Of the docks, which, as already seen, are now very moderate indeed. 
 
 Exclusive of the dock duties, certain port or tonna<re duties were imposed on ships firequenting the port 
 of London, by the acts 39 Geo. 3. c. 69., 4.3 Geo. 3. c. 124., &c., partly to pay the harbour masters, provide 
 mooring chains, &c., and partly to create a fund for the improvement ol the port, and in particular for 
 defraying the cost of making a navigable canal across the Isle of Dogs. But this canal having been sold 
 (ante, p. 476.) for 120,01)0/. to the West India Dock Company, under the 10 Geo. 4. c 130., and the sums 
 advanced by the public for tlie improvement of the port having been repaid, it was judiciously resolved 
 to reduce the port duties to the lowest rates capable of defraying the necessary expenses. This was 
 effected by the 4 & 5 Will. 4. c. 32., which imposes the following tonnage duties on vessels in the port : — 
 
 i-er Ton. 
 rf. 
 
 \st Class. — For every ship or other vessel trading coastwise between he port of London and any 
 port or place in Great Britain, Ireland, the Orkneys, Shetland, or the Western Islands of Scot- 
 land, there shall be paid for every voyage in and out of the said port - - - J 
 Qd Class. — For every ship, &c. entering inwards or clearing outwards from or to Denmark, Norway, 
 or Lapland (on this side of the North Cape), or from Holstein, Hamburgh, Bremen, or any other 
 part of Germany bordering on or near the Germanic Ocean, or from or to Holland or any other 
 of "the United Provinces, or Brabant, Antwerp, Flanders, or any other part of the Netherlands, 
 or from or to France (within Ushant), Guernsey, .Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or the Isle <rf Man, 
 there shall be paid for every, &c., as above . - . - _ | 
 3d Class. — For every ship, &c. entering inwards or clearing outwards from or to Lapland (beyond 
 the North Cape), Finland, Russia (without or within the Baltic Sea), Livonia, Courland, Poland, 
 Prussia, Sweden, or any other country or place within the Baltic Sea, there shaU be paid for 
 every, &c., as above - - ■ - . | 
 ith Class. — For every ship, &c. entering inwards or clearing outwards from or to France (be. 
 tween Ushant and Spain), Portugal, Spain (without the Mediterranean), or any of the- Azores, 
 Madeira, or Canary Islands, or any of the United States of America, or of the British colonies or 
 provinces in North America or Florida, there shall be paid for every, &c., as above - - | 
 5(h Class. — For every ship, &c. entering inwards or clearing outwards from or to Greenland, Gibral- 
 tar, France, or Spain (within the Mediterranean), or any country, island, port, or place within or 
 bordering on or near the Mediterranean or Adriatic Sea, or from the West Indies, Louisiana, 
 Mexico, South America, Africa, East India, China, or any other country, island, port, or place 
 within or bordering on or near the Pacific Ocean, or from any other country, island, port, or 
 place whatsoever to the southward of 25 degrees of north latitude, there shall be paid, &c., as above f 
 Exemptions. — Ships of war, and ships the property of his Majesty or any of the royal family. — Any 
 vessel coming to or going coastwise from the port of London, or to any part of Great Britain, unless such 
 vessel shall exceed 45 tons. — Any vessel bringing corn coastwise, the principal part of whose cargo shall 
 consist of corn. — Any fishing smacks, lobster and oyster boats, or vessels for passengers. — Any vessel 
 or craft navigating the Thames above and below London Bridge, as far as Gravesend only. — Any vessel 
 entering inwards or outwards in ballast. 
 
 N. B. — ThQport or tonnage duties paid by ships in the port of London, as stated in the accounts on 
 the o)iposite page, were those payable previously to the act 4 & 5 WilL 4. c 32., which only took effect on 
 the 25th of July, 1834; and were, at an average, from 4 to 6 times as high as at present. 
 
 Owing to the distance of London from the sea, and the rather intricate navigation 
 at the mouth of the river, the charges on account of lights and pilotage must necessarily 
 be pretty heavy. They have, however, been very materially reduced of late years. The 
 charges on account of the lights under the management of the Trinity House have been 
 diminished, in almost every instance, at least one third ; and in many instances as much as 
 a half, and sometimes even more, since 1823. — (See Light-houses.) The illiberal and 
 impolitic practice of imposing discriminating light and pilotage dues on foreign vessels is 
 still kept up ; but owing to the general establishment of reciprocity treaties with foreign 
 powers, the grievance thence arising has become rather nominal than real, and at present 
 affects very few of the foreign vessels coming to our ports. 
 
 The act 6 Geo. 4. c. 125. made a reduction of 8 per cent, in the charges authorised 
 to be demanded by the pilots licensed by the Trinity House for the port of London ; and 
 foreign vessels, privileged as British ves.sels, have been relieved from the additional or 
 surplus rate of 25 per cent, payable to the Trinity pilots, as well as to those licensed by 
 the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. — (Sec Pilotage.) 
 
 Tlic oppressive and troublesome charges in the port of London, imposed on alien goods 
 under the names of package, scavagc, &c. — (see Package) — were put an end to during 
 last session (18.33). At present, therefore, we believe we are warranted in affirming that, 
 considering its distance from the sea, the public charges on shipping in the port of 
 London are quite as reasonable as in any other port of the empire, or of the world. 
 
DOCKS (LONDON PORT DUES). 503 
 
 But we are inclined to think that further reductions may still be effected, particularly in 
 the article pilotage. 
 
 The following accounts show the nature and amount of the various charges that are at 
 present incurred by vessels in the port of London : — 
 
 ProforTTui Account of Charges on a Ship of about 480 Tons, entering and departing the Tort of London, 
 laden both Ways, supposing every tiling to be conducted with strict Ixonoiny, and excluding any 
 Charce on account of extraordinary Despatch or superior Accommodation. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Reporting the ship and appointment - - - - - - ',^n!^ 
 
 Pilotage from the Downs - - - > - - - 14 0 4 
 
 Hoarding the pilot at sea - - - " " 7 ,V i 
 
 Waterman, boat, and kedge, from Gravesend - - - - 1 11 « 
 
 London port dues inwards, 5d. per ton 
 
 10 0 0 
 
 Do."" '"do. outwards, 'do. .> - - --I0 00 
 
 jV; B. This duty is of a temporary character, and will cease in about 5 years. 
 
 Trinity dues and lights inwards - - - " " IL « ? 
 
 Dock dues in and out, 9rf. per ton - - - - - - 12* 0 0 
 
 Trinity dues and lights outwards - - - - -8 18 6 
 
 Dungeness light in and out - - - - "oif2 
 
 Clearing outwards, and victualling bill - - - -2126 
 
 Steam-boat to Blackwall, optional^ - - - - --10 00 
 
 Pilotage to the Downs - - - - - -12 86 
 
 Putting the pilot on sb«re, unless landed in the ship's boat - - - 0 10 0 
 
 ^98 7 4 
 
 Charges on a British Vessel of 285 Tons, entering and departing the Port of London, laden both Ways 
 
 Reporting, appointing, &c. - - _ 
 
 Tonnage duty inwards (with cargo) - - 
 
 Do. outwards (do.) - - 
 
 Putting pilot on board at Deal - - . • 
 
 Pilotage, Downs to London, draft 15 feet 6 inches 
 
 Do. outwards, draft about 14 feet - - 
 
 Boat and men up and down, 3 guineas each 
 
 Trinity lights, inwards ----- 
 
 Do. outwards - - - - 
 
 Private'do. in and out - - . . 
 
 Dungeness do. - - - 
 
 Dock duty, 9d. per ton - 
 
 Clearing outwards . - - . 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 - 2 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 - 5 18 
 
 6 
 
 
 - 5 18 
 
 6 
 
 
 - 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 - 16 8 
 
 7 
 
 
 - 9 15 
 
 0 
 
 
 - 6 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 - 6 13 
 
 2 
 
 
 - 5 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 - 9 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 - 1 9 
 
 0 
 
 
 - 10 13 
 
 9 
 
 
 - 2 7 
 
 0 
 
 
 ^85 6 
 
 6 
 
 Charges actually paid on the Piesident, American Packet Ship of from 470 to 480 Tons, in the River 
 Thames, in October, 1833. 
 
 Reporting and appointing - • - 
 
 Tonnage duty inwards, and entry - _ ■ ■ 
 
 Do. outwards - - - 
 
 Trinity lights and pilotage inwards - . . , 
 
 Do. do. outwards - - ■ 
 
 Private and Foreland, in and out - - - - 
 
 Pilot from Dungeness - - - 
 
 Boat and men up and down - - - " 
 
 Dock charges ------ 
 
 Clearing and victualling bill - - • • 
 
 Printing bills and cards - - . » « 
 
 Advertisements in bills of entry . . . ■ 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 - 2 10 
 
 6 
 
 - 10 6 
 
 6 
 
 - 10 10 
 
 6 
 
 . 15 12 
 
 0 
 
 - 28 10 
 
 0 
 
 - 5 18 
 
 0 
 
 - 15 12 
 
 0 
 
 - 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 -21 2 
 
 0 
 
 - 2 12 
 
 6 
 
 - 3 13 
 
 6 
 
 - 0 10 
 
 6 
 
 ^122 18 
 
 0 
 
 In this case, the pilotage inwards and outwards, lights, &c. are charged from Cowes, so that a con- 
 siderable portion of these items cannot be. considered as an expense peculiar to the Thames. A part 
 of the dock charges might also have been avoided, by employing the crew; the last two items are not 
 properly port charges. 
 
 Amount of Shipping, Sfc. belonging to the Port of London. — According to the official 
 accounts, there belonged to this port, in 1832, besides boats and other vessels not regis- 
 tered, 2,669 ships, of the burden of 565,174 tons, manned by 32,786 men and boys. In 
 1819, the gross customs' duty collected in the port of London amounted to 7,749,463/,, 
 the expenses of collection being 277,913/., or at the rate of 3/. lis. S^d. per cent. In 
 18S2, the gross duty had risen to 9,434,854/., while the expenses of collection had sunk 
 
 to 243,678/., being at the rate of only 21. lis. 7|c/. per cent (Par/. Paper, No. 414. 
 
 Sess. 1833.) So vast an amount of shipping and commerce was never previously con- 
 centrated in any single port. London may be truly said to be universi orbis terrarum 
 emporium. May her prosperity be as lasting as it is great ! 
 
 ♦ If discharged by the Dock Company, there would be an additional charge of 12/. on t^^at account 
 
 2 K 4 
 
504? 
 
 DOCKS (LIVERPOOL). 
 
 The following tabular statement will serve to illustrate the progress of the foreign 
 trade and navigation of London : — 
 
 Number and Tonnage of Vessels entering the Port of London from Foreign Parts, distinguishing between 
 British and Foreign Ships. 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 
 Ships. 
 839 
 
 1700 
 
 1750 
 
 1,498 
 
 1790 
 
 2,254 
 
 1791 
 
 2,184 
 2,489 
 
 1792 
 
 1793 
 
 2,348 
 
 War. 
 
 1814 
 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Years. 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Tons. 
 
 80,040 
 198,023 
 431,890 
 419,374 
 451,188 
 478,105 
 
 Ships. 
 496 
 184 
 1,116 
 1,256 
 1,186 
 1,193 
 
 Tons. 
 76,995 
 36,346 
 149,205 
 149,053 
 152,243 
 177,019 
 
 269,834 
 215,315 
 115,463 
 131,647 
 272,656 
 158,882 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Ships. 
 3,354 
 3,000 
 3,230 
 3,031 
 3,132 
 3,989 
 3,495 
 4,012 
 4,084 
 4,108 
 3,910- 
 4,140 
 3,268 
 
 Tons. 
 655,239 
 585,994 
 603,167 
 611,451 
 607,106 
 785,565 
 675,026 
 769,162 
 767,212 
 784,070 
 744,229 
 780,988 
 639,840 
 
 Ships. 
 
 856 
 571 
 597 
 865 
 1,643 
 1,743 
 1,586 
 1,534 
 1,303 
 1,300 
 1,268 
 1,557 
 
 Tuns. 
 
 122,619 
 89,073 
 106,099 
 161,705 
 264,098 
 302,122 
 215,254 
 221,008 
 195,929 
 215,605 
 207,500 
 269,159 
 154,142 
 
 2^, B. The temporary falling off in 1832 is to be ascribed to the prevalence of cholera, and the unfor- 
 
 tunate misunderstanding with Holland. 
 
 Account of the Number and Tonnage of the Ships that have entered the Port of London, with Cargoes 
 from Foreign Parts, distinguishing the Countries whence they came, during the Years 1833, 1834, and 
 1835 {Papers published by the Board of Trade, part v., p. 36.) 
 
 
 1835. 
 
 1854, 
 
 1835. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Russia . . - - 
 
 358 
 
 7fi,157 
 
 47 
 
 17,150 
 
 399 
 
 87,205 
 
 71 
 
 24,978 
 
 312 
 
 67,195 
 
 54 
 
 18,657 
 
 Sweden - - 
 Norway - - - - 
 Denmark . . - 
 
 12 
 
 2,686 
 
 51 
 
 15,698 
 
 22 
 
 5,848 
 
 76 
 
 22,.549 
 
 22 
 
 3,520 
 
 67 
 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 31,859 
 
 15 
 
 2,157 
 
 122 
 
 38,528 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 2s',10f? 
 
 ' 10 
 
 1,370 
 
 70 
 
 6,309 
 
 22 
 
 2,699 
 
 207 
 
 18,549 
 
 19 
 
 '2,469 
 
 1.56 
 
 1.3,697 
 
 45 
 
 6,621 
 
 130 
 
 31,486 
 
 36 
 
 6,659 
 
 125 
 
 30,622 
 
 55 
 
 6,456 
 
 107 
 
 26,572 
 
 German States - 
 Netherlands 
 
 243 
 
 43,085 
 
 48 
 
 5,173 
 
 217 
 
 44,253 
 
 122 
 
 12,292 
 
 190 
 
 44,362 
 
 81 
 
 7,266 
 
 309 
 
 41,301 
 
 277 
 
 23,705 
 
 466 
 
 67,291 
 
 240 
 
 21,541 
 
 465 
 
 72,794 
 
 226 
 
 21,125 
 
 188 
 
 21,475 
 
 197 
 
 12,480 
 
 225 
 
 24,1,53 
 
 178 
 
 12,147 
 
 245 
 
 24,220 
 
 125 
 
 9,656 
 
 Portugal, Azores, and Madeira 
 Spain and Canaries 
 Italian States 
 
 377 
 
 37,531 
 
 4 
 
 394 
 
 564 
 
 38,504 
 
 4 
 
 519 
 
 369 
 
 38,840 
 
 20 
 
 2,131 
 
 180 
 
 33,39X 
 
 44 
 
 4,585 
 
 239 
 
 27,302 
 
 27 
 
 3,272 
 
 210 
 
 23,371 
 
 22 
 
 2,617 
 
 124 
 
 18,580 
 
 8 
 
 1,808 
 
 107 
 
 16,063 
 
 n 
 
 4,903 
 
 118 
 
 16,948 
 
 6 
 
 1,55» 
 
 Ionian Islands . . - 
 
 33 
 
 4,464 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 5,657 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 3.700 
 
 
 
 Turkey and Continental Greece 
 
 58 
 
 8,481 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 9,5.38 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 11,054 
 
 
 
 Morea and Greek Islands 
 
 9 
 
 1,350 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 2,026 
 756 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 1,752 
 
 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Tripoli, Barbary, and Morocco 
 Foreign Possessions in Asia - 
 China - - 
 United States of America 
 
 132 
 185 
 
 29,812 
 96,085 
 
 'l 
 
 290 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 6 
 27 
 
 3,458 
 2,323 
 28,199 
 
 3 
 
 956 
 
 21 
 11 
 47 
 
 2,547 
 5,965 
 28,918 
 
 4 
 
 1,647 
 
 ' IS 
 
 5,126 
 
 44 
 
 18,463 
 
 24 
 
 7,116 
 
 51 
 
 20,053 
 
 14 
 
 4,0.30 
 
 68 
 
 28,098 
 
 Foreign West Indies 
 
 35 
 
 6,963 
 
 7 
 
 2,075 
 
 29 
 
 5,648 
 
 
 1,367 
 
 19 
 
 5,503 
 
 2 
 
 389 
 
 Foreign Continental Colonies 
 in America - - - 
 
 75 
 
 14,,594 
 
 1 
 
 258 
 
 85 
 
 16,172 
 
 4 
 
 758 
 
 80 
 
 15,061 
 
 3 
 
 976 
 
 Totals 
 
 2,491 
 
 448,479 
 
 1,031 
 
 171,751 
 
 2,123 
 
 .398,967 
 
 1,254 
 
 212,634 
 
 2,289 
 
 374.281' 1,008 
 
 181,196 
 
 II. Liverpool Docks, Shipping, etc. 
 
 The first wet dock in the British empire was constructed at Liverpool, in pursuance 
 of an act of parliament obtained in 1708. At this period Liverpool was but an 
 inconsiderable town ; and the accommodation she has derived from her docks is one 
 of the circumstances that has done most to promote her extraordinary increase in com- 
 merce, population, and wealth. A second wet dock was opened about the middle of 
 last century ; and since that period many more have been constructed, some of them 
 on a very magnificent scale, and furnished with all sorts of conveniences. When those 
 now in progress are completed, the total area of water in the docks will exceed 90 acres. 
 
 The entrance to the port of Liverpool is a good deal incommoded with sand banks ; 
 through which, however, there are several channels which, when the proper precautions 
 are observed, afford an easy and safe access to the port. Being anxious to contribute 
 all the information in our power as to this great and growing emporium, we have 
 annexed to this edition, a chart of the entrance to the Mersey, and of part of that river, 
 with a map of the country from Liverpool to Manchester, exhibiting all the great lines 
 of communication between these and the adjacent towns. The recently opened, or at least 
 •recently discovered, channel (now called the South Channel), leading through the banks 
 to Liverpool, is laid down in the chart. In compiling it, we have availed ourselves of 
 Lieutenant Evans's large and valuable chart of the Mersey and contiguous coasts. In 
 spring tides, the water rises in the Mersey about 30 feet, and in neap tides about 15: 
 but tlie height depends much on the state of the winds, and other circumstances. 
 
 The following Table gives the annual amount of the Liverpool dock duties since 1757, 
 the number of vessels entering the docks since that period, and the tonnage of the same 
 since 1800. It exhibits an increase of commerce unequalled in any other port. 
 
DOCKS (LIVERPOOL). 
 
 505 
 
 Amount of Dock Duties at the Port of Liverpool, from the Year 1757, ending the 24th of Juno 
 
 each Year. 
 
 Year. 
 
 No. of Vesteli. 
 
 
 $. 
 
 d. 
 
 Year. 
 
 No.KfVestelt. 
 
 L. 
 
 (. 
 
 d. 
 
 1757 
 
 1,371 
 
 336 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 1779 
 
 2,37 4 
 
 4,957 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 1758 
 
 1,453 
 
 2,403 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 1780 
 
 2,261 
 
 3/,28 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 1759 
 
 1,2«1 
 
 2,372 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 1781 
 
 2,512 
 
 3,915 
 
 4 
 
 
 1760 
 
 1,245 
 
 2,330 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 1782 
 
 2,196 
 
 4,219 
 
 k 
 
 3 
 
 1761 
 
 1,319 
 
 2,382 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 1783 
 
 2,816 
 
 4,840 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 1762 
 
 1,307 
 
 2,526 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 1784 
 
 3,098 
 
 6,597 
 
 11 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1,752 
 
 3,H1 
 
 
 5 
 
 1785 
 
 3,429 
 
 8,411 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 1764 
 
 1,625 
 
 2,780 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 m6 
 
 3,228 
 
 7,508 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1765 
 
 1,930 
 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 1787 
 
 3,567 
 
 9,199 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 1766 
 
 1,908 
 
 3^653 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 1788 
 
 3,677 
 
 9,206 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 1767 
 
 1,704 
 1,808 
 
 * 3,615 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1789 
 
 3,G 1 9 
 
 8,901 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 176S 
 
 3,566 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 1790 
 
 4,223 
 
 10,037 
 
 6 
 
 
 1769 
 
 2,054 
 
 4,004 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 1791 
 
 4,015 
 4,483 
 
 1 1 ,645 
 
 6 
 
 
 1770 
 
 2,073 
 
 1,142 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 1792 
 
 13,243 
 
 17 
 
 5* 
 
 1771 
 
 2,087 
 
 4,203 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 1793 
 
 4,129 
 
 12,480 
 
 5 
 
 1772 
 
 2,259 
 
 4,552 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 1 794 
 
 4,265 
 
 10,678 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 1773 
 
 2,214 
 
 4,725 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1795 
 
 3,948 
 
 9,368 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 1774 
 
 2,258 
 
 4,580 
 
 5 
 
 
 1796 
 
 4,738 
 
 12,377 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 1775 
 
 2,291 
 
 5,384 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 1797 
 
 4,528 
 
 13,319 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 1776 
 
 2,216 
 
 5,064 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 1798 
 
 4,478 
 4,518 
 
 12,057 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 1777 
 
 2,361 
 
 4,610 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 1799 
 
 14,049 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 1778 
 
 2,292 
 
 4,649 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Year. 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1804 
 1805 
 
 Jio. of VeiseU. 
 4,746 
 5,060 
 4,781 
 4,791 
 4,291 
 4,618 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 L. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Year. 
 
 No. of Vessels. 
 
 450,060 
 
 23,379 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 1806 
 
 4,676 
 
 459,719 
 
 28,365 
 
 8 
 
 2i 
 
 1807 
 
 5,791 
 
 510,691 
 
 28,192 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1808 
 
 5,225 
 
 494,521 
 
 28,027 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 1809 
 
 6,023 
 
 448,761 
 
 26,157 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 1810 
 
 6,729 
 
 463,482 
 
 33,364 
 
 13 
 
 
 1811 
 
 5,616 
 
 Tonna/re. 
 507,825 
 6fi2,309 
 616,836 
 594,601 
 734,391 
 611,190 
 
 44.560 7 
 
 62,831 5 
 
 40,638 10 
 
 47,580 19 
 
 65,782 1 
 
 54,752 18 
 
 1813 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 1838 
 
 5,341 
 5,706 
 6,440 
 6,888 
 6,079 
 6,779 
 7,849 
 7,276 
 7,810 
 8,136 
 8,916 
 10,001 
 10,837 
 9,601 
 9,592 
 10,703 
 11,383 
 11,214 
 12,537 
 12,928 
 12,964 
 13,444 
 13,941 
 
 14,820 
 
 Tomiafre. 
 446,788 . 
 
 Duties on goods 
 547,426 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 548,957 - - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 709, 8 19 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 774,243 - - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 653,425 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 754,690 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 867,318 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 805,033 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 839,848 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 892,902 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 
 1.010.819 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 1,180,914 - - 
 Duties on goods 
 
 1.223.820 - - 
 Duties on goods 
 
 1,228,318 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 1,225,313 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 1,311,111 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 1,387,957 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 1,411,964 - - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 1,592,436 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 1,640,057 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 1,590,461 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 1,692,870 - 
 
 Duties on goods 
 1,768,426 . 
 
 Duties on goods 
 
 1,958,984 
 
 Duties on goods 
 Duties on goods 
 
 Duties on goods 
 
 L. s. d 
 20,260 3 5 
 24,143 4 6 
 24,134 18 8 
 26,042 14 6 
 28,630 11 3 
 31,110 11 1 
 36,310 1 9 
 40,605 6 11 
 43,765 6 3 
 40,881 4 6 
 35,186 8 0 
 40,703 8 4 
 43,842 16 6 
 54,695 11 9 
 60,042 7 8 
 60,084 14 0 
 44,717 17 10 
 49,694 14 0 
 43,131 6 2 
 51,425 2 11 
 47,229 10 4 
 55,174 7 0 
 52,837 5 5 
 62,945 16 1 
 60,878 9 7 
 70,033 1 11 
 59,446 7 8 
 69,245 12 0 
 60,411 9 11 
 70,589 9 1 
 61,601 0 6 
 72,871 13 9 
 62,969 7 10' 
 78,400 7 9 
 66,128 18 10' 
 81,198 6 1 
 68,322 9 11' 
 83,007 7 11. 
 81,039 11 ir 
 
 102,415 12. 4 
 74,530 4 11" 
 95,517 2 0. 
 79,558 3 11 
 
 103,422 12 5. 
 84,061 15 11 I 
 
 107,668 1 9 1 
 87,644 14 5 
 
 110,993 4 4 J 
 
 84,596 11 \\ 
 19 0/ 
 
 >A 11 l-> 
 35 12 10/ 
 
 L. s. d. 
 44,403 7 11 
 50,177 13 2 
 59,741 2 4 
 76,915 8 8 
 92,646 10 9 
 75,889 16 4 
 98,538 8 3 
 110,127 1 8 
 94,412 11 10 
 94,556 9 1 
 102,403 17 4 
 115,783 1 6 
 130,911 11 6 
 128,691 19 8 
 131,000 19 0 
 134,472 14 3 
 141,369 15 7 
 147,327 4 11 
 151,329 17 10 
 183,455 4 3 
 170,047 6 11 
 132,980 16 4 
 191,729 17 8 
 198,627 IS 9 
 
 173,853 10 1 
 146,290 3 11 
 
 A Statement of Dock and Light Duties received from the 25th September, 1836 (from which date the 
 Dock Duties were reduced), to the 24th June, 1837 ; and from the 25th Sept. 1837, to the 24th June, 1833. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Duties on Tonnage. 
 
 Duties on Goods. 
 
 Lighthouse Duties. 
 
 Floating Light 
 Duties. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1837 
 1838 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 55,805 11 0 
 57,1 i!5 6 8 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 52,768 12 4 
 54,329 1 2 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 3,995 2 6 
 4,227 18 1 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 1,8.-2 0 8 
 1,873 0 10 
 
 s. d. 
 114,401 6 6 
 117,555 6 9 
 
 Increase - 
 
 1,319 15 8 
 
 1,560 8 10 
 
 232 15 7 
 
 41 0 2 
 
 3,154 0 3 
 
 Dock Dues. — The following dues are payable, by order of the 6th of September, 
 1836, upon all vessels entering inwards, or clearing outwards, at the port of Liverpool, 
 for dock rates and harbour lights : — 
 
 From between the Mull of Galloway and St. David's Head, Isles of Man and Anglesea, the ton - - 0 ei 
 
 From between the Mull of Galloway and Duncansby Head, Orkney Isles, and islands on the western coast of Scotland ; 
 °f?;?en St. David's Head and the Land's End, the Scilly Islands, and the east coast of Ireland, from Cape Clear to 
 Malhn Head, the ton . . . . • 0 31 
 
506 
 
 DOCKS (LIVERPOOL). 
 
 From the east and southern coast of Great Britain, between Duncan's Bay Head and the Land's 
 End, the islands of Shetland, the west coast of Ireland, from Cape Clear to Mailing Head, 
 including the islands on that coast, the ton ... - . . 0 5i 
 
 From Europe, north of Cape Finisterre, and westward of the North Cape, and without the 
 Cattegat and Baltic Sea, the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, the Faro Islcs,^ 
 and Iceland, the ton - - - - - . . - .Qg 
 
 From within the Cattegat and Baltic, the whole of Sweden, the White Sea, eastward of the 
 North Cape, Europe, south of Cape Finisterre, without the Mediterranean, Newfoundland, 
 Greenland, Davis's Straits, Canaries, Western Islands, Madeira, and Azores, the ton - 10 
 
 From the east coast of North America, the West Indies, east coast of South America, north 
 of Rio Plata, the west coast of Africa, and islands north of the Cape of Good Hope, all parts 
 within the Mediterranean, including the Adriatic, the Black Sea, and Archipelago, the 
 islands of St. Helena, Ascension, and Cape de Verd Islands, the ton - - '16 
 
 From South America, south of Rio Plata, the Pacific Ocean, Africa and Asia, eastward of the 
 Cape of Good Hope, the ton - - - - - . "23 
 
 Note. — Vessels remaining longer than six months in dock, to pay in addition to the above rates, 
 per month . - - - - - - - - 02 
 
 All vessels arriving at or clearing from the said port, are to pay the said rates from or for the most distant 
 port or place from or for which they shall trade ; but vessels arriving from any parts in ballast do not 
 pay dockage on entering inwards; and should such vessels proceed to sea again in ballast, then only 
 one half of the dock rates are due, with the whole of the lights ; but taking a cargo outwards subjects 
 such vessels to full dock dues. 
 
 N. B. — New vessels built in Liverpool are subject only to half the above rates on the first outward 
 clearance. 
 
 Floating Light, at the Entrance of the River Mersey. — Towards this light, the following rates are 
 payable : — 
 
 All vessels sailing to or from Liverpool, to any port or place between Duncan's Bay Head and the 
 Land's End, on the west side of Great Britain, and between Mailing Head and Cape Clear on the east 
 side of Ireland, ^d. per ton. 
 
 All vessels sailing to or from Liverpool, to any port or place between Duncan's Bay Head and the 
 Land's End, on the east and southern coast of Great Britain, and between Mailing Head and Cape Clear 
 on the west coast of Ireland, id. per ton. 
 
 All vessels sailing to or from Liverpool, to any port or place not being within the United Kingdom of 
 Great Britain and Ireland, or the adjacent islands to the northward of the Cape of Good Hope, and the 
 northward of Cape Horn, ^d. per ton. 
 
 All vessels sailing to and from Liverpool, to any port or place to the eastward of the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and the westward of Cape Horn, \d. per ton. 
 
 In the day time, from sunrise to sunset, a blue flag, with the letters N.W. in white, will be 
 hoisted at the main-mast head, and in thick and foggy weather, either by night or day, a bell will be 
 kept constantly ringing, to prevent vessels from running foul of the light-vesseL 
 
 " Dock Regulations. Extracts from Acts of Parliament. — Any owner, or master, or any person having 
 the command, agency, or consignment of any vessel chargeable with dock duties, refusing to pay the 
 same, is liable to have such vessel or goods seized. 
 
 Any person throwing any ballast or rubbish from out of any vessel upon any of the quays, &c., shall 
 immediately cart or carry away the same : penalty 40*. 
 
 Every ship shall, before she comes within any of the piers, take down all her sails : penalty 51. 
 
 Any person having the charge of any vessel in any of the docks, refusing to remove the same, after 
 24 hours' notice in writing, shall forfeit 20Z., and pay the expenses of removal by the water bailiff! 
 
 Any person having the command of any vessel moored in the river, refusing to remove the same, 
 when ordered by the water bailiff, shall forfeit 9,01. 
 
 The master, or other person having the command of any vessel from which any cannon or gun shall 
 be fired whilst in the port, shall forfeit 10^. 
 
 Any person making payment of dock duties, who refuses to answer such questions as shall be put to 
 him by the collector, or give a false or untrue answer, shall forfeit 10/. 
 
 Any master, &c. evading payment of the duties, shall forfeit and pay double the duties evaded; and 
 by 53 Geo. 3. a sum of 20/. in addition thereto. 
 
 Whenever it shall be necessary, for the purpose of cleaning or repairing the docks, to remove the 
 vessels lying therein, the master, mate, or other person taking the command of such vessel, shall, within 
 3 days after notice given, remove such ship from such dock, on pain of forfeiting 10/. 
 
 Any master, &c. refusing to moor and remove the same in docks, according to the direction of the 
 dock master, will forfeit 5/., together with the costs of removal by the dock master. 
 
 Any master, &c. acting contrary to the direction of the dock master, will forfeit 20/. 
 
 Any master, &c. entering and giving false information of the draught of water of any ship to any of 
 the dock masters, will forfeit 20/. 
 
 Any master, &c. bringing the same into the entrance basins, when a signal is hoisted on the pier, at 
 the entrance of such basin, signifying that such dock is full of vessels, will forfeit 20/. 
 
 Any master, &c. bringing his vessel into any of the docks, contrary to the directions of the dock master, 
 will forfeit 20/. 
 
 Every master, or other person, damaging any of the dock gates, bridges, piers, quays, &c. is liable to 
 have the ship seized, and sold to compensate for damage done. 
 
 Any person opening or shutting any of the dock gates, sluices, or clews, is liable to forfeit 100/. ; or 
 opening or shutting any drawbridge, 20/. 
 
 Any owner, &c. leaving gunpowder, pitch, tar, &c., or combustible matter of any kind, on the quays of 
 the docks, &c., or upon the deck of any vessel lying in any of the docks, for above 48 hours after passing 
 the Custom-house officers, is liable to a penalty of 5s. an hour; on neglecting to watch such goods in the 
 night time, to a penalty of 5/. 
 
 Any master, or other person, having the command of any ship, suffering any fire, candles, or lamp to 
 be lighted and burning on board : penalty 10/. 
 
 Any owner, &c., landing, or causing to be landed and laid, any pumps, boats, anchors, cables, lime- 
 stones, &c., or other things whatsoever, upon any of the dock quays, shall within 48 hours wholly remove 
 the same from off such quay, or shall forfeit 5s. per hour above the 48. 
 
 Any person wilfully cutting, damaging, or destroying any cables, &c. by which any vessel in the river 
 or in any of the docks shall bo fastened : penalty, 50/. 
 
 Any person damaging or breaking any lamp, &c. set up near the docks : penalty for each lamp, 51. 
 
 Any master, or other person, having the command of any vessel about which any offence snail have 
 been committed, in relation to any of the docks, &c., is liable to the penalty imposed for such offence. 
 
 Any owner or master of any ship or vessel giving or ofl'ering a bribe to any officer employed in pur- 
 suance of the dock acts : penalty 20/. 
 
 Any owner, consignee, or master of any vessel arriving and departing in ballast without payment of 
 dock duties, is liable to a sum equal to double the amount of dock duty which should have been paid, and 
 the master liable to the penalty of 20/. in addition. 
 
DOCKS (LIVERPOOL). 
 
 507 
 
 Every master, &c. wilfully throwing, casting, or putting any earth, etonca, rubbish, &c. out of any 
 Bhii), SiC. into any part of the port : penalty 50/. 
 
 Any owner, &c. of any vessel laid up for sale, or which shall not be actually employed for two months, 
 not removing the same within 24 hours' notice in writing from the harbour master, or left on board : 
 penalty 5/., and costs of removal. 
 
 Any person discharging timber in any dock without having obtained the consent in writing of the 
 chairman or deputy chairman of the dock committee, or of some justice of the peace: penalty liU. 
 
 Any person having consent, not removing the same therefrom within 21 hours, liable to a fine of 5s, 
 an hour. 
 
 Any person damaging any ship, &c. in any of the docks, &c., or in the river, and refusing to make com- 
 pensation, liable to have his goods, or the tackle of tiie ship, &c. doing the damage, seized. 
 
 Any justice of the peace for the county of Chester or borough of Liverpool, upon complaint made to 
 them, may summon persons to appear before him, and may fix the amount to be paid to boatmen, and 
 persons finding and taking possession of anchors, &c. in any part of the port of Liverpool, 
 
 Any person throwing, casting, or emptying any ballast, ashes, &c. out of any ship, &c. into the river 
 Mersey, the Rock or Horse Channel, or Formby Channel, to the eastward of the Floating Light, or from 
 any of the piers into the docks or basins, or into the river Mersey : penalty 10^'. 
 
 That every vessel laden with a cargo consisting solely of limestones, paving-stones, flintstones, grave, 
 and chalk, shall be charged tonnage rates, as if coming in ballast. 
 
 Every owner or master, &c. of any vessel arriving at or departing from the said port, shall produce to 
 the collector, upon demand, at the time of making entry, all books, accounts, &c. in relation to such 
 vessel, or which show the weights and quantities of the goods, &c. In case of dispute, such owner, &c. 
 shall produce a statement in wri ting, to be verified by oath, and showing the actual weights and quantities 
 of such goods, &c., or the accuracy of the said books, &c. 
 
 In case the master, &c. of any vessel from which rubbish, ballast, dirt, or other refuse of any kind shall 
 be landed, shall permit or suffer the same to be so landed, or laid within 3 yards from the margin of any 
 such dock or basin, or of the river Mersey, and shall not cause such rubbish, &c. to be wholly removed 
 from off such quays, &c. within 24 hours after the same shall be so landed or laid : penalty 5/. 
 
 Any owner, &c. of any boat or vessel, permitting gunpowder, exceeding 10 pounds in weight, to be 
 brought into any of the docks or basins, or any vessel or boat lying therein, without the previous consent 
 in writing of a justice of the peace of the borough of Liverpool : penalty 100/. 
 
 Tliat upon due proof, on oath, to the satisfaction of any justice of the peace of the borough of Liver- 
 pool, or county of Lancaster, that any dealer in marine stores, within the said borough, or Toxteth Park, 
 shall have been guilty of receiving stolen goods, or purchasing or receiving, &c., every such person shall 
 forfeit 20/, for the first offence, 30/. for the second offence; and after conviction for such second offence, 
 shall not carry on business as such dealer in marine stores within 200 yards from the margin or side of 
 any dock or basin (exclusive of 40 yards prohibited by a former act) on pain of forfeiting the sum of 10/. 
 for every day he, she, or they shall carry on such trade or business. 
 
 In case any person or persons giving or accepting any bribe to or from any water bailiff, harbour 
 master, &c. give information thereof, he or they shall be excused from the penalty of 20/. imposed by the 
 51 Geo. 3. for such offence, provided such information be given before any proceeding for punishing the 
 said offence shall have commenced, or any information laid before any justice of the peace against such 
 person in respect of the same. 
 
 Justices of the peace may, upon complaint made, summon parties and ascertain and award the amount 
 of recompence, for any services rendered by boatmen, &c. to vessels in, the said docks or basins, and, in 
 case of non-payment, may levy the sum so awarded by distress. 
 
 Bi/-laws. — \. That the master, &c, who shall permit or suffer any pitch or tar, or any other combus- 
 tible matter, to be boiled or heated for the use of such ship or vessel, either on board of such vessel, or 
 within 5 yards of the same, shall forfeit 40s. for every offence. 
 
 2. That the master, &c. discharging or loading any cotton or other combustible goods on or from any 
 of the quays, who shall permit or suffer any person or persons to smoke or burn tobacco, shall for each 
 offence forfeit 20s. ; and any other person or persons who shall burn or smoke tobacco, or any other thing, 
 amongst cotton or any other combustible goods, lying; and being on the quays, shall for each offence 
 forfeit the like penalty of 20s. 
 
 3. That if the master, &c. shall bring the same into any of the docks, basins, or entrances, with loaded 
 ■cannon or guns, with gunpowder on board, or, when driven in by stress of weather, shall neglect imma 
 diately to discharge the same, or who shall take gunpowder on board, until clear of the docks and pie& 
 heads, shall forfeit 51. 
 
 4. That the master, &c. of any vessel, or any other person or persons whomsoever, who shall permit or 
 suffer any rope from such vessel to be.made fast to any chain-post or quay-fender, or any rope, chain, or 
 tackle of any description, to be made fast to any of the pillars of any iron or other shed on any of the 
 quays, or to the roof or any other part of such shed, shall for every offence forfeit 40s. 
 
 5. That the master, &c. of any vessel lying within or up to any of the docks, basins, &c.,.who shall 
 suffer any ballast, &c. to be taken on board such vessel, or thrown, discharged, or carried out of the same, 
 without having a canvass nailed to the ship's side, or some other safeguard from falling into any such 
 docks or basins, shall for every offence forfeit the sum of 40s, 
 
 6. That the master, &c. of any ship or vessel lying in any of the said docks or basins, or the entrances 
 to the same, who shall suffer any repairs to be done to the outsides of such vessels, without having a 
 canvass or some other safeguard secured from the side of such vessel, and placed or fixed so as to prevent 
 any chips or pieces of wood from falling into the said docks or basins during the whole of such work or 
 repairs, shall for every offence forfeit 40s. 
 
 7. That the master, &c. of any vessel lying or being within any of the docks, &c. who shall not cause 
 all ballast, &c. discharged from or to be laden on board of any vessel, to be thrown at least 5 feet from 
 the edge of the quay, or on the outsides of the cart or chain-posts of the said quay, and taken away imme- 
 diately, shall for every offence forfeit 40s, 
 
 8. That the master, &c. or other person having the charge or command of every vessel lying within 
 any of the docks or basins, shall have a ship-keeper on deck to attend the vessel every tide, at least 2 
 hours before the time of high water, and 1 hour after high water, under the penalty of iOs. 
 
 9. That the master, &c. of any vessel, when hauling into or out of the docks or basins, &c., shall (except 
 when any such vessel be driven by stress of weather) have the yards a-peak, and the sprit-sail yard fore 
 and aft, and the jib-boom run in, within 3 feet from the cap, if practicable ; and, after any such vessel 
 shall be brought into any dock or basin, shall have the anchors got in on the forecastle or deck, and shall 
 have the steering-sail booms and irons taken off from the yards, and shall have the main or mizen 
 booms, and the stern or quarter davits rigged in, within 24 hours, under the penalty of 40s. 
 
 10. That the master or other person having the command of any vessel, who shall, by negligence or 
 Otherwise, leave an anchor in the entrance to any of the docks, or upon the strand of the river, without 
 a buoy, for a longer period than one tide, shall for every offence forfeit 51. 
 
 11. That the owner, &c. of any vessel who shall refuse to strike the top-gallant mast* and yards of every 
 such vessel entering any of the repairing or graving docks, shall forfeit 5/. 
 
 12. That the owner or driver of any cart, &c., or any other person or persons who shall draw, or cause, 
 or permit, or suffer to be drawn upon or over any of the dock bridges, any anchors, talks, &c, shall for 
 every offence forfeit 40s. 
 
508 
 
 DOCKS (LIVERPOOL). 
 
 Every day, 2 hours before high water, a bell will be rung for 1 minute at each dock, when every ship- 
 keeper is to make his appearance on the deck of his vessel, or incur tlie penalty of 4Cs. 
 
 All merchants and other owners or agents of ships and vessels trading to the port of Liverpool, will 
 be required to enter the names of such vessels, their draught of water, and the date of their arrival at 
 the port of Liverpool, together witli the name of the dock into which they are intended to be brought, 
 in a book kept for that purpose, in the office of the harbour master in Trentham Street. And all vessels 
 will thereafter be admitted into the said docks or basins in the order only in which they shall be so 
 entered. 
 
 Liverpool Dock Rates. — The following is a Table of the dock duties that may be charged on goods 
 imported, exported, or brought coastwise into the port of Liverpool ; but the collector or receiver of dock 
 duties is directed, by order of the dock committee of the 6th of September, 1836, to charge only two thirds 
 of the under-mentioned duties ; and all goods imported coastwise into Liverpool from places in the U.K. 
 were, at the same time, exempted from all charge on account of dock duties. 
 
 The Duties Outwards are for Foreign, British, or Irish Goods, except those marked thus (*) which 
 are for British or Irish Goods only. 
 
 Basket rods 
 
 Bass mats 
 Bcist rope 
 Beef or pork 
 
 Acorns - - • ton (40 bus.) 
 Alabaster - • - ton 
 
 Ale, beer, and porter - 100 gallons 
 hogshead 
 bottled, the punch, or cask 
 tierce 
 barrel 
 hamper 
 
 Alkanet root, amber, and aloes. - cwt. 
 Almonds - - - ton 
 
 Alum, roche - - — 
 
 Anchor palms - - - — 
 Anchovies, angelica, and annotto cwt. 
 Aniseeds, antimony - - — 
 Apples - - - bushel 
 
 Aquafortis, and arsenic - cwt. 
 
 Argol .... ton 
 Arrow root and powder - cwt. 
 
 Ashes — barilla - ■ ton 
 
 pearl and pot - - — 
 *.'Vshes — black, soda weed and wood — 
 bleaching - - — 
 common Irish - — 
 Bacon ... - — 
 Bagging - - - piece 
 
 Ballast of paving and other stones that 
 may be used for making or repairing 
 roads - - - - ton 
 Bark, angustura, eleutheriae, Jesuiu", 
 cascarilla, or Winteranus - cwt. 
 oak, cork tree, birch, and larch, ton 
 quercitron ... — 
 . cwt. 
 . bundle 
 1,000 
 . 120 
 ton 
 hogshead 
 puncheon 
 tierce 
 barrel 
 
 J barrel and smaller package 
 Beer, spruce - .32 gallons 
 
 Bees' wax, or bell metal - - cwt. 
 Bellows, smiths' • - each 
 
 Berries, bay, juniper, yellow - ton 
 Blacking . - - hogshead 
 puncheon or cask 
 tierce 
 barrel 
 smaller package 
 Bladders containing lard, &c. • each 
 Blocks, heel - gross 
 
 last - - - 1,000 
 
 ship - - - 100 
 
 Blubber - . - ton 
 
 Blue - - package 
 
 Boat* ... each 
 
 Bobbins - - - cask 
 
 Bone dust and bones of cattle, and bran, 
 ton 
 
 Books - - - package 
 
 Borax or tincal - - - cwt. 
 *Bottle3 . - - crate 
 
 of green or common glass, not 
 less than pints . gross 
 Boulder stones - . . ton 
 Bowls of wood - - dozen 
 
 Bows for cattle ... — 
 Brass .... cwt. 
 
 old ... ton 
 
 Bread . - - - cwt. 
 
 bag or sack 
 
 cwt. 
 bundle 
 1,000 
 dozen 
 
 load (48 bundles) 
 Brown powder ... ton 
 Brush heads and stocks - - bag 
 1,000 
 
 Brushes - - bundle or box 
 
 cask 
 
 Buckets of wood - • dozen 
 Bugle - - . - ton 
 
 Uullion . . package 
 
 Bricks, bearers, and tiles. 
 Bristles 
 
 Broom and brush handles 
 Brooms 
 
 Fo- Coast- 
 reign, wise. 
 
 2 0 
 U 0^ 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 0 2 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 1 
 
 5* 
 
 2 
 Oi 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 5 1 0 
 
 Bullrushes 
 Burr stones 
 
 load (63 bundles) 
 - 100 
 cask or firkin 
 J firkin or keg 
 Cables or cordage . . ton 
 
 Cakes, linseed or rape - - — 
 Calamine, calaminaris lapis • — 
 Cambric ... piece 
 
 Camphor, canella alba - - cwt. 
 *Candles, and candlewicfc . — 
 
 package 
 
 Cane reeds - - - 1,200 
 
 Cantharides,caoutchuc, and capers, cwt. 
 Caqjets. See Woollens. 
 Carriages, cars, and carts . each 
 for guns - — 
 handcarts - — 
 Cassia buds ... cwt. 
 
 fistula and lignea . . _ 
 Cattle, asses and mules, bulls, cows, and 
 oxen .... each 
 calves - - . — 
 
 horses - - - — 
 
 lambs, sheep, and swine - — 
 Caviare - - - - ton 
 
 Cement . . . - — 
 Chalk . - . . _ 
 Charcoal - . . — 
 
 *Cheese . . . . _ 
 hamper 
 
 box or other package, not described 
 if loose, cwt. 
 
 Cheese boards - - - dozen 
 Chesnuts - . . bushel 
 
 China. See Earthenware. 
 Chirt stones . . ,. ton 
 
 British or Irish - — 
 Chocolate and cocoa paste - cwt. 
 
 Cider . . tun (252 gallons) 
 Cinnabar ... cwt. 
 
 Cinnamon . . . — 
 
 Citron, preserved - - — 
 Clay, Cambria and pipe . . ton 
 China, stone, and firebrick — 
 *CIocks .... case 
 Cloves, cobalt, cochineal . - cwt. 
 * Coals - (Winchester meas.) chal. 
 
 ton 
 
 Cocoa, cofFee, cork - - ton 
 
 Cocoa nuts .... loo 
 Colouring for porter, &c. . 100 gallons 
 *Combs ... packcige 
 
 Copper, British or Irish . *box or tub 
 *case 
 *cask 
 ♦tierce 
 ♦barrel 
 *bag or keg 
 ton 
 
 old . . _ 
 
 ore . . . — 
 
 dross and slag m . — 
 Copperas • . . — 
 
 Coral . ... cwt. 
 
 Cork - • .ton 
 
 Corks - ... bag 
 
 Corn — Barley, here, and big beans, In- 
 dian, peas, or rye - . quarter 
 Meal, barley meal or oat meal, ton 
 Malt, also wheat . quarter 
 Oats - . . _ 
 Wheat flour - - cwt. 
 Cotton seed ... bushel 
 twist, thread, and yam - cwt. 
 waste, also cotton wool 100 lbs. 
 Cottons, manufactured - package 
 Cream of tartar, also currants - ton 
 Crystal ... package 
 
 Culm ... ton 
 
 Curiosities, natural or artificial, package 
 Drapery, linen or woollen - piece 
 Uarth, black, brown, red, or yellow, ton 
 fullers' - - . _ 
 Earthenware - crate or other package 
 loiiil 
 
 Eggs - . . 1,200 
 
 Emery stones - i - cat. 
 
 Fo. Coast 
 reign, 
 
 *. d. 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 0 
 0 1 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 0 
 0 6 
 0 1 
 0 3 
 0 2 
 
 Oi 0 
 0| 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 2 
 6 
 3 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 8 
 1 
 
 5 
 2 
 2 
 5 
 4 
 3 
 
 0 i-il 
 
 0 1^ 
 0 8 
 0 6 
 0 2 
 0 2 
 0 4 
 0 2 
 0 8 
 0 1 
 
DOCKS (LIVERPOOL). 509 
 
 
 
 Inwards. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Inwards. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Articles* 
 
 Fo- 
 
 Coast 
 
 
 ft 
 
 Articles. 
 
 
 Fo. 
 
 
 >a«t 
 
 \ 
 
 9 
 
 
 reign. 
 
 wise. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 reign 
 
 . wise. 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 «. 
 
 d. 
 
 I ron — conHnucd, 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 Empty bags, baskets, crates, hampers, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 \: 
 
 and sacks - - - score 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 wire, or wrought • - ton 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 8* 
 
 barrels . - - — 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 0 
 
 4 
 
 i barrels and smaller pack- 
 
 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 2i 
 
 i4 
 0' 
 
 
 
 Isinglass - . . cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 li 0 
 
 2 ' 0 
 C 0 
 
 1 
 
 boxes* . each 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 .5 
 
 0,'r 
 
 ./uice, lemon, time, and orance • tun 
 •^unk - . - ton 
 
 
 
 
 
 load 
 
 2 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Ivory . . . 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 i 0 
 
 „ 
 
 crates • - • each 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Kelp - - . "t^n 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 u 
 
 c 
 
 : 0 
 
 f 
 
 cases, chests, half 'quarter crates, 
 tierces, and trunks - each 
 
 
 j. 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 J^ac, ^fum, sticky seed, and shell • cwt. 
 
 
 
 
 1* 0 
 
 J 
 
 Y 
 
 0', 
 
 0 
 
 0,< 
 
 Lampblack, latton black, and larJf ^''ton 
 
 1 
 
 
 0 
 
 c 
 
 " 
 
 3 
 
 Feathers . . - - cwt. 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 n 
 
 ostrich - - 100 lbs. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 Laths - _ hitiif^iia 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 r* 
 
 0 
 
 ni 
 
 Felt - - - package 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Lead, and lead ore - - ton 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 Kigs ... - ton 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 black, red, white, and powder _ 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 •0 
 
 8 
 
 Filtering stones • - each 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 (li 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Leather (tanned) . - . cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 r* 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Fish, dry salted ... ton 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 c 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 wroueht • . Tiarkacf* 
 
 Leeches . . . ^^""^^^ 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 herrings, firesh - - 1,200 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 li 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 G 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 pickled and salted of all descrip- 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Lemons . . case or chest 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 tions - - - barrel 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 box or other package 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 firkin, J barrel, or kit 
 pipe, puncheon, cask 
 hogshead 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0. 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 2 
 
 Lime - . hogshead 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 J. 
 
 0 
 
 2' 
 
 0 
 
 *keg 
 
 *puncheon or cask 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 0 
 
 OA 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3* 
 
 tierce 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 *tierce 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 British cured - *hogshead 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Limes . . package 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 li 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 *puncheon 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Limestones • - - ton 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 *tierce 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 Linen cloth - . package 
 *rags . . crate 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 *barrel 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 0 
 
 0.^ 
 3 
 
 *i brl. and smaller package 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 Flagstones, also freestone - ton 
 
 
 o 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 thread yam - - cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Flax, rough - ... — 
 
 2 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 ^'manufactured . package 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Flint, ground or dried - ton 
 stones - - - — 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Liquorice paste, also litharge - ton 
 Maccaroni ... cwt. 
 
 2 
 0 
 
 0 
 C 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 8 
 2 
 
 Floor-cloth (containing 1 roll), box, bag. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Mace - - 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 C 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 or mat 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 ^'Machines, bark mills, binnacles, brew- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Furniture, household - - load 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 OA- 
 
 ing, coffee fanners, and cooking ap- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ♦package 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 li 
 
 paratus - . . each 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 box. bundle, mat, or *tniss 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 copying - 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 case, chest, or trunk 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 corn, also filtering - 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 G 
 
 Galangal, galbanum, galls, gamboge, cwt. 
 Gentian root, granella (cochmeal refuse) 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 "11 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 fire engines - - 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 gins, linseed cribbles, malt 
 mills, mangles, packing 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gigs - - - - each 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 presses, paper moulds, saw- 
 ing, sedans, and sfiower 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <jinger, Glauber salts, or glue - ton 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 preserved ... cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 Ih 
 
 0 
 
 baths . . each 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Ginseng - . - ton 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6' 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 soap cutters . 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 <Jlass • - - - cwt. 
 
 J' 
 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 
 straw cutters, also tin 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Oi 
 
 0 
 
 0? 
 
 
 
 turning lathes • — 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 crown - - package 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 1* 
 
 turning drills - — 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 flint - - - — 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3* 
 
 all otlier packages of ma- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0, 
 
 0 
 
 Oh 
 
 chinery ... 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Grease or greaves - • ton 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6' 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Machinery (loose) . . ton 
 
 2 
 
 "0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 * Groats ... barrel 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 li 
 
 Madder - - . _ 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 cask 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 roots - . . 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 jar or jug 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 Manganese, also marble . 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 tierce 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3^ 
 
 Manure - . . 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 Grinding stones - - - each 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 "o.i 
 
 0 
 
 O3 
 
 Marble, sculptured, loose pieces 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 0 10 
 
 <ium. Ammoniac, aniini, Arabic, ca- 
 shew, copal, elemi, guaiacum, Senegal, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 package 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marmalade - - .cwt. 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 and tragacanth - - ton 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Mastich, and mother-of-pearl shell 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 li 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 .Gunvowder ... cwt. 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Matchets . . package 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3* 
 
 " *barrel 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 li 
 
 Millboards - - - 120 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 *i barrel 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 stones - . each 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 * \ barrel and keg 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 Mineral waters • . package 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Haberdashery - - package 
 
 I 
 
 
 0 
 
 "e 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Molasses . . . ton 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Hair, bull, cow, and ox, goats' and horse 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cask or puncheon 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 0 
 
 4* 
 
 cwt. 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Mum ... ixin 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 Hairpowder ... package 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 Ih 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Muriate of lime, potash, and soda ton 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Hammocks ... dozen 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1' 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Musical instruments - . package 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Hams - - - - ton 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 *Muskets - - case or chest 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 Handcoops - - - 100 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 O'l 
 
 
 
 Mustard ... cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 '2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Hardens ... package 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6' 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 package 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2* 
 
 (loose) ... piece 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0^ 
 
 0 
 
 OS 
 
 Natron, also nixon sal - . ton 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 Hardware - - - bundle 
 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 Nests of trunks - - each 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 keg 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Nutmegs ... cwt. 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 "e 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 all other packages 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Nuts - - bushel 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 'e' 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Harrows, also hats - - each 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Oakum - - . ton 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Hay . ... ton 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Oatmeal shudes, or dust . _ 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 rakes - ... dozen 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0; 
 
 0 
 
 f 
 
 Ochre, or oker - . . 
 
 2 
 
 '0 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 Hemp, rough ... ton 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0' 
 
 0 
 
 Oil, castor - - cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 li 
 
 0 
 
 
 Hides, dry . ... cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 
 cod . . - tun 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 wet ... — 
 
 0 
 
 ^ 
 
 0 
 
 o| 
 
 0 
 
 
 dubbing, linseed, also olive - 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 pieces of, or glue pieces - ton 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0^ 
 
 0 
 
 in flasks . - chest 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Honey - - - - cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 box or i chest 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 I' 
 
 0 
 
 
 Hoops, mast, and truss - - 15iO 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 palm, seal, train, or whale - tun 
 rape, also spermaceti - . _ 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 G 
 
 set 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 Oi* 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 wood ... 1,200 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 of vitriol - - 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Hoofs of cattle . - ton 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 *Oils of all kinds boiled or manufactured 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hops ... cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 (J 
 
 ] 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 since their importation - butt or pipe 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 bag or pocket 
 
 Horns and horn t'ps - l,2i'0 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 puncheon or cask 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 g 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 hogshead 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 hogshead 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 barrel 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 bottle, jar,,jug, or can 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 shavings, also slugs • ton 
 
 1 
 
 'o 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Onions - - - package 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 Hurdles (containing 1 dozen) - mat 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 loose - - bushel 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Jackscrews - . pair 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Opium, also orange peel - . cwt. 
 Oranges - - case or chest 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 P 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 *»/ars and jugs containing barley, oat- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 i' 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 meal, groats, peas, or other articles 
 of British or Irish growth, ])roduce, or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 box or other package 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Orchella weed ... ton 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 manufacture, not otherwise rated, each 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 Orrice root - - cwt. 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Iceland moss, or lichen Islandicus, cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 ?' 
 
 Packing boards . • dozen 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 Indigo . - . — 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Paint and painters' colours and mate- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ipecacuanha root • - — 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 rials - - - ;on 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 Iron, viz. bar, bolt, or rod - ton 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 I' 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 case, chest, or hogshead 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 broken or old - . — 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 " tierce 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 cast, or pig . • — 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 cask or puncheon 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 hoops and sheet - — 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 barrel 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1* 
 
 *plate and sheet - - box 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 box or bundle 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 j nails ... package 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 keg 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 8{ 
 
 0 
 
 k 
 
 ! ore . . . ton 
 
 0 
 
 "4 
 
 0 
 
 "2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 jar or jug 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 c 
 
 
510 
 
 DOCKS (LIVERPOOL). 
 
 Paper 
 
 bale, case, chest 
 J bale, bundle, box 
 
 Paving stones • - 
 Pearl and shelled barley, pepper, white 
 or black, pewter, or pimento - ton 
 Pears, pistachio nuts - . bushel 
 Pickles . - - gall 
 
 *box, case, or chest 
 *barrel 
 *keg,jar,orjug 
 Pmkroot ... cwt. 
 Pitch - - last of 12 barrels 
 
 Plaster of Paris ... ton 
 Plate and plated ware - package 
 Ploughs - - loose, each 
 
 Potatoes ... 
 
 exported in packages - barrel 
 hamper 
 
 Preserved ginger 
 Preserves 
 Printers' liquor 
 Prints or pictures 
 Prunelloes 
 Prunes 
 Pumice stone 
 Quern stones 
 Uuicksilver 
 Quills - 
 
 Rags 
 
 Raisins, also rock moss 
 Rhubarb 
 Rice 
 Riddles 
 Rosin 
 
 100 gallons 
 case or box 
 cwt 
 ton 
 
 each 
 - package 
 1,200 
 package 
 
 ton 
 bundle 
 ton 
 barrel 
 
 Rushes • • load (63 bundles) 
 Saftlower, sal ammoniac, or gem . ton 
 Saffron ... package 
 Sago, sanguis draconis, salep, also San- 
 ders wood, white and yellow 
 
 - cwt, 
 package 
 each 
 
 Sailcloth 
 Sails 
 Saltpetre 
 
 Salt, rock ... ton 
 white - . . — 
 
 Sand for ironfounders and glassblowers, 
 ton 
 
 silversmiths - ;i . casks 
 Sarsaparilla, also sausages • cwt. 
 Sassafras ... ton 
 Scammony - - • cwt. 
 
 Scythe stones - . dozen 
 
 Scythes . . - bundle 
 
 Seeds, viz. aniseeds, caraway, clover, 
 or trefoil ... cwt. 
 Canary ... ton 
 coriander and garden • cwt. 
 flax or linseed, hemp and rape, qr. 
 furze - - 100 bushels 
 
 mustard - - ton 
 
 rye grass . . 100 bushels 
 Senna ... ton 
 
 Shaddocks . • package 
 
 Shakes . hogshead, puncheon, or tierce 
 barrel, J barrel, or J cask 
 Sheathing - . .ton 
 
 Shovels or spades • . bundle 
 
 Shumac - - ton 
 
 Sieves . . . dozen 
 
 Silk, raw or thrown - . cwt. 
 waste - . . — 
 
 manufactured . . package 
 Skins, kip and calf, dry . . cwt. 
 
 wet . . — 
 
 badger, bear, beaver, deer, elk, 
 ermine, fisher, fox, leopard, lion, 
 marten, otter, panther, seal (fur), 
 tiger - . - score 
 
 cat, chinchilH, husse, mink, ra- 
 coon, seal fhair) . .120 
 goat, fitch, kid. Iamb, musquash, 
 nutria, sheep, swan . 120 
 coney, hare, mole - — 
 Skates, also slate pencils package 
 Slate and slate slabs - . ton 
 
 Slates - . puncheon or cask 
 
 writing . . package 
 
 Slime . . .ton 
 
 Smalts ... cwt. 
 Smart sticks • • . 1,200 
 
 Snuff . . -ton 
 
 Soap 
 
 Fo- 
 
 Coast 
 
 reign 
 
 
 T. d. 
 
 I. d. 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 0 
 
 'I f 
 
 0 2 
 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 OA 
 
 0 Oj 
 
 0 0^ 
 
 .Soder or solder, or spelte 
 
 Spermaceti 
 
 Spinnel 
 
 Sjiirits 
 
 Spirits of salts 
 I Sponge 
 nprau 
 Spruce beer 
 Squills 
 Starch 
 
 package 
 ton 
 cwt. 
 bales 
 . 100 gallons 
 pipe 
 puncheon 
 hogsliead 
 bottle 
 cwt. 
 1,000 
 32 gallons 
 cwt. 
 ton 
 
 0 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 3J 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 1 0 
 0 6 
 0 4J 
 0 3 
 0 OJ 
 
 0 'e 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 ij 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 1 
 9 
 
 0 6 
 0 0^ 
 
 9^ 
 
 0 0^ 
 
 0 r 
 
 0 6 
 0 4 
 0 
 
 0 2* 
 0 3 
 0 1* 
 
 OO^i* 
 0 
 
 I' 
 
 1; 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 \' 
 
 'I 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 0 Oi 
 0 9 
 
 f 
 0 1, 
 
 0 oj 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 3* 
 0 4 
 0 8 
 0 
 0 6 
 0 0, 
 
 0 U* 
 0 4 
 0 8 
 0 2 
 
 0 6 
 0 OJ 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 0 .3' 
 
 0 li 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 OJ 
 OOJ 
 
 0 1 
 0 8 
 0 1 
 
 0 OJ* 
 
 f 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 OJ 
 OOi* 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 . package 
 ton 
 package 
 
 *Stationery 
 
 Steel, also sulphur vivum 
 Straw and straw plait 
 Sturgeon 
 
 Succades and sweetmeats 
 Sugar 
 
 refined • - hogshead 
 
 tierce 
 barrel 
 puncheon 
 
 candy - . cwt. 
 
 Talc, tamarinds, or tapioca . — 
 Tallow, also tin of all kinds • ton 
 Tanners' waste - - — 
 
 Tapes, British - - package 
 
 Tar . - last (12 barrels) 
 
 water - . barrel 
 
 Tarras ... bushel 
 Tea ... package 
 Thread, linen, twist, cotton, or yarn, cwt. 
 Thrums ... bag 
 Tin plates - - box 
 
 Tobacco and stalks, also turmeric cwt. 
 
 box 
 package 
 cwt. 
 ton 
 package 
 1,200 
 each 
 cwt. 
 ton 
 
 cwt. 
 box 
 cwt. 
 ton 
 cwt. 
 
 ton 
 
 I'obacco pipes 
 Tongues - ? 
 
 Tortoise-shell 
 Tow 
 Toys 
 
 Treenails • 
 Trucks 
 Truffles 
 Turnips 
 Turpentine 
 Twine 
 Types 
 valerian 
 
 Valonia, also varnish 
 Vanelloes 
 Venice turpentine 
 Verdigris 
 
 Vermicelli, also vermilion 
 Vinegar and verjuice 
 
 Vitriol, white 
 oil of 
 \Vhalebone fins 
 Wheelbarrows 
 Whetstones 
 Whip-sticks 
 Whiting 
 Wine - 
 
 bottled 
 
 pipe 
 cask 
 hogshead 
 J hogshead 
 tun 
 
 cwt. 
 
 each 
 cask 
 bundle 
 ton 
 tun 
 barrel 
 box 
 case 
 cask 
 hogshead 
 puncheon 
 tierce 
 
 Wood, viz. anchor stocks . each 
 axe handles - - 120 
 
 battens, viz. 6 ft. to 21 ft. long — 
 above 21 ft. long — 
 batten ends • - — 
 
 beech poles - - load 
 
 boards, viz. beech, birch, pine. 
 
 Inweirds. 
 
 Fo- 
 
 Coast- 
 
 reign. 
 
 wise. 
 
 «. d. 
 
 «. A 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 2 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 OJ 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 2 
 3 
 0 
 4 
 
 6 
 0 
 2 
 
 f 
 4 
 
 0 3 
 0 1 
 
 01 
 
 0 6 
 0 
 
 0 6 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 1 0 
 
 I' 
 2 
 3 
 0 
 
 0 1 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 1^ 
 
 o"oj 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 6 
 0 3 
 
 and poplar 
 clap 
 
 oak, above 15 ft. 
 
 under do. - 
 wainscot, above do. 
 
 under do. 
 
 coal pit props 
 crate and crop wood 
 deals, viz. under 21 ft. 
 
 exceeding do. 
 deal ends 
 
 fir quarters or balks, viz. 
 under 8 in. square 
 8 inches and above 
 
 120 
 
 load 
 
 fire wood - - fathom 
 
 lath wood - - — 
 
 masts, viz. 6 in. and under 8 
 in. . - each 
 8 in. and under 12 in. — 
 oak knees, viz. under 8 in. sq. 120 
 8 in. square and upwards, load 
 oar rafters and oars . J 20 
 old wood - - load 
 
 planks, viz. beech, birch, oak, 
 and poplar - - load 
 pine . • 120 
 
 spars, viz. under 22 ft. long — 
 22 ft. long and upwards — 
 spruce knees, viz. under 8 in. — 
 8 in. and upward load 
 staves, above IJ in. thick, not ex- 
 ceeding 36 in. long 120 
 exceed. 36 in. and under 60 — 
 
 exceeding 60 in. long - 
 
 not above IJ in. thick, not 
 exceeding 36 in- long 120 
 exceed. .36 in. and under 60 — 
 exceeding 60 in. long - — 
 timber, viz. fir - . load 
 teak or oak . — 
 
 pine, and all other timber — 
 
 2 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 6 
 
 2 6 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 .3 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 2 0 
 2 0 
 0 9 
 
 0 4J 
 0 2 
 0 3 
 
 0 OJ 
 0 OJ 
 0 ' 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 3* 
 0 6 
 
 0 2 
 0 1 
 0 6 
 0 4 
 0 1 
 0 8 
 0 2 
 0 
 
 0 6* 
 0 4* 
 0 2* 
 0 1* 
 0 8 
 0 10 
 0 1 
 0 
 0 4 
 0 OJ 
 0 ' 
 0 
 
 0 IJ 
 0 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 0 3 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 4J 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 I' 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 ^ 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 ij 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 ?^ 
 
 0 
 
 OJ 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 w 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 4i 
 
 <) 
 
 
DOCKS (LIVERPOOL). 
 
 511 
 
 Wood — continued. 
 
 ufers, viz. under 24 ft. long 120 
 24 feet long or upwards — 
 wainscot logs - - load 
 •wedges - - 1,200 
 
 British or Irish - — 
 wheel spokes and fellies - — 
 
 British or Irish 
 barwood or boxwood - ton 
 Brazil and Braziletto, or cam- 
 wood - • ton 
 pipe boaids. See Staves. 
 masts 12 in. and upwards. See 
 
 J^iV Timber. 
 cedar wood, ebony, fustic, Guinea 
 wood, lignum vitiE, logwood, 
 mahogany, or red sanders ton 
 Nicaragua wood, sapan, or rose- 
 wood - - ton 
 Woollens - - package 
 Yams - . package 
 Vam, bay - • cwt. 
 cotton or twist - - — 
 grogram, also worsted - — 
 linen - - — 
 
 Fo- 
 reign 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 4 
 
 Coast- 
 wise. 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 9 
 
 0*9 
 
 o'o 
 
 1 0 
 
 Veast 
 
 JCaflre (a species of cobalt) 
 
 ' Fo- ICoast- 
 relgn; | wise. 
 
 e. d. I I. d. 
 
 0 6 10 
 0 2 0 2 
 
 Articles not rated, but to pay at foUorvt. 
 Inwards, viz. Carpets as woollens, china as earthenware ; cider, 
 bottled, as ale ; cordials as spirits, dammon as rosin ; coin, 
 foreign, as bullion ; hosiery as haberdashery, iron liquor as 
 
 printers' liquor, iron in packages as hardware, millinery as 
 haberdashery, salad oil as olive in flasks, pomegranates as 
 oranges ; saddlerv, wrought leather slops, see HaUrdaibery; 
 
 straw bonnets and wearing apparel as haberdashery 
 Outwards, viz. Bacon, hams, lard, and tripe, as beef and pork ; 
 iron, in packages; as hardware ; linen as cotton, machinery 
 as wrought iron, paper as stationery, pewter and tin as cop- 
 per, preserve* as pickles; soda water as pickles, tapes or linen, 
 and twine, threaa, twist, as cottons. 
 Painters' colours, in packages, outwards, includes ashes, brown 
 powder, cement, cnalk, charcoal, chromate of lead, or iron, 
 copperas, cudbear, earths, blue, grease or greaves, lamp 
 black, lead, litharge, manganese, ochre, starch, and whit- 
 ing. 
 
 Liverpool Town Dues. — Besides the dock rates, town dues are levied on goods inwards and out- 
 wards, at a certain rate per package. The annual amount of these duties, since 1812, is shown in a pre- 
 vious Table, and we now subjoin an account of the rate at which they are charged. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Inwards. 
 
 Outwards. 
 
 i\.rticl6S* 
 
 Inwards. jOut 
 
 weurds. 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 i. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 Alabaster, the ton - - - 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 ^uts^ tne barrel • • 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Ashes of rem, the 100 bushels 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 the bag - • 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Bacon, the ton - - 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Oak bark, the ton - - 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 xirjcKS, the i,UUvi - - 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 timber, trie ton • • • 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 planks, the 120 - - • 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Calamme, the ton - - - 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Oil, viz. fish or traiu, the ton • • 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 Paper, the P^*^^ h ' h ad" 
 rerry or ciuer, uie nogsneaa 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 cneese, tne ton - - 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 day lor potters, tne ton - - 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 otatoes, tne uu Dusneis 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Copper, the ton . - . 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 rots oi iron, trie ton 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 Cotton, tne oag - - - 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 ivaisins, tne lUU basteis • • 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Coals, the chaldron (AVinchester mea- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sidlt wliite the 100 bushels 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 2* 
 
 0 
 
 23 
 
 coastwise • 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^'^^'the ton • - - 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 rock, the 100 bushels 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Cow shanks, the 1,000 - - . 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 coastwise, do. 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 horns, the 100 - 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 Seeds, garden, the sack 
 
 0 
 
 i 
 
 0 
 
 OJ 
 
 Cork wood, the ton - . - 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 f 
 
 Slates, the ton - - 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Corn, of all sorts, the 100 bushels 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 Soap, the box - - 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 2* 
 
 Currants, the butt - - . 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Spirits, the puncheon 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 
 Deals, the 120 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 the hogshead ... 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Deer skins, loose, the 100 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 drawn from com, the puncheon 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 dressed, the hogshead 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 
 Staves, beading, and handspikes, the 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dyeing wood, of every kind, the ton - 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 1,000 - - 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Earthenware, the crate 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Starch, the chest - . 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 the ^ crate 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Sugar, the hogshead 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 loose, theload (60 pieces) 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 the tierce - - 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 }^ 
 
 Ebony, the ton - . 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 the barrel .... 
 
 d 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Elephants' teeth, the ton 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 TaUow, the cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Feathers, the bed or bag 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Tar and pitch, the barrel 
 Timber (fir, Sec), the load . 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Fish, salted, or stockfish, the ton 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Ginger, the bag 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 Tobacco, the hogshead ... 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Glass bottles, the 100 dozen 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Turpentine, the barrel 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Groceries, coastwise, the hogshead 
 the firkin 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 Wainscot boards, the 120 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 0 
 
 h 
 
 Wine, the pipe - . . 
 the hogshead 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Gum Senegal, the ton 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Gunpowder, the barrel - - - 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 coastwise, the pipe 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Hemp or flax, the ton 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 A\'indow glass, the side 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Herrings, the barrel - - 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 the box ... 
 
 0 
 
 Oi 
 
 0 
 
 
 Hides of cows and oxen, each - 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 Wool, the bag 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 I' 
 
 imported from the East 
 Indies, the dozen • 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yams, linen, the truss 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 the peck 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 of horses, each 
 
 0 
 
 ?/ 
 
 0 
 
 
 foreign, the fatt - 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Hops, the pocket ... 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 bay, the pack . 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Iron, in bars, the ton 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Dry goods, not before described, the 
 
 
 
 
 
 in pigs, or cast, the ton . 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 package, viz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ore, the ton ... 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 bale 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Kelp, the ton ... 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 barrel - . . 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Lead, lead ore, or copper ore, the ton 
 Lathwood, the fathom 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 box ... 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 bundle • . . 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 ^ 
 
 Linen, of all sorts, the pack 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 case ... 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 a box or bundle 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 cask - 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Lemons or oranges, the chest 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 chest . . . 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 the box - 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 crate ... 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 Lignum vitae, the ton 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 I' 
 
 ^ crate 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 i 
 
 Mahogany, the ton ... 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 hamper - - _ 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 Masts, above 12 inches diameter 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 hogshead 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 8 inches and under 12 inches 
 
 
 
 
 
 puncheon ... 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 diameter . - - 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 tierce ... 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 I' 
 
 6 inches and under 8 inches 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 trunk ... 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 diameter . . - 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 truss ... 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Meal of oats, &c. the ton . 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 keg 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 Molasses, the hogshead 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 The above duties are not due on goods, the property of, and to be sold solely on account of, per- 
 sons free of Liverpool, Bristol, London, Waterford, or Wexford ; nor on the exportation of goods, 
 which may have been imported, or brought coastwise, provided they are, at the time of exportation, the 
 same property as when so imported, or brought coastwise. 
 
 The Liverpool Docks are all constructed upon the estate of the corporation, and are 
 managed by commissioners appointed by parliament. Tlie M-arehouses belong to 
 
512 
 
 DOCKS (LIVERPOOL). 
 
 individuals, and are private property. None of them belong to the Dock estate. Most 
 of them are, of course, situated in the immediate vicinity of tlie docks. The discharging 
 and loading of vessels in Liverpool is effected by a class of men called lumpers. Indi- 
 viduals who follow this business engage to discharge a ship for a specific, or lump sum, 
 from 2 guineas, perhaps, up to 20, according to the size and description of cargo, having 
 the requisite number of common labourers (chiefly Irishmen) to do the work; the 
 lumper being master and superintendent : these labourers are generally paid day wages, 
 but sometimes the job is a joint concern among the whole. 
 
 A West India ship of .500 tons would be discharged by lumpers fox from \5l. to 20/. : 
 a cotton ship of the same burden for 41. to 61. By discharging is merely meant putting 
 out the cargo on the quay ; the proprietors of the goods employ their own porters to 
 weigh, load, and warehouse the property : they likewise employ their own coopers, where 
 cooperage is required. 
 
 It will be seen that the system of managing business of this sort in Liverpool is 
 entirely different from the plan followed in London, at least in the East India Docks, 
 where all these operations are performed by the Dock Company. 
 
 The expense of loading a West India ship of 500 tons outwards would not be half as 
 much as that of discharging inwards, because they very seldom take a full cargo outwards. 
 The average does not, perhaps, exceed a third. Hence the total expense of a West 
 India ship of 500 tons, coming into and going out of the port of Liverpool, may be 
 estimated as follows : — 
 
 Pilotage inwards - - - 8 1 1 0 
 
 Boat hire, warping, &c. » - 0 10 6 
 
 Lumpers' discharging - - 17 10 0 
 
 Labourers' hire for loading - - 5 10 0 
 
 £ s. rf. 
 
 Pilotage outwards - - 3 8 0 
 
 Boat hire assisting out - - 0 10 6 
 
 .^36 0 0 
 
 Besides these, there is the charge for the various light-houses in St. George's Channel, 
 which cannot be called an expense peculiar to Liverpool. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1836, there belonged to Liverpool 996 registered vessels, of 
 the burden of 207,833 tons, manned by 11,511 men and boys. The gross customs 
 duty collected in the port during the year 1837 amounted to the enormous sum of 
 4,351,496Z. ! 
 
 Imports of the principal Articles of.East and West Indian, American, &c. Produce into Liverpool, during 
 Bach of the Five Years ending with 1838, with the Stocks on Hand on the 3 1st of December each Year. 
 — (From the Circular Statement of Messrs. Jee, Brothers, and Co., 31st of December, 1838.) 
 
 Packages and 
 Quantities. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 1831. 1835. 1836. 
 
 Stocks on Hand, 31st of December. 
 
 1836. 1 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 6,700i 
 2,400' 
 7,500: 
 5,000 
 
 4,500 
 2,500 
 7,400 
 5,200 
 
 7,500 
 2,500 
 11,000 
 l,5O0 
 
 1,500 
 
 950 
 
 1,630 
 
 Ashes, American - 
 
 Brimstone 
 
 Cocoa 
 
 Coffee, West India 
 ditto 
 
 East India, &c. 
 Cotton 
 
 Diewood, fustic 
 
 logwood 
 
 Nicaragua wood 
 
 Camwood 
 
 barwood 
 Flour, American - 
 Ginger, West India 
 
 13ast India, &c. 
 Hides, foreign, cow 
 and ox - 
 
 East India 
 horse 
 
 Indigo 
 
 East India 
 Molasses 
 Olive oil 
 Palm oil 
 Pepper 
 Pimento 
 Ouercitron bark 
 Rice, .American 
 
 paddy 
 
 Brazil, African 
 
 East India 
 Hum 
 Saltpetre 
 Seed, flax 
 Shumac 
 
 Sugar, Brit, plant. 
 Havannah 
 Brazil 
 
 Maurit. & E. I. 
 
 Manilla, &c. - 
 Tar, American 
 
 Stockholm, &c. 
 Tallow 
 Tol>acco 
 Turpentine 
 
 tons 
 brls. and bags 
 
 casks 
 brls. and bags 
 do. 
 bags, &c. 
 tons 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 barrels 
 brls- and bags 
 pockets 
 
 number 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 bxs. & serons 
 
 chests 
 puncheons 
 casks 
 tons 
 bags & pckts. 
 brls. and bags 
 hogsheads 
 casks 
 bushels 
 bags 
 do. 
 
 pun. & hhds. 
 bags, &c. 
 quarters 
 bags 
 hhds. and tcs. 
 boxes 
 cases 
 bags and h\9.. 
 bags and brls. 
 barrels 
 
 do. 
 casks 
 serons 
 
 6,580 
 9,780 
 3,080 
 8,040 
 5,170 
 9,930 
 839,285 
 
 11,770 
 
 10,460 
 3,460 
 520 
 1,500 
 
 21,020 
 2,070 
 
 10,020 
 
 469,400 
 203,2(X) 
 36,100] 
 1,460 
 2,040 
 18,850 
 7,400 
 10,860 
 19,550 
 1,910 
 930 
 900 
 83,040 
 8,00 
 61,310 
 10,880 
 64,660 
 18,210 
 46,600 
 51,360 
 
 2,180 
 133,fW0 
 12,970 
 19,1, SO 
 41,700 
 24 ,,030 
 3201 
 9,800 
 87,970 
 
 13,900 
 
 11,900 
 1,550 
 7,500 
 5,900 
 8,800 
 968,279 
 8,500 
 8,900 
 4,650 
 450 
 2,200 
 3,800 
 2,350 
 
 15,100 
 
 323,500 
 396,000 
 72,000 
 920 
 1,380 
 12,800 
 2..100 
 9,000 
 14,300 
 3,800 
 1," " 
 450 
 99,200 
 1,100 
 6,300 
 12,160! 
 04,900 
 25,900 
 53,(JO0 
 55,050 
 680' 
 3,900' 
 113,000 
 16, 000 1 
 16,200 
 41,200; 
 25,600 
 1 ,060 ' 
 9,200 
 58,200 
 
 17,500 
 
 H,l 
 6,500 
 7,600 
 5,000 
 6,900 
 1,022,871 
 3,700 
 6,900 
 3,700 
 350 
 1,000 
 2,800 
 2,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 264,600 
 364,000 
 28,200 
 990 
 2,050 
 12,700 
 7,800 
 10,8001 
 29,700| 
 4,200; 
 1,760 
 440! 
 113,700 
 none 
 24,100 
 12,l.'-)0 
 63,800 
 34, .500 
 54,000 
 56,500 
 none 
 
 5,.')00 
 102,.'i(M) 
 14,100 
 19,000 
 17,5001 
 21,900 
 100 
 9,793 
 104,000, 
 
 14,800 
 14,500 
 5.500 
 5,500 
 5,000 
 16,700 
 ,034,000 
 3,100 
 9.000 
 1,750 
 550 
 
 1. 
 
 440 
 2,450 
 22,100 
 
 295,000 
 275,000 
 39,000 
 2,700 
 760 
 11,250 
 6,500 
 8,300 
 23,400 
 3,350 
 1,590 
 160 
 203,400 
 none 
 102,800 
 11,030 
 72,500 
 .39„000 
 33,400 
 47,800 
 840 
 2,300 
 143,000 
 42,000 
 12,000 
 19,800 
 18,400 
 1 ,300 
 6,100 
 104,300 
 
 15,700 
 16,900 
 2,300 
 8,100 
 6,800 
 8.420 
 1,330,430 
 3,150 
 
 250 
 640 
 
 16,200 
 2,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 350,000 
 171,000 
 62,000 
 1,810 
 1,330 
 10,100 
 8,000 
 9,000 
 13,000 
 1,160 
 1,600 
 26 
 
 109,006 
 none 
 66,000 
 9,100 
 66,700 
 23,000 
 
 es.too 
 
 -! ',000 
 
 620 
 3,820 
 155,700 
 26,200! 
 12,000 
 4 4,. 070^ 
 24,000 
 400 
 
 s.iool 
 
 122,000! 
 
 f pot. 2,150 
 Iprl. 2,100 
 2,500 
 1,950 
 
 145,,300 
 4,200 
 3,800 
 1,850 
 200 
 1,100 
 163,500 
 bags 2,300 
 
 211,700 
 27,000 
 9,100 
 140 
 250 
 7,4.'-.0 
 s 1,500 
 5,000 
 6,000 
 6,650 
 650 
 
 none 
 17, .300 
 1 1 ,090 
 22,150 
 5,000 
 8,440 
 9,550 
 1,500 
 550 
 21,800 
 15,500 
 5(X) 
 10,600 
 5,500 
 
 3,500 
 1,000 
 2,900 
 620 
 
 184,700 
 *,400t 
 3,100 
 3,500 
 100 
 7.0O 
 100,000 
 4 
 
 91,000 
 100,000 
 30,000 
 170 
 320 
 5,000 
 500 
 2,200 
 9,500 
 4,200 
 900 
 none 
 uncert 
 
 36,000 
 9,550 
 
 20,800 
 5,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 12,600 
 
 none 
 350 
 
 22,000 
 3,000 
 none 
 
 3 5,000 
 8,500 
 
 8,,300 
 13,000 
 
 204,590 
 3,200 
 2,300 
 4,800 
 100 
 950 
 69,000 
 f 600] 
 I 7,000 
 
 71,OOo| 
 60,11001 
 11,000 
 800 
 400 
 1,800 
 1,100 
 1,200 
 25,350 
 6,200 
 700 
 
 none 
 6,000 
 8,800 
 
 35,000 
 2,200 
 6,500 
 
 1 7,000 
 
 "l,900 
 44,000 
 12,(X)0 
 1,200 
 6,000 1 
 3,500 
 
 10,2631 
 25,000! 
 
 170,820 248,340 
 1 ,700| 250 
 1,500 30O 
 4,900 4,000 
 200 50 
 1,700 1,000 
 52,000^ 20,000 
 1,500! 2,700 
 tons 300; tons 450 
 
 20,000 
 24,000' 
 6,000 
 100 
 250 
 300 
 1,300 
 1,800, 
 27,.3(X) 
 8,000| 
 450 
 none | 
 uncert. I 
 none 
 30,000 
 6,200! 
 37,000! 
 1,000 
 5,500 ' 
 7,800; 
 
 550 
 1,000 
 47,000 
 19,.60O 
 .300' 
 4,(X)0 
 2,000 
 
 6,0,'-)0 
 24,000. 
 
 44,420 
 21,400 
 
 3,800 
 40 
 350 
 
 2,500 
 
 1,0,00 
 
 2,000 
 29,000 
 
 6,000 
 250 
 
 none 
 uncert, 
 
 none 
 12,000 
 
 5,460 
 28,000 
 
 l,,0OO 
 12,000 
 14,000 
 
 none 
 
 1,.300 
 32,500 
 13,500 
 
 2,500 
 16,500 
 
 3,000 
 
 5,280 
 50,000 
 
DOCKS (BRISTOL). 
 
 513 
 
 Arrivals at Liverpool. — Account of the Number of Vessels, and their Tonnage, that have entered the 
 Port of Liverpool from Foreign Ports, distinguishing Kritisli from Foreign, since 1820. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 18Sa 
 1825 
 1826 
 
 smpt. 
 1,146 
 1,188 
 1,263 
 1,459 
 1,554 
 1,531 
 1,387 
 
 Tons. 
 228,233 
 242,322 
 261,137 
 296,710 
 327,198 
 815,115 
 299,037 
 
 Ships, 
 
 633 
 582 
 699 
 798 
 702 
 863 
 680 
 
 166,821 
 14!),15L 
 174,607 
 199,866 
 174,593 
 222,187 
 181,907 
 
 Years. 
 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 \><30 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Ship*. 
 1,422 
 1,652 
 1,487 
 1,655 
 1,862 
 1,719 
 
 Torts. 
 
 306,369 
 344,644 
 326,311 
 .'J68,268 
 413,928 
 397,933 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Ships. 
 810 
 660 
 811 
 
 1,055 
 978 
 
 231 ,863 
 179,514 
 210,713 
 272,46.3 
 265,037 
 227,087 
 
 The falling off in 1832 is ascribable partly to the cholera then prevailing; but more to the rupture 
 with the Dutch towards the end of the year. 
 
 Irish Trade. — The trade between Liverpool and Ireland has always been of con- 
 siderable value and importance ; but since the establishment of regular steam-packets to 
 Dublin, Belfast, &c., it has increased prodigiously. The imports from Ireland into 
 Liverpool may, at present, be estimated at about 4.500,000Z. a year. They consist prin- 
 cipally of articles of provision, which meet a ready and advantageous market in Man- 
 chester, and the surrounding manufacturing towns. The benefits resulting to Ireland 
 from this intercourse are quite equal to those it confers on England ; and the influence 
 of the wealth arising from .it is sufficiently apparent in the improved^ aspect of all tl)e 
 eastern parts of the country. We subjoin an account, which, though not official, may 
 be depended upon as being sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, of 
 
 The Quantity and Value of the various Articles of Irish raw Produce imported into Liverpool in 1831. 
 
 Quantities. Av.jPri 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Cows 
 
 Horses - 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Mules 
 
 Pigs 
 
 Calves 
 
 Lambs 
 
 Bacon 
 
 Pork 
 
 Do. 
 
 Hams and 
 tongues 
 Beef 
 
 Do. - - 
 Lard 
 
 Do. - - 
 Butter - 
 
 90,715 
 296 
 134,702 
 243 
 156,001 
 1,196 
 25,725 
 13,099 bales 
 14,554 brls. 
 936 i brls. 
 
 590 hhds. 
 6,391 tcs. 
 1,189 brls. 
 
 465 tcs. 
 4,542 firks. 
 5,754 cools 
 
 £ s. 
 10 0 
 20 0 
 
 1 5 
 15 0 
 
 3 15 
 
 2 10 
 1 0 
 5 0 
 
 3 0 
 1 15 
 
 20 0 
 
 4 5 
 3 0 
 8 0 
 
 1 10 
 
 2 0 
 
 £ s. 
 
 907,150 0 
 5,920 0 
 235,833 10 
 3,645 0 
 585,003 15 
 2,990 0 
 25,725 0 
 65,494 0 
 43,662 0 
 1,638 0 
 
 11,800 0 
 27,171 15 
 3,567 4 
 3,720 0 
 6,813 0 
 11,508 0 
 
 Butter 
 Do. - 
 
 Eggs 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Barley 
 
 Rye 
 
 Beans 
 
 Peas 
 
 Malt 
 
 Meal 
 
 Flour 
 
 258,087 firks. 
 19,217 i firks. 
 
 2,596 crates 
 277,060 qrs. 
 380,679 — 
 21,328 — 
 613 — 
 8,452 _ 
 1,724 — 
 6,850 — 
 149,816 loads 
 23,154 sacks 
 
 £ s. 
 
 2 10 
 1 5 
 
 20 0 
 
 3 0 
 1 12 
 1 15 
 
 1 10, 
 
 2 0 
 2 4 
 2 10 
 
 1 5 
 
 2 5 
 
 Thus making the gross value of 
 Irish pvoduce imported into 
 Liverpool in 1831 
 
 je s. 
 
 645,217 10 
 24,021 5 
 50,120 0 
 
 m,m 0 
 
 532,950 12 
 37,324 0 
 919 10 
 16,904 0 
 3,448 0 
 17,125 0 
 187,270 6 
 209,596 10 
 
 4.497,708 0 
 
 Account of the Quantities of Salted Beef, Pork, and Butter, imported into Liverpool from Ireland 
 during tlie Twelve Years ending with 1832. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 
 mo 
 
 1831 
 
 Tierces. 
 
 6,283 
 
 5,387 
 
 9,936 
 
 7,114 
 
 7,371 
 
 5,358 
 
 6,201 
 
 6,852 
 
 5,170 
 
 7,105 
 
 6,391 
 
 6,887 
 
 Barrels. 
 2,444 
 2,713 
 2,137 
 1,743 
 1,696 
 773 
 997 
 1,538 
 1,536 
 828 
 1,189 
 1,173 
 
 Barrels. 
 25,263 
 13,222 
 17,408 
 16,389 
 14,434, 
 11,351 
 15,540 
 9,978 
 14,453 
 I9,3ii0 
 14,554 
 11,919 
 
 Half Barrels. 
 3,096 
 1,423 
 1,498 
 1,650 
 1,606 
 844 
 2,427 
 1,169 
 1,494 
 2,458 
 936 
 1,297 
 
 Firkins. 
 
 232,048 
 166,365 
 270,521 
 296,564 
 327,143 
 236,647 
 302,945 
 536,603 
 286,740 
 256,.'>85 
 258,087 
 292,292 
 
 Half Firhim. 
 13,585 
 14,629 
 19,265 
 15,684 
 13,711 
 12,257 
 20,249 
 21,402 
 15,808 
 17,670 
 19,217 
 15,866 
 
 III. Bristol Docks, Shipping, etc. 
 
 The Bristol Docks were formed in pursuance of the act 43 Geo. 3. c. 142., by 
 changing the course of the rivers Avon and Frome, and placing gates or locks at 
 each extremity of the old channel. The accommodation thus obtained is very extensive. 
 The warehouses at Bristol, as at Liverpool, are not in any way connected with the docks : 
 they all belong to private individuals. 
 
 Bristol, as a port, used to be inferior only to London ; but now she ranks far below 
 Liverpool, and probably is second to Hull. However, she still enjoys a very extensive 
 trade, particularly with the West Indies and Ireland. The custom duties collected in 
 Bristol amounted, in 1831, to 1,161,976/. In 1832, there belonged to the port 296 
 registered vessels, of the burden of 46,567 tons. 
 
 2 L 
 
514 DOCKS (HULL). 
 
 The produce of the dock duties on tonnage and goods, since 1820, has been as 
 follows ; — 
 
 Veai-s.. 
 
 Tonnage Rates. 
 
 Rates on Goods. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tonnage Rates. 
 
 Rates on Goods. 
 
 1321 
 
 lS-22 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 
 £ S. d. 
 10,469 19 6 
 10,530 11 2 
 10,747 19 2 
 12,395 6 4 
 13,424 4 10 
 
 £ s. d. 
 IfiSl 7 6 
 8,062 5 3 
 7,746 7 7 
 7,990 7 2 
 9,409 11 0 
 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 
 £ s. d. 
 14,863 10 0 
 13,934 1 8 
 15,292 0 2 
 15,833 4 6 
 15,998 12 8 
 
 £ S. d. 
 9,438 14 3 
 7,773 12 0 
 8,396 16 2 
 8,871 13 0 
 8,087 1 0 
 
 The charges on ships entering Bristol are very heavy. They are as follow : — 
 For every vessel on entering into the port of Bristol, except barges or other vessels passing or going to 
 or from the Bath River Navigation, or Kennet and Avon Canal, or re-shipping or discharging their 
 cargoes to be again laden, and pass or go up the said navigation or canal, but not discharging any part of 
 their cargoes at the quays of Bristol for sale, the several rates or duties, according to the register tonnage 
 of such vessels following, viz. : — Per Ton. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 First Class. — For every vessel trading from Africa, Honduras, Surinam, and other ports in 
 South America, the United States of America, the East and West Indies, all the ports within 
 the Straits of Gibraltar, and the Southern Whale Fishery - - . - -030 
 
 Second Class. — For every vessel trading from the British Colonies, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, 
 Spain without the Straits, and Sweden - - - - - -020 
 
 T/iird Class. — For every vessel trading from Flanders, France without the Straits, Germany, 
 Guernsey, Holland, Jersey, Norway, Poland, and Zealand - - - - - 0 1 0 
 
 Fourth Class. — For every vessel trading from Ireland, the Isle of Man, and Scotland - - 0 0 8 
 Ffft/t Class. — For every vessel employed as a coaster, except as aforesaid, not including vessels 
 from Cardiff, Newport, and other ports to the eastward of the Holmes, at each entering into 
 the said port - - - - - - - - -006 
 
 For vessels from Cardiff, Newport, and other ports to the eastward of the Holmes (except as 
 aforesaid), being market boats or vessels, having one third part at least of the lading consist- 
 ing of coal, scruff, tin, iron, tin plates, grain, copper, bricks, stones, coal, tar, slate, bark, 
 timber, or wooii, and not exceeding 75 tons burden, each voyage - - . -050 
 
 . if exceeding 75 tons burden, each voyage - - - . -076 
 
 For all other vessels from Cardiff, Newport, and other ports to the eastward of the Holmes 
 
 (except as aforesaid;, if under 40 tons burden, each voyage » - - - 0 7 6 
 
 if of 40 tons and under 75 tons burden, each voyage - - . - 0 12 6 
 
 if 75 tons and under 100 tons burden, each voyage - - - - -0 16 0 
 
 I if 100 tons burden or upwards, each voyage - - - - -110 
 
 The following is an estimate of the various expenses incurred by a "West India ship 
 of 500 tons, entering and discharging at Bristol : — 
 
 Inwards. — Anchorage, moorage, and lights, about 6c;. per ton. — Dock dues, 3s. per do. Pilotage, 
 
 to 25/. — Warner, 1/. \s. — Mayor and quay wardens' fees, 2Z. 5s. — Cranage about 30/. — Labour dis- 
 charging, 30/. to 40/. — Coopers' charges, from 50/. to 100/. The two last items depend greatly on the 
 condition the cargo is in. 
 
 Outwards. — Lights, about M. per ton. — Pilotage, 15/. to 20/. 
 
 Account of the Number of Ships and their Tonnage, distinguishing between British and Foreign, 
 which have entered inwards at Bristol since 1820. 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 
 Ships. 
 
 1820 
 
 311 
 
 1821 
 
 26fi 
 
 1822 
 
 291 
 
 1823 
 
 305 
 
 1824 
 
 338 
 
 1825 
 
 359 
 
 1826 
 
 334 
 
 Tons. 
 
 53,919 
 46,811 
 53,808 
 57,186 
 65,878 
 73,709 
 65,087 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 52 
 56 
 39 
 64 
 68 
 
 Tons. 
 5,652 
 7,350 
 8,165 
 7,121 
 10,177 
 11,323 
 6,931 
 
 Years. 
 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 412 
 
 75,916 
 
 72 
 
 357 
 
 66,558 
 
 61 
 
 371 
 
 73,129 
 
 63 
 
 357 
 
 66,479 
 
 50 
 
 404 
 
 76,807 
 
 97 
 
 240 
 
 46,871 
 
 29 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 IV. Hull Docks, Shipping, etc. 
 
 There are three considerable docks in Hull ; occupying, inclusive of their basins, an 
 area of 26 acres. They are capable of affording accommodation for about 312 ships 
 of the average size of those that frequent the port. Hull is the next port in the empire, 
 after Bristol, or perhaps Liverpool ; for, although the customs duty collected in Hull be 
 inferior to that of Bristol, it having amounted, in 18.31, to only 689,1 16?., she has a 
 larger amount of shipping. In 1832, there belonged to this port 557 registered vessels, 
 of the aggregate burden of 68,892 tons. 
 
 The produce of the Hull dock duties, since 1824, has been as follows : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Years, 
 
 Amount. 
 
 ill 
 
 £ S. d. 
 18,776 6 3 
 25,8fil 16 0 
 19,089 16 0 
 
 1^27 
 
 1828 
 1829 
 
 £ s. d. 
 22,381 9 9 i 
 18,546 18 5 
 19,609 5 4 
 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 .£ S. a 
 
 18,.'344 19 4 
 22,386 18 5 
 16,797 9 2 
 
 The decline in the last year was owing to the temporary falling off in the trade of the 
 port, occasioned by the cholera, and the interruption of the intercourse with Holland. 
 
 The regulations to l^e observed by ships using tlie Hull Docks are similar to those in 
 the Tliames ; but the dues on most articles are higher. 
 
DOCKS (GOOLE — LEITH). 
 
 515 
 
 The dock and harbour dues on ships arc as follow : — 
 
 I'er Ton 
 *. (I. 
 
 From within tlie Baltic - - - - - - - - -la 
 
 Denmark, Sweden, Norway below Elsinore, or any place in Germany, Holland, Flanders, France, 
 
 to the eastward of Ushant, Ireland, Guernsey, and Jersey - - - - 0 10 
 
 Westward of Ushant, without the Straits of Gibraltar - - - - - 1 3 
 
 West Indies, North and South America, Africa, Greenland, eastward of the north cape of Norway, 
 within the Straits of Gibraltar - . - . - - -19 
 
 Number of Vessels, with the Amount of their Tonnage, entering ii. >ards from Foreign Parts, at the Port 
 of Hull, each Year from 1820, separating British from Foreign. — (Par/. Paper, No. 656. Sess. I8ci3.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 British. 
 
 
 Foieign 
 
 Years. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 ships. 
 
 Tints. 
 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1820 
 
 627 
 
 117,434 
 
 
 15,111 
 
 1827 
 
 982 
 
 191,364 
 
 
 Y2,:m 
 
 1821 
 
 578 
 
 113,133 
 
 106 
 
 13,820 
 
 1828 
 
 881 
 
 156,925 
 
 674 
 
 60,082 
 
 1822 
 
 672 
 
 134,999 
 
 103 
 
 14,011 
 
 1829- 
 
 883 
 
 165,791 
 
 603 
 
 58,854 
 
 1823 
 
 778 
 
 153,313 
 
 203 
 
 26,103 
 
 1830 
 
 897 
 
 163,657 
 
 556 
 
 51,015 
 
 1824 
 
 776 
 
 142,615 
 
 510 
 
 58,603 
 
 1831 
 
 974 
 
 187,361 
 
 725 
 
 73,547 
 
 1825 
 
 1,171 
 
 227,363 
 
 1,000 
 
 100,773 
 
 1832 
 
 762 
 
 140,788 
 
 454 
 
 43,481 
 
 1826 
 
 717 
 
 130,674 
 
 854 
 
 70,137 
 
 
 
 
 The port of Goole has latterly drawn off some portion of the trade of Hull. A large proportion of the 
 foreign vessels frequenting the port are of small burden, and are engaged in the importation of bones, 
 rags, rapeseed, &c. 
 
 V. GooLE Docks, Shipping, etc. 
 
 The port of Goole, situated on the Ouse, a little above its junction with the Humber, 
 about 22 miles more inland than Hull, promises to prove a formidable rival to the 
 latter. Ten or 12 years ago, Goole was but an insignificant hamlet. It communicates 
 by means of canals with Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Wakefield, &c. Though so 
 remote from the sea, vessels drawing 15 or 16 feet of water reach Goole in safety. It 
 has 2 wet docks and a basin. The first, or ship dock, is 800 feet long by 200 in 
 breadth. The second, or barge dock, is 900 feet long by 150 wide, and is intended 
 for the accommodation of the small craft which ply upon the canals and rivers. The 
 warehouses at Goole are extensive and convenient ; and it has been admitted to the 
 privileges of a bonding port. There belonged to it, in 1832, 1 1 9 registered ships, of the 
 burden of 8,545 tons. 
 
 VI. Leith Docks, Shipping, etc. 
 
 Leith has 2 wet docks, constructed in the very best manner, containing more than 10 
 acres of water room, and capable of accommodating 150 such ships as frequent the port. 
 There are also 3 dry docks contiguous to the wet docks. 
 
 The total expense of these docks seems to have amounted to 285,1087. sterling. Ex- 
 tensive improvements are at present going foward at the harbour of Leith ; but the 
 money for this purpose has not been furnished by individuals, but by government, and 
 there is much reason to doubt whether the expenditure Avili be profitable. 
 
 The customs, duty collected at Leith in 1831 amounted to 431,821Z. ; the number of 
 registered vessels belonging to the port is 246, and their burden 25,629 tons. 
 
 Dock Rates at Leith are as follow : — Per Ton. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 For every ship or vessel, from any port between Buchanness and Eyemouth, including the great 
 canal and the river Clyde, as far down as Greenock, coming by the canal - . -04 
 I from any other port in great Britain and Ireland - . - - - 0 8 
 
 from Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holstein, Hamburgh, Bremen, Holland, and Flanders, 
 
 that is, without the Baltic, and no further south than Dunkirk - - - - 0 10| 
 
 ■ from the Baltic, all above the Sound, Onega, Archangel, Jersej' or Guernsey, Portugal, 
 
 France, and Spain, without the Straits of Gibraltar, Newfoundland, Madeira, or Western Islands' 1 1 J 
 from within the Straits of Gibraltar, or from America - - - - 1 4 
 
 from the West Indies, Asia, Africa, or the Cape de Verd Islands - - -18 
 
 . from Greenland, or Davis's Straits - - - - _ -20 
 
 But if such ship or vessel shall make a second voyage, she shall be credited in the charge 
 
 for such second voyage - - - - - - -04 
 
 For all ships and vessels (excepting those from Greenland or Davis's Straits) remaining in the 
 
 dock above 3 calendar months, for each after-month, or any part thereof - - _ o 2| 
 
 For all foreign vessels from any of the before-mentioned ports or places, the aforesaid respective 
 
 rates, and one half more. 
 For all loaded vessels not breaking bulk, and for all vessels in ballast which do not take in goods, 
 coming into the present harbour, provided they do not make use of any of the docks, nor 
 remain in the harbour above 4 weeks, one half of the aforesaid rates or duties. 
 For every ship or vessel going from the port of Leith to any other port in the Frith of Forth, to 
 take in a part of a cargo, and return to Leith, upon her return - - . - 0 2 
 
 No ship or vessel shall be subjected in payment of the aforesaid rates and duties for more than 8 
 voyages in any 1 year. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Flag, or Light Dues. — Every vessel, of whatever burden, from foreign ports - . - 2 6 
 
 of 40 tons burden and upwards, to pay for each coasting voyage - 2 6 
 
 Beacon and anchorage, per ton - - - _ . - -0 1J 
 
 This duty is only charged upon four fifths of the register tonnage. 
 
 2 L 2 
 
516 
 
 DOG. — DRAWBACK. 
 
 DOG (Fi*. Chien ; Ger. Hund ; It. Cane; Lat. Canis familiaris'). Of this quadru- 
 ped, emphatically styled " the friend and companion of man," there is a vast variety 
 of species. But to attempt to give any description of an animal so well known, would 
 be quite out ' «f place in a work of this kind ; and we mention it for the purpose 
 principally of laying the following account before our readers, with a remark or two 
 with respect to Asiatic dogs. 
 
 An Account of the Number of Dogs entered, and for which Duty was paid in Great Britain, in the Year 
 1830 ; distinguishing the Number of Packs of Hovinds, and the Number of each Description of Dog, 
 the Rate of Duty on each, and the aggregate Amount paid. 
 
 Description of Dogs. 
 
 Rates of Duty. 
 
 Total Number. 
 
 Amount of Duty. 
 
 Greyhounds ... . - 
 Poiiuirs, hounds, setting dogs, spaniels, terriers, 
 lurchers, or any other dogs, where persons keep two 
 or more dogs . - - - 
 Other dogs ; persons keeping one only 
 
 Total, exclusive of packs of hounds 
 
 Packs of hounds .... 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1 0 0 
 
 0 14 0 
 
 0 8 0 
 
 36 0 0 
 
 18,192 
 113,307 
 219,013 
 
 £ S. d. 
 18,192 0 0 
 
 79,314 18 0 
 
 87,605 4 0 
 
 350,312 
 
 185,112 2 0 
 
 68 
 
 2,418 0 0 
 
 " Many dogs are exempted, either as belonging to poor persons, or as sheep dogs on small farms. 
 " From the number of persons compounding for their taxes, it is impossible to ascertain the number 
 of dogs kept ; the account is, therefore, made out of the number assessed." 
 
 Cuvier, the great French naturalist, says, " The dog is the most complete, the most 
 remarkable, and the most useful conquest ever made by man : every species has become 
 our property ; each individual is altogether devoted to his master, assumes his manners, 
 knows and defends his goods, and remains attached to him until death ; and all this 
 proceeds neither from want nor Qonstraint, but solely from true gratitude and real 
 friendship. The swiftness, the strength, and the scent of the dog have created for man 
 a powerful ally against other animals, and were, perhaps, necessary to the establishment of 
 society. He is the only animal which has followed man through every region of the earth." 
 
 It is singular, however, that neither Cuvier, nor any one of those by whom his statements 
 have been copied, should have mentioned that this account is applicable only to Europe. 
 All Mohammedan nations regard the dog as impure, and will not touch it without an 
 ablution. The same is also the case with the Hindoos. From the Hellespont to the 
 confines of Cochin-China, dogs are unappropriated, and have no master. They prowl 
 about the towns and villages ; and though they are naturally more familiar, they are in 
 no respect more domesticated, than the carrion crows, kites, vultures, &c. which assist 
 them in performing the functions of scavengers. In China and Cochin-China, the dog 
 is eaten as food ; its flesh being, with the exception of that of the hog, the most common 
 in their markets. 
 
 The unnecessary multiplication of dogs, particularly in large cities, is a very great 
 nuisance : coming, as they often do, into the ppssession of those who are without the 
 means of providing for them, they are frequently left to wander about in the streets ; 
 and from ill usage, want of food and of proper attention, are apt, during hot weather, 
 to become rabid. In several districts of the metropolis the nuisance has attained to a 
 formidable height ; and it is singular, considering the nimierous fatal occurrences that 
 have taken place, that no effort should have been made to have it abated. It has grown 
 to its present excess, partly from too many exemptions being granted from the duty, 
 and partly from a want of care in its collection ; but besides lessening the number of 
 the former, and more rigidly enforcing the latter, it would be proper to enact that all 
 dogs found wandering in the streets without masters should be destroyed. 
 
 DOWN (Ger. Dunen, Flaumfedern ; Du. Dons ; Fr. Duvet; It. Penna viatta, 
 Piumini ; Sp. Flojel, Plumazo ; Rus. Puch ; Lat. Plumce), the fine feathers from the 
 breasts of several birds, particularly those of the duck kind. That of the eider duck is 
 the most valuable. These birds pluck it from their breasts and line their nests with it. 
 Mr. Pennant says that it is so very elastic, that a quantity of it weighing only | of an 
 ounce, fills a larger space than the crown of the greatest hat. That found in the nest 
 is most valued, and termed live down ; it is much more elastic than that plucked from 
 the dead bird, which is comparatively little esteemed. The eider duck is found on the 
 western islands of Scotland, but the down is principally imported from Norway and 
 Iceland. 
 
 DRAGONS' BLOOD. See Balsam. 
 
 DRAWBACK, a term used in commerce to signify the remitting or paying back of 
 the duties previously paid on a commodity on its being exported. 
 
 A drawback is a device resorted to for enabling a commodity affected by taxes to be 
 exported and sold in the foreign market on the same terms as if it had not been taxed at 
 all. It diflfers in this from a bounty, — that the latter enables a commodity to be sold 
 
DUBBER. — EARNEST. 
 
 517 
 
 abroad for less than its natural cost, whereas a drawback enables it to be sold exactly at 
 its natural cost. Drawbacks, as Dr. Smith lias observed, *' do not occasion tlie export- 
 ation of" a greater quantity of goods than would have been exported had no duty been 
 imposed. They do not tend to turn towards any particular employment a greater 
 share of the capital of the country than would go to that employment of its own 
 accord, but only to hinder the duty from driving away any part of that share to other 
 employments. They tend not to overturn that balance which naturally establishes itself 
 among all the various employments of the society ; but to hinder it i'rom being over- 
 turned by the duty. They tend not to destroy, but to preserve, what it is in most cases 
 advantageous to preserve — the natural division and distribution of labour in the society." 
 — (Vol. ii. p. 352.) 
 
 Were it not for the system of drawbacks, it would be impossible, unless when a 
 country enjoyed some very peculiar facilities of production, to export any commodity 
 that was heavier taxed at home than abroad. But the drawback obviates this difficulty, 
 and enables merchants to export commodities loaded at home witi^i heavy duties, and to 
 sell them in the foreign market on the same terms as those fetched from countries where 
 they are not taxed. 
 
 Most foreign articles imported into this country may be warehoused for subsequent 
 exportation. In this case they pay no duties on being imported : and, of course, get no 
 drawback on their subsequent exportation. 
 
 Sometimes a drawback exceeds the duty or duties laid on the article ; and in such cases 
 the excess forms a real bounty of that amount, and should be so considered. 
 
 It is enacted by the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52., that no drawback or bounty shall be allowed upon the ex- 
 portation from the United Kingdom of any goods, unless such goods shall have been entered in the name 
 of the person who was the real owner thereof at the time of entry and shipping, or of the person who 
 had actually purchased and shipped the same, in his own name and at his own liability and risk, on com- 
 mission, according to the practice of merchants, and who was and shall have continued to be entitled in 
 his own right to such drawback or bounty, except in the cases herein-after provided (or. — ^ 86. 
 
 No drawback shall be allowed upon the exportation of any goods, unless such goods be shipped within 
 3 years after the payment of the duties inwards thereon. And no debenture for any drawback or bounty 
 upon the exportation of any goods, shall be paid after the expiration of 2 years from the shipment of 
 such goods ; and no drawback shall be allowed upon any goods which, by reason of damage oi decay, 
 shall have become of less value for home use than the amount of such drawback ; and all goods so damaged 
 which shall be cleared for drawback shall be forfeited ; and the person who caused such goods to be so 
 cleared shall forfeit 200/., or treble the amount of the drawback, at the option of the commissioners of 
 customs. — ^90. 
 
 No drawback or bounty shall be allowed upon goods exported and cleared as being press-packed, unless 
 • the quantities and qualities of the same be verified by outh of the master packer thereof, or, in case of 
 his unavoidable absence, by oath of his foreman. — § 93. 
 
 No goods cleared for drawback or bounty, or from any warehouses, shall be carried to be put on board 
 ship for exportation, excei)t by a person authorised for that purpose by licence of the commissioners of 
 customs. — § 94. — (See Importation and Exportation.) 
 
 DUBBER, a leathern vessel, bottle, or jar, used in India to hold oil, ghee, &c. 
 Barrels, as already observed — (see Barrels), — are entirely a European invention. 
 Liquids, in Eastern countries, are for the most part packed for exportation in leathern 
 vessels. Dubbers are made of thin untanned goat skins ; and are of all sizes, from a 
 quart up to nearly a barrel. 
 
 DUNNAGE, in commercial navigation, loose wood, consisting of pieces of timber, 
 boughs of trees, faggots, &c., laid in the bottom and against the sides of the ship's hold 
 either, 1st, by raising the cargo when she is loaded with heavy goods, to prevent her 
 from becoming too stiff — (see Ballast) ; or, 2d, to prevent the cargo, should it be 
 susceptible of damage by water, from being injured in the event of her becoming leaky. 
 A ship is not reckoned seaworthy unless she be provided with proper and sufficient 
 dunnage. — (Falconer's Marine Dictionarij ; Abbott (Lord Tenterden) on the Law of Ship- 
 ping, part iii. c. 3.) 
 
 E. 
 
 EARNEST, in commercial law, is the sum advanced by the buyer of goods in order 
 to bind the seller to the terms of the agreement. It is enacted by the 17th section of 
 the famous Statute of Frauds, 29 Cha. II. c. 3., that " no contract for the sale of any 
 goods, wares, and merchandises, for the prices of \0l. sterling or upward.s, shall be 
 allowed to be good, except the buyer shall accept part of the goods so sold, and actually 
 receive the same, or give something in earnest to bind the bargain, or in part payment, 
 or that some note or memorandum in writing of the said bargain be made and signed 
 by the parties to be charged by such contract, or their agents thereunto lawfully au- 
 thorised." 
 
 As to what amounts to sufficient earnest, Blackstone lays it down, that « if .my part 
 of the price is paid down, if it is but a penny, or any portion of the goods is delivered 
 
 2 L 3 
 
518 
 
 EARTHENWARE. 
 
 by way of earnest, it is binding." To constitute earnest, the thing must be given as a 
 token of ratification of the contract, and it should be expressly stated so by the giver. — . 
 (^Chittifs Commercial Law, vol. iii. p. 289. ) 
 
 EARTHENWARE (Ger. Irdene Waaren ; Du. Aardegoed; Fr. Faisselle de terre, 
 Poterie It. Stoviglie, 2\rraglia ; Sp. Loza de harro ; Rus. Gorschetschnue possodii 
 Pol. Gliniance naczynia), or crockery, as it is sometimes termed, comprises every sort of 
 household utensil made of clay hardened in the fire. Its manufacture is, in England, 
 of very considerable importance ; and the improvements that have been made in it since 
 the middle of last century have contributed powerfully to its extension, and have added 
 greatly to the comfort and convenience of all classes. 
 
 " There is scarcely," it has been well observed, " any manufacture which is so inter- 
 esting to contemplate in its gradual improvement and extension as that of earthenware, 
 presenting, as it does, so beautiful a union of science and art, in furnishing us with the 
 comforts and ornaments of civilised life. Chemistry administers her part, by investi- 
 gating the several species of earths, and ascertaining as well their most appropriate com- 
 binations, as the respective degrees of heat which the several compositions require. Art 
 has studied the designs of antiquity, and produced from them vessels even more exquisite 
 in form than the models by which they have been suggested. The ware has been pro- 
 vided in such gradations of quality as to suit every station from the highest to the lowest. 
 It is to be seen in every country, and almost in every house, through the whole extent 
 of America, in many parts of Asia, and in most of the countries of Europe. At home 
 it has superseded the less cleanly vessels of pewter and of wood, and, by its cheapness, 
 has been brought within the means of our poorest housekeepers. Formed from sub- 
 stances originally of no value, the fabrication has induced labour of such various classes, 
 and created skill of such various degrees, that nearly the whole value of the annual 
 produce may be considered as an addition made to the mass of national wealth. Tlie 
 abundance of the ware exhibited in every dwelling-house is sufficient evidence of the vast 
 augmentation of the manufacture, which is also demonstrated by the rapid increase of 
 the population in the districts where the potteries have been established." — (^Quarterly 
 Review. ) 
 
 For the great and rapid extension of the manufacture we are chiefly indebted to the 
 late Mr. Josiah Wedgwood ; whose original and inventive genius enabled him to make 
 many most important discoveries in the art ; and who was equally successful in bringing 
 his inventions into use. The principal seat of the manufacture is in Staffordshire, where « 
 there is a district denominated the Potteries, comprising a number of villages, and a 
 population which is supposed to amount, at this moment, to above 60,000, by far the 
 greater proportion of which is engaged in the manufacture. There are no authentic 
 accounts of the population of this district in 1760, when Mr. Wedgwood began his 
 discoveries ; but the general opinion is, that it did not at that time exceed 20,000. The 
 village of Etruria, in the Potteries, was built by Mr. Wedgwood. The manufacture 
 has been carried on at Burslem, in the same district, for several centuries. 
 
 The canals by which Staffordshire is intersected, have done much to accelerate the 
 progress of the manufacture. Pipe-clay from Dorsetshire and Devonshire, and flints 
 from Kent, are conveyed by water carriage to the places where the clay and coal abound ; 
 and the finished goods are conveyed by the same means to the great shipping ports, 
 whence they are distributed over most parts of the globe. 
 
 It is estimated that the value of the various sorts of earthenware produced at the 
 Potteries may amount to about 1,500,000Z. a year; and that the earthenware produced 
 at Worcester, Derby, and other parts of the country, may amount to about 750,OO0Z. 
 more ; making the whole value of the manufacture 2,250,000/. a year. The consumption 
 of gold at the Potteries is about 650/. a week, and of coal about 8,000 tons a week. 
 
 The earthenware manufacture has increased considerably since 1814, but it is not 
 possible to state the exact ratio. It has been estimated at | for the porcelain, § for the 
 best earthenware, and at 5- or 1 for the common or cream-colovired ware. The prices of 
 the different sorts of earthenware are said to have fallen 20 per cent, during the last 15 
 years. Wages have not fallen in the same proportion ; but we are assured that a workman 
 can, at the present day, produce about four times the quantity he did in 1790. (This 
 article has been prepared from information obtained at the Potteries, obligingly com- 
 municated by James Loch, Esq. M. P.) 
 
 The real value of the earthenware exported from Great Britain to foreign countries, 
 during the 6 years ending with 1832, according to the declarations of the exporters, was 
 as follows : — 
 
 £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 1827 - - 437,812 17 8 1830 - . . 439,5fi6 19 2 
 
 1828 - - - 499,743 6 6 1831 - - 458,965 11 11 
 18'i9 - - 461,710 5 7 1832 - - - 489,980 17 7 
 
 The foreign demand for earthenware has increased considerably since 1815. The 
 exports to South America, Cuba, and other ci-devant Spanish colonies, have been largely 
 
EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 519 
 
 increased. But, notwithstanding this increase, the United States continues to be by far 
 the berit market for British earthenware. Of the entire value exported in 1831, 'amount- 
 ing to 458,905/., the exports to the United States amounted to no less than 255,1591. 
 The markets next in importance are Brazil, the British North American and West Indian 
 colonies, Cuba, Germany, the Netherlands, &c. We have been assured that it is necessary 
 to add 5" to the declared value of the exports, to get their true value. 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY, a famous association, originally established for pro- 
 secuting the trade beween England and India, which tliey acquired a right to carry on 
 exclusively. Since the middle of last century, however, the Company's political have 
 become of more importance than their commercial concerns. 
 
 East Indies, a popular geographical term not very well defined, but generally 
 understood to signify the continents and islands to the east and south of the river 
 Indus, as far as the borders of China, including Timor and the Moluccas, but excluding 
 the Philippine Islands, New Guinea, and New Holland. China and the Philippine 
 Islands were, however, included within the limits of the East India Company's peculiar 
 privileges. 
 
 I. East India Companv (Historical Sketch of). 
 II. East India Company (Constitution of). 
 
 III. East Indies (State of Society in, growing Demand for English Goods, 
 
 Trade, Colonisation, etc.). 
 
 IV. East Indies (Extent, Population, Military Force, Revenue, etc. of 
 
 British). 
 
 I. East India Company (Historical Sketch of). 
 
 The persevering efforts of the Portuguese to discover a route to India, by sailing 
 round Africa, were crowned with success in 1497. And it may appear singular, that, 
 notwithstanding the exaggerated accounts that had been prevalent in Europe, from the 
 remotest antiquity, with respect to the wealth of India, and the importance to which 
 the commerce with it had raised the Phoenicians and Egyptians In antiquity, the Ve- 
 netians in the middle ages, and which it was then seen to confer on the Portuguese, the 
 latter should have been allowed to monopolise it for nearly a century after it had been 
 turned into a channel accessible to every nation. But the prejudices by which 
 the people of most European states were actuated in tlie sixteenth century, and the pe- 
 culiar circumstances under which they were placed, hindered them from embarking 
 with that alacrity and ardour that might have been expected in this new comraercial 
 career. Soon after the Portuguese began to prosecute their discoveries along the coast 
 of Africa, they applied to the pope for a bull, securing to them the exclusive right to 
 and possession of all countries occupied by infidels, they either had discovered, or 
 might discover, to the south of Cape Non, on the west coast of Africa, in 27° 54' 
 north latitude : and the pontiff, desirous to display, and at the same time to extend, 
 his power, immediately issued a bull to this effect. Nor, preposterous as a proceeding 
 of this sort would now appear, did any one then doubt that the pope had a right to issue 
 such a bull, and that all states and empires were bound to obey it. In consequence, 
 the Portuguese were, for a lengthened period, allowed to prosecute their conquests in 
 India without the interference of any other European power. And it was not till 
 a considerable period after the beginning of the war, which the blind and brutal bigotry 
 of Philip II. kindled in the Low Countries, that the Dutch navigators began to display 
 their flag on the Eastern Ocean, and laid the foundations of their Indian empire. 
 
 The desire to comply with the injunctions in the pope's bull, and to avoid coming 
 into collision, first with the Portuguese, and subsequently with the Spaniards, who 
 had conquered Portugal in 1580, seems to have been the principal cause that led the 
 English to make repeated attempts, in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and 
 the early part of the reign of Elizabeth, to discover a route to India by a north-west 
 or north-east passage ; channels from which the Portuguese would have had no pretence 
 for excluding them. But these attempts having proved unsuccessful, and the pope's 
 bull having ceased to be of any effect in this country, the English merchants and navi- 
 gators resolved to be no longer deterred by the imaginary rights of the Portuguese from 
 directly entering upon what was then reckoned by far the most lucrative and advan- 
 tageous branch of commerce. Captain Stephens, who performed the voyage in 1582, 
 was the first Englishman who sailed to India by the Cape of Good Hope. The voyage 
 of the famous Sir Francis Drake contributed greatly to diffuse a spirit of naval enter- 
 prise, and to render the English better acquainted with the newly opened route to India. 
 But the voyage of the celebrated Mr. Thomas Cavendish was, in the latter respect, the 
 
520 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 most important. Cavendish sailed from England in a little squadron, fitted out at his 
 own expense, in July, 1586 ; and having explored the greater part of the Indian Ocean, 
 as far as the Philippine Islands, and carefully observed the most important and charac- 
 teristic features of the people and countries which he visited, returned to England, 
 after a prosperous navigation, in September, 1588. Perhaps, however, nothing con- 
 tributed so much to inspire the English with a desire to embark in the Indian trade, as 
 the captures that were made, about this period, from the Spaniards. A Portuguese 
 East India ship, or carrack, captured by Sir Francis Drake, during his expedition to 
 the coast of Spain, inflamed the cupidity of the merchants by the richness of her cargo, 
 at the same time that the papers found on board gave specific information respecting 
 the traflSc in which she had been engaged. A still more important capture, of the same 
 sort, was made in 1 593. An armament, fitted out for the East Indies by Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, and commanded by Sir John Borroughs, fell in, near the Azores, with the 
 largest of all the Portuguese carracks, a ship of 1,600 tons burden, carrying 700 men 
 and 36 brass cannon ; and, after an obstinate conflict, carried her into Dartmouth. She 
 was the largest vessel that had been seen in England ; and her cargo, consisting of 
 gold, spices, calicoes, silks, pearls, drugs, porcelain, ivory, &c., excited the ardour of the 
 English to engage in so opulent a commerce. 
 
 In consequence of these and other concurring causes, an association was formed in 
 London, in 1599, for prosecuting the trade to India. The adventurers applied to the 
 queen for a charter of incorporation, and also for power to exclude all other English 
 subjects, who had not obtained a licence from them, from carrying on any species of 
 traffic beyond the Cape of Good Hope or the Straits of Magellan. As exclusive 
 companies were then very generally looked upon as the best instruments for prosecuting 
 most branches of commerce and industry, the adventurers seem to have had little diflfi- 
 culty in obtaining their charter, which was dated the 3 1st of December, 1600. The cor- 
 poration was entitled, " The Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading 
 into the East Indies:" the first governor (Thomas Smythe, Esq.) and 24 directors 
 were nominated in the charter ; but power was given to the Company to elect a deputy 
 governor, and, in future, to elect their governor and directors, and such other office- 
 bearers as they might think fit to appoint. They w^ere empowered to make by-laws ; 
 to inflict punishments, either corporal or pecuniary, provided such punishments were in 
 accordance with the laws of England ; to export all sorts of goods free of duty for 4 
 years ; and to export foreign coin, or bullion, to the amount of 30,000/. a year, 6,000?. of 
 the same being previously coined at the mint ; but they were obliged to import, within 
 6 months after the completion of every voyage, except the first, the same quantity of 
 silver, gold, and foreign coin that they had exported. The duration of the charter was 
 limited to a period of 15 years ; but with and under the condition that, if it were not 
 found for the public advantage, it might be cancelled at any time upon 2 years' notice 
 Deing given. Such was the origin of the British East India Company, — the most 
 celebrated commercial association either of ancient or modern times, and which has now 
 extended its sway over the whole of the Mogul empire. 
 
 It might have been expected that, after the charter was obtained, considerable eager- 
 ness would have been manifested to engage in the trade. But such was not the case. 
 Notwithstanding the earnest calls and threats of the directors, many of the adventurers 
 could not be induced to come forward to pay their proportion of the charges incident 
 to the fitting out of the first expedition. And as the directors seem either to have 
 wanted power to enforce their resolutions, or thought it better not to exercise it, they 
 formed a subordinate association, consisting of such members of the Company as were 
 really willing to defray the cost of the voyage, and to bear all the risks and losses at- 
 tending it, on condition of their having the exclusive right to whatever profits might 
 arise from it. And it was by such subordinate associations that the trade was conducted 
 during the first 13 years of the Company's existence. 
 
 The first expedition to India, the cost of which amounted, ships and cargoes included, 
 to 69,091/., consisted of 5 ships, the largest being 600 and the smaller 130 tons burden. 
 The goods put on board were principally bullion, iron, tin, broad cloths, cutlery, glass, 
 &c. The chief command was intrusted to Captain James Lancaster, who had already 
 been in India. They set sail from Torbay on the 13th of February, 1601. Being 
 very imperfectly acquainted with the seas and countries they were to visit, they did not 
 arrive at their destination, Acheen in Sumati*a, till the 5th of June, 1602. But though 
 tedious, the voyage was, on . the whole, uncommonly prosperous. Lancaster entered 
 into commercial treaties with the kings of Acheen and Bantam ; and having taken on 
 board a valuable cargo of pepper and other produce, he was fortunate enough, in his 
 way home, to fall in with and capture, in concert with a Dutch vessel, a Portuguese 
 carrack of 900 tons burden, richly laden. Lancaster returned to the Downs on the 
 11th of September, 1603. — {Modern Universal History, vol. x. p. 16. j Macpfienon's 
 Commerce of the European Powers with India, p. 81.) 
 
EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 521 
 
 But notwithstanding the favourable result of this voyage, the expeditions fitted out 
 in the years immediately following, though sometimes consisting of larger ships, were 
 not, at an average, materially increased. In 1612, Captain IJest ol>tained from the 
 court at Delhi several consideral)le privileges ; and, amongst others, that of establisning 
 a factory at Surat ; which city was, henceforth, looked upon as the princijial Uritish 
 station in the west of India, till the acquisition of Bombay^ 
 
 In establishing factories in India, the English only followed the example of the 
 Portuguese and Dutch. It was contended, that they were necessary to serve as depots 
 for the goods collected in the country for exportation to Europe, as well as for those 
 imported into India, in the event of their not meeting with a ready market on tlic arrival 
 of the ships. Such establishments, it was admitted, are not required in civilised countries ; 
 but the peculiar and unsettled state of India was said to render them indispensable there. 
 Whatever weight may be attached to this statement, it is obvious that factories formed 
 for such purposes could hardly fail of speedily degenerating into a species of forts. The 
 security of the valuable property deposited in them, furnished a specious pretext for put- 
 ting them in a condition to withstand an attack, while the agents, clerks, warehousemen, 
 &c. formed a sort of garrison. Possessing such strong holds, the Europeans were early 
 emboldened to act in a manner quite inconsistent with their character as merchants ; and 
 but a very short time elapsed before they began to form schemes for monopolising the 
 commerce of particular districts, and acquiring territorial dominion. 
 
 Though the Company met with several heavy losses during the earlier part of their 
 traffic with India, from shipwrecks and other unforeseen accidents, ind still more from 
 the hostility of the Dutch, yet, on the whole, the trade was decidedly profitable. There 
 can, however, be little doubt, that their gains, at this early period, have been very much 
 exaggerated. During the first 13 years, they are said to have amounted to 132 percent. 
 But then it should be borne in mind, as Mr. Grant has justly stated, that the voyages 
 were seldom accomplished in less than 30 months, and sometimes extended to 3 or 4 
 years : and it should further be remarked, that on the arrival of the ships at home, the 
 cargoes were disposed of at long credits of 18 months or 2 years; and that it was fre- 
 quently even 6 or 7 years before the concerns of a single voyage were finally adjusted. — 
 ( Sketch of the History of the Company, p. 1 3. ) When these circumstances are taken into 
 view, it will immediately be seen that the Company's profits were not, really, by any 
 means so great as has been represented. It may not, however, be uninstructive to remark, 
 that the principal complaint that was then made against the Company did not proceed 
 so much on the circumstance of its charter excluding the public from any share in an 
 advantageous traffic, as in its authorising the Company to export gold and silver of the 
 value of 30,000Z. a year. It is true that the charter stipulated that the Company should 
 import an equal quantity of gold and silver within 6 months of the termination of every 
 voyage : but the enemies of the Company contended that this condition was not complied 
 with ; and that it was, besides, highly injurious to the public interest, and contrary to all 
 principle, to allow gold and silver to be sent out of the kingdom. The merchants and 
 others interested in the support of the Company could not controvert the reasoning of 
 their opponents, without openly impugning the ancient policy of absolutely preventing 
 the exportation of the precious metals. They did not, however, venture to contend, if the 
 idea really occurred to them, that the exportation of bullion to the East was advantageous, 
 on the broad ground of the commodities purchased by it being of greater value in Eng- 
 land. But they contended that the exportation of bullion to India was advantageous, 
 because the commodities thence imported were chiefly re-exported to other countries from 
 which a much greater quantity of bullion was obtained than had been required to pay 
 for them in India. Mr. Thomas Mun, a director of the East India Company, and the 
 ablest of its early advocates, ingeniously compares the operations of the merchant in con- 
 ducting a trade carried on by the exportation of gold and silver to the seed time and 
 harvest of agriculture. " If we only behold," says he, " the actions of the husbandman 
 in the seed time, when he casteth away much good corn into the ground, we shall account 
 him rather a madman than a husbandman. But Avhen we consider his labours in the 
 harvest, which is the end of his endeavours, we find the worth and plentiful increase of 
 his actions." — ( Treasure hy Foreign Trade, p. 50. ed. 1664.) 
 
 We may here remark, that what has been called the mercantile system of political 
 economy, or that system which measures the progress of a country in the career of 
 K^ealth by the supposed balance of payments in its favour, or by the estimated excess of 
 the value of its exports over that of its imports, appears to have originated in the excuses 
 now set up for the exportation of bullion. Previously to this epoch, the policy of pro- 
 hibiting the exportation of bullion had been tmiversally admitted ; but it now began to 
 be pretty generally allowed, that its exportation might be productive of advantage, 
 provided it occasioned the subsequent exportation of a greater amount of raw or manu- 
 factured products to countries whence bullion was obtained for them. This, when 
 compared with the previously existing prejudice — for it hardly deserves the name of 
 
522 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 system — which wholly interdicted the exportation of gold and silver, must be allowed to 
 be a considerable step in the progress to sounder opinions. The maxim, ce n'est que le 
 premier pas qui coute, was strikingly verified on this occasion. The advocates of the 
 East India Company began gradually to assume a higher' tone, and, at length, boldly 
 contended that bullion was nothing but a commodity, and that its exportation ought to 
 be rendered as free as that of any thing else. Nor were these opinions confined to the 
 partners of the East India Company. They were gi-adually communicated to others ; 
 and many eminent merchants were taught to look with suspicion on several of the 
 previously received dogmas with respect to commerce, and were, in consequence, led to 
 acquire more correct and comprehensive views. The new ideas ultimately made their 
 way into the House of Commons; and, in 1663, the statutes prohibiting the exportation 
 of foreign coin and bullion were repealed, and full liberty given to the East India Com- 
 pany and to private traders to export them in unlimited quantities. 
 
 But the objection to the East India Company, or rather the East India trade, on the 
 ground of its causing the exportation of gold and silver, admitted of a more direct and 
 conclusive, if not a more ingenious reply. How compendious soever the ancient inter- 
 course with India by the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, it was unavoidably attended 
 with a good deal of expense. The productions of the remote parts of Asia, brought to 
 Ceylon, or the ports on the Malabar coast, by the natives, were there put on board the 
 ships which arrived from the Arabic gulf. At Berenice they were landed, and carried 
 by camels 250 miles to the banks of the Nile. They were there again embarked, and 
 conveyed down the river to Alexandria, whence they were despatched to diflferent markets. 
 The addition to the price of goods by such a multiplicity of operations must have been 
 considerable ; more especially as the price charged on each operation was fixed by mo- 
 nopolists, subject to no competition or control. Pliny says, that the cost of the Arabian 
 and Indian products brought to Rome when he flourished (A. D. 70.), was increased a 
 hundred fold by the expenses of transit — (Hist. Nat. lib. vi. c. 23.) ; but there can be 
 little or no doubt that this is to be regarded as a rhetorical exaggeration. — (See ante, 
 p. 18.) There are good grounds for thinking that the less bulky sorts of Eastern pro- 
 ducts, such as silk, spices, balsams, precious stones, &c., which were those principally 
 made use of at Rome, might, supposing there were no political obstacles in the way, be 
 conveyed from most parts of India to the ports on the Mediterranean by way of Egypt, 
 at a decidedly cheaper rate than they could be conveyed to them by the Cape of Good 
 Hope. 
 
 But at the period when the latter route to India began to be frequented, Syria, 
 Egypt, &c. were occupied by Turks and Mamelukes ; barbarians who despised commerce 
 and navigation, and were, at the same time, extremely jealous of strangers, especially of 
 Christians or infidels. The price of the commodities obtained through the intervention 
 of such persons was necessarily very much enhanced ; and the discovery of the route by 
 the Cape of Good Hope was, consequently, of the utmost importance, or, by putting 
 an end to the monopoly enjoyed by the Turks and Mamelukes, it introduced, for the first 
 time, something like competition into the Indian trade, and enabled the western parts of 
 Europe to obtain supplies of Indian products for about a third part of what they had 
 previously cost. Mr. Mun, in a tract published in 1621, estimates the quantity of Indian 
 commodities imported into Europe, and their cost when bought in Aleppo and in India, 
 as follows : — 
 
 Cost of Indian commodities consumed in Europe when bought in Aleppo (or Alexandria). 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 6,000,000 lbs. pepper cost, with charges, &c. at Aleppo, 2s. per lb. ... 600,000 0 0 
 
 450,000 lbs. cloves, at is. 9d. ...... 106,875 10 0 
 
 150,000 lbs. mace, at 4s; 9rf. - - - . - . 35,626 0 0 
 
 400,000 lbs. nutmegs, at 2*. 4rf. . - - - - 46,666 2 4 
 
 350,000 lbs. indigo, at 4s. 4rf. ..... 76,833 6 8 
 
 1,000,000 lbs. Persian raw silk, at 12s. ... . - 600,000 0 0 
 
 .£"1,465,000 19 0 
 
 But the same quantities of the same commodities cost, when bought in the East Indies, according to 
 
 Mr. Mun, as follows : — £ s. d. 
 
 6,000,000 lbs. pepper, at 2i(f. per lb. . - - - . 62,500 0 0 
 
 450,«00 lbs. clo\ cs, at 9rf. . - . - - - . 16,875 0 0 
 
 150,000 lbs. mace, at 8rf. . - - - - - 5,000 0 0 
 
 400,000 lbs. nutmegs, at 4«f. - - - - - - - 6,666 13 4 
 
 350,000 lbs. indigo, at Is. 2d. ..... 20,416 12 4 
 
 1,000,000 lbs. raw silk, at 8s. - - - - - . 400,000 0 0 
 
 ^511,458 5 ~8 
 
 Which being deducted from the former, leaves a balance of 953,542/. 13s. Ad. And 
 supposing that the statements made by Mr. Mun are correct, and that allowance is made 
 for the difference between the freight from Aleppo and India, the result would indicate 
 the saving which the discovery of the route by the Cape of Good Hope occasioned iu 
 
EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 523 
 
 the purchase of the above-mentioned articles. — (A Discourse of Trade from England to 
 the East Indies, by T. M., original cd. p. 10. This tract, wliich is very scarce, is re- 
 printed in Purchas's Pilgrims.) 
 
 In the same publication (p. 37.), Mr. Mun informs us that, from the beginning of tl)e 
 Company's trade to July, 1620, they had sent 79 ships to India; of which 34 had come 
 home safely and richly laden, 4 had been worn out by long service in India, 2 had been 
 lost in careening, 6 had been lost by the perils of the sea, and 12 had been captured by 
 the Dutch. Mr. Mun further states, that the exports to India, since the formation of 
 the Company, had amounted to 840,376/. ; that the produce brought from India had 
 cost 356,288/., and had produced here the enormous sum of 1,914,600/. ; that the quarrels 
 with the Dutch had occasioned a loss of 84,088/. ; and that the stock of the Company, 
 in ships, goods in India, &c., amounted to 400,000/. 
 
 The hostility of the Dutch, to which Mi*. Mun has here alluded, was long a very for- 
 midable obstacle to the Company's success. The Dutch early endeavoured to obtain the 
 exclusive possession of the spice trade, and were not at all scrupulous about the means 
 by which they attempted to bring about this their favourite object. The English, on 
 their part, naturally exerted themselves to obtain a share of so valuable a commerce ; and 
 as neither party was disposed to abandon its views and pretensions, the most violent 
 animosities grew up between them. In this state of things, it would be ridiculous to 
 suppose that unjustifiable acts were not committed by the one party as well as the other ; 
 though the worst act of the English appears venial, when compared with the conduct of 
 the Dutch in the massacre at Amboyna, in 1622. While, however, the Dutch Company 
 was vigorously supported by the government at home, the English Company met with 
 no efficient assistance from the feeble and vacillating policy of James and Charles. The 
 Dutch either despised their remonstrances, or defeated them by an apparent compliance ; 
 so that no real reparation was obtained for the outrages they had committed. During 
 the civil war, Indian affairs were necessarily lost sight of ; and the Dutch continued, 
 until the ascendancy of the republican party had been established, to reign triumphant 
 in the East, where the English commerce was nearly annihilated. 
 
 But notwithstanding their depressed condition, the Company's servants in India laid 
 the foundation, during the period in question, of the settlements at Madras and in Bengal. 
 Permission to build Fort St. George was obtained from the native authorities in 1640. 
 In 1658, Madras was raised to the station of a presidency. In 1645, the Company 
 began to establish factories in Bengal ; the principal of which was at Hooghly. These 
 were, for a lengthened period, subordinate to the presidency at Madras. 
 
 No sooner, however, had the civil wars terminated, than the arms and councils of 
 Cromwell retrieved the situation of our affairs in India. The war which broke out 
 between the long parliament and the Dutch, in 1652, was eminently injurious to the 
 latter. In the treaty of peace, concluded in 1654, it was stipulated that indemnification 
 should be made by the Dutch for the losses and injuries sustained by the English mer- 
 chants and factors in India. The 27th article bears, " that the Lords, the states-general 
 of the United Provinces, shall take care that justice be done upon those who were par- 
 takers or accomplices in the massacre of the English at Amboyna, as the republic of 
 England is pleased to term that fact, provided any of them be living." A commission 
 was at the same time appointed, conformably to another article of the treaty, to inquire 
 into the reciprocal claims which the subjects of the contracting parties had upon each 
 other for losses sustained in India, Brazil, &c. ; and, upon their decision, the Dutch paid 
 the sum of 85,000/. to the East India Company, and 3,615/. to the heirs or executors of 
 the sufferers at Amboyna. — (^Bruce's Annals, vol. i. p. 489.) 
 
 The charter under which the East India Company prosecuted their exclusive trade to 
 India, being merely a grant from the Crown, and not ratified by any act of parliament, 
 was understood by the merchants to be at an end when Charles I. was deposed. They 
 were confirmed in this view of the matter, from the circumstance of Charles having him- 
 self granted, in 1635, a charter to Sir William Courten and others, authorising them to 
 trade with those parts of India with which the Company had not established any regular 
 intercourse. The reasons alleged in justification of this measure, by the Crown, were, 
 that " the East India Company had neglected to establish fortified factories, or seats of 
 trade, to which the king's subjects could resort with safety ; that they had consulted 
 their own interests only, without any regard to the king's revenue ; and, in general, that 
 they had broken the condition on which their charter and exclusive privileges had been 
 granted to them." — {Rym. Fcedera, vol. xx. p. 146.) 
 
 Courten's association, for the foundation of which such satisfactory reasons had been 
 assigned, continued to trade with India during the remainder of Charles's reign ; and 
 no sooner had the arms of the Commonwealth forced the Dutch to desist from their de- 
 predations, and to make reparation for the injuries they had inflicted on the English in 
 India, than private adventurers engaged in great numbers in the Indian trade, and carried 
 it on with a zeal, economy, and success, that monopoly can never expect to rival. It is 
 
524 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 stated in a little work, entitled Britannia Languens, published in 1680, the author of 
 which has evidently been a well-informed and intelligent person, that during the years 
 1653, 1654, 1655, and 1656, when the trade to India was open, the private traders im- 
 ported East India commodities in such large quantities, and sold them at such reduced 
 prices, that they not only fully supplied the British markets, but had even come into 
 successful competition with the Dutch in the market of Amsterdam, " and very much 
 sunk the actions (shares) of the Dutch East India Company." — (p. 132.) This cir- 
 cumstance naturally excited the greatest apprehensions on the part of the Dutch Com- 
 pany ; for, besides the danger that they now ran of being deprived, by the active 
 competition of the English merchants, of a considerable part of the trade which they 
 had previously enjoyed, they could hardly expect that, if the trade were thrown open in 
 England, the monopoly would be allowed to continue in Holland. A striking proof 
 of what is now stated is to be found in a letter in the third volume of Thurlow's State 
 Papers, dated at the Hague, the 15th of January, 1654, where it is said, that "the mer- 
 chants of Amsterdam have advice that the Lord Protector intends to dissolve the East 
 India Company at London, and to declare the navigation and commerce of the East 
 Indies free and open ; which doth cause great jealousy at Amsterdam, as a thing that 
 will very much prejudice the East India Company in Holland." 
 
 Feeling that it was impossible to contend with the private adventurers under a system 
 of fair competition, the moment the treaty with the Dutch had been concluded, the 
 Company began to solicit a renewal of their charter ; but in this they were not only 
 opposed by the free traders, but by a part of themselves. To understand how this hap- 
 pened, it may be proper to mention that Courten's association, the origin of which has 
 been already noticed, had begun, in 1648, to found a colony at Assuda, an island near 
 Madagascar. The Company, alarmed at this project, applied to the council of state to 
 prevent its being carried into elFect"; and the council, without entering on the question 
 of either party's rights, recommended to them to form a union ; which was accordingly 
 effected in 1649. But the union was, for a considerable time, rather nominal than real; 
 and when the Dutch war had been put an end to, most of those holders of the Company's 
 stock who had belonged to Courten's association joined in petitioning the council of state 
 that the trade might in future be carried on, not by a joint stock, but by a regulated 
 company ; so that each individual engaging in it might be allowed to employ his own 
 stock, servants, and shipping, in whatever way he might conceive most for his own ad- 
 vantage. — (^Petition of Adventureis, 17th of Nov. 1656; Bruce's Annals, vol. i. p. 518.) 
 
 This proposal was obviously most reasonable. The Company had always founded 
 their claim to a monop.)ly of the trade on the alleged ground of its being necessary to 
 maintain forts, factories, and ships of war in India ; and that as this was not done by 
 government, it could only be done by a Company. But, by forming the traders with 
 India into a regulated company, they might have been subjected to whatever rules were 
 considered most advisable ; and such special duties might have been laid on the commo- 
 dities they exported and imported, as would have sufficed to defray the public expenses 
 required for carrying on the trade, at the same time that the inestimable advantages of 
 free competition would have been secured ; each individual trader being left at liberty to 
 conduct his enterprises, subject only to a few general regulations, in his own way and 
 for his own advantage. — (See Companies.) 
 
 But notwithstanding the efforts of the petitioners, and the success that was clearly 
 proved to have attended the operations of the private traders, the Company succeeded in 
 obtaining a renewal of their charter from Cromwell in 1657. Charles 11. confirmed 
 this charter in 1661 ; and at the same time conferred on them the power of making peace 
 or war with any pov/er or people not of the Christian religion; of establishing fortifica- 
 tions, garrisons, and colonies ; of exporting ammunition and stores to their settlements 
 duty free ; of seizing and sending to England such British subjects as should be found 
 trading to India without their leave ; and of exercising civil and criminal jurisdiction in 
 their settlements, according to the laws of England. Still, however, as this charter was 
 not fully confirmed by any act of parliament, it did not prevent traders, or interlopers 
 as they were termed, from appearing within the limits of the Company's territories. The 
 energy of private commerce, which, to use the words of Mr. Orme, " sees its drift with 
 eagles' eyes," formed associations at the risk of trying the consequence at law, being safe 
 at the outset, and during the voyage, since the Company were not authorised to stop or 
 seize the ships of those who thus attempted to come into competition with them. Hence 
 their monopoly was by no means complete ; and it was not till after the Revolution, 
 and when a free system of government had been established at home, that, by a singular 
 contradiction, the authority of parliament was interposed to enable the Company wholly 
 to engross the trade with the East. 
 
 In addition to the losses arising from this source, the Company's trade suffered 
 severely, during the reign of Charles II., from the hostilities that were then waged with 
 the Dutch, and from the confusion and disorders caused by contests among tlie nativ 
 
EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 525 
 
 princes; but in 1668, the Company obtained a very valuable acquisition in the island of 
 Bombay. Charles II. acquired this island as a part of the marriage portion of his 
 wife, Catharine of Portugal ; and it was now made over to the Company, on condition 
 of their not selling or alienating it to any persons whatever, except sucli as were subjects 
 of the British crown. They were allowed to legislate for their new possession ; but it 
 was enjoined that their laws should be consonant to reason, and " as near as migiit be " 
 agreeable to the practice of England. They were authorised to maintain their dominion 
 by force of arms ; and the natives of Bombay were declared to have the same liberties as 
 natural born subjects. The Company's western presidency was soon after transferred 
 from Surat to Bombay. 
 
 In 1664, the French East India Company was formed; and 10 years afterwards they 
 laid the foundation of their settlement at Pondicherry. 
 
 But the reign of Charles II. is chiefly memorable in the Company's annals, from its 
 being the era of the commencement of the tea trade. The first notice of tea in the 
 Company's records is found in a despatch, addressed to their agent at Bantam, dated 
 24th of January, 1667-8, in which he is desired to send home 100 lbs. of tea, " the best he 
 can get." — (Brnce's Annals, vol. ii. p. 210.) Such was the late and feeble beginning of 
 the tea trade ; a branch of commerce that has long been of vast importance to the 
 British nation ; and without which, it is more than probable that the East India 
 Company would long since have ceased to exist, at least as a mercantile body. 
 
 In 1677, the Company obtained a fresh renewal of their charter ; receiving at the same 
 time an indemnity for all past misuse of their privileges, and authority to establish a 
 mint at Bombay. 
 
 During the greater part of the reigns of Charles II. and James II., the Company's 
 aflPairs at home were principally managed by the celebrated Sir Josiah Child, the ablest 
 commercial writer of the time ; and in India, by his brother Sir John Child. In 1681, 
 Sir Josiah published an apology for the Company, under the signature of ^iKoirarpis — " A 
 Treatise wherein is demonstrated that the East India Trade is the most National of all 
 Foreign Trades : " in which, besides endeavouring to vindicate the Company from the 
 objections that had been made against it, he gives an account of its state at the time. 
 From this account it appears that the Company consisted of 556 partners ; that they had 
 from 35 to 36 ships, of from 775 to 100 tons, employed in the trade between England 
 and India, and from port to port in India — (p. 23. ) ; that the custom duties upon the 
 trade amounted to about 60,000Z. a year; and that the value of the exports, " in lead, tin,^ 
 cloth, and stuffs, and other commodities of the production and manufacture of England," 
 amounted to about 60,000Z. or 70,000Z. a year. Sir Josiah se^ t-is to have been struck, 
 as he well might, by the inconsiderable amount of the trade ; and he therefore dwells 
 on the advantages of which it was indirectly productive, in enabling us to obtain supplies 
 of raw silk, pepper, &c. at a much lower price than they would otherwise have fetched. 
 But this, though true, proved nothing in favour of the Company ; it being an admitted 
 fact, that those articles were furnished at a still lower price by the interlopers or private 
 traders. 
 
 Sir Josiah Child was one of the first who projected the formation of a territorial empire 
 in India. But the expedition fitted out in 1686, in the view of accomplishing this pur- 
 pose, proved unsuccessful ; and the Company were glad to accept peace on the terms 
 offered by the Mogul. Sir John Child, having died during the course of these 
 transactions, was succeeded in the principal management of the Company's affairs in 
 India by Mr. Vaux. On the appointment of the latter, Sir Josiah Child, to whom he 
 owed his advancement, exhorted him to act with vigour, and to carry whatever instruc- 
 tions he might receive from home into immediate effect. Mr. Vaux retm-ned for answer 
 that he should endeavour to acquit himself with integrity and justice, and that he would 
 make the laws of his country the rule of his conduct. Sir Josiah Child's answer to this 
 letter is curious : — " He told Mr. Vaux roundly that he expected his orders were to 
 be his rules, and not the laws of England, which were a heap of nonsense, compiled 
 by a few ignorant country gentlemen, who hardly knew how to make laws for the 
 good government of their own private families, much less for the regulating of com- 
 panies and foreign commerce." — Hamilton's Neiv Account of the East Indies, vol. i. 
 p. 232.) 
 
 During the latter part of the reign of Charles II., and that of his successor, the num- 
 ber of private adventurers, or interlopers, in the Indian trade, increased in an unusual 
 degree. The Company vigorously exerted themselves in defence of what they conceived 
 to be their rights ; and the question with respect to the validity of the powers conferred 
 on them by their charter was at length brought to issue, by a prosecution carried on at 
 their instance against Mr. Thomas Sandys, for trading to the East Indies without their 
 licence. Judgment was given in favour of the Company in 1685. But this decision 
 was ascribed to corrupt influence ; and instead of allaying, only served to increase the 
 clamour against them. The meeting of the Convention Parliament gave the Company's 
 
526 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 opponents hopes of a successful issue to their efforts ; and had they been united, they 
 might probably have succeeded. Their opinions were, however, divided — part being 
 for throwing the trade open, and part for the formation of a new company on a more 
 liberal footing. The latter being formed into a body, and acting in unison, the struggle 
 against the Company was chiefly carried on by them. The proceedings that took place 
 on this occasion are amongst the most disgraceful in the history of the country. The 
 most open and unblushing corruption was practised by all parties. — " It was, in fact, a 
 trial which side should bribe the highest ; public authority inclining to one or other as the 
 irresistible force of gold directed." — (Modern Universal History, vol. x. p. 127.) Govern- 
 ment appears, on the whole, to have been favourable to the Company ; and they obtained 
 a fresh charter from the Crown in 1693. But in the following year the trade was vir- 
 tually laid open by a vote of the House of Commons, " that all the subjects of England 
 had an equal right to trade to the East Indies, unless prohibited by act of parliament." 
 Matters continued on this footing till 1698. The pecuniary difficulties in which govern- 
 ment was then involved, induced them to apply to the Company for a loan of 2,000,000Z. 
 for which they offered 8 per cent, interest. The Company offered to advance 700,000/. 
 at 4 per cent. ; but the credit of government was at the time so low, that they preferred 
 accepting an offer from the associated merchants, who had previously opposed the Com- 
 pany, of the 2,000,000/. at 8 per cent., on condition of their being formed into a new and 
 exclusive company. While this project was in agitation, the advocates of free trade were 
 not idle, but exerted themselves to show that, instead of establishing a new Company, the 
 old one ought to be abolished. But however conclusive and unanswerable, their argu- 
 ments, having no adventitious recommendations in their favour, failed of making any 
 impression. The new Company was established by authority of the legislature ; and as 
 the charter of the old Company was not yet expired, the novel spectacle was exhibited of 
 two legally constituted bodies, each claiming an exclusive right to the trade of the same 
 possessions ! 
 
 Notwithstanding all the pretensions set up by those who had obtained the new charter 
 during their struggle with the old Company, it was immediately seen that they were 
 as anxious as the latter to suppress every thing like free trade. They had not, it was 
 obvious, been actuated by any enlarged views, but merely by a wish to grasp at the 
 monopoly, which they believed would redound to their own individual interest. The 
 public, in consequence, became equally disgusted with both parties ; or if there were 
 ^ny difference, it is probable that the new Company was looked upon with the greatest 
 aversion, inasmuch as we are naturally more exasperated by what we conceive to be 
 duplicity and bad faith, than by fair undisguised hostility. 
 
 At first the mutual hatred of the rival associations knew no bounds. But they were 
 not long in perceiving that such conduct would infallibly end in their ruin ; and that, 
 while one was labouring to destroy the other, the friends of free trade might step in and 
 procure the dissolution of both. In consequence, they became gradually econciled ; and 
 in 1702, having adjusted their differences, they resolved to form themselves into one 
 company, entitled. The United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East 
 Indies. 
 
 The authority of parliament was soon after interposed to give effect to this agreement. 
 
 The United Company engaged to advance 1,200,000/. to government without interest, 
 which, as a previous advance had been made of 2,000,000/. at 8 per cent., made the total 
 sum due to them by the public 3,200,000/., bearing interest at 5 per cent. ; and govern- 
 ment agreed to ratify the terms of their agreement, and to extend the charter to the 
 25th of March, 1726, with 3 years' notice. 
 
 While those important matters were transacting at home, the Company had acquired 
 some additional possessions in India. In 1692, the Bengal agency was transferred from 
 Hooghly to Calcutta. In 1 698, the Company acquired a grant from one of the grand- 
 sons of Aurengzebe, of Calcutta and 2 adjoining villages ; with leave to exercise judi- 
 ciary powers over the inhabitants, and to erect fortifications. These were soon after 
 constructed, and received, in compliment to William III., then king of England, the 
 name of Fort William. The agency at Bengal, which had hitherto been subsidiary 
 only, was now raised to the rank of a presidency. 
 
 The vigorous competition that had been carried on for some years before the coalition 
 of the old and new Companies, between them and the private traders, had occasioned a 
 great additional importation of Indian silks, piece goods, and other products, and a great 
 reduction of their price. These circumstances occasioned the most vehement complaints 
 amongst the home manufactiu-ers, who resorted to the arguments invariably made use of 
 on such occasions by those who wish to exclude foreign competition ; affirming that 
 manufactured India goods had been largely substituted for those of England ; that 
 the English manufacturers had been reduced to the cruel necessity either of selHng 
 nothing, or of selling their commodities at such a price as left tliem no profit ; that great 
 numbers of their workmen had been thrown out of employment ; and last of all, that 
 
EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 527 
 
 Indian goods were not bought by British goods, but by gold and silver, the exportation of 
 which had caused the general impoverishment of the kingdom ! The mercliants and others 
 interested in the India trade could not, as had previously happened to them in tlie con- 
 troversy with respect to the exportation of bullion, meet these statements witliout attack- 
 ing the principles on which they rested, and maintaining, in opposition to them, that it 
 was for the advantage of every people to buy the products ^hey wanted in the cheapest 
 market. This just and sound principle was, in consequence, enforced in several petitions 
 presented to parliament by the importers of Indian goods ; and it was also enforced in 
 several able publications that appeared at the time. But these arguments, how un- 
 answerable soever they may now appear, had then but little influence; and in 1701, 
 an act was passed, prohibiting the importation of Indian manufactured goods for home 
 consumption. 
 
 For some years after the re-establishment of the Company, it continued to prosecute 
 its efforts to consolidate and extend its commerce. But the unsettled state of the Mogul 
 empire, coupled with the determination of the Company to establish factories in every 
 convenient situation, exposed their affairs to perpetual vicissitudes. In 1715, it was 
 resolved to send an embassy to Delhi, to solicit from Furucksur, an unworthy descendant 
 of Aurengzebe, an extension and confirmation of the Company's territory and privileges. 
 Address, accident, and the proper application of presents, conspired to ensure the success 
 of the embassy. The grants or patents solicited by the Company were issued in 1717. 
 They were in all 34. The substance of the privileges they conferred was, that English 
 vessels wrecked on the coasts of the empire should be exempt from plunder ; that 
 the annual payment of a stipulated sum to the government of Surat should free the 
 English trade at that port from all duties and exactions ; that those villages contiguous 
 to Madras formerly granted and afterwards refused by the government of Arcot, 
 should be restored to the Company ; that the island of Diu, near the port of Masuli- 
 patam, should belong to the Company, paying for it a fixed rent ; that in Bengal, all 
 persons, whether" European or native, indebted or accountable to the Company, should 
 be delivered up to the presidency on demand ; that goods of export or import, belonging 
 to the English, might, under a dustuck or passport from the president of Calcutta, be 
 conveyed duty free through the Bengal provinces j and that the English should be at 
 liberty to purchase the lordship of 37 towns contiguous to Calcutta, and in fact com- 
 manding both banks of the river for 10 miles south of that city. — ( Grant's Sketch of 
 the Hist, of the East India Company, p. 128.) 
 
 The important privileges thus granted, were long regarded as constituting the great 
 charter of the English in India. Some of them, however, were not fully conceded ; but 
 were withheld or modified by the influence of the emperor's lieutenants, or soubahdars. 
 
 In 1717, the Company found themselves in danger from a new competitor. In the 
 course of that year some ships appeared in India, fitted out by private adventurers from 
 Ostend. Their success encouraged others to engage in the same line; and in 1722, the 
 adventurers were formed into a company under a charter from his Imperial Majesty. 
 The Dutch and English Companies, who had so long been hostile to each other, at 
 once laid aside their animosities, and joined heartily in an attempt to crush their new 
 competitors. Remonstrances being found ineffectual, force was resorted to ; and the 
 vessels of the Ostend Company were captured, under the most frivolous pretences, in 
 the open seas and on the coasts of Brazil. The British and Dutch governments abetted 
 the selfish spirit of hostility displayed by their respective Companies. And the emperor 
 was, in the end, glad to purchase the support of Great Britain and Holland to the 
 pragmatic sanction, by the sacrifice of the Company at Ostend. 
 
 Though the Company's trade had increased, it was still inconsiderable ; and it is very 
 difficult, indeed, when one examines the accounts that have from time to time been 
 published of the Company's mercantile affairs, to imagine how the idea ever came to 
 be entertained that their commerce was of any considerable, much less paramount, 
 importance. At an average of the 10 years ending with 1724, the total value of the 
 British manufactures and other products annually exported to India amounted to only 
 92,410Z. 12s. 6d. The avei-age value of the bullion annually exported during the same 
 period, amounted to 518,102?. lis. Od. ; making the total annual average exports 
 617,513Z. 3s. lOd. ; — a truly pitiful sum, when we consider the wealth, population, and 
 industry of the countries between which the Company's commerce was carried on ; and 
 affording by its smallness a strong presumptive proof of the effect of the monopoly in 
 preventing the growth of the trade. 
 
 In 1730, though there were 3 years still unexpired of the Company's charter, a 
 vigorous effort was made by the merchants of London, Bristol, and Liverpool, to pre- 
 vent its renewal. It has been said that the gains of the Company, had they been exactly 
 known, would not have excited any very envious feelings on the part of the merchants ; 
 but being concealed, they were exaggerated ; and the boasts of the Company as to the 
 importance of their trade contributed to sjiread the belief that their profits were enormoaw. 
 
528 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY 
 
 and consequently stimulated the exertions of their opponents. Supposing, however, that 
 the real state of the case had been known, there was still enough to justify the utmost 
 exertions on the part of the merchants : for the limited profits made by the Company, 
 notwithstanding their monopoly, were entirely owing to the misconduct of their agents, 
 which they had vainly endeavoured to restrain ; and to the waste inseparable from such 
 unwieldy establishments. , 
 
 The merchants, on this occasion, followed the example that had been set by the 
 petitioners for free trade in 1656. They offered, in the first place, to advance the 
 3,200,000Z. lent by the Company to the public, on more favourable terms. And in the 
 second place, they proposed that the subscribers to this loan should be formed into a 
 regulated company, for opening the trade, under the most favourable circumstances, to all 
 classes of their countrymen. 
 
 It was not intended that the Company should trade upon a joint stock, and in their 
 corporate capacity, but that every individual who pleased should trade in the way of 
 private adventure. The Company were to have the charge of erecting and maintaining 
 the forts and establishments abroad ; and for this, and for other expenses attending what 
 was called the enlargement and preservation of the trade, it was proposed that they 
 should receive a duty of 1 per cent, upon all exports to India, and of 5 per cent, upon 
 all imports from it. For ensuring obedience to this and other regulations, it was to be 
 enacted, that no one should trade to India without licence from the Company. And it 
 was proposed that 31 years, with 3 years' notice, should be granted as the duration of 
 their peculiar privilege. 
 
 " It appears from this," says Mr. Mill, " that the end which was proposed to be 
 answered, by incorporating such a company, w^s the preservation and erection of the 
 forts, buildings, and other fixed establishments, required for the trade of India. This 
 Company promised to supply that demand which has always been held forth as peculiar 
 to the India trade, as the grand exigency which, distinguishing the traffic with India 
 from all other branches of trade, rendered monopoly advantageous in that peculiar case, 
 how much soever it might be injurious in others. While it provided for this real or 
 pretended want, it left the trade open to all the advantages of private enterprise, private 
 vigilance, private skill, and private economy, — the virtues by which individuals thrive 
 and nations prosper. And it gave the proposed company an interest in the careful 
 discharge of its duty, by making its profits increase in exact proportion with the increase 
 of the trade, and, of course, with the facilities and accommodation by which the trade 
 was promoted. 
 
 " Three petitions were presented to the House of Commons in behalf of the pro- 
 posed company, by the merchants of London, Bristol, and Liverpool. It was urged, 
 that the proposed company would, through the competition of which it would be pro- 
 ductive, cause a great extension of the trade ; that it would produce a larger exportation 
 of our own produce and manufactures to India, and reduce the price of all Indian 
 commodities to the people at home ; that new channels of traffic would be opened in 
 Asia and America, as well as in Europe ; that the duties of customs and excise would 
 be increased ; and that the waste and extravagance caused by the monopoly would be 
 entirely avoided." — ( Mill's India, vol. iii. p. 37.) 
 
 But these arguments did not prevail. The Company magnified the importance of 
 their trade ; and contended, that it would be unwise to risk advantages already realised, 
 for the sake of those that were prospective and contingent. They alleged that, if 
 the trade to India were thrown open, the price of goods in India would be so much 
 enhanced by the competition of different traders, and their price in England so much 
 diminished, that the freedom of the trade would certainly end in the ruin of all who 
 liad been foolish enough to adventure in it. To enlarge on the fallacy of these state- 
 ments would be worse than superfluous. It is obvious that nothing whatever could 
 have been risked, and that a great deal would have been gained, by opening the trade 
 in the way that was pi-oposed. And if it were really true that the trade to India 
 ought to be subjected to a monopoly, lest the traders by their competition should ruin 
 each other, it would follow that the trade to America — and not that only, but every 
 branch both of the foreign and home trade of the empire should be surrendered to 
 exclusive companies. But such as the Company's arguments were, they seemed satis- 
 factory to parliament. They, however, consented to reduce the interest on the debt due 
 to them by the public from 5 to 4 per cent., and contributed a sum of 200,000/. for the 
 public service. On these conditions it was agreed to extend their exclusive privileges 
 to Lady-day, 1766, with the customary addition of 3 years' notice. 
 
 For about 15 years from this period, the Company's affairs went on without any very 
 prominent changes. But notwithstanding the increased importation of tea, the con- 
 sumption of which now began rapidly to extend, their trade continued to be compara- 
 tively insignificant. At an average of the 8 years ending with 1741, the value of the 
 British goods and products of all sorts, exported by the Company to India and China 
 
EAST INDIA COMPANY 
 
 529 
 
 amounted to only 157,944/. 4s. 7rf. a year! And during the 7 years ending with 1748, 
 they amounted to only 188,176/. 16s. 4c/. And wlien it is borne in mind that these 
 exports included the military stores of all sorts, forwarded to the Company's settlements 
 in India and at St. Helena, the amount of whicli was, at all times, very considerable, 
 it does appear exceedingly doubtful whether the Company really exported, during the 
 entire period from 1730 to 1748, 150,000/. worth of Briiish produce as a legitimate 
 mercantile adventure ! Their trade, such as it was, was entirely carried on by shipments 
 of bullion ; and even its annual average export, during the 7 years ending with 1 748, 
 only amounted to 548,711/. Igs. 2c?. It would seem, indeed, that the Company had 
 derived no perceptible advantage from the important concessions obtained from the 
 Mogul emperor, in 1717. But the true conclusion is, not that these concessions were of 
 little value, but that the deadening influence of monopoly had so paralysed the Company, 
 that they were unable to turn them to account ; and that, though without competitors, 
 and with opulent kingdoms for their customers, their commerce was hardly greater than 
 that carried on by some single merchants. 
 
 In 1732, the Company were obliged to reduce their dividend from 8 to 7 per cent., 
 at which rate it continued till 1744. 
 
 The opposition the Company had experienced from the merchants, when the question 
 as to the renewal of their charter was agitated, in 1730, made them very desirous to 
 obtain the next renev/al in as quiet a manner as possible. They therefore proposed, in 
 1743, when 23 yeai-s of their charter were yet unexpired, to lend 1,000,000/. to govern- 
 ment, at 3 per cent., provided their exclusive privileges were extended to 1780, with the 
 usual notice. And as none were expecting such an application, or prepared to oppose 
 it, the consent of government was obtained without difficulty. 
 
 But the period was now come, when the mercantile character of the East India Com- 
 pany, — if, indeed, it could with propriety, be, at any time, said to belong to them, — was 
 to be eclipsed by their achievements as a military power, and the magnitude of their con- 
 quests. For about two centuries after the European powers began their intercourse with 
 India, the Mogul princes were regarded as amongst the most opulent and powerful of 
 monarchs. Though of a foreign lineage — being descended from the famous Tamerlane, 
 or Timur Bee, who overran India in 1400 — and of a different religion from the great 
 body of their subjects, their dominion was firmly established in every part of their 
 extensive empire. The administration of the different provinces was committed to 
 officers, denominated soubahdars, or nabobs, intrusted with powers, in their respective 
 governments, similar to those enjoyed by the Roman preetors. So long as the em- 
 perors retained any considerable portion of the vigour and bravery of their hardy 
 ancestors, the different parts of the government were held in due subordination, and 
 the soubahdars yielded a ready obedience to the orders from Delhi. But the empe- 
 rors were gradually debauched by the apparently prosperous condition of their affairs. 
 Instead of being educated in the council or the camp, the heirs of almost unbounded 
 power were brought up in the slothful luxury of the seraglio ; ignorant of public 
 affairs ; benumbed by indolence ; depraved by the flattery of women, of eunuchs, and 
 of slaves ; their minds contracted with their enjoyments ; their inclinations were vilified 
 by their habits ; and their government grew as vicious, as corrupt, and as worthless as 
 themselves. When the famous Kouli Khan, the usurper of the Persian throne, invaded 
 India, the effeminate successor of Tamerlane and Aurengzebe was too unprepared to 
 oppose, and too dastardly to think of avenging the attack. This was the signal for 
 the dismemberment of the monarchy. No sooner had the invader withdrawn, than 
 tlie soubahdars either openly threw off their allegiance to the emperor, or paid only 
 a species of nominal or mock deference to his orders. The independence of the 
 soubahdars was very soon followed by wars amongst themselves ; and, being well aware 
 of the superiority of European troops and tactics, they anxiously courted the alliance 
 and support of the French and English East India Companies. These bodies, having 
 espoused different sides, according as their interests or prejudices dictated, began very 
 soon to turn the quarrels of the sovibahdars to their own account. Instead of being 
 contented, as hitherto, with the possession of factories and trading towns, they aspired 
 to the dominion of provinces ; and the struggle soon came to be, not which of the 
 native princes should prevail, but whether the English or the French should become 
 the umpires of India. 
 
 But these transactions are altogether foreign to the subject of this work ; nor could 
 any intelligible account of them be given without entering into lengthened statements. 
 We shall only, therefore, observe that the aflfairs of the French were ably conducted by 
 La Bourdonnais, Dupleix, and Lally, officers of distinguished merit, and not less cele- 
 brated for their great actions than for the base ingratitude of which they were the victiins. 
 But though victory seemed at first to incline to the French and their allies, tne Englisli 
 affairs were effectually retrieved by the extraordinary talents and address of a single indi- 
 vidual ; — Colonel (afterwards Lord) Clive was equally brave, cautit>us, and enterprising ; 
 
 2 P.I 
 
5S0 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 not scrupulous in the use of means ; fertile in expedients ; endowed with wonderful <?a- 
 gacity and resohition ; and capable of turning even the most apparently adverse circum- 
 stances to advantage. Having succeeded in humbling the French power in the vicinity 
 of Madras, Qive landed at Calcutta in 1757, in order to chastise the soubahdar, Sura- 
 jah ul Dowlah, who had a short while before attacked the English factory at that place, 
 and inhumanly shut up 146 Englishmen in a prison, where, owing to the excessive heat 
 and want of water, 123 perished in a single night. Clive had only 700 European troops 
 and 1,400 Sepoys with him when he landed ; but with these, and 570 sailors furnished by 
 the fleet, he did not hesitate to attack the immense army commanded by the soubahdar, 
 and totally defeated him in the famous battle of Plassey. This victory threw the whole 
 provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, into our hands ; and they were finally confirmed 
 to us by the treaty negotiated in 1765. 
 
 Opinion has been long divided as to the policy of our military operations in India; 
 and it has been strenuously contended, that we ought never to have extended our con- 
 quests beyond the limits of Bengal. Tlie legislature seems to have taken this view of 
 the matjer; the House of Commons having resolved, in 1782, "that to pursue 
 schemes of conquest and extent of dominion in India are measiu^es repugnant to the 
 wish, the honour, and the policy of this nation." But others have argued, and appa- 
 rently on pretty good grounds, that, having gone thus far, we were compelled to advance. 
 The native powers, trembling at the increase of British dominion, endeavoured, when 
 too late, to make head against the growing evil. In this view they entered into com- 
 binations and wars against the English ; and the latter having been uniformly victo- 
 rious, their empire necessarily went on increasing, till all the native powers have been 
 swallowed up in its vast extent. 
 
 The magnitude of the acquisitions made by Lord Clive powerfully excited the atten- 
 tion of the British public. Their value was prodigiously exaggerated ; and it was 
 generally admitted that the Company had no legal claim to enjoy, during the whole 
 period of their charter, all the advantages resulting from conquests, to which the 
 fleets and armies of the state had largely contributed. In 1767, the subject was taken 
 up by the House of Commons ; and a committee was appointed to investigate the whole 
 circumstances of the case, and to calculate the entire expenditure incurred by the public 
 on the Company's account. During the agitation of this matter, the right of the Com- 
 pany to the new conquests was totally denied by several members.- In the end, however, 
 the question was compromised by the Company agreeing to pay 400,000?. a year for 2 
 years; and in 1769, this agreement, including the yearly payment, was further extended 
 for 5 years more. The Company, at the same time, increased their dividend, which had 
 been fixed by the former agreement at 10, to 12|- per cent. 
 
 But the Coinpany's anticipations of increased revenue proved entirely, visionary. The 
 rapidity of their conquests in India, the distance of the controlling authority at home, 
 and the abuses in the government of the native princes, to whom the Company had suc- 
 ceeded, conspired to foster a strong spirit of peculation among their servants. Abuses 
 of every sort were multiplied to a frightful extent. The English, having obtained, or 
 rather enforced, an exemption from those heavy transit duties to which the native traders 
 were subject, engrossed the whole internal trade of the country. They even went so 
 far as to decide what quantity of goods each manufacturer should deliver, and what he 
 should receive for them. It is due to the directors to say, that they exerted themselves 
 to repress these abuses. But their resolutions were neither carried into effect by their 
 servants in India, nor sanctioned by the proprietors at home ; so that the abuses, instead 
 of being repressed, went on acquiring fresh strength and virulence. The resources 
 of the country were rapidly impaired; and while many of the Company's servants 
 returned to Europe with immense fortunes, the Company itself was involved in debt 
 and diflftculties ; and so far from being able to pay the stipulated sum of 400,000?. a 
 year to government, was compelled to apply, in 1772, to the Treasury for a loan ! 
 
 In this crisis of their affairs, government interposed, and a considerable change was 
 made in the constitution of the Company. The dividend was restricted to 6 per cent., 
 till the sum of 1,400,000Z., advanced to them by the public, should be paid. It was 
 further enacted, that the court of directors should be elected for 4 years, 6 members 
 annually, but none to hold their seats for more than 4 years at a time ; that no person 
 was to vote at the courts of proprietors who had not possessed his stock for 12" 
 months ; and that the amount of stock required to qualify for a vote should be increased 
 from 500/. to 1,000/. The jurisdiction of the Mayor's Court at Calcutta was in future 
 confined to small mercantile cases ; and, in lieu of it, a new court was appointed, con- 
 sisting of a cliief justice and 3 principal judges appointed by the Crown. A supe- 
 riority was also given to Bengal over the other presidencies, Mr. Warren Hastings being 
 named in the act as governor-general of India. The governor-general, councillors, and 
 judges, were prohibited from having any concern whatever in trade ; and no person 
 residing in the Company's settlements was -allowed to take more than 12 per cent, per 
 
EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 531 
 
 annum for money. Tliough strenuously opposed, these measures were carried by a 
 large majority. 
 
 At this period (1773) the total number of proprietors of East India stock, with their 
 qualifications as they stood in the Company's book, were as follows : — 
 
 rroprictors. Stocks, 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 Englishmen, possessing 1,000?. stock and upwards - 487 1,018,398 19 11 
 
 Foreigners, possessing 1,000/. stock and upwards - 32.5 890,940 17 0 
 
 Englishmen, possessing 500/. stock and upwards - 1,246 634,4 G4 I 8 
 
 Foreigners, possessing 500/. stock and upwards - 95 50,226 0 0 
 
 Total _ _ - 2,153 ^^2,594,029 18 7 
 
 Notwithstanding the vast extension of the Company's territories, their trade continued 
 to be apparently insignificant. During the 3 years ending with 1773, the value of the 
 entire exports of British produce and manufactures, including military stores exported 
 by the Company to India and China, amounted to 1,469,41 1/., being at tlie rate of 
 489,803/. a year ; the annual exports of bullion during the same period being only 
 84,933/. ! During the same 3 years, 23 ships sailed annually for India. Tlie truth, 
 indeed, seems to be, that, but for the increased consumption of tea in Great Britain, the 
 Company would have entirely ceased to carry on any branch of trade with the East ; 
 and the monopoly would have excluded us as effectually from the markets of India and. 
 China as if the trade had reverted to its ancient channels, and. the route by the Cape of 
 Good Hope been relinquished. 
 
 In 1781, the exclusive privileges of the Company were extended to 1791, with 3 years' 
 notice ; the dividend on the Company's stock was fixed at 8 per cent. ; three fourths of 
 their surplus revenues, after paying the dividend, and the sum of 400,000/. payable to 
 government, was to be applied to the public service, and. the remaining fourth to the 
 Company's own use. 
 
 In 1780, the value of British produce and manufactures exported by the Company to 
 India and China amounted to only 386,152/. ; the bullion exported during the same 
 year was ] 5,014/. The total value of the exports during the same year was 1 2,648,616/. ; 
 showing that the East India trade formed only one thirty-second part of the entire foreign 
 trade of the empire ! 
 
 The administration of Mr. Hastings was one continued scene of war, negotiation, and 
 intrigue. The state of the country, instead of being improved, became worse ; so much 
 so, that in a council minute by Marquis Cornwallis, dated the 18th of September, 1789, 
 it is distinctly stated, " that one third of the Company's territory is now a jungle for wild 
 beasts." Some abuses in the conduct of their servants were, indeed, rectified ; but, not- 
 withstanding, the nett revenue of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, which, in 1772, had 
 amounted to 2,126,766/., declined, in 1785, to 2,072,963/. This exhaustion of the 
 country, and the expenses incurred in the war with Hyder Ally and France, involved 
 the Company in fresh difficulties. And being unable to meet them, they were obliged, 
 in 1783, to present a petition to parliament, setting forth their inability to pay the stipu- 
 lated sum of 400,000/. a year to the public, and praying to be excused from that payment, 
 and to be supported by a loan of 900,000/. 
 
 All parties seemed now to be convinced that some further changes in the constitution 
 of the Company had become indispensable. In this crisis, Mr. Fox brought forward his 
 famous India Bill ; the grand object of which was to abolish the courts of directors and 
 proprietors, and to vest the government of India in the hands of 7 commissioners 
 appointed by parliament. The coalition between Lord North and Mr. Fox had ren- 
 dered the ministry exceedingly unpopular ; and advantage was taken of the circum- 
 stance to raise an extraordinary clamour against the bill. The East India Company 
 stigmatised it as an invasion of their chartered rights ; though it is obvioiis, that, from 
 their inability to carry into effect the stipulations under which those rights were con- 
 ceded to them, they necessarily reverted to the public ; and it was as open to pai liament 
 to legislate upon them as upon any other question. The political opponents of the 
 government represented the proposal for vesting the nomination of commissioners in 
 the legislature, as a daring invasion of the prerogative of the Crown, and an insidious 
 attempt of the minister to render himself all-powerful, by adding the patronage of 
 India to that already in his possession. The bill was, however, carried through the 
 House of Commons ; but, in consequence of the ferment it had excited, and the 
 avowed opposition of his Majesty, it was thrown out in the House of Lords. This 
 event proved fatal to the coalition ministry. A new one was formed, with Mr. Pitt at 
 its head ; and parliament being soon after dissolved, the new minister acquired a decisive 
 majority in both Houses. When thus secure of parliamentary support, Mr. Pitt brought 
 forward his India Bill, which was successfully carried through all its stages. By this 
 
 2 M 2 
 
5S2 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY, 
 
 bill a Board of Control was erected, consisting of 6 members of the priyy counci?, 
 who were " to check, superintend, and control all acts, operations, and concerns, which 
 in anywise relate to the civil or military government, or revenues, of the territories and 
 possessions of the East India Company." All communications to or from India, 
 touching any of the above matters, were to be submitted to this Board ; the directors 
 being ordered to yield obedience to its commands, and to alter or amend all instructions 
 sent to India as directed by it. A secret committee of 3 directors was formed, with 
 which the Board of Control might transact any business it did not choose to submit to 
 the court of directors. Persons returning from India were to be obliged, under very 
 severe penalties, to declare the amount of their fortunes ; and a tribunal was appointed 
 for the trial of all individuals accused of misconduct in India, consisting of a judo-e 
 from each of the Courts of King's Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer ; 5 members 
 of the House of Lords, and 7 members of the House of Commons ; the last being chosen 
 by lot at the commencement of each session. The superintendence of all commercial 
 matters continiied, as formerly, in the hands of the directors. 
 
 During "the administration of Marquis Cornwallis, who succeeded Mr. Hastings, 
 Tippoo Saib, the son of Hyder Ally, was stripped of nearly half his dominions ; the 
 Company's territorial revenue was, in consequence, greatly increased ; at the same time 
 that the permanent settlement was carried into effect in Bengal, and other important 
 changes accomplished. Opinion has been long divided as to the influence of these 
 changes. On the whole, however, we are inclined to think that they have been decidedly 
 advantageous. Lor4 Cornwallis was, beyond all question, a sincere friend to the people 
 of India ; and laboured earnestly, if not always successfully, to promote their interests, 
 which he well knew were identified with those of the British nation. 
 
 During the 3 years ending with 1793, the value of the Company's exports of British 
 produce and manufactures fluctuated from 928,783Z. to 1,031,262/. But this increase is 
 wholly to be ascribed to the reduction of the duty on tea in 1784, and the vast increase 
 that, consequently, took place in its consumption. — (See article Tea.) Had the con- 
 sumption of tea continued stationary, there appear no grounds for thinking that the 
 Company's exports in 1793 would have been greater than in 1780; unless an increase 
 had taken place in the quantity of military stores exported. 
 
 In 1793, the Company's charter was prolonged till the 1st of March, 1814. In the 
 act for this purpose, a species of provision was made for opening the trade to India to 
 private individuals. All his Majesty's subjects, residing in any part of his European 
 dominions, were allowed to export to India any article of the produce or manufacture 
 of the British dominions, except military stores, ammunition, masts, spars, cordage, 
 pitch, tar, and copper ; and the Company's civil servants in India, and the free merchants 
 resident there, were allowed to ship, on their own account and risk, all kinds of Indian 
 goods, except calicoes, dimities, muslins, and other piece goods. But neither the mer- 
 chants in England, nor the Company's servants or merchants in India, were allowed to 
 -export or import except in Company's ships. And in order to insure such conveyance, 
 it was enacted, that the Company should annually appropriate 3,000 tons of shipping for 
 the use of private traders ; it being stipulated that they were to pay, in time of peace, 
 51. outwards, and 15/. homewards, for every ton occupied by them in. the Company's 
 ships ; and that this freight might be raised in time of war, with the approbation of the 
 Board of Control. 
 
 It might have been, and, indeed, most probably was, foreseen that very few British 
 merchants or manufacturers would be inclined to avail themselves of the privilege of 
 sending out goods in Company's ships ; or of engaging in a trade fettered on all sides 
 by the jealousy of powerful monopolists, and where, consequently, their superior judg- 
 ment and economy would have availed almost nothing. As far, therefore, as they were 
 concerned, the relaxation was more apparent than real, and did not produce any useful 
 results.* It was, however, made use of to a considerable extent by private merchants 
 in India; and also by the Company's servants returning from India, many of whom 
 invested a part, and some the whole, of their fortune, in produce fit for the Eui'opean 
 markets. 
 
 The financial diflficulties of the East India Company led to the revolution which 
 took place in its government in 1784. But, notwithstanding the superintendence of the 
 Board of Control, its finances have continued nearly in the same unprosperous state as 
 before- We have been favoured, from time to time, with the most dazzling accounts of 
 revenue that was to be immediately derived from India ; and numberless acts of parlia- 
 ment have been passed for the appropriation of sui-pluses that never had any existence 
 
 * In his letter to the East India Company, dated the 21st of March, 1812, Lord Melville says : " It will 
 not be denied that the facilities granted by that act (the act of 1793) have not been satisfactory, at least to 
 the iTierchants cither of this country or of India. They have been the source of constant dispute, and 
 they have even entailed a heavy expense upon the Company without aflbrding to the public any ad**- 
 qunte benefit from such a satrifice." — (/'a/jos jiublished by E. I. Comp. 1813, p. 84.) 
 
EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 533 
 
 except in the imagination of their framers. The proceedings that took place at the 
 renewal of the charter, in 179.3, afford a striking example of this. Lord C'ornwallis 
 had then concluded the war with 'J'ippoo Saib, which had stripped him of half his 
 dominions: the perpetual settlemeiit, from which so many benefits were expected to be 
 derived, had been adopted in Bengal ; and the. Company's receipts liad been increased, 
 in consequence of accessions to their territory, and subsidies from native princes, &c., to 
 upwards of eight millions sterling a year, which, it was calculated, would afford a future 
 annual surplus, after every description of charge had been deducted, of 1,240,000/. 
 Mr. Dundas (afterwards Lord Melville), then president of the Board of Control, 
 availed himself of these favourable appearances, to give the most flattering representation 
 of the Company's affairs. There could, he said, be no question as to the permanent and 
 regular increase of the Company's surplus revenue: he assured the House that the 
 estimates had all been framed with the greatest care ; that the Company's possessions 
 were in a state of prosperity till then unknown in India ; that the abuses, which had 
 formerly insinuated themselves into some departments of the government, had been 
 rooted out ; and that the period was at length arrived, when India was to pour her 
 golden treasures into the lap of England ! Parliament partiQipated in these brilliant an- 
 ticipations, and in the act prolonging the charter it was enacted, 1st, That 500,000/. a year 
 of the surplus revenue should be set aside for reducing the Company's debt in India to 
 2,000,000/. : 2dly, That 500,000/. a year should be paid into the exchequer, to be appro- 
 priated for the public service as parliament should think fit to order ; 3dly, When the 
 India debt was reduced to 2,000,000/., and the bond debt to 1,500,000/., one sixth part 
 of the surplus was to be applied to augment the dividends, and the other j^we sixMs were 
 to be paid into the Bank, in the name of the commissionei-s of the national debt, to be 
 accumulated as a guarantee fund, until it amounted to 1 2,000,000/. ; and when it reached 
 tJiat sum, the dividends upon it were to be applied to make up the dividends on the 
 capital stock of the Company to 10 per cent., if, at any time, the funds appropriated to 
 that purpose should prove deficient, &c. 
 
 Not one of these anticipations has been realised ! Instead of being diminished, the 
 Company's debts began immediately to increase. In 1795, they were authorised to add 
 to the amount of their floating debt. In 1796, a new device to obtain money was fallen 
 upon. Mr. Dundas represented that as all competition had been destroyed in consequence 
 of the war, the Company's commerce had been greatly increased, and that their mer- 
 cantile capital had become insufficient for the extent of their transactions. In conse- 
 quence of this representation, leave was given to the Company to add tioo millions to 
 their capital stock by creating 20,000 new shares ; but as these shares sold at the rate 
 of 173/. each, they produced 3,460,000/. In 1797, the Company issued additional bonds 
 to the extent of 1,417,000/.; and, notwithstanding all this, Mr. Dundas stated in the 
 House of Commons, on the 13th of March, 1799, that there had been a deficit in the 
 previous year of 1,319,000/. 
 
 During the administration of the Marquis Wellesley, which began in 1797-8 and 
 terminated in 1805-6, the British empire in India was augmented by the conquest of 
 Seringapatam and the whole territories of Tippoo Saib, the cession of large tracts by 
 the Mahratta chiefs, the capture of Delhi, the ancient seat of the Mogul empire, and 
 various other important acquisitions ; so that that the revenue, which had amounted to 
 8,059,000/. in 1797, was increased to 15,403,000/. in 1805. But the expenses of 
 government, and the interest of the debt, increased in a still greater proportion than the 
 revenue; having amounted, in 1805, to 17,672,000/., leaving a deficit of 2,269,000/. In. 
 the following year the revenue fell off nearly 1,000,000/., while the expenses continued 
 nearly the same. And there was, at an average, a continued excess of expenditure, 
 including commercial charges, and a contraction of fresh debt, down to 1811-12. 
 
 Notwithstanding the vast additions made to their territories, the Company's commerce 
 with them continued to be very inconsiderable. During the 5 years ending with 1811, 
 the exports to India by the Company, exclusive of those made on account of individuals 
 in their ships, were as under : — 
 
 1807 - - - 952,416 
 
 1808 - - 919,544 
 
 1809 - 866,153 
 
 £ 
 
 1810 - - - 1,010,815 
 
 1811 . . - 1,033,816 
 
 The exports by the private trade, and the privilege trade, that is, the commanders and 
 officers of the Company's ships, during the above-mentioned years, were about as large. 
 During the 5 years ending with 1807-8, the annual average imports into India by British 
 private tradci-s, only, amounted to 305,496/. — {Papers published hy the East India Com" 
 vany in 1813, 4to. p. 56.) 
 
 'fhe Company's exports include the value of the military stores sent from Great Britain 
 to India. The ships employed in the trade to India and China, during the same 5 years, 
 varied n-om 44 to 53, and their burden from 36,671 to 45,342 tons. 
 
 2 IVI 3 
 
534. 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 For some years previously to the termination or the Company's charter in 1813, the 
 conviction had been gaining ground among all classes, that the trade to the East was 
 capal)le of being very greatly extended ; and that it was solely owing to the want of 
 enterprise and competition, occasioned by its being subjected to a monopoly, that it was 
 confined within such narrow limits. Very great efforts were, consequently, made by 
 the manufacturing and commercial interests to have the monopoly set aside, and the 
 trade to the East thrown open. The Company vigorously resisted these pretensions ; 
 and had interest enough to procure a prolongation of the privilege of carrying on an ex- 
 clusive trade to China to the 10th of April, 1831, with 3 years' notice ; the government 
 of India being continued in their hands for the same period. Fortunately, however, 
 the trade to India was opened, under certain conditions, to the public. The principal 
 of these conditions were, that private individuals should trade, directly only, with 
 the presidencies of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and the port of Penang ; that the 
 vessels fitted out by them should not be under 350 tons burden ; and that they should 
 abstain, unless permitted by the Company, or the Board of Control, from engaging 
 in the carrying trade of India, or in the trade between India and China. And yet, 
 in despite of these disadvantages, such is the energy of individual enterprise as 
 compared with monopoly, that the private traders gained an almost immediate ascen- 
 dancy over the East India Company, and in a very short time more than trebled our 
 trade with India ! 
 
 In the Report of the committee of the House of Lords on the foreign trade of the 
 country, printed in May, 1821, it is stated, that " the greatly increased consumption of 
 British goods in the East, since the commencement of the free trade, cannot be accounted 
 for by the demand of European residents, the number of whom does not materially vary ; 
 and it appears to have been much the greatest in articles calculated for the general use 
 of the natives. That of the cotton manufactvires of this country alone is stated, since 
 the first opening of the trade, to have been augmented from four to five fold (it is now 
 augmented from fifty to sixty fold). The value of the merchandise exported from Great 
 Britain to India, which amounted, in 1814, to 870,177/., amounted*, in 1819, to 
 S,052,74lZ. ; and although the market appears then to have been so far overstocked 
 as to occasion a diminution of nearly one half in the exports of the following year, 
 that diminution appears to have taken place more in the articles intended for the con- 
 sumption of Europeans than of natives ; and the trade is now stated to the committee, 
 by the best informed persons, to be reviving. When the amount of population, and the 
 extent of the country over which the consumption of these articles is spread, are con- 
 sidered, it is obvious that any facility which can, consistently with the political 
 interests and security of the Company's dominions, be given to the private trader, for 
 the distribution of his exports^ by increasing the number of ports at which he may have 
 the option of touching in pursuit of a market, cannot fail to promote a more ready and 
 extensive demand." 
 
 Besides the restraints imposed by the act of 1813 on the proceedings of the free traders f, 
 they frequently experienced very great loss and inconvenience from the commercial spe- 
 culations of the East India Company. The latter have had commercial residents, with 
 large establishments of servants, some of them intended for coercive purposes, stationed 
 in all the considerable towns ; and the Marquis Wellesley has stated, " that the inti- 
 mation of a wish from the Company's resident is always received as a command by the 
 native manufacturers and producers." It was obviously impossible for a private trader to 
 come fairly into competition with persons possessing such authority, and who were often 
 instructed to make their purchases on any terms. Mr. Tucker, now deputy chairman of 
 the Company, states, in his useful work on Indian finance, that the Company's invest- 
 ments (purchases) in India during the last 10 years may in some instances be said to have 
 been forced ; meaning by this, that the goods exported by them from India have sometimes 
 been compulsorily obtained from tlie natives, and sometimes bought at a higher price than 
 they would have brought in a market frequented only by regular merchants. But the 
 truth is, that it was not in the nature of things that the Company's purchases could be 
 fairly made ; the natives could not deal with their servants as they would have dealt 
 ■with private individuals ; and it would be absurd to suppose that agents authorised to 
 buy on account of government, and to draw on the public treasury for the means of pay- 
 ment, should generally evince the prudence and discretion of individuals directly respon- 
 sible in their own private fortunes for their transactions. The interference of such persons 
 would, under any circumstances, have rendered the East India trade peculiarly hazardous. 
 But their influence in this respect was materially aggravated by the irregularity of their 
 appearances. No individual, not belonging to the court of directors, could foresee whe- 
 ther the Company's agents would be in the market at all j or, if there, to what extent 
 
 * This is the amount of the Company's exports only, and the sum is not quite accurate, see post. 
 + These restraints were a good deal modified by the 3 Geo. 4. c. 80., passed in pursuance of the recom- 
 jnendatioii of the committee quoted above. 
 
EAST INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 535 
 
 they would either purcnase or sell. So capricious were their proceedings, that in some 
 years they have laid out 700,000/. on indigo, while in others they liave not laid out a single 
 shilling; and so with other things. A fluctuating demand of this sort necessarily occa- 
 sioned great and sudden variations of price, and was injurious alike to the producers and 
 the private merchants. Mr. Mackenzie, late secretary to the government of liengal, set 
 the mischievous influence of the circuinstances now alluded to in the clearest point of 
 view, in his masterly evidence before the select committee of 1832 on the affairs of 
 India ; and he further showed, that it was not possible, by any sort of contrivance, to 
 obviate the inconveniences complained of, and that they would unavoidably continue till 
 the Company ceased to have any thing to do with commerce. 
 
 But besides being injurious to the private trader, and to the public generally, both in 
 India and England, this trade was of no advantage to the East India Company. How, 
 indeed, could it be otherwise? A company that maintained armies and retailed tea, 
 that carried a sword in the one hand and a ledger in the other, was a contradiction ; and, 
 had she traded with success, would have been a prodigy. It was impossible for her 
 to pay that attention to details that is indispensable to the carrying on of commerce with 
 advantage. She may have gained something by her monopoly of the tea trade, though 
 even that is very questionable ; but it is admitted on all hands, that she has lost heavily 
 by her trade to India. * When, therefore, the question as to the renewal of the charter 
 came to be discussed in 1832 and 1833, the Company had no reasonable objection to 
 urge against their being deprived of the privilege of trading. And the act 3 & 4 
 Will. 4. c 85., for continuing the charter till 1854, has terminated the Company^s com- 
 mercial character ; by enacting, that the Company's trade to China is to cease on the 22d 
 of April, 1 834 f, and that the Company is, as soon as possible after that date, to dispose 
 of their stocks on hand, and close their commercial business. 
 
 We congratulate our readers on this consummation. The trade to India, China, and 
 the East generally, is now, for tlie first time, opened to free and unfettered mercantile 
 enterprise. What has been effected since the opening of the trade to India in 1814, not- 
 withstanding the many drawbacks under which it has laboured, is an earnest of what 
 may be anticipated from the new arrangements. We have no doubt that it will be 
 found that the commerce between the Eastern and Western worlds is as yet only in its 
 infancy ; and that it is destined, now that the incubus of monopoly is wholly removed, 
 to attain to a magnitude and importance of which we can form no definite idea. 
 
 II. East India Company (Constitution os"). 
 
 Under the new act, the functions of the East India Company are wholly political. She 
 is to continue to govern India, with the concurrence and under the supervision of the Board 
 of Control, nearly on the plan laid down in Mr. Pitt's act, till the 30th of April, 1854. 
 All the real and personal property belonging to the Company on the 22d of April, 1834, 
 is vested in the Crown, and is to be held or managed by the Company in trust for the 
 same, subject of course to all claims, debts, contracts, &c. already in existence, or that may 
 hereafter be brought into existence by competent authority. The Company's debts and 
 liabilities are all charged on India. The dividend, which is to continue at 10:^^ per cent., 
 is to be paid in England out of the revenues of India ; and provision is made for the 
 establishment of a security fund for its discharge. The dividend maybe redeemed by 
 parliament, on payment of 200Z. for 100/. stock, any time after April, 1874; but it is 
 provided, in the event of the Company being deprived of the government of India in 
 1 854, that they may claim redemption of the dividend any time thereafter upon 3 years' 
 notice. —(3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 85.) 
 
 Company's Stock — forms a capital of 6,000,000/., into which all persons, natives or foreigners, males or 
 females, bodies politic or corporate (the Governor and Company of the Bank of England only excepted), 
 are at Uberty to purchase, without hmitation of amount. Since 1793, the dividends have been 10| per 
 cent, to which they are limited by the late act. 
 
 General Courts. — The proprietors in general court assembled are empowered to enact by-laws, and in 
 other respects are competent to the complete investigation, regulation, and control of every branch of the 
 Company's concerns ; but, for the more prompt despatch of business, the executive detail is vested in a 
 court of directors. A general court is required to be held once in the months of March, June, Sep. 
 tember, and December, in each year. No one can be present at a general court unless possessed of 500/^ 
 etock ; nor can any person vote upon the determination of any question, who has not been in possession 
 of 1,000/. stock for the preceding 12 months, unless such stock have been obtained by bequest or mar^ 
 riage. Persons jwssessed of 1,000/. stock are empowered to give a single vote ; 3,000/, are a qualification 
 for two votes ; 6,000/. for three votes ; and 10,000/. and upwards for four votes. There were 2,003 pro- 
 prietors on the Company's books in 1825; of these, 1,494 were qualified to give single votes; 392, twa 
 votes; 69, three votes; "and 48, four votes. Upon any special occasion, 9 proprietors, duly qualified by 
 
 * It is needless now to enter upon the controversy as to the origin of the Company's debt. — (See former 
 edition of this work, p. 507.) It is probable that those who contend that this debt is ivhollij attributable to 
 the Company's commercial operations, may have .somewhat exaggerated their injurious influence. But 
 we do not think that there is any room for doubting, notwithstanding the enormous prices charged on 
 tea, that, for these many years past, the Company's trade has been, on the whole, productive of nothing 
 nut loss. 
 
 t For the new regulations as to the China trade, see Canton. 
 
 2 M 4 
 
536 
 
 EAST INDIES (Society in, Trade, &c.) 
 
 the possession of 1,000/. stock, may, by a requisition in v/riting to the court of directors, call a genera' 
 court; which the directors are required to .summon within 10 days, or, in default, the proprietors may 
 call such court by notice alhxed upon the Royal Exchange. In all such courts the questions are decided 
 by a majority of voices ; m case of an equality, the determination must be by the treasurer drawing a lot 
 Nine proi)netors may, by a requisition in writing, demand a ballot upon any question, which shall not be 
 taken within i'4 hours after the breaking up of the general court. 
 
 Courl of Directors. — The court of directors is composed of 24 members, chosen from among the 
 proprietors, each of whom must be possessed of 2,000/. stock ; nor can any director, after being chosen 
 act longer than while he continues to hold stock. Of these, fi are chosen on the second Wednesday iti 
 April in each year, to serve for 4 years, in the room ot 6 who have completed such service. After an in- 
 terval of 12 months, those who had gone out by rotation are eligible to be re-elected for the ensuing 
 4 years. Formerly, no person who had been in the Company's civil or military service in India was 
 eligible to be elected a director until he had been a resident in England 2 vears after quittino' the 
 service : but this condition no longer exists ; and all civil or military servants of the Company in India 
 supposing they are otherwise eligible, may be chosen directors immediately on their return to England' 
 l)rovided they have no unsettled accounts with the Company ; if so, they are ineligible for 2 years after 
 their return, unless their accounts be sooner settled. — (o & 4 JVill. -k c. 85. § 28.) The directors choose 
 annually, from amongst themselves, a chairman and a deputy chairman. They are required by bv-laws 
 to meet once in every week at least ; but they frequently meet oftener, as occasion requires. Not less 
 than 13 can form a court. Their determinations are guided by a majority : in case of an equality 
 the question must be decided by the drawing of a lot by the treasurer; upon all questions of importance 
 the sense ot" the court is taken by ballot. The Company's officers, both at home and abroad, receive their 
 appointments immediately from the court ; to whom they are responsible for thedue and faithful discharge 
 of the trust reposed in them. The patronage is, nevertheless, so arranged, as that each member of the 
 court separately participates therein. 
 
 Secret Committee. —'l"he principal powers of the court of directors are vested in a secret committee 
 forming a sort of cabinet or privy council. All communications of a confidential or delicate nature 
 between the Board of Control and the Company are submitted, in the first instance at least, to the con- 
 sideration of this committee ; and the directions of the Board, as to political aflairs, may be transmitted 
 direct to India, through the committee, without being seen by the other directors. The secret committee 
 is appointed by the court of directors, and its members are sworn to secresy. 
 
 III. East Indies (State of Society in, growing Demand for English Goods, 
 Trade, Coi-onisation, etc.). 
 
 1 . Distinction of Castes in India. Inaccuracy of the Representations as to the Inhabit- 
 ants being unalterahhj attached to ancient Customs and Practices. — We have taken occa- 
 sion, in the preceding sketch of the history of the East India Company, repeatedly to 
 notice the small extent of the trade carried on by its agency. It has been contended, 
 however, that this is to be ascribed, not to the deadening influence of monopoly, but to 
 the peculiar state of the people of India. A notion has long been prevalent in this 
 quarter of the vs^orld, that the Hindoos are a race unsusceptible of change or improve- 
 ment of any sort ; that every man is brought up to the profession of his father, and can 
 engage in none else ; and that, owing to the simplicity and unalterableness of their 
 habits, they never can be consumers, at least to any considerable extent, of foreign com- 
 modities. " What is now in India, has always been there, and is likely still to continue." 
 — (Robertson's Disquisition, p. 202.) The Hindoos of this day are said to be the same 
 as the Hindoos of the age of Alexander the Great. The description of them given by 
 Arrian has been quoted as applying to their actual situation. It is affirmed that they 
 have neither improved nor retrograded ; and we are referred to India as to a country 
 in which the institutions and manners that prevailed 3,000 years ago may still be 
 found in their pristine purity ! The President de Goguet lays it down distinctly, in his 
 learned and invaluable work on the origin of laws, arts, and sciences, that in India 
 
 every trade is confined to a particular caste, and can be exercised only by those whose 
 parents professed it." — (Origin of Laws, Sfc. Eng. trans, vol. iii. p. 24.) Dr. Robert- 
 son says, that " the station of evert/ Hindoo is unalterably fixed ; his destiny is irrevocable ; 
 and the walk of life is marked out, from which he must never deviate." — (^Disquisition on 
 India, p. 1 99. ) The same opinions are maintained by later authorities. Dr. Tennant 
 says, that "the whole Indian community is divided into 4 great classes; and each 
 class is stationed between certain walls of separation, which are impassable by the purest 
 virtue, and most conspicuous merit." — (Quoted by Mr. Richards, p. 6.) This unal- 
 terable destiny of individuals has been repeatedly assumed in the despatches and official 
 papers put forth by the East India Company; and has been referred to on all occasions 
 by them and their servants, as a proof tliat the* depressed and miserable condition of the 
 natives is not owing to misgovernment, or to the weight of the burdens laid upon them ; 
 and that it is in vain to think of materially improving their condition, or of making them 
 acquainted with new arts, or giving them new habits, so long as the institution of castes, 
 and the prejudices to which it has given rise, preserve their ascendancy unimpaired. 
 
 But notwithstanding the universal currency which the opinions now referred to have 
 obtained, and the high authority by which they are supported, they are, in all the most 
 essential respects, entirely without foundation ! The books and codes of the Hindoos 
 themselves, and the minute and careful observations that have recently been made on 
 Indian society, have shown that the influence ascribed to the institution of castes by the 
 ancients, and by the more early modern travellers, has been prodigiously exaggerated. 
 In the first part of his excellent work on India, Mr. llickards has established, partly by- 
 references to the authoritative books of the Hindoos, and partly by his own observations. 
 
EAST INDIES (Society in. Trade, &c.). 
 
 .537 
 
 and those of Mr. Colebrook, Dr. Ileber, and other high authorities, that the vast ma- 
 jority of the Hindoo population may, and, in fact, does engage in all sorts of employ- 
 ments. Mr. Rickards has further shown, that there is nothing in the structure of 
 Indian society to oppose any serious obstacle to the introduction of new arts, or the 
 spread of improveiuent ; and that the causes of the poverty and misery of the people 
 must be sought for in other circumstances than the institution of castes, and the nature 
 of Hindoo superstition. 
 
 The early division of the population into the 4 great classes of priests (Brahmins), 
 soldiers (Cshatryas), husbandmen and artificers (Vaisyas), and slaves (Sudras), was 
 maintained only for a very short period. The Hindoo traditions record that a partial 
 intermixture of these classes took place at a very remote epoch ; and the mixed brood 
 thence arising were divided into a vast variety of new tribes, or castes, to whom, speaking 
 generally, no employments are forbidden. 
 
 " The employments," says Mr. Rickards, " aliowcil to these mixed and impure castes, maybe said to be 
 every description of handicraft, and occupation, for which the wants of liuman society have created a 
 demand. Though many seem to take their names from their ordinary trade or profession, and some have 
 duties assigned them too low, and disgusting, for any others to perform, but from the direst necessity ; 
 yet no employment, generally speaking, is forbidden to the mixed and impure tribes, excepting three of 
 the prescribed duties of the sacerdotal class ; viz. teaching the Vedas, officiating at a sacrifice, and receiv- 
 ing presents from a pure-handed giver ; which three are exclusively Brahminical." 
 
 Mr. Colebrook, who is acknowledged on all hands to be one of the very highest 
 authorities, as to all that respects Indian affairs, has a paper in the fifth volume of the 
 Asiatic Researches, on the subject of castes. In this paper, Mr. Colebrook states that 
 the Jatimala, a Hindoo work, enumerates forty-two mixed classes springing from the 
 intercourse of a man of inferior class with a woman of a superior class, or in the inverse 
 order of the classes. Now, if we add to these the number that must have sprung from 
 intermixture in the direct order of the classes, and the hosts further arising from the 
 continued intermixture of the mixed tribes amongst themselves, we shall* not certainly 
 be disposed to dissent from Mr. Colebi'ook's conclusion, " that the subdivisions of these 
 classes have further multiplied distinctions to ar^ endless variety." 
 
 Mr. Colebrook has given the following distinct and accurate account of the pro- 
 fessions and employments of the several classes at the present day. It forms a curious 
 commentary on the " irrevocable destiny" of Dr. Robertson, and the " impassable walls" 
 of Dr. Tennant. 
 
 " A Brahman, unable to subsist by his duties, may live by the duty of a soldier ; if he cannot get a sub- 
 sistence by either of these employments, he may apply to tillage and attendance on cattle, or gain a com- 
 petence by traffic, avoiding certain commodities. A Cshatrya in distress, may subsist by all these means ; 
 but he must not have recourse to the highest functions. In seasons of distress, a further latitude is given. 
 The practice of medicine, and other learned professions, jiainting, and other arts, work for wages, menial 
 service, alms, and usury, are among the modes of subsistence allowed both to the Brahman and Cshatrya. 
 A Vaisya, unable to subsist by his own duties, may descend to the servile acts of a Sudra : and a Sudra, 
 not finding employment by waiting on men of the higher classes, may subsist by handicrafts ; principally 
 following those mechanical operations, as joinery and masonry, and practical arts, as painting and writing, 
 by which he may serve men of superior classes ; and although a man of a lower class is in general re- 
 stricted from the acts of a higher class, the Sudra is expressly permitted to become a trader, or a 
 husbandman. 
 
 " Besides the particular occupation assigned to each of the mixed classes, they have the alternative of 
 following that profession, which regularly belongs to the class from which they derive their origin on 
 the mother's side ; those at least have such an option, who are born in the direct order of the classes. 
 The mixed classes are also pertnitted to subsfst by any of the duties of a Sudra, that is, by menial service, 
 by handicrafts, by commerce, and agriculture. Hence it appears, that almost every occupatiox, 
 
 THOUGH REGULARLY IT BE THE PROFESSION OF A PARTICULAR CL.^SS, IS OPEN TO MOST OTHER CLASSES ; 
 
 and that the limitations, far from being rigorous, do in fact reserve only the peculiar profession of the 
 Brahman, which consists in teaching the Veda, and officiating at religious ceremonies." 
 
 " We have thus," says Mr. Rickards, by whom this passage has been quoted, " the highest existing 
 authority for utterly rejecting the doctrine of the whole Hindoo community ' being divided into four 
 castes ; ' and of their peculiar prerogatives being guarded inviolate by " impassable walls of separation.' 
 It is also clear that the intermixture of castes had taken place, to an indefinite extent, at the time when 
 the Bherma Sastra was composed, which Sir William Jones computes to be about 8S0 years B. C. ; for the 
 mixed classes are specified in this work, and it also refers, in many places, to past times, and to events 
 which a course of time only could have brought about. The origin of the intermixture is therefore lost 
 in the remotest and obscurest antiquity ; and having been carried on through a long course of ages, a he- 
 terogeneous mass is every where presented to us, in these latter times, without a single example in any 
 particular state, or kingdom, or separate portion of the Hindoo community, of that quadruple division of 
 castes, which has been so confidently insisted upon. 
 
 " I have myself seen carpenters of five or six different castes, and as many different bricklayers, era- 
 ployed on the same building. The same diversity of castes may be observed among the craftsmen in dock- 
 yards, and all other great works ; and those, who have resided for any time in the principal commercial 
 cities of India, must be sensible, that every increasing demand for labour, in all its different branches and 
 varieties of old and new arts, has been speedily and effectually supplied, in spite of the tremendous insti- 
 tution of castes ; which we are taught to believe forms so impassable an obstruction to the advancement 
 of Indian industry." 
 
 2. Growing Demand for English Goods. — It is difficult to suppose that the directors 
 of the East India Company should not have been early aware of the faHacy of the opinions 
 as to the fixedness of Indian habits. So far, however, as we know, they have not, 
 in this instance, evinced any acquaintance with the discoveries of their servants. On 
 the contrary, in all the discussions that took place with respect to the opening of the 
 trade in 1814, the Company invariably contended that no increase of trade to India 
 
538 
 
 EAST INDIES (Society in, Trade, &c.). 
 
 could be expected. In a letter of the chairman and deputy chairman to the Right 
 Honourable Robert Dundas, dated 1 3th of January, 1 809, it is stated, that the small 
 demand for foreign commodities in India " results from the nature of the Indian people, 
 their climate, and their usages. The articles of first necessity their own country fur- 
 nishes more abundantly and more cheaply than it is possible for Europe to supply them. 
 The labour of the great body of the common people only enables them to subsist on rice, 
 and to wear a slight covering of cotton cloth ; they, therefore, can purchase none of the 
 superfluities we offer them. The comparatively few in better circumstances, restricted, 
 like the rest, by numerous religious and civil customs, of which all are remarkably tena- 
 cious, find few of our commodities to their taste ; and their climate, so dissimilar to ours, 
 renders many of them unsuitable to their use ; so that a commerce between them and us 
 cannot proceed far upon the principle of supplying mutual wants. Hence, except 
 woollens, in a very limited degree, for mantles in the cold season, and metals, on a scale 
 also very limited, to be worked up by their own artisans for the few utensils they need, 
 hardly any of our staple commodities find a vent among the Indians ; the other exports 
 which Europe sends to India being chiefly consumed by the European population there, 
 and some of the descendants of the early Portuguese settlers, all of whom, taken col- 
 lectively, form but a small body, in view to any question of national commerce." — 
 (^Papers published hij authority of the East India Company, 1813, p. 21.) 
 
 The volume from which we have made this extract contains a variety of passages to 
 the same eflfect. So confident, indeed, were the Company that they had carried the trade 
 to India to the utmost extent of which it was capable, that it is expressly stated, in 
 resolutions passed in a general court held at the India House, on the 26th of January, 
 1813, " that no large or sudden addition can be made to the amount of British exports 
 to India or China that the Company had suflTered a loss in attempting to extend this 
 branch of their trade ; that the warehouses at home were glutted with Indian com- 
 modities for which there was no demand ; and that to open the outports to the trade 
 would be no other than " a ruinous transfer of it into new channels, to the destruction 
 of immense and costly establishments, and the beggary of many thousands of industrious 
 individuals." 
 
 Luckily, "however, these representations were unable to prevent the opening of the 
 trade, and the result has sufficiently demonstrated their fallacy. The enterprise and 
 exertion of individuals has vastly increased our exports to India — to that very country 
 which the Company had so confidently pronounced was, and would necessarily continue 
 to be, incapable of affording any additional outlet for our peculiar products ! 
 
 The commercial accounts for 1812 and 1813 were unfortunately destroyed by the fire 
 at the Custom-house. The trade to India was opened on the 10th of April, 1814; and 
 in that year the declared or real value of the products exported from Great Britain to 
 the countries eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, excepting China, by the East India 
 Company, was 826,558/., and by the private traders, 1,048,132Z. In 1817, the Com- 
 pany's exports had declined to 638,382/., while those of the private traders had increased 
 to 2,750,333/. ; and in 1828, the former had sunk to only 488,601/., while the latter had 
 increased to 3,979,072/., being more than double the total exports to India, as well by 
 the Company as by private traders, in 1814 ! 
 
 The Company have stated, and no doubt truly, that they have lost a very large sum 
 in attempting to extend the demand for British woollens in India and China, which, 
 notwithstanding, continues very limited. But in their efforts to force the sale of 
 woollens, they seem to have entirely forgotten that we had attained to great excellency 
 in the manufacture of cotton stuffs, the article principally made use of as clothing in 
 Hindostan ; and that, notwithstanding the cheapness of labour in India, the advantage 
 we derived fi-om our superior machinery might enable us to offer cotton stuffs to the 
 natives at a lower price than they could afford to manufacture them for. No sooner, 
 however, had the trade been opened to private adventurers, than this channel of enter- 
 prise was explored ; and the result has been, that, instead of bringing cottons from India 
 to England, the former has become one of the best and most extensive markets for the 
 cottons of the latter. We question, indeed, whether, in the whole history of commerce, 
 .'mother equally striking example can be produced of the powerful influence of com- 
 petition in opening new and almost boundless fields for the successful prosecution of 
 commercial enterprise. 
 
 In 1814, the first year of the free trade to India, the exports of cotton amounted to 
 817,000 yards, of which only about 170,000 yards, valued at 17,778/., were exported by 
 the Company ! The progress of the trade will be seen in the following statement: — • 
 
EAST INDIES (Society in, Trade, &c.). 
 
 539 
 
 Account specifying tlie Quantities of the printed and plain Cotton StufTs, the declared Value of all Sorts 
 of manufactured Cotton Goods, the Quantity of Cotton Twist or Yarn, and the declared Value of the 
 same, exported from the United Kingdom, to all Parts of the East, except Chma, each Year from 181*.' 
 
 1814 
 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 18S0 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Cotton Manufactures. 
 
 Printed. 
 
 Yards. 
 (,04,800 
 8fi6,077 
 991,147 
 2,848,705 
 2,2'27,6f)5 
 3,713,601 
 7,509,000 
 9,715,374 
 9,029,204 
 9,431,700 
 9,611,880 
 8,826,715 
 9,750,076 
 14,264,791 
 12,410,220 
 11,215,743 
 13,595,074 
 14,569,583 
 18,291,650 
 
 Plain. 
 
 Yards. 
 213,408 
 489,399 
 714,611 
 2,468,024 
 4,614,381 
 3,414,060 
 6,484.256 
 9,423,3.52 
 11,712,639 
 13,047,7]7 
 14,858,515 
 14,201,49a 
 15,248,781 
 27,295,286 
 30,411,857 
 32,893,931 
 43,481,156 
 35,012,953 
 39,276,511 
 
 Declared Value.* 
 
 £ 
 
 109,480 
 142,410 
 160,.534 
 422,814 
 700,892 
 461,268 
 834,118 
 1,084,440 
 1,145,0.57 
 1,128,468 
 1,113,477 
 1,036,871 
 994,019 
 1,614,517 
 1,621,560 
 1,453,404 
 1,760,552 
 1,419,995 
 1,531,393 
 
 Cotton Twi*t. 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 624 
 2,704 
 1,861 
 971 
 224 
 5,865 
 22,200 
 121,500 
 105,350 
 233,360 
 918,587 
 3,063,668 
 4,5.58,185 
 2,927,476 
 4,689,570 
 6,541,853 
 4,295,427 
 
 190 
 
 605 
 455 
 138 
 24 
 
 805 
 2,335 
 16,993 
 13,041 
 35,345 
 100,804 
 274,002 
 388,888 
 200,552 
 324,955 
 483,762 
 309,719 
 
 The East India Company contributed nothing whatever to this extraordinary increase of the cotton 
 trade ; their exports not having been so large in any one year as in 1814, when they only amounted to the 
 inconsiderable sum already mentioned. 
 
 The demand for several other articles of British manufacture has recently increased^ 
 though not in the same unprecedented manner as cotton, with considerable rapidity. 
 Notwithstanding all that has been said as to the immutability of Hindoo habits, the fact 
 is not to be denied, that a taste for European products and customs is rapidly spreading 
 itself over India. And the fair presumption is, that it will continue to gain ground 
 according as education is more dit^used, and as the natives become better acquainted 
 with our language, arts, and habits. The authenticity of Dr. Heber's statements cannot 
 be called in question ; and there are many passages in different parts of his Journal that 
 might be quoted in corroboration of what has now been stated. Our limits, however, 
 will only permit us to make a very few extracts. 
 
 " Nor have the religious prejudices, and the unchangeableness of the Hindoo habits, been less exagge. 
 rated. Some of the best informed of their nation, with whom I have conversed, assure me, that half their 
 most remarkable customs of civil and domestic life are borrowed from their Mohammedan conquerors ; 
 and at present there is an obvious and increasing disposition to imitate the English in every iking, which 
 has already led to very remarkable changes, and will, probably, to still more important. The wealthy 
 natives now all affect to have their houses decorated with Corinthian pillars, and tilled with English fur- 
 niture ; they drive the Jjest horses and the most dashing carriages in Calcutta j many of them speak 
 English fluently, and are tolerably read in English literature ; and the children of one of our friends I saw 
 one day dressed in jackets and trowsers, with round hats, shoes, and stockings. In the Bengalee news- 
 papers, of which there are two or three, politics are canvassed with a bias, as I am told, inchned to 
 Whiggism; and one of their leading men gave a great dinner, not long since, in honour of the Spanish 
 revolution : among the lower orders the same feeling shows itself more beneficially in a growing neglect 
 of caste."— (Vol. ii. p. 306.) 
 
 " To say that the Hindoos or Mussulmans are deficient in any essential feature of a civilised people, is 
 an assertion which I can scarcely suppose to be made by any who have lived with them ; their manners 
 are at least as pleasing and courteous as those in the corresponding stations of life among ourselves ; their 
 houses are larger, and, according to their wants and climate, to the full as convenient as ours ; their ar- 
 chitecture is at least as elegant; nor is it true that in the mechanic arts they are inferior to the genera, 
 run of European nations. Where they fall short of us, (which is chiefly in agricultural implements, and 
 the mechanics of common life,) they are not, so far as 1 have understood of Italy and the south of France, 
 Gurpassed in any degree by the people of those countries. Their goldsmiths and weavers produce as 
 beautiful fabrics as our own ; and it is so far from true that they are obstinately wedded to their old pat- 
 terns, that they show an anxiety to imitate our models, and do imitate them very successfulh'. The ships 
 built liy native artists at Bombay are notoriously as good as any which sail from London or Liverpool. 
 The carri.-iges and gigs which they supply at Calcutta are as handsome, though not as durable, as those 
 of Long Acre. In the little town of Monghyr, 300 miles from Calcutta, I had pistols, double-barrelled 
 guns, and different pieces of cabinet work, brought down to my boat for sale, which in outward form (for 
 
 I know no further) nobody but perhaps Mr. could detect to be of Hindoo origin ; and at Delhi, 
 
 in the shop of a v/ealthy native jeweller, I found brooches, ear-rings, snuff-boxes, &c. of the latest models 
 (so far as I am a judge), and ornamented with French devices and mottos." — (Vol. ii. p. 382.) 
 
 As Bishop Heber penetrated into the interior of India, he found the same taste as in 
 Calcutta, for European articles and for luxuries, to prevail every where among the natives. 
 Of Benares, he writes as follows: — 
 
 " But what surprised me still more, as I penetrated further into it, were the large, lofty, and handsome 
 dwelling-houses, the beauty and apparent richness of the goods exposed in the bazaars, and the evident 
 hum of business. Benares is in fact a very industrious and weahhy, as well as a very holy city. It is the 
 great mart where the shawls of the north, the diamonds of the south, and the muslins of Dacca and the 
 ea.stern provinces centre; and it has very considerable silk, cotton, and fine woollen manufactories of its 
 own ; while English hardware, swords, shields, and spears, from Lucknow and Monghyr, and those Ett- 
 roTpean luxuries and elegancies which are daily becoming more popular in India, circulate from Jience 
 through Bundlecund, Gorruckpoor, Nepaul, and othpr tracts which are removed from the main artery of 
 the Ganges." — (Vol. i. p. 289.) 
 
 * Including lace, hosiery, and small wares. 
 
540 EAST INDIES (Society in, Trade, &c.) 
 
 Proceeding still further into the interior of the country, and when at Nusseerabad, 
 distant above 1,000 miles from Calcutta, the bishop continues his Journal in the same 
 strain ; viz. 
 
 European articles are, at Nusseerabad *, as might be expected, very dear ; the shops are kept by a 
 Greek and two Parsees from Bombay: they had in their list all the usual items of a Calcutta warehouse. 
 English cotton cloths, both white and printed, are to be met with commonly in wear among the people of 
 the country, and may, I learned to my surprise, be bought best and cheapest, as well as all kinds of hard, 
 ware, crockery, writing-desks, &c., at Pallee, a large town and celebrated mart in Marwar, on the edge of 
 the desert, several days' journey west of Joudpoor, where, till very lately, no European was known to 
 have penetrated." — (Vol. ii. p. 36.) 
 
 As to the character of the Hindoos, their capacity, and even anxious desire for im- 
 provement, the bishop's testimony is equally clear and decided ; and as this is a point of 
 pre-eminent importance, the reader's attention is requested to the following statements : — 
 
 " In the schools which have been lately established in this part of the empire, of which there are at 
 present 9 established by the Church Missionary, and 11 by the Christian Knowledge Societies, some 
 very unexpected facts have occurred. As all direct attempts to convert the children are disclaimed, the 
 parents send them without scruple. But it is no less strange than true, that tliere is no objection made 
 to the use of the Old and New Testament as a class-book; that so long as the teachers do not urge them 
 to eat what will make them lose their caste, or to be baptised, or to curse their country's gods, they readily 
 consent to every thing else ; and not only Mussulmans, but Brahmins, stand by with perfect coolness, and 
 listen sometimes with apparent interest and pleasure, while the scholars, by the road side, are reading the 
 stories of the creation and of Jesus Christ." — (Vol. ii. p. 290.) 
 
 " Hearing all I had heard of the prejudices of the Hindoos and Mussulmans, I certainly did not at all 
 expect to find that the common people would, not only without objection, but with the greatest thankful- 
 ness, send their children to schools on Bell's system ; and they seem to be fully sensible of the advantages 
 conferred by writing, arithmetic, and, above all, by a knowledge of English. There are now in Calcutta, 
 and the surrounding villages, 20 boys' schools, containing 60 to 120 each ; and 23 girls', each of 25 or 30." 
 — (Vol. ii. p. 300.) 
 
 " In the same holy city (Benares) I visited another college, founded lately by a wealthy Hindoo banker, 
 and intrusted by him to the management of the Church Missionary Society, in which, besides a gramma- 
 tical knowledge of the Hindoostanee language, as well as Persian and Arabic, the senior boys could pass 
 a good examination in English grammar, in Hume's History of England, Joyce's Scientific Dialogues, the 
 use of the globes, and the principal facts and moral precepts of the Gospel; most of them writing beauti- 
 fully in the Persian, and very tolerably in the English character, and excelling most boys I have met with 
 in the accuracy and readiness of their arithmetic." — (Vol. ii. p. 388.) 
 
 " The different nations which I have seen in India, (for it is a great mistake to suppose that all India 
 is peopled by a single race, or that there is not as great a disparity between the inhabitants of Guzerat, 
 Bengal, the Dooab, and the Deccan, both in language, manners, and physiognomy, as between any four 
 nations in Europe,) have, of course, in a greater or less degree, the vices which must be expected to at- 
 tend on arbitrary government, a demoralising and absurd religion, and (in all the independent states, and 
 in some of the districts which are partially subject to the British) a laxity of law, and an almost universal 
 prevalence of intestine feuds and habits of plunder. The general character, however, has much which 
 is extremely pleasing to me; they are brave, courteous, intelligent, and most eager after knowledge and 
 improvement, with a remarkable talent for the sciences of geometry, astronomy, &c., as well as for the 
 arts of painting and sculpture. In all these points they have had great difficulties to struggle with, both 
 from the want of models, instruments, and elementary instruction ; the indisposition, or rather the horror, 
 entertained, till lately, by many among their European masters, forgiving them instruction of any kind; 
 and now from the real difficulty which exists of translating works of science into languages which have 
 no corresponding terms." — (Vol. ii. p. 409.) 
 
 Even if our space permitted, it would be unnecessary to add to these extracts. The 
 facts and circumstances now mentioned, must, we think, satisfy every one that there is 
 nothing in the nature of Indian society, in the institution of castes as at present existing, 
 or in the habits and customs of the natives, to hinder them from advancing in the career 
 of civilisation, commerce, and wealth. " It may safely be asserted," says Mr. Hamilton, 
 " that with so vast an extent of fertile soil, peopled by so many millions of tractable and 
 industrious inhabitants, Hindostan is capable of supplying the whole world with any 
 species of tropical merchandise; the production, in fact, being only limited by the 
 demand." 
 
 3. Trade with India. — The principal obstacle in the way of extending the commerce 
 with India does not consist in any indisposition on the part of the natives to purchase our 
 commodities, but in the difficulty under which they are placed of furnishing equivalents for 
 them. This, however, is rather a factitious than a real difficulty. It results more from 
 the discriminating duties laid on several articles of Indian produce, than from their being, 
 in any respect, unsuitable for our markets. Instead of admitting all the articles raised 
 in the different dependencies of the empire for home consumption on the same terms, we 
 have been accustomed to give a marked preference to those raised in the West Indies. We 
 confess, however, that we are wholly unable to discover any grounds on which to vin- 
 dicate such preference. The protection which every just government is bound to afford 
 to all classes of its subjects, cannot vary with the varying degrees of latitude and longi- 
 tude under which they happen to live. And as no one denies that the inhabitants of 
 Bengal are, as well as those of Demerara or Jamaica, liege subjects of the British 
 crown, it does seem quite at variance with every fair principle, to treat them worse than 
 the West Indians, by imposing higher duties on their produce when brought to our 
 markets. 
 
 The following Tables give a comprehensive view of the trade with India since the 
 relaxation of the monopoly in 1814, and particularly during the S years ending with 
 1832: — 
 
 * Nusseerabad, near Ajmere, in the heart of the Rajcpoot country. 
 
EAST INDIES (Society in, Trade, etc.). 541 
 
 An Account of the Value of the Imports and Exports between Great Britain and all Places Ea«tward of 
 the Cape of Good Hope (excepting China); distinguishing the Private Trade from that of the East 
 India Company, in each Year, from 1814 to the latest Period to which the same can be made up. 
 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 .1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 183'/ 
 
 Value of Imports into Great Britain, from all Places 
 Eastward of the Cape of Good lloi>e (except China), 
 according to the Prices at the East India Com- 
 pany's Sales in the respective Years. 
 
 By the East 
 India Company. 
 
 4,208,079 
 3,0lfi,55G 
 2,027,703 
 •■2,323,630 
 2,305,003 
 1,932,401 
 1,757,137 
 1,743,733 
 1,092,329 
 1,587,078 
 1,194,753 
 1,462,692 
 1,520,060 
 1,612,480 
 1,930,107 
 1,593,442 
 1,593,566 
 1,434,372 
 1,107,787 
 
 Private Trade. 
 
 4,4;i5,l96 
 5,119,611 
 4,402,082 
 4,541,956 
 6,901,144 
 4,683,367 
 4,201,389 
 3,031,413 
 2,621,334 
 4,344,973 
 4,410,347 
 4,716,083 
 5,210,866 
 4,068,5,J7 
 5,l3.-.,073 
 4,624,842 
 4,085,505 
 4,295,438 
 5,229,311 
 
 Total Imports. 
 
 8,643,275 
 8,136,167 
 6,429,785 
 6,865,586 
 9,206,147 
 6,615,768 
 5,958,526 
 4,775,146 
 3,713,663 
 5,932,051 
 5,605,100 
 6,178,775 
 6,730,926 
 5,681,017 
 7,065,180 
 6,218,284 
 5,679,071 
 5,729,810 
 6,337,098 
 
 Value of Exports from Great Britain to all Place* 
 Eastward of the (Jape ot Good Hope (except China;, 
 according to tlie Declaratioas of ihe Exporters. 
 
 By the East 
 India Company. 
 
 826,558 
 996,248 
 633,546 
 638,382 
 553,385 
 760,508 
 971,096 
 887,619 
 606,089 
 458,550 
 654,783 
 598,553 
 990,964 
 805,610 
 488,601 
 434,586 
 195,394 
 146,480 
 149,193 
 
 PiiTate Trade. 
 
 1,048,132 
 1,569,513 
 1,955,909 
 2,750,333 
 3,018,779 
 1,586,575 
 2,066,815 
 2,656,776 
 2,838,354 
 2,957,705 
 2,841,795 
 2,574,6(;0 
 2,480,588 
 3,8,';0,580 
 3,979,072 
 3,6(55,678 
 3,891,917 
 3.488,571 
 3,601,093 
 
 Total Kzporu. 
 
 1,874,690 
 2,565,761 
 2,589,455 
 3,388,715 
 3,572,1 (54 
 2,347,083 
 3,037,911 
 3,544,395 
 3,444,443 
 3,416,255 
 3,4.<j6,578 
 3,173,213 
 3,471,552 
 4,(.3ii,l90 
 4,467,673 
 4, 10(J,264 
 4,(j87.311 
 3,fi35,05l 
 3,750,286 
 
 An Account of the Imports into Great Britain from all PlaCes Eastward of the Cape of Good Hope 
 (excepting China), distinguishing between those made by the East India Company and those made by 
 private Traders during the Three Years ending with 1832. — (From Pari. Paper, No. 425. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 - lbs. 
 
 Aloes 
 
 Asafcetida - - — 
 Benjamin - - — 
 
 Borax - ■ . _ 
 Camphire, unrefined - — 
 Canes, viz. rattans (not 
 
 ground) - - numb. 
 CoHee - - - lbs. 
 Cotton piece goods, white 
 
 calicoes and muslins, pes. 
 Cotton piece goods, tlyed 
 
 cotton & grass cloths, pes. 
 Nanquin cloths 
 Cardamoms 
 Cassia buds 
 Cassia lignea 
 Cinnamon 
 Cloves 
 Cotton wool 
 
 Dye & hardl^bony, tons 
 
 woods, viz. J red sanders. 
 Elephants' teeth - cwt 
 Galls - . . _ 
 Ginger - - — 
 
 Gum, animi and copal, lbs. 
 Arabic - - cwt 
 Lac dye, lac lake, and cake 
 lac - - lbs. 
 
 Shell lac and seed lac — 
 Stick lac - - - 
 Hemp - cwt. 
 
 Nutmegs - - lbs. 
 
 "il, castor - - — 
 
 Cocoa nut - - cwt, 
 of mace & nutmegs, Ibs.oz. 
 Olibanum - - cwt, 
 Pepper, of all sorts - lbs. 
 Hides, untanned - cwt. 
 Indigo . - lbs. 
 
 Mace - . . _ 
 M2idder root - - cwt. 
 Mother o'pearl shells, rh.lbs. 
 Musk - - - oz. 
 
 Rhubarb - - lbs. 
 
 Rice, not in the husk, cwt, 
 in the husk - - bush, 
 Safflower • . cwt. 
 Sago . - . _ 
 Saltpetre - . _ 
 
 Senna - - . lbs. 
 Silk, raw, waste, & floss, — 
 Manufactured, viz. 
 Bandana handkerchiefs 
 and romals - pieces 
 Crape, in pieces — 
 Crape shawls, scarf, and 
 gown -pieces and hand 
 kerchiefs - numb 
 Tatt"aties,and other silks, 
 in pieces - pieces 
 Soap . . cwt. 
 
 Spirits, viz. arrack, imp.gall. 
 Sugar, unrelincd - cwt. 
 
 Tin - - 
 
 Tortoiseshell, rough • lbs. 
 
 Turmeric - - 
 
 Vermilion . . _ 
 
 Other arlirles - value I,. 
 
 East 
 India 
 Company. 
 
 171,223 
 47,538 
 
 620,333 
 
 44,928 
 1,020,963 
 
 6,173 
 1 18,358 
 
 51,065 
 8,722 
 
 27,428 
 172,642 
 273,682 
 
 2,414,562 
 7,025,799 
 
 205,025 
 673,581 
 41,055 
 86,758 
 831,296 
 449,656 
 5,198 
 11,892,556 
 1,301 
 14 
 1,602 
 1,561 
 1,234 
 65,651 
 1,962 
 
 485,269 
 649,636 
 37,595 
 14,130 
 45,059 
 441,275 
 6,484 
 466,15 
 4, 
 
 2,742,224 
 6,104 
 5,772,516 
 12,962 
 992 
 465,591 
 3,320 
 157,21 1 
 125,487 
 21,948 
 2,170 
 2,661 
 98,774 
 176,593 
 715,268 
 
 23,711 
 
 2,356 
 11 
 
 41,419 
 
 660,729 
 14,574 
 32,189 
 ,867,764 
 
 206,020 
 
 51,065 
 8,722 
 
 27,428 
 172,642 
 273,682 
 
 2,414,562 
 7,025,799 
 
 : 171,223 
 
 252,563 
 673,581 
 41,055 
 86,758 
 831,296 
 449,656 
 3,19,'- 
 12,512,88: 
 1,30 
 
 14 
 1,602 
 1,561 
 1,269 
 55,651 
 1,962 
 
 485,269 
 649,636 
 37,595 
 14,130 
 45,059 
 441,275 
 6,48 
 466,15 
 4,181 
 2,742,224 
 6,104 
 7,926; 
 12,962 
 992 
 465,591 
 3,320 
 157,211 
 125,487 
 21,918 
 2,170 
 2,66 
 143,702 
 176,593 
 1,736,231 
 
 1832. 
 
 East 
 India 
 Company. 
 
 14 
 32 
 1,867 
 
 1,070,464 
 1,781,978 
 
 28,818 
 1,088,973 
 
 62,997 
 
 20,305 
 892 
 
 83,879 
 188,24 
 106,979 
 
 3,908,423 
 7,650,386 
 
 15,900 
 
 156,7.'51 
 854,671 
 72,800 
 171,720 
 592,789 
 222,991 
 124,607 
 25,366,643 
 111 
 65 
 2,173 
 1,051 
 •850 
 190,274 
 2.4! 
 
 East 
 
 Total. India 
 jCompany 
 
 20,50.^ 
 
 892j 
 
 106,979 
 
 753,252 
 1,146,128 
 149,144 
 11,735 
 110,039 
 343,373 
 5,535 
 651,14 
 761 
 6,057,776 
 3,376 
 5,223,268 
 40,921 
 2,571 
 510,492 
 3,447 
 155,462 
 153,887 
 33,553 
 2,436 
 2,253 
 141,904 
 200,990 
 636,6 
 
 17,740 
 
 3,086 
 1 
 
 7,911 
 647,972 
 5,472 
 30,902 
 1,292,028 
 10,923 
 201,279 
 
 17,367 
 
 168,838 
 854,671 
 72,800 
 171,720 
 392,789 
 222,991 
 124,607 
 25,813,573 
 111 
 65 
 2,173 
 1,031 
 850 
 190,274 
 2,489 
 
 753,252 
 1,146,128 
 149,144 
 11,735 
 1 10,039| 
 343 
 
 651,14 
 761 
 6,128,240 
 3,370 
 7,005,246 1,73 
 40,921 . 
 2,571 - 
 510,492 - 
 3,447 - 
 133,462 . 
 133,887 - 
 33,553! . 
 2,4361 - 
 2,253! - 
 170,7221 
 200,990! 
 1,725,660] , 
 
 11,126 
 
 31,681 
 13, 
 
 92,493 
 150 
 203,734 
 
 3,922,355 
 10,407,837 
 
 79,090 
 
 3I,6,S- 
 13,75 
 92,493 
 150,2951 
 203,754 
 
 3,922,5.55 
 10,407,837 
 
 79,090 
 
 216,100 
 195,807 
 67,218 
 75,173 
 996,368 
 25,738 
 - I 224,614 ^it 
 2,586,415 32,635,089 35,219 
 70 
 149 
 1,010 
 867 
 2,509 
 155,290 
 2,695 
 
 - 49,512 
 727,175 
 
 63,547 
 
 17,740 
 
 7,368 
 l' 
 
 7,911 
 750,448 
 5,472 
 30,902 
 1,292,028 
 10,923' 
 203,460, 
 
 4,'->9,379 
 1,070,26 
 519,575 
 64,940 
 225,426 
 257,387 
 10,660 
 264,10 
 3,306 
 4,630,475 
 10,739 
 4,479.997 
 72,022 
 334 
 721,527 
 8,129 
 115,237 
 171,5';0 
 i9,744 
 5,556 
 3,377 
 180,026 
 464,917 
 1,087,044 
 
 2,319 
 
 20,.'59l 
 647,077 
 26,642 
 ',004 
 
 459,379 
 1,070,261 
 319,373 
 64,940 
 223,426 
 257,387 
 10,660 
 264, !0 
 3,306 
 4,650,475 
 10,739 
 6,211,895 
 72,022 
 334 
 721,527 
 8,129 
 1 15,237 
 171,560 
 19,744 
 5,556 
 3,377 
 229,538 
 461,917 
 1,814,819 
 
 11,469, 
 
 4,525! 
 
 90,591 1 
 70.5,137. 
 26,642 
 59,004 
 
 l,004,045i 1,004,045 
 1,9261 1,926 
 20S,719i 208,719 
 
 Tot.tl \'alue of Imports, A-i I ,.')9.V6<5 i 4 .OS.Vinr,; .'>,679,071l 1,151.3721 4,295,4581 5,729,810 1,107.7871 5,229,311 6,.w7,09'>| 
 
5t2 EAST INDIES (Society in, Trade, etc.). 
 
 An Account of the Quantities and declared Values of the various Articles exported from Great Britain 
 to all Places Eastwai-d of the Cape of Good Hope (except China), distinguishing between those made 
 by the East India Company, and those made by private Traders, during the Three Years ending with 
 1832. — (From the Pari, taper. No. 425. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 East 
 India 
 Comp. 
 
 Private 
 Trade. 
 
 Total. 
 
 East 
 India 
 Comp. 
 
 Private 
 Trade. 
 
 Total. 
 
 East 
 India 
 Comp. 
 
 Private 
 Trade. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Apothecary wares 
 
 Ueclared value L. 
 Apparel ... 
 Beer and ale - tuns 
 Declared value;/,. 
 Books, printed - cwt. 
 
 Declared value h. 
 Brass - - cwt. 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Cabinet and upholslerjwares 
 Declared value L. 
 Carriages - number 
 Declared value L. 
 Coals - - tons 
 Declared value L. 
 Cochineal - - lbs. 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Colours for painters 
 
 Declared value I-.. 
 Copper.unwrought, .in bricks 
 and pigs - cwt. 
 Declared value L. 
 Wrought, of all 
 sorts - - cwt. 
 Declared value L, 
 Cordage - - cwt. 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Cotton manufactures (Brit.) 
 Calicoes, &c., white or 
 jilain - - yards 
 Declared value L. 
 Ditto* printed, checked, 
 stained, or dyed - yards 
 Declared value L. 
 Muslins,-; &c., white or 
 plain - - yards 
 Declared value h. 
 Ditto, printed, checked, 
 stained, or dyed - yards 
 Declared value L. 
 Hosiery, and small wares 
 ' Declared value L. 
 Aggregate value of British 
 cotton manufactures 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Cotton twist and yarn - lbs. 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Cotton manufaciures (fgn.) 
 
 square yards- 
 value L.- 
 Declared value L.- 
 Earthenware of all sorts 
 pieces 
 
 Declared value i. 
 Glass - Declared value i. 
 Guns and pistols - number 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Haberdashery and millinery 
 
 Declared value L, 
 Hardwares and cutlery 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Hats of all sorts - dozens 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Iron, bar and bolt - tons 
 
 Declared value L. 
 cast and wrought cwt. 
 
 Declared value h. 
 Lace and thread of gold and 
 silver - - lbs. 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Lead and shot - tons 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Leather and saddlery 
 
 Declared value i. 
 Linen manufactures 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Machinery and mill-work 
 
 "Declared value h. 
 Military stores not other- 
 wise described 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Musical instruments 
 
 Declared value h. 
 Opium - - lbs. 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Ordnance, of brass and iron 
 tons 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Plate, plated ware, jewellery 
 and M'atches 
 
 Declared value h. 
 Provisions, declared value L. 
 Quicksilver - lbs. 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Silk manufactures 
 
 Declared value f.. 
 Soap and candles - cwt. 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Spelter, foreign - cwt. 
 
 Declared value L. 
 Spirits, British - gallons 
 
 Declared value L. 
 1 Spirits, foreign - gallons 
 
 Declared value L. 
 
 10,588 
 4,352 
 
 ^'40 
 1,143 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 1,877 
 2,538 
 
 679 
 
 1,028 
 5,058 
 . 441 
 1,101 
 
 7,500 
 240 
 
 2,600 
 160 
 
 149 
 
 549 
 38 
 1 
 
 42,000 
 429 
 • 1,746 
 2,300 
 4,284 
 
 112 
 
 9,030 
 1,222 
 1,847 
 43 
 376 
 5,980 
 7,341 
 
 163 
 1,455 
 34 
 487 
 
 1,345 
 
 2,077 
 
 7,384 
 
 5,983 
 294 
 
 223 
 8 140 
 
 10,025 
 7,889 
 
 619 
 1,845 
 
 I - 
 
 9,642 
 28,224 
 3,473 
 71,364 
 703 
 19,504 
 232 
 2,145 
 
 3,525 
 133 
 11,835 
 2,166 
 1,053 
 44,329 
 21,056 
 
 14,434 
 
 46,807 
 200,050 
 
 43,186 
 195,098 
 911 
 2,187 
 
 37,555,687 
 1,008,865 
 
 13,426,203 
 535,951 
 
 5,917,969 
 185,910 
 
 166,271 
 7,562 
 
 21,685 
 
 1,760,003 
 4,689,532 
 324,954 
 
 . 2,885 
 111 
 258 
 
 1,245,800 
 20,072 
 102,870 
 1,400 
 5,100 
 
 25,367 
 
 72,013 
 2,232 
 13,540 
 12,290 
 86,938 
 69,616 
 50,231 
 
 557 
 4,661 
 1,226 
 16,507 
 
 29,051 
 
 21,211 
 
 21, lo: 
 
 494 
 
 12,060 
 21,890 
 16,418 
 
 116 
 
 730 
 
 44,370 
 21,347 
 
 14,112 
 
 9,873 
 866 
 
 3,88!) 
 62,376 
 32,747 
 
 3,632 
 
 1,780 
 99,453 
 12/)72 
 
 20,230 
 32,576 
 3,473 
 71,364 
 743 
 20,647 
 242 
 2,235 
 
 3,525 
 133 
 
 4)043 
 3^91 
 44,329 
 21,056 
 
 15,113 
 
 46,807 
 200,050 
 
 44,214 
 200,156 
 1,.'552 
 3,288 
 
 37,563,187 
 1,009,105 
 
 13,428,803 
 536,111 
 
 5,917,969 
 185,940 
 
 166,271 
 7,562 
 
 21,855 
 
 1,760,552 
 4,689,570 
 324,955 
 
 2,885 
 114 
 258 
 
 1,287,800 
 20,501 
 104,616 
 3,700 
 9,384 
 
 25,479 
 
 81,043 
 3,454 
 15,387 
 12,333 
 87,514 
 75,596 
 57,572 
 
 720 
 6,116 
 1,260 
 .16,994 
 
 50,396 
 
 23,288 
 
 28,489 
 
 6,387 
 
 1?,,354 
 21,890 
 16,418 
 
 339 
 8,870 
 
 54,395 
 29,236 
 l.'53,918 
 14,112 
 
 9,873 
 1,485 
 5,7.34 
 62,376 
 .32,747 
 3,6.52 
 1 ,780 
 99,153 
 12,072 
 
 6,582 
 1,895 
 26 
 390 
 6 
 
 259 
 5 
 40 
 
 2,013 
 2,314 
 
 891 
 
 714 
 
 3,500 
 1,405 
 3,270 
 
 10,410 
 
 320 
 
 890 
 71 
 
 90 
 481 
 
 27,000 
 312 
 2,354 
 1,420 
 1,583 
 
 20 
 
 10,352 
 980 
 1,471 
 93 
 980 
 10,402 
 12,624 
 
 96 
 786 
 
 52 
 719 
 
 3,671 
 
 1,611 
 
 3,092 
 
 1,081 
 240 
 
 224 
 3,286 
 
 2,3.'53 
 7,931 
 
 1,083 
 405 
 1,318 
 
 6,169 
 27,362 
 3,144 
 60,405 
 823 
 23,016 
 164 
 1,244 
 
 2,019 
 137 
 9,382 
 3,043 
 2,555 
 34,676 
 13,870 
 
 8,573 
 
 49,359 
 204,936 
 
 35,216 
 153,534 
 1,595 
 3,645 
 
 28,639,567 
 726,386 
 
 13,971,220 
 471,617 
 
 6,362,976 
 179,652 
 
 597,473 
 22,579 
 
 19,280 
 
 1,419,514 
 6,541,853 
 483,762 
 
 7,806 
 1 
 
 327 
 
 1,253,525 
 17,209 
 100,069 
 
 3,640 
 
 20,862 
 
 50,690 
 2,014 
 9,576 
 11,755 
 79,258 
 75,987 
 50,628 
 
 212 
 1,677 
 1,280 
 16,432 
 
 18,367 
 
 23,724 
 
 10,340 
 
 221 
 
 8,954 
 5,483 
 4y524 
 
 5 
 
 140 
 
 38,208 
 16,151 
 95,702 
 8,972 
 
 8,015 
 830 
 3,657 
 49,964 
 27,480 
 6,001 
 2.121 
 128,174 
 19,310 
 
 12,751 
 
 29,257 
 3,170 
 60,795 
 829 
 23,275 
 169 
 1,284 
 
 2,019 
 137 
 9,382 
 5,056 
 4,869 
 34,676 
 13,870 
 
 9,464 
 
 49,359 
 204,936 
 
 35,930 
 157,0,54 
 3,000 
 6,915 
 
 28,649,977 
 726,706 
 
 13,972,110 
 471,688 
 
 6,362,976 
 179,652 
 
 597,473 
 22,579 
 
 19,370 
 
 1,419,995 
 6,541,853 
 483,762 
 
 7,806 
 1 
 
 327 
 
 1,280,525 
 17,521 
 102,423 
 
 5^223 
 
 20,882 
 
 61,042 
 2,994 
 10,847 
 11,848 
 80,258 
 86,389 
 63,252 
 
 308 
 2,463 
 1,3.52 
 17,151 
 
 22,038 
 
 25,335 
 
 13,432 
 
 1,302 
 
 9,194 
 5,483 
 4,524 
 
 229 
 3,426 
 
 40,541 
 21,082 
 95,702 
 8,972 
 
 9,098 
 1,235 
 4,975 
 49,964 
 27,480 
 6,001 
 2,121 
 128,174 
 19,310 
 
 6,967 
 9,271 
 
 13 
 
 237 
 45 
 393 
 
 47 
 
 1,926 
 1,870 
 
 1,150 
 
 2,639 
 11,180 
 
 243 
 1,232 
 
 285 
 602 
 
 6,414 
 
 268 
 
 268 
 169 
 12 
 
 6,900 
 82 
 1,060 
 820 
 1,416 
 
 16 
 
 11,264 
 1,001 
 1,604 
 30 
 272 
 2,495 
 2,740 
 
 187 
 1,465 
 61 
 827 
 
 1,505 
 
 5,341 
 
 3,651 
 
 128 
 
 252 
 
 34 
 816 
 
 " 10,992 
 
 45 
 2 
 4 
 
 9,778 
 23,477 
 
 4,737 
 87,606 
 
 1,032 
 27,189 
 124 
 
 I, 005 
 
 3,098 
 80 
 5,430 
 4,547 
 3,898 
 29,588 
 11,095 
 
 11,951 
 
 43,710 
 178,036 
 
 40,548 
 173,876 
 5,751 
 10,524 
 
 34,077,810 
 818,921 
 
 17,907,088 
 531,654 
 
 5,192,287 
 143,140 
 
 384,562 
 14,168 
 
 23,242 
 
 1,531,125 
 4,295,258 
 309,719 
 
 991 
 
 2,087,339 
 27,004 
 100,087 
 8,219 
 11,257 
 
 29,543 
 
 71,025 
 2,791 
 12,760 
 17,400 
 103,765 
 58,854 
 37,916 
 
 474 
 2,944 
 1,565 
 18,986 
 
 22,709 
 
 4.5,715 
 
 II, 523 
 
 115 
 7^85 
 
 23 
 130 
 
 33,778 
 21,454 
 36,743 
 3,521 
 
 25,159 
 1,344 
 5,207 
 
 37,499 
 
 21,093 
 6,289 
 2,.562 
 203,581 
 
 32,032 
 
 16,745 
 32,748 
 
 4,757 
 87,1,06 
 
 1,045 
 27,426 
 1G9 
 
 1,398 
 
 3,145 
 
 80 
 5,450 
 6,475 
 5,768 
 29,588 
 11,095 
 
 13,101 
 
 46,349 
 189,216 
 
 40,791 
 175,108 
 6,036 
 11,126 
 
 .34,084,224 
 819,189 
 
 17,907,088 
 531,654 
 
 5,192,287 
 143,140 
 
 384,562 
 14,168 
 
 23,242 
 
 1,531,393 
 4,295,427 
 509,731 
 
 991 
 991 
 
 2,094,259 
 27,086 
 101,147 
 9,059 
 12,673 
 
 29,559 
 
 82,289 
 3,792 
 14,364 
 17,4.50 
 104,037 
 61,349 
 40,656 
 
 661 
 4,41)9 
 1,626 
 19,813 
 
 24,214 
 
 49,056 
 
 15,174 
 
 243 
 7,337 
 
 57 
 946 
 
 33,778 
 32,446 
 36,743 
 3,521 
 
 25,204 
 1,346 
 5,211 
 37,499 
 21,003 
 6,289 
 2,562 
 208,581 
 
 32.03a: 
 
EAST INDIES (Society in, Trade, etc.). 54-3 
 
 Exports — continued. 
 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 Articles 
 
 East 
 India 
 Comp. 
 
 Private 
 Trade. 
 
 Total. 
 
 East 
 India 
 Comp. 
 
 Private 
 Trade. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 East 
 India 
 Comp. 
 
 Prlv.-ite 
 
 Totil. 
 
 Btationeryj cieclaretl value 
 
 13,175 
 
 33,064 
 
 4fi,239 
 10,881 
 
 — T 
 
 20,663 
 
 27,298 
 
 47,961 
 
 23,924 
 
 26,252 
 
 50,176 
 
 Steel, unwrought • c» t. 
 
 10,881 
 
 
 21,651 
 
 21,651 
 
 20 
 
 14,446 
 
 14,466 
 
 - 
 
 11,1.53 
 
 11,1.53 
 
 
 24,4 39 
 
 24,439 
 
 40 
 
 1 5, 1 06 
 
 15, 1 46 
 
 Sugar relin^d'"' cvft 
 
 44 
 
 863 
 
 
 
 763 
 
 
 31 
 
 778 
 
 809 
 
 Declared value L. 
 
 89 
 
 1,890 
 
 1,979 
 
 
 1,792 
 
 1,792 
 
 57 
 
 1,961 
 
 2,008 
 
 
 1,700 
 
 90 
 
 1,790 
 
 750 
 
 161 
 
 91 1 
 
 1,150 
 
 90 
 
 1,210 
 
 Declared value L. 
 
 1,636 
 
 140 
 
 1,775 
 
 484 
 
 139 
 
 623 
 
 1,062 
 
 101 
 
 1,1.53 
 
 Tin, unwrought - cwt. 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 129 
 
 135 
 
 T'n md rSw^CT^^ares^'and 
 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 
 16o 
 
 106 
 
 20 
 
 495 
 
 616 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t n nlatpt . Dec val / 
 
 731 
 
 10,138 
 
 
 
 
 tine Ufl^ 
 
 67Z 
 
 6,822 
 
 7,395 
 
 Wnes P'"'^*^ "imt) ir^Io 1* 
 
 1,335! 
 
 239,259 
 
 /40,o91 
 
 
 92,530 
 
 /06,o Jo 
 
 
 338,.5.3.5 
 
 339,4 ,'55 
 
 Declared value L 
 
 459 
 
 104,945 
 
 1 05,404 
 
 51 
 
 92,681 
 
 308 
 
 149,949 
 
 160,267 
 
 vVooUen manufactures (Br.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cloths "jj^'j^^g*^ value'i^ 
 
 G,029 
 
 47,719 
 
 53,748 
 
 2,959 
 
 51,712^ 
 
 54,671 i 
 
 3,507 
 
 ."50,186 
 
 33,693 
 
 60,,')C3 
 
 211,171 
 
 271,734 
 
 31,470 
 
 195,136 
 
 226,606 
 
 34,108 
 
 141,365 
 
 176,473 
 
 Stuffs, viz. camlets, serges, 
 &c. - - pieces 
 Declared value L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 94 
 
 20,1 18 
 
 20,242 
 
 251 
 
 14,767 
 
 15,018 
 
 56 
 
 18,909^ 
 
 18,96,5i 
 42,885 
 
 302 
 
 49,1-^9 
 
 49,431 
 
 352 
 
 40,767 
 
 41,109 
 
 84 
 
 42,801 
 
 Other woollens, dec.val. L. 
 
 4,127 
 
 19,106 
 
 23,233 
 
 2,226 
 
 n,497 
 
 13,723 
 
 3,609 
 
 15,542 
 
 19,161 
 
 Aggregate value of British 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 woollens - Dec. val. L,. 
 
 64,992 
 
 279,406 
 
 344,398 
 
 34,048 
 
 247,390 
 
 281,438 
 
 37,801 
 
 199,708 
 
 257,509 
 
 Woollen manufactures (fo- 
 
 
 
 
 reign) - pieces 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 372 
 
 372 
 
 
 4 S3 
 
 483 
 
 value L. 
 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 
 404 
 
 404 
 
 
 400 
 
 400 
 
 Declared value L, 
 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 
 3,.566 
 
 3,566 
 
 
 4,505 
 
 4,505 
 
 All other articles 
 
 ■ 16,21.5 
 
 147,218 
 
 163,433 
 
 14,661 
 
 122,656 
 
 137,317 
 
 8,709 
 
 162,256 
 
 170,946 
 
 Total value of exports - L. 
 
 195,394 
 
 .7,891,917 
 
 1 4,087,311 
 
 146,180' 3,488,571 
 
 3,635,051 
 
 149,193 
 
 3,661,093 
 
 3,760,286 
 
 . The preference in favour of West Indian commodities was within these 5 years much 
 greater than at present ; but the following statement shows that it is still very con- 
 siderable ; — 
 
 An Account of Articles imported from British Possessions East of the Cape of Good Hope, on which a 
 higher Customs Duty is charged on Import into the United Kingdom, than is charged on the same 
 Articles imported from British Possessions in any other Parts of the World : showing, in Three 
 parallel Columns, the Different Rates and the Excess of Duty on each Article; also, the Amount of 
 Duty levied on each of these Articles in the Year 1832, and the Quantity on which the same was le\ied. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Rates of Duty charged. 
 
 Quantity charged with Duty 
 in the Year 1832. 
 
 Amount of Duty received 
 in the Year 1832. 
 
 On Import- 
 ations from 
 Brit. Posses- 
 sions within 
 the Limits of 
 the E. I. Co.'s 
 Charter, ex- 
 cept the 
 Mauritius. 
 
 On Importations 
 from other 
 British Possessions. 
 
 Excess of 
 Duty charged 
 on Import- 
 ations within 
 the Limits 
 of the E. I. 
 Co.'s Charter. 
 
 Imported 
 from British 
 
 Possessions 
 
 within the 
 Limits of the 
 
 E. I. Co.'s 
 Charter. 
 
 Imported 
 from other 
 Briti.'h Pos- 
 sessions, and 
 cha vy,e.d with 
 a lower Hate 
 of Duty. 
 
 On Import- 
 ations from 
 British Pos- 
 sessions 
 within the 
 Limits of the 
 Company's 
 Charter. 
 
 On Import- 
 ations from 
 other British 
 Possessions, 
 and charged 
 with a lower 
 Plate of 
 Duty. 
 
 Coffee - 
 
 Sugar 
 Spirits 
 Tobacco * 
 
 9rf. perlb. | 
 
 32*. per cwt. 
 15*. per gal. 
 3*. per lb. 
 
 6f/. per lb., if the pro- 
 duce of and imported 
 from the Mauritius 
 or any British pos- 
 session in America - 
 24*. per cwt., if do. 
 95. per gal. 
 2*. 9d. per lb. 
 
 
 •■ 3d. per lb. 
 
 1*. per cwt. 
 S*. per £cal. 
 3d. per lb. 
 
 Lbs. 
 1,953,744 
 
 Ctfi. gr. lb. 
 79,608 2 5 
 
 Lbs. 
 20,996,837 
 
 Cwt. qr.lh. 
 4,355,814 2 21 
 3,515,250 gal. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 73,227 18 0 
 
 127,373 13 6 
 
 L. s. d. 
 524,920 18 6 
 
 5,226,977 12 6 
 1,580,962 10 0 
 
 Under the new regulations as to residence in India (see post), Englishmen will 
 be allowed to employ themselves in the raising of sugar, as they have hitherto been 
 allowed to employ themselves in the raising of indigo ; but, unless the duty be equal- 
 ised, this concession will be of little importance, at least in so far as respects sugar. 
 An equalisation is, however, imperiously required, as well in justice to India as 
 in the view of promoting the interests of the British public ; and should it take place, 
 we have little doubt that the growth of sugar in India will be very greatly extended, and 
 that it will become an article of great commercial value. 
 
 The regulations as to the importation of coffee from India are as objectionable as can 
 well be imagined. Why should the coffee of Malabar and Ceylon pay 3c?. per lb. more 
 duty than that of the Mauritius? A distinction of this sort is an outrage upon com- 
 mon sense, and an insult to India. Foreign coffee may be imported from any port of 
 British India at 9c?. per lb. ; but if it be imported from a foreign port it pays Is. 
 Hence, if a British ship take on board coffee at Mocha, Manilla, or Java, she is obliged 
 to call in her way home at Bombay or Singapore ; and must there unload and then 
 reload her cargo ! Such a regulation requires no lengthened commentary ; it is enough 
 to remark that its existence is a disgrace to a civilised nation. 
 
 Besides being unfairly assessed, the duties on several most important articles of East 
 India produce are signally oppressive in their amount. Arrack, for example, which 
 may be bought in bond here for about Ss. a gallon, is loaded with a duty of 15s. It is 
 almost unnecessary to add that this duty is perfectly unproductive ; its only effect is to 
 exclude a valuable article from the market ; to deprive the public of a gratification they 
 
 * Quantity of tobacco brought from the East too trifling to deserve mention. 
 
544 
 
 EAST INDIES ( Society in, Trade, =:tc.)- 
 
 might otherwise enjoy, and the government of a considerable amount of revenue. The 
 duty on pepper is also most extravagantly highj being no less than Is. on an article tliat 
 sells from about 3c?. to 4^d. Considering the degree in which the demand for pepper is 
 checked by this anti-consumption impost, we believe we may safely affirm that its reduc- 
 tion to 3d. or 4c?. would be productive of an increase of revenue. 
 
 However, it is but fair to add that a very material deduction has been made from the 
 duties charged on several articles of East India produce since the publication of the 
 former edition of this work. It is to be hoped that the good effects of which these 
 reductions cannot fail to be productive may speedily lead to others. The following ac- 
 count will no doubt receive the attentive consideration of the reader : — 
 
 Account showing the Prices in Bond in London of the different Articles of East India Produce, on 
 the 1st of November, 1833 ; the present Duty on such Articles, and the Rate per Cent, of the Duty on 
 the Price. A Column is added, showing the Duties in 1831 that have since been modified. 
 
 
 Prices, 
 
 1st of November, 
 
 
 Duties, 1st of 
 November, 
 
 Duty. 
 
 
 
 Goods. 
 
 
 1833. 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Rate per Cent. 
 
 Duties, 1st of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1833. 
 
 
 
 i>anua 
 
 rj, looi. 1 
 
 
 From 
 
 1 To 
 
 
 
 From 
 
 To 
 
 
 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. ». 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 d. per 
 
 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. per 
 
 Aloes 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 12 0 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 2 lb. 
 
 7 
 
 46 
 
 0 1 
 
 3 lb. 
 
 Asafoetida 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 cwt. 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 057 
 
 'If 
 
 4 13 
 
 4 cwt. 
 
 Beniamin, 1st sort 
 
 2d - - . - 
 
 'lO 0 
 
 0 
 
 40 0 
 20 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 - 
 
 
 0 — 
 
 1 
 
 11 4 
 
 0 — 
 
 3d — 
 
 4 10 
 
 0 
 
 7 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 2-7 
 
 
 
 
 Barilla - - • 
 
 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 ton 
 
 40 
 
 0 ton 
 
 
 i£ 
 
 
 
 Borax, refined 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 3 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 10 
 
 0 cwt. 
 
 
 
 2 16 
 
 0 — 
 
 unrefined 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 9 
 
 0 
 
 
 4 
 
 0 - 
 
 4-5 
 
 5 
 
 1 8 
 
 0 — 
 
 Camphor 
 
 Cardamons, Ceylon 
 Malabar 
 
 ' 0 1 
 
 0 3 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 7 5 
 0 1 
 0 3 
 
 0 
 8 
 9 
 
 lb. 
 
 1 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 0 — 
 0 lb. 
 0 — 
 
 " 
 
 26 
 
 to 
 
 0 9 
 0 2 
 0 2 
 
 4 — 
 0 lb. 
 
 0 — 
 
 Cassia buds - 
 
 lignea 
 Cinnamon - 
 
 - 
 
 3 5 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 4 5 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 — 
 
 6 — 
 
 65 
 
 140 
 86 
 
 
 
 0 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 9 
 
 6 
 
 lb. 
 
 0 
 
 6 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cloves, Bourbon 
 Amboyna 
 Cocculus Indicus • " 
 Cochineal 
 
 0 1 
 0 1 
 0 13 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 I 
 0 1 
 
 " 0 1 
 
 2 
 C 
 
 3 
 
 lb. 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 0 
 
 0 - 
 0 — 
 6 — 
 2 — 
 
 170 
 
 rnn 
 1 fin 
 1860 
 
 0 0 
 
 4 _ 
 
 Cott'ee, Mocha . . - 
 
 3 10 
 
 0 
 
 6 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 9 lb. 
 
 fifi 
 140 
 
 190 
 
 
 
 other sorts 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 from Brit, ports 
 
 16S 
 
 
 
 Cotton, Bengal 
 
 Madras 
 
 Surat - • " 
 Cubebs - 
 Dragon's blood • • 
 Ebony wood - " * 
 Galls - - " 
 Gambop;e - * 
 Ginger, Bengal - - - 
 Gum ammoniac 
 
 animi - • " 
 Arabic - - 
 Gum lac, lac dye fine DI. 
 other sorts 
 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 
 6 
 
 .1 
 
 U 0 
 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 
 7 
 8 
 7 
 
 ib 1 
 lb. 1 
 
 _ f 
 
 0 
 
 4 cwt. 
 
 0-5 
 0-5 
 
 0-6 
 0"6 
 
 
 
 2 15 
 
 
 3 5 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 6 Ib. ' 
 
 80 
 
 ItIO 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 — 
 
 5 10 
 
 6 10 
 3 10 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 25 0 
 7 10 
 
 4 5 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 tini 
 
 f/ V t 
 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 
 0 cwt. 
 0 ton 
 0 cwt. 
 
 0-8 
 
 3-7 
 ^3 
 
 9 6 
 0 15 
 0 5 
 
 8 cwt. 
 0 ton 
 0 cwt. 
 
 9 0 
 
 0 
 
 IS n 
 
 0 
 
 
 4 
 
 0 — 
 
 1-1 
 
 2-2 
 
 9 6 
 
 8 - 
 
 1 15 
 
 2 10 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 1 18 
 5 0 
 10 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 ~ 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 0 — 
 0 — 
 0 — 
 
 g 
 
 12 
 
 0 11 
 7 0 
 2 16 
 
 6 — 
 0 — 
 0 — 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 2 15 
 
 0 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 — 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 0 1 
 0 0 
 
 6 
 9 
 
 0 2 
 0 1 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 Ib. 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 0 - 
 0 — 
 
 2*2^ 
 
 2 }■ 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 shell lac 
 
 6 3 
 
 0 
 
 7 15 
 
 0 
 
 cwt 
 
 6 
 
 0 — 
 
 3*7 
 
 4-7 
 
 20 
 
 
 "^""P " fdrv - 
 Hides, buffalo and ox 1 1^ 
 
 ' 0 0 
 
 5* 
 
 23 0 
 0 0 
 
 0 
 
 ton' 
 lb. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 8 ton 
 4 cwt. 
 
 2.5 
 
 0-3 
 
 5 
 
 fr 
 
 ee 
 
 0 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 0 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 2 — 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Indigo, 5ne - - 
 good and middling 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 4 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 0 8 
 0 6 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 - 
 
 k 
 
 3 lb." 
 
 
 o'7 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ordinary 
 
 Mace - - " 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 4 
 
 6 
 0 
 
 0 4 
 0 6 
 
 0 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 _ 
 
 o'2 
 
 33 
 
 7 
 87 
 
 
 
 Mother-o'-pearl shells, Bombay - 
 Manilla 
 
 1 5 
 3 13 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 0 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 } " 
 
 per cent. 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Musk 
 
 Myrrh - - 
 
 Nutmegs - • • 
 
 Nux vomica - - 
 
 Oil of aniseed - • • 
 
 0 15 
 
 0 
 
 1 8 
 
 0 
 
 oz 
 
 0 
 
 6 oz. 
 
 1"7 
 
 3'3 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 oz. j 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 14 0 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 6 
 
 0 cwt. 
 
 2 
 
 7-5 
 
 9 6 
 
 8 cwt. ! 
 
 0 3 
 0 13 
 0 0 
 
 6 
 0 
 63 
 
 0 6 
 
 6 
 
 lb. 
 
 "oz.' 
 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 
 6 lb. 
 6 — 
 4 — 
 
 38 
 
 71 
 
 1860 
 15 
 
 0 4 
 
 1 
 
 0 lb. i 
 
 0 0 
 
 ' 0 0 
 
 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 0 16 
 
 0 - i 
 
 cassia . . - 
 cinnamon 
 
 
 4 — 
 
 0 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 — 
 
 
 1-3 
 
 0 16 
 
 
 cloves - - * 
 mace . . - 
 nutmegs - - 
 Olibanum - - 
 
 0 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 0 10 
 
 
 14 
 
 0 — 
 
 103 
 
 116 
 
 1 12 
 
 0 = 
 
 0 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 0 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 — 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 = ! 
 
 0 0 10 
 
 0 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 — 
 
 6-7 
 
 10 
 
 2 0 
 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 15 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 6 
 
 0 cwt. 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 cwt. j 
 
 Pepper, black - - 
 white 
 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 0 lb. 
 0 — 
 
 266 
 133 
 
 320 
 300 
 
 
 1 
 
 Rhubarb, common 
 
 0 1 
 
 101 
 
 0 2 
 
 4] 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 43 
 
 541 
 
 0 2 
 
 6 lb. i 
 
 fine Dutch, trimmed - 
 
 0 3 
 
 6 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 _ 
 
 20 
 
 28 i 
 
 
 Rice from British possessions 
 
 0 12 
 
 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 
 
 0 cwt. 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 Spirits, avrack ... 
 Safllower - - 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 gal. 
 
 15 
 
 0 gal. 
 
 
 
 6 cwt. j 
 
 6 3 
 
 0 
 
 " 8 10 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 
 
 0 cwt. 
 
 0-6 
 
 1 
 
 0 2 
 
 Sago, common - > - 
 
 pearl . . - 
 
 0 10 
 0 15 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 ' 2 0 
 
 o' 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 — 
 0 — 
 
 2-5 
 
 10 
 6-7 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 cwt. i 
 
 Sal ammoniac - - 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 0 — 
 
 
 1-7 
 
 1 8 
 
 0 - 
 
 Saltiietre 
 
 Sapan wood - - • 
 Saunders' wood, red 
 
 1 15 
 
 0 
 
 ' 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 — 
 
 1-2 
 
 1-4 
 
 
 
 8 0 
 
 0 
 
 17 0 
 
 0 
 
 ton 
 
 1 
 
 0 ton 
 
 0-3 
 
 0-6 
 
 0 15 
 
 0 ton 
 
 13 0 
 
 0 
 
 16 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 0-3 
 
 0'4 
 
 0 12 
 
 0 _ 
 
 Seeds, aniseed, star 
 
 3 5 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 cwt. 
 
 5 
 
 0 cwt. 
 
 
 V6 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 cwt. 
 
 Silk, Bengal and China 
 
 0 16 
 
 0 
 
 ' 1 3 
 
 o' 
 
 lb. 
 
 0 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 0-35 
 
 0-45 
 
 
 
 Sugar, Bengal, white 
 
 yellow - 
 
 1 4 
 1 1 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 1 U 
 
 1 3 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 32 
 32 
 
 0 cwt. 
 0 _ 
 
 l03 
 139 
 
 133 
 152 
 
 
 
 Mauritius, yellow - 
 brown , 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 14 
 
 0 
 
 
 24 
 
 0 — 
 
 70 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 24 
 
 0 — 
 
 *J2 
 
 109 
 
 
 
 Teeth, elephants' 
 
 19 0 
 
 0 
 
 28 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 20 
 
 0 _ 
 
 3-5 
 
 3-2 
 
 
 0 cwt. 
 
 Tcira japonica ... 
 Tortoise shell - - 
 
 3 15 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 — 
 
 1-2 
 
 1-3 
 
 0 3 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 2 15 
 
 0 
 
 ib. 
 
 0 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 0-1 
 
 0-3 
 
 0 0 
 
 6 Ib. 
 
 Turmeric, Bengal 
 
 Java ... 
 
 0 16 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 18 
 
 1 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 cwt.T 
 
 '2 
 
 4 cwt. 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 11 -t 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 5 
 
 0 
 
 
 from Brit, ports 
 
 9 
 
 11-4 
 
 0 1 
 
 
 V(fnn;lion 
 
 0 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 t) 
 
 6 lb. 
 
 
 17-2 
 
 0 - 
 
 N. B. We are indebted for this valuable Table to Mr. Begbie, secretary to the East India Asso. 
 ciation. 
 
EAST INDIES (Society -in, Trade, etc.). 
 
 545 
 
 There is another grievance afFecting the East India trade, wliich calls loudly for 
 redress. Goods from America, the West Indies, or any where except the East Indias, 
 may be conveyed from one warehousing port to another without payment of the duties. 
 But with East India goods a different rule has been established. There are only about 
 a dozen ports in the empire in which East India goods may be received and warehoused; 
 and whenever it becomes necessary to remove these goods to any other place, not privi- 
 leged to receive India goods, the whole duties have to be paid ; so that if a merchant 
 found it expedient to ship 1,000Z. worth of pepper from London, Hull, or any oilier 
 privileged port, to Newcastle, Plymouth, Aberdeen, or any non-privileged port, he would, 
 before he could make such shipment, have to advance about 4,000/. of duty ! This is a 
 most oppressive regulation. There is not, and there never was, any good reason for jn o- 
 hibiting East India goods from being removed, under bond, from one port to another 
 where other goods arc allowed to be bonded. Many considerable advantages would 
 result from permitting this to be done. It would distribute East India goods nK)re 
 equally over the country ; and country dealers would be able to lay in and keep up suffi- 
 cient stocks with a far less outlay of capital than at present. Such a measure, coupled, 
 as it ought to be, with an adequate reduction of the duties, would materially extend the 
 comforts of all classes at home. 
 
 4. Colonisation of India. — Hitherto very considerable obstacles have been thrown in 
 the way of Europeans establishing themselves in India, and particularly of their acquir- 
 ing or holding land. This policy was dictated by various considerations ; partly by a 
 wish to prevent the extrusion of the natives , from the soil, which it was supposed would 
 be eagerly bought up by Europeans, and partly by the fear lest the latter, when scat- 
 tered over the country, and released from any effectual control, should offend the pre- 
 judices of the natives, and get embroiled with them. Now, however, it seems to be the 
 general opinion of those best acquainted with India that but little danger is to be appre- 
 hended from these circumstances ; that the few Europeans established in it as indigo 
 planters, &c. have contributed very materially to its improvement ; and that the increase 
 and diffusion of the English population, and their permanent settlement in the country, 
 are at once the most likely means of spreading a knowledge of our arts and sciences, and 
 of widening and strengthening the foundations of our ascendancy. If is obvious, indeed, 
 that the duration of our power in India must depend on a very uncertain tenure, unless 
 we take root, as it were, in the soil, and a considerable portion of the population be 
 attached to us by the ties of kindred, and of common interests and sympathies. lu this 
 respect we ought to imitate the Roman in preference to the Lacedemonian or Athenian 
 policy. Quid aliud exitio LacedcBmoniis Atheniensibus fuit, quanqiiam armis pollerent, 
 nisi quod victis pro alienigenis arcebant? Looking, however, at the density of popu- 
 lation in India, the low rate of wages, the nature of the climate, and other similar 
 circumstances, it seems very doubtful whether it will ever become the resort of any 
 considerable number of English settlers ; at least of such a number as would be suffi- 
 cient, within any reasonable period, to form any thing like a powerful native English 
 interest. But to whatever extent it may be carried, it promises to be highly advan- 
 tageous. " We need not, I imagine," says the present Governor- General of India, 
 Lord William Bentinck, " use any laboured argument to prove that it would be infinitely 
 advantageous for India to borrow largely in arts and knowledge from England. The 
 legislature has expressly declared the truth ; its acknowledgment has been implied in the 
 daily acts and professions of government, and in all the efforts of humane individuals and 
 societies for the education of the people. Nor will it, I conceive, be doubted, that the 
 diffusion of useful knowledge, and its application to the arts and business of life, must be 
 comparatively tardy, unless we add to precept the example of Europeans, mingling 
 familiarly with the natives in the course of their profession, and practically demon- 
 strating, by daily recurring evidence, the nature and the value of the principles we desire 
 to inculcate, and of the plans we seek to have adopted. It seems to be almost equally 
 plain, that independently of their influencing the native community in this way, various 
 and important national advantages will result from there being a considerable body of 
 our countrymen, and their descendants, settled in the country. To question it, is to 
 deny the superiority which has gained us the dominion of India : it is to doubt whether 
 national character has any effect on national wealth, strength, and good government : it 
 is to shut our eyes to all the perils and difficulties of our situation : it is to hold as 
 nothing community of language, sentiment and interest, between the government and 
 the governed : it is to disregard the evidence afforded by every corner of the globe in 
 which the British flag is hoisted ; it is to tell our merchants and our manufacturers, that 
 the habits of a people go for nothing in creating a market, and that enterprise, skill, and 
 capital, and the credit which creates capital, are. of no avail in the production of com- 
 modities." 
 
 The existing regulations as to the residence of Englishmen in India are embodied in 
 the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 85., and are as follows : — 
 
 2 N 
 
54?6 EAST INDIES (Extent, Population, etc. of British). 
 
 Authority for his Majesty's Subjects' to reside in certain Parts of India. — It shall be lawful for anv 
 natural-born subjects of his Majesty to proceed by sea to any port or place having a Custom-house estab- 
 fishment within the same, and to reside thereat, or to proceed to reside in or pass through any part of 
 such of the said territories as were under the government of the said Company on the 1st day of January, 
 1800, and in any part of the countries ceded by the nabob of the Carnatic, of the province of Cuttack, 
 and of the settlements of Singapore and Malacca, without any licence whatever ; provided that all sub- 
 jects of his Majesty not natives of the said territories shall, on their arrival in any part of the same from 
 any port or place not within said territories, make known in writing their names, places of destination, 
 and objects of pursuit in India, to the chief officer of the customs or other officer authorised for that pur- 
 pose at such port or place as aforesaid. — § 81. 
 
 Subjects of his Majesty not to reside in certain Parts of India tvithout Licence. — It shaU not be lawful 
 for any subject of his Majesty, except the servants of the said Company and others now lawfully autho- 
 rised to reside in the said territories, to enter the same by land, or to proceed to or reside in such parts of 
 the said territories as are not herein-before in that behalf mentioned, without licence first obtained from 
 the commissioners of the board of control, or the court of directors, or the governor-general, or a 
 governor of any of the said presidencies : provided, that no licence given to any natural-born subject of 
 his Majesty to reside in parts of the territories not open to all such subjects shall be determined or revoked 
 unless in accordance with the terms of some express clause of revocation or determination in such licence 
 contained. — § 82. 
 
 The Governor-General with previous Consent of Directors, may declare other Places open. — It shall be 
 lawful for the governor-general in council, with the previous consent and approbation of the said court 
 of directors, to declare any place or places whatever within the said territories open to all his Majesty's 
 natural-born subjects, and it shall be thenceforth lawful for any of his Majesty s natural-born subjects to 
 proceed to, or reside in, or pass through any place or places declared open without any licence whatever. 
 — \ 83. 
 
 Laws against illicit Residence to be made. — The governor-general shall and is required to make laws 
 or regulations providing for the prevention or punishment of the iUicit entrance into or residence in the 
 said territories of persons not authorised to enter or reside therein. — \ 84. 
 
 Laws and Regulations to be made for Protection of Natives. — And whereas the removal of restrictions 
 on the intercourse of Europeans with the said territories will render it necessary to provide against any 
 mischiefs or dangers that may arise therefrom, it is enacted, that the governor-general shall and is re- 
 quired, by laws or regulations, to provide with all convenient speed for the protection of the natives of 
 the said territories from insult and outrage in their persons, religions, or opinions. — ^ 85. 
 
 Lands within the Indian Territories may be purchased. — It shall be lawful for any natural-born sub 
 ject of his Majesty authorised to reside in the said territories to acquire and hold lands, or any right, 
 interest, or profit in or out of lands, for any term of years, in such part or parts of the said territories a* 
 he shall be so authorised to reside in : provided always, that nothing herein contained shall be taken to 
 prevent the governor-general in council from enabling, by any laws or regulations, or otherwise, any sub- 
 jects of his Majesty to acquire or hold any lands, or rights, interests, or profits in or out of lands, in any 
 part of the said territories, and for any estates or terms whatever. — \ 86. 
 
 No Disabilities in respect of Religion, Colour, or Place of Birth. — No native of the said territories, 
 nor any natural-born subject of his Majesty resident therein, shall, by reason only of his religion, place 
 of birth, descent, colour, or any of them, be disabled from holding any place, office, or employment undei 
 tJie said company. — \ 87. 
 
 IV. East Indies, (Extent, Population, Military Force, Revenue, etc. of British). 
 
 1. Extent, Population, §'c. of British Dominions in Hindostan, and of the Tributary and 
 Independent States. — We copy the following Table from the second edition of Mr. Ha- 
 milton's Gazetteer. It must, however, be regarded as an approximation only, inasmuch 
 as no means exist of coming at correct conclusions ; but the talents of the writer, and 
 his perfect acquaintance with the subject, warrant the belief that it is as accurate as it 
 can be made with the present imperfect means of information. 
 
 Table of the -relative Area and Population of the Modern States of Hindostan. 
 
 Bengal, Bahar, and Benares - - . - 
 
 Additions in Hindostan since A. D. 1765 - - - - 
 
 Gurwal, Kumoon, and the tract between the Sutuleje and Jumna 
 
 Total under the Bengal Presidency - . - . 
 Under the Madras Presidency . . - - . 
 
 Under the Bombay Presidency _ . . - - 
 
 Territories in the Deccan, &c. acquired since 1815, consisting of the 
 
 Peishwa's dominions, &c., and since mostly attached to the Bombay 
 
 Presidency 
 
 Total under the British government . - - _ 
 British Allies and Tributaries. 
 The Nizam ------- 
 
 The Nagpoor Raja . - - - - 
 
 i The King of Oude - - . . . - 
 
 The Guicowar - - - - - - - 
 
 Kotah, 6,500 ; Boondee, 2,500 ; Bopaul, 5,000 - - - - 
 
 The Mysore Raja - 
 
 The Satara Raja . - - - - - 
 
 Travancore, 6,000; Cochin, 2,000 - - - - . 
 
 Under the Rajas of Joudpour, Jcypoor, Odeypoor, Bicancere, Jessclmere, 
 and otlier Rajpoot cliiefs, Holcar, Ameer Khan, the Row of Cutch, 
 Bhurtpoor, Macherry, and numerous other petty chiefs, Seiks, Gonds, 
 Bheols, Coolies, and Catties, all comprehended within the line of 
 British protection 
 
 Total under the British government and its allies 
 
 British 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 162,000 
 148,000 
 18,000 
 
 39,000,000 
 18,000,000 
 500,000 
 
 328,000 
 154,000 
 11,000 
 
 57,500,000 
 15,000,000 
 2,500,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 553,000 
 
 ,83,000,000 
 
 96,000 
 70,000 
 20,000 
 18,000 
 14,000 
 27,000 
 14,000 
 - 8,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 2,000,000: 
 1,500,000 
 3,000,000 
 1,500,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 283,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 1,103,00) 
 
 123,000,000 
 
 I 
 
EAST INDIES (Extent, Population, etc. of Biiitisii). 54-7 
 
 Table of the relative Area and Population — continued. 
 
 Brought up - - 
 
 Independent States. 
 The Nepaul Raja ....... 
 
 The Lahore Raja (Runjcet Singh) . . - - . 
 The Ameers of Sinde - - - . . . 
 The dominions of Sindia ..... 
 
 The Cabul sovereign cast of the Indus - - . . 
 
 Grand total of Hi ndostan .... 
 
 BriUsh 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 1,103,000 
 
 53,000 
 50,(X;0 
 24,0(X) 
 40,0fX} 
 10,000 
 
 123,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 l,000,fX)0 
 4,000,(XX) 
 1,0<jO,0(X) 
 
 1,280,000 
 
 134,000,000 
 
 India beyond the Ganges. — British Acquisitions in 1824 and 1825. 
 
 Countries south of Rangoon, consisting of half the province of Martaban, 
 
 and the provinces of Tavoy, Ye, Tenasserim, and the Mergui Isles 
 The province of Arracan . - - _ - 
 Countries from which the Burmese have been expelled, consisting of 
 Assam and the adjacent petty states, occupying a space of about 
 
 Total - - . 
 
 British 
 Square Miles. 
 
 I'opulation. 
 
 12,000 
 11,000 
 
 54,000 
 
 51,000 
 100,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 77,000 
 
 301,000 
 
 In 1805, according to official returns transmitted, the total number of British-born 
 subjects in Hindostan was 31,000. Of these, 22,000 were in the army as officers and 
 privates ; the civil officers of government of all descriptions were about 2,000 ; the free 
 merchants and mariners who resided in India under covenant, about 5,000 ; the officers 
 and practitioners in the courts of justice, 300; the remaining 1,700 consisted of adven- 
 turers who had smuggled themselves out in various capacities. Since the date above 
 mentioned, no detailed reports have been published : but there is reason to believe that 
 even now the total number of British subjects in Hindostan does not exceed 40,000 ; 
 the removal of the restrictions on the commercial intercourse having, contrary to expect- 
 ation, added very few to the previous number. 
 
 The army required for the protection of these extensive provinces, and for the retaining 
 them under due subordination, although it presents a formidable grand total, probably 
 does not amount to a fifth part of the number maintained by the Mogul sovereigns and 
 their functionaries, when their empire was in its zenith ; yet, even under the ablest of the 
 emperors, commotions in some quarter of their ill-subdued territories were unceasing. 
 The British system in India has always been to keep the troops in a constant state 
 of preparation for war ; but never to enter into unprovoked hostilities, or engage in any 
 contests except those rendered necessary by the principle of self-defence. At present, 
 with the exception of the Russian, the British military force is probably the largest 
 standing army in the world. In 1796, it amounted to 55,000. In 1830, the latest 
 period for which we have a detailed statement, it consisted of infantry 170,062, cavalry 
 19,539, artillery 17,385, engineers 1,084, with pioneers, invalids, &c., making a grand 
 total of 223,476 men. Of these, 187,068 were natives, and 37,376 Europeans; the 
 latter being divided between the King's and the Company's services in the proportion ot 
 20,292 to the former, and 17,084 to the latter. The total expenditure on account of 
 the Indian army during the same year amounted to 9,461,953/. It may, perhaps, be 
 worth while remarking, that the war department in Prussia, which has one of the most 
 efficient armies in Europe, cost, in 1829, 22,165,000 rix-dollars, or 3,324,000/., being 
 little more than the third of the cost of the British Indian army ! Recently, however, 
 very great effijrts have been made to economise in this department. The army has 
 been reduced to about 190,000 meuj and some of the former allowances have been 
 discontinued. 
 
 A good deal of rather conflicting evidence was given before the late select committee on 
 the state of the Indian army. On the whole, it would seem to be decidedly superior, in 
 respect of discipline and efficiency, to any native army ever organised in India. But 
 many very intelligent officers doubt whether it could make any effectual opposition to 
 European troops, to whom, generally speaking, the sepoys are inferior both in physical 
 strength and moral energy. Some of the witnesses seem to think that the Indian army 
 has recently been a good deal deteriorated. 
 
 The army is distributed throughout Hindostan under the orders of the supreme 
 government, promulgated through its political agents. Commencing from the great 
 stations in the Doab of the Ganges, at Ajmeer is one corps ; another at Neemutch ; 
 a third at Mow ; all supplied from the Bengal army. These are succeeded by the 
 Gujerat subsidiary forces, the field corps at Mulligaum, and the Poonah division, fur- 
 nished chiefly by the Bombay army. The circle is further continued by the field force 
 in the southern Mahratta country ; the Hyderabad and Nagpoor subsidiaries, composed 
 
 2 N 2 
 
548 EAST INDIES (Extent, Population, etc. of British). 
 
 of Madras troops j and the detachments from the Bengal establishment, forming the 
 Nerbudda and Savigur divisions, from whence the cordon terminates in Bundelcund. 
 Such is the general outline, liable, of course, to temporary modifications, and occasional 
 change in the selection of stations. At present, with the exception of a tract 35 miles 
 broad on each side of Aseerghur, there is an unbroken line of communication through 
 the British territory from Bombay to Calcutta. 
 
 In direct and authoritative control, the dominion of the British government extends 
 much further than that possessed by any prior dynasty, whether Patan or Mogul ; yet 
 the latter, so long as they abstained from persecution, had nothing to apprehend from 
 the religion of the Hindoos ; and history proves that the commotions which agitated the 
 Mohammedan monarchies chiefly ai'ose from their own internal dissensions and national 
 disputes. Neither does it appear that any prior conquerors ever employed disciplined 
 corps of their own countrymen in defence of their own sovereignty, although they had 
 to contend with one very numerous tribe — the Hindoo ; while the British, more advan- 
 tageously situated, have two to put in motion against each other, and in process of time 
 may raise up a third. Each foreign invader certainly favoured his own countrymen ; 
 but it was by bestowing on them places and high appointments, which excited envy, 
 without essentially strengthening his domination. Besides, therefore, total abstinence 
 from persecution, the British government, in a powerful corps entirely European, and 
 totally distinguished from the natives by colour, language, and manners, possesses a 
 solidity and consistence much beyond any of the prior Mohammedan dynasties. — 
 {Hamilton's East India Gazetteer, 2d ed. vol. i. pp. 656 — 659.) 
 
 2. Revenue and Expenditure of the East India Company. — The far greater part of the 
 revenue of India is at present, and has always been, derived from the soil. The land 
 has been held by its immediate cultivators generally in small portions, with a perpetual 
 and transferable title ; but they have been under the obligation of making an annual 
 payment to government of a certain portion of the produce of their farms, which might 
 be increased or diminished at the pleasure of the sovereign ; and which has, in almost 
 all cases, been so large, as seldom to leave the cultivators more than a bare subsistence. 
 Under the Mohammedan government, the gross produce of the soil was divided into 
 equal or nearly equal shares, between the ryots, or cultivators, and the government. 
 We regret we are not able to say that the British government has made any material 
 deductions from this enormous assessment. Its oppressiveness, more than any thing 
 else, has prevented our ascendancy in India ; and the comparative tranquillity and good 
 order we have introduced, from having the beneficial effects that might have been 
 anticipated. The cultivators throughout Hindostan are proverbially poor ; and till the 
 amount of the assessment they are at present subject to be effectually reduced, they cannot 
 be otherwise than wretched. They are commonly obliged to borrow money to buy their 
 seed and carry on their operations, at a high interest, on a species of mortgage over the 
 ensuing crop. Their only object is to get subsistence — to be able to exist in the same 
 obscure poverty as their forefathers. If they succeed in this, they are satisfied. Mr. 
 Colebrooke, whose authority on all that relates to India is so deservedly high, mentions 
 that the quantity of land occupied by each ryot, or cultivator, in Bengal is commonly 
 about 6 acres, and rarely amounts to 24 ; and it is obvious that the abstraction of 
 half the produce raised on such patches can leave their occupiers nothing more than 
 the barest subsistence for themselves and their families. Indeed, Mr. Colebrooke tells 
 us that the condition of ryots subject to this tax is generally inferior to that of a hired 
 labourer, who receives the miserable pittance of 2 annas, or about 3 pence, a day of 
 wages. 
 
 Besides the land revenue *, a considerable revenue is derived in India from the mono- 
 polies of salt and opium, the sale of spirituous liquors, land and sea customs, post-office, 
 &c. Of these monopolies, the first is, in all respects, decidedly the most objectionable. 
 Few things, indeed, would do more to promote the improvement of India, than the total 
 abolition of this monopoly. An open trade in salt, with moderate duties, would, there 
 can be no doubt, be productive of the greatest advantage to the public, and of a large 
 increase of revenue to government. The opium monopoly, though less objectionaljle 
 than the last, is, notwithstanding, very oppressive. It interferes with the industry of the 
 inhabitants ; those who are engaged in the cultivation of opium being obliged to sell 
 their produce at prices arbitrarily fixed by the Company's agents. It would be worse 
 than useless to waste the reader's time, by pointing out in detail the mischievous effects 
 of such a system ; they are too obvious not to arrest the attention of every one. Tlie 
 ijroduce of tliese and the other branches of Indian taxation is specified in the subjoined 
 Table, which we have carefully compiled from the official accounts. 
 
 * For an account of the land revenue of India, of the various modes in which it is assessed, and its 
 influence on tlie condition of the inhabitants, we beg to refer to Mr. Rickards's work on India. The 
 various imjiortant and difficult questions with respect to Indian taxation are there treated with great 
 learning and sagacity, and placed in the most luminous mnnt of view. 
 
EAST INDIES (Extent, Population, etc. of Biiitisii). 54r9 
 
 Account of the Territorial Revenues of the East India Company during the OHicial Year 1827-28. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Penang 
 
 Ma- 
 latca. 
 
 Singa- 
 |,ort'. 
 
 Saint 
 Helena. 
 
 London 
 
 Total. 
 
 "Land rent 
 
 Liquors (nett) 
 
 Opium (monopoly) 
 
 Tobacco (do.) 
 
 Salt (partial monopoly) - 
 
 Farms and licences (nett) 
 
 Mint 
 
 Post-office 
 Stamps 
 
 Bank, Madras (nett) 
 Customs — sea 
 
 do. unspecified 
 
 Sundries 
 
 ±' 
 
 8,2.02,797 
 485,4'22 
 
 2,389,600 
 
 38,139 
 91,833 
 327,709 
 
 " 831,734 
 
 308,355 
 
 £. 
 3,519,745 
 2.57,638 
 
 85,482 
 346,192 
 56,252 
 4,332 
 32,043 
 56,261 
 9,162 
 126,859 
 439,870 
 
 " 392,35.5 
 
 1,965,093 
 
 225,650 
 5,440 
 12,584 
 5,161 
 
 65,698 
 109,209 
 219,784 
 
 ~£ 
 21,893 
 
 .£ 
 4,881 
 
 18,.559 
 
 " >~ 
 1,064 
 
 60 
 
 2,216 
 
 
 ±' 
 
 13,784,032 
 743,060 
 2,051,620 
 85,482 
 
 281,968 
 47,91 J 
 136,460 
 389,131 
 9,162 
 194,773 
 519 079 
 1,05^518 
 700,7.0 
 
 Revenue - 
 General board, (repay- 
 
 nient by) 
 Marine (pilotage) 
 Judicial (fines and fees) 
 
 14,777,209 
 
 38,486 
 106,287 
 
 5,326,191 
 
 7,802 
 13,845 
 
 2,628,555 
 
 18,383 
 17,890 
 
 21,893 
 
 367 
 5,039 
 
 4,881 
 
 18,559 
 
 3,346 
 52 
 
 
 22,780,634 
 
 3,617 
 65,038 
 143,113 
 
 Total civil revenue - 
 Military (repayments) 
 Buildings (do.) 
 
 14,921,982 
 
 5,347,838 
 
 2,664,828 
 
 30,916 
 373 
 49 
 
 4,881 
 
 18,559 
 
 3,398 
 
 
 22,99:^,402 
 373 
 49 
 
 Total receipts 
 Interest 
 
 14,921,982 
 
 5,347,838 
 
 2,664,828 
 
 31,338 
 
 4^881 
 
 18,559 
 
 3,398 
 
 
 22,992,821 
 
 Gross revenue and re- 
 ceipts 
 
 Nett surplus revenue over 
 expenditure 
 
 14,921,982 
 
 5,347,838 
 
 2,664,828 
 
 31,338 
 
 4,881 
 
 18,559 
 
 3,398 
 
 
 22,992,821 
 
 Account of the Territorial Charges of the East India Company during the Official Year 1827-28. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Ma- 
 lacca. 
 
 Singa- 
 pore. 
 
 Saint 
 Helena. 
 
 London. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Land rent (collection, 
 pensions, &c.) | 
 Liquors (charges of coll 
 Opium (cost and 
 
 charges) 
 Tobacco (do.) 
 Salt (do.) - 
 Farms and licences (c 
 Mint (charges on) - 
 Post-office (do.) 
 Stamps (do.) 
 Bank (charges not spe 
 Customs— sea (charges 
 of collection) 
 inland (do.) - 
 general unspecified 
 Sundries 
 
 Charge under revenue 
 board ... 
 
 Charges under gene- 
 ral do. - _ - 
 
 Charges under marine 
 do. 
 
 Charges under judicial 
 do. 
 
 Gross amount of civil 
 
 charges 
 Do. military do. 
 Buildin^-s both civil 
 
 and military do, 
 
 1 Charge in India 
 1 Interest en debt 
 
 Gross charge - 
 Nett charge, or excess 
 of expenditure over 
 1 revenue 
 
 1,608,480 
 ectionnots 
 
 658,254 
 
 808,322 
 harges of c( 
 51,786 
 89,075 
 81,690 
 cified.) 
 
 'l26,808 
 140,849 
 
 702,677 
 pecificd.) 
 
 31,843 
 74,419 
 )llection n 
 20,406 
 29,339 
 
 23,445 
 28,587 
 
 363,854 
 
 642,551 
 
 ot specific 
 3,637 
 18,848 
 
 14,867 
 3,037 
 25,605 
 136,944 
 
 3,000 
 d) 
 
 500 
 
 1,500 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 2,958,708 
 
 658,254 
 31,843 
 882,741 
 
 75,829 
 137,262 
 91,127 
 
 38,312 
 31,624 
 152,413 
 641,647 
 
 3,565,264 
 1,102,824 
 117,745 
 1,150,394 
 
 1,284,007 
 353,659 
 18,781 
 371,751 
 
 845,489 
 474,781 
 212,862 
 305,446 
 
 3,000 
 100,014 
 6,000 
 12,000 
 
 500 
 12,825 
 1,000 
 2,000 
 
 1,500 
 36,637 
 
 3,000 
 . 6,000 
 
 46,808 
 
 
 5,699,760 
 2,127,548 
 359,388 
 1,847,591 
 
 5,936,227 
 5,245,737 
 
 548,492 
 
 2,028,198 
 3,897,520 
 
 81,877 
 
 1,838,578 
 ,2,051,810 
 
 1 163,088 
 
 121,014 
 49,255 
 
 4,833 
 
 16,325 
 8,030 
 
 1,186 
 
 47,137 
 11,341 
 
 4,606 
 
 46,808 
 75,172 
 
 1,989 
 
 
 10,034,287 
 11,338,865 
 
 786,071 
 
 11,730,456 
 1,712,253 
 
 6,007,595 
 179,025 
 
 4,033,476 
 27,230 
 
 175,102 
 2,024 
 
 25,541 
 
 63,084 
 63,084 
 '44,525 
 
 123,969 
 
 2,060,141 
 
 22,159,223: 
 1,920,532 
 2,060,141 
 
 13,442,709 
 
 6,186,620 
 838,782 
 
 4,060,706 
 1,395,881 
 
 177,126 
 145,788 
 
 25,541 
 20,66C 
 
 123,969 
 120,571 
 
 2,060,141 
 2,060,141 
 
 26,139,896 
 3,147,975 
 
 The territorial revenues at the disposal of the East India Company have, for a length- 
 ened period, equalled those of the most powerful monarchies. At present they are 
 greater than those of either Russia or Austria, being inferior only to those of Great 
 Britain and France ! Still, however, the Company's financial situation is the very 
 reverse of prosperous. Vast as their revenue has been, their expenditure appears, in 
 most instances, to have been still larger; and at this moment their debts exceed 
 60,000,000/. ! The Company liave given the following statement of their affairs, wliich 
 
 « N 3 
 
550 EAST INDIES (Extent, Population, etc. of British^^. 
 
 is applicable, as respects India, to the 1st of May, 1831 ; and as respects England, to the 
 1st of May, 1832: — 
 
 61,197,782 1 
 
 Total territorial and political debts abroad and at home 
 Ditto, credits, ditto - - - 
 
 Balance deficient in the territorial and political branch 
 Total commercial debts abroad and at home 
 Ditto, credits, ditto - - . . 
 
 Balance in favour in the commercial branch 
 
 Balance deficient . - . _ 
 
 Add the amount of the Company's home bond debt - 
 
 Total balance deficient, including the home bond debt 
 
 - £ 1,928,494 
 
 - 21,647,149 
 
 29,579,523 
 
 31,618,259 
 
 19,718,655 
 
 11,899,604 
 3,042,854 
 
 £ 15,442,458 
 
 Of the credits placed to account of the Company, arrears of revenue, &c. form an im- 
 portant item ; but of these it is most probable a considerable portion will never be real- 
 ised. In a statement laid by the East India Company before parliament, and printed 
 in the former edition of this work (p. ^11.), intended to represent the situation of the 
 Company's affairs on the 1st of January, 1831, their assets were said to exceed their debts 
 and liabilities by about 3,000,000/. The wide difference between that account and the 
 one given above, is principally owing to the Company having struck out of the latter a 
 sum of 10,870,000/. expended by them on account of fortifications, buildings, &c. erected 
 in India, which they took credit for in the former. 
 
 The statement now given renders it abundantly obvious, that the recent arrangements 
 with the Company have been quite as beneficial to it as, we doubt not, they will prove 
 to the public. All the territorial and other property made over to the Crown will cer- 
 tainly be far short of meeting the claims upon it. 
 
 The following account shows the balance between the revenue and expenditure of our 
 Indian dominions, from 1809-10 to 1830-31 : — 
 
 An Account of the Total annual Revenues and Charges of the British Possessions in India under the 
 East India Company, from 1809-10 to 1830-31 : showing also the Nett Charge of Bencoolen, Prince of 
 Wales Island, and St. Helena; the Interest paid on account of Debts in India; and the Amount of 
 Territorial Charges paid in England. — (Abstracted from the Pari. Papers, No. 22. Sess. 1830, and No. 
 306. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 1809- 10 
 
 1810- 11 
 
 1811- 12 
 
 1812- 13 
 
 1813- 14 
 
 1814- 15 
 
 1815- 16 
 
 1816- 17 
 
 1817- 18 
 
 1818- 19 
 
 1819- 20 
 
 1820- 21 
 
 1821- 22 
 
 1822- 23 
 
 1823- 24 
 
 1824- 25 
 
 1825- 26 
 
 1826- 27 
 
 1827- 28 
 
 1828- 29 
 
 1829- 30 
 Estimate 
 
 1830- 31 
 
 Total Gross 
 Revenues of 
 India. . 
 
 £ 
 
 16,464,391 
 16,679,198 
 16,605,616 
 16,459,774 
 17,228,711 
 17,231,191 
 17,168,195 
 18,010,135 
 18,305,265 
 19,392,002 
 19,172,506 
 21,292,036 
 21,753,271 
 23,120,934 
 21,238,623 
 20,705,152 
 21,096,960 
 23,327,753 
 22,818,184 
 22,692,711 
 21,662,310 
 
 • 22,366,9 
 
 Total 
 Charges in 
 India. 
 
 £ 
 
 13,775,57' 
 13,909,983 
 13,220,967 
 13,659,429 
 13,617,725 
 14,182,454 
 15,081,587 
 15,129,839 
 15,844,964 
 17,558,615 
 17,040,848 
 17,520,612 
 17,555,668 
 18,083,482 
 18,902,511 
 20,410,929 
 22,346,365 
 21,424,894 
 21,778,431 
 19,298,622 
 18,300,715 
 
 18,075,428 
 
 Nett 
 Charge of 
 Bencoolen, 
 Prince of 
 
 Wales 
 Island, and 
 St. Helena. 
 
 Territorial Charges paid in England 
 
 Interest 
 on Debts. 
 
 £ 
 203,361 
 199,663 
 168,288 
 201,349 
 209,957 
 204,250 
 225,558 
 205,372 
 219,793 
 210,224 
 142,049 
 220,043 
 207,816 
 154,761 
 257,276 
 279,277 
 214,285 
 207,973 
 272,014 
 250,794 
 213,304 
 
 86,044 
 
 £ 
 
 2,159,019 
 2,196,691 
 1,457,077 
 1,491,870 
 1,537,434 
 1,502,217 
 1,584,157 
 1,719,470 
 1,753,018 
 1,665,928 
 1,940,327 
 1,902,585 
 1,932,835 
 1,694,731 
 1,652,449 
 1,460,433 
 1,575,941 
 1,749,068 
 1,958,313 
 2,121,165 
 2,007,693 
 
 2,211,869 
 
 Cost of 
 Political 
 Stores. 
 
 £ 
 190,128 
 217,703 
 154,998 
 193,784 
 64,257 
 129,873 
 81,903 
 194,374i 
 81,941 
 130,162 
 265,055 
 228,058 
 202,735 
 204,147 
 395,276 
 414,181 
 740,728 
 1,111,792 
 805,016 
 449,603 
 293,873 
 
 Other Terri 
 torial Pay- 
 ments 
 chargeable 
 
 on the 
 Revenue. 
 { Pensions, 
 &c.) 
 
 £ 
 867,097 
 901,688 
 922,770 
 1,184,976 
 1,148,156 
 1,064,223 
 1,199,952 
 1,071,176 
 1,094,701 
 1,150,378 
 1,150,391 
 1,072,106 
 1,175,149 
 1,354,960 
 758,590 
 1,166,078 
 1,076,504 
 1,318,102 
 1,255,125 
 1,517,802 
 1,454,867 
 
 138,430 1,335,135 1,473,565 
 
 £ 
 
 1,057,225 
 1,119,391 
 1,077,768 
 1,378,768 
 1,212,413 
 1,194,596 
 1,281,885 
 1,265,550 
 1,176,642 
 1,280,540 
 1,415,446 
 1,300,164 
 1,377,884 
 1,559,107 
 1,153,866 
 1,580,259 
 1,817,232- 
 2,429,894 
 2,060,141 
 1,967,405 
 1,748,740 
 
 General Result. 
 
 681,516 
 
 651,182 
 147,677 
 
 348,632 
 679,068 
 1,528,853 
 
 520,020 
 
 Surplus 
 Charge. 
 
 £ 
 730,791 
 736,530 
 
 271,634 
 
 1,004,992 
 310,096 
 689,152 
 1,323,305 
 1,466,164 
 
 727,479 
 3,025,746 
 4,856,857 
 2,484,076 
 3,250,715 
 945,275 
 608,142 
 
 However much this account of the financial concerns of our Eastern empire may be at 
 variance with the exaggerated ideas entertained respecting it, as well by a large propor- 
 tion of the people of England as by foreigners, it will excite no surprise in the mind of 
 any one who has ever reflected on the subject. It is due, indeed, to the directors, to 
 state, that though they have occasionally acted on erroneous principles, they have always 
 exerted themselves to enforce economy in every branch of their expenditure, and to im- 
 pose and collect their revenues in the best and cheapest manner. But though they have 
 succeeded in repressing many abuses, it would be idle to suppose that they should ever 
 entirely succeed in rooting them out. How can it be imagined, tliat strangers sent to 
 India, conscious that they are armed with all the strength of government, placed under 
 
EBONY.— ELEMI. 
 
 551 
 
 no real responsibility, exempted from the salutary influence of pul)lic opinion, fearing no 
 exposure through the medium of tlie press, and anxious only to accumulate a fortune, 
 should not occasionally abuse their authority? or that they should manage the compli- 
 cated and difficult affairs of a vast empire, inhabited by a race of people of whose lan- 
 guage, manners, and habits, they are almost wholly ignorant, with that prudence, economy, 
 and vigilance, without which it were idle to expect that any great surplus revenue could 
 ever be realised? 
 
 EBONY (Ger. Ehenholz ; Du. Ehbenhout ; Fr. Ebcne ; It. Ehano ; Rus. Ebeno- 
 woederewo ; Lat. Ebenus), a species of wood brought principally from the East. It is 
 exceedingly hard and heavy, of great durability, susceptible of a very fine polish, and on 
 that account used in mosaic and other inlaid work. There are many species of ebony. 
 The best is that which is jet black, free from veins and rind, very compact, astringent, 
 and of an acrid pungent taste. This species, (denominated by botanists Diospyrus 
 Ebenus), is found principally in Madagascar, the Mauritius, and Ceylon. The centre 
 only of the tree is said to be valuable. In 1826, 2,002,783 lbs. of ebony, of the esti- 
 mated value of 9,017Z. 7s. 6-r^d. were exported from the Mauritius. Besides the black, 
 there are red, green, and yellow ebonies ; but the latter are not so much esteemed as the 
 former. Cabinet-makers are in the habit of substituting pear-tree and other woods 
 dyed black, in the place of genuine ebony ; these, however, want its polish and lustre, 
 though they hold glue better. The price of ebony varies, in the London market, from 
 51. to 20Z. a ton. The quantities imported are but inconsiderable. 
 
 EEL (^Ajiguilla murcena of Linnaeus), a fish, the appearance of which is too well 
 known to require any description. It is a native of almost all the waters of Europe, 
 frequenting not only rivers but stagnant pools. Eels are, in many places, extremely 
 abundant, particularly in Holland and Jutland. Several ponds are appropriated in 
 England to the raising of eels ; and considerable numbers are taken in the Thames and 
 other rivers. But by far the largest portion of the eels used in England are furnished 
 by Holland. Indeed, very few except Dutch eels are ever seen in London ; and even 
 Hampton and Richmond are principally supplied by them. The trade is carried on by 
 two Dutch companies, who employ in it several small vessels, by means of which the 
 market is regularly and amply provided for. A cargo of eels is supposed to average 
 from 15,000 to 20,000 lbs. weight, and is charged with a duty on importation of 
 13/. Is. 3d. In 1832, this duty produced 940Z. 10s., showing that 72 cargoes had been 
 imported that year. — (Report on Channel Fisheries, p. 93. &c.) 
 
 EGGS (Fr. (Eufs ; Lat. Ova), are too well known to require to be described. They 
 differ in size, colour, taste, &c. according to the different species of birds that lay them. 
 The eggs of hens are those most commonly used as food ; and form an article of very 
 considerable importance in a commercial point of view. Vast quantities are brought 
 from the country to London and other great towns. Since the peace they have also 
 been very largely imported from the Continent. At this moment, indeed, the trade in 
 eggs forms a considerable branch of our commerce with France, and affords constant 
 employment for a number of small vessels ! 
 
 Account of the Number of Eggs imported since 1826, specifying the Countries whence they were brought, 
 and the Revenue accruing thereon. 
 
 Countries from which imported. 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. j 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 Germany - - 
 United Netherlands 
 France - • . 
 Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, Aldemey,") 
 
 and Man, produce (duty free) -J 
 Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney,1 
 
 and Man, produce (foreign) -J 
 All other places - - 
 
 Total of the importations into the 1 
 United Kingdom - -J 
 
 Amoimt of duty received 
 
 Rate of duty charged 
 
 Ntmiber. 
 
 7,200 
 2,524,410 
 59,507,899 
 718,086 
 493,985 
 9,047 
 
 Number. 
 
 9,020 
 3,088,698 
 63,109,618 
 456,802 
 220,674 
 1,220 
 
 Nuynber. 
 
 5,447,280 
 60,043,026 
 609,930 
 
 348,447 
 6,090 
 
 Number. 
 
 80 
 
 6,749,759 
 56,370,479 
 671,435 
 373,419 
 300 
 
 Number. 
 
 3,600 
 4,626,748 
 . 48,026,006 
 705,760 
 281,654 
 400 
 
 Number. 
 
 7,557,146 
 50,401,506 
 732;998 
 505,798 
 240 
 
 Number. 
 
 5,120 
 5,734,960 
 55,651, 2C5 
 655,229 
 546,065 
 1,200 
 
 63,260,627 
 
 66,886,132 
 
 66,453,773 
 
 64,165,472 
 
 53,644,168 
 
 59,197,688 
 
 62,591,817 
 
 t. d. 
 
 21,726 10 2 
 
 L. s. <h 
 23,071 4 1 
 
 L. 3. d. 
 
 22,920 8 3 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 22,189 2 10 
 
 L. s. d. L. 3. d. L. 3. d. 
 
 18,505 14 8 20,372 15 9 21,537 2 0 
 
 lOrf. 120 during the whole period. 
 
 It appears from this official statement, that the eggs imported from France amount to 
 about 55,000,000 a year ; and supposing them to cost, at an average, 4c?. a dozen, it 
 follows that the people of the metropolis and Brighton (for it is into them that they are 
 almost all imported) pay the French about 76,388Z. a year for eggs ; and supposing 
 that the freight, importers' and retailers' profit, duty, &c. raise their price to the con- 
 sumer to \0d. a dozen, their total cost will be 190,972Z. 
 
 EJOO. See Gomuti. 
 
 ELEMI, a resin obtained from the Amyris elemifera, a tree growing in difTerent parts 
 of America, Turkey, &c. It is obtained by wounding the bark in dry weather, the juice 
 being left to thicken in the sun. It is of a pale yellow colour, semi-transparent ; at 
 
 2 N 4 
 
552 
 
 ELEPHANTS' TEETH. — ELSINEUE. 
 
 first softish, but it hardens by keeping. Its taste is slightly bitter and warm. Its smell, 
 which is, at fii-st, strong and fragrant, gradually diminishes. It used to be imported in 
 long roundish cakes, wrapped in flag leaves, but it is now usually imported in mats and 
 chests. — (Thomson's Chemistry.) 
 
 ELEPHANTS' TEETH. See Ivory. 
 
 ELM ( Ulmus), a forest tree common in Great Britain, of which there are several 
 varieties. It attains to a great size, and lives to a gi-eat age : its trunk is often rugged 
 and crooked, and it is of slow growth. The colour of the heart-wood of elm is generally 
 darker than that of oak, and of a redder brov/n. The sap-wood is of a yellowish or 
 brownish white, with pores inclined to red. It is in general porous, and cross-grained, 
 sometimes coarse-grained, and has no larger septa. It has a peculiar odour. It twists 
 and warps much in drying, and shrinks very much both in length and breadth. It is 
 difficult to work, but is not liable to split, and bears the driving of bolts and nails better 
 than any other timber. In Scotland, chairs and other articles of household furniture 
 are frequently made of elm wood ; but in England, where the wood is inferior, it is 
 chiefly used in the manufacture of coffins, casks, pumps, pipes, &c. It is appropriated 
 to these purposes because of its great durability in water, which also occasions its ex- 
 tensive use as piles and planking for wet foundations. The naves of wheels are fre- 
 quently made of elm ; those of the heavy wagons and drays of London are made of oak, 
 which supports a heavier weight, but does not hold the spokes so firmly. Elm is said to 
 bear transplanting better than any other large tree. — ( TredgoMs Principles of Carpentry, 
 pp. 201—203. &c.) 
 
 ELSINEUR, OR HELSINGOR, a town in Zealand, about 22 miles north of Co- 
 penhagen, in lat. 56^ 2' 17" N., Ion. 12'' 38' 2" E. Population about 7,000. Adjacent 
 to Elsineur is the castle of Cronborg, Avhich commands the entrance to the Baltic by the 
 Sound. All merchant ships passing to and from the Baltic are obliged, under the reserv- 
 ations mentioned below, to salute Cronborg Castle by lowering their sails when abreast 
 of the same ; and no ship, unless she belong to Sweden, is allowed to pass the Sound 
 without clearing out at Elsineur, and paying toll, according to the provisions in the 
 treaties to that eflTect negotiated with Denmark by the different European powers. The 
 first treaty with England having reference to this subject is dated in 1450. The Sound 
 duties had their origin in an agreement between the King of Denmark on the one part, 
 and the Hanse Towns on the other, by which the former undertook to construct light- 
 houses, landmarks, &c. along the Cattegat, and the latter to pay duty for the same. The 
 duties have since been varied at different periods. Ships of war are exempted from the 
 payment of duties. Most maritime nations have consuls resident at Elsineur. The 
 following plan of the Sound is taken from the Admiralty Chart, compiled from Danish 
 authorities. — (See opposite page.) 
 
 Ordinance respecting lowering in the Sound. — This ceremony being attended with much inconvenience 
 in unfavourable weather, his Danish Majesty issued, in 1829, the following ordinance : — 
 
 1. All ships sailing through the Sound, whether they come from the north or south, must salute 
 Cronborg Castle, by lowering their sails so soon as the northernmost church in Elsineur begins to be con. 
 cealed behind the castle. The lowering must not commence before the church goes in behind the castle, 
 and must continue till the church opens itself without the castle again, or for the full space of 5 minutes. 
 Every person neglecting this duty must expect to be compelled, by cannon-shot, to the same, and to be 
 fined for contumacy. 
 
 N. B. — When a ship lowers her sails on her first entrance into the marks, and keeps them lowered 5 
 minutes, tliough not come out of the marks, it is considered sufficient. 
 
 2. The sails to be lowered are as follow: — Ships carrying top-gallant sails, standing or flying, must 
 lower the tojvgallant sails entirely down on the cap: ships having only one top-gallant sail, and, at the 
 same time, the fore-top-sail, they must be lowered half-mast down : ships having no top-gallant sails must 
 lower both the top-sails on half-mast: all other ships, be they galliots, smacks, ketches, brigantines, or of 
 what denomination soever, carrying only flying top-sails, must lower the top-sails entirely down ; but 
 those having no standing or flying top-sails, or which have all their reefs in their top-sails, are exempt 
 from lowering. 
 
 3. When ships cruize through the Sound with a contrary wind, or when (with a scant wind or small 
 breeze) the current is so #trong against them that it would set them astern, if they lowered their sails, 
 then it shall be made known to them, by hoisting the colours at the castle^ that no salute is required, and 
 that they may make the best of their way without striking their sails. 
 
 4. When any vessel has been fired at, then the master or mate, with two of the ship's crew, must go on 
 shore, and make declaration, on oath, before the Court of Inquest, why they have not lowered in the time 
 or in the manner prescribed. If it be deposed that lowering was performed in due time and manner, then 
 the master will be free from paying for the shot fired at him; on the contrary, he must then pay for each 
 shot fired at him from the castle, 5 rixdollars 20 sti vers current ; and 1 ducat for each shot from the guard- 
 ship's boat when in pursuit of the ship. If the master of a vessel should sail away without acquitting him- 
 self, when it is proved who the master or sliip was, the fine will be demanded of the person who clears 
 him at the Custom-house. 
 
 In stormy weather, when a ship cannot come to anchor in Elsineur roads without danger, or if she be 
 leaky, or going to repair or deliver ; in such cases, going to Copenhagen is not considered a fraud. But it 
 is in a-ll cases indispensable that the ship's papers should be sent to Elsineur as soon as possible, that she 
 may be cleared. 
 
 References to Plan. — A, Castle and light of Cronborg ; B, Elsineur ; C, Helsingborg in Sweden ; 
 D, the bank called the Lappen ; E, the bank called the Disken. The soundings arc in fathoms. 
 
ELSINEUR. 
 
 Pilotage, SfC. — When ships come into Elsineur roads, or lie wind-bound near the Lappen, watermen 
 come on board to inquire if the master will be carried ashore to clear ; and in rough weather it is always 
 best to make use of their services, their boats being generally very safe. The Danish authorities have 
 jmblished a Table of rates, being the highest charge that can be made by the boatmen upon such occasions ; 
 but captains may bargain with them for as much less as they please. Most ships passing the Sound take 
 on board pilots, the signal for one being a flag at the fore-topmast-head. Those bound for the Baltic 
 take a pilot at Elsineur, who either carries the ship to Copenhagen, orDragoe, a small town on the south- 
 east extremity of the island of Amack, a\ here she is clear of the grounds. Those leaving the Baltic take 
 a i)ilot from Dragoe, who carries tlie ship to Elsineur. Sometimes, when the wind is fresh from theE. 
 and S.E , it is impossible for a ship bound for Cojienhagen or the Baltic to double the point of Cronborg; 
 and in that case an Elsineur pilot is sometimes employed to moor the ship in the channel towards Kull 
 Point on the Swedish shore, in lat. IS' 3" N., Ion. 12° 26' E. This contingency is, however, less likely 
 to happen in future, as we understand the Danish government have recently hired a steam tug for the 
 .special purpose of bringing ships, in adverse weather, round Cronborg Point. The pilots are regularly 
 licensed, so that, by employing them, the captain's responsibility is at Jtn end. Their charges are fixed 
 by authority, and depend on the ship's draught of water. We subjoin a copy of the tarifif applicable to' 
 pilots taken on board at Elsineur to carry ships to Dragoe, Copenhagen, or Kull Point, with the sums 
 both in silver and in Rig bank paper dollars. 
 
554^ 
 
 ELSINEUR. 
 
 .Pilotage from the 1st of April to the 30th of September. 
 
 Ships drawing Water. 
 
 Dragoe. 
 
 Copenhagen. 
 
 Kull Point. 1 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Silv 
 
 er. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 
 Feet 
 
 Rb dr 
 
 sch 
 
 R.b. dr. 
 
 sch. 
 
 R b dr 
 
 sch 
 
 ii 6 
 
 sch 
 
 R.b. dr. 
 
 sch. 
 
 R.b. dr. 
 
 sch. 
 
 Under 
 Between 
 
 li 
 
 78* 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 ' 9 
 
 lo" 
 
 9 
 
 38* 
 
 5 
 
 72 
 
 5 
 
 89 
 
 8 and 9 
 
 13 
 
 
 13 
 
 56 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 63 
 
 6 
 
 83 
 
 9 — 10 
 
 14 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 94 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 53 
 
 7 
 
 76 
 
 
 10 — 11 
 
 15 
 
 84 
 
 16 
 
 36 
 
 11 
 
 94 
 
 12 
 
 34 
 
 g 
 
 44 
 
 8 
 
 69 
 
 
 11 - la 
 
 17 
 
 '22 
 
 17 
 
 74 
 
 12 
 
 91 
 
 13 
 
 33 
 
 9 
 
 35 
 
 9 
 
 63 
 
 
 12 — 13 
 
 18 
 
 66 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 87 
 
 14 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 56 
 
 
 13 — 14 
 
 19 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 64 
 
 14 
 
 83 
 
 15 
 
 31 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 50 
 
 
 U — 15 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 92 
 
 15 
 
 78 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 43 
 
 
 15 - 16 
 
 22 
 
 62 
 
 23 
 
 34 
 
 16 
 
 75 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 12 
 
 93 
 
 13 
 
 36 
 
 
 16 - 17 
 
 24 
 
 65 
 
 25 
 
 43 
 
 18 
 
 66 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 84 
 
 14 
 
 30 
 
 
 17 - IS 
 
 26 
 
 68 
 
 27 
 
 52 
 
 20 
 
 37 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 44 
 
 15 
 
 90 
 
 
 18 _ 19 
 
 28 
 
 71 
 
 29 
 
 61 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 86 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 54 
 
 
 19 _ 20 
 
 30 
 
 74 
 
 31 
 
 72 
 
 24 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 72 
 
 18 
 
 59 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 
 20 — 21 
 
 32 
 
 77 
 
 33 
 
 80 
 
 25 
 
 77 
 
 26 
 
 58 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 80 
 
 
 21 - 22 
 
 34 
 
 80 
 
 35 
 
 89 
 
 27 
 
 59 
 
 28 
 
 46 
 
 21 
 
 74 
 
 22 
 
 43 
 
 
 22 - 23 
 
 36 
 
 83 
 
 38 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 23 
 
 34 
 
 24 28 
 
 Pilotage from the 1st of October to the 30th of March. 
 
 Ships drawing Water. 
 
 Dragoe. 
 
 Copenhagen. 
 
 Kull Point. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Paper.' 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 R.b. dr. 
 
 sch. 
 
 R.b. dr. 
 
 sch. 
 
 R.b. dr. 
 
 sch. 
 
 R.b. dr. 
 
 sch. 
 
 R.b. dr. 
 
 sch. 
 
 [R.b. dr. 
 
 sch. 
 
 Under 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 92 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 11 
 
 35 
 
 11 
 
 70 
 
 7 
 
 63 
 
 7 
 
 76 
 
 Between 
 
 8 and 9 
 
 16 
 
 75 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 61 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 73 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 
 9 — 10 
 
 18 
 
 56 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 88 
 
 14 
 
 64 
 
 9 
 
 92 
 
 10 
 
 26 
 
 
 10 — 11 
 
 20 
 
 37 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 64 
 
 U 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 60 
 
 
 11 — 12 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 86 
 
 16 
 
 47 
 
 17 
 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 73 
 
 
 12 — 13 
 
 24 
 
 
 2i 
 
 72 
 
 17 
 19 
 
 73 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 
 55 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 13 - 14 
 
 25 
 
 77- 
 
 26 
 
 58 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 62 
 
 14 
 
 75 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 
 14 _ 15 
 
 27 
 
 59 
 
 28 
 
 46 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 15 
 
 95 
 
 16 
 
 48 
 
 
 15 — 16 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 21 
 
 57 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 68 
 
 
 16 - 17 
 
 32 
 
 12 
 
 33 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 
 24 
 
 72 
 
 18 
 
 37 
 
 18 
 
 92 
 
 
 17 — 18 
 
 34 
 
 80 
 
 35 
 
 88 
 
 26 
 
 39 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 48 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 
 18 - 19 
 
 37 
 
 52 
 
 38 
 
 68 
 
 28 
 
 79 
 
 29 
 
 70 
 
 22 
 
 67 
 
 23 
 
 28 
 
 
 19 — 20 
 
 40 
 
 24 
 
 41 
 
 48 
 
 31. 
 
 21 
 
 32 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 68 
 
 25 
 
 46 
 
 
 20 — 21 
 
 42 
 
 92 
 
 44 
 
 28 
 
 33 
 
 60 
 
 34 
 
 65 
 
 26 
 
 79 
 
 27 
 
 64 
 
 
 21 — 22 
 
 45 
 
 64 
 
 47 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 4 
 
 37 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 88 
 
 29 
 
 78 
 
 
 22 — 23 
 
 48 
 
 36 
 
 49 
 
 85 
 
 
 43 
 
 39 
 
 62 
 
 31 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 0 
 
 N. B. — When a pilot is taken on board at Dragoe to carry a ship to Elsineur, the charge is the same 
 as that given under the first head of the above column. — {Archives du Commerce, tome iii. p. 145.) 
 
 The Monies, Weights, and Measures of Elsineur are the same as those of Copenhagen (which see), ex- 
 cept that the rixdollar is divided into 4 oris instead of 6 marcs : thus, 24 skiUings make 1 ort ; and 4 orts 
 1 rixdollar. 
 
 In paying toll, however, at the passage of the Sound, the monies are distinguished into three difFerent 
 values ; namely, specie, crown, and current. 
 Specie money is that in which the duties of the Sound were fixed in 1701. 
 Crown money was the ancient currency of Denmark, in which the toll is sometimes reckoned. 
 Current money is the actual currency of the country. 
 The proportion between these denominations is as follows : — 
 
 Eight specie rixdollars 9 crown rixdollars ; 16 crown rixdollars = 17 current rixdollars : therefore 
 to reduce specie money into crown money, add one eighth ; and for the reverse operation, subtract one 
 ninth. 
 
 To reduce crown money into current money, add one sixteenth ; and for the reverse operation, subtract 
 one seventeenth. 
 
 Hence, also, 128 specie rixdollars are worth 144 crown rixdollars, or 153 current rixdollars; and there- 
 fore specie money is 12| per cent, better than crown money, and 1917 per cent, better than current 
 money. ^'■^ 
 
 Houses in the Baltic charge the Sound duties in the invoices, and have their own agents at Elsineur, 
 to clear all the merchandise shipped by tliem. If this be not the case, the merchants at Elsineur then 
 draw upon the owners or agents where the goods are directed or addressed. 
 
 Weights. — A shippound from the Baltic, of 10 stone, is calculated as 300 lbs. Danish ; a Russian ber- 
 kowitz, as 300 lbs.; a pud, as 30 lbs. Danish ; a centner from the Baltic, as 110 lbs. ; and a cwt. English, 
 as 112 lbs. Danish. 
 
 Corn Measure of different Places reduced to Danish Lasts, for paying the Sound Dues. 
 
 Barth 
 
 Colberg 
 
 Demmin 
 
 RUgenwalde 
 
 Stolpe 
 
 Treptow - 
 
 Stralsund - 
 
 Wolgast 
 
 3 lasts will be reck- 
 oned in the Sound 
 as 4 lasts. 
 
 Grypswalde 
 Wis mar 
 Anclam 
 
 Rostock, 5 lasts for 6. 
 Stettin 
 
 Warnemunde - - J>6 lasts for 7. 
 Winemunde 
 Lubeck, 7 lasts for 8. 
 
 Riga 
 
 Konigsberg 
 
 Dantzic 
 
 Elbing 
 
 Memel 
 
 Revel 
 
 Petersburgh 
 Oesel 
 
 16 Russian chetwerts 
 
 1 cent, of 28 muids French salt, from Rochelle 
 
 1 cent, from Bordeaux 
 
 13 raziers from Dunkirk • - 
 
 Lasts. 
 1 
 
 . 13 
 . 12 
 - 1 
 
 Lasts. 
 
 10 muids from Havre • - .12 
 
 7 moyos from Cadiz, Lisbon, &c. - - - 12 
 
 400 Dutch marts (measures) - - - 7 
 
 1 English chaldron, 2 weighs, 2 tons, or 80 bushels - 1 
 
 JAquid Measure. — A. tonneau of French wine is considered as 4 oxhofts, or 24 ankers. 
 
 A pipe of Spanish or Portuguese wine, as 2 oxhofts. 
 
 30 Spanish arrobas, or 25 Portuguese almudes, as a regular pipe. 
 
 30 Spanish arrobas, or 48 pots of oil, as a regular both (pipe) ; a hogshead of brandy, as 6 ankers; a 
 tierce, as 4 ankers ; an anker, 5 velts, or 40 Danish pots. 
 
ELSINEUR. 
 
 555 
 
 Duties payable at the Sound on the principal Articles commonly passing through. 
 
 Ale or beer, the 8 hogsheads, at 4 J • 
 Almonds, the 100 lbs. 
 
 Alum, the shippound ... 
 Aniseed, the 100 lbs. 
 Antimony, the shippound 
 Anchor and locks, the scliock of 60 • « 
 Apples, the last of 22 barrels 
 
 Apothecaries' drugs, the lispound valued at 30 rl 
 
 dollars • - - 
 
 Argol, the shippound ... 
 Arsenic, do. 
 
 Ashas, ^veed, the last of 12 burrels, or 12 do. 
 
 pot, the last of 12 do., or 12 do. 
 Bacon, the shippound 
 Baize, the single piece 
 
 the double do. - • 
 
 Balks, great, of oak, the piece 
 fir, 4 do. 
 
 small, do. 20 do. 
 Bay, berries, the 200 lbs. 
 Beef, salted, the last of 12 barrels 
 Biscuit, or bread of wheat, 4 barrels 
 rye, 4 do. 
 
 Books, printed, the 100 lbs. valued at 3G rixdoUars 
 Brass, or brass wire, the shippound 
 
 wrought, the 100 lbs. valued at 36 rixdoUars 
 Btimstone, the last of 12 shippound 
 Brandy, French or Spanish, the hogshead 
 
 corn, the barrel 
 
 Rhenish, the ahm 
 Brazil wood, the 500 lbs. 
 
 Bristleo, the shippound, valued at 36 rixdoUars 
 Butter, the barrel ... 
 Cables, cordage, or cable yam, the shippound 
 Calicoes, the 8 pieces 
 Capers, the pipe, or 2 hogsheads 
 Cards, for playing or for wool , the 10 dozen 
 Cardamoms, cinnamon, cloves, or cochineal, the 100 1 
 Camlets, the 1 pieces 
 Canvass, or cambrics, 4 do. 
 Callimancoes, the 8 do. 
 Campeachy wood, the .500 lbs. 
 Caraway seeds, the 100 do. 
 Caviare, the shippound, valued at 36 rixdoUars 
 Cheese, the shippound ... 
 Chesnuts, the 36 sacks 
 
 Cider, the hogshead ... 
 
 Clock-work, the 100 lbs. valued at 36 rixdoUars 
 
 Cloth of silk, the piece ... 
 
 fine or short cloths, or double dozens, the 2 pieces 0 
 coarse, or long cloths, or dozens, the 4 do. 
 
 Coflfee, the 200 lbs. 
 
 Copper, the shippound - - . 
 
 wrought, the 100 lbs. valued at 32 rixdoUars 
 Cork, the 50 bundles 
 Copperas, calamine, or cream of tartar, the shippound 
 Cotton wool, the 100 lbs. 
 Corn, barley, the last of 20 barrels 
 
 beans, peas, oats, or buckwheat, the last of 12 do 
 malt, the last of 12 do. 
 rye, the last of 20 do. 
 wheat, the last of 20 do. 
 Coriander and currants, the 200 lbs. 
 Damask, of silk, the piece 
 
 linen, the 4 pieces 
 woollen, the 8 do. 
 Deals of oak or fir, above 20 feet, the schock 
 Carlsham, under 20 feet 
 Prussian 
 
 common, 10 to 14 feet, the 1,000 
 Diaper or drilling, the 20 pieces 
 Down, the shippound ... 
 Dniggits, the '2 pieces 
 Eels, the last of 12 barrels 
 Elephants' teeth, each 
 Feathers, the shippound 
 Femambuco wood, 1,000 lbs. 
 Figs, the 18 baskets, 800 do. 
 Fish, cod, the last, 12 barrels 
 
 stock, the last, 12 shippound, or 1,000 fish 
 
 salmon, the barrel 
 
 salted herrings, do. 
 
 red herrings, the last of 20 straes, or 20,000 
 Flannels, the 8 pieces of 25 ells each 
 Flax, dressed, the shippound 
 
 undressed, as Petersburgh, Narva, 12 hogs- 
 heads ; Marienburg, all fine sorts podiila, 
 racketzer, and paternoster, the 4 do. 
 coarse, half clean, Farken, Kassets, Memels, 
 
 and Marienburg, the 6 do. 
 tow, the 5 do. - . 
 Flounders, dry, the 20,000 
 Flour of wheat, the 200 lbs. 
 
 barley or rye, the last of 12 barrels 
 Frieze, the piece ... 
 Galls, or gum, the 200 lbs. 
 
 Glass for windows, English, French, Lubeck, and 
 Dantzic, the 8 chests - 
 Venice, drinking do., the chest 
 bottles, tlie ton, 4 hogsheads and 30 schocks 
 
 the 2 pipes 
 quart bottles, 100 dozen, 50 rixdoUars 
 Gloves, Russia, or Courland, the 250 pair 
 
 leather, the dozen, value 2 rixdoUars 
 Gunpowder, the 100 lbs. 
 
 Haberdashery ware, the 100 lbs. valued at 36 rix 
 
 dollars .... 
 Hair, camels' or coneys', the 50 lbs. 
 Handspikes, the 500 
 Hats, felt, the cask 
 
 beaver, the dozen, value 48 rixdoUars 
 castor, the dozen, do. 
 Hemp, the shippound 
 tow, the 10 do. 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 36 
 
 Hides, elks', harts', bucks', or Russia, the decker 
 salted, elks', harts', bucks', or Russia, do. 
 dry, elks', harts', bucks', or Kussia, the 5 do. 
 Russia, the shippound 
 Honey, the hogshead 
 Hops, the shippound - - 
 Horses, the pair 
 Indigo, the 100 lbs. 
 Iron wire, or pans, do. 
 
 stoves, plates or pots, the shippound 
 bars, bats, bolts, hoops, anchors, and guns, do. 
 wrought, the 100 lbs. valued at 24 rixdoUars 
 old, the shippound 
 Ostermunds, do. 
 Isinglass, the 100 lbs. 
 Juniper berries, the 200 do. 
 Kerseys, the 8 pieces ... 
 Lace, silk, or ferret, the 4 lbs. 
 
 thread, wool, cotton, or hair, the 10 do. 
 gold and silver, the lb. 
 Lemons, the 12 chests, or 36,000 
 
 pickled, the pipe or hogshead 
 Lead, fodder, the ton, or 6 shippound 
 shot, the 100 lbs. 
 red or white, do. 
 Leather, Russia or Scotch, the decker 
 
 Spanish, Cordovan, Turkey, and bufT, do. 
 Sems, the 10 do. 
 Basanes, the 10 do. 
 tanned oi sole, the 100 lbs. 
 alumed or white, the 500 piecps 
 Lignum vitae, the 100 lbs. 
 Linseed, the last of 24 barrels 
 Linen, calicoes, the 16 pieces 
 flax, the 20 do. 
 
 Holland, Silesia, and WestphaUa, the 4 do. 
 
 hemp, black tow, the 80 do. 
 
 canvass, the 8 do. 
 
 damask, the 12 do. 
 
 drilling, the 20 do., or 500 arsheens 
 
 from Petersburgh, all sorts, the 40 do., or 2,000 
 do. - - . - 
 
 Logwood, the SOO lbs. 
 Miice, the 50 lbs. 
 
 Masts, 15 palms and upwards, the piece 
 
 small ... 
 for boats, the schock 
 
 Mats from Petersburgh, the 1,000 
 
 Mohair, the 50 lbs. 
 
 Mustard seed, the last of 12 barrels 
 
 Nails, Holland or Lubeck, the centner 
 tree nails for ships, the 40,000 
 
 Nutmegs, do. .... 
 
 Nuts, the last of 20 barrels or sacks 
 
 Oars, great, the schock . - 
 small, do. . 
 
 Oil, olive, of Seville or Portugal, the pipe 
 rape, linseed, hemp, the last of 8 ahms 
 train, the last of 8 hogsheads, or 12 barrels 
 
 Olibanunn, the 100 lbs. 
 
 Olives, the pipe, oi 2 hogsheads 
 
 Oranges, the 12 chests, or 3,600 
 
 Paper, the 8 bales, or 80 reams 
 
 Pepper, the 100 lbs. - - . 
 
 Pewter, the shippound 
 
 Pitch, great band ... 
 
 small - ■ . 
 
 Plates of tin, the 4 casks, or shippound 
 Plaiding, the 1 ,000 ells, or 40 pieces 
 Prunes, the 400 lbs. - . . 
 
 Pnmelloes, the 100 do. . 
 Quicksilver, tha 50 do. - . . 
 
 Rapeseed, the last of 24 barrels 
 Raisins, the 400 lbs., or 36 baskets 
 Resin, the shippound 
 Ribands of silk, or ferrets, the 4 lbs. 
 
 gold or silver, the 2 do. - 
 Rice, the 2U0 do. 
 
 Saflfron, the 'i do. - - 
 Salt, Spanish, r'l ench, and Scotch, the 1 ist of 1 8 bar 
 rels, or 8 bushuls ... 
 
 Lunenburg, the last of 12"bushels 
 Saltpetre, the shippound 
 Says, double, the 2 piuces 
 
 single, or English, the 4 do. . 
 Sailcloth, the 8 do. . 
 Sarsaparilla, do. 
 Shumac, the 400 lbs. 
 
 Silk, sewing, ferret, wrought lace, the 4 do. 
 raw, the 100 do. ... 
 stuff 's, do. - • . 
 
 with gold and silver, the piece 
 Skins, beaver, the 5 deckers 
 
 otter, the piece ... 
 
 Russia, dry, wolf and fox, the 5 deckers 
 
 goat, the 20 do. 
 
 calf, the 10 do. 
 
 cat and sheep, the 600 pieces 
 
 black rabbit, or lamb, the 1,000 do. 
 
 grey rabbit, or kid, the 2,000 
 
 marten, the 40 - . 
 
 hare, the bale, valued at 72 rixdoUars 
 Soap, white, the 100 lbs. 
 
 gi een, the last of 12 barrels 
 Spars, great, the 25 pieces 
 
 small, the 1,000 do. 
 Starch, the 300 lbs. 
 
 Staves, pipe, hogshead, and barrel, the great hundred 
 
 of 48 schocks . . 
 
 Steel, the 100 lbs. 
 
 Stones, Poland, the 1 ,000 feet of 500 ells 
 Stockings of silk, the dozen, or 1 2 lbs. 
 
 kersey, woollen, or worste<l, for chUdren, 
 the 100 pair 
 
556 
 
 ELSINEUR. 
 
 Stockings — coniinued. 
 
 ■worsted, floret, and sayet, the 50 do. 
 
 woollen, for children, the 200 do. 
 Sturgeon, the last of 1 2 barrels 
 Stuffs, woollen, the 8 pieces 
 Succade, the 50 lbs. 
 
 Sugar candy, or confectionary, the 100 do. 
 
 loaves, powder, or Muscovado, the 200 lbs. 
 Sword blades, the 50 - 
 
 hilts, do. - - - 
 
 Sweetwood, the 100 lbs. 
 Tallow, the shippound 
 Tarras, the last, 6 shippound, or 12 barrels 
 Tar, great band, the last of 12 barrels 
 
 small band, the last of do. 
 Thread, white and coloured, the 50 lbs. 
 
 gold and silver, the lb. 
 Tin, the shippound - - 
 
 Tobacco, the 100 lbs. 
 Treacle, the pipe, or 2 hogsheads 
 TurpenlSne, the shippound 
 Verdigris, the 100 lbs. 
 
 Vermilion, do - - - 
 
 Velvet, line, the piece 
 
 with thread, the 2 pieces 
 Vinegar of wine, the hogshead 
 
 beer, ale, or cider, the 2 do. 
 
 Rild. St. 
 
 - 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 - 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 - 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 - 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 - 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 - 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 - 
 
 0 
 
 36 
 
 - 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 - 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 
 0 
 
 36 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 
 0 
 
 36 
 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 
 0 
 
 • 9 
 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 Wax, the shippound 
 AVainscot boards, the schock 
 Wine, Bordeaux, the ton, or 4 liogsheads, at 52 rix 
 dollars - - - 
 
 Ficardin, Hoogland, Mtscat, and Frontignac 
 
 the 2 hogsheads 
 Spanish or Portuguese, the pipe 
 Italian and Levant 
 Rhenish, the ahm 
 Wire, iron, or brass, the shippoimd 
 steel, the 100 lbs. 
 gold and silver, the lb. 
 Wool, beaver, the 50 lbs. 
 
 Spanish, or fine, the 4 shippound 
 coarse, or Scotch, the 6 do. 
 flock, or cutting wool, the 2 do. 
 Scotch shirts, the 40 pieces 
 shifts, the 8 do. 
 Wood shovels, the 10 schocks 
 dishes or trays, the 5 do. 
 plates, the 5 do. 
 nails, the 20,000 
 Yarn, cotton, the 50 lbs. 
 
 linen, the shippound, or 40 schocks 
 tow, the 4 do. 
 sail, the shippound 
 all sorts of woollen, the 50 lbs. 
 
 Rixd. 
 - 0 
 
 Memorandum respecting the ISIbde of preventing certain Overcharges of Sound Duties on Goods shipped 
 
 for the Baltic. ^ 
 
 There have been many complaints of the Sound duty being overrated on goods which, as they are not 
 noticed in the tariff, are chargeable ad valorem, (1 per cent, in the case of the English, Dutch, and Swedes ; 
 I5 per cent, in the case of other nations ;) tliis charge being solely regulated by the value expressed in 
 the cockets, the only documents by which the Custom-house officers at the Sound are governed. This 
 originates in the shippers of goods finding it expedient occasionally to give a nominal value to merchan. 
 disc not liable to an export duty in England, far exceeding the real value, in order to provide for a further 
 shipment of the same species of goods in the same vessel (which entry can alone be considered as expressive 
 of the intention to ship goods to that extent). It is, therefore, suggested to the shippers of merchandise 
 for the Baltic, that, besides the above-mentioned nominal value, they should cause the real value qf the 
 goods actually shipped to be inserted on the reverse of the cocket, as there is every reason to believe that 
 this real value will then become the criterion by which the Sound duty will be calculated. For instance, 
 supposing a cocket to run thus — 
 
 " Know ye that Parkinson and Co. have entered British cottons, value 10,000/. sterling, to be shipped 
 per the Newland, Francis Hunter, master, for St. Petersburgh :" 
 
 The indorsement should be — 
 
 " P. 1. a. 10. Ten bales cambrics, value 4,794/. 5s. sterling, shipped on board the Newland, Francis 
 Hunter, for Petersburgh." 
 
 (Signed by) Parkinson and Co. 
 
 (Or by the signing Custom-house officer) N. N 
 
 Tlie Sound duty will then probably be charged not on 10,000/., but on 4,794/. 5s. Should, however, the 
 latter entry be wanting, the first sum will be the only criterion by which to calculate the Sound dutyj 
 and in case of overcharge, no restitution need be hoped for. — {RordLanx, European Commerce.) 
 
 Navigation of the Baltic. 
 
 This is exhibited in the following Account of the Number of Ships that have passed (going and return- 
 ing) the Sound at different Periods, from the Year 1777 to the present Time, specifying the Coun- 
 tries to which they belonged. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1777. 
 
 1780. 
 
 1783. 
 
 1785. 
 
 1787. 
 
 1789. 
 
 1790. 
 
 1792. 
 
 1814. 
 
 1816. 
 
 1820. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 British islands 
 
 2,552 
 
 1,701 
 
 2,862 
 
 2,537 
 
 2,959 
 
 3,501 
 
 3,771 
 
 4,349 
 
 2,319 
 
 1,848 
 
 3,597 
 
 5,186 
 
 5,099 
 
 4,805 
 
 4,274 
 
 4,772 
 
 5,330 
 
 Holland - 
 
 '2,567 
 
 2,058 
 
 510 
 
 1,571 
 
 1,436 
 
 1,924 
 
 2,009 
 
 2,181 
 
 551 
 
 876 
 
 853 
 
 630 
 
 814 
 
 1,105 
 
 1,227 
 
 1 ,023 
 
 1,425 
 
 Sweden - 
 
 1,773 
 
 1,880 
 
 2,474 
 
 2,136 
 
 2,395 
 
 53 
 
 430 
 
 2,134 
 
 2,759 
 
 2,042 
 
 ',519 
 
 1,319 
 
 1,389 
 
 1,117 
 
 1,188 
 
 1,347 
 
 1,005 
 
 Denmark 
 
 1,110 
 
 1,341 
 
 1,796 
 
 1,787 
 
 1,337 
 
 1,343 
 
 1,586 
 
 1,362 
 
 476 
 
 787 
 
 7D2 
 
 805 
 
 856 
 
 865 
 
 744 
 
 695 
 
 835 
 
 Prussia 
 
 472 
 
 671 
 
 2,086 
 
 1,358 
 
 743 
 
 943 
 
 599 
 
 737 
 
 1,033 
 
 1,014 
 
 1,554 
 
 2,391 
 
 3,038 
 
 2,186 
 
 2,253 
 
 1,810 
 
 1,763 
 
 Russia 
 
 47 
 
 43 
 
 137 
 
 114 
 
 96 
 
 
 6 
 
 65 
 
 495 
 
 
 242 
 
 335 
 
 384 
 
 367 
 
 405 
 
 424 
 
 2483 
 
 United States 
 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 68 
 
 
 168 
 
 169 
 
 230 
 
 191 
 
 180 
 
 152 
 
 179 
 
 189 
 
 France 
 
 '21 
 
 
 .S 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 111 
 
 123 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 63 
 
 72 
 
 103 
 
 180 
 
 199 
 
 72 
 
 231 
 
 Spain . - - 
 Hanover 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 263 
 
 458 
 
 413 
 
 457 
 
 602 
 
 645 
 
 451 
 
 542 
 
 Imperial (Austria) 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 533 
 
 66 
 
 61 
 
 107 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dantzic 
 
 231 
 
 174 
 
 202 
 
 161 
 
 200 
 
 186 
 
 248 
 
 209 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mecklenburgh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 386 
 
 547 
 
 602 
 
 555 
 
 627 
 
 664 
 
 535 
 
 594 
 
 Oldenburgh - 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 24 
 
 35 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 
 47 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 44 
 
 56 
 
 53 
 
 78 
 
 Lubeck 
 
 '78 
 
 "82 
 
 125 
 
 '79 
 
 66 
 
 83 
 
 89 
 
 86 
 
 28 
 
 45 
 
 64 
 
 121 
 
 99 
 
 104 
 
 80 
 
 77 
 92 
 
 77 
 80 
 
 Bremen 
 
 82 
 
 14 G 
 
 263 
 
 176 
 
 142 
 
 181 
 
 177 
 
 188 
 
 248 
 
 111 
 
 59 
 
 34 
 
 55 
 
 85 
 
 79 
 
 Hamburgh - 
 
 22 
 
 31 
 
 
 61 
 
 77 
 
 62 
 
 104 
 
 83 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 15 
 
 31 
 
 35 
 
 46 
 
 25 
 
 41 
 
 21 
 
 llostock 
 
 79 
 
 104 
 
 57 
 
 101 
 
 
 224 
 
 339 
 
 338 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Papenburgh 
 
 
 
 
 
 "ei 
 
 
 99 
 
 142 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Portugal - 
 
 "12 
 
 21 
 
 29 
 
 '28 
 
 16 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Courland 
 
 2 
 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Naples 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 (It.)6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Venice 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 S 
 
 Norway 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 83 
 
 794 
 
 946 
 
 951 
 
 879 
 
 1,161 
 
 1,202 
 
 1,357 
 
 1,535 
 
 Greece - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Totals 
 
 9,053 
 
 8,291 
 
 11,233 
 
 10,268 
 
 9,746 
 
 8,823 
 
 9,742 
 
 12,114 
 
 8,186 
 
 8,871 
 
 10,926 
 
 13,160 
 
 13,000 
 
 13,486 
 
 13,212 
 
 12,946 
 
 12,202 
 
 The statements in this Table for the years 1777, 17fO, 1783, and 1789, are taken from the valuable 
 work entitled Voyage de Deux Franqois au Nord de V Europe (torn. i. p. 3fi0.) ; the other years are 
 taken f'om the returns sent by the Britii-h consul at Elsineur, printed in various parliamentary papers. 
 We have seen no two returns of the shipping that pass the Sound that quite agree, though the differ- 
 ences are not very material. The above account, though in many respects most interesting, is defective, 
 inasmuch as it does not give the tonnage as well as the number of the ships. Since 1831, however, the 
 British consul has sent returns of the shipping ; and it is not improbable that the Danish authorities 
 may be able to supply this desideratum lor a lengthened period. The falling off in the . amount of 
 British shipping in lh32 was wholly owing to the alarn caused by the prevalence of cholera, and other 
 evanescent causes — Wc subjoin an 
 
EMBARGO ESPARTO. 
 
 557 
 
 Account of the British Shipping employed in the Baltic Trade through the Sound in 18.32: exhibiting 
 the Nuuiber ot Vessels sent out, the Number of Voyages ijerfornied by them, and their Tonnage, as 
 ascertained by the Consul at Elsineur. — {Papers published by Board uf Trade, vol. ii. p. 53.) 
 
 To what Ports belonging. 
 
 Number of Ships sent out. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number of Voyages performed.- 
 
 Aggregate Tonnage. 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 679 
 
 140,469 
 
 1,891 
 
 403,997 
 
 Scotland . . - 
 
 395 
 
 50,694 
 
 1,352 
 
 17.'i,992 
 
 Ireland - - 
 
 If) 
 
 2,193 
 
 .■58 
 
 !>,'iVi 
 
 (juernsej and Jersey 
 
 22 
 
 3,556 
 
 43 
 
 C.'JW 
 
 The Colonies 
 
 3 . 
 
 699 
 
 6 
 
 1,398 
 
 Total 
 
 1,115 
 
 197,611 
 
 3,330 
 
 .^93,533 
 
 There were lost in the Baltic, in 1832, 14 British ships, of the burden of 2,897 tons; and 8 British 
 ships, of the burden of 1,823 tons, were detained in it by the frost at the close of the year, and obhged 
 to winter in its various ports. 
 
 EMBARGO, an order issued by the government of a country to prevent the sailing 
 of ships. 
 
 EMERALD (Fr. Emeraude ; Ger. Smaragd ; It. Smeraldo ; Lat. Smaragdus ; Sp. 
 Esmeralda), a precious stone in high estimation. It is distinguished from all other gems 
 by its peculiar emerald green lustre, varying in intensity from the palest possible tinge to 
 a full and deep colour, than which, as Pliny has truly stated, nothing can be more 
 beautiful and pleasing ; nullius coloris aspectus jucundior est. It emulates, he continues, 
 if it do not surpass, the verdure of the spring ; and the eye, satiated by the dazzling glare 
 of the more brilliant gems, or wearied by intense application, is refreshed and strengthened 
 by the quiet enlivening green of the emerald. In Pliny's time, the best came from 
 Scythia. Those met with in modern times do not often exceed the size of a walnut. 
 Some of a much larger size, and perfect, have been found, but they are extremely rare. 
 Nero used one as an eye-glass in surveying the combats of the gladiators. Hitherto it 
 has always been found crystallised. Specific gravity from 2-6 to 2-77. — (Plin. Hist. 
 Nat. lib. xxxvii. cap. 5. ; ThomsorCs Chemistry. ) 
 
 " For the last two centuries and more, the only country Lnown to yield emeralds is Peru, where they 
 occur in Santa F^, and in the valley of Tunca. Several large stones have appeared in Europe : about 2 
 years ago I cut one, exceeding 2 ounces in weight, for the Emperor of Morocco, but it was full of imper- 
 fections. The largest specimen known is an hexagonal crystal, nearly 6 inches long, and above 2 in 
 diameter. This gem, however small, is so rarely seen perfect, that ' an emerald without a flaw ' has passed 
 into a proverb. A fine stone of 4 carats may be valued at 40^. or 50/., or even more if very pure. Inferior 
 stones of 1 or 2 carats are sold at from 4()s. to 70s. per carat ; and if smaller and defective, at 10*. or 15s. 
 per carat. Fine emeralds are rare, and in such demand, that a particular suit has been known to have 
 passed into the possession of a series of purchasers, and to have made the tour of Europe in the course of 
 half a century." — {Mawe on Diamonds, 2d ed. p. 104 ) 
 
 EMERY (Vr. Emeril, Emeri ; Ger. Smirgel ; It. Smerglio, Smeregio ; Sp. Esmeril j 
 Rus. Nashdak; Lat. Smiris}, a mineral brought to Britain from the isle of Naxos, 
 where it exists in large quantities. It occurs also in Germany, Italy, and Spain. It 
 is always in shapeless masses, and mixed with other minerals. Colour intermediate 
 between greyish black and bluish grey. Specific gravity about 4. Lustre glistening and 
 adamantine. Emery is extensively used in the polishing of hard bodies. Its fine powder 
 is obtained by trituration. — ( Thomson's Chemistry. ) 
 
 ENGROSSING, is " the buying up of corn and other dead victuals, with intent to 
 sell them again." — (Blackstone, book iv. cap. 12.) We have shown in another article, 
 how absurd it is to suppose that this practice should have any injurious influence — 
 (ante, p. 410.). But, for a long time, most scarcities that occurred were either entirely 
 ascribed to the influence of engrossers and forestallers — (see Forestalling) — or, at 
 least, were supposed to be materially aggravated by their proceedings. In consequence, 
 however, of the prevalence of more just and enlarged views upon such subjects, the 
 statutes that had been made for the suppression and punishment of engrossing, fore- 
 stalling, &c. were repealed in 1772. — (See ante, p. 40.9.) But notwithstanding this 
 repeal, engrossing continues to be an indictable offence, punishable at common law by 
 fine and imprisonment; though it is not at all likely, were an attempt made, that any 
 jury would now be found ignorant or prejudiced enough to convict any one on such 
 a charge. 
 
 ENTRY, BILL OF. See Importation. 
 
 ERMINE {Ger. Hennelin ; Fr. Hermijie, Ermine; Rus. Gornostai), a species of 
 weasel (Mustela Candida Lin.), abundant in all cold countries, particularly Russia, 
 Norway, Lapland, &c., and producing a most valuable species of fur. In summer, the 
 ermine is of a brown colour, and is called the stoat. It is in winter only that the fur 
 has that beautiful snowy whiteness and consistence so much admired. — (See Fuiis.) 
 
 ESPARTO, a species of rush, the Stipa tenacissima of botanists. It is found in the 
 southern provinces of Spain ; and is particularly abundant on all the sterile, uncultivated, 
 and mountainous districts of Valencia. — Beckinann (Hist, of Invent, vol. ii. p. 288. 
 Eng. ed. ) supposes, apparently with good reason, that the stipa tetiacissima is the plant 
 described by Pliny .under the name of Sparta, who ascribes its application to useful pur- 
 poses to the Carthaginians — (Hist. Nat. lib. xix. c. 2.). It is still used for the same 
 
558 
 
 ESTRICH. — EXCHANGE. 
 
 purposes as in antiquity, being manufactured into cordage, shoes, matting, baskets, nets, 
 mattresses, sacks, &c. Cables made of esparto are said to be excellent ; being light, they 
 float on the surface of the water, and are not, therefore, so liable as hempen cables to 
 be cut or injui td by a foul bottom. They are exclusively made use of in the Spanish 
 navy. Esparto is largely consumed in the manufacture of alpergates. These are light 
 shoes worn by the Valencian peasantry, having platted soles made either of esparto or 
 hemp, but principally of the former. They are extremely cheap and commodious in hot 
 climates ; and besides being in extensive demand at home, used to be exported in im- 
 mense quantities to both Indies ; but since the emancipation of Spanish America, this 
 trade has greatly fallen off. The Spanish peasantiy have attained to wonderful dexterity 
 in the manufacture of esparto. " After having soaked the rush in water, the w^omen and 
 children, without either wheel or spindle, contrive to twist two threads at the same time. 
 This they do by rubbing them between the palms of their hands, in the same manner as 
 a shoemaker forms a thread upon his knees, with this difference, that one motion gives 
 the twist to each thread, and, at the same time, unites them. To keep the threads asunder, 
 the thumb of the right hand is interposed between them ; and when that is wanted 
 for other purposes, the left thumb supplies its place. Two threads being thus twisted 
 into one of the bigness of a large crow-quill, 46 yards are sold for little more than ^d., 
 the materials being worth about ith part of the price." — ( Townsend's Travels in Spain, 
 vol. iii. p. 177., see also p. 129. ; Fischer's Picture of Valencia, Eng. ed. p. 92. and 
 p. 57. &c.) 
 
 ESTRICH OR ESTRIDGE (Fr. Duvet d'autruche ; It. Penna matta di strozzo ; 
 Sp. Plumazo de avestrux j Lat. Struthionum plumes molliores), is the fine soft down which 
 lies immediately under the feathers of the ostrich. The finest is used as a substitute 
 for beaver in the manufacture of hats, and the coarser or stronger sort is employed in 
 the fabrication of a stuff which resembles fine woollen cloth. Estridge is brought from 
 the Levant, Italy, ard other parts of the Mediterranean. 
 
 EUPHORBIUIvl (Ger. Euphorhiengummi ; Lat. Euphorbium ; Fr. Euphorbe ; 
 Arab. Akal-nafzaK), the produce of a perennial plant, a native of Africa, and of many 
 parts of India, &c. It is a concrete gum resin ; is inodorous ; when first chewed has 
 little taste, but it soon gives a very aci id burning impression to the tongue, palate, and 
 throat, which is very permanent, and almost insupportable. It is imported in serons 
 containing from 100 to 150 lbs. It is in small, hollow, forked pieces, often mixed with 
 seeds and other impurities. — ( Thomson's Dispensatory. ) 
 
 EXCHANGE. In commerce, this term is generally used to designate that species . 
 of mercantile transactions, by which the debts of individuals residing at a distance from 
 their creditors are cancelled without the transmission of money. 
 
 Among cities or countries having any considerable intercourse together, the debts 
 mutually due by each other approach, for the most ^>art, near to an equality. There 
 are at all times, for example, a considerable number of persons in London indebted to 
 Hambui-gh ; but, speaking generally, there are about an equal number of persons in 
 London to whom Hamburgh is indebted. And hence, when A. of London has a pay- 
 ment to make to B. of Hamburgh, he does not remit an equivalent sum of money to the 
 latter ; but he goes into the market and buys a hill upon Hamburgh, that is, he buys an 
 order from C. of London addressed to his debtor D. of Hamburgh, requesting him to 
 pay the amount to A. or his order. A., having indorsed this bill or order, sends it to 
 B., who receives payment from his neighbour D. The convenience of all parties is 
 consulted by a transaction of this sort. The debts due by A. to B., and by I), to C, 
 are extinguished without the intervention of any money- A. of London pays C. of ditto, 
 and D. of Hamburgh pays B. of ditto. The debtor in one place is substituted for the 
 debtor in another ; and a postage or two, and the stamp for the bill, form the whole 
 expenses. All risk of loss is obviated. 
 
 A bill of exchange may, therefore, be defined to be an order addressed to some person 
 residing at a distance, directing him to pay a certain specified sum to the person in whose 
 favour the bill is drawn, or his order. In mercantile phraseology, the person who draws 
 a bill is termed the drawer ; the person in whose favour it is drawn, the remitter ; the 
 person on whom it is drawn, the drawee ; and after he has accepted, the acceptor. Those " 
 persons into whose hands the bill may have passed previously to its being paid, are, 
 from their writing their names on the back, termed indorsers ; and the person in whose 
 possession the bill is at any given period, is termed the holder or possessor. 
 
 The negotiation of inland bills of exchange, or of those drawn in one part of Great 
 Britain and Ireland on another, is entirely in the hands of bankers, and is conducted 
 in the manner already explained. — (See ante, p. 65.) Bills drawn by the merchants 
 of one country upon another are termed foreign bills of exchange, and it is to their 
 negotiation that the following remarks principally apply. 
 
 I. Par of Exchange. — The par of the currency of any two countries means, among 
 merchants, the equivalency of a certain amount of the currency of the one in the currency 
 
EXCHANGE. 
 
 559 
 
 of the other, stipposing the currencies of both to he of the precise weight and purity fixed hij 
 their respective mints. Thus, according to the mint regulations of Great" Britain and 
 France, IZ. sterling is equal to 25 fr. 20 cent., which is said to he the par hetween Lon- 
 don and Paris. And the exchange hetween the two countries is said to he at par when 
 bills are negotiated on this footing ; that is, for example, when a bill for lOOZ. drawn in 
 London is worth 2,520 fr. in Paris, and conversely. When 11. in London buys a bill 
 on Paris for more than 25 fr. 20 cent., the exchange is said to be in favour of London 
 and against Paris; and when, on the other hand, 11. in London will not buy a bill on 
 Paris for 25 fr. 20 cent., the exchange is against London and in favour of Paris. — (See 
 Table of the par of exchange at the end of this article.) 
 
 II. Circumstances which determine the Course of Exchange. — The exchange is affected, 
 or made to diverge from par, by two classes of circumstances : first, by any discrepancy 
 between the actual weight or fineness of the coins, or of the bullion for which the sub- 
 stitutes used in their place will exchange, and their weight or fineness as fixed by the 
 mint regulations ; and, secondly, by any sudden increase or diminution of the bills drawn 
 in one country upon another. 
 
 1. It is but seldom that the coins of any country correspond exactly with their mint 
 standard ; and when they diverge from it, an allowance corresponding to the difference 
 between the actual value of the coins, and their mint value, must be made in determining 
 the real par. Thus, if, while the coins of Great Britain corresponded with the mint 
 standard in weight and purity, those of France were either 10 per cent, worse or debased 
 below the standard of her mint, the exchange, it is obvious, would be at real par when it 
 was nominally 10 per cent, against Paris, or when a bill payable in London for 100/. was 
 worth in Paris 2,772 fr. instead of 2,520 fr. In estimating the real course of exchange 
 between any 2 or more places, it is always necessary to attend carefully to this circum- 
 stance ; that is, to examine whether their currencies be all of the standard weight and 
 purity, and if not, how much they differ from it. When the coins circulating in a country 
 are either so worn or rubbed as to have sunk considerably below their mint standard, or 
 when paper money is depreciated from excess or want of credit, the exchange is at real 
 par only when it is against such country to the extent to which its coins are worn or its 
 paper depreciated. When this circumstance is taken into account, it will be found that 
 the exchange during the latter years of the war, though apparently very much against 
 this country, was really in our favour. The depression was nominal only ; being occa- 
 sioned by the great depreciation of the paper currency in which bills were paid. 
 
 2. Variations in the actual course of exchange, or in the price of bills, arising from 
 circumstances affecting the currency of either of two countries trading together, are 
 nominal only : such as are real grow out of circumstances affecting their trade. 
 
 When two countries trade together, and each buys of the other commodities of pre- 
 cisely the same value, their debts and credits will be equal, and, of course, the real 
 exchange will be at par. The hills drawn by the one will be exactly equivalent to those 
 drawn by the other, and their respective claims will be adjusted without requiring the 
 transfer of bullion or any other valuable produce. But it very rarely happens that the 
 debts reciprocally due by any two countries are equal. There is almost always a balance 
 owing on the one side or the other ; and this balance must affect the exchange. If the 
 debts due by London to Paris exceeded those due by Paris to London, the competition 
 in the London market for bills on Paris would, because of the comparatively great 
 amount of payments our merchants had to make in Paris, be greater than the competition 
 in Paris for Ijills on London ; and, consequently, the real exchange would be in favour 
 of Paris and against London. 
 
 The cost of conveying bullion from one country to another forms the limit within 
 which the rise and fall of the real exchange between them must be confined. If 1 per 
 cent, sufficed to cover the expense and risk attending the transmission of money from 
 London to Paris, it would be indifferent to a London merchant whether he paid 1 per 
 cent, premium for a bill of exchange on Paris, or remitted money direct to that city. If 
 the premium were less than 1 per cent., it would clearly be his interest to make his pay- 
 ments by bills in preference to remittances : and that it could not exceed 1 per cent, is 
 obvious ; for every one would prefer remitting money, to buying a bill at a greater pre- 
 mium than sufficed to cover the expense of a money remittance. If, owing to the breaking 
 out of hostilities between the two countries, or to any other cause, the cost of remitting 
 money from London to Paris were increased, the fluctuations of the real exchange 
 between them might also be increased. For the limits within which such fluctuations 
 may range, correspond in all cases with the cost of making remittances in cash. 
 
 Fluctuations in the nominal exchange, that is, in the value of the currencies of 
 countries trading together, have no effect on foreign trade. When the currency is 
 depreciated, the premium which the exporter of commodities derives from the sale of 
 the bill drawn on his correspondent abroad, is only equivalent to the increase in the 
 price of the goods exported, occasioned by this depreciation. But when the premium 
 
560 
 
 EXCHANGE. 
 
 on a foreign bill is a consequence, not of a fall in the value of money, but of a deficiency 
 in the supply of bills, there is no rise of prices ; and in these circumstances the unfa- 
 vourable exchange operates as a stimulus to exportation. As soon as the real ex- 
 change diverges from par, the mere inspection of a price current is no longer sufficient 
 to regulate the operations of the merchant. If it be unfavourable, the premium which 
 the exporter will receive on the sale of his bill must be included in the estimate of the 
 profit he is likely to derive from the transaction. The greater that premium, the less 
 will be the difference of prices necessary to induce him to export. And hence an unfa- 
 vourable real exchange has an effect exactly the same with what would be produced by 
 granting a bounty on exportation equal to the premium on foreign bills. 
 
 But for the same reason that an unfavourable real exchange increases exportation, it 
 proportionally diminishes importation. When the exchange is really unfavourable, the 
 price of commodities imported from abroad must be so much lower than their price at 
 home, as not merely to afford, exclusive of expenses, the ordinary profit of stock on their 
 sale, but also to compensate for the premium which the importer must pay for a foreign 
 bill, if he remit one to his correspondent, or for the discount, added to the invoice price, 
 if his correspondent draw upon him. A less quantity of foreign goods will, there- 
 fore, suit our market when the real exchange is unfavourable ; and fewer payments 
 having to be made abroad, the competition for foreign bills will be diminished, and the 
 real exchange rendered proportionally favourable. In the same way, it is easy to see 
 that a favourable real exchange must operate as a duty on exportation, and as a bounty on 
 importation. 
 
 It is thus that fluctuations in the real exchange have a necessary tendency to correct 
 themselves. They can never, for any considerable period, exceed the expense of trans- 
 mitting bullion from the debtor to the creditor country. But the exchange cannot 
 continue either permanently favourable or unfavourable to this extent. When favourable, 
 it corrects itself by restricting exportation and facilitating importation ; and when unfa- 
 vourable, it produces the same effect by giving an unusual stimulus to exportation, and 
 by throwing obstacles in the way of importation. The true par forms the centre of 
 these oscillations ; and although the thousand circumstances which are daily and hourly 
 affecting the state of debt and credit, prevent the ordinary course of exchange from being 
 almost ever precisely at par, its fluctuations, whether on the one side or the other, are 
 confined within certain limits, and have a constant tendency to disappear. 
 
 This natural tendency which the exchange has to correct itself, is powerfully assisted 
 by the operations of the bill-merchants. 
 
 England, for example, might owe a large excess of debt to Amsterdam, yet, as the 
 aggregate amount of the debts due by a commercial country is generally balanced by 
 the amount of those which it has to receive, the deficiency of bills on Amsterdam in 
 London would most probably be compensated by a proportional redundancy of those 
 on some other place. Now, it is the business of the merchants who deal in bills, in the 
 same way as of those who deal in bullion or any other commodity, to buy them where 
 they are cheapest, and to sell them where they are dearest. They would, therefore, buy 
 up the bills drawn by other countries on Amsterdam, and dispose of them in London j 
 and by so doing, would prevent any great fall in the price of bills on Amsterdam in 
 those countries in which the supply exceeded the demand, and any great rise in Great 
 Britain and those countries in which the supply happened to be deficient. In the trade 
 between Italy and this country, the bills drawn on Great Britain amount almost inva- 
 riably to a greater sum than those drawn on Italy. The bill-merchants, however, by 
 buying up the excess of the Italian bills on London, and selling them in Holland, and 
 other countries indebted to England, prevent the real exchange from ever becoming very 
 much depressed. 
 
 III. Negotiation of Bills of Exchayige. — Bills of exchange are either made payable 
 at sight, at a certain specified time after sight or after date, or at usance, which is the 
 usual terra allowed by the custom or law of the place where the bill is payable. Gene- 
 rally, however, a few days are allowed for payment beyond the term when the bill 
 becomes due, wliicli are denominated days of grace, and which vary in different countries. 
 In Great Britain and Ireland, three days' grace are allowed for all bills except those 
 payable at sight, Avhich must be paid as soon as presented. The folloAving is a statement 
 of the usance and days of grace for bills drawn upon some of the principal commercial 
 cities : — 
 
 [m\d. m\s. d\d. d\s. d\a. respectively denote months after date, months after sight, days 
 Sifter date, days after sight, days after acceptance.l 
 
EXCHANGE. 
 
 561 
 
 liOndon on 
 
 Usance. 
 
 Days of 
 Grace. 
 
 London on 
 
 Usance. 
 
 Days of 
 Grace. 
 
 London on 
 
 Usance. 
 
 Days of 
 Grace. 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 1 m 
 
 d. 
 
 6 
 
 Geneva 
 
 30 d 
 
 d. 
 
 .5 
 
 Vicnnaf 
 
 14 d 
 
 a. 
 
 3 
 
 Rotterdam 
 
 1 m 
 
 d. 
 
 6 
 
 Madrid 
 
 2 m 
 
 s. 
 
 14 
 
 Malta 
 
 30 d 
 
 d. 
 
 13 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 1 m 
 
 d. 
 
 6 
 
 Cadiz 
 
 60 (i 
 
 d. 
 
 6 
 
 Naples 
 
 3 m 
 
 d. 
 
 3 
 
 j-jaiYiburgli 
 
 1 m 
 
 d. 
 
 12 
 
 Bilboa 
 
 2 m 
 
 d. 
 
 14 
 
 Palermo 
 
 3 m 
 
 d. 
 
 0 
 
 Altona 
 
 1 m 
 
 d. 
 
 V2 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 2 m 
 
 s. 
 
 14 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 30 <1 
 
 s. 
 
 6 
 
 Dantzic 
 
 14 d 
 
 
 10 
 
 Leghorn 
 
 3 m 
 
 d. 
 
 0 
 
 Oporto 
 
 30 d 
 
 
 6 
 
 Paris* 
 
 30 d 
 
 d. 
 
 10 
 
 JiCipsic 
 
 14 d 
 
 a. 
 
 0 
 
 Kio Janeiro 
 
 ;n) d 
 
 d. 
 
 6 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 30 d 
 
 d. 
 
 10 
 
 Genoa 
 
 3 m 
 
 d. 
 
 30 
 
 Dublin 
 
 21 d 
 
 a. 
 
 3 
 
 Bremen 
 
 1 m 
 
 d. 
 
 8 
 
 Venice 
 
 3 m 
 
 d. 
 
 6 
 
 Cork 
 
 21 d 
 
 8. 
 
 3 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 60 d 
 
 d. 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 In the dating of bills, the new style is now used in every country in Europe, with the 
 exception of Russia. 
 
 In London, bills of exchange are bought and sold by brokers, who go round to the 
 principal merchants and discover whether they are buyers or sellers of bills. A few of 
 the brokers of most influence, after ascertaining the state of the relative supply and 
 demand for bills, suggest a price at which the greater part of the transactions of the day 
 are settled, with such deviations as particular bills, from their being in very high or low 
 credit, may be subject to. The price fixed by the brokers is that which is published in 
 Wettenhall's List ; but the first houses generally negotiate their bills on ^, 1, 1^, and 2 
 per cent, better terms than those quoted. In London and other great commercial cities, 
 a class of middlemen speculate largely on the rise and fall of the exchange ; buying bills 
 when they expect a rise, and selling them when a fall is anticipated. 
 
 It is usual, in drawing foreign bills of exchange, to draw them in sets, or duplicates, 
 lest the first should be lost or miscarry. When bills are drawn in sets, each must con- 
 tain a condition that it shall be payable only while the others remain unpaid : thus, the 
 first is payable only, " second aixd third unpaid ; " the second, " first and third being un- 
 paid," and the third, " first and second unpaid." 
 
 All bills of exchange must be drawn upon stamps as under : — 
 Inland Bills and Notes. — Not exceeding Two Months after Date, or 
 Sixty Days after Sight. 
 
 If - 
 Above 
 
 s. £ 
 0 and not above 5 
 
 5 
 20 
 30 
 50 
 100 
 200 
 300 
 500 
 1,000 
 2,000 
 3,000 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 50 
 100 
 200 
 300 
 500 
 1,000 
 2,000 
 3,000 
 
 £ 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 12 
 
 0 15 
 
 1 5 
 
 
 Months, &c. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 0 
 
 0 1 6 
 
 6 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 6 
 
 0 3 6 
 
 6 
 
 0 4 6 
 
 6 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 8 6 
 
 6 
 
 0 12 6 
 
 6 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 6 
 
 15 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 10 0 
 
 Promissory notes from 2/. to 100^. inclusive are not to be drawn payable to bearer on demand (except, 
 Ing bankers' re-issuabte notes, which require a different stamp). — But notes for any sum exceeding 100^. 
 may be drawn either payable to bearer on demand, or otherwise. — (See ante, p. 69.) 
 
 Foreign Bills of Exchange. — Foreign bill, drawn in but payable out of Great Britain, if drawn singly 
 the same duty as an inland bill. 
 Foreign bills of exchange, drawn in sets, s. d. 
 
 for every bill of each set, if the sum does 
 
 not exceed 100/. - - - - 1 6 
 
 Exceeding 100/. and not exceeding 200/. - 3 0 
 
 — 200/, — 500/. - 4 0 
 
 Exceeding 500/. and not exceeding 1,000/. - 5 0 
 
 — 1,000/. — 2.000/. . 7 6 
 
 — 2,000/. — 3,000/. . 10 0 
 
 — 3,000/. — - . 15 0 
 
 No one acquainted with the fundamental rules of arithmetic can have any difficulty 
 whatever in estimating how much a sum of money in one country is worth in another, ac- 
 cording to the state of the exchange at the time. The common arithmetical books abound 
 in examples of such computations. But in conducting the business of exchange, a direct 
 remittance is not always preferred. When a merchant in London, for example, means 
 to discharge a debt due by him in Paris, it is his business to ascertain not only the state 
 of the direct exchange between London and Paris, and, consequently, the sum which he 
 must pay in London for a bill on Paris equivalent to his debt, but also the state of the 
 exchange between London and Hamburgh, Hamburgh and Paris, &c. ; for it frequently 
 Iiappens that it may be more advantageous for him to buy a bill on Hamliurgh, Am- 
 sterdam, or Lisbon, and to direct his agent to invest the proceeds in a bill on Paris, 
 rather than remit directly to the latter. This is termed the Arbitration of exchange. 
 An example or two will suffice to show the principle on which it is conducted. 
 
 Thus, if the exchange between London and Amsterdam be 35s. Flemish (old coinage) per pound sterlinu- 
 and between Paris and Amsterdam Is. Qd. Flemish per franc, then, in order to ascertain whether a direct 
 ( r indirect remittance to Paris would be most advantageous, we must calculate what would be the value 
 
 ♦ In France, no days of grace are allowed on bills payable d. vue. 
 
 t In Austria, bills payable at sight, or on demand, or at less than 7 days after sight or date arc not 
 allowed any days of grace. . ' 
 
 2 O 
 
562 
 
 EXCHANGE. 
 
 of the franc in English money if the remittance were made through Holland; for if it be less than that 
 resulting from the direct exchange, it will obviously be the preferable mode of remitting. This is deter- 
 mined by stating, as 35s. Flem. (the Amsterdam currency in a pound sterling) : Is. M. Flera. (Amsterdam 
 currency in a franc) : : 1/. : lOrf. the proportional, or arbitrated value of the franc. — Hence, if the English 
 money, or bill of exchange, to pay a debt in Paris, were remitted by Amsterdam, it would require \0d. to 
 discharge a debt of a franc, or 1/. to discharge a debt of 24 francs : and, therefore, if the exchange between 
 London and Paris were at 24, it would be indifFerent to the English merchant whether he remitted 
 directly to Paris, or indirectly via Amsterdam ; but if the exchange between London and Paris were 
 above 24, then a direct remittance would be preferable ; while, if, on the other hand, the direct exchange 
 were lesss than 24, the indirect remittance ought as plainly to be preferred. 
 
 " Suppose," to borrow an example from Dr. Kelly {Universal Cambist, vol. ii. p. 137.), " the exchange 
 of London and Lisbon to be at GSd. per milree, and that of Lisbon on Madrid 500 rees per dollar, the 
 arbitrated price between London and Madrid is 34rf. sterling per dollar; for as 1,000 rees: ^d. : : 50O 
 rees : o4c?. But if the direct exchange of London on Madrid be S5d. sterling per dollar, then London, 
 by remitting directly to Madrid, must pay 35d. for every dollar; whereas, by remitting through Lisbon, 
 he will pay only 34a?. ; it is, therefore, the interest of London to remit indirectly to Madrid through 
 Lisbon. On the other hand, if London draws directly on Madrid, he will receive 35«?. sterling per dollar ; 
 whereas, by drawing indirectly through Lisbon, he would receive only 34cf. j it is, therefore, the interest 
 of- London to draw directly on Madrid. Hence the following rules : — 
 
 1. Where the certain price is given, draw through the place which produces the lowest arbitrated 
 price, and remit through that which produces the highest. 
 
 Where the uncertain price is given, draw through that place which produces the highest arbitrated 
 price, and. remit through that which produces the lowest." 
 
 In compound arbitration, or when more than 3 places are concerned, then, in order to find how much 
 a remittance passing through them all will amount to in the last place, or, which is the same thing, to 
 find the arbitrated price between the first and the last, we have only to repeat the difi'erent statements in 
 the same manner as in the foregoing examples. 
 
 Thus, if the exchange between London and Amsterdam be 35s. Flem. for 11. sterling ; between Amster- 
 dam and Lisbon 42£f. Flem. for 1 old crusade ; and between Lisbon and Paris 480 rees for 3 francs : what 
 is the arbitrated price between London and Paris ? 
 
 In the first place, as o5s. Flem. : 1/. : : 42d. Flem. : 2s. sterling = 1 old crusade. 
 
 Second, as 1 old crusade, or 400 rees : 2s. sterling : : 480 rees : 2s. 4'8</. sterling = 3 francs. 
 
 Third, as 2s. 4'8rf. sterling : 3 francs : : 1/. sterling : 25 francs, the arbitrated price of the pound sterling 
 between London and Paris. 
 
 This operation may be abridged as follows : — 
 
 1/. sterling. 
 'M. sterling = 35s. Flemish. 
 
 '61 shillings Flem. = 1 old crusade. 
 1 old crusade =: 400 rees. 
 480 rees = 3 francs. » 
 
 Hence 35ii400_><_3 4^ 35 
 480 X 3i 168 
 
 This abridged operation evidently consists in arranging the terms so that those which would form the 
 divisors in continued statements in the Rule of Three are multiplied together for a common divisor, and 
 the other terms for a common dividend. The ordinary arithmetical books abound with examples of such 
 operation?. 
 
 The following account of the manner in which a very large transaction was actually conducted by 
 indirect remittances, will sufficiently illustrate the principles we have been endeavouring to explain. 
 
 In 1804, Spain was bound to pay to France a large subsidy ; and, in order to do this, three distinci 
 methods presented themselves : — 
 
 1. To send dollars to Paris by land. 
 
 2. To remit bills of exchange directly to Paris, 
 3 To authorise Paris to draw directly on Spain. 
 
 The first of these methods was tried, but it was found too slow and expensive ; and the second and 
 third plans were considered likely to turn the^ exchange against Spain. The following method by the 
 indirect, or circular exchange, was, therefore, adopted. 
 
 A merchant, or banquier, at Paris, was appointed to manage the operation, which he thus conducted : — 
 He chose London, Amsterdam, Hamburgh, Cadiz, Madrid, and Paris, as the principal hinges on which 
 the operation was to turn ; and he engaged correspondents in each of these cities to support the circulation, 
 Madrid and Cadiz were the places in Spain from whence remittances were to be made ; and dollars were, 
 of course, t6be sent to where they bore the highest price, for which bills were to be procured on Paris, 
 or on any other places that might be deemed more advantageous. 
 
 The principle being thus established, it only remained to regulate the extent of the operation, so as not 
 to issue too much paper on Spain, and to give the circulation as much support as possible from real 
 business With this view, London was chosen as a place to which the operation might be chiefly directed, 
 as the price of dollars was then high in England^ a circumstance which rendered the proportional ex- 
 change advantageous to Spain. , tt^uja 
 
 The business was commenced at Paris, where the negotiation of drafts issued on Hamburgh and Am- 
 sterdam served to answer the immediate demands of the state; and orders were transmitted to these 
 places to draw for the reimbursements on London, Madrid, or Cadiz, according as the course of exchange 
 was most favourable The proceedings were all conducted with judgment, and attended with complete 
 success At the commencement of the oi)eration, the course of exchange of Cadiz on London was 36d. j 
 but by the plan adopted, Spain got 39irf., or above 8 per cent, by the remittance of dollars to London, 
 and' considerable advantages were also gained by the circulation of bills through the several places on the 
 Continent. — {Kelly's Cambist, vol ii. p. 168. ; Dubost's Elements of Commerce, 2d ed. p. 218.) 
 
 Law of Bills op Exchange. 
 
 The chief legal privileges appertaining to bills are, first, that though only a simple contract, yet they 
 are always presumed to have been originally given for a good and valuable consideration ; and, secondly 
 thev arc assignable to a third i>erson not named in the bill or party to the contract, so as to vest in the 
 as-^iinee a right of action, in his own name; which right of action, no release by the drawer to the ac 
 oeptor, nor set-oft' or cross demand due from the former to the latter, can affect. , •„ u . 
 
 All persons whether merchants or not, being legally qualified to contract, may be parties to a bill. But 
 no act on can'be supported against a person incapable of binding himself, on a bill drawn, indorsed, or 
 accepted by such incapacitated person ; at the same time the bill is good against all other competent 
 
 ^"^Bilh may bc'drawn. accepted, or indorsed by the party's agent or attorney verbally authorised for the 
 purpose When a person has such authority, he must either write the name of his principal, or state in 
 writing that he draws, «:c. as agent : thus, " per procuration, for A. B." ,^ , ^ ... 
 
 Where one of several partners accepts a bill drawn on the firm, for himself and partners, or in his own 
 name only, such acceptance binds the partnership if it concern the trade But the acceptance of one of 
 Lv^ral partners on behalf of himself and paitncrs. will not bind the others, if it concern the acceptor 
 
EXCHANGE. 
 
 563 
 
 ©n!y In a separate and distinct interest ; and the holder of the bill, at the time he becomes so, was aware of 
 that circumstance. If, however, he be a bonujidc holder for a sufficient consideration, and had no such 
 knowledge at the time he first became possessed of tiie bill, no subsequently acquired knowledge of the 
 misconduct of the partner in giving sucn security will prevent him from recovering on such bills against 
 all the partners. 
 
 Although no precise form of words is required to constitute a bill of exchange or promissory note, yet 
 it is necessary that it should he payable at all events, and not depend on any contingency ; and that it be 
 made for the payment of money only, and not for payment of money and performance of some other act, 
 Hs the delivery of a horse, or the like. 
 
 If, however, the event on which the payment is to depend must inevitably happen, it is of no import- 
 ance how long the payment may be in suspense ; so a bill is negotiable and valid if drawn payable 6 
 weeks after the death of the drawer's father, or payable to an infant when lie shall become of age. 
 
 Any material alteration of a bill alter it has been drawn, accepted, or indorsed, such as the date, sum, 
 or time of payment, will invalidate it : but the mere correction of a mistake, as by inserting the words 
 *• or order," will have no such effect. 
 
 The negotiability of a bill depends on the insertion of sufficient operative words of transfer; such as by 
 making it payable to A. or order, or to A. or bearer, or to bearer generally. 
 
 Although a bill is presumed to have been originally drawn upon a good and valuable consideration, yet 
 in certain cases a want of sufficient consideration may be insisted on in defence to an action on a bilU 
 Certain considerations have been made illegal by statute ; as for signing a bankrupt's certificate, for money 
 won at gaming, or for money lent on a usurious contract. But with respect to gaming, it is hdd, that a 
 bill founded on a gambling transaction is good in the hands of a bona fide holder ; and by 58 Geo. 6. c. 93. 
 a bill or note in the hands of an innocent holder, although originally founded on a usurious contract, is 
 not invalid. 
 
 In general, if a bill is fair and legal in its origin, a subsequent illegal contract or consideration on the 
 indorsement thereof will not invalidate it in the hands of a bond fide holder. 
 
 A bill cannot be given in evidence in a court of justice, unless it be duly stamped, not only with a stamp 
 of the proper value, but also of the proper denomination. 
 
 Acceptance of a Bill. — An acceptance is an engagement to pay a bill according to the tenor of the ac- 
 ceptance, which may be either absolute or qualfied. An absolute acceptance is an engagement to pay a 
 bill according to its request, which is done by the drawee writing " Accepted " on the bill, and subscribing 
 his name , or writing " Accepted " only ; or merely subscribing his name at the bottom or across the bilL 
 A qualified acceptance is when a bill is accepted conditionally ; as when goods conveyed to the drawee 
 are jold, or when a navy bill is paid, or other future event which does not bind the acceptor till the con- 
 tingency has happened. 
 
 An acceptance may be also partial ; as to pay lOOi instead of 150/., or to pay at a different time or place 
 from that required by the bill. But in all cases of a conditional or partial acceptance, the holder should, 
 if he mean to resort to the other parties to the bill in default of payment, give notice to them of such 
 partial or conditional acceptance. 
 
 In all cases of presenting a bill for acceptance, it is necessary to present the bill at the house where the 
 drawee lives, or where it is made payable. By 1 & 2 Geo 4. c. 78., all bills accepted payable at a banker's 
 or other place are to be deemed a general acceptance ; but if they are accepted payable at a banker's " only, 
 and not otherwise or elsewhere," it is a qualified acceptance, and the acceptor is not liable to pay the bill, 
 except in default of payment when such payment shall have been first demanded at the banker's. The 
 drawee is entitled to keep the bill 24 hours when presented for acceptance. The acceptance of an inland 
 bill must be in writing on the face of the bill, or, if there be more parts than one, on one of such parts ; 
 nothing short of this constitutes a valid acceptanca 
 
 If a bill is made payable a certain time after sight, it must, in order to fix the time when it is to be 
 paid, be presented for acceptance, and the date of the acceptance should appear thus : " Accepted, July 
 1st, 1831." 
 
 Due diligence is the only thing to be considered in presenting any description of bill for acceptance ; 
 and such diligence is a question depending on the situation of the parties, the distance at which they live, 
 and the facility of communication between them. 
 
 When the drawee refuses to accept, any third party, after protesting, may accept for the honour of the 
 bill generally, or for the drawee, or for the indorser; in which case the acceptance is called an acceptance 
 supra protest. 
 
 The drawers and indorsers are discharged from liability, unless due notice of non-acceptance when pre- 
 sented for acceptance, or non-payment at the time the bill becomes due, is given. These notices must be 
 given with all due diligence to all the parties to wliom the holder means to resort for payment. Generally, 
 in both foreign and inland bill?, notice is given next day to the immediate indorser, and such indorser i 
 allowed a day, when he should give fresh notice to the parties who are hable to him. 
 
 Notice may be sent by the post, however near the residence of the parties may be to each other ; and 
 though the letter containing such notice should miscarry, yet it will be sufficient; but the letter contain- 
 ing the notice should be delivered at the General Post-office, or at a receiving-house appointed by that 
 office, not to the bellman in the street. In all cases of notice, notice to one of several parties is held to 
 be notice to all ; and if one of several drawers be also the acceptor, it is not necessary to give notice to 
 the other drawers. 
 
 Upon the non-acceptance or non-payment of a bill, the holder, or a public notary for him, should pro- 
 test it ; that is, draw up a notice of the refusal to accept or pay the bill, and the declaration of the holder 
 against sustaining loss thereby. Inland bills need not be protested ; in practice they are usually only noted 
 for non-acceptance ; but this, without the protest, is wholly futile, and adds nothing whatever to the 
 evidence of the holder, while it entails a useless expense on those liable to pay. 
 
 Indorsement of Bills. — An indorsement is the act by which the holder of a negotiable instrument 
 transfers his right to another person, termed the indorsee. It is usually made on the back of a bill, and 
 must be in writing; but the law has not prescribed any set form of words as necessary to the ceremony, 
 and in general the mere signature of the indorser is sufficient. 
 
 All bills payable to order or to bearer for 1/. and upwards are negotiable by indorsement; and the 
 transfer of them for a good consideration, before they are payable, gives a right of action against all the 
 precedent parties on the bill, if the bills in themselves are valid ; but a transler after they are due will 
 only place the holder in the situation of the person from whom he takes them. 
 
 Bills may be transferred either by delivery only, or by indorsement and delivery: bills payable to order 
 are transferred by the latter mode only ; but bills payable to bearer may be transferred by either mode. 
 On a transfer by delivery, the person making it ceases to be a party to the bill ; but on a transfer by in- 
 dorsement, he is to all intents and purposes chargeable as a new drawer. 
 
 A bill originally transferable may be restrained by restrictive words ; for the payee or indorsee, having 
 the absolute property in the bill, may, by express words, r strict its currency, by indorsing it " Payable to 
 A. B. only," or " to A. B. for his use," or any other words clearly demonstrating his intention to make a 
 restrictive and limited indorsement. Such special indorsement precludes the person in whose favour it is 
 made from making a transfer, so as to give a right of action against the special indorser, or any of the pre- 
 cedent parties to the bill. 
 
 In taking bills to account or discount, it is important well to examine all special indorsements. Lord 
 Tenterden decided that a person who discounts a bill indorsed " Pay to A. B. or order /or mt/ use," 
 discounts it subject to the risk of having to pay the money to the special indorser, who so hmited the ap» 
 
 2 O 2 
 
564 
 
 EXCHANGE. 
 
 plication /or my use ; thus a party may be liable to pay the amount of the bill twice over, unless he pr». 
 
 viously ascertains that the payment has been made conformably to the import of the indorsement. 
 After the payment of part, a bill may be indorsed over for the residue. 
 
 Presentment for Payment. — The holder of a bill must be careful to present it for payment at the time 
 when due, or the drawer and indorsers will be exonerated from their liability; even the bankruptcy, in- 
 solvency, or death of the acceptor will not excuse a neglect to make presentment to the assignees or 
 executor; nor will the insufficiency of a bill in any respect constitute an excuse for non-presentment: 
 trhe presentment should be made at a reasonable time of the day when the bill is due ; and if by the known 
 custom of any trade or place bills are payable only within particular hours, a presentment must be within 
 those hours. If a bill has a qualified acceptance, the presentment should be at the place mentioned in 
 such qualified acceptance, or all the parties will be discharged from their obligations. 
 
 If a bill fall due on Sunday, Good Friday, Christmas Day, or any public fast or thanksgiving day, the 
 presentment must be on the day preceding these holidays. By 7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 15., if a bill or note be pay- 
 able on the day preceding these holidays, notice of the dishonour may be given the day following the 
 holiday ; and if Christmas Day fall on Monday, notice may be given on Tuesday. 
 
 Bills, however, payable at usance, or at a certain time after date or sight, or after demand, ought not to 
 be presented for payment precisely at the expiration of the time mentioned in the bills, but at the ex- 
 piration of what are termed days of grace. The days of grace allowed vary in different countries, and 
 
 ought always to be computed according to the usage of the place where the bill is due (See ante, p. 561.) 
 
 At Hamburgh, and in France, the day on which the bill falls due makes one of the days of grace ; but no 
 where else. 
 
 On bills payable on demand, or when no time of payment is expressed, no days of grace are allowed ; 
 but they arc payable instantly on presentment. On bank post bills no days of grace are claimed ; but on 
 a bill payable at sight the usual days of grace are allowed from the sight or demand. 
 
 Payment of a bill should be made only to the holder; and it may be refused unless the bill be produced 
 and delivered up. On payment, a receipt should be written on the back ; and when a part is paid, the 
 same should be acknowledged upon the bill, or the party paying naay be liable to pay the amount a second 
 time to a bond fide indorser. 
 
 Promissory Notes and Checks. — The chief distinction between promissory notes and bills of exchange 
 is, that the former are a direct engagement by the drawer to pay them according to their tenor, without 
 the intervention of a third party as a drawee or acceptor. Promissory notes may be drawn payable on de- 
 mand to a person named therein, or to order, or to bearer generally. They are assignable and indorsable ; 
 and in all respects so nearly assimilated to bills by 3 & 4 Ann. c. 9., that the laws which have been stated 
 as bearing upon the latter, may be generally understood as applicable to the former. In Edis v. Bury it 
 has been decided, in case an instrument is drawn so equivocally as to render it uncertain whether it be a 
 bill of exchange or promissory note, the holder may treat it as either against the drawer. 
 
 Promissory notes, bills, drafts^ or undertakings in writing, being made negotiable or transferable, for a 
 less sum than 20*., are void, and persons uttering such are subject to a penalty not exceeding 20/., recover- 
 able before a justice of peace. 
 
 The issue of any promissory note payable to bearer on demand for a less sum than 51. by the Bank of 
 England, or any licensed English banker, is prohibited; and by 9 Geo. 4. c. 65. it is provided, that no cor- 
 poration or i)erson shall utter or negotiate, in England, any such note which has been made or issued in 
 Scotland, Ireland, or elsewhere, under a penalty not exceeding 20/. nor less than 51. But this does not 
 extend to any draft or order on bankers for the use of the drawer. 
 
 Promissory notes for any sum exceeding 100/. may be drawn payable to bearer on demand or otherwise; 
 but notes trom 9.1. to 100/. inclusive are not to be drawn payable to bearer on demand, except bankers' re- 
 issuable notes, which require a different stamp. 
 
 A check or draft is as negotiable as a bill of exchange, and vests in the assignee the same right of action 
 against the assignor. As to the presentation of checks, &c., see Check. 
 
 Any person making, accepting, or paying any bill, draft, order, or promissory note, not duly stamped, 
 is liable to a penalty of 50/. ; for post-dating them, 100/. ; and for not truly specifying the place where un- 
 stamped drafts are issued, 100/. : and any person knowingly receiving such unstamped draft, 20/. ; and the 
 banker knowingly paying it, 100/. ; besides not being allowed such sum in account. 
 
 Before concluding this article on mercantile paper, it may not be improper to introduce one or two 
 cautions with regard to acceptances, and accommodation paper, and proceedings in case of the loss of 
 bills. 
 
 First, A man should not put his name as acceptor to a bill of exchange without well considering whether 
 he has the means of paying the same when due, as otherwise he may be liable not only to the costs of the 
 action against himself, but also to the costs of the actions against the other parties to the bill : the shrewd 
 tradesman is generally anxious to get the acceptance of his debtor at a short date, well knowing that it 
 not only fixes the amount of the debt, but it is more speedily recoverable by legal procedure than a book 
 debt. 
 
 Secondly, Traders who wish to support their respectability, and desire to succeed in business, should be 
 cautious in resorting to the destructive system of cross-accommodation acceptances : it seldom ends well, 
 and usually excites suspicion as to the integrity of the parties; it being an expedient often adopted by 
 swindlers to defraud the public. Independent of the expense in stamps and discounts, and frequently in 
 noting, interest, and law expenses, the danger attending such accommodation is sufficient to deter from 
 the practice. Suppose, for instance, A. and JB. mutually accommodate each other to the amount of 1,000/., 
 the acceptances being in the hands of third persons : both A. and B. are liable to such third persons to the 
 extent of 2,000/. each ; and should A. by any unforeseen occurrence be suddenly rendered unable to meet 
 his acceptances, the holders of the whole, as well the acceptances of A. as the acceptances of B., Avill resort 
 to B. for payment ; and it may so happen, that although B. could have provided for his own share of the 
 accommodation paper, he may be unable to provide for the whole, and may thus become insolvent. 
 
 Thirdly, In case of the loss of a bill, the 9& 10 Will. 3. c. 17. provides, that if any inland bill be lost or 
 missing within the time limited for its payment, the drawer shall, on sufficient security given to indemnify 
 him if such bill be found again, give another bill of the same tenor with the first. 
 
 Lastly, It is of great importance to bankers and others taking bills and notes, that they should have 
 60\ne, knowledge of the parties from whom they receive them ; otherwise, if the instrument turn out to 
 have been lost or fraudulently obtained, they may, without equivalent, be deprived of their security, on 
 itn action by the owner to recover possession. Lord Tenterden decided, " if a person take a bill, note, 
 or any other kind of security, under circumstances which ought to excite suspicion in the miuvl of any 
 reasonable man acquainted with the ordinary affairs of life, and which ought to put him on his guard to 
 make the necessary inquiries, and he do not, then he loses the right of maintaining possession of the in- 
 strument against the rightful owner." — (G«2/c//ia//, Oct. 25. 1826.) 
 
EXCHANGE. 
 
 565 
 
 L Table containing the Value of the Monies of Account of different Places (expressed in Tence and 
 Decimals of Pence), according to th«r Mint Price both of (Jold and Silver in England; that is, 
 31. 17s. lO^ef. per oz. for Gold, and 5s. 2d. per oz. for Silver. — {Kelly's Cambist, voL ii. p. 149.) 
 
 Coins. 
 
 V 1 
 Silver. 
 
 Value in 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Coins. 
 
 V alue in 
 .Silver. 
 
 Value III 
 (Jold. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, Rixdollar current 
 
 31-40 
 
 31-43 
 
 Hamburgh, Mark current 
 
 I'ound Flemish current . 
 
 14-82 
 
 variable 
 
 Amsterdam, Rixdollar banco (agio 
 
 
 
 11115 
 
 ditto 
 
 at 4 per cent.) - 
 
 52-54 
 
 variably 
 
 Hanover, Hixdollar (in cash) 
 
 42 
 
 42-26 
 
 Florin banco 
 
 21- 
 
 ditto 
 
 Rixdollar (gold value) 
 
 £9- 
 
 59-24 
 
 Florin current 
 
 20-72 
 
 ditto 
 
 Kcinigsbcrg, Gulden or florin 
 
 12* 
 
 variable 
 
 Pound Flemish current - 
 
 124-32 
 
 ditto 
 
 Legliorn, I'ezza ot 8 reals - 
 
 46-25 
 
 49-16 
 
 Antwerp, Pound Flemish (monev of 
 
 
 
 Lira moneta buona 
 
 8-13 
 
 8 -55 
 
 exchange) 
 
 1^3-25 
 
 123-87 
 
 Lira moneta lunga 
 
 7 79 
 
 8-19 
 
 Florin (money of ex. 
 
 
 
 Leipsic, Rixdollar convention mo. 
 
 
 
 change) 
 
 20-54 
 
 20-64 
 
 ney ... 
 
 37-80 
 
 variable 
 
 Pound Flemish current - 
 
 105-55 
 
 10618 
 
 Rixdollar in Louis d'ors 
 
 
 
 Florin current 
 
 17 -(iO 
 
 17-70 
 
 or Fredericks - 
 
 - 
 
 3968 
 
 Barcelona, Libra Catalan - 
 
 28-14 
 
 26-70 
 
 Malta . Scudo or crown 
 
 21 32 • 
 
 2.3-34 
 
 Basil - Rixdollar, or ecu of ex- 
 
 
 
 Milan - Lira Imperiale 
 
 10.-41 
 
 10 5-3 
 
 change 
 
 ATrTl 
 
 47- 
 
 Lira corrento 
 
 7 45 
 
 7-44 
 
 Rixdollar current 
 
 42-45 
 
 42-20 
 
 Scudo Imperiale - 
 
 6(r9() 
 
 61-60 
 
 Berlin - Pound banco 
 
 47-25 
 
 variable 
 
 Scudo corrente 
 
 42-32 
 
 42 78 
 
 Rixdollar current 
 
 36- 
 
 ditto 
 
 Modena, Lira . - 
 
 3-72 
 
 
 Berne - Ecu of 3 livres - 
 
 42-64 
 
 41i-90 
 
 Munich, Gulden or florin 
 
 21- 
 
 21-28 
 
 €rown of 25 batzen 
 
 35-53 
 
 35-75 
 
 Naples - Ducat of 1818 
 
 41-20 
 
 41-22 
 
 Bremen, Rixdollar current 
 
 37-80 
 
 variable 
 
 Vaxma. . Lira 
 
 2-35 
 
 2-40 
 
 Rixdollar in Carls d'or - 
 
 - 
 
 39-68 
 
 Persia - Toman of 100 mamoodis - 
 
 287-60 
 
 
 ! Cassel - Rixdollar current 
 
 37-80 
 
 variable 
 
 Poland - Gulden or florin - 
 
 6 03 
 
 6-27 
 
 Cologne, Rixdollar specie of 80 al- 
 
 
 
 Portugal, Milree 
 
 - 
 
 67-34 
 
 buses - _ - 
 
 31-38 
 
 ditto 
 
 Old crusade 
 
 - 
 
 26-94 
 
 Rixdollar current of 78 
 
 
 
 Riga - Rixdollar Alberts 
 
 52-54 
 
 variable 
 
 albuses 
 
 30-60 
 
 ditto 
 
 Rixdollar currency (agio 
 
 
 
 Constantinople, Piastre, or dollar.. 
 
 9 45 
 
 uncert. 
 
 at 40 per cent.) 
 
 37-53 
 
 ditto 
 
 Dantzic, Gulden or florin 
 
 9- 
 
 s- 
 
 Rome - Scudo or crown - 
 
 52-05 
 
 51-63 
 
 Denmark, Rixdollar s{>ecie 
 
 54-72 
 
 
 Scudo di stanipa d'oro 
 
 79-37 
 
 78-73 
 
 Rixdollar crown money - 
 
 48-37 
 
 
 Russia, Rouble - - - 
 
 - 
 
 variable 
 
 Rixdollar Danish currency 
 
 44 27 
 
 44-88 
 
 Sardinia, Lira - - - 
 
 18-21 
 
 18-82 
 
 England, Pound sterling - 
 
 240- 
 
 240- 
 
 Sicily - Ounce 
 
 123-54 
 
 124 -80 
 
 Florence, Lira . - . 
 
 8-12 
 
 8 53 
 
 Scudo o- ^'^own - 
 
 49-02 
 
 49-92 
 
 Ducat, or crown current 
 
 56-84 
 
 59 71 
 
 Spain - Real of o/d plate - 
 
 4-88 
 
 4-57 
 
 ' Scudo d'or, or gold crown 
 
 - 
 
 63-97 
 
 Real of new plate 
 
 5-18 
 
 4-86 
 
 France Livre Tournois 
 
 9-58 
 
 9-38 
 
 Real of Mexican plate - 
 
 6-48 
 
 6-07 
 
 Franc (new system) 
 
 9-70 
 
 9-53 
 
 Real vellon 
 
 2-59 
 
 2-43 
 
 Francfort, Rixdollar convention 
 
 
 
 Dollar of old plate, or of 
 
 
 
 money - . - 
 
 37-80 
 
 37-65 
 
 exchange 
 
 39- 
 
 36-59 
 
 Rixdollar Muntze, or in 
 
 
 
 Sweden, Rixdollar 
 
 55-41 
 
 56-43 
 
 small coins 
 
 51-50 
 
 
 Switzerland, Franc (new system) 
 
 22-14 
 
 
 Germany, Rixdollar current 
 
 37-80 
 
 variable 
 
 Trieste, Florin, Austrian currency 
 
 25-20 
 
 25 05 ' 
 
 Rixdollar specie 
 
 50-40 
 
 ditto 
 
 Lira, Trieste currency . 
 
 4-76 
 
 4-73 
 
 
 25 -'■'0 
 
 
 Lira di piazza . • 
 
 4-65 
 
 4-63 ■ 
 
 Rixdollar Muntze^ 
 
 31-50 
 
 ditto 
 
 Turin - Lira - 
 
 11-28 
 
 11-23 
 
 Florin Muntze 
 
 21- 
 
 ditto 
 
 Valencia, Libra - - 
 Venice, Lira piccola (in the old 
 
 39-45 
 
 39-59 . 
 
 Geneva, Livre current - 
 
 16-13 
 
 16-13 
 
 
 
 Florin - - - 
 
 4-60 
 
 4-84 
 
 coins) 
 
 5-07 
 
 variable 
 
 Genoa - Lira fuori banco 
 
 8- 
 
 7-83 
 
 Lira piccola (in the coins 
 
 
 
 Pezza, or dollar of ex. 
 
 
 
 introduced by the Aus- 
 
 
 
 change 
 
 45-92 
 
 45-50 
 
 trians) - - 
 
 4-25 
 
 ditto 
 
 Scudo di cambio, or crown 
 
 
 
 Vienna, Florin ... 
 
 25-20 
 
 25-05 
 
 of exchange 
 
 36-75 
 
 36-02 
 
 Zante - Real 
 
 4 06 
 
 variable 
 
 Hamburgh, Mark banco (at med.) 
 
 18-22 
 
 variable 
 
 Zurich, Florin (money of exchange) 
 
 25-85 
 
 ditto 
 
 Pound Flemish banco 
 
 136-65 
 
 ditto 
 
 Florin current 
 
 23-50 
 
 ditto 
 
 Par of Exchange between England and the following Places, viz. Amsterdam, Hamburgh, Paris 
 Madrid, Lisbon, Loghorn, Genoa, Naples, and Venice* the same being comjiuted from the intrinsic 
 Value of their principal Coijis, by comparing Gold with Gold, and Silver with Silver, according to their 
 Mint Regulations, and to Assays made at the London and Paris Mints. — (Presented by Dr. Kelly to 
 the Committee of the House of Lords, on the Expediency of the Bank's resuming Cash Payments.) 
 
 Amsterdam, b 
 Do. current 
 
 Madrid 
 Lisbon - 
 Leghorn 
 Genoa • 
 Naples ■ 
 Venice - 
 
 Mint 
 Regula-i Assays, 
 tions. I 
 
 36 8 36 6-8 
 11 4-5 11 .^-8 
 34 3-5 .-5,5 1-5 
 
 25 20 
 37-3 
 67-4 
 491 
 ■l.^.-5 
 41-22 
 46-.'5 
 
 25 26 
 .37-2 
 67-5 
 49-0 
 
 45- 5 
 
 46- o' 
 
 Mint 
 Ro^ula- Assays. 
 
 37 3 
 U 8-5 
 31 1 
 21 73 
 
 6f>-41 
 4G-46 
 
 4a id 
 41-42 
 
 37 10-, 
 11 11- 
 
 39 0 
 58-33 
 46-5 
 4S-9 
 
 New Coinage. 
 
 Mint 
 Regula- Assays. 
 
 35 0 
 
 10 14-6 
 .32 11 
 23 25 
 41-7 
 64-.30 
 49- 60 
 49-4 
 43 9 
 44-6 
 
 35 
 
 10 17-6 
 52 11-; 
 
 25 40 
 
 41-5 
 
 02*69 
 
 49-5 
 
 52-0 
 
 '46-1 ' 
 
 Explanations. 
 
 Monies of Exchange. 
 
 6-5 I^Schillinirs and pence Flemish per pound sterling 
 
 SK> 2 per cent. 
 Florins and stivers per pound sterling. . 
 iSchillings and pence Flemish banco per pound sterLj 
 Francs and centimes per pound sterling. 
 Pence sterling for the pia.stre or dollar of exchange. ' 
 Pence sterling per niilrce. 
 
 Pence stetling per pezza of excharu'e. | 
 Pence sterling i>er pezza fuori banco.* 
 Pence sterling per ducat (new coin.-ge of 1818). ) 
 Lire piccole per pound sterling. | 
 
 * The currency of Genoa has consisted, since 1826, of Lire Ital'mne of exactly the same weight and 
 fineness as francs ; so that the par of exchange with Genoa is now the same as with Paris. 
 
 2 O 3 
 
566 
 
 EXCHEQUER BILLS. — EXCISE. 
 
 Ill, An Account of the Course of Exchange, London, 18th of November, 1836, with some Explanatory 
 
 Statements. 
 
 Course of Exchange. 
 
 Explanatory Statements. 
 
 Amsterdam, 3 ms. 
 Antwerp - 
 
 Hamlmrgh, mcs. bco. - 
 Paris, 3 ms. 
 Francfort - 
 
 Petersburgh, p. rou. 3 us. • 
 Vienna, efT. Flo. 2 ms. - 
 Madrid, 3 ms. - 
 Leghorn - 
 Genoa - 
 
 Venice, p. 6 Aust. livr. - 
 Naples - 
 
 Lisbon, 30 days' sight 
 Rio Janeiro, ditto - 
 
 12 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 25 
 
 70 
 
 1513 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 35X 
 
 
 48^ 
 
 
 25 
 
 75 
 
 474 
 
 
 40| 
 
 
 54® 
 
 
 1 receives 
 receives 
 receives 
 receives 
 receives 
 gives 
 receives 
 gives 
 gives 
 receives 
 receives 
 gives 
 gives 
 
 12 florins 41^ stivers for 11. 
 
 12 ditto 2i ditto for 1/. 
 
 13 marcs 11 schillings banco for II. 
 25 francs 70 centimes for 1/. 
 
 151 1 batzen for 1/. 
 10 pence sterling for 1 rouble bank money. 
 10 florins 10 creutzers for 1/. 
 35^ pence sterling for 1 dollar. 
 48 ditto for 1 pezza of 8 reals. 
 25 lire Italiane 75 cent, for 1/. 
 47J lire piccolifor 1/. 
 40| pence sterling for 1 ducato di regno. 
 54 ditto for 1 m»lrce. 
 36 ditto for 1 ditto. 
 
 For further and more ample elucidations, see the articles on the great trading towns, in this Die- 
 tionary. 
 
 EXCHEQUER BILLS. See Funds. 
 EXPECTATION, of life. See Insurance. 
 
 EXPORTATION, in commerce, the act of sending or carrying commodities from 
 one country to another. — (See Importation and Exportation.) 
 
 EXCISE, the name given to the duties or taxes laid on such articles as are produced 
 and consumed at home. Customs duties are those laid on commodities when imported 
 into or exported from a country. 
 
 Excise duties were introduced into England by the Long Parliament in 1643 ; being then laid on the 
 makers and venders of ale, beer, cider, and perry. The royalists soon after followed the example of the 
 republicans ; both sides declaring that the excise should be continued no longer than the termination of 
 the war. But it was found too productive a source of revenue to be again relinquished j and when the 
 nation had been accustomed to it for a few years, the parliament declared, in 1649, that the " impost of 
 excise was the most easy and indifferent levy that could be laid upon the people." It was placed on a 
 new footing at the Restoration : and notwithstanding Mr. Justice Blackslone says, that " from its first 
 original to the present time its very name has been odious to the people of England" — {Com. book i. 
 c. 3.), — it has continued progressively to gain ground; and is at tl)is moment imposed on a variety of 
 most important articles, and furnishes nearly lialf the entire public revenue of the kingdom. 
 
 The prejudice in the public mind to wliich Blackstone lias alluded, against the excise duties, seems to have 
 originated more in the regulations connected with their imposition, tlian in the oppressive extent to which 
 they have sometimes been carried. The facilities of smuggling, and the frauds that might be committed 
 upon the revenue, unless a strict watch were kept, have led to the enactment of several rather severe 
 regulations. The officers have been empowered to enter and search the houses of such individuals as 
 deal in exciseable commodities at any time of the day, and in most instances also of the night. And the 
 proceedings in cases of transgression are of such a nature, that persons may be convicted in heavy pe- 
 nalties, by the summary judgment of 2 commissioners of excise, or 2 justices of the peace, without the 
 intervention of a jury. 
 
 For the more easily levying the revenue of excise, England and "Wales are divided into about 56 
 collections, some of which are called by the names of particular counties, others by the names of great 
 towns, where one county is divided into several collections, or where a collection comprehends the con. 
 tiguous parts of several counties. Every such collection is subdivided into several districts, within which 
 there is a supervisor ; and each district is again subdivided into out-rides and foot-walks, within each of 
 which there is a gauger or surveying officer. 
 
 Abstract of the Gross Excise Revenue of England, Scotland, and Ireland, for 1832, 1833, and 1834 
 
 England 
 .Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 United K. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 14,616,143 17 6 
 1,7.14,627 18 6 
 1,865,299 10 2 
 
 L. s. d. 
 14,922,847 1 11 
 1,928,810 13 5 
 1,790,502 7 5 
 
 L. t. d, 
 
 13,061,852 3 7i 
 1,966,183 11 l| 
 1,849,256 11 10| 
 
 18,266,071 6 2 18,642,160 2 9 16,877,292 6 6j 
 
 The expense of collecting the excise revenue, in 1834, 
 amounted in Great Britain to 6/. Is. 5Jd. per cent, of the 
 gross produce, and in Ireland to 91. 6s. 8Xd. per do. The 
 total gross receipt of the excise revenue in the United liing- 
 dom, in 1835, was 15,229,352/. 
 
 This falling off in the excise revenue is apparent only, having been entirely occasioned by the trans- 
 ference of the tea duty from the excise to the customs, and by the repeal of certain duties, as those on 
 tiles, sweets, starch, &c., and the reduction of others. The excise duty of 1835 was collected (excluding 
 arrears) from ten articles only, viz. auctions, bricks, glass, hops, licences, malt, paper, soap, spirits, and 
 vinegar. Of these the duty on glass is by far the most objectionable. — (See Supplement.) But were it 
 repealed we do not know, now that the paper duties are reduced (see Supplement), that any of the others 
 can be justly objected to. That on bricks is, perhaps, the most exceptionable. The table on the opposite 
 page shows in detail the quantities and numbers of the articles and persons charged with excise duties in 
 1832, 1833, and 1834, and the gross revenue they respectively produced each year. — N.B. Tea has since 
 been transferred to the customs ; and the duties on tiles, .starch, stone bottles, and sweets have been 
 repealed. (For detailed accounts of the duties and regulations afTecting the difiTerent articles' subject to 
 the excise, see those articles ) 
 
 Complexity of Excise Laws. — The great objection to the excise laws, as they at present stand, consists 
 m tiieir obscurity and complexity. Being intended for the guidance of traders, they ought to be brief, 
 clear, and level to the apprehension of every one ; but, instead of this, they are in the last degree length- 
 ened, contradictory, and unintelligible. There are, at this moment, some 40 or 50 acts in existence 
 relating to the duties on glass, and from 25 to 30 relating to those on jiaper ; so that it is all but impossible 
 for any one to tell what the law is on many points. This disgraceful .state of things might, however, be 
 easily remedied, by getting the Treasury to prepare a short digest of the law as to each duty, drawn up in 
 a clear and unambiguous manner ; and enacting, that a manufacturer or dealer abiding by this abstract 
 should be held to have abided by the law, and should not be liable to be further questioned on the subject 
 The adoption of some plan of this sort would be the greatest improvement which it seems possible to 
 introduce into the excise. 
 
EXCISE 
 
 567 
 
 An Account of the Quantities of the several Articles charged with Duties of Excise, in the Untied 
 Kingdom, together witli the Gross Amount of Duty thereon, during tlie Years 1832, 1833, and 1834. — 
 {^Papers published by Board of Trade, vol. iv. p. 28.) 
 
 Auctions, amount of sales charged 
 
 with duty - 
 Bricks 
 Tiles - 
 lilass, crown - 
 Flint - 
 Plate - 
 Broad 
 Bottle 
 Hops - - 
 Licences, auctioneers' - 
 Brewers of strong beer, not ex 
 
 ceeding 20 barrels - 
 Ditto exceeding 20 and not ex 
 
 ceeding 50 - 
 Ditto exceeding 50 and not ex 
 
 ceeding 100 . 
 Ditto exceeding 100 and not ex 
 
 ceeding 1,000 - 
 Ditto exceeding 1,000 barrels 
 Brewers of table beer - 
 Retail brewers, under the act 
 
 5 Geo. 4. 0.54 - 
 Sellers of strong beer only, not 
 
 being brewers - - 
 Beer retailers, whose premises are 
 
 rated under 20/. per annum 
 Ditto at 20/. or upwards - 
 ReUilers of beer, cider, or perry 
 
 under the acts 1 Will. 4. c. 64. 
 
 and 4 & 5 Will. 4. c. 85. - 
 Ditto of cider and perry only, un 
 
 der the said acts - 
 Tea and coffee dealers 
 Glass manufacturers - 
 Maltsters 
 Paper makers 
 Paper stainers 
 Soap makers - 
 Distillers and rectifiers 
 Dealers in spirits, not being re 
 
 tailers 
 
 Retailers of spirits, whose pre. 
 
 mises are rated under 10/. per 
 
 annum - 
 Ditto ditto at 10/. and under 20Z, 
 
 — 20/. — 25/, 
 
 — 25/. _ 30/. 
 
 — 30/. _ 40/ 
 
 — 40/. — 50/, 
 
 Chemists or any other trade re 
 quiring a still . 
 
 Retailers of spirits in Ireland, 
 being duly licensed to sell coffee, 
 tea, &c., whose premises are 
 
 — 30/. — 40/. _ 
 
 — 40/. — 50/. _ 
 
 — 50/. and npwcirds - — 
 Starch makers - - . _ 
 Makers of sweets - - . _ 
 Retailers of ditto - - . _ 
 Manufacturers of tobacco and 
 
 snufT - . . _ 
 
 Dealers in ditto - - - — 
 
 Vinegar makers - - - 
 
 Dealers in foreign wine, not hav- 
 ing a license for retailing M)irits, 
 
 and a license for retailing beer - 
 
 Dealers in foreign wine, having a 
 licence to retail beer, but not 
 having a licence to retail spirits — 
 Dealers in foreign wine, having 
 
 licences to retail beer and spirits _ 
 Passage vessels, on board which 
 liquor and tobacco are sold - _ 
 
 Surcharges - - . 
 
 Amount of duty on licences 
 granted for periods less than a 
 
 year - . . . 
 
 .Malt from barley • . . bush. 
 
 I From beer or bigg 
 'Paper, first class - 
 Second class - 
 Pasteboard, millboard, &c. 
 Stained paper 
 Soap, hard 
 
 ft' 
 SpiriU 
 Starch 
 Stone bottles 
 Sweets - 
 Tea 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 cwts. 
 yards 
 lbs. 
 
 g^ls. 
 
 lbs. 
 cwts. 
 
 galls. 
 
 lbs. 
 galls. 
 
 Quantities charged. 
 
 6,52.^,753 
 998,346,362 
 76,601,051 
 10.VJ02 
 79,1 
 12,270 
 5,.-5l)l 
 312,361 
 29,012,406 
 3,628 
 
 8,623 
 
 6,848 
 
 9,165 
 
 16,8,S8 
 1,56* 
 131 
 
 50 
 
 911 
 
 33,515 
 
 ISS 
 100,191 
 118 
 12,822 
 592 
 
 38,450 
 26,201 
 3,700 
 2,154, 
 3,879i 
 2,472 
 4,700 
 24 
 
 52 
 
 739 
 164,058 
 54 
 
 1,960 
 
 99 
 23,111 
 257 
 
 36,343,094 
 1,047,355 
 49,404,596 
 15,531,059 
 43,468 
 7,140,347 
 119,.'iO3,092 
 10,350,703 
 20,778,521 
 8,070,026 
 16,626 
 158,932 
 31,548,407 
 2,914,261 
 
 6,867,396 
 1,103,591,.')6(; 
 8,29.3,186 
 129,984 
 78,387 
 
 6,306 
 1523,398 
 32,777,.3'10 
 3,686 
 
 8,527 
 
 7,249 
 
 9,540 
 
 17,390 
 1,710 
 
 9C 
 
 50 
 966 
 
 31,976 
 
 653 
 101,579 
 126 
 13,243 
 582 
 154 
 499 
 450 
 
 3,894 
 
 41,018 
 26,887 
 3,728 
 2,199 
 3,928 
 2,503 
 4,894 
 28 
 
 66 
 
 741 
 167,785 
 
 55 
 
 1,9 
 
 83 
 24,079 
 279 
 
 38,851,522 
 1,224,.'568 
 51,941,859 
 16,477,105 
 46,655 
 7,970,761 
 138,170,787 
 11,731,156 
 21,874,455 
 8,805,513 
 17,038 
 122,267 
 31,829,619 
 2,863,080 
 
 7,.331,892 
 1,180,161,228 
 
 1.36,708 
 83,325 
 18,922 
 6,766 
 .344,014 
 39,587,497 
 3,60' 
 
 8,496 
 
 7,276 
 
 9,861 
 
 18,433 
 1,80(; 
 69 
 
 47 
 
 1,074 
 
 37,381 
 
 1,054 
 103,549 
 122 
 12,891 
 571 
 
 39,161 
 26,358 
 3,645 
 2,159 
 3,875 
 2,528 
 4,846 
 
 720 
 172,300 
 54 
 
 1,960 
 
 115 
 23,714 
 
 39,807,28' 
 1 ,338,309 
 54,053,721 
 16,552,168 
 49„-92 
 8,749,144 
 144,344,043 
 10,401,281 
 23,397,806 
 4,726,9-21 
 16,911 
 126,805 
 14,427,616 
 3,091,254 
 
 Amount of Duty. 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 2.36,319 8 0 
 
 294, .322 18 10 
 
 38,010 17 1 
 
 .381,8.39 17 0 
 
 212,145 6 5 
 
 36,810 0 0 
 
 7,956 0 0 
 
 109,.326 7 0 
 
 241,770 1 0 
 
 18,140 0 0 
 
 4,311 10 
 
 6,843 0 
 
 13,747 10 
 
 .33,776 0 
 14,610 15 0 
 217 5 0 
 
 262 10 0 
 
 2,869 13 0 
 
 73,649 2 
 53,713 16 0 
 
 197 8 
 
 55,105 1 
 
 2,360 0 
 
 23,869 10 
 
 2,368 0 
 
 5.02 0 
 
 2,060 0 
 
 4,660 0 
 
 37,720 0 0 
 
 80,745 0 
 110,044 0 
 23,310 0 
 15,831 18 
 32,583 12 
 23,360 8 
 49,350 0 
 12 0 
 
 642 12 0 
 
 42 0 0 
 
 57 15 0 
 
 100 16 0 
 
 491 8 0 
 
 295 0 0 
 
 52 10 0 
 
 927 3 0 
 
 6,440 0 0 
 
 41,014 10 0 
 
 270 0 0 
 
 373 16 0 
 1,533 2 0 
 
 257 0 0, 
 !,792 14 3 
 
 17,567 
 4,694,316 
 104,7.-^5 
 61 7, .557 
 97,069 
 48,468 
 52,064 
 1,49.3,788 
 75,473 
 4,975,438 
 109,281 
 4,156 
 3,973 
 3,509,820 
 24,285 
 
 8 0 
 6 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 9 0 
 2 2 
 9 6 
 
 IS 3 
 
 13 1 
 
 17 4 
 
 5 10 
 
 11 9 
 10 0 
 
 6 0 
 15 6 
 10 2 
 
 1 18,266.07 
 
 L. I. d. 
 
 243,981 11 11 
 304,942 1 11 
 4,680 1 1 
 477,691 4 0 
 219,483 12 0 
 
 43,586 6 0 
 !»,4.'j9 0 0 
 113,189 6 0 
 272,894 5 0 
 
 18,430 0 0 
 
 4,263 10 
 
 7,249 0 
 
 14,310 0 
 
 34,780 0 
 15,395 5 
 87 10 
 
 77,068 19 
 54,923 8 
 
 73,449 12 0 
 
 685 13 0 
 
 55,868 9 0 
 
 2,520 0 0 
 
 24„346 12 6 
 
 2,328 0 0 
 
 38,940 0 0 
 
 86,137 16 
 112,925 8 
 23,486 8 
 16,162 13 
 32,995 4 
 23,653 7 
 51,387 0 
 14 0 
 
 793 16 
 42 0 
 46 4 
 
 138 12 
 
 518 14 
 
 300 0 
 56 14 
 
 969 0 
 
 6,565 0 0 
 41,946 5 0 
 275 0 0 
 
 ■ 318 12 0 
 50,565 18 0 
 
 279 0 0 
 3,753 15 9 
 
 18,060 5 0 
 5,018,321 14 
 123,4.-6 16 0 
 649,273 4 9 
 102,981 17 11 
 52,246 18 6 
 68,120 2 
 1,11.5,167 19 
 59,253 4 
 5,25.3,513 19 
 119,241 6 
 4,2.>9 10 
 3,056 13 
 3,444,103 7 
 23,859 0 
 
 6 2J 18,642,160 2 9 16,877,292 6 Cj 
 
 2 O 4 
 
568 
 
 EXPORTS. — FACTOR. 
 
 The laws with respect to the general management of the 
 excise were consolidated by the 7 & 8 (ieo. 4. c. 35., from which 
 the following particulars are selected : — 
 
 Commissioners. — Four commissioners constitute a board. 
 They are to be subject, in all things relating to their peculiar 
 duty, to the orders of the Treasury. They may ap|)oint col- 
 lectors and other subordinate officers, and give Ihemr such 
 salaries and allowances as the Treasury shall direct: but they 
 are not allowed to increase the number of interior officers 
 without the permission and approval of the Treasury. No 
 member of the House of Commons can be a commissioner of 
 excise. 
 
 Officers of Excise No officer of excise is to vote or in- 
 terfere at any election of a member of parliament, under pain 
 of forfeiting 500/., and being rendered incapable of ever 
 holding any office or place of trust under his Majesty. 
 
 No person holding any office of excise is to deal m any sort 
 of goods subject to tiie excise laws. 
 
 Any person bribing or oftermg to bribe any officer of excise 
 shall forfeit 500Z. ; and every officer accei)ting such bribe, or 
 doing, conniving at, or permitting any act or thing whereby 
 any of the provisions of the excise laws may be evaded or 
 broken, shall forfeit 500i., and be declared mcapable of ever 
 after serving his Majesty in any capacity whatever. But if 
 any of the parties to such illegal transactions shall inform 
 against the other, before any proceedings thereupon shall have 
 been instituted, he shall be indemnified against the penalties 
 and disabilities imposed for such offences. 
 
 Duties and Powers of Officers. — It is lawful for any officer 
 to enter any building or other place, used for carrying on any 
 trade subject to the excise^ either by niglit or by day (but if by 
 night, in the presence of a constable or peace officer), to in- 
 spect the same, &c. And upon an officer making oath that he 
 has cause to suspect that goods forfeited under the excise acts 
 are deposited in any firivate house or place, 2 commissioners cf 
 excise, or 1 justice of the peace, may grant a warrant to the 
 officer to enter such house or place (if^ in the night, in the pre- 
 sence of a constable), to search for and seize such forfeited 
 goods. 
 
 Specimen Books may be left by the officers on the premises of 
 persons subject to the excise laws ; and any one who shall re- 
 move or deface such books shall be liable to a penalty of 200/. 
 
 Removing Goods to avoid Diiti/. — Goods fraudulently removed 
 or secreted, in order to avoid the duty, to he forfeited ; and 
 every person assisting in such removal shall forfeit and lose 
 treble the value of such goods, or 100/., at the discretion of the 
 coimnissioners. 
 
 Obstructing Officers. — All persons who shall oppose, molest, 
 &c. any officer of excise in the execution of his duty» shall 
 resi>ectively, for every such offence, forfeit 200/. 
 
 Officers violently resisted in making any seizure may oppose 
 force to force ; and in the event of their wounding, maiming, 
 or killing ^ny person, when so opposed, they shall be admitted 
 to bail, and may plead the general issue. 
 
 Justices, mayors, bailiffs, constables, &c. 'are required to 
 assist excise officers ; and any constable, or peace officer, who, 
 on notice and request, declines going with an excise officer, is 
 to forfeit 20/. for every such offence. 
 
 Claimants of Goods seized. — No claim shall be entered for 
 goods seized, except in the real names of the proprietors of 
 such goods. Claimants are bound with 2 sureties in a penalty 
 of 100/. to pay the expenses of claim; and in default thereof 
 the goods are to be condemned. 
 
 Proceedings in Courts of Law. — All penalties under the ex- 
 cise laws may be sued for and recovered in tlw Courts of Ex- 
 chequer at Westminster, Edinburgh, or Dublin respectively. 
 
 EXPORTS, the articles exported, or 
 
 PORTS. ) 
 
 according as the ofTencc may have taken place in England, 
 Scotland, or Ireland ; provided tlsat the proceedings in the 
 courts commence within 3 year* aftei: the commission of tlie 
 offence. 
 
 Informations for the recovery of penalties against the excise 
 laws in London may be heard and adjudged by any 3 or more 
 of the comtnissioners of excise; and in other places such in- 
 formations may be e^hibited before I or more justii;es of the 
 peace, and may be heard and adjudged by any 2 or more such 
 justices. 
 
 Mitigation of Penalties. — Jusiices are authorised, if they 
 shall see cause, except when there Is a special provision to the 
 contrary, to mitigate any penalty incurred tor any offence 
 committed against the excise laws to one fourth part thereof; 
 but if is lawful for the commissioners of excise, when they see 
 cause, further to mitigate, or entirely remit, such penalty. 
 
 Dittribution of Penalties. — AM penalties and forfeitures in- 
 curred under the excise acts are to be distributed, half to 
 his Majesty, and half to the officer or person who shall dis- 
 cover, inform, or sue for the penalty. On proof being made 
 of any officer acting collusively in making a seizure, the 
 commissioners may direct his share to be forfeited. 
 
 Oaths and Affirmations. — Persons wilfully taking or making 
 any false oath or affirmation as to any matter connected with 
 the excise laws shall, upon being convicted of such offence- 
 suffer the pains and penalties incident to wilful and corrupt 
 perjury ; and those procuring or suborning such persons to 
 swear or affirm falsely shall, upon conviction, be liaole to the 
 pains and penalties incident to subornation of perjury. 
 
 Actions against Excise Officers. — No writ, summons, or pro. 
 cess shall be sued out or served upon, nor shall any action be 
 brought, raised, or prosecuted against any officer of excise for 
 any thing done under any of the excise laws, until after the 
 expiration of 1 calendar month next after notice in writing 
 has been delivered to such officer, specifjing the cause of such 
 action, and the name and place of abode of the person in whose 
 name it is to be brought. No action shall lie .against emy excise 
 oflricer for any thing done under the excise laws, unless it be 
 brought within 3 months after the cause of action shall have 
 arisen. If judgment be given against the plaintiff, and in 
 favour of tlie defendant, the latter shall, in every such action, 
 have treble costs awarded to him. 
 
 Forging Certificates, S(C — By the 41 Geo. 3. c.91. it is en- 
 acted, that if any one shall forge, countet^eit, or knowingly 
 give any forged certificate required to be granted by any 
 officer of excise, he shall be guilty of felony, and being con- 
 victed, shall be transported for 7 years. 
 
 All indivi'tuals carrying on any business subjected to the 
 control of tiie excise, must take out licences renewable an- 
 nually on the 5Ci of July. — (See Licknxks.) 
 
 All such indiv iduals are also obliged to make entries of every 
 building, place, vessel, or utensil, as the case may be, in the 
 name or the real owner, with the officer of excise in whose 
 survey such building, place, &c. shall be situated. Indivi- 
 duals found employed in unentered excise manufactories are 
 severally liable in a penalty of 30/. for the first offence ; and in 
 the event of any such offender refusing or neglecting to pay 
 such penalty, he is to be committed to the house of correction 
 or other prison for 3 calendar months, to be kept to hard 
 labour, and not to be liberated until the fine of 30/. has been 
 paid, or the term of 3 months has expired ; and if found guilty 
 of a second offence, the line is to be 60/. ; and in the event of 
 
 its not being paid, the imprisonment is to be for 6 months. 
 
 (7 &8 Geo. 4. C.53. s. 33.) 
 
 Permits are usually necessary for the removal of exciseable 
 commodities. — (See Pekmits.) 
 
 sent beyond seas. — (See Imports and Ex- 
 
 F 
 
 FACTOR, an agent employed by some one individual or individuals, to transact 
 business on his or their account. He is not generally resident in the same place as his 
 principal, but, usually, in a foreign country. He is authorised, either hy letter of 
 attorney or otherwise, to receive, buy, and sell goods and merchandise ; and, generally, 
 to transact all sorts of business on account of his employees, under such limitations and 
 conditions as the latter may choose to impose. A very large proportion of the foreign 
 trade of this and most other countries is now carried on by means of factors or agents. 
 
 Factors and brokers are, in some respects, nearly identical, but in others they are 
 radically different. A factor," said Mr. Justice Holroyd, in a late case, "differs ma- 
 terially from a broker. The former is a person to whom goods are sent or consigned ; 
 and he has not only the possession, but, in consequence of its being usual to advance 
 money upon them, has also a special property in them, and a general lien upon them. 
 When, therefore, he sells in his own name, it is within the scope of his authority ; and 
 it may be right, therefore, that the principal should be bound by the consequences of such 
 sale. But the case of a broker is dilferent : he has not the po.ssession of the good.s, and 
 so the vendor cannot be deceived by the circumstance ; and, besides, the employing a 
 person to sell goods as a broker does not authorise him to sell in his own name. If, 
 therefore, he sells in his own name, he acts beyond the scope of his authority; and his 
 principal is not bound." 
 
 A factor is usually jjaid by a per-centage or commission on the goods he sells or buys. 
 If he act under what is called a dd credere commission, that is, if he guarantee the prir.« 
 
FACTOR. 
 
 569 
 
 of Hie goods sold on account of his principal, he receives an additional percentage to in- 
 demnify him for this additional responsibility. In cases of this sort the factor stands in 
 the vendee's place, and must answer to the principal for the value of the goods sold. 
 But where the factor undertakes no responsibility, and intimates that he acts only on 
 account of another, it is clearly established that he is not liable in the event of the 
 vendee's failing. 
 
 The sound maxim, that the principal is responsible for the acts of his agent, prevails 
 universally in courts of law and equity. In order to bind the jjrincipal, it is necessary 
 only that third parties should deal bond fide with the agent, and that the conduct of tho 
 latter should be conformable to the common usage and mode of dealing. Thus, a factor 
 may sell goods upon credit, that being in the ordinary course of conducting mercantile 
 affairs : but a stock broker, though acting bond fide, and with a view to the benefit of his 
 principal, cannot sell stock upon credit, unless he have special instructions to that effect 
 that being contrary to the usual course of business. 
 
 A sale by a factor creates a contract between the owner and buyer ; and this rule holds 
 even in cases where the factor acts upon a del credere commission. Hence, if a factor 
 sell goods, and the owner give notice to the buyer to pay the price to him, and not to the 
 factor, the buyer will not be justified in afterwards paying the factor, and the owner may 
 bring his action against the buyer for the price, unless the factor has a lien thereon. But 
 if no such notice be given, a payment to the individual selling is quite suflScient. 
 
 If a factor buy goods on accouut of his principal, where he is accustomed so to do, 
 the contract of the factor binds the principal to a performance of the bargain ; and the 
 principal is the person to be sued for non-performance. But it is ruled, that if a factor 
 enter into a charterparty of affreightment with the master of a ship, the contract obliges 
 him only, unless he lade the vessel with his principal's goods, in which case the principal 
 and lading become liable, and not the factor. Where a factor, who is authorised to sell 
 goods in his own name, makes the buyer debtor to himself ; then, though he be not 
 answerable to the principal for the debt, if the money be not paid, yet he has a right to 
 receive it, if it be paid, and his receipt is a sufficient discharge ; the factor may, in such 
 a case, enforce the payment by action, and the buyer cannot defend himself by alleging 
 that the principal was indebted to him in more than the amount. 
 
 " Where a factor," said Lord Mansfield, " dealing for a principal, but concealing that 
 principal, delivers goods in his own name, the person contracting with him has a right 
 to consider him, to all intents and purposes, as the principal ; and though the real prin- 
 cipal may appear, and bring an action on that contract against the purchaser of the goods, 
 yet that purchaser may set off any claim he may have against the factor, in answer to the 
 demand of the principal." 
 
 Merchants employing the same factor run the joint risk of his actions, although they 
 are strangers to each other : thus, if different merchants remit to a factor different bales 
 of goods, and the factor sell them as a single lot to an individual who is to pay one 
 moiety of the price down and the other at 6 months' end ; if the buyer fail before the 
 second payment, each merchant must bear a proportional share of the loss, and be con- 
 tent to accept his dividend of the money advanced. — (^Beawes, Lex Merc.) 
 
 A factor employed, without his knowledge, in negotiating an illegal or fraudulent 
 transaction, has an action against his principal. On this ground it was decided, that a 
 merchant who had consigned counterfeit jewels to his factor, representing them to be 
 genuine, should make full compensation to the factor for the injury done to him by 
 being concerned in such a transaction, as well as to the persons to whom the jewels had 
 been sold. 
 
 The office of a factor or agent being one of very great trust and responsibility, those 
 who undertake it are bound, both legally and morally, to conduct themselves with the 
 utmost fidelity and circumspection. A factor should take the greatest care of his prin- 
 cipal's goods in his hands : he should be punctual in advising him as to his transactions 
 on his behalf, in sales, purchases, freights, and, more particularly, bills of exchange : 
 he should deviate as seldom as possible from the terms, and never from the spirit and 
 tenor, of the orders he receives as to the sale of commodities ; in the execution of a 
 commission for purchasing goods, he should endeavour to conform as closely as prac- 
 ticable to his instructions as to the quality or kind of goods : if he give more for them 
 than he is authorised, they may be thrown on his hands ; but he is bound to buy them 
 for as much less as he possibly can. After the goods are bought, he must dispose of them 
 according to order. If he send them to a different place from that to which he was 
 directed, tliey will be at his risk, unless the principal, on getting advice of the transaction, 
 consent to acknowledge it,* 
 
 ♦ " Whoever, " says Dr. Paley, " undertakes another man's business, makes it his own ; that is, pro. 
 mises to employ upon it the same care, attention, and diligence, that he would do if it were actually his 
 own ; for he knows tliat the business was committed to him with that expectation. And he promises 
 nothing more than this. Therefore, an agent is not obhged to wait, inquire, solicit, ride about the country. 
 
570 
 
 FACTOR. 
 
 A factor who sells a commodity under the price he is ordered, may be obliged to make 
 good the difference, unless the commodity he of a perishable nature and not in a condition 
 longer to he kept. And if he purchase goods for another at a fixed rate, and their price 
 having afterwards risen, he fraudulently takes them to himself, and sends them some- 
 where else, in order to secure an advantage, he will be found, by the custom of merchants, 
 liable in damages to his principal. 
 
 If a factor, in conformity with a merchant's orders, buy with his money, or on his 
 credit, a commodity he is directed to purchase, and, without giving advice of the trans- 
 action, sells it again at a profit, appropriating that profit to himself, the merchant may 
 recover it from him, and have him amerced for fraud. 
 
 If a factor buy, conformably to his instructions, goods of which he is rohhed, or which 
 suffer some unavoidable injury, he is discharged, and the loss falls on the principal. But 
 if the goods be stolen from the factor, he will not be so easily discharged ; for the fact 
 of their having been abstracted by stealth, and not by violence, raises a strong presumption 
 that he had not taken that reasonable care of them which was incumbent upon him. If, 
 however, he can prove that the goods were lodged in a place of security, and that he 
 had not been guilty of positive negligence, nor exercised less care towards them than 
 towards his own property, he will not be held responsible even for a theft committed 
 by his servants. — (Jones on Bailments, 2d ed. p. 76. ; Chittyon Commercial Law, vol. iii. 
 p. 368.) 
 
 If a factor, having money in his hands belonging to his principal, neglect to insure a 
 ship and goods, according to order, he must, in the event of the ship miscarrying, make 
 good the damage ; and if he make any composition with the insurers after insurance, 
 without orders to that effect, he is answerable for the whole insurance. A principal, 
 at the end of a very long letter, directed his agent thus : " Observe the premium on this 
 value is also to be insured." But the agent, not noticing this sentence, neglected to 
 insure the premium ; and, being sued, was held liable for the omission. 
 
 If goods are remitted to a factor, and he make a false entry of them at the Custom- 
 house, or land them without entry, and tliey are, in consequence, seized or forfeited, he 
 is bound to make good the damage to his principal : but if the factor make his entry 
 according to invoice or letters of advice, and these proving erroneous, the goods are seized, 
 he is discharged. 
 
 It is now a settled point, that a factor has a lien on goods consigned to him, not only 
 for incidental charges, but as an item of mutual account for the balance due to him so 
 long as he remains in possession. If he be surety in a bond for his principal, he has a 
 lien on the goods sold by him on account of such principal, to the amount of the sum he 
 is boimd for. 
 
 It being the general rule of law " that property does not change while in transitu" or 
 in the hands of a carrier, a consignment made hefore the bankruptcy of a consignor, but 
 not arriving till aftei\ remains the property of the consignor, except, indeed, where the 
 delivery is made hy the order and upon the account of the consignee, and is a complete 
 alienation from the consignor. In the case, therefore, of a consignment to a factor, the 
 property remains the consignor's, and passes into the hands of his assignees. When a 
 factor has a lien on goods, he has a right to the price, though received after the bank^ 
 ruptcy. 
 
 Where general or unlimited orders are given to a factor, he is left to buy and sell op. 
 the best conditions he can. And if detriment arise to a principal from the proceedings 
 of a factor acting under such authority, he has no redx'ess, unless he can show that he 
 acted fraudulently or with gross negligence. 
 
 A factor or broker acting against the interest of his principal cannot even receive his 
 
 toil, or study, whilst there remains a possibility of benefiting his employer. If he exert as much activity, 
 and use such caution, as the value of the business in his judgment deserves ; that is, as he would have 
 thought sufficient if the same interest of his own had been at stake ; he has discharged his duty, although 
 it should afterwards turn out, that by more activity, and longer perseverance, he might have concluded 
 the business with greater advantage." — {Moral and Pol. Phil. c. 12.) 
 
 There seems to be a good deal of laxity in this statement. It is necessary to distinguish between those 
 who, in executing a commission, render their services for the particular occasion only, without hire, and 
 those who underta'Ke it in the course of business, making a regular charge for their trouble. If the former 
 bestow on it that ordinary degree of care and attention which the generality of mankind bestow on similar 
 affairs of their own, it is all, perhaps, tiiat can be expected : but the latter will be justly censurable, if they 
 do not execute their engagements on accountof others with that care and diligence which provident and 
 attentive father of a family " uses in his own private concerns. It is their duty to exert themselves pro. 
 portionally to the exigency of the affair in hand ; and neither to do any thing, how minute soever, by which 
 their employers may sustain damage, nor omit any thing, however inconsiderable, which tlie nature of 
 the act requires. Perhaps the best general rule on the subject is, to sui>i)Ose a factor or agent bound to 
 exert that degree of care and vigilance that may be reasojiably expected of him by others. At all events, 
 it is clear he is not to be regulated by his own notions of the *' value of the business." A man may ne- 
 glect business of his own, or not think it worth attending to ; but he is not, therefore, to be excused for 
 neglecting any similar business he has undertaken to transact for others. — fl'here are some very good 
 observations on this subject in Sir William Jones's Essay on Bailments, 2d ed. p. 53. and passim.) 
 
FACTOR. 
 
 571 
 
 commission. If he pay money on account of his principal, without being autliorived, 
 he cannot recover it baclc. 
 
 An agent cannot delegate his rights to another so as to bind the principal, unless ex- 
 pressly authorised to nominate a sub-agent. 
 
 (For further information as to the general powers and liabilities of factors and agents, 
 see Beawes's Lex Mercatoria, art. Factors, Supercarffoes, Sfc. ; Chitty^s Commercial Law, 
 vol. iii. c. 3.; Woolrych on Commercial Law, pp. 317 — 329. &c. See also the article 
 Brokers.) 
 
 The law with respect to the effect of the transactions of factors or agents on third 
 parties was placed on its present footing by the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 94. Under the law that 
 previously obtained, it was held, that a factor, as such, had no authority to jdedye, but 
 only to sell the goods of his principal ; and it was repeatedly decided that a principal 
 might recover back goods on which a bond fide advance of money had been made by a 
 third party, without his being bound to repay such advance ; and notwithstanding this 
 third party was wholly ignorant that the individual pledging the goods held them as a 
 mere factor or agent. It used also to be held, that hona fide purchasers of goods from 
 factors or agents not vested with the power of sale, might be made liable to pay the price 
 of the goods a second time to the real owner. 
 
 The extreme hardship and injurious influence of such regulations is obvious. It is the 
 business of a principal to satisfy himself as to the conduct and character of the factor or 
 agent he employs ; and if he make a false estimate of them, it is more equitable, surely, 
 that he should be the sufferer, than those who have no means of knowing any thing 
 of the matter. The injustice of the law in question, and the injury it did to the com- 
 merce of the country, had frequently excited attention ; and was very ably set forth by 
 Lord Liverpool, in his speech in the House of Lords, on moving the second reading of 
 the new bill. 
 
 " Those of their Lordships who were acquainted with commercial transactions, would know that money 
 was frequently advanced on goods, without its being possible for the person advancing the money to have 
 any further acquaintance with the transactions, than that the factor was in actual possession of the goods. 
 It then became a question, putting fraud out of view, if the factor became a bankrupt, or in any other 
 way failed to execute his engagements, whether the loss should fall on the principal who had consigned 
 these goods, or on the pledf^ee who had advanced money on Uiem. It had been of late ruled, that if the 
 factor were intrusted only to dispose of the property, the loss must fall on the pledgee. He meant to con- 
 tend, that this was contrary to equity, and contrary to analogy; that it was disapproved of by high autho- 
 rity, and was contrary to the law in every country of the world, except this, and the United States of 
 America, which had drawn their law from this country. It was contrary to equity, he thought, that the 
 pledgee, who had advanced his money without any fraud, but on the bona fide possession of the goods, 
 should suffer. He had placed no confidence, but the principal who had appointed the factor had placed 
 confidence. He could limit him in his operations as he pleased — he could give him any kind of instruc- 
 tions — he might qualify his power — he was bound to take precautions before placing confidence ; and 
 he was in all respects more liable to suffer from his faults than the pledgee. The latter knew nothing of 
 the power of the factor, he saw only the goods, and advanced his money on what was a sufficient security 
 for repayment. On every principle of natural equity, therefore, the loss ought to fall, not on the pledgee, 
 but on the principal. He knew that this view was connected with one very important question — that ot 
 possession and tiUe; but it was not possible for transactions to go on, unless the possession was admitted 
 as the title to the goods. If this were an indifferent question, or a question involving only a few cases, he 
 would not have called on their Lordships to legislate on this subject ; but all the commercial interests of 
 the country were connected with it. And he might say he believed that two thirds of the whole com- 
 merce of the country was carried on by coiTsigning goods to a factor, and leaving it to his discretion to 
 dispose of them to the greatest advantage, sending them to market when he pleased, and raising money 
 on them when he could not send them to market. Bills of exchange. Exchequer bills, and money bills of 
 every description, were subject to this rule. If a person consigned Exchequer bills to a second person, 
 and he parted with them, the third party who obtained them was held to have a right to them. Com- 
 mercial proceedings were of as much importance as money proceedings, and he could not see why they 
 should not receive the same security. It might be asked, perhaps, when this was felt to be so great an 
 evil, why it was not altered before ; but it seemed to be one of those things which had grown up gradually, 
 and which did much mischief before they became extensively known. The first decision, he believed, 
 which established the law as it now stood, was delivered in 174'2; and he knew that Lord Chief Justice 
 Gibbs had said, he could not explain the origin of that decision. He supposed it might have been dictated 
 by some fraud. That decision, the Lord Chief Justice maintained, was at variance with the best interests 
 of commerce, and had grown out of circumstances he could not explain. From the time of the first 
 decision, the decisions had not been numerous, till of late years. He did not doubt but the judges had 
 decided according to the law as it was established by these precedents ; but in doing that, they had ex- 
 pressed their regret that these precedents had been established. [Here his Lordship read an extract from 
 opinions delivered by the late Lord Chief Justice Ellenborough, and a late judge, Mr. Le Blanc, expressing 
 their regret, in deciding cases according to these precedents, that they had been established.] He inferred 
 from these opinions, that these judges, though they had felt themselves obliged to decide in this way, sup- 
 posed that the law was contrary to the general analogy of our laws, and to the principles of justice. He 
 then came to the last consideration, the law of this country being in this respect different from the law ot 
 all other countries, except the law of the United States of America. In all other countries, the law was 
 recognised to be what he wished to establish it by the bill before their Lordships. When there was no 
 evidence of fraud, it was held, that the man, advancing money on goods held by a factor, should not 
 suffer for his faults, but that the person who confided in the factor must be the sufferer. This was also 
 the law in Scotland. He had understood, too, that the evils of the law were felt in America, and that 
 means had been taken for bringing it belore the congress, with a view to assimilate the law of America to 
 the law of other countries. If the question were examined by the principles of equity, by analogy with 
 other cases, by the authority of those who decided in our courts, or by the practice of other countries, it 
 would be found that the reasons were strong in favour of the bill. It was of great importance in com- 
 mercial transactions, that our law should be like the laws of other countries. It was not the same with * 
 the laws relative to real property — to our local law, if he might so call it ; but when the bill was found«?d 
 on equity and analogy, he thought it was an additional reason in its favour, that it assimilated our com- 
 mercial law to the commercial law of other countries. He did not know if he had made himself under- 
 
572 
 
 FACTOR. 
 
 stood, or if he had sufficiently explained the object of the bill ; but the measure was founded in justice 
 and he hoped to have their Lordships' consent to it." The noble Earl concluded by moving the second 
 reading of the bill. 
 
 By the new law, all persons intrusted with and in possession of goods are supposed, 
 unless the contrary be made distinctly to appear, to be their owners, so far, at least, that 
 they may pledge them or sell them to third parties. The following are the principal 
 clauses of this important act, 6 Geo. 4. c. 94. 
 
 Factors or Agents having Goods or Merchandise in their Possession, shall be deemed to be the true 
 Owners. — Any person intrusted, for the purpose of consignment or of sale, with any goods, wares, or 
 merchandise, and who shall have shipped such in his own name, and any person in whose name any 
 goods, wares, or merchandise shall be shipped by any other person, shall be deemed to be the true owner, 
 so far as to entitle the consignee to a lien thereon in respect of any money or negotiable security advanced 
 by such consignee for the use of the person in whose name such goods, wares, or merchandise shall be 
 shipped, or in respect of any money or negotiable security received by him to the use of such consignee, 
 in like manner as if such person was the true owner ; provided such consignee shall not have notice by 
 the bill of lading, or otherwise, before the time of any advance of such money or negotiable security, or 
 of such receipt of money or negotiable security, in respect of which such lien is claimed, that such person 
 so shipping in his own name, or in whose name any goods, wares, or merchandise shall be shipped by any 
 person, is not the actual and bond fide owner, any law, usage, or custom to the contrary thereof notwith- 
 standing : provided also, that the person in whose name such goods, wares, or merchandise are so shipped 
 shall be taken, for the purposes of this act, to have been intrusted therewith for the purpose of consign, 
 ment or of sale, unless the contrary thereof shall be made to appear by bill of discovery, or be made to 
 appear in evidence by any person disputing such fact. — § 1. 
 
 Persons in Possession of Bills of Lading to be the Owners, so far as to make valid Contracts. — From 
 and after the 1st of October, 1826, any person intrusted with any bill of lading, India warrant, dock war- 
 rant, warehouse keeper's certificate, wharfinger's certificate, warrant or order for delivery of goods, shall 
 be deemed to be the true owner, so far as to give validity to any contract or agreement thereafter to be 
 entered into by such person so intrusted, with any person, body politic or corporate, for the sale of the 
 said goods, wares, and merchandise, or for the deposit or pledge thereof as a security for any money or 
 negotiable instrument advanced or given by such person, body politic or corporate, upon the faith of such 
 documents ; provided such person, body politic or corporate, shall not have notice, by such documents or 
 otherwise, that such person so intrusted is not the actual and bond fide owner. — ^ 2. 
 
 No Person to acquire a Security upon Goods in the Hands of an Agent for an antecedent Debt, beyond 
 the Amount of the Agent's Interest in the Goods. — In case any person, body politic or corporate, shall, 
 after this act, accept any such goods, in deposit or pledge, from any such person so intrusted, without 
 notice as aforesaid, as a security for any debt or demand due from such person so intrusted, to such person, 
 body politic or corporate, before the time of such deposit, then such person, body politic or corporate, so 
 accepting such goods in deposit or pledge, shall acquire no further interest in the said goods, or any such 
 document, than was possessed, or might have been enforced, by the said person so intrusted, at the time of 
 such deposit or pledge; but such person, body politic or corporate, so accepting such goods in deposit or 
 pledge, shall acquire, possess, and enforce such right, title, or interest as might have been enforced by such 
 person so intrusted. — § 3. 
 
 Persons may contract with known Agents in the ordinary Course of Business, or out of that Course, if 
 within the Agent's Authority. — From and after the 1st of October, 1826, it shall be lawful for any person, 
 body politic or corporate, to contract with any agent, intrusted with any goods, or to whom the same may 
 be consigned, for the purchase of such goods, and to receive the same of and pay for the same to such 
 agent ; and such contract and payment shall be binding upon the owner, notwithstanding such person, 
 body politic or corporate, siiall have notice that the person making and entering into such contract, or on 
 whose behalf such contract is made, is an agent ; provided such contract and payment be made in the 
 usual course of business, and that such person, body politic or corporate, shall not have notice that such 
 agent is not authorised to sell the said goods, or to receive the said purchase money. — \ 4. 
 
 Persons may accept and take Goods in Pledge from known Agents. — From and after the passing of this 
 act, it shall be lawful for any person, body politic or corporate, to accept any such goods, or any such 
 document as aforesaid, in deposit or pledge from any factor or agent, notwithstanding such person, body 
 politic or corporate, shall have notice that the person making such deposit or pledge is a factor or agent ; 
 but then and in that case such person, body politic or corporate, shall acquire no further interest in the 
 said goods, or any such document, than was possessed or might have been enforced by the said factor or 
 agent, at the time of such deposit or pledge ; but such person, body politic or corporate, shall acquire, 
 possess, and enforce such right, title, or interest as was possessed and might have been enforced by such 
 factor or agent. — § .5. 
 
 Right of the true Owner to follow his Goods while in the Hands of his Agent or of his Assignee in case 
 of Bankruptcy. — Nothing herein contained shall be deemed to deprive the true owner or proprietor of 
 such goods from demanding and recovering the same from his factor or agent, before the same shall have 
 been so sold, deposited, or pledged, or from the assignees of such factor or agent, in the event of his, her, 
 or their bankruptcy ; nor to prevent such owner or proprietor from demanding or recovering of and from 
 any persons, bodies politic or corporate, the price agreed to be paid for the purchase of such goods, subject 
 to any riglit of set-oft'on the part of such persons, bodies politic or corporate, against such factor or agent ; 
 not [nor] to prevent such owner or proprietor from demanding or recovering of and from such persons, 
 bodies politic or corporate, such goods, so deposited or pledged, upon repayment of the money, or on 
 restoration of the negotiable instrument so advanced or given on the security of such goods, by such per- 
 sons, bodies politic or corporate, to such factor or agent; and upon payment of such further sum, or on 
 restoration of such other negotiable instrument (if any) as may have been advanced or given by such 
 factor or agent, to such owner or proprietor, or on payment of a sum equal to the amount of such instru- 
 ment; nor to prevent the said owner or proprietor from recovering of and from such persons, bodies 
 l)olitic or corporate, any balance remaining in their hands, as the produce of the sale of such goods, after 
 deducting thereout the amount of the money or negotiable instrument so advanced or given upon the 
 security thereof: provided always, that in case of the bankruptcy of any such factor or agent, the owner 
 or proprietor of the goods so pledged and redeemed shall be held to have discharged p7 0 tanto the debt due 
 by thein to the estate of such bankrupt. — \ 6. 
 
 Agents fraudulently pledging the Goods of their Principals. — The 7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 29. \ 51. enacts, 
 " That if any factor or agent intrusted, for the purpose of sale, with any goods or merchandise, or in- 
 trusted with any bill of lading, warehouse keeper's or wharfinger's certificate, or warrant or order for the 
 delivery of goods or merchandise, shall, /or his own benefit, and in violation of good faith, deposit or 
 pledge any such goods or merchandise, or any of the said (iocuments, as a security for any money or ne- 
 gotiable instrument borrowed or received by such factor or agent, at or before the time of making such 
 •leposit or pledge, or inten>ied to be thereafter borrowed or received, every such offender shall be guilty of 
 a misdemeanor, and, being convicto<l thereof, shall be liable, at the discretion of the court, to be trans- 
 ported beyond the seas for any term not exceeding 14 years, nor less than 7 years, or to suffer such other 
 punishment by fine or imprisonment, or by both, as the court shall award ; but no such factor or agent 
 shall be liable to any prosecution for depositing or pledging any such goods or merchandise, or any of the 
 «aid documents, in case the same shall not be made a security for, or subject to the payment of, any greatct 
 
FACTORAGE. — FACTORY. 
 
 573 
 
 mm of money than the amount which, at the time of such deposit or pledge, was justly due and owing to 
 such factor or agent from his principal, together with the amount of any bill or bills of exchange drawn 
 by or on account of such principal, atid accepted by such factor or agent." 
 
 This provision does not extend to partners not being vy to the offence ; nor docs it take away any 
 remedy at law or equity which any party aggrieved by any offence might have beet entitled to against 
 such ofTendcr. And no one^hall be liable to be conviitted by any evidence whatever us an offender against 
 this act, in respect of any act done by him, if he shall, at any time previously to his being indicted for 
 such off ence, have disclosed such acts, on oath, in consequence of any compulsory process of any court of 
 law or equity, in any action, suit, &c. which shall have been bonujide instituted by any party aggrieved, 
 or if he shall have disclosed the same in any examination or deposition before any commissioners of 
 bankrupt. — ^52. 
 
 FACTORAGE, or COMMISSION, the allowance given to factors by the mer- 
 chants and manufacturers, &c. who employ them : it is a percentage on the goods they 
 purchase or sell on account of their principals ; and varies in different countries, and as 
 it refers to different articles. It is customary for factors, as observed in the previous 
 article, to insure the debts due to those for whom they sell for an additional, or dd credere, 
 commission, generally averaging from 1^ to 2 per cent. Factorage or commission is 
 also frequently charged at a certain rate per cask, or other package, measure, or weight, 
 especially when the factor is only employed to receive or deliver : this commission is 
 usually fixed by special agreement between the merchant and factor. 
 
 Factorage, Brokerage, and Commission Table. 
 
 Arat. 
 
 At 1 per CtJAtiper Ct. 
 
 At f per CtjAtl per Ct. 
 
 At 1 per Ct'Atf per Ct 
 
 |At|per Ct. 
 
 At 1 per Ct. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 L. t. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. t. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 1. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. t. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 1. d. 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 L. 1. d. 
 
 I 
 
 0 0 Oi 
 
 0 0 
 
 Oh 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 0 
 
 I' 
 
 0 0 13 
 
 0 0 2 
 
 0 0 24 
 
 2 
 
 0 0 0} 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 I! 
 
 0 0 
 
 2i 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 3i 
 
 0 0 4 
 
 0 0 4| 
 
 3 
 
 0 0 o| 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 35 
 
 0 0 
 
 f 
 
 0 0 5| 
 
 0 0 6i 
 
 007 
 
 4 
 
 0 0 1 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 44 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 007 
 
 0 0 8? 
 
 0 0 9* 
 
 5 
 
 0 0 u 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 C 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 0 
 
 I' 
 
 009 
 
 0 0 lOj 
 
 0 1 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 0 l| 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 10| 
 
 0 1 o| 
 
 0 1 2 
 
 7 
 
 0 0 2; 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 P 
 
 0 0 
 
 k 
 
 0 0 lOj 
 
 0 1 o| 
 
 0 1 ik 
 
 0 1 4| 
 
 S 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 1 2I 
 
 0 1 4| 
 
 0 1 7 
 
 9 
 
 0 0 2| 
 
 0 0 
 
 P 
 
 0 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 I' 
 
 0 1 4 
 
 0 1 6| 
 
 0 1 9.i 
 
 10 
 
 0 0 5 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 1 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 
 0 1 6 
 
 0 1 9 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 0 3 6 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 SO 
 
 0 0 9 
 
 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 9 
 
 0 4 6 
 
 0 5 3 
 
 0 6 0 
 
 40 
 
 0 1 0 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 6 0 
 
 070 
 
 0 8 0 
 
 50 
 
 0 t 3 
 
 0 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 9 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 7 6 
 
 0 8 9 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 60 
 
 0 1 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 7 
 
 6 
 
 090 
 
 0 10 6 
 
 0 12 0 
 
 70 
 
 0 1 9 
 
 0 3 
 
 6 
 
 0 5 
 
 3 
 
 0 7 
 
 0 
 
 0 8 
 
 9 
 
 0 10 6 
 
 0 12 3 
 
 0 14 0 
 
 80 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 12 0 
 
 0 14 0 
 
 0 16 0 
 
 90 
 
 0 2 3 
 
 0 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 11 
 
 3 
 
 0 13 6 
 
 0 15 9 
 
 0 18 0 
 
 100 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 7 
 
 6 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 12 
 
 6 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 0 17 6 
 
 1 0 0 
 
 200 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 15 
 
 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 5 
 
 0 
 
 1 10 0 
 
 1 15 0 
 
 2 0 0 
 
 300 
 
 0 7 6 
 
 0 15 
 
 0 
 
 1 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 1 17 
 
 6 
 
 2 5 0 
 
 2 12 6 
 
 3 0 0 
 
 40U 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 0 
 
 3 10 0 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 500 
 
 0 12 6 
 
 1 5 
 
 0 
 
 1 17 
 
 6 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 2 
 
 6 
 
 3 15 0 
 
 4 7 6 
 
 5 0 0 
 
 600 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 2 5 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 15 
 
 0 
 
 4 10 0 
 
 5 6 0 
 
 6 0 0 
 
 700 
 
 0 17 6 
 
 I 15 
 
 0 
 
 2 12 
 
 6 
 
 3 10 
 
 0 
 
 4 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 5 0 
 
 6 2 6 
 
 7 0 0 
 
 800 
 
 1 0 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 0 0 
 
 7 0 0 
 
 8 0 0 
 
 900 
 
 1 2 6 
 
 2 5 
 
 0 
 
 3 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 10 
 
 0 
 
 5 12 
 
 6 
 
 6 15 0 
 
 7 17 6 
 
 9 0 0 
 
 1,000 
 
 I 5 0 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 15 
 
 0 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 5 
 
 0 
 
 7 10 0 
 
 8 15 0 
 
 10 0 0 
 
 2,000 
 
 2 10 0 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 
 
 12 10 
 
 
 15 0 0 
 
 17 10 0 
 
 20 0 0 
 
 3,000 
 
 3 15 0 
 
 7 10 
 
 0 
 
 11 5 
 
 0 
 
 15 0 
 
 0 
 
 18 15 
 
 0 
 
 22 10 0 
 
 26 5 0 
 
 30 0 0 
 
 4,000 
 
 5 0 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 
 
 15 0 
 
 0 
 
 20 0 
 
 0 
 
 25 0 
 
 0 
 
 30 0 0 
 
 35 0 0 
 
 40 0 0 
 
 5,000 
 
 6 5 0 
 
 12 10 
 
 0 
 
 18 1.5 
 
 0 
 
 25 0 
 
 0 
 
 31 5 
 
 0 
 
 37 10 0 
 
 43 15 0 
 
 50 0 0 
 
 10,000 
 
 12 10 0 
 
 25 0 
 
 0 
 
 37 10 
 
 0 
 
 50 0 
 
 0 
 
 62 10 
 
 0 
 
 75 0 0 
 
 87 10 0 
 
 100 0 0 
 
 Amt 
 
 At li per Ct. 
 
 At 2 per Ct. 
 
 At 2i per Ct. 
 
 At 3 per Ct. 
 
 At 4 per Ct. 
 
 At 4| per Ct. 
 
 At 5 per Ct. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 *. </. 
 
 L. X. d. 
 
 L. 1. d. 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 i. *. rf. 
 
 
 0 0 3i 
 
 0 0 4| 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 007 
 
 0 0 9 
 
 0 0 104 
 
 0 1 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 0 7 
 
 0 0 94 
 0 I 2| 
 
 0 1 0 
 
 0 1 24 
 
 0 1 7 
 
 0 1 94 
 
 020 
 
 3 
 
 0 0 104 
 
 0 1 6 
 
 0 1 9k 
 
 0 2 4 
 
 0 2 8| 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 1 SJ 
 
 0 1 7 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 0 2 4| 
 
 0 3 2 
 
 0 3 7 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 1 6 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 0 4 6 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 1 9i 
 
 0 2 4J 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 0 3 7 
 
 0 4 9 
 
 0 5 41 
 
 0 6 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 2 1 
 
 0 2 9* 
 
 0 3 6 
 
 0 4 2i 
 
 0 5 7 
 
 0 6 SS 
 
 0 7 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 2 44 
 
 0 3 25 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 0 4 9| 
 
 0 6 4 
 
 ■ 0 7 2| 
 
 0 8 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 2 8J 
 
 0 3 7 
 
 0 4 6 
 
 0 5 4| 
 
 0 7 2 
 
 0 8 1 
 
 0 9 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 6 0 
 
 0 8 0 
 
 0 9 0 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 6 0 
 
 0 8 0 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 0 12 0 
 
 0 16 0 
 
 0 18 0 
 
 1 0 0 
 
 30 
 
 0 9 0 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 0 18 0 
 
 I 4 0 
 
 I 7 0 
 
 1 10 0 
 
 40 
 
 0 12 0 
 
 0 16 0 
 
 1 0 0 
 
 1 4 0 
 
 1 12 0 
 
 1 16 0 
 
 2 0 0 
 
 50 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 1 0 0 
 
 1 5 0 
 
 1 10 0 
 
 2 0 0 
 
 2 6 0 
 
 2 10 0 
 
 60 
 
 0 18 0 
 
 1 4 0 
 
 1 10 0 
 
 1 16 0 
 
 2 8 0 
 
 2 14 0 
 
 3 0 0 
 
 70 
 80 
 
 1 1 0 
 
 1 8 0 
 
 1 15 0 
 
 2 2 0 
 
 2 16 0 
 
 3 3 0 
 
 3 10 0 
 
 1 4 0 
 
 1 12 0 
 
 2 0 0 
 
 2 8 0 
 
 3 4 0 
 
 3 12 0 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 90 
 
 1 7 0 
 
 1 16 0 
 
 2 5 0 
 
 2 14 0 
 
 3 12 0 
 
 4 1 0 
 
 4 10 0 
 
 loo 
 
 I 10 0 
 
 2 0 0 
 
 2 10 0 
 
 3 0 0 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 4 10 0 
 
 5 0 0 
 
 2oO 
 
 3 0 0 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 5 0 0 
 
 6 0 0 
 
 8 0 0 
 
 9 0 0 
 
 10 0 0 
 
 300 
 
 4 10 0 
 
 6 0 0 
 
 7 10 0 
 
 9 0 0 
 
 12 0 0 
 
 13 10 0 
 
 15 0 0 
 
 400 
 
 6 0 0 
 
 8 0 0 
 
 10 0 0 
 
 12 0 0 
 
 16 0 0 
 
 18 C 0 
 
 20 0 0 
 
 500 
 
 7 10 0 
 
 10 0 0 
 
 12 10 0 
 
 15 0 0 
 
 20 0 0 
 
 22 10 0 
 
 25 0 0 
 
 600 
 
 9 0 0 
 
 12 0 0 
 
 15 0 0 
 
 18 0 0 
 
 24 0 0 
 
 27 0 0 
 
 30 0 0 
 
 700 
 
 10 10 0 
 
 14 0 0 
 
 17 10 0 
 
 21 0 0 
 
 28 0 0 
 
 31 10 0 
 
 35 0 0 
 
 800 
 
 12 0 0 
 
 16 0 0 
 
 2o 0 0 
 
 74 0 0 
 
 32 0 0 
 
 36 0 0 
 
 40 0 0 
 
 900 
 
 13 lO 0 
 
 18 0 0 
 
 22 10 0 
 
 27 0 0 
 
 36 0 0 
 
 40 10 0 
 
 45 0 0 
 
 1,000 
 
 15 0 0 
 
 MO 0 0 
 
 25 0 0 
 
 30 0 0 
 
 40 0 0 
 
 45 0 0 
 
 50 0 0 
 
 2,000 
 
 30 0 0 
 
 40 0 0 
 
 50 0 0 
 
 60 0 0 
 
 80 0 0 
 
 92 0 0 
 
 100 0 0 
 
 3,000 
 
 45 0 0 
 
 60 0 0 
 
 75 0 0 
 
 90 0 0 
 
 120 0 0 
 
 1 135 0 0 
 
 150 0 0 
 
 4,000 
 
 60 0 0 
 
 80 0 0 
 
 100 0 0 
 
 1 20 0 0 
 
 160 0 0 
 
 180 0 0 
 
 200 0 0 
 
 5,000 
 
 75 0 0 
 
 100 0 0 
 
 125 0 0 
 
 1)0 0 0 
 
 200 0 0 
 
 225 0 0 
 
 250 0 0 
 
 10,000 
 
 150 0 0 
 
 200 0 0 
 
 250 0 0 
 
 .^00 0 0 
 
 400 0 0 
 
 ' 450 0 0 
 
 500 0 0 
 
 , FACTORY, a place where merchants and factors reside, to negotiate business for 
 themselves and their correspondents on commission. We have factories in China, 
 Turkey, Portugal, Russia, &c. 
 
674^ FAIRS AND MARKETS. 
 
 FAIRS AND MARKETS. These institutions are very closely allied. A fair, as 
 the term is now generally understood, is only a greater species of market recurring at 
 more distant intervals. Both are appropriated to the sale of 1 or more species of goods, 
 the hiring of servants, or labourers, &c. : but fairs are, in most cases, attended by a 
 greater concourse of people, for whose amusement various exhibitions are got up. 
 
 1. Origin of Fairs. — Institutions of this sort are peculiarly serviceable in the earlier 
 stages of society, and in rude and inland countries. The number of shops, and the 
 commodities in them, are then either comparatively limited, or they are but little fre- 
 quented by dealers ; so that it i for the advantage of all, that fairs should be established, 
 and merchants induced to attend them. For this purpose various privileges have been 
 annexed to fairs, and numerous facilities afforded to the disposal of property in them. 
 To give them a greater degree of solemnity, they were originally, both in the ancient 
 and modern world, associated with religious festivals. In most places, indeed, they are 
 still held on the same day with the wake or feast of the saint to whom the church is 
 dedicated ; and till the practice was prohibited, it was customary, in England, to hold 
 them in churchyards ! — (Jacobus Law Diet. art. Fair. ) But since the growth of towns, 
 and the opportunities afforded for the disposal and purchase of all sorts of produce at 
 the weekly or monthly markets held in them, the utility of fairs, in this country, at least, 
 has very much diminished ; they have, also, lost much of their ancient splendour ; and,, 
 though some of them are still well attended, and of real use, a good number might be 
 advantageously suppressed. 
 
 But it is far otherwise in inland countries, where the facilities for carrying on com- 
 mercial transactions are comparatively circumscribed. There it is of the utmost im- 
 portance, that certain convenient places and specified periods should be appointed for 
 the bringing together of commodities and dealers. This is not only the readiest and 
 best means of promoting commerce, but also of softening national antipathies, and dif- 
 fusing a knowledge of the products, arts, and customs of other countries. 
 
 2. Establishment of English Fairs. — No fair can be holden without grant from the 
 Crown, or a prescription which supposes such grant. And before a patent is granted, 
 it is. usual to have a writ of ad quod damnum executed and returned, that it may not be 
 issued to the prejudice of a similar establishment already existing. The grant usually 
 contains a clause that it shall not be to the hurt of another fair or market ; but this 
 clause, if omitted, will be implied in law : for if the franchise occasion damage either to 
 the king or a subject, in this or any other respect, it will be revoked ; and a person, 
 whose ancient title is prejudiced, is entitled to have a scire facias in the king's name to 
 repeal the letters patent. If his Majesty grant power to hold a fair or market in a par- 
 ticular place, the lieges can resort to no other, even though it be inconvenient. But if 
 no place be appointed, the grantees may keep the fair or market where they please, or 
 rather, where they can most conveniently. 
 
 3. Times of holding Fairs and Markets. — These are either determined by the letters 
 patent appointing the fair or market, or by usage. The statute 2 Edw. 3. c. 15. enacts, 
 that the duration of the fair shall be declared at its commencement, and that it shall not 
 be continued beyond the specified time. By statute 5 Edw. 3. c. 5., any merchant 
 selling goods after the stipulated time is to forfeit double the value of the goods sold. 
 
 4. Effect of Sales in Fairs and Markets. — A bond fide sale made in a fair or open 
 market, in general, transfers the complete property of the thing sold to the vendee ; so 
 that, however vicious or illegal the title of the vendor may be, the vendee's is good 
 against every one except the king. But the sale, in order to come within this rule, must 
 take place on the market day, and at the place assigned for the market. The city of 
 London is said to be a market overt every day of the week except Sunday ; every shop 
 being a market overt for such things as the shopkeeper professes to deal in. The pro- 
 perty of goods may, however, be changed, and effectually transferred to the buyer, by a 
 bona fide sale in a shop out of London, whether the shopkeeper be the vendor or vendee, 
 if the goods are of the kind in which he trades. A wharf in London is not within the 
 custom, and is not a market overt for articles brought there. But a sale in a market 
 will not be binding, if it be such as carries with it a presumption of fraud : as, for ex- 
 ample, if it take place in a back room, or secret place ; if the sale be covinous, and 
 intended to defraud the real owner ; or if the buyer know that tlie vendor is not the 
 real owner of the goods, &c. It is very difficult to transfer the property of horses, 
 even when they are sold in an open market, without the consent of the real owner. — ■ 
 (See Horses.) 
 
 5. Court of Pie Poudre. — To every fair or market there is incident, even without 
 any express words in the grant, a court of pic' poudre, in allusion to the dusty feet of 
 the suitors. The steward or mayor may preside. It has cognizance of all questions 
 US to contracts made in the market, respecting goods bought and delivered there, &c. 
 formerly pie poudre courts were held at every considerable fair ; but they are now 
 entn-ely laid aside. 
 
FAIRS AND MARKETS. 
 
 575 
 
 6. Clerk of the Market. — Owners and governors of fairs are to take care that every 
 thing be sold according to just weights and measures. And for that and other purposes 
 they may appoint a clerk of the fair or market, who is to mark and allow all such 
 weights, &c. ; charging \d. for sealing and marking a bushel, ^d. for marking a half 
 bushel or peck, and \d. for marking a gallon, pottle, quart, pint, &c., under penalty of 
 51 — (22 Cha. 2. c. 8.) 
 
 7. Tolls. — Being a matter of private benefit to the owners of fairs or markets, and 
 not incident to them, tolls arc not exigible unless specially granted in the patent : but 
 the king may by a new grant authorise a reasonable toll to be taken. If the toll granted 
 be excessive, the patent will be void. It is a general rule, unless changed by a contrary 
 custom obtaining time out of mind, that no toll be paid for any thing brought to a fair 
 or market, before the same is sold, and that it shall then be paid by the buyer. 
 
 The owner of a house next to a fair or market is not allowed to open his shop during 
 such fair or market, without paying stallage (toll for having a stall) ; on the ground that 
 if he take the benefit of the market, he ought to pay the duties thereon. This regulation 
 has been a good deal complained of. 
 
 The owners of fairs and markets are required by statute (2 & 3 Ph. and M. c. 7.) to 
 appoint a person in a special open place to take the toll. The most important part of 
 this person's duty has reference to his entering the horses sold with three distinguishing 
 marks, and the names, &c. of those who buy and sell them. — (See Horses.) 
 
 An action lies against any one who refuses to pay the customary toll. 
 
 ( For further information as to British fairs and markets, see Chitty on Commercial LaWf 
 vol. ii. c. 9.) • 
 
 The 3 Geo. 4. c. 55. enacts, that at all fairs held within 10 miles of Temple Bar, business and amuse, 
 ments of all kinds shall cease at 11 o'clock in the evening, and not re-commence before 6 o'clock in the 
 morning, under a penalty of 40*. to be paid by any master, mistress, or other person, having the care or 
 management of any house, shop, room, booth, standing, tent, caravan or wagon, where any breach of 
 this enactment shall have been committed. Power is also given by the same act to any 2 justices of 
 the peace, within their respective jurisdictions, to put a stop to any fair which is held without charter, 
 prescription, or lawftil authority. 
 
 8. Principal British Fairs. — Among these may be specified Stourbridge, in Worcester- 
 shire. Bristol has two considerable fairs, one in March, and one in September. Exeter 
 December fair, for cattle, horses, and most sorts of commodities. Weyhill fair, in 
 Hampshire (October 10.), has, probably, the greatest display of sheep of any fair in the 
 kingdom. Bartholomew fair, in London, used to be of considerable importance, but is 
 now appropriated only to shows of wild beasts, and such like exhibitions, and might be 
 suppressed with advantage. St. Faith's, near Norwich (October 17.), is the principal 
 English fair for Scotch cattle. They are sold to the graziers and feeders of Norfolk, 
 Suffolk, Essex, &c., by whom they are fattened for the London markets, where they are 
 met with in great abundance. But besides those sold at St. P'aith's, large numbers or 
 Scotch cattle are disposed of at Market Harborough, Carlisle, Ormskirk, and other 
 places. Ipswich has two considerable fairs : one in August, for lambs ; and one in Sep- 
 tember, for butter and cheese : it is reckoned that above 100,000 lambs are annually 
 sold at the former. Woodborough-hill, in Dorset, for west country manufactures, as 
 kerseys, druggets, &c. Woodstock October fair, for cheese. Northampton and Not- 
 tingham have each several large fairs, for horses, cattle, cheese, &c. The August fair 
 of Horncastle, in Lincolnshire, is the largest horse fair in the kingdom, many thousand 
 horses being exhibited for sale during its continuance : it is resorted to by crowds of 
 dealers from all parts of Great Britain, by several from the Continent, and sometimes 
 even from North America. Howden, in Yorkshire, has, also, a very large horse fair, 
 particularly for Yorkshire hunters. Devizes, in Wiltshire, has several large fairs for 
 sheep and cattle. There is usually a large display of cheese at the Gloucester April 
 fair. A guild, or jubilee, commencing the last week of August, is held every twentieth 
 year at Preston, in Lancashire ; the last was held in 1822, and was well attended. The 
 October fair of Market Harborough, Leicestershire, lasts 9 days, and a great deal of 
 business is usually done in cattle, cheese, &c. Woodbridge Lady-day fair is celebrated 
 for the show of Suffolk horses. Falkirk fair, or tryst, is one of the most important in 
 Scotland, for the sale of cattle and sheep. The October fair of Ballinasloe, in the county 
 Galway, is famous for the display of cattle and sheep ; by far the largest proportion of 
 these animals raised for sale in Connaught being disposed of at it. The sheep are gene- 
 rally from 3 to 4, the heifers from 3 to 4, and the bullocks from 4 to 5 years of age. They 
 are mostly lean ; and are kept for a year in Leinster before they are fit for the Dublin 
 or Liverpool markets. It would seem that the number of cattle and sheep disposed of 
 at Ballinasloe is rather declining ; a resvdt ascribable to the increase of cultivation caused 
 by the great augmentation of population, and the continued subdivision of the land. 
 
 We subjoin an 
 
576 
 
 FAIRS AND MARKETS. 
 
 Account of the Number of Sheep and Cattle, sold and unsold, at the October Fairs of Ballinasloe from 
 the Year ISiJO to the Year 1832, both inclusive. — {Agricultural Report of 1832, p. 349.) * 
 
 Years. 
 
 isyo 
 
 1821 
 1S22 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1S27 
 1S28 
 1829 
 1850 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Sheep sold. 
 
 Sheep unsoid. | Total. 
 
 59,943 
 72,834 
 74,718 
 75,684 
 77,448 
 72,577 
 57,808 
 77,075 
 86,374 
 71,434 
 
 20,833 
 10,566 
 15,459 
 20,315 
 6,786 
 17,688 
 36,597 
 14,300 
 11,010 
 14,979 
 14,611 
 3,399 
 4^793 
 
 80,776 
 83,400 
 90,177 
 95,999 
 84,234 
 90,265 
 94,405 
 91,375 
 97,384 
 86,413 
 81,485 
 61,339 
 62,948 
 
 4,504 
 6,062 
 5,322 
 6,588 
 9,058 
 8,012 
 4,393 
 6,638 
 7,707 
 5,677 
 5,894 
 6,192 
 6,101 
 
 4,001 
 1,222 
 3,695 
 4,321 
 1,447 
 2,254 
 3,844 
 1,711 
 3,806 
 3,666 
 1,563 
 1,321 
 556 
 
 Total. 
 
 8i505 
 7,284 
 9,017 
 10,909 
 10,505 
 10,266 
 8,240 
 8,549 
 11,513 
 9,347 
 7,457 
 7,513 
 6,657 
 
 9. Principal French Fairs. — Among these may be specified the fairs of St. Germains, 
 Lyons, Rheims, Chartres, Rouen, Bordeaux, Troyes, and Bayonne ; but they are said to 
 be, for the most part, much fallen off. This, however, does not appear to be the case 
 with the fair held at Beaucaire, in the department of the Gard, in July. It is said that 
 there were from 70,000 to 80,000 persons at the fair of 1833, and that the business done 
 exceeded 160,000,000 fr., or 6,400,000/. ! These statements are not, however, official, 
 and are, most probably, exaggerated ; and it is admitted, that the last was the greatest 
 fair that has been held for these many years past. — (^Archives du Commerce, torn. iii. 
 pp. 236—245.) 
 
 10. German Fairs. — The principal German, or rather European, fairs, are those ot 
 Frankfort on the Maine, Frankfort on the Oder, and Leipsic. The concourse of mer- 
 chants, and the business done at these fairs, is generally very great. They are copiously 
 supplied with the cotton stuffs, twist, cloths, and hardware of England ; the silks 
 and jewellery of France ; the printed cottons of Switzerland and Austria ; the raw, 
 manufactured, and literary products of Germany ; the furs of the North ; Turkey 
 carpets ; Cachemere shawls, &c. ; and there, also, are to be found merchants of all 
 countries, those of Ispahan negotiating with those of Montreal for the purchase of 
 furs ; and Georgians and Servians supplying themselves with the cottons of Manchester 
 and the jewellery of Paris. There, in fact, are met the representatives, as it were, of 
 every people in the world, labouring, though without intending it, to promote each 
 other's interest, and to extend and strengthen those ties that bind together the great 
 family of the human race. 
 
 The fairs at Frankfort on the Maine should begin, the first on Easter Tuesday, and 
 the second on the Monday nearest to the 8th of September. Their duration is limited 
 to 3 weeks, but they usually begin from 8 to 15 days before their legal commence- 
 ment. Accounts are kept in rixdollars: 1 rixdollar of ^'^count = 1^ florin, or 4§ cop- 
 sticks, or 22^ batzen. The rixdollar =3s. l'8d. ; so that the par of exchange is 141 bat- 
 zen per 1/. sterling. 100 lbs. common Frankfort weight = 103 lbs. avoirdupois. The 
 foot = 1 1 -27 English inches. 
 
 The fairs at Frankfort on the Oder are 3 in number : viz. Reminiscere, in February 
 or March ; 5"^. Margaret, in July ; and St. Martin, in November. They ought, strictly 
 speaking, to terminate in 8 days, but they usually extend to 15. The Prussian go- 
 vernment gives every facility to those who attend these fairs. Accounts are kept in 
 Prussian money, that is, in rixdollars of 2s. 1 \\d. 100 lbs. Prussian = 103 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 The foot = 12-356 English inches. 
 
 The fairs of Leipsic are still more celebrated than those of either Frankfort. They 
 are held thrice a year, — on the 1st of January, at Easter, and at Michaelmas. The 
 first is the least important. Above 20,000 dealers are said to have been present at the 
 Easter fair in 1832, and above 13,000 at that of Michaelmas. The Easter and Mi- 
 chaelmas fairs are famous, particularly the former, for the vast number of new public- 
 ations usually offered for sale. They are attended by all the principal booksellers of 
 Germany, and by many from the adjoining countries, who adjust their accounts, learn 
 the state of the trade in all parts of the world, and endeavour to form new connections. 
 Most German publishers have agents in Leipsic ; which is to the literature of Ger- 
 many, what London is to that of Great Britain. As many as 4,000 new publications 
 have been in a single Leipsic catalogue ! The fairs ought to close in 8 days, but 
 they usually continue for about 3 weeks. No days of grace are allowed. The holder 
 of a bill must demand payment on the day it becomes due ; and, if not paid, he 
 must have it protested on that very day, and returned by the first opportunity. If he 
 neglect any of these regulations, he loses all right of recourse upon the drawer and en- 
 dorsers. Money of account at Leipsic same as at Frankfort on the Maine. 100 lbs. 
 Leipsic = 103 lbs. avoirdupois. The foot = 11-11 English inches. — (^Kelly^s Cambist: 
 flannel de Nelhenhrecher ; Archives du Commerce, torn. ii. p. 27., §-c.) 
 
 Dr. Bright gives, in his Travels in Hungary (pp. 201 — 223.), an interesting accoun*- 
 of the fairs hehl at Debretzin and Pestli. Tlie latter has become the grand centre of 
 Hungarian commerce ; most part of which is conducted at its fairs. 
 
FAIRS AND MARKETS. 
 
 577 
 
 11. Italian Fairs. — Of these, the most celebrated is that of Sinigaglia, a small but hand- 
 some town of the Papal dominions, on tlie Misa, near its confluence with the Adriatic. 
 The fair commences on the 14th of July, and should terminate on the last day of that 
 month, but it usually continues 5 or G days longer. 'I'he duties on goods brought to the 
 fair are extremely moderate, and every thing is done to jjromote the convenience of 
 those frequenting it. All sorts of cotton and woollen goods, lace, iron and steel, hard- 
 ware, je%vellery, brandy and liqueurs, raw and refined sugar, dried fish, cacao, coffee, 
 spices, &c. are brought here by the English, French, Austrians, Americans, Swiss, &c. 
 These are exchanged for the various raw and manufactured products of Italy and the 
 Levant; consisting, among others, of raw, thrown, and wrought silks; oil, fruits, 
 cheese, alum, soda, sumach, sulphur, &c. The value of the imports for the fair of 1832 
 was estimated at about 2,000,000Z. Accounts are kept in scudi of 20 soldi ; the 
 scudo = 4s. 4d. very nearly. 100 lbs. Sinigaglia = 73^ lbs. avoirdupois. The ell or 
 braccio measures 25*33 English inches. — (^Manuel de Nelkenhrecher ; Archives du 
 Commerce, torn. ii. p. 38.) 
 
 12. Russian Fairs. — These are numerous, and many of themwelj attended. The most 
 important is held at Nishnei-Novogorod. This city is situated at the confluence of the 
 Oka with the Wolga, in lat. 56° 16' N., Ion. 44" 18' E. It is the great emporium of 
 the internal trade of Russia ; communicating by an inland navigation with the Baltic, 
 the Black Sea, and the Caspian. The fair was formerly held at Makariefj 84 versts 
 distant. It generally lasts from 6 weeks to 2 months, and is well known all over the 
 east of Europe. The bazaars erected for the accommodation of those who attend this 
 fair, form, according to Dr. Lyall, the finest establishment of the kind in the world. The 
 sale of iron and iron articles is said visually to amount to above 10,000,000 roubles ; the 
 furs to 36,000,000; the images to 1,300,000. Captain Cochrane is of opinion, that 
 " the fair, in point of value, is second to none in Europe ; the business done being esti- 
 mated at nearly 200,000,000 rovibles." The stationary population of the place amounts 
 to from 15,000 to 16,000: but during the fair it is said to amount to 120,000 or 
 150,000; among whom may be seen Chinese, Persians, Circassians, Armenians, Tatars, 
 Buchanans, Jews, " and a specimen of almost every European nation." — (See Modern 
 Traveller, art. Russia, p. 305.) We suspect, however, that these statements are very 
 far beyond the mark. It is stated in the Archives du Commerce (tom. i. p. 173.), that 
 the total value of the merchandise disposed of at the fair of Nishnei-Novogorod, in 
 1832, amoimted to 123,200,000 roubles. Theatrical exhibitions, shows of wild beasts, 
 and other Bartholomew fair amusements, add to the attractions of the scene. 
 
 Another celebrated Russian fair is held, in the month of December, at Kiachta, in 
 Mongolia, on the Chinese frontier, in lat. 50° 20' N., Ion. uncertain, but about 105° E. 
 The town is small, the population not exceeding 4,000 or 5,000 ; but by far the largest 
 part of the commerce between the Russian and Chinese empires is transacted at its fair, 
 and it is also the centre of the political intercourse between them. The commodi- 
 ties brought by the Russians consist principally of furs, sheep and lamb skins, Rus- 
 sian and German broad cloths, Russia leather, coarse linens, worsted stuffs, cattle, &c., 
 with, for the most part, buJlion. These they exchange with the Chinese for tea, raw 
 and manufactured silk, nankeens, porcelain, sugar candy, rhubarb, tobacco, musk, &c. 
 The quantity of tea, using the word in the sense in which it is understood here, purchased 
 at the Kiachta fairs by the Russians, amounts, at an average, to about 60,000 boxes 
 a year, that is, to about 4,200,000 lbs. ; the greater part being the fine species of black 
 tea called pekoe. But, exclusive of this, the Russians buy large quantities of a coarser 
 species of tea, called break or Tartar tea, which, though not thought worth the trouble 
 of putting into packages, is largely consumed by the nomadic Tartars and Siberians. 
 According to the official accounts published by the Russian Custom-house, the total 
 value of the exports by way of Kiachta, in 1831, amounted to 4,655,536 roubles, and 
 that of the imports to 6,775,858 ditto. The Russian trade is in the hands of a com- 
 paratively small number of merchants, some of whom are very rich ; that of the Chinese 
 is much more diffused. Commodities may be conveyed from Kiathta to European 
 Russia either by land or by water. In the former case, the journey takes a year; in 
 »he latter, it takes 3 years, or rather 3 very short summers; the rivers bein^- for the 
 most part of the year frozen over. — ( Schnitzler, Statistique Generale de r Empire de la 
 Russie, p. 143. ; private communications from Captain Gordon, who visited Kiachta in 
 1819; Official Statement of the Trade of the Russian Empire in 1831, Src. ) 
 
 13. Eastern Fairs. — The most important fair in the Eastern world is that held at 
 Mecca, during the resort of pilgrims in the month of Dhalhajja- It used to be frequented 
 by many thousands of individuals of all ranks and orders, brought together from the 
 remotest corners of the Mohammedan world ; and thoug'h the numbers attending it have 
 declined of late years, the concourse is still very great. — (See Caravan.) 
 
 Hurdwar,in Hindostan, in lat. 29° 57' N., Ion- 78° 2' E., 117 miles N.E. from Delhi, 
 is famous from its being one of the principal places of Hindoo pilgrimage, and the greatest 
 
 2 P 
 
578 
 
 FATHOiM-FIGS. 
 
 fair in India. The town, which is but inconsiderable, is situated on the Ganges, at the 
 point where that sacred stream issues from the mountains. The pilgrimage and fair are 
 held together at the vernal equinox ; and Europeans, nowise addicted to exaggeration, 
 who have been repeatedly present on these occasions, estimate that from 200,000 to 
 300,000 strangers are then assembled in the town and its vicinity. But every twelfth 
 year is reckoned peculiarly holy ; and then it is supposed that from 1,000,000 to 
 1,500,000, and even 2,000,000 pilgrims and dealers are congregated together from all 
 parts of India and the countries to the north. In 1819, which happened to be a twelfth 
 year, when the auspicious moment for bathing in the Ganges was announced to the im- 
 patient devotees, the rush was so tremendous that no fewer than 430 persons were either 
 trampled to death under foot, or drowned in the river ! The foreigners resorting to 
 Hurdwar fair for commercial purposes only, consist principally of natives of Nepaul, the 
 Punjab, and Peshwaur, with Afghans, Usbeck Tartars, &c. They import vast num- 
 bers of horses, cattle, and camels ; Persian dried fruits, shawls, drugs, &c. : the returns 
 are made in cotton piece goods, indigo, sugar, spices, and other tropical productions. 
 The merchants never mention the price of their goods, but conduct the bargain by 
 touching the different joints of their fingers, to hinder the bystanders gaining any 
 information. During the Mahratta sway, a kind of poll-tax and duties on cattle were 
 levied ; but all is now free, without impost or molestation of any sort. Owing, also, to 
 the precautions adopted by the British government, the most perfect order is preserved ; 
 much to the surprise and satisfaction of the natives ; for, antecedent to our occupation of 
 the country, the fairs usually ended in disorder and bloodshed. — (^Private information^ 
 and the excellent account of Hurdwar in Hamilton's Gazetteer.) 
 
 The fairs of Portobello, Vera Cruz, and Acapulco, once so famous, are now totally 
 deserted ; that of the Havannah is also much fallen off. 
 
 FATHOM, a measure of length, 6 feet, chiefly used for measuring the length of 
 cordage, and the depth of water and mines. 
 
 FEATHERS, BED-FEATHERS (Fr. Plumes, Plumes d lit; Ger. Federn, Beii- 
 federn ; Du. Bedveern, Pluimen ; It. Piume ; Sp. Plumas), make a considerable article 
 of commerce ; particularly those of the ostrich, heron, swan, peacock, goose, and other 
 poultry ; for plumes, ornaments of the head, filling of beds, quilts, &c. The coarsest 
 part of the ostrich plumage is generally denominated hair, to which it bears a resem- 
 blance, and is used in the manufacture of hats. Many parts of Great Britain supply 
 feathers for beds, and an inferior sort is brought from Ireland. Eider down is imported 
 from the north of Europe ; the ducks that supply it being inhabitants of Greenland, 
 Iceland, and Norway. The eider duck breeds in the islands on the west of Scotland, 
 but not in sufficient numbers to form a profitable branch of trade to the inhabitants. 
 Hudson's Bay furnishes very fine feathers. The down of the swan is brought from 
 Dantzic, as well as large quantities of superior feathers. 
 
 The bed-feathers imported in 1828 amounted to 3,103 cwt., yielding 6,826Z. 12s. of 
 duty. The duty on ostrich feathers during the same year produced 962/. 8s. 9d. 
 
 PIDDLES, OR VIOLINS (Ger. Violinen, Geigen ; Du. Vioolen ; Fr. Violons; It. Vi- 
 olini; Sp. Violines ; Rus. Skripizii), musical instruments, too well known to need 
 any particular description. The finest-toned violins are those made in Italy ; they are 
 usually called Cremonas, from the name of the town where they were formerly manufac- 
 tured in the highest perfection : 50 or 60 guineas have not unfrequently been given for 
 a Cremona violin. 
 
 FIGS ( Ger. Feigen ; Du. V^gen ; Fr. Figues ; It. Fichi ; Sp. Higos ; Lat. Fid, Caricce ; 
 Arab. Teen), the fruit of the fig tree (Ficus carica), a native of Asia, but early introduced 
 into Europe. It flourishes in Turkey, Greece, France, Spain, Italy, and Northern Africa, 
 and even sometimes ripens its fruit in the open air in this country. Figs, when ripe, are, 
 for the most part, dried in ovens to preserve them ; and then packed very closely in the 
 small chests and baskets in which we import them. The best come from Turkey ; those 
 of Kalamata, in the Morea, are said to be the most luscious. — ( Thomson's Dispensatory.) 
 
 Dried figs form a very considerable article of commerce in Provence, Italy, and Spain; 
 besides affording, as in the East, a princi^^al article of sustenance for the population. In 
 Spain, figs are chiefly exported from Andalusia and Valencia ; but they are more or 
 less abundant in every province. In the northern parts of France there are many fig 
 gardens, particularly at Argenteuil. 
 
 Figs belong to that class of articles, the duties on which might be reduced, not only 
 without any loss, but vrith very great advantage to the revenue. They are extensively 
 used at the tables of the Oimlent ; and would, there is no doubt, be much used by the 
 mid llf classes, were their pric« lower. The importation, even with the present duty of 
 21s. 6d., is about 20,000 cwt. ; amd as this duty is full 100 per cent, upon their price in 
 bond, it may be fairly concluded, that were it reduced to 8s. or 10s. a cwt., the quantity 
 imported would very soon be trebled, or more. 
 
 No abatement of duty is made on account of any damage received by figs. 
 
FILE. — FISH. 
 
 579 
 
 FILE, FILES (Da. Fife; Tin. Vyhn ; Fr. Limes ; Ger. Feilen ; It. Lime), an 
 instrument of iron or forged steel, cut in little furrows, used to polish or smooth metals, 
 timber, and other hard bodies. 
 
 FIR. See Pine. 
 
 FIRE-ARMS. Under this designation is comprised all sorts of guns, fowling- 
 pieces, blunderbusses, pistols, &c. The manufacture of these weapons is of considerable 
 importance ; employing at all times, but especially during war, a large number of 
 persons. 
 
 In consequence of the frequent occurrence of accidents from the bursting of insufficient barrels, the 
 legislature has most properly interfered, not to regulate their manufacture, but to prevent all persons from 
 using or selling barrels that have not been regularly proved in a public proof-house. The first act for this 
 purpose was passed in 1813; but it was soon after superseded by a ftjllcr and more complete one, the 
 55 Geo. 3. c. 59. This statute imposes a fine of 20/. on any person using, in any of the progressive stages 
 of its manufacture, any barrel not duly proved ; on any person delivering the same, except through a proof- 
 house ; and on any person receiving, for the purpose of making guns, &c. any barrels which have not passed 
 through a proof-house. These penalties to be levied on conviction before 2 justices ; with like penalties, 
 to be similarly levied, on persons counterfeiting the proof-marks. 
 
 FIRE- WORKS. By 9 & 10 Will. 3., all sorts of fire- works are declared to be a 
 common nuisance ; and the making, causing to he made, giving, selling, or offering for 
 sale, any squibs, rockets, serpents, or other Jire-ivorks, or any cases or implements for 
 making the same, is made subject to a penalty of 51., to be recovered on conviction before 
 a justice of the peace. Casting or firing any such fire-works, or pennitting the same 
 to be cast or fired, from any house or place, and casting or firing the same into any 
 house, shop, street, highway, or river, is subjected to a penalty of 20s., to be recovered in 
 like manner ; and if not immediately paid, the party to be imprisoned and kept to hard 
 labour for any time not exceeding a month. But the statute provides, that it shall be 
 Jawful for the master, lieutenant, or commissioners of his Majesty's ordnance, or those 
 authorised by them, to give orders for making any fire-works, to be used according to 
 such orders. 
 
 FIRKIN, a measure of capacity, equal to 9 ale gallons, or 1^ Imperial gallons, or 
 2,538 cubic inches. — (See Weights and Measures.) 
 
 FIRLOT, a dry measure used in Scotland. The Linlithgow wheat firlot is to the 
 Imperial bushel as -998 to 1 ; and the Linlithgow barley firlot is to the Imperial bushel as 
 1.456 is to 1. — (See Weights and Measures.) 
 
 FISH (Ger. Fischej Du. Visschen ; Da. and Sw. Fisk ; Fr. Poissons ; It. Pesci } Sp. 
 Pescados ; Port. Peixes ; Rus. R iih Pol. Ri/bi ; Lat. Pisces), a term used in natural 
 history to denote every variety of animal inhabiting seas, rivers, lakes, pond.s, &c. that 
 cannot exist for any considerable time out of the water. But in a commercial point of 
 view, those fishes only are referred to, that are caught by man, and used either as food 
 or for some other useful purpose. Of these, herring, salmon, cod, pilchard, mackarel, 
 turbot, lobster, oyster, whale, &c. are among the most important. — ( See the different 
 articles under these titles.) 
 
 The supply of fish in the seas round Britain is most abundant, or rather quite inex- 
 haustible. " The coasts of Great Britain," says Sir John Boroughs, " doe yield such 
 a continued sea harvest of gain and benefit to all those that with diligence doe labour 
 in the same, that no time or season of the yeare passeth away without some apparent 
 meanes of profitable employment, especially to such as apply themselves to fishing ; which, 
 from the beginning of the year unto the latter end, continueth upon some part or other 
 upon our coastes ; and these in such infinite shoales and multitudes of fishes are oflTered 
 to the takers, as may justly move admiration, not only to strangers, but to those that 
 daily are employed amongst them." — " That this harvest," says Mr. Barrow, " ripe for 
 gathering at all seasons of the year — without the labour of tillage, without expense of 
 seed or manure, without the payment of rent or taxes — is inexhaustible, the extra- 
 ordinary fecundity of the raost valuable kinds of fish would alone afford abundant proof. 
 To enumerate the thousands, and even millions of eggs, which are impregnated in the 
 herring, the cod, the ling, and indeed in almost the whole of the esculent fish, would give 
 but an inadequate idea of the prodigious multitudes in which they flock to our shores ; 
 the shoals themselves must be seen, in order to convey to the mind any just notion of 
 their aggregate mass." — (For an account of the shoals of herrings, see Herring.) 
 
 But, notwithstanding these statements, there has been, for these some years past, a 
 growing complaint of a scarcity of such fish as breed in the Channel ; and it is affirmed, 
 in the report of the Commons' committee of 1833, on the Channel fisheries, that the 
 fact of such scarcity existing has been completely established. The committee ascribe 
 it to various causes, but principally to the destruction of the spawn or brood of fish, by 
 fishing with trawl or drag nets with small meshes, near the shore, during the breeding 
 season ; a practice prohibited by several statutes, which seem, however, to have fallen 
 into disuse. The committee represent the fishermen as being generally in a very de- 
 pressed state, and that the business is, for the most part, very unprofitable. We believe 
 that this is the fact ; but we do not know any period when the same might not have 
 
 2 P 2 
 
580 
 
 FISH FLAX. 
 
 been said with quite as much truth as at present. Smith has remarked, that from the 
 age of Theocritus downwards, fishermen have been proverbially poor — ( Wealth of Na- 
 tions, vol. i. p. 167.); and a library might be filled with the acts, reports, plans, tracts, 
 &c. that have been printed in this country during the last 2 centuries, containing regu- 
 lations, schemes, suggestions, &c. for the improvement of fisheries and fishermen. But 
 it is not too much to say, that not one of these well meant endeavours, notwithstanding 
 the enormous expense incurred in carrying some of them into effect, has been productive 
 of any material advantage ; and we see no reason to think that the suggestions of the late 
 committee, supposing they were to be acted upon, would have any better success. 
 
 The injury done to the breeding grounds might, perhaps, be obviated ; but besides 
 this, the committee lay much stress on the encroachments of the French and other 
 foreign fiishermen, and on the licence given to import foreign -caught turbot, &c. duty 
 free ! We confess, it appears to us quite visionary to suppose that these circumstances 
 can have much influence. Our fishermen, living upon the very shores of the bays to 
 which the French are said to resort, have advantages on their side sufficient, surely, to 
 insure them a superiority, without the forcible expulsion, supposing that could be ac" 
 complished, of theh* foreign competitors. A man who does not succeed in a business 
 carried on at his own door so well as one who resides 100 miles off, must look for 
 the cause in his want of skill or industry ; and should seek rather to improve himself 
 than to discard his rival. The proposition for excluding turbot, &c. of foreign catch, 
 is one that ought not to be listened to for a single moment. Such exclusion could not 
 be of the slightest advantage to the British fishermen, unless it occasioned a rise in the 
 price of the fish ; and we need not say, that if the legislature be to interfere at all in 
 the matter, its interference ought to have for its object the lowering, not the raising of 
 prices. 
 
 All that it is possible to do for the fishery, by relieving it from tithes and other bur- 
 dens, and facilitating the disposal of the fish in the markets of this and other countries, 
 ought to be done ; but except in so far as its interests may be promoted in this way, and, 
 perhaps, by some new regulations for preserving the brood, we do not see what more 
 is to be done by legislative interference. It will be seen, in our articles on the herring 
 and whale fislieries, that the bounty system was attended with vast expense, without 
 leading to any useful result. 
 
 Except in London and a few sea-port towns, the consumption of fish in England is 
 not great. The price in the metropolis, though it has been a good deal reduced of late 
 years, is still very high. This has been pretty generally believed to be in no small de- 
 gree owing to the salesmen of Billingsgate market being able, in a great measure, to 
 regulate both the supply of the article and its price. The late committee, however, 
 declare, that though they have not minutely examined the subject, it does not appear 
 that any improper monopoly or injurious regulations subsist either in the mode of 
 supplying the market, or in the sale of the fish. Had any such existed, the recent 
 establishment of the Hungerford market would have tended materially to counteract 
 their influence. 
 
 Mr. Barrow, in a valuable article on the fisheries, in the Supplement to the Encyclopcedia 
 Britannica, has estimated the value of the entire annual produce of the foreign and do- 
 mestic fisheries of Great Britain at 8,3OO,00OZ. But it is admitted by every one who 
 knows any thing of the subject, that this estimate is very greatly exaggerated. We 
 doubt much, whether the entire value of the fisheries can be reckoned so high as 
 3,500,000. 
 
 Regulations as to Importation. — Fresh fish, British taken, and imported in British ships; and fresh 
 turbots and lobsters, however taken or imported; may be landed hi the United Kingdom without report, 
 entry, or warrant. — (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52. \ 2.) 
 
 Fresh fish of every kind, of British taking, and imported in British ships ; and fresh lobsters and turbots, 
 however taken, or in whatever ships imported ; and cured fish of every kind, of British taking and curing, 
 imported in British ships ; shall be imported free of all duties, and shall not be deemed to be inchided in 
 any charge of duty imposed by any act hereafter to be made on the importation of goods generally ; pro- 
 vided that before any cured fish shall be entered free of duty, as being of such taking and curing, the 
 master of the ship importing the same shall make and subscribe a declaration before the collector or comj)- 
 troUer, that such fish was actually caught, taken in British ships, and cured, wholly by his Majesty's sub. 
 jects. — § 44. 
 
 Fish of foreign taking or curing, or in foreign vessels, except turbots and lobsters, stockfish, live eels, 
 anchovies, sturgeon, botargo, and caviare, prohibited to be imported on pain of forfeiture. — ^ 58. 
 
 FLAX (Ger. Flachs ; Du. Vlasch ; Fr. Lin; It. and Sp. Lino; Rus. Len, Lon ; 
 Pol. Len; Lat. Linuni), an important plant {Linum usitatissimum) that has been cul- 
 tivated from the earliest ages in Great Britain and many other countries; its fibres being 
 manufactured into thread, and its seed crushed for oil. Generally, however, we have 
 been in the habit of importing a large proportion of our supplies. The premiums given 
 by the legislature to force the cultivation of flax, have had very little effect ; the fact 
 being, as Mr. Loudon has stated, that its culture is found to be, on the whole, less profit- 
 able than that of corn. When allowed to ripen its seed, it is one of the most severe crops. 
 
 The principal sorts of flax imported into this country are, Peter.sburgh, Narva, Riga, 
 
FLAX-SEED. 
 
 581 
 
 Revel, Pernau, Liebau, Mcmcl, Oberland, and Dutch flax. Tlie Petcrsburgh and Narva 
 flax are nearly of the same quality, the latter bcnig but little inferior lo the former. Both 
 sorts come to us in bundles of 12, 9, and G heads. The Riga flax scenes to deserve the 
 preference of any imported from the Baltic. It is the growtli of the provinces of Marien- 
 burg, Druania, Thiesenhausen, and Lithuania. 
 
 The best Marienburg is called simply Marienburg (M), or Maricnburg clean ; the second quality, cut 
 (GM) ; and the third, risten dreyban4 (RD) : of the three other provinces, the first quality bears the name 
 of rakitxer ; — as Druania rakitzer (Dll), Thiesenhausen rakilxer (TK), and lAthuania rakitxcr (Lit). 
 The cut flax of these three provinces is the second quality : and to the third quality belong the hadstub 
 and badstub cut (B and BG) ; the paternoster (PN) ; nudhafs three band (III)). Jladsiuband paternoster 
 are the refuse of the rakitzer flax, and the three band again the refuse of the former sorts, and consequently 
 very ordinary. The Revel and Pernau consists of Marienburg; cut, risten, hafs three band, and three 
 band. Tlie Liebau and Memel growths are distinguished by the denomination of four and three band. 
 These two sorts, as well as the Oberland flax, come from Konigsberg, Elbing, &c., and are little esteemed 
 in the British markets. 
 
 Flanders or Dutch flax is well dressed, and of the finest quality. 
 
 Flax is extensively cultivated in Egypt. Of late years, some of the Italian ports 
 which used to be supplied from Russia, have been fully supplied on lower terms from 
 Alexandria. 
 
 The Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax, is said to exceed every other species in 
 strength of fibre and whiteness ; qualities which (if it really possess them in the degree 
 stated) must make it peculiarly well fitted for being made into canvass and cordage. It has 
 been obtained within these few years at second hand from Sydney and Van Dicmen's 
 Land; the imports from them having amounted, in 1831, to 15,725 cwt. Attempts are 
 now making, but with what success remains to be seen, to raise it in this country. 
 
 When flax is brought to the principal Russian ports whence it is shipped, it is classified 
 according to its qualities, and made up in bundles by sworn inspectors (brackers) ap- 
 pointed by government for the assortment of that and all other merchandise. These 
 functionaries are said to perform their task with laudable impartiality and exactness. A 
 ticket is attached to every bundle of assorted flax, containing the names of the inspector 
 and owner, the sort of flax, and the period when it was selected or inspected. — ( See 
 Hemp.) Good flax should be of a fine bright colour, well separated from the tow, 
 codilla, or coarser portion of the plant ; and of a long, fine, and strong fibre. In pur- 
 chasing flax, it is usual to employ agents wholly devoted to this peculiar business. 
 
 Of 936,411 cwt. of flax and tow imported into Great Britain in 1831, 623,256 cwt. 
 were brought from Russia; 128,231 cwt. from the Netherlands; 101,729 cwt. from 
 Prussia; 55,324 cwt.- from France; 1,415 cwt. from Italy; 15,275 cwt. from New 
 South Wales, &c. Almost the whole of this quantity was retained for home consumption- 
 The duty was recently reduced, and is now only Id. a cwt. 
 
 Flax, the produce or manufacture of Europe, not to be imported for home consumption, except in 
 British ships, or in ships of the country of which it is the produce, or of the country from which it is im- 
 ported, on pain of forfeiture of the goods aitd 100/. by the master of the ship. — (3 & 4 fVin. 4. c. 54. 
 
 We subjoin an account of the charges on the importation of the different sorts of flax from Petersburgh 
 and Riga. 
 
 Charges at Petersburgh on 12 Head Flax, per ton. 
 Circa, 16 bobbins = 63 poods = 1 ton. 
 
 Rou. cop. 
 
 Duty, 510 cop. per bercovitz - - - 34 2 
 
 Quarantine duty, 1 per cent. - - - 0 34 
 
 Additional duty, 10 per cent. - - . - S 40 
 
 R 37 76 
 
 Custom-house charges, 4 per cent. - - 1 61 
 
 Receiving and weighing, 40 cop. per bobbin - 6 40 
 
 Bracking, 1 roub. per bercovitz - . . 6 30 
 
 Binding, 75 cop. per ditto - - - 4 72 
 Lighterage and attendance to Cronstadt, 8 roub. per 
 
 60 poods - - - - - 8 40 
 Mats - - - - .-80 
 
 Brokerage, 60 cop. per ton - - - 0 60 
 
 Fixed charges H.73 69 
 
 Brokerage, J per cent. 
 Commission and extra charges, 3 per cent. 
 Stamps, ^ per cent. 1 i „„_ „„, 
 
 Brokerage on bills, J per cent. J 2 
 are charges varying according to the price paid. 
 
 shippound 
 
 The charges of importation are the same, or nearly so, as on 
 Petersburgh flax. 
 
 Charges here, per (on, taking the price at 45/. 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 Insurance, 12i. 6(f. per cent, and policy, during 
 
 the summer, for best risks - " - -069 
 
 Sound dues - - - - -056 
 
 Freight, say 52*. 6d. per ton in full - - 2 12 6 
 
 Customs - - - - -018 
 
 Landing charges - - --1110 
 
 Discount, 3| per cent, (being sold at 9 months' 
 
 credit) - - - - - 1 13 9 
 
 Brokerage, J per cent. - - • • 0 4 6 
 
 Loss by fjRre, 2 per cent. 
 
 L.5 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 . 0 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 /,. 6 
 
 
 8 
 
 9 Head Flax. 
 26 boMiins = 65 poods = 1 ton. Rou. cop. 
 
 Fixed charges at Petersburgh amount to - - SO 35 
 The olher charges same as on 12 head ; the charges 
 of import may be called the same as on 12 head 
 also, tne difference being only on the value; which 
 makes the in.surance, discount, and brokerage, of 
 less amount. The increase of fixed charges at 
 Petersburgh is owing to the larger number of 
 bobbins to the ton. 
 
 6 Head Flax. 
 47" bobbins = 63 poods = 1 ton. Rtni. cop. 
 Fixed charges, per ton - . - - 91 52 
 
 Other charges, ride stiprd. 
 
 FLAX-SEED, OR LINSEED (Fr. Lin, Graine de Lin; Ger. Leinsaat ; Du. Lyti- 
 zaad ; It. Linseme Sp. Linaza ; Port. Linhaca ; Pol. Siemie, Iniane ; Rus. Semja 
 lenjanoe ; Lat. Lini semen'), the seed of flax. It contains a great deal of oil, which it 
 yields by expression ; and is cultivated either that it may be used in sowing, or sent to 
 the crushing mills to be converted into oil. 
 
 As tlie quality of the crop depends much on the seed employed, a good deal of care is 
 requisite in selecting the best. Generally speaking, it should be chosen of a bright, 
 brownish colour, oily to the feel, heavy, and quite fresh. Dutch seed is in the highcs* 
 
 2 P 3 
 
582 FLOTSAM, JETSAM, AND LAGAN. — FREIGHT. 
 
 estimation for sowing ; it not only ripens sooner than any other that is imported, but 
 produces larger crops, and of the quality that best suits our principal manufactures. 
 American seed produces fine flax, but the produce is not so large as from Dutch seed. 
 British flax-seed is sometimes used instead of Dutch ; but the risk of the crop misgiving 
 is so much greater, " that those only who are ignorant of the consequences, or who are 
 compelled from necessity, are chargeable with this act of ill-judged parsimony." — (^Lou- 
 don's Ency. of Agriculture.) Crushing seed is principally imported from Russia, but 
 considerable quantities are also brought from Italy and Egypt. Of 2,759,103 bushels of 
 linseed imported in 1831, 2,210,702 were brought from Ilussia, 172,099 from Prussia, 
 106,294 from the United States, 105,448 from Italy, 98,847 from Egypt, 53,738 from 
 the Netherlands, &c. The duty is Is. a quarter; and the price, in December, 1833, 
 varied from 45s. to 54s. a quarter. 
 
 FLOTSAM, JETSAM, and LAGAN. In order to constitute a legal wreck, the 
 goods must come to land. If they continue at sea, the law distinguishes them by the 
 foregoing uncouth and barbarous appellations : flotsam is when the goods continue 
 swimming on the surface of the waves ; jetsam is when they are sunk under the surface 
 of the water ; and lagan is when they are sunk, but tied to a cork or buoy to be found 
 again. — (^Blackstone, book i. c. 8.) Foreign liquors, brought or coming into Great 
 Britain or Ireland, as derelict, flotsam, &c., are to pay the same duties and receive the 
 same drawbacks as similar liquors regularly imported. 
 
 FLOUR (Ger. Feines mehl, Semmelmehl ; Du. Bloem ; Fr. Fleur de farine ; It. Fiore ; 
 Sp. Flor), the meaPof wheat corn, finely ground and sifted. There are three qualities 
 of flour, denominated flrst, seconds, and thirds, of which the first is the purest. — ( See 
 Corn Laws and Corn Trade.) 
 
 FOOT, a measure of length, consisting of 12 inches. — (See Weights and 
 Measures.) 
 
 FORESTALLING, the buying or contracting for any cattle, provision, or mer- 
 chandise, on its way to the market, or dissuading persons from buying their goods 
 there, or persuading them to raise the price, or spreading any false rumour with intent 
 to enhance the value of any article. Several statutes had from time to time been 
 passed, prohibiting forestalling under severe penalties. But as more enlarged views 
 upon such subjects began to prevail, the impolicy of these statutes became obvious. 
 They were consequently repealed in 1772. But forestalling is still punishable at 
 common law by fine and imprisonment. It is doubtful, however, whether any jua-y would 
 now convict an individual accused of such practices. — ( Wealth of Nations, vol. ii. p. 409.) 
 
 FRANKINCENSE. See Rosin. 
 
 FREIGHT, the sum paid by the merchant or other person hiring a ship, or part of 
 a ship, for the use of such ship or part, during a specified voyage or for a specified time. 
 
 The freight is most commonly fixed by the charterparty — (see Charterparty) — or 
 bill of lading — (see Bill of Lading); but in the absence of any formal stipulations on 
 the subject, it would be due according to the custom or usage of trade. 
 
 In the case of a charterparty, if the stipulated payment be a gross sum for an entire 
 ship, or an entire part of a ship, for the whole voyage, the gross sum will be payable 
 although the merchant has not fully laden the ship. And if a certain sum be stipulated 
 for every ton, or other portion of the ship's capacity, for the whole voyage, the payment 
 must be according to the number of tons, &c. which the ship is proved capable of con- 
 taining, without regard to the quantity actually put on board by the merchant. On the 
 other hand, if the merchant have stipulated to pay a certain sum per cask or bale of 
 goods, the payment must be, in the first place, according to the number of casks and 
 bales shipped and delivered ; and if he have further covenanted to furnish a complete 
 lading, or a specific number of casks or bales, and failed to do so, he must make good 
 the loss which the owners have sustained by his failure. 
 
 If an entire ship be hired, and the burden thereof be expressed in the charterparty, 
 and the merchant bind himself to pay a certain sum for every ton, &c. of goods which 
 he shall lade on board, but does not bind himself to furnish a complete lading, the 
 owners can only demand payment for the quantity of goods actually shipped. But if 
 the merchant agree to load a full and complete cargo, though the ship be described as 
 of less burden than she really is, the merchant must load a fiill cargo, according to the 
 real burden of the ship, and he will be liable for freight according to what ought to be 
 loaded. 
 
 The delivery of goods at the place of destination is in general necessary to entitle the 
 owner to freight ; but with respect to living animals, whether men or cattle, which may 
 frequently die during the voyage, without any fault or neglect of the persons belonging 
 to the ship, it is ruled, that if there be no express agreement whether the freight is to 
 be paid for the lading, or for the transporting them, freight shall be paid as well for the 
 dead as for the living : if the agreement be to pay freight for the lading, then death cer- 
 tainly cannot deprive the owners of the freight; but if the agreement be to pay freight 
 
FREIGHT. 
 
 583 
 
 for transporting them, then no freight is due for tliosc that die on the voyage, because 
 is to them the contract is not performed. These distinctions have been made in the 
 civil law, and have been adopted into the modern systems of maritime law. 
 
 Freight is most frequently contracted to be paid either by the Avhole voyage, or by 
 the month, or other time. In the former case the owners take upon themselves the 
 chance of the voyage being long or short : but in the latter the risk of the duration falls 
 upon the merchant; and if no time be fixed for the commencement of the computation, 
 it will begin from the day on which the ship breaks ground and commences lier voyage, 
 and will continue during the whole course of the voyage, and during all unavoidable 
 delays 7iot occasioned hy the act or neglect of the owners or master, or by such circumstances 
 as occasion a suspension of the contract for a particular period. Thus, the freight will 
 be payable for the time consumed in necessary repairs during a voyage, provided it do 
 not appear that the ship was insufficient at the outset, or that there vi^as any improper 
 dflay in repairing her. 
 
 In the absence of an express contract to the contrary, the entire freight is not earned 
 until the whole cargo be ready for delivery, or has been delivered to the consignee 
 according to the contract for its conveyance. 
 
 If a consignee receive goods in pursuance of the usual bill of lading, by which it is 
 expressed that he is to pay the freight, he, by such receipt, makes himself debtor for 
 the freight, and may be sued for it. But a person who is only an agent for the con- 
 signor, and who is known to the master to be acting in that character, does not make 
 himself personally answerable for the freight by receiving the goods, although he also 
 enters them in his own name at the Custom-house. 
 
 In some cases freight is to be paid, or rather an equivalent recompence made to the 
 owners, although the goods have not been delivered at the place of destination, and 
 though the contract for conveyance be not strictly performed. Thus, if part of the 
 cargo be thrown overboard for the necessary preservation of the ship and the remainder 
 of the goods, and the ship afterwards reach the place of destination, the value of this 
 part is to be answered to the merchant by way of general average, and the value of the 
 freight thereof allowed to the owner. So, if the master be compelled by necessity to 
 sell a part of the cargo for victuals or repairs, the owners must pay to the merchant the 
 price which the goods would have fetched at the place of destination ; and, therefore, 
 are allowed to charge the merchant with the money that would have been due if they 
 had been conveyed thither. 
 
 When goods are deteriorated during a voyage, the merchant is entitled to a compen- 
 sation, provided the deterioration has proceeded from the fault or neglect of the master 
 or mariners ; and of course he is not answerable for the freight, unless he accept the 
 goods, except by way of deduction fi'om the amount of the compensation. On the other 
 hand, if the deterioration has proceeded fi-om a principle of decay naturally inherent in 
 the commodity itself, whether active in every situation, or in the confinement and close- 
 ness of a ship, or from the perils of the sea, or the act of God, the merchant must beai 
 the loss and pay the freight ; for the master and owners are in no fault, nor does their 
 contract contain any insurance or warranty against such an event. In our West India 
 trade, the freight of sugar and molasses is usually regulated by the weight of the casks 
 at the port of delivery here, which, in fact, is in every instance less than the weight at 
 the time of the shipment; and, therefore, the loss of freight occasioned by the leakage 
 necessarily falls upon the owners of the ship by the nature of the contract. 
 
 Different opinions have been entertained by Valin, Pothier, and other great authorities 
 as to maritime law, with respect to the expediency of allowing the merchant to abandon 
 his goods for freight in the event of their being damaged. This question has not been 
 judicially decided in this country. " The only point," says Lord Tenterden, " intended 
 to be proposed by me as doubtful, is the right to abandon for freight alone at the port 
 of destination : and in point of practice, I have been informed that this right is never 
 claimed in this country." — {Law of Shipping, part iii. c. 7.) 
 
 Freight being the return made for the conveyance of goods or passengers to a particvdar 
 destination, no claim arises for its payment in the event of a total loss ; and it is laid 
 down by Lord Mansfield, that " in case of a total loss with salvage, the merchant may 
 either take the part saved, or abandon." — (Abbott, part iii. c- 7. ) But after the merchant 
 has made his ^^ection, he must abide by it. 
 
 It often happens that a ship is hired by a charterparty to sail from one port to another, 
 and thence back to the first — as, for example, from London to Leghorn, and from Leg- 
 horn back to London — at a certain svnn to be paid for every month or other period of 
 the duration of the employment. Upon such a contract, if the whole be one entire voyage, 
 and the ship sail in f?afety to Leghorn, and there deliver the goods of the merchant, and 
 take others on board to be brought to London, but happen to be lost in her return 
 thither, nothing is due for freight, although the merchant has had the benefit of the 
 voyage to Leghorn ; but, if the outward and homeward voyages he distinct, freight will be 
 
584^ 
 
 FRUIT. — FUNDS. 
 
 due for the proportion of the time employed in the outward voyage. " If," said Lord 
 Mansfield, in a case of this sort, " there be one entire voyage out and in, and the ship be 
 i^st away on the homeward voyage, no freight is due ; no wages are due, because the 
 rhole profit is lost ; and by express agreement the parties may make the outward and 
 liomeward voyage one. Nothing is more common than two voyages : wherever there are 
 two voyages, and one is performed, and the ship is lost on the homeward voyage, freight 
 is due for the first." — (^T. B. Trin. Term, 16 Geo. 3.) 
 
 It frequently happens that the master or owner fails to complete his contract, either 
 by not delivering the whole goods to the consignee or owner, or by delivering them at a 
 place short of their original destination ; in these cases, if the owner or consignee of the 
 goods derive any benefit from their conveyance, he is liable to the payment of freight ac- 
 cording to the proportion of the voyage performed, or pro rata itineris peracti : and though 
 contracts of this nature be frequently entire and indivisible, and the master or owner of 
 the ship cannot, from their nature, sue thereon, and recover a rateable freight, or pro 
 rata itineris ; yet he may do so upon a fresh implied contract, for as much as he deserves 
 to have, unless there be an express clause in the original charterparty or contract to the 
 contrary. A fresh implied contract is inferred from the owner's or consignee's acceptance 
 of the goods. Many diflSculties have, indeed, arisen in deciding as to what shall amount 
 to an acceptance : it is not, however, necessary actually to receive the goods ; acceptance 
 may be made by the express or implied directions, and with the consent, of the owner or 
 consignee of the goods, but not otherwise. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the owner of the ship, who is originally entitled to the 
 freight, sells or otherwise disposes of his interest in the ship ; where a chartered ship is 
 sold before the voyage, the vendee, and not the vendor or party to whom he afterwards 
 assigns the charterparty, is entitled to the freight. But where a ship has been sold during 
 the voyage, the owner, with whom a covenant to pay freight has been made, is entitled 
 to the freight, and not the vendee. A mortgagee who does not take possession, is not 
 entitled to the freight. 
 
 The time and manner of paying freight are frequently regulated by express stipulations 
 in a charterparty, or other written contract ; and when that is the case, they must be re- 
 spected ; but if there be no express stipulation contrary to or inconsistent with the right 
 of lien, the goods remain as a security till the freight is paid ; for the master is not bound 
 to deliver them, or any part of them, without payment of the freight and other charges 
 in respect thereof. But the master cannot detain the cargo on board the vessel till 
 these payments be made, as the merchant would, in that case, have no opportunity of 
 examining the condition of the goods. In England, the practice is, when the master is 
 doubtful of payment, to send such goods as are not required to be landed at any par- 
 ticular wharf, to a public wharf, ordering the wharfinger not to part with them till the 
 freight and other charges are paid. No right of lien for freight can exist, unless the 
 freight be earned ; if the freighter or a stranger prevent the freight from becoming due, 
 the ship owner or master's remedy is by action of damages. 
 
 (For further information and details with respect to this subject, see the art. Charter- 
 party, in this Dictionary; Abbott (Lord Tenterden) on the Law of Shipping, part iii. 
 c.7. ; Chitty''s Commercial Law, vol. iii. c. 9. ; Molloy de Jure Maritimo, book ii. c. 4., §"c.) 
 
 FRUIT (Ger. Obst, Friichte ; Du. Ooft ; Fr. Fruit ; It. Frutta, Frutte ; Sp. Fruta ; 
 Rus. Owoschtsch ; Lat. Fructum). This appellation is bestowed by commercial men 
 upon those species of fruit, such as oranges, lemons, almonds, raisins, currants, apples, 
 &c., which constitute articles of importation from foreign countries. 
 
 FULLERS' EARTH (Ger. Walkererde; Du. Voldarde ; Fr. Terre d f onion; It. 
 Terra da purgatori ; Sp. Tierra de batan ; Rus. Schiffernaia ; Lat. Terra fullonum), a 
 species of clay, of a greenish white, greenish grey, olive and oil green, and sometimes 
 spotted colour. It is usually opaque, very soft, and feels greasy. It is used by fullers 
 to take grease out of cloth before they apply the soap. The best is found in Bucking- 
 hamshire and Surrey. When good, it has a greenish white, or greenish grey colour, 
 falls into powder in water, appears to melt on the tongue like butter, communicates a 
 milky hue to water, and deposits very little sand when mixed with boiling water. The 
 remarkable detersive property on woollen cloth depends oh the alumina, which should 
 be at least one fifth of the whole, but not much more than one fourth, lest it become too 
 tenacious. — {Thomson's Chemistry ; Jameson's Mineralogy.) Malcolm, in his Survey of 
 Surrey, published in 1809, says that he took considerable pains in endeavouring to 
 ascertain the consumption of fullers' earth, and that he found it to be about 6,300 tons 
 a year for the entire kingdom, of which about 4,000 tons were furnished by Surrey. 
 
 FUNDS (Public), the name given to the public funded debt due by government. 
 
 The practice of borrowing money in order to defray a part of the war expenditure 
 began, in this country, in the reign of William III. In the infancy of the practice, it 
 was customary to borrow upon the security of some tax, or portion of a tax, set apart as 
 a fund for discharging the principal and interest of the sum borrowed. This discharge? 
 
FUNDS. 
 
 585 
 
 Tvas, however, very rarely effected. The public exigencies still continuing, the loans 
 were, in most ca<;cs, cither continued, or the taxes were again mortgaged for fresh ones. 
 At length the iiractice of borrowing for a fixed period, or, as it is commonly tc^rmed, 
 upon terminable annuities, was almost entirely abandoned, and most loans were made 
 upon interminable annuities, or until such time as it might be convenient for govei nment 
 to pay off the principal. 
 
 In the beginning of the funding system, the term fund meant the taxes or funds 
 appropriated to the discharge of the principal and interest of loans ; those who held 
 government securities, and sold them to others, selling, of course, a corresponding claim 
 upon some fund. But after the debt began to grow large, and the practice of borrow- 
 ing upon interminable annuities had been introduced, the meaning attached to the term 
 fund was gradually changed ; and instead of signifying the security upon which loans 
 were advanced, it has, for a long time, signified the principal of the loans themselves. 
 
 Owing partly, perhaps, to the scarcity of disposable capital at the time, but far more 
 to the supposed insecurity of the Revolutionary establishment, the rate of interest paid 
 by government in the early part of the funding system was, comparatively, high. jBut 
 as the country became richer, and the confidence of the public in the stability of govern- 
 ment was increased, ministers were enabled to take measures for reducing the interest, 
 first in 1716, and again in 1749. 
 
 During the reigns of William III. and Anne, the interest stipulated for loans was 
 very various. But in the reign of George II. a different practice was adopted. In- 
 stead of varying the interest upon the loan according to the state of the money market 
 at the time, the rate of interest was generally fixed at three or three and a half per cent. ; 
 the necessary variation being made in the principal funded. Thus, suppose government 
 were anxious to borrow, that they preferred borrowing in a 3 per cent, stock, and that 
 they could not negotiate a loan for less than 4^ per cent. ; they effected their object by 
 giving the lendei-, in return for every lOOZ. advanced, 150/. 3 per cent, stock; that is, 
 they bound the country to pay him or his assignees 4.1. 10s. a year in all time to come, 
 or, otherwise, to extinguish the debt by a payment of 150/. In consequence of the 
 prevalence of this practice, the principal of the debt now existing amounts to nearly two 
 fifths more than the sum actually advanced by the lenders. 
 
 Some advantages are, however, derivable, or supposed to be derivable, from this 
 systein. It renders the management of the debt, and its transfer, moj-e simple and 
 commodious than it would have been, had it consisted of a great number of funds bear- 
 ing different rates of interest : and it is contended, that the greater field for speculation 
 afforded ;.o the dealers in stocks bearing a low rate of interest, has enabled government 
 to borrow, by funding additional capitals, for a considerably less payment on account of 
 Interest than wovdd have been necessary had no such increase of capital been made. 
 
 Were this a proper place for entering upon such discussions, it would be easy to show that the advan. 
 tages now referred to are really of very trifling importance ; and that the method of funding by an increase 
 of capital has been a most improvident one, and most injurious to the public interests. But it would be 
 quite foreign from the objects of this work to enter into any examination of such questions ; our readers 
 will, liowever, find them fully investigated in an article in the 93d No. of the Edinburgh Review. Here 
 we have merely to consider funded property, or government securities, as transferable or marketable 
 commodities. The following is an account of the progress of the National Debt of Great Britain, from the 
 Revolution to the present time : — 
 
 Account of the Principal and Annual Charge of the Public Debt since the Revolution.* 
 
 Debt at the Revolution, in 1689 - - - - - 
 
 Excess of debt contracted during the reign of William III. above debt paid oft" 
 
 Debt at the accession of Queen Anne, in 1702 ... 
 
 Debt contracted during Queen Anne's reign - - - 
 
 Debt at the accession of George I., in 1714 - - - 
 
 Debt paid off' during the reign of Ueoiv.e I., above debt contracted 
 
 Debt at the accession ofGcorge II., in 1727 - - - - 
 
 Debt contracted from the accession of (Jeorge II. till the peace of Paris in 17C3, tliree 
 years after the accession of George III. - - - 
 
 Debt in 17C3 - ... . . 
 
 Paid during peace, from 1763 to 1775 - - - - - 
 
 Debt at the commencement of the American war, in 1775 ... 
 Debt contracted during the American war ... 
 
 Debt at the conclusion of the American war, in 1781 - - - - 
 
 Paid during peace, from 1781 to 1793 ... 
 
 Total funded and unfunded debt on the 1st of February, 1817, when the English and Irish 
 exchequers were consolidated - - - - 
 
 Debt cancelled from the 1st of February, 1817, to 5th of January, 1836 - - - 
 
 Debt, and charge thereon, 5th of January, 1856 - - - 
 
 Principal, 
 Funded and 
 Unfunded. 
 
 Interest 
 and Manage- 
 ment. 
 
 L. 664,'263 
 15,730,459 
 
 L. 39,855 
 1,271,087 
 
 1G,3!)4,702 
 37,750,661 
 
 1,310,942 
 2,040,416 
 
 54,145,363 
 2,053,1 '25 
 
 3,351 A58 
 1,153,807 
 
 52,092,233 
 S6.,773,192 
 
 2,217,551 
 2,634,500 
 
 13.S,S65,430 
 10,281,795 
 
 4,So2,031 
 5S0,1S0 
 
 128,583,635 
 121,267,993 
 
 4,471,571 
 4,980,201 
 
 249,851,628 
 10,501,380 
 
 9,451,772 
 245.277 
 
 239,550,148 
 601,500,343 
 
 9,208,495 
 . 22,829,696 
 
 840,850,191 
 
 32,038,191 
 
 53,211,675 
 
 2,894,674 
 
 787,638,816 ' 29,143,517 
 
 * This account has been loade up partly from the table in Dr. Hamilton's work on the National Debt (3rd ed. 
 from the Purl. Paper, No. 1G5. Sess. 1834 ; and paitly from the Annual Finance Book, for the year endinij 5th 
 pages 14. 'JU. and 104. 
 
 p. 100.) ; partly 
 Januarv, iSod, 
 
586 
 
 FUNDS. 
 
 : ^ in 
 
 > CM lO 
 
 is-':;! 
 
 <u — < " . 
 
 . 5^ ^ 00 '■^^ 
 
 r5 5 <u = "a , 
 
 > .2 c« 
 
 ea w .ti .ti > 
 
 IP 
 
 ail's CO 
 
 C KJ CM 
 
 .2 
 
 £ 01 o 
 
 S ^ o. 
 
 rn U ~ O 
 
 o o g 
 " £i u, <u =3 
 
 S O 2 O'iS 
 
 •§ S £ 
 S " « = -5 
 
 §§ too 
 
 - c - w S S 
 
 £ 4J c ^ u- c 
 ■55^ = 2 
 
 u o 
 
 ^1 
 
 5 « O C 
 <5 3 S S<<- 
 
 t^-a Q 3 
 
 C.> M O M O 
 
 3 3 a; g 
 
 O CO 
 
 I" 
 S.c 
 
 .s-s ■ 
 
 •i o;i* 
 
 C " 
 
 o) 0) _S 
 
 |g« 
 ^■^^ 
 
 13 -3 
 
 to o o o o Eo^ 
 
 
 I-~0 00 * 
 
 III 
 
 
 CO 
 
 0><J< ffjco 
 
 o 
 
 3,662,784 
 3,497,870 
 2,460,830 
 523,100 
 11,015,100 
 825,491 
 356,768,258 
 125,851,977 
 
 505,412 
 
 eo o o o 
 O o 
 ^00_OJ_C?<_ 
 
 E^£oco 
 
 00 '^lO-* 
 
 899,508 
 
 504,1 
 
 
 <£>00COC<3r^CNi--"O< 
 OtCMtCCOO'*— 
 
 In 0< CM "-iOO^tO CD 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 r- 
 
 00 o 
 
 00 i 
 
 32,650,358 
 
 758,549,866 
 29,088,950 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 3 2 
 
 I c c 
 CO q 
 
 3 3 
 ■3 O c 
 
 •§2 i 
 
 I I I I I I ^ 
 
 4^ is ^ 3 ?> C'S 
 
 J= S 3 
 
 o (U 
 
 c £ 0) <u 
 
 CO "o 
 
 M '3 t« U5 3 : 
 
 ej g o oj K! 
 
 •3T3'3 a 
 V3 1) . „ 
 
 « u 2 
 
 !^3^ 
 
 = c 5 
 ; c« c 
 
 ID <U i> 0) 
 
 3 
 
FUNDS. 
 
 587 
 
 The statement on page 585. shows that a reduction of 53,211,675/. was efTected in 
 the principal of the national debt, and of 2,894, in the annual charge on account 
 thereof, between February, 1817, and January, 1836. The debt, at the last- mentioned 
 period, includes the stock created by the funding of the loan of 15,000,000/. in 1835, 
 for behoof of "the slave proprietors. The diminution has been brought about partly by 
 the application of surplus revenue to buy up stock, but 'more by the reduction of the 
 interest on the 4 and 5 per cent, stocks existing in 1817, and by that paid on the 
 unfunded debt. The total annual saving by the reduction of interest between 1822, 
 when the first, and 1834, when the last, reduction was made (that of the 4 per cent, 
 annuities, mentioned in former impressions of this worTc), has been 2,355,845/. ; and, 
 considerable as this is, it would have been more than three times as great, but for the 
 pernicious practice, previously pointed out, of funding large nominal capitals. 
 
 We subjoin a brief notice of the different funds or stocks constituting the public debt, 
 as it stood on the 5th of January, 1836. 
 
 I. Funds bearing Interest at Three per Cent. 
 
 1. South Sea Debt and Annuities. — This portion of the debt, amounting, on the 5th 
 of January, 1836, to 10,144,584/., is all that now remains of the capital of the once famous, 
 or rather infamous, South Sea Company. The Company has, for a considerable time 
 past, ceased to have any thing to do with trade : so that the functions of the directors 
 are wholly restricted to the transfer of the Company's stock, and the payment of the 
 dividends on it ; both of which operations are performed at the South Sea House, and 
 not at the Bank. The dividends on the old South Sea annuities are payable on the 5th 
 of April and 10th of October ; the dividends on the rest of the Company's stock are 
 payable on the 5th of January and 5th of July. 
 
 2. Debt due to the Bank of England. — This consists of the sum of 11,015,100/. lent 
 by the Bank to the public at 3 per cent. ; dividends payable on the 5th of April and 
 10th of October. This must not be confounded with the Bank capital of 10,914,750/., 
 on which the stockholders divide. The dividend on the latter has been 8 per cent, since 
 1823. — (See ante, p. 81. and p. 84.) 
 
 3. Bank Annuities created in 1726. — The civil list settled upon George I. was 
 700,000/. a year ; but having fallen into arrear, this stock was created for the purpose 
 of cancelling Exchequer bills that had been issued to defray the arrear. " The capital is 
 irredeemable ; and being small, in comparison with the other public funds, and a stock in 
 which little is done on speculation, the price is generally at least 1 per cent, lower than 
 the 3 per cent, consols." — (^Cohen's edit, of Fairman on the Funds, p. 40.) 
 
 4. Three per Cent. Consols, or Consolidated Annuities. — This stock forms by much the 
 largest portion of the public debt. It had its origin in 1751, when an act was passed, 
 consolidating (hence the name) several separate stocks bearing an interest of 3 per cent, 
 into one general stock. At the period when the consolidation took place, the principal 
 of the funds blended together amounted to 9,137,821/. ; but, by the funding of additional 
 loans, and parts of loans, in this stock, it amounted, on the 5th of January, 1 836, to the 
 immense sum of 356,768,258/. ! 
 
 The consolidated annuities are distinguished from the 3 per cent, reduced annuities, 
 by the circumstance of the interest upon them never having been varied, and by the di- 
 vidends becoming due at different periods. This stock is, from its magnitude, and the 
 proportionally great number of its holders, the soonest affected by all those circumstances 
 which tend to elevate or depress the price of funded property ; and, on this account, it 
 is the stock which speculators and jobbers most commonly select for their operations. 
 Dividends payable on the 5th of January and 5th of July. 
 
 5. Three per Cent. Reduced Annuities. — This fund was established in 1757. It con- 
 sisted, as the name implies, of several funds which had previously been borrowed at a 
 higher rate of interest; but, by an act passed in 1749, it was declared that such holders 
 of the funds in question as did not choose to accept in future of a reduced interest of 3 
 per cent, should be paid off, — an alternative which comparatively few embraced. The 
 debts that were thus reduced and consolidated, amounted, at the establishment of the 
 fund, to 17,571,574/. By the addition of new loans, they now amount to 125,851,977/. 
 Dividends payable on the 5th of April and 10th of October. 
 
 II. Funds bearing more than Three per Cent. Interest. 
 
 1. Annuities at 3^ per Cent., 1818. — This stock w.is formed in 1818, partly by a sub- 
 scription of 3 per cent, consolidated and 3 per cent, reduced annuities, and partly by a 
 subscription of Exchequer bills. It was made redeemable at par any time after the 5th 
 of April, 1829, upon 6 months' notice being given. Dividends payable on the 5th of 
 April and 10th of October. The capital of this stock amounts to 10,861,104/. 
 
 2. Reduced 3^ per Cent. Annuities. — This stock was created in 1824, by the transfer 
 
588 
 
 FUNDS. 
 
 of a stock bearing interest at 4 per cent. (Old 4 per cents. ). It is redeemable at plea- 
 sure. Dividends payable 5th of April and 10th of October. Amount, on the 5th of 
 January, 1836, 63,436,8501. 
 
 3. New 3^ per Cent. Annuities. — This stock was formed by the act 1 1 Geo. 3. c. 13., 
 out of the stock known by the name of " New 4 per cents.," amounting on- the 5th of 
 January, 1830, to 144,331, 212^. The holders of this 4 per cent, stock had their option 
 either to subscribe it into the new 3^ per cent, annuities, or into a new 5 per cent, stock, 
 at the rate of lOOZ. 4 per cents, for 70?. 5 per cents. Dissentients to be paid off. Only 
 467,7 13Z. new 5 per cent, stock was created under this arrangement. The sum required 
 to pay dissentients was 2,610,000Z. The new 3^ per cent, stock thus created, amounted 
 on the 5th of January, 1836, to 146,557,901Z. Dividends payable 5th of January and 5th 
 of July. 
 
 4. New 5 per Cent. — Amount, 5th of January, 1836,438,241/. — (See previous 
 Article.) 
 
 III. Annuities. 
 
 1 . Lonff Annuities. — These annuities were created at different periods, but they all 
 expire together in 1 860. They were chiefly granted by way of premiums or douceurs to 
 the subscribers to loans — Payable on the 5th of April and 10th of October. 
 
 2. Annuities per 4 Geo. 4. c. 22 This annuity is payable to the Bank of England, 
 
 and is commonly known by the name of the " Dead weight " annuity. (See ante, p. 80.) 
 It expires in 1867. It is equivalent to a perpetual annuity of 470,3 19Z. 10s. 
 
 3. Annuities per 48 Geo. 3., 10 Geo. 4. c. 24., and 3 4 Will. 4. c. 14. — These acts 
 authorised the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt, to grant annuities 
 for terms of years, and life annuities ; accepting in payment either money or stock ac- 
 cording to rates specified in Tables to be approved by the Lords of the Treasury. No 
 annuities are granted on the life of any nominee under 15 years of age, nor in any case 
 not approved by the commissioners. Annuities for terms of years not granted for any 
 period less than te7i years. These annuities are transferable, but not in parts or shares. 
 Those for terms of years, payable 5th of January and 5th of July ; and those for lives, 
 5th of April and 10th of October. 
 
 The terminable and life annuities- granted under the above acts, amounted, on the 5th 
 of January, 1836, to 4,188, 809Z., being equal, according to the calculations of Mr. 
 Finlaison, to a corresponding p£'rj3e^MaZ annuity of 1,970,019Z. — (ParZ. Paper, No. 457. 
 Sess. 1836.) 
 
 Irish Debt. — It seems unnecessary to enter into any details with respect to the 
 public debt of Ireland. The various descriptions of stock of which it consists, and their 
 amount, are specified above. The dividends on the Irish debt are paid at the Bank of 
 Ireland ; and, in order to accommodate the public, stock may be transferred, at the plea- 
 sure of the holders, from Ireland to Great Britain, and from the latter to the former. 
 
 Exchequer Bills are bills of credit issued by authority of parliament. They are for 
 various sums, and bear interest (generally from l^cZ. to 2^d. per diem, per lOOZ.) 
 according to the usual rate at the time. The advances of the Bank to Government ai-e 
 made upon Exchequer bills ; and the daily transactions between the Bank and Govern- 
 ment are principally carried on through their intervention. Notice of the time at which 
 outstanding Exchequer bills are to be paid off is given by public advertisement. Bankers 
 prefer vesting in Exchequer bills to any other species of stock, even though the interest 
 be for the most part comparatively low ; because the capital may be received at the 
 Treasury at the rate originally paid for it, the holders being exempted from any risk of 
 fluctuation. Exchequer bills were first issued in 1696, and have been annually issued 
 ever since. The amount outstanding, and unprovided for, on the 5th of January, 1836, 
 was 29,088,950Z. 
 
 India Stock and India Bonds are always quoted in the lists of the prices of the public 
 funds. The stock on which the East India Company divide is 6,000,OOOZ. ; the dividend 
 on which has been, since 1793, 10^ per cent. ; and is to remain at that rate during the 
 continuance of the charter. India bonds are generally for lOOZ. each, and )i)oar at pre- 
 sent 2^ per cent, interest, payable 31st of March and 30th of September. In selling 
 them, the interest due down to the day of sale is, with the premium, added to the amount 
 of the bills ; the total being the sum to be paid by the purchaser. The premium, which 
 is, consequently, the only variable part of the price, is influenced by the circumstances 
 which influence the price of stocks generally, — the number of bonds in circulation, SiC. 
 
 The price of stocks is influenced by a variety of circumstances. Whatever tends to 
 shake or to increase the public confidence in the stability of government, tends, at the 
 same time, to lower or increase the price of stocks. They are also affected by the state 
 of the revenue ; and, more than all, by the facility of obtaining supplies of disposable 
 capital, and the interest which may be realised upon loans to responsible persons. 
 
FUNDS. 
 
 589 
 
 From 1730 till the rebellion of 1745, the 3 per cents, were never under 89, and were 
 once, in June, 1737, as high as 107. During the rebellion they sunk to 76; but in 
 1749 rose again to 100. In the interval between the peace of Paris, in 1763, and the 
 breaking out of the American war, they averaged from 80 to 90 ; but towards the close 
 of the war they sunk to 54. In 1792, they were, at one time, as high as 96. In 1797, 
 the prospects of the country, owing to the successes of the French, the mutiny in the 
 fleet, and other adverse circumstances, were by no means favourable ; and, in consequence, 
 the price of 3 per cents, sunk, on the 20th of September, on the intelligence transpiring 
 of an attempt to negotiate with the French republic having failed, to 47f , being the 
 lowest price to which they have ever fallen. 
 
 Pi ices of 3 per Cent. Consols, in February and August, eacli Year since 1820. — {Report of Bank Com- 
 
 mittee.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 Trice of Consols. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Price of Consols. 
 
 1820. February 
 
 68^ 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1826. February 
 
 . in 
 
 per cent. 
 
 August - - - 
 
 671 
 
 
 August - - - 
 
 
 
 1821. February 
 
 73i 
 76| 
 
 
 1827. February 
 
 82A 
 
 
 August - - «• 
 
 
 August - - - 
 
 86A 
 
 
 1822. February 
 
 78| 
 
 
 1828. February 
 
 83J 
 
 
 August - - - 
 
 80f 
 
 
 August - - - 
 
 87i 
 
 
 1823. February 
 
 73 
 
 
 1829. February 
 
 86f 
 
 
 August - - . 
 
 82| 
 
 
 August - - - 
 
 88| 
 
 
 1824. February 
 
 
 1830. February 
 
 911 
 
 
 August - - - 
 
 
 
 August 
 
 90i 
 
 m 
 
 
 1825. February 
 
 931 
 
 
 1831. February 
 
 
 August - - - 
 
 m 
 
 
 August - - . 
 
 8^1 
 
 
 The following is a statement of the prices of the different descriptions of British funds 
 during the 6 days commencing with Saturday, the 14th of December, 1833. 
 
 Description of Stock. 
 
 Saturday. 
 
 Monday. | Tuesday. I Wednesday 
 
 Thursday. 
 
 Friday. 
 
 Bank stock, dividend 8 per cent. 
 
 3 per cent, reduced - . _ ■ 
 
 S per cent, consols for account 
 
 3i per cent, annuities, 1818 
 
 3| per cent, reduced . - . . 
 
 New 3i per cent, annuities - 
 
 New 4 per cent, annuities, 1826 
 
 New 5 per cent. - - - • . 
 
 Long annuities, expire 5 Jan. 1860 - 
 
 New annuities, Jan. and July - - 
 
 South Sea stock, dividend 3| per cent. 
 
 Do. old annuity, dividend 3 per cent. 
 
 Do. new annuity, dividend 3 per cent. 
 
 3 per cent, annuities, 1751 - 
 
 India bonds, 2i per cent. 
 
 Exchequer bills, \^d. IQQl. 
 
 Bank stock for account 
 
 India stock, dividend 10| per cent. - 
 
 210 11 
 
 m I 
 
 88i I 
 
 96f 1 
 103f I 
 161 15-16 
 
 210 11 
 
 87i I 
 
 mi 
 
 96f i 
 103f I 
 
 210i Hi 
 87i I 
 
 22s.24s. pm 225. 24s. pm 
 43a'.445. pm 43A\44s.pm 
 210 11 210 11 
 
 96i i 
 103| 
 161 
 
 21s. pm 
 42s. — pm 
 211 
 
 210f 11± 
 87« 
 88i 
 96f 
 96i f 
 
 103i i 
 
 161 15-16 
 
 20s. 22s. pm 
 41s. 42s. pm 
 
 211i 11 
 
 87A I 
 88| 
 
 86f I 
 
 103i f 
 
 162 15-16 
 
 20s. 21s. pm 
 41s. 42s. pm 
 
 96|7 
 103i I 
 16 15-16 17 
 
 21s. — s.pm 
 41s.42s. pm 
 
 Agreements for the sale of stock are generally made at the Stock Exchange, which is 
 frequented by a set of middlemen called jobbers, whose business is to accommodate the 
 buyers and sellers of stock with the exact sums they want. A jobber is generally pos- 
 sessed of considerable property in the funds ; and he declares a price at which he will 
 either sell or buy. Thus, he declares he is ready to buy 3 per cent, consols at 85^, or 
 to sell at 85^ ; so that, in this way, a person willing to buy or sell any sum, however 
 small, has never any difficulty in finding an individual with whom to deal. The jobber's 
 profit is generally^ per cent., for which he transacts both a sale and a purchase. He 
 frequently confines himself entirely to this sort of business, and engages in no other 
 description of stock speculation. 
 
 We borrow the following details from Dr. Hamilton's valuable work on the National 
 Debt : — 
 
 " A bargain for the sale of stock, being agreed on, is carried into execution at the Transfer Office, at 
 the Bank, or the South Sea House. For this purpose the seller makes out a note in writing, which con. 
 tains the name and designation of the seller and purchaser, and the sum and description of the stock to 
 be transferred. He delivers this to the proper clerk * ; and then fills up a receipt, a printed form of which, 
 with blanks, is obtained at the office. The clerk in the mean time examines the seller's accounts, and if 
 he find him possessed of the stock proposed to be sold, he makes out the transfer. This is signed in the 
 books by the seller, who delivers the receipt to the clerk; and upon the purchaser's signing his acceptance 
 in the book, the clerk signs the receipt as witness. It is then delivered to the purchaser upon paj-ment of 
 the money, and thus the business is completed. 
 
 " This business is generally transacted by brokers, who derive their authority from their employers by 
 powers of attorney. Forms of these and obtained at the respective offices. Some authorise the broker to 
 
 • The letters of the alphabet are placed round the room, and the seller must apply to the clerk who has 
 his station under the initial of his name. In all the offices, there are supervising clerks who join in wit- 
 nessing the transfei-. 
 
590 
 
 FUNDS. 
 
 sell, others to accept a purchase, and others to receive the dividends. Some comprehend all these objects, 
 and the two last are generally united. Powers of attorney authorising to sell must be deposited in the 
 proper office for examination one day before selling : a stockholder acting personally, after granting a letter 
 of attorney, revokes it by implication. 
 
 " The person in whose name the stock is invested when the books are shut, previous to the payment of 
 the dividends, receives the dividend for the half year preceding ; and, therefore, a purchaser during the 
 currency of the half year has the benefit of the interest on stock he buys, from the last term of payment 
 to the day of transfer. The price of stock, therefore, rises gradually, cceteris paribus, from term to term ; 
 and when the dividend is paid, it undergoes a fall equal thereto. Thus, the 3 per cent, consols should be 
 higher than the 3 per cent, reduced by f per cent, from the 5th of April to the 5th of July, and from the 
 10th of October to the 5th of January ; and should be as much lower from the 5th of January to the ^th 
 of March, and from the 5th of July to the 10th of October ; and this is nearly the case. Accidental cir- 
 cumstances may occasion a slight deviation. 
 
 " The dividends on the different stocks being payable at different terms, it is in the power of the stock- 
 holders to invest their property in such a manner as to draw their income quarterly. 
 
 " The business of speculating in the stocks is founded on the variation of the price of stock, which it 
 probably tends in some measure to support. It consists in buying or selling stock according to the views 
 entertained, by those who engage in this business, of the probability of the value rising or falling. 
 
 " This business is partly conducted by persons who have property in the funds. But a practice also pre- 
 vails among those who have no such property, of contracting for the sale of stock on a future day at a 
 price agreed on. For example, A. may agree to sell B. 10,OOOZ. of 3 per cent, stock, to be transferred in 
 iJO days, for 6,000/. A. has, in fact, no such stock ; but if the price on the day appointed for the transfer 
 be only 58, he may purchase as much as will enable him to fulfil his bargain for 5,800/., and thus gain 200/. 
 by the transaction • on the other hand, if the price of that stock should rise to 62, he will lose 200/. The 
 business is generally settled without any actual purchase of stock, or transfer ; A. paying to B. or receiving 
 from him the difference between the price of stock on the day of settlement, and the price agreed on. 
 
 " This practice, which amounts to nothing else than a wager concerning the price of stock, is not sane- 
 tioned by law ; yet it is carried on to a great extent : and as neither party can be compelled by law to 
 implement these bargains, their sense of honour, and the disgrace attending a breach of contract, are the 
 principles by which the business is supported. In the language of the Stock Exchange, the buyer is called 
 a Bull, and the seller a Bear, and the person who refuses to pay his loss is called a Lame Duck ; and the 
 names of these defaulters are exhibited in the Stock Exchange, where they dare not appear afterwards. 
 
 " These bargains are usually made for certain days fixed by a committee of the Stock Exchange, called 
 settling days, of which there are about 8 in the year ; viz. one in each of the months of January, February, 
 April, May, July, August, October, and November ; and they are always on Tuesday, Wednesday, Thurs- 
 day, or Friday, being the days on whicli the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt make 
 purchases. The settling days in January and July are always the first days of the opening of the Bank 
 books for public transfer ; and these days are notified at the Bank when the consols are shut to prepare 
 for the dividend. The price at which stock is sold to be transferred on the next settling day, is called the 
 price on account. Sometimes, instead of closing the account on the settling day, the stock is carried on 
 to a future day, on such terms as the parties agree on. This is called a continuation. 
 
 " All the business, however, which is done in the stocks for time, is not of a gambling nature. In a 
 place of so extensive comimerce as London, opulent merchants, who possess property in the funds, and are 
 unwilling to part with it, have frequently occasion to raise money for a snort time. Their resource in 
 this case is to sell for money, and buy for account ; and although the money raised in this manner costs 
 more than the legal interest, it affords an important accommodation, and it may be rendered strictly legal 
 and recoverable."— (Third ed. pp. 314—317.) 
 
 It would be foreign to the object of this work to enter upon any examination of the 
 comparative advantages and disadvantages of the funding system. Perhaps, on the whole, 
 the latter preponderate ; though it is not to be denied that the former are very consider- 
 able. The purchase of funded property aflfords a ready method of investment ; and as 
 neither the Bank of England, nor any of the London private banks, allows interest upon 
 deposits, it is plain that, were it not for the facilities given by the funds, individuals un- 
 able to employ their savings in some branch of business, would derive no advantage from 
 them, unless they resorted to the hazardous expedient of lending upon private credit. In 
 Scotland, where the public and private banks are universally in the habit of allowing 
 interest upon deposits, the advantages of funded investments are not quite so obvious, 
 though probably as great ; for it may be doubted whether the banks could afford interest, 
 or whether, indeed, they could be conducted at all, without the aid of the funds. 
 
 The subjoined account of the number cf dividend warrants issued in the half year 
 ending with the 5th of January, 1833, is a very important document. The large num- 
 ber (87,176) of holders of sums not producing above Bl. of half-yearly dividend, is prin- 
 cipally to be ascribed to the circumstances already mentioned as peculiar to the banking 
 system of the metropolis ; and there can be little doubt that their number would be ma- 
 terially diminished, were the Scotch system adopted in its stead. It is evident from this 
 account, that the number of persons having a direct interest in the funds is much greater 
 than it represents. The dividends upon the funded property belonging to the Equitable 
 and other insurance companies, the different banking companies, &c. are paid upon single 
 warrants, as if they were due to so many private individuals ; whereas they are, really, 
 paid to these individuals only because they act as factors or trustees for a vast number 
 more. It is consequently quite absurd to pretend, as is sometimes done, that any inter- 
 ference with funded property would affect only 280,000 individuals out of a population 
 of 25,000,000. Any attack upon the dividends would really be destructive, not merely 
 of the interests of those to whom dividend warrants are issued, but of all who depend 
 upon them : it would destroy our whole system of insurance and banking, and overspread 
 the country with bankruptcy and ruin. Not only, therefore, is every prc^osal for an 
 invasion of the property of the fundholders bottomed on injustice and robbery, but it 
 would, were it acted upon, be little less ruinous to the community than to the peculiar 
 class intended to be plundered. 
 
FURS. 
 
 591 
 
 An >iccount of the Total Number of Persons to whom a Half Year's Dividend was due at the last Half- 
 yearly Payment thereof, on each Description of Public Stock, and on each Descripti''/ri of Terminaljle 
 Annuities; distinguishing the Number respectively of those whose Dividends for the Half Year did 
 not exceed 51., WL, 501., 100/., 200/., 300/., 5001., 1,000/., 2,000/., 3,000/., 4,000/., 5,000/., and the Number 
 of those whose Dividends exceed 5,000/. ; distinguishing also, in those above 1,000/., the Dividends due 
 to any Public Company, or to more than a single Name— {Pari. Paper, No. 202, Sess. 1833.) 
 
 
 Not exceeilinj; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oint 
 000/. 
 
 
 •sg 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 
 
 5/. 
 
 10{. 
 
 50/. 
 
 100/. 
 
 200/. 
 
 300/. 
 
 500/. 
 
 1,000/ 
 
 /OOO'S 
 
 65 
 
 
 cts.,3, 
 
 
 6 ~ 
 
 S o. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Number to whom divi 
 dends were payable 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 'i 
 < 
 
 
 ^< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oil 3/. per cent, re-1 , 
 duced annuities -J 1 
 
 10 34 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 ,7 5 
 
 11,681 
 
 3,473 
 
 2,175 
 
 742 
 
 453 
 
 231 
 
 53 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 33,958 
 
 On 5/. 105. per cent. \ j 
 reduced annuities T | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7,019 
 
 4,362 
 
 10,173 
 
 2,909 
 
 1,561 
 
 411 
 
 251 
 
 112 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 nil 
 
 
 
 26 84 
 
 On 51. 10s. per cent. ( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 annuities, 18X8 - S 
 
 * 198 
 
 162 
 
 399 
 
 211 
 
 127 
 
 57 
 
 38 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1,232 
 
 On 4/. per cent, an-i 
 
 1,601 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nuities, 1826 -J 
 
 993 
 
 2,044 
 
 512 
 
 312 
 
 92 
 
 59 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 5,636 
 
 On long annuities . 
 On annuities for 1 
 
 9,078 
 
 4,212 
 
 8,361 
 
 1,516 
 
 725 
 
 187 
 
 99 
 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 nil 
 
 24,221 
 
 terms of years - -J , 
 
 1,519 
 
 787 
 
 1,632 
 
 351 
 
 178 
 
 56 
 
 32 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 nil 
 
 2 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 2 
 
 4,583 
 
 On 3/. per cent, con- IS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 solidated annuities J / 
 
 28,722 
 
 13,749 
 
 32,601 
 
 9,612 
 
 6,286 
 
 2,141 
 
 1,424 
 
 709 
 
 153 
 
 IS 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 95,555 
 
 On 3/. per cent, an-1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nuiUes, 172G - 
 
 120 
 
 74 
 
 180 
 
 40 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 nU 
 
 nU 
 
 nil 
 
 447 
 
 On new 31. 10s. perl 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cent, annuities -J 
 
 26,881 
 
 14,698 
 
 29,370 
 
 6,648 
 
 3,129 
 
 765 
 
 431 
 
 204 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 82,194 
 
 On new 51. per cent.1 ' 
 
 35 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 annuities • -J 
 
 107 
 
 36 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 nil 
 
 1 
 
 nU 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 nU 
 
 nil 
 
 237 
 
 On annuities fori 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 terms of years • -J/ 
 
 1,656 
 
 833 
 
 1,757 
 
 333 
 
 161 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 12 
 
 _i 
 
 nil 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 nil 
 
 _1_ 
 
 8 
 
 4,839 
 
 Totals - - 
 
 87,176 
 
 44,648 
 
 98,305 
 
 25,641 
 
 14,7014,495 
 
 2^827 
 
 1,367 
 
 266 
 
 "iM 
 
 ~40" 
 
 35 
 
 
 24 
 
 ~60" 
 
 ,279,751 
 
 * Dividends payable 10th of October. + Dividends;payable on 5th of January. 
 
 The following Table has been calculated, in order to show in which of the public funds 
 money may be invested, so as to yield the greatest interest. It gives the prices, differing 
 by 1 per cent, from 50 to 93 for 3 per cents. &c., at which they all must be, to yield the 
 same interest ; so that, supposing the 3 per cents, to be at 80, a sum invested in them, or 
 in the 3^ per cents., will yield the same interest, provided the latter be at 93^: if the 
 Sg- per cents, be below this sum, it will of course be more advantageous, in so far at least 
 as interest is concerned, to invest in them than in the 3 per cents. ; while, if they be 
 above 93g-, it will be less advantageous. 
 
 To get the true value of the different funds at any particular period, in order to com- 
 pare them accurately together, it is necessary to deduct from each the amount of interest 
 accruing upon it from the payment of the last dividend. — ( For further details, see ante, 
 p. 82. and p. 188.) 
 
 Table showing the Prices the different Funds must be at to produce an equal Interest ; and also the annual 
 Interest produced by 100/. Sterling invested at any of those Prices. 
 
 3 percent. 
 Price. 
 
 3i per Cent. 
 Price. 
 
 4 per Cent. 
 Price. 
 
 5 per Cent. 
 Price. 
 
 Interest. 
 
 3 perCent. 
 Price. 
 
 3i per Cent. 
 Price. 
 
 4 per Cent. 
 Price. 
 
 5 per Cent. 
 
 Price. 
 
 Interest. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ S. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ S. 
 
 d. 
 
 .£ 
 
 £ S. 
 
 d. 
 
 .£ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 je S. 
 
 d. 
 
 ^ s. d. 
 
 50 
 
 58 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 66 13 
 
 4 
 
 83 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 72 
 
 84 0 
 
 0 
 
 96 0 
 
 0 
 
 120 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 3 3 
 
 51 
 
 59 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 68 0 
 
 0 
 
 85 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 17 
 
 7 
 
 73 
 
 85 3 
 
 4 
 
 97 6 
 
 8 
 
 121 13 
 
 4 
 
 4 2 2 
 
 52 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 69 6 
 
 8 
 
 86 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 5 15 
 
 4 
 
 74 
 
 86 6 
 
 8 
 
 98 13 
 
 4 
 
 123 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 i 0 
 
 53 
 
 61 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 70 13 
 
 4 
 
 88 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 5 13 
 
 2 
 
 75 
 
 87 10 
 
 0 
 
 100 0 
 
 0 
 
 125 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 54 
 
 63 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 72 0 
 
 0 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 11 
 
 1 
 
 76 
 
 88 13 
 
 4 
 
 101 6 
 
 8 
 
 126 13 
 
 4 
 
 3 18 11 
 
 55 
 
 64 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 73 6 
 
 8 
 
 91 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 5 9 
 
 0 
 
 77 
 
 89 16 
 
 8 
 
 102 13 
 
 4 
 
 128 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 17 11 
 
 56 
 
 65 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 74 13 
 
 4 
 
 93 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 5 7 
 
 1 
 
 78 
 
 91 0 
 
 0 
 
 104 0 
 
 0 
 
 130 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 16 11 
 
 57 
 
 66 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 76 0 
 
 0 
 
 95 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 5 
 
 3 
 
 79 
 
 92 3 
 
 4 
 
 105 6 
 
 8 
 
 131 13 
 
 4 
 
 3 15 11 
 
 58 
 
 67 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 77 6 
 
 8 
 
 96 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 5 3 
 
 5 
 
 80 
 
 93 6 
 
 8 
 
 106 13 
 
 4 
 
 133 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 15 0 
 
 59 
 
 68 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 78 13 
 
 4 
 
 98 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 5 1 
 
 8 
 
 81 
 
 94 10 
 
 0 
 
 108 0 
 
 0 
 
 135 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 14 0 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 80 0 
 
 0 
 
 iro 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 82 
 
 95 13 
 
 4 
 
 109 6 
 
 8 
 
 136 13 
 
 4 
 
 3 13 2 
 
 61 
 
 71 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 81 6 
 
 8 
 
 101 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 4 18 
 
 4 
 
 83 
 
 96 16 
 
 8 
 
 no 13 
 
 4 
 
 138 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 12 3 
 
 62 
 
 72 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 82 13 
 
 4 
 
 103 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 16 
 
 9 
 
 84 
 
 98 0 
 
 0 
 
 112 0 
 
 0 
 
 140 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 11 5 
 
 63 
 
 73 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 84 0 
 
 0 
 
 105 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 15 
 
 2 
 
 85 
 
 99 3 
 
 4 
 
 113 6 
 
 8 
 
 141 13 
 
 4 
 
 3 10 7 
 
 CA 
 
 74 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 85 6 
 
 8 
 
 106 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 4 13 
 
 8 
 
 86 
 
 100 6 
 
 8 
 
 114 13 
 
 4 
 
 143 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 9 9 
 
 65 
 
 75 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 86 13 
 
 4 
 
 108 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 12 
 
 
 87 
 
 101 10 
 
 0 
 
 116 0 
 
 0 
 
 143 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 8 11 
 
 66 
 
 77 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 88 0 
 
 0 
 
 110 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 10 10 
 
 88 
 
 102 13 
 
 4 
 
 117 6 
 
 8 
 
 146 13 
 
 4 
 
 3 8 2 
 
 67 
 
 78 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 89 6 
 
 9 
 
 111 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 4 9 
 
 6 
 
 89 
 
 103 16 
 
 8 
 
 118 13 
 
 4 
 
 148 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 7 4 
 
 68 
 
 79 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 90 13 
 
 4 
 
 113 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 8 
 
 2 
 
 90 
 
 105 0 
 
 0 
 
 120 0 
 
 0 
 
 150 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 6 8 
 
 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 92 0 
 
 0 
 
 115 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 6 11 
 
 91 
 
 106 3 
 
 4 
 
 121 6 
 
 8 
 
 151 13 
 
 4 
 
 3 5 11 
 
 70 
 
 81 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 93 6 
 
 8 
 
 116 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 4 5 
 
 8 
 
 92 
 
 107 6 
 
 8 
 
 122 13 
 
 4 
 
 153 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 5 2 
 
 71 
 
 82 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 94 13 
 
 4 
 
 118 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 4 
 
 6 
 
 93 
 
 108 10 
 
 0 
 
 124 0 
 
 0 
 
 155 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 4 6 
 
 FURS, in commerce, the skins of different animals, covered, for the most part, with 
 thick fine hair, the inner side being converted by a peculiar process into a sort of leather. 
 Furs, previously to their undergoing this process, are denominated peltry. 
 
 Beaver fur, from its extensive use in the hat manufacture, is a very important com- 
 mercial article. That made use of in this country is almost entirely brought from North 
 America. It is gradually becoming scarcer and dearer, being now obtainable only in 
 
592 
 
 FUR TRADE. 
 
 considerable quantities from the most northerly and inaccessible districts. The fur of th , 
 middle-aged or young animal, called cub beaver, is most esteemed. It is the finest, most 
 glossy, and takes the best dye. Fitch, or the fur of the fitchet or polecat, is principally 
 imported from Germany: it is soft and warm, but the unpleasant smell which adheres 
 to it depresses its value. Marten and mink (a diminutive specits of otter) are prin- 
 cipally imported from the United States and Canada. The fur of the musquash or musk 
 rat (a diminutive species of beaver) is imported in vast quantities from our possessions in 
 North America ; which also supply us with considerable quantities of otter skins. Nutria 
 skins are principally brought from Buenos Ayres. The more valuable furs, as ermine, 
 sable, &c., come principally from Russia. 
 
 FUR TRADE. We are indebted for the following details with respect to the fur 
 trade to one of the most extensive and intelligent fur merchants of London. 
 
 " Though practically engaged in the fur trade, I fear I shall be able to say little with regard to it not 
 already known to you ; but were I to write on the subject, I should divide the trade into 2, or rather 3 
 classes. 
 
 " 1. The 1st class would comprise articles of necessity ; among which I should principally number an 
 immense variety of lamb skins, varying so widely from each other in size^ quality, colour, and value, that, 
 to most persons, they would appear as the produce of so many different species of animals. These lamb 
 skins are produced in all parts of the globe, and are every where consumed ; but they form, in particular, 
 an essential part of the dress of thousands among the lower classes in Russia, Poland, East Prussia, Hun- 
 gary, Boliemia, and Saxony. In Russia and other cold climates, the skins of various other animals may 
 be considered as articles of actual necessity. 
 
 " 2. The 2d class would in a measure form part of the first, as it also comprises furs which through 
 habit and fashion have now become articles of necessity, I should here enumerate all those different 
 skins commonly called hatting furs. Few who ai-e not acquainted with this branch of the fur trade can 
 form an idea of its extent. It spreads, of course, over all parts of the globe, where hats are worn, and re- 
 quires very superior judgment and considerable capital to conduct it successfully. The furs now used for 
 hat making are beaver, musquash, otter, nutria, hare, and rabbit j but each of these may be subdivided 
 into '20 different sorts or classes. 
 
 " Neutria, or nutria, is comparatively a new article. It began first to be imported in large quantities 
 about 1810, from the Spanish possessions in South America. — (See Nutria.) The skin is used for 
 different purposes, being either dressed as a peltry, or cut (shorn) as a hatting fur ; and if well manu- 
 factured and prepared, it bears some resemblance to beaver fur, and is used for similar purposes. 
 
 " 3. Under the 3d and last class 1 should bring all those furs, which, though continually sold, and 
 used in immense quantities, must Still be considered mere articles of fashion, as their value varies 
 according to the whims and fancies of different nations. There are, however, exceptions among these; 
 and m.any furs may be considered as standard articles, since they are always used, though their price is 
 much influenced by changes of fashion. 
 
 " This Class comprises an endless variety of furs, as under it may be brought the skins of most 
 animals in existence ; almost all of them appearing occasionally in the trade. 
 
 " Furs being entirely the produce of nature, which can neither be cultivated nor increased, their vaJue 
 is not influenced by fashion alone, but depends materially on the larger or smaller supplies received. 
 The weather has great influence on the quality and quantity of furs imported from all quarters of the 
 globe ; and this circumstance renders the fur trade more difficult, perhaps, and precarious than any other. 
 The quality, and consequently the price, of many furs will differ every year. It would be completely im- 
 possible to state the value of the different articles of furs, the trade being the most fluctuating imaginable. 
 I have often seen the same article rise and fall 100, 200, and 300 per cent, in the course of a twelvemonth ; 
 nay, in several instances, in the space of 1 month onlv. 
 
 " Among the furs which always rank very high (though, like all the rest, they change in value), may be 
 specified the Siberian sable, and the black and silver fox. These articles are at all times comparatively 
 very scarce, and command high prices. 
 
 " The chief supplies of peltries are received from Russia (particularly the Asiatic part of that empire), 
 and fi'om North America But many other countries produce very beautiful and useful furs; and though 
 we are most indebted to Asia and America, Europe furnishes a very considerable quantity. Africa and 
 A.ustralia are of little importance to the fur trade, as, from their situation, they furnish but few article^ 
 and consume still less. From the former we draw leopard and tiger skins (tlie most beautiful of ti i; 
 species), while the ovJy production of the latter is the kangaroo ; this, however, is never used as a lur 
 being chiefly consumed by leather dressers and tanners for the sake of its pelt. 
 
 " Besides numerous private traders, there are several fur companies of very old standing, who in various 
 countries do a great amount of business. Among these, the Hudson's Bay Company (in London) deserves 
 to be mentioned first, not only from the extent of their business, but because it is one of the oldest 
 Chartered companies in England. 
 
 " The American Fur Company (in New York) stands next. They chiefly trade to London, whither 
 they send the produce of the United States and other parts of North America, 
 
 " The 3d company is the Russian American (in Moscow). They trade to the Russian possessions on 
 the western coast of North America, whence they draw their supplies, which are chiefly consumed in 
 Russia. 
 
 " The 4th and last company of any consequence is the Danish Greenland Company (in Copenhagen). 
 They do but a very limited business ; exposing their goods for sale once a year in Copenhagen. 
 
 " The principal consumption of the furs which I should bring under the head of the 3d class, is in 
 China, Turkey, and Russia, and among the more civilised countries of Europe, particularly in England. 
 Germany consumes a considerable quantity. The consumption of America is comparatively little. In 
 Africa, none but the Egyptians wear fur. In Australia, none is consumed. 
 
 " Hatting furs are used throughout Europe (with the exception of Turkey and Greece), and in 
 America ; but by far the principal trade in these articles is carried on in London and New York. 
 
 " Most of the companies sell their goods by public sale, and the principal fur fairs are held at Kiachta 
 (on the borders of Chfna) ; Nishnei Novogorod, between Moscow and Casan, in Russia ; and twice a year 
 at Leipsic. — (See Fairs.) 
 
 " It is a remarkable feature of the fur trade, that almost every country or town which produces and 
 exports furs, imports and consumes the fur of some other place, frequently the most distant. It is but 
 .seldom that an article is consumed in the country where it is produced, though that country may con- 
 sume furs to a very great extent." 
 
 The following details with respect to the North American fur trade may not be 
 uninteresting : — 
 
 This trade was first practised by the early French settlers at Quebec and Montreal ; and 
 consisted then, as now, in bartering fire-arms, ammunition, cloth, spirits, and other articles 
 
FUR TRADE. 
 
 in demand among the Indians, for beaver and other skins. In 1 670, Charles II. established 
 the Hudson's Bay Company, to which lie assigned the exclusive privilege of trading 
 with the Indians in and about the vast inlet known by the name of Hudson's Bay. The 
 Company founded establishments at Forts Churchill and Albany, Nelson River, and 
 other places on the west coast of the bay. But the trade they carried on, though said 
 to be a profitable one, was of very limited extent ; and their conduct on various occasions 
 shows how thoroughly they were " possessed with that spirit of jealousy which prevails 
 in some degree in all knots and societies of men endued with peculiar privileges." — 
 (^European Settlements, vol. ii. p. 268.) Mr. Burke has, in the same place, expressed 
 his astonishment that the trade has not been thrown open. But as the Company's 
 charter was never confirmed by any act of parliament, all British subjects are lawfully 
 entitled to trade with those regions ; though, from the difficulties attached to the trade, 
 the protection required in carrying it on, and the undisguised hostility which private 
 traders have experienced from the agents of the Company, the latter have been allowed 
 to monopolise it with but little opposition. In 1783-4, the principal traders engaged 
 in the fur trade of Canada formed themselves into an association known by the name 
 of the North- West Company, having their chief establishment at Montreal. This new 
 company prosecuted the trade with great enterprise and very considerable success. 
 The course of their proceedings in their adventurous undertakings has been minutely 
 described by Mr. Mackenzie, one of the agents of the Company, in his Voyage from 
 Montreal, through the Continent of America. This gentleman informs us, that some 
 of those engaged in this trade are employed at the astonishing distance of upwards of 
 4,000 miles north-west of Montreal ! A very numerous caravan, if we may so call it, 
 sets out every year for Le Grand Portage, on Lake Superior, where they meet those 
 who have wintered in the remoter establishments, from whom they receive the furs col- 
 lected in the course of the season, and whom they, at the same time, furnish with fresh 
 supplies of the various articles required in the trade. Fort Chepeywan, on the Lake of 
 the Hills, in Ion. 110° 26' W., used to be one of the most distant stations of the servants 
 of the North- West Company ; but many of the Indians who traded with the fort came 
 from districts contiguous to, and sometimes even beyond, the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The competition and success of the North- West Company seem to have roused the 
 dormant energies of the Hudson's Bay Company. The conflicting interests and pre- 
 tensions of the two associations were naturally productive of much jealousy and ill-will. 
 Under the auspices of the late Earl of Selkirk, who was for a considerable period at the 
 head of the Hudson's Bay Company, a colony was projected and founded on the Red 
 River, which runs into Lake Winnipec. The North- West Company regarded this 
 establishment as an encroachment upon their peculiar rights ; and the animosities thence 
 arising led to the most violent proceedings on the part of the servants of both companies. 
 At length, however, the more moderate individuals of each party began lo perceive that 
 their interests were not materially different ; and the rival companies, wearied and im- 
 poverished by their dissensions, ultimately united under the name of the Hudson's Bay 
 Fur Company, which at present engrosses most of the fur trade of British America. The 
 most important part of the trade is still carried on from Montreal in the way described 
 by Mr. Mackenzie. 
 
 The North American Fur Company, the leading directors of which reside in the city 
 of New York, have long enjoyed the principal part of the Indian trade of the great 
 lakes and the Upper Mississippi. But, with the exception of the musk rat, most of tlie 
 fur-clad animals are exterminated in the vicinity of the lakes. The skins of racoons 
 are of little value ; and the beaver is now scarce on this side the Rocky Mountains. The 
 further north the furs are taken, the better is their quality. 
 
 According to Mr. Bliss, the number and value of the furs and peltries exported from British America 
 to all parts, in 1831, were— 
 
 No. £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 Kacoon - S25at0 1 6 - - £4 7 6 
 
 Tails - 2,290 — 0 1 0 - - 114 10 0 
 
 Weasel - S4 — 0 0 6 - - 0 17 0 
 
 Wolverine 1,744 — 0 3 0 - - 261 12 0 
 
 Wolf - 5,947 — 0 8 0 = . 2,378 16 0 
 
 No. £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 Beaver - 126,944 at 1 5 0 . - 158,680 0 0 
 
 Bear - 3,850 — 1 0 0 - - 3,850 3 0 
 
 Deer - 645 — 0 3 0 - - 96 15 0 
 
 Fox - 8,765 — 0 10 0 - - 4,38'2 10 0 
 
 Lynx - 58,010 — 0 8 0 - - 23,204 0 0 
 
 Minx - 9,298 — 0 2 0 - - 929 16 0 
 
 Musk rat - 375,731— 0 0 6 - - 9,393 5 6| .£203,316 9 0 
 
 Undescribed from Halifax and St John's estimated at the average annual value of - 15,000 0 0 
 Exported to the United States by inland trade - - _ - - - 16,146 0 0 
 
 234,4«2 9 0 
 
 Sterling - - - jg2 11.016 4 2 
 
 'Stati'siics of Trade and Industry of British America, p. 29.) 
 
 ' According to Mr. M'Grpgor, the value of the furs annually exponeo nom British America, amounted, at 
 an average of the 5 years ending with 1832, to about 210,000/. sterling a year — {.British North America^ 
 gd edit, vol.ii. p. 594.) 
 
 2 Q 
 
FUSTIAN. — GALBANUM. 
 
 Account of the principal Furs imported in 1831, tlie Countries whence they were broueht ar^ thr 
 Quantity furnished by each Country. ' * 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Bear. 
 
 Beaver. 
 
 Fitch. 
 
 Marten. 
 
 Minx. 
 
 Musquash. 
 
 Nutria. 
 
 Otter. 
 
 Germany . 
 Netherlands 
 France 
 
 British N. Ame- 
 rican colonies 
 United States - 
 
 All other places 
 
 - 
 
 3,994 
 13,480 
 
 128 
 
 115 
 
 53 
 
 93,199 
 7,459 
 
 118 
 
 186,499 
 24,418 
 30,620 
 
 21,139 
 817 
 27,676 
 
 112,038 
 50,083 
 
 2,354 
 
 688 
 
 30,742 
 70,120 
 
 2,011 
 
 7,028 
 
 762 
 
 737,746 
 27,000 
 
 157 
 
 2,000 
 
 52,130 
 429,966 
 9,971 
 
 44 
 
 21,636 
 1,401 
 
 117 
 
 Total - 
 
 n,m2 
 
 100,944 
 
 243,705 
 
 214,107 
 
 103,561 
 
 772,693 
 
 494,067 
 
 23,198 
 
 Of these imports, the beaver, fitch, and marten were mostly retained for home consumption. A large 
 number of bear and otter skins were re-exported to Germany ; and no fewer than 592,117 musquash skins 
 were exported, in 1831, to the United States. — {Pari. Paper, No. £50. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 The imports of ermine are inconsiderable, having only amounted, at an average of 1831 and 1832, to 
 2,197 skins a year. 
 
 The duty on furs produced, in 1832, 34,079/. ; and that on skins, not being furs, 18,093/. 13s. 6d. 
 
 China is one of the best markets for furs. The Americans began, with their characteristic activity, to 
 send furs to Canton very soon after their flag had appeared in the Eastern seas in 1784 ; and they still 
 prosecute the trade to a considerable extent, though it has rapidly declined within the last 3 or 4 
 years. The Americans procure the furs intended for the China markets, partly from the American Fur 
 Company already alluded to, and partly from Canada ; but they have also been in the habit of sending 
 out ships to the north-west coast of America, which, having purchased large quantities of skins from the 
 natives, carry them direct to Canton. Recently, however, this trade has been materially diminished, in 
 consequence, it is said, of the regulations of the Russian government, who do not permit the American 
 traders to cruise so far north as they did formerly. 
 
 FUSTIAN (Ger. Barchent ; Du. Fustein ; Fr. Futaine ; It. Fustagno, Frustagno , 
 Sp. Fustan ; Rus. Bumasea ; Pol. Barchan), a kind of cotton stuff, wealed or ribbed 
 on one side. 
 
 FUSTIC (Ger. Gelbholz, Fustick ; Du. Geelhout ; Fr. Boisjaune de Bresil ; It. Legno 
 giallo de Brasilio ; Sp. Palo del Brasilamarillo), the wood of a species of mulberry 
 (Morus tinctoria), growing in most parts of South America, in the United States, and 
 the West India islands. It is a large and handsome tree ; and the timber, though, like 
 most other dye woods, brittle, or at least easily splintered, is hard and strong. It is very 
 extensively used as an ingredient in the dyeing of yellow, and is largely imported for 
 that purpose. Of 6,335 tons of fustic imported into Great Britain in 1831, 1,683 tons 
 were brought from the British West Indies, 1,354 ditto from Cuba and the foreign 
 West Indies, 1,013 ditto from the United States, 990 ditto from Mexico, 510 ditto from 
 Colombia, 705 ditto from Brazil. Fustic from Cuba fetches full 35 per cent, more in 
 the London market than that of Jamaica or Colombia. At present, the price of the 
 former varies from \0l. to 12/. a ton, while the latter varies from 8/. to 9/. a ton. The 
 consumption amounts to about 6,000 tons a year. 
 
 Zante, or young fustic, is really a species of sumach (Rhus cotinus Lin.), and is quite 
 distinct from the morus tinctoria, or old fustic ; the latter being a large American tree, 
 while the former is a small European shrub. It grows in Italy and the south of France, 
 but is principally exported from Patras in the Morea. It imparts a beautiful bright 
 yellow dye to cottons, &c., which, when proper mordants are used, is very permanent. 
 It is conveniently stowed amongst a cargo of dry goods, as it may be cut into pieces of 
 any length without injury. Only a small quantity of this species of sumach is imported. 
 Its price fluctuates considerably. In August, 1833, it was worth, in the London market, 
 from 9/. to 11/. a ton. 
 
 G. 
 
 GALANGAL (Ger. Galgant ; Du. and Fr. Galanga ; Rus. Kalgan ; Lat. Gnlanga; 
 Arab. Kusttulk; Chin. Zawwrfon), the root of the .^aZawT/a, brought from China and the 
 East Indies in pieces about an inch long, and hardly ^ an inch thick. A larger root of 
 the same kind ( Greater Galangal), an inch or more in thickness, is to be rejected. It 
 has an aromatic smell, not very grateful ; and an unpleasant, bitterish, extremely hot, 
 biting taste. It should be chosen full and plump, of a bright colour, very firm and 
 sound : 12 cwt. are allowed to a ton. — (Lewis's Mat. Med. ; Milhurn's Orient. Com.) 
 
 GALBANUM (Fr. GaBanum ; Ger. Mutterharz ; It. Galbano ; Lat. Galbanum ; 
 Arab. Barzud), a species of gum resin obtained from a perennial plant ( Galhanum 
 officinale) growing in Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope, and in Syria and Persia. It 
 is brought to this country fiom the Levant in cases or chests containing from 100 to 
 300 lb.s. each. The best is in ductile masses, composed of distinct whitish tears agglu- 
 tinated together by a pale brown or yellowish substance. It is generally much mixed 
 
GALLON. — GARNETS. 
 
 595 
 
 with stalks, seeds, and other impurities. The separate tears are considered as the hcst. 
 When the colour is dark brown or blackish, it is to be rejected. It has a strong peculiar 
 odour, and a bitterish, warm, acrid taste. — ( Thomson's Dispensatory. ) 
 
 GALLON, a measure of capacity, both for dry and liquid articles, containing 4 quarts. 
 By 5 Geo. 4. c. 74., "the Imperial gallon shall be tbe standard measure of capacity, and 
 shall contain 10 lbs. avoirdupois weight of distilled water, weighed in air at the tem- 
 perature of 62° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, the barometer being at 30 inches, or 
 277-274 cubic inches ; and all other measures of capacity to be used, as well for wine, 
 beer, ale, spirits, and all sorts of liquids, as for dry goods, not measured by heaped mea- 
 sure, shall be derived, computed, and ascertained from such gallon ; and all measures 
 shall be taken in parts, or multiples, or certain proportions, of the said Imperial standard 
 gallon." The old English gallon, wine measure, contained 231 cubic inches ; and the 
 old English gallon, ale measure, contained 282 cubic inches. Hence the Imperial gallon 
 is about 1 larger than the old wine gallon, and about g'g less than the old ale gallon. By 
 the 6 Geo. 4. c. 58. § 6. it is enacted, that from and after the 5th of January, 1826, 
 Avhenever any gallon measure is mentioned in any act of parliament relative to the excise, 
 it shall be taken and deemed to be a gallon Imperial standard measure. — (Sec Weights 
 AND Measures.) 
 
 GALLS, OR GALL-NUTS (Fr. Galles, Noix de galle ; Ger. GaUapfel, G alius ; 
 It. Guile, Galluze ; Lat. Galce ; Arab. AJis ; Hind. Majouphal ; Pers. Mazu), are ex- 
 crescences produced by the attacks of a small insect, which deposits its eggs in the tender 
 shoots of a species of oak ( Quercus infectoria Lin.), abundant in Asia Minor, Syria, 
 Persia, &c. Galls are inodorous, and have a nauseously bitter and astringent taste. 
 They are nearly spherical, and vary in magnitude from the size of a pea to that of a 
 hazel nut. When good, they are of a black or deep olive colour ; their surface is tuber- 
 cular, and almost prickly ; they are heavy, brittle, and break with a flinty fracture. 
 They are known in commerce by the names of white, green, and blue. The white galls 
 are those which have not been gathered till after the insect has eaten its way out of the 
 nidus and made its escape. They are not so heavy as the others, are of a lighter colour, 
 and do not fetch so high a price. The green and blue galls are gathered before the 
 insect has escaped ; they are heavier and darker than the former, and are said to afTcrd 
 about one third more of colouring matter. 
 
 Galls are of great importance in the arts, being very extensively used in dyeing, and in the manufacture 
 of ink, of which they form one of the principal ingredients. They are the meet powerful of all the 
 vegetable astringents ; and are frequently used with great effect in medicine. 
 
 The ancients reckoned the gall-nuts of Syria superior to every other, and they still retain their pre- 
 eminence. They are principally exported from Aleppo, Tripoli, Smyrna, and Said ; those brought from 
 the first come chiefly from Mosul, on the western bank of the Tigris, about ten days' journey from Aleppo. 
 The real Mosul galls are unquestionably the best of any ; but all that are gathered in the surrounding 
 country are sold under this name. Those from Caramania are of a very inferior quality. The galls met 
 with in India are carried thither from Persia by Arabian merchants. 
 
 It is not unusual to dye the whitish gall-nuts blue, in order to increase their value. The fraud i.<;, 
 however, detected by the deeper blue tinge that is thus imparted to them ; and by their being perforated, 
 and lighter than the genuine blue galls. 
 
 The price of galls in bond varies in the London market from 65s. to 85s. a cwt. The duty is 5s. a cwt. 
 — {Bees' s Cycloptedia ; Bancroft on Colours ; Ainslie's Mai. Indica, 8jc.) 
 
 GAMBOGE (Fr. Gomme gutte ; Ger. Gummigutt ; It. Comma gutta ; Lat. Gummi 
 gutt(R, Camhogia : Arab. Ossararewund ; Siamese and Cambojan, Rong), a concrete 
 vegetable juice, or gum resin, the produce of the Garcinia Camhogia, a forest tree of the 
 genus which aflPords the mangostein, the most exquisite fruit of the East. The districts 
 which yield gamboge lie on the east side of the Gulf of Siam, between the latitudes of 
 10° and 12° north, comprising a portion of Siara and the kingdom of Camboja, 
 whence its English name. It is obtained by making incisions in the bark of the tree, 
 from which it exudes, and is collected in vessels placed to receive it. In these it assumes 
 a firm consistence ; and being formed into orbicular masses, or more frequently cylindrical 
 rolls, it is at once fit for the market. It is of a bright yellow colour, opaque, brittle, 
 breaks vitreous, has no smell, and very little taste. Specific gravity 1 -22. When taken 
 internally, it operates as a most violent cathartic. It forms a beautiful yellow pigment; 
 for which purpose it is principally used. The Dutch began to import it about the 
 middle of the seventeenth century. The greater part of the gamboge of commerce first 
 finds its way to Bangkok, the Siamese capital, or to Saigon, the capital of lower Cochin 
 China ; from these it is carried by junks to Singapore, whence it is shipped for Europe. 
 Its price at Singapore varies, according to quality, from 30 to 80 dollars per picul. 
 Dark coloured pieces should be rejected. — ( Craicford's Embassy to Siam, p. 425. ; 
 Thomson's Chemistry. ) 
 
 GARNET, GARNETS (Fr. Grenats ; Ger. Granaten, Granatstein ; It. Granati ; 
 Lat. Granati; Rus. Grajiatnoi kamen ; Sp. Granadas). There are two species of 
 garnet, the precious and the common. The colour of the first is red ; and hence the 
 name of the mineral, from its supposed resemblance to the flower of the pomegranate : 
 passes from Columbine red, to cherry and brown red ; commonly crystallised. External 
 
 2 Q 2 
 
596 
 
 GAS COMPANIES. 
 
 lustre glistening, internal shining, vitreous; transparent, sometimes only translucent; 
 specific gravity 4*08 to 4*35. The colour of the common garnet is of various shades of 
 brown and green. Different colours often appear in the same mass : translucent ; black 
 varieties nearly opaque: specific gravity from 3*66 to 3*75. — ( Thomson's Chemistry.) 
 The finest varieties come from India, and some good specimens have been received from 
 Greenland. When large and free from flaws, garnets are worth from 21. to 51. or 6l., 
 and even more ; but stones of this value are of rare occun-ence, and always in demand. 
 — (_Mawe on Diam,onds, ^c, 2d ed. p. 113.) 
 
 GAS COMPANIES, the term usually applied to designate the companies or asso- 
 ciations established in most large towns for lighting the streets and houses with gas. 
 
 Every one must have remarked that most species of coal, when ignited, give out large 
 quantities of gas, which burns with much brilliancy, yielding a great quantity of light 
 as well as of heat. Dr. Clayton seems to have been the first who attempted, about 1736, 
 to apply this gas to the purposes of artificial illumination ; but his experiments were 
 upon a very limited scale, and no further attention was paid to the subject till more than 
 half a century afterwards. At length, however, Mr. Murdoch, of Soho, instituted a 
 series of judicious experiments an the extrication of gas from coal ; and, by his ingenuity 
 and sagacity, succeeded in establishing one of the most capital improvements ever made 
 in the arts. Mr. Murdoch found that the gas might be collected in reservoirs, purified, 
 conveyed by pipes to a great distance from the furnace where it was generated ; and that 
 it affords, by its slow combustion, when allowed to escape through small orifices, a 
 beautiful and steady light. This great discovery, which places Mr. Murdoch in the 
 first rank among the benefactors of mankind, was first brought into practice at Redruth, 
 in Cornwall. In 1 802, it was applied to light Mr. Murdoch's manufactory at Soho ; in 
 1805, it was adopted by Messrs. Philips and Lee, of Manchester, in the lighting of their 
 great cotton mill ; and is now employed in the lighting of the streets, theatres, and other 
 public buildings, factories, &c. of all the considerable towns of the empire ; and also in 
 most considerable towns of the Continent and America. 
 
 Gas light is indebted, for its rapid diffusion, not more to its peculiar softness, clearness, 
 and unvarying intensity, than to its comparative cheapness. According to Dr. Thomson 
 { Supp. to Ency. Brit. art. Gas Lights'), if we value the quantity of light given by 1 lb. 
 of tallow in candles at Is., an equal quantity of light from coal gas will not cost more 
 than 2|c?., being less than a, fourth part of the cost of the former. 
 
 Oil and other substances have been used in furnishing gas for the purpose of illumin- 
 ation, but none of them has answered so well as coal. Most of the oil gas establishments 
 have been abandoned. 
 
 The construction of gas works on a large scale, and the carrying of pipes through the 
 streets and into houses, &c., is very expensive, and requires a large outlay of capital. 
 Hence most of the gas lights in the different towns are supplied by joint stock companies. 
 Many of them have turned out to be very profitable concerns. 
 
 The subjoined Table contains a statement of the most important particulars connected 
 with the principal gas companies ; viz. the number of shares in each, the nominal amount 
 of each share, the sums actually paid up, the market price of shares, the dividend payable 
 on them, &c. — (From the Share Listof Mr. Charles Edmonds, Broker, of Change Alley, 
 Cornhill, 12th of October, 1833.) 
 
 Number 
 of Shares. 
 
 12,000 
 5,000 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 
 10,000 
 J6,500l. 
 9,000 
 5,000 
 5,000 
 
 2,000 
 4,000 
 8,200 
 4,000 
 600 
 600 
 2,500 
 600 
 704 
 2,400 
 1,500 
 750 
 
 1,312 
 4.250 
 
 Names of Companies. 
 
 Gas Light and Coke Chart. Company 
 
 Ditto, New (London) 
 
 City (London) - - . 
 
 Ditto, New (London) 
 
 Imperial (London) 
 
 Ditto debentures . - - 
 
 Phoenix, or South London 
 
 British (London) . - - 
 
 Ditto (Country) 
 
 Ditto debentures 
 
 Independent 
 
 Equitable - - - 
 
 General United Gas Light Company 
 
 Imperial Continental 
 
 Bradford - 
 
 Brentford - - - - 
 
 Bath . - . - 
 
 Harnsley - 
 
 Birmingham - - 
 
 Birmingham and Staffordshire 
 
 Brighton - 
 
 Brighton New - - 
 
 Brighton General . . - 
 
 Blackburn - - . 
 
 Bristol - - - - 
 
 Amount 
 
 Paid 
 
 
 Price 
 
 Dividend 
 
 Dividends 
 
 of 
 Shares. 
 
 up. 
 
 per Share. 
 
 per Annum. 
 
 payable. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 May, Vov. 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 May, Nov. 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 195 
 
 0 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 Mar. Sept. 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 0 
 
 120 
 
 0 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 Mar. Sept. 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 48 
 
 15 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 April, Oct. 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 50 
 
 39 
 
 0 
 
 43 
 
 0 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 Feb. Aug. 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 1^. per share. 
 
 April, Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 1/. per share. 
 
 April, Oct. 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 0 
 
 5 percent. 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 30 
 
 "so 
 
 0 
 
 45 
 
 0 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 Mar. Sept. 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 0 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 April, Oct. 
 
 50 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 Mar. Sept. 
 
 100 
 
 51 
 
 5 
 
 36 
 
 0 
 
 1/.1()5. persh. 
 
 Feb. Aug. 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 45 
 
 0 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 May. 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 25 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 33 
 
 15 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 Feb. Aug. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 Mar. Sept. 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 110 
 
 0 
 
 10 percent. 
 
 Mar. Sept. 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 4/. per sh. 
 
 April, Oct 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 3J per cent. 
 5 per cent. 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 10 
 
 10 percent. 
 
 Feb Aug. 
 
GENEVA. 
 
 597 
 
 Number 
 Of Shares 
 
 Names of Companies. 
 
 Amoun 
 ! Sliares. 
 
 r" ■ 
 
 Paid 
 
 up. 
 
 Price 
 per btiare. 
 
 Pividend 
 per Annum* 
 
 iJividL-nds 
 payable. 
 
 240 
 
 Canterbury - - 
 
 50 
 
 
 - 
 
 60 
 
 0 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 500 
 
 Cheltenham * r - 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 75 
 
 0 
 
 7i per cent. 
 5 per cent. 
 
 800 
 
 Coventry ' - 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 
 200 
 
 Derby - - _ - 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 55 
 
 0 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 
 180 
 
 r^^j?"^ ■ " " " 
 
 50 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 51 
 
 0 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 
 600 
 
 XJUQley - » - - 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 6 per cent. 
 51. 
 
 
 240 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 0 
 
 
 780 
 
 Oreat lariuoutn • - 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 S| per cent. 
 
 July, Jan. 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 0 
 
 23 
 
 0 
 
 1^. 
 
 oUO 
 
 Halifav _ _ 
 
 25 
 
 til 
 
 
 36 
 
 0 
 
 
 1,200 
 
 Ipswich " • * 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 12s. 
 
 Mar. .Sept. 
 
 800 
 
 Tsle nf TVianpf- 
 
 IMC UJ XlictllcL ■ • « " 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 n 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 5 percent. 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 160 
 
 Kidderminster - 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 0 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 201 
 
 Leeds . . - - . 
 
 100 
 
 
 n 
 
 V 
 
 195 
 
 0 * 
 
 10/. 
 
 
 
 Leicester — — — 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 65 
 
 0 
 
 31. Ws. 
 
 January. 
 
 220 
 
 Lewes - - - - - 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 0 
 
 23 
 
 0 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 January. 
 
 500 
 
 J-iiverpool • — • • 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 450 
 
 0 
 
 22Z. 
 
 Feb. Aug. 
 
 200 
 
 IVlciidstone — — • * 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 9 per cent. 
 
 Mar. Sept, 
 
 200 
 
 Newc3stle-under~Line * — 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 Newport, Isle ot Wight — • 
 Northampton — - 
 
 ou 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 IL 
 
 
 542 
 
 20 
 
 
 Q 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 
 520 
 
 Nottingham - — - — 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 
 96 
 
 0 
 
 8 per cent. 
 
 
 120 
 
 Oxford » - - 
 
 150 
 
 130 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 3,200 
 600 
 
 Paisley . ... 
 
 50 
 
 ■ 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 x^oplar - - - 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 Portsea Island * - - • 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 0 
 
 47 
 
 n 
 
 5 per cent 
 
 Jan. July. 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 18 lOdis. 
 
 10,000 
 
 Plymouth - • • _ 
 
 50 
 
 
 - 
 
 70 
 
 
 Bl. 
 
 July. 
 
 1,000 
 
 RatcliflF » « » - 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 0 
 
 46 
 
 0 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 Mar. Sept. 
 
 480 
 
 Rochdale > • . • 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 par 
 
 58 0 
 
 240 
 
 Rochester • • • 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 31. 
 
 
 1,600 
 
 oiiemciu ■ - " a 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 58 
 
 0 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 Shrewsbury * - 
 
 10 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 12 10 
 
 \2s. 
 
 January. 
 
 144 
 
 Stockton • - • 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 294 
 
 Warwick - - . 
 
 50 
 
 _ 
 
 I 
 
 SO 
 
 0 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 March. 
 
 400 
 
 Wakefield - ... 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^l. 10s. 
 
 100 
 
 Warrington - - 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 0 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 Wigan - - - - 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 240 
 
 Woolwich - - - 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 
 550 
 
 Wolverhampton - - 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 
 600 
 
 Worcester - 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 
 GENEVA (Du. Genever ; Fr. Genievre ; Ger. Gaud, Genever ; It. Acqua di 
 Ginepro ; Lat. Juniperi aqua ; Sp. Agua . de Enebro), a spirit obtained by distillation 
 from grain, rectified, with the addition of juniper berries. The latter give to the 
 spirit that peculiar flavour by which it is distinguished, and are also said to render 
 it diuretic. Geneva is a corruption of genievre, the French term for the juniper berry. 
 
 By far the best geneva is made in Holland, where its manufacture is carried on to a 
 very great extent. The distilleries of Schiedam have long been famous, and are at present 
 in a very prosperous condition. Schiedam geneva is made solely of spirit obtained from 
 rye and barley, flavoured with juniper berries. It becomes iriilder, and acquires, as it 
 gets old, an oily flavour disliked by the Hollanders ; hence nearly the whole of the 
 *' Schiedam " is exported, principally to the East Indies. There are no fewer than 30O 
 distilleries in Schiedam, 100 in other parts of Holland, and not more than 40 in Belgium. 
 The entire annual produce of the distillery in Holland is estimated at 2,000,000 ankers, 
 
 or 20,500,000 wine gallons, of which about two thirds are exported { Cloet, Description 
 
 Geographique des Pays Bas, p. 92.) 
 
 In nothing, perhaps, has the destructive effect of heavy taxation been so strongly exhibited, as in the 
 trade of geneva It appears from the Parl.Paper, No. 248. Sess. 1826, that during the 10 years ending 
 with 1786, when the duty on geneva was about 10s. the wine gallon, the average annual consumption in 
 Great Britain amounted to about 80,362 gallons. But in 1786, Mr. Pitt reduced the duties to 5s. a gallon ; 
 and the effect of this wise and politic measure was such, that in the next decennial period the average 
 imports for hom.e consumption amounted to 444,891 gallons I From 1796 to 1806, the duties fluctuated 
 from 7s. M. to I4s. ; but as the taste for geneva had been formed, and as the duties on other spirits had 
 been increased in about the same proportion, the consumption went on increasing, having been, at an 
 average of the 10 years, as high as 724,351 gallons a year. This was the maximum of consumption., Mr, 
 Vansittart soon after began his inauspicious career, and immediately raised the duty from 14s. to 20s. 8rf. ; 
 the consequence of this increase being, that in the 10 years ending with 1816, the average consumption 
 amounted to only 272,898 gallons. Since then the duties have continued stationary, being at this moment 
 22s. 6rf. the Imperial gallon, on an article which may be bought in bond for 2s. 2d. or 2s. &d. ! The duties 
 on rum and British spirits having been materially reduced during the last 10 years, the consumption of 
 geneva has gone on progressively diminishing, till it now amounts, as appears from the subjoined official 
 statement, to no more than 22,300 gallons j being only mie thirty-fourth part of what it amounted to during 
 the 10 years ending with 1806! 
 
 In Ireland, the effects of this felo de se system have been more injurious than appears from this Table. 
 During the 4 years ending with 1803, the books of the Irish Custom-house show that there were, at an 
 average, 82,828 gallons of geneva entered for home consum>tion, producing, at the then duty of 7s. Sfrf., 
 39,92.3/. a year; whereas, notwithstanding the vast increase of population, the consumption of geneva in 
 Ireland, in 1832, was only 1,402 gallons, and the revenue only 1,5111. 
 
 To make any lengthened commentary on such statements wouid be useless. Our policy, if we may 
 apply this term to so revolting a display of short-sighted rapacity, has had no other effect than to lessen 
 the -j^ublic revenue and enjoyments of the people, to injure our trade with Holland, and to foster and pro.- 
 
 2 Q 3 
 
598 
 
 GENOA. 
 
 mote the ruinous and destructive practice of smuggling. Tlie exorbitant duties on geneva, brandy, and 
 tobacco, have led to tJie formation of the coast guard and the preventive water guard, costing together 
 between 400.000/. and 500,000/. a year ; and yet, notwithstanding this enormous outlay, and notwithstand- 
 ing the innumerable penalties and punishments to which he is exposed, the trade of the smuggler is not 
 put down, but is, on the contrary, in a peculiarly flourishing condition ; and so it will continue, in despite 
 of every thing that can be done for its suppression, till these duties be adequately reduced. 
 
 We believe our gin manufacturers have nothing to apprehend from a reduction of the duties on geneva 
 to 10.V. a gallon. The lower classes, who are the great consumers, prefer English gin to every other sti- 
 mulant ; and now that the duties on juniper berries — (see Behuies) — are reduced, its quality may be 
 materially improved. But nothing would have so much influence in this respect as the admission of 
 geneva at a moderate duty. It would also have the beneficial effect of putting an end to the manufacture 
 of the spurious compounds sold under its name. 
 
 The regulations as to the importation, &c. of geneva are similar to those affecting Brandy j which see. 
 An Account of the Number of Gallons (Imperial Measure) of Geneva entered for Home Consumption in 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland, the Rates of Duty on the same, and the entire Nett Produce of the Duty, 
 
 each Year since 18H. 
 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Quantities retained for Ho 
 Consumption. 
 
 Imp. Gait. 
 149,302 
 124,508 
 103,973 
 105,483 
 113,255 
 102,523 
 105,067 
 89,443 
 88,670 
 82,784 
 19,605 
 83,709 
 67,079 
 50,760 
 43,037 
 35,301 
 29,006 
 22,510 
 20,899 
 
 Ireland, r,^^"'^"'^ 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Imp. Gall. 
 6,072 
 4,446 
 1,305 
 2,174 
 3,032 
 3,124 
 3,383 
 3,324 
 2,917 
 8,164 
 412 
 1,000 
 2,081 
 1,908 
 2,223 
 1,845 
 1,793 
 1,388 
 1,402 
 
 Imp. Gall. 
 
 155,374 
 128,954 
 105,278 
 107,657 
 116,287 
 105,647 
 108,450 
 92,767 
 91,587 
 90,948 
 90,017 
 84,709 
 69,160 
 52,668 
 45,260 
 37,146 
 30,799 
 23,898 
 22,301 
 
 Nett Produce of Dutj (Customs and Excise). 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 168,559 
 139,768 
 116,967 
 118,837 
 127,503 
 114,799 
 114,903 
 100,965 
 99,981 
 93,442 
 101,089 
 94,463 
 75,553 
 57,204 
 48,433 
 39,647 
 32,650 
 25,332 
 23,514 
 
 s. d. 
 13 3 
 13 3 
 
 12 11 
 19 10 
 18 11 
 
 13 7 
 
 0 0 
 12 3 
 2 1 
 5 10 
 11 11 
 9 1 
 17 2 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 
 Ireland. fUnited Kingdom. 
 
 £ S. d. 
 5,581 18 5 
 4,029 8 11 
 1,3.59 15 8 
 2,012 16 0 
 2,772 3 3 
 2,795 2 9 
 2,943 17 11 
 2,940 2 10 
 2,523 14 3 
 7,020 14 5 
 
 472 7 11 
 1,145 17 11 
 2,337 10 11 
 2,147 12 6 
 2,500 11 10 
 2,075 12 6 
 2,018 0 0 
 1,562 0 0 
 1,577 0 C 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 174,141 11 8 
 
 143,798 2 2 
 
 118,327 8 7 
 
 120,8.50 15 10 
 
 130,275 2 2 
 
 117,594 16 4 
 
 117,847 13 1 
 
 103,905 18 7 
 
 102,505 10 5 
 
 100,462 14 5 
 
 101,562 0 2 
 
 95,609 0 0 
 
 77,890 16 9 
 
 59,352 4 5 
 
 50,934 0 11 
 
 41,723 9 8 
 
 34,668 0 0 
 
 26,894 0 0 
 
 25,091 0 0 
 
 Kates of Duty per 
 Imjierial Gallon (Customs 
 and Excise). 
 
 £ S. d. 
 1 2 61 
 
 1 2 1: 
 
 1 2 6 
 
 £ s. d. 
 0 17 3f 
 
 1 2 8 
 1 2 6 
 
 GENOA, a maritime city of Italy, once the capital of the famous republic of that 
 name, now of a province of the kingdom of Sardinia. It is situated at the bottom of the 
 extensive gulf to which it gives its name ; the light-house being in lat. 44"^ 24' 40" N., 
 Ion. 8° 52' 55" E. Population 80,000. Genoa is one of the finest cities of Europe. 
 In general, the streets are inconveniently narrovr ; but some of the principal ones are 
 moderately wide, and consist almost entirely of public buildings, and private palaces 
 erected during the period of her pro.sperity. Being built on a rising ground, in the 
 form of an amphitheatre, the appearance of the town from the sea is most magnificent, 
 and justifies the epithet given to her of " la superha^ 
 
 Port. — The harbour is semicircular, the diameter being about 1,000 fathoms. It is artificial, being 
 formed by two gigantic moles having opposite directions. That on the east side, called the old mole {tnolo 
 vecchio), projects from the centre of the city W. by S. It is about 260 fathoms in length, and has a battery 
 near its middle. The new mole [molo nuovo), on the opposite side of the port, adjoins the southern 
 extremity of the suburb of S. Pietro d'Arena, projecting about 210 fathoms from shore in an E. S. E. 
 direction. The mole heads bear from each other N. E. by E. and S. W. by W., the distance between 
 them, forming the entrance to the harbour, being about 350 fathoms. The light>-house is without the 
 port, on the west side, near the extremity of a point of land, and contiguous to the bottom of the new 
 mole. It is a lofty square tower ; and as it stands on a high rock, and is painted white, it is visible in 
 clear weather at a great distance. There is also a harbour light at the extremity of the new mole. 
 There is no difficulty in entering the harbour ; the ground is clean, and there is plenty of water, par- 
 ticularly on the side next the new mole ; -care, however, must be taken, in coming from the west, to give 
 the light-house point a good offing. Moderate sized merchantmen commonly anchor inside the old mole, 
 contiguous to the porto franco, or bonded warehouses, having a hawser made fast to the mole, and an 
 anchor ahead. Men of war and the largest class of merchantmen may anchor inside the new mole, 
 but they must not come too near the shore. Ships sometimes anchor without the harbour in from 10 to 
 25 fathoms, the light-house bearing N. ^ W., distant 2 or 3 miles. The S.W. winds occasion a heavy swell 
 but the bottom is clay and holds well. Within the town are two rather shallow basins designed for 
 gallies and small trading vessels. There is also an arsenal. 
 
 Money. — Accounts were formerly kept at Genoa in lir« of 20 soldi, each soldo contiining 12 denari; 
 and money was divided.into 6rtwco and /Mo>-/<fz'Artnco. But since the 1st of January, 1827, the ancient 
 method of reckoning has ceased, and accounts are now kept in lire Italiane, divided into cents. The 
 weiglit and fineness of the new coins are precisely the same as those of France : so that the par of ex- 
 ciiange =: 24 78 lire per pound sterling, if estimated in silver ; and 25 20, if estimated in gold. 6 old lire 
 di banco are equal to 5 new lire very nearly. — {Manuel de Nclkcnbrcchcr.) Sales of merchandise con- 
 tinue, however, to be, for the most part, made in the old currency. The prices given in a subsequent 
 part of this article are in it. 
 
 -The Bank of Genoa, or of St. George, was one of the most ancient and celebrated banks of circulation 
 and deposit in Europe. Until 1716, when the bank was pillaged by the Austrians, it was customary to 
 make all bills of exchange drawn upon Genoa payable in banco ; but since then they have generally been 
 made payable in money fuori di banco. In 1800, when the French were besieged in Genoa by the Austrians, 
 tiiey took the treasure of tlie bank to i)ay their troops. The establishment has never recovered from this 
 blow ; some warehouses, and a part of the town's revenue, were assigned to it, but they yield a very poor 
 dividend. It is no longer used as a place of deposit for money. 
 
 Weiff/its and Measures. — The pound is of two sorts ; the peso sottile - 4,891^ English grains, and the 
 peso frrosso. The latter is 10 per cent, heavier than the former : hence the cantaro of 100 lbs. peso sottile 
 = 69 89 lbs. avoirdin)oi3 j and tlie cantaro of 100 lbs. peso grosso =; 76 875 lbs. avoudupois. The latter i» 
 
GENOA. 
 
 599 
 
 used for weighing bulky commodities ; tlio former is used in the weighing of gold and silver, and of all 
 commodities of small bulk. 
 
 Corn is measured by the mina of 8 quarte or 96 gombette; I mina = 3i Winchester bushels nearly. 
 Salt is sold by the mondino of 8 mine. 
 
 Of liquid measure, 100 pinte = 1 barilla. 
 
 2 barilli = 1 mezzarola - 39? English wine gallons. The barilla of oil = 17 
 
 English gallons. 
 
 Of long measures, the palmo = 9725 English inches. The canna is of .3 sorts : the canna piccola, used 
 by tradesmen and manufacturers, 9 palmc, or 87 '5 English inches ; the canna grossa, used by mer- 
 chants, = 12 palmi = 116 7 English inches j and the canna used at the Custom-house 10 palmi — 97"2i> 
 English inches. The braccio = 2^ palmi. 
 
 Trade, 8fc. — Genoa is the entrepot of a large extent of country ; and her commerce, 
 though inferior to what it once was, is very considerable, and has latterly been increasing. 
 She is a free port ; that, is, a port where goods may be warehoused and exported free of 
 duty. The exports consist partly of the raw products of the adjacent country, such as 
 olive oil (an article of great value and importance), rice, fruits, cheese, rags, steel, argol, 
 &c. ; partly of the products of her manufacturing industry, such as 8ilks, damasks, and 
 velvets (for the production of which she has been long famous), thrown silk, paper, soap, 
 works in mai'ble, alabaster, coral, &c. ; the printed cottons of Switzerland, and the other 
 products of that country and of the western parts of Lombardy, intended for the south 
 of Europe and the Levant ; and partly of the various foreign products brought by sea, 
 and placed in porto franco. The imports principally consist of cotton and woollen stuffs ; 
 cotton wool, mostly from Egypt ; corn from the Black Sea, Sicily, and Barbary ; sugar, 
 salted fish, spices, coffee, cochineal, indigo, hides, iron, and naval stores from the Baltic ; 
 hardware and tin plates from England ; wool, tobacco, lead (principally from Spain), 
 wax, &c. Corn, barilla, Gallipoli oil, cotton, valonia, sponge, galls, and other products 
 of the countries adjoining the Black Sea, Sicily, the Levant, &c., may in general be had 
 here, though not in so great abundance as at Leghorn. The various duties and Custom- 
 house fees formerly charged on the transit of goods through Genoa and the Sardinian 
 territories have recently been abolished. This will have a very beneficial influence on the 
 trade of this port, particularly as regards the importation of raw cotton for Switzerland 
 and Milan, as well as of the different descriptions of colonial produce. 
 
 Statement of the Principal Articles of Raw Produce exported from Genoa, with their Prices there on the 
 1st of January, 1833, in Forto franco (Bond), in Italian Money, Weights, and Measures, and free on 
 Board in English Money, Weights, and Measures. — (From the Circular of Grants, Balfour, and Co.) 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Genoa Piates 
 Porto franco. 
 
 PiiceinEnglish 
 
 Money, and 
 WeiglitSjfree on 
 board. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Genoa Rates 
 Porta franco. 
 
 Price in English 
 
 Money, and 
 Weights", free on 
 board. 
 
 Almonds, sweet, Sicily, liv. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 L.t. d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 64 to 0 
 
 100 
 
 3 8 10 
 
 cwt. 
 
 Oil, Genoa, superfine liv. 
 
 104 
 
 to 106 
 
 brl. 
 
 53 19 
 
 2 
 
 tun of 
 
 Argol, white - - — 
 
 46 — 48 
 
 150 
 
 1 15 2 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 
 
 
 45 16 
 
 3 
 
 256 
 
 red garbled - — 
 
 42 _ 44 
 
 
 1 12 3 
 
 
 middling - - — 
 Gallipoli, Sicily, and 
 
 76 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 40 14 
 
 6 
 
 0. gal. 
 
 Barilla, Sicilian - — 
 
 14—0 
 
 
 0 10 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brimstone, rough - — 
 
 Ih- 8 
 
 
 5 7 7 
 
 tou 
 
 Levant - - — 
 
 61 
 
 
 62 
 
 
 29 7 
 
 9 
 
 
 roil - - — 
 
 13 — 14 
 
 
 9 8 3 
 
 
 Opium - - — 
 
 15 
 
 
 16 
 
 Vd. 
 
 0 14 
 
 3 
 
 lb." 
 
 iCantharides - - — 
 
 7-74 
 
 1 
 
 0 6 10 
 
 lb. 
 
 Paper, Floretta, 14 lbs. — 
 
 7 
 
 
 i 
 
 p. rm. 
 
 0 4 
 
 11 
 
 rm. of 
 
 iCheese, Parmesan - — 
 
 160 —160 
 
 150 
 
 0 0 11-8 
 
 
 Media, 14 lbs. - — 
 
 5 
 
 
 of 475 
 
 0 3 
 
 6 
 
 475 
 
 Cotton, IVIak6 - - — 
 
 10.) — 109 
 
 
 0 0 7-9 
 
 
 Almabso, 16 lbs. - — 
 
 8J 
 
 
 sheets 
 
 0 6 
 
 3 
 
 sheets 
 
 Cream of tartar - sols 
 
 10 — 11 
 
 1 
 
 2 19 7 
 
 cwt. 
 
 Quicksilver - sols 
 Rice, Lombardy - liv. 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 lb. 
 
 Essence of bergamot hv. 
 
 8.^ — 9 
 
 
 0 8 9 
 
 lb. 
 
 20 
 
 
 21 
 
 1601b. 
 
 0 15 
 
 11 
 
 cwt. 
 
 lemon - - — 
 
 7 - 0 
 
 
 0 6 10 
 
 
 Safflower, new - sols 
 
 .-W 
 
 
 0 
 
 lb. 
 
 0 1 
 
 2 
 
 lb. 
 
 orange - - — 
 
 44 — .5 
 
 
 0 4 11 
 
 
 Saffron - - liv. 
 
 35 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 1 12 
 
 4 
 
 
 iGalls, Turkey, blue sols 
 
 25 _ 26 
 
 
 6 13 1 
 
 cwt. 
 
 Soaji, white - - — 
 
 46 
 
 
 48 
 
 150ib. 
 
 1 15 
 
 0 
 
 cwt. 
 
 in sorts - - — 
 
 11 - 32 
 
 
 3 1 5 
 
 
 marbled - - — 
 
 44 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 1 13 
 
 7 
 
 
 iGum Arabic, picked - — 
 
 34 — 44 
 
 
 11 3 8 
 
 
 Shumac, Sicily - — 
 
 22 
 
 
 0 
 
 2251b. 
 
 0 10 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 in sorts - - — 
 
 16 - 20 
 
 
 5 1 8 
 
 
 bponges, fine and super. — 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 lb. 
 
 0 5 
 
 4 
 
 lb.~ 
 
 Hemp, Bologna, dressed, 
 1st - - liv. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Steel, Milan, No. 00. — 
 
 29 
 
 
 31 
 
 1501b. 
 
 1 2 
 
 6 cwt. 
 
 75 - 76 
 
 150'51 1 7 
 
 ton 
 
 No. 0. _ 
 
 29 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 I 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 2d - . . _ 
 
 70 - 71 
 
 
 50 10 5 
 
 
 No. 1 and 2. — 
 
 27 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 19 
 
 7 
 
 
 garden • • — 
 
 48 — 0 
 
 
 34 3 1 
 
 
 Tallow - 
 
 50 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 1 15 
 
 7 
 
 
 cordage, 1st - — 
 
 .-58 — 40 
 
 
 28 9 3 
 
 
 Valonia - - — 
 
 10 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 0 12 
 
 9 
 
 
 'id - . . _ 
 
 36 — 37 
 
 
 26 6 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Piedmont, Ist - _ 
 
 56 — 57 
 
 
 26 6 7 
 
 
 Grain, wheat, Black 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Liquorice paste, Calabria— 
 
 56 — 57 
 
 100 
 
 2 18 10 
 
 cwt. 
 
 Sea, soft - - — 
 
 20 
 
 
 23 
 
 mina 
 
 2 1 
 
 
 quart 
 
 1 Sicilian 
 
 44 — 45 
 
 
 2 5 5 
 
 
 ditto, hard - — 
 
 221 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 2 1 
 
 7 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Linseed - . 
 
 14—0 
 
 150 
 
 1 19 2 
 
 qr. 
 
 Beans, Alexandria, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iMaddet roofs, Cyprus, 
 1 ar.d Smyrna - sols 
 
 
 
 
 
 new - - — 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 3 
 
 6 
 
 _ 
 
 ■ ]\z I 
 
 1 
 
 2 1 2 
 
 cwt. 
 
 old - - _ 
 
 'u 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 19 
 
 10 
 
 
 1 Tripoli . . _ 
 
 
 
 2 1 2 
 
 
 Com, Indian - - — 
 
 14 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 = 1 12 
 
 6 
 
 
 Manna m flakes •- " 
 
 m — 80 
 
 
 0 3 8 
 
 IbT 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' in sorts, Geraci - 
 
 29-30 
 
 
 0 1 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Statement of the Quantities of some of the Principal Articles of Colonial and other Raw Produce im- 
 ported into Genoa in 1830, 1831, 1832, with the Stocks on Hand on the l.st of January, 1832 and 1833. 
 
 
 
 Stock, 
 
 Stock, 
 
 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1st .Ian. 
 
 1 St Jan. 
 
 Articles imported. 
 
 1830. 
 
 
 
 1832. 
 
 1 833. 
 
 
 8,500 
 
 5,200 
 
 5,40U 
 
 1,550 
 
 Spices, Pepper lbs. 
 
 2,050,000 
 
 1 ,330 
 
 2,930 
 
 110 
 
 680 
 
 Pimento - — 
 
 132,000 
 
 !.",700 
 
 10,600 
 
 4,150 
 
 1,650 
 
 Cassia lignea, ca. 
 
 790 
 
 29,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 55,000 
 
 64,000 
 
 ditto - mats 
 
 • 1,100 
 
 51,800 54,000 
 
 750 
 
 Sugars, loaves, casks. 
 
 510 
 
 15,900 22,000 
 
 1,800 
 
 
 crushed — 
 
 2,780 
 
 3,050 
 
 5,200 
 
 
 Havannah, bxs. 
 
 8,200 
 
 450 
 
 690 
 
 
 
 Brazil cases 
 ditto - bags 
 
 6,410 
 4,900 
 
 62,500 
 
 86,400 
 
 5,000 
 
 3,200 
 
 E. India - 
 
 2,500 
 4,570 
 
 660 
 
 640 
 
 390 
 
 180 
 
 Porto Rico.csks. 
 
 
 762 
 
 1,070 
 
 1,120 
 
 Till plates boses 
 
 4,950 
 
 2.'^,500 21.500 
 
 1 6,200 
 
 17.000 
 
 Articles imported. 1830. 
 
 Cocoa, all quals. bgs, 
 Coffee, ditto tons 
 Cotton, ditto bales 
 Cochineal - lbs. 
 Fish, Codfish, quint. 
 
 Stockfish — 
 
 Pilchards, hhds. 
 
 Henings barls. 
 Hides, dried and dry 
 
 salted - numb. '1 18,400 
 Indieo, Bengal, easel 570 
 
 Spanish serons 545 
 I't'nd - p ig sl 24,5 0' 
 
 13,500, 
 1,996 
 8,370 
 15,200 
 36,900 
 20,800 
 2,550 
 5,100 
 
 900,000 
 145,000 
 350 
 
 175 
 
 2,080 
 13,500 
 6,100 
 6,400 
 12,200 
 2,400 
 2,800 
 
 I Stock, : Stock, 
 1832. 1st Jan.jlst Jan. 
 
 ,500,000 
 150,00(1 
 820 
 
 85 
 2,850 
 15,600 
 4,800 
 1 1 ,500 
 24,000 
 4,.500 
 6,500 
 
 30 
 150 
 
 2,1.50 
 8S0 
 
 2,100 
 
 490 
 
 850 
 
 ."5,000 
 95,000 
 40 
 
 45 
 .'10 
 4^00 
 1,040 
 2,500 
 
 470 
 
600 
 
 GENTIAN. — GIBRALTAR. 
 
 TarM. — Those of usage are, — on cotton, fish, tallow, and 
 •valonea, 4 per cent. ; hemp, 1 per cent. ; wood, 116 for 1 00 lbs.; 
 almonds, wax, and galls, 104 for 100 lbs.; ginger, 112 for 
 100 lbs.; sugar in loaves, 2 percent.; raw silk, 1 ounce per lb. 
 •Alum, argol, anchovies, barilla, brandy, flour, iron, lead, salt- 
 "petre, figs, hides, pepper, juniper berries, pumice stone, rags, 
 raisins, rice, cream of tartar, essences, quicksilver, shumac, 
 steel, and soap, have no tare ; for all other articles sold by 
 weight, 106 lbs. are given for every 100 lbs. 
 
 'Vhe loss of weight on importations from the place of growth, 
 partly arising from diflference of tare, varies as follows : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Sugar inchests from Rio de Janeiro, loses 1 to 31 taking 3.| 
 bags, ditto - - -3—4 ( arrobas as 
 
 chests from Pemambuco - .4—6 fequal to I 
 chests from Bahia - - 6 10 J cwt. Eng. 
 
 boxes from Havannah and Cuba - 4 — 67t-v„„4i 
 muscovado in casks from Cuba and Porto j-f. ^ ^ 
 
 Rico - - - 12-15 i'^""- 
 
 Importations from other quarters where the tares allowed are 
 on a par with those of Genoa, generally render full weight; 
 Havannah box sugar* from the United States render 1 to 2 per 
 cent, more than full weight. 
 
 Navigation, S(C. — In 1831, there entered the different ports of the Sardinian states, 3,704 ships ; but the 
 greater number of these must have been small coasting vessels, as their aggregate burden did not exceed 
 331,'217 tons. If we deduct about a third for Sardinia, by far the largest proportion of the remainder 
 must have entered and cleared out at Genoa. — {Archives du Commerce, torn. ii. p. 39.) — In 1832, 84 Bri- 
 tish ships, of the burden of 13,478 tons, arrived at Genoa.*— (Par/. Paper, No. 756. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 GENTIAN (Ger. Enzian ; Fr. Gentiane ; It. Genziana ; Sp. Jenciana ; Rus. 
 Enziixn. ; I^at. Gentiana), the roots of two alpine plants, Gentiana lutea and Gentiana 
 purpurea, found growing in Switzerland and Austria, the Apennines, the Pyrenees, and 
 in North America. Those brought to this country come from Germany. They are in 
 pieces of various lengths and thickness, twisted, wrinkled on the outside, and covered with 
 a brownish grey cuticle. They have no particular odour ; and the taste is intensely 
 bitter, without being nauseous. — ( Thomson'' s Dispensatory. ) 
 
 GHEE. See Butter. 
 
 GIBRALTAR, a famous fortress near the southernmost extremity of Spain, and 
 contiguous to the narrowest part of the strait, to which it gives its name, joining the 
 Atlantic and Mediterranean, in lat. 36° 6' 30" N., Ion. 5° 21' 12" W. It is situated 
 on the Avest side of a rocky mountain or promontory, the Mons Calpe of the ancients, 
 projecting into the sea, in a southerly direction, about 3 miles, being from § to f of a 
 mile in width. The southernmost extremity of the rock is called Europa Point. Its 
 northern side, fronting the isthmus which connects it with Spain, is almost perpendi- 
 cular, and wholly inaccessible ; the east and south sides are so rugged and precipitous, 
 as to render any attack upon them, even if they were not fortified, next to impossible ; 
 so that it is only on the west side, fronting the bay, where the rock declines to the 
 sea and the town is built, that it can be attacked with the least chance of success. 
 Here, however, the strength of the fortifications, and the magnitude of the batteries, are 
 such, that the fortress seems to be impregnable, even though attacked by an enemy having 
 the command of the sea. It was taken by the English in 1704, but the fortifications 
 were then very inferior to what they are at present. Towards the end of the American 
 war, it was attacked by a most formidable armament fitted out jointly by Spain and 
 France ; but the strength of the place, and the bravery of the garrison, defeated all the 
 eflTorts of the combined powers. Population about 17,000, exclusive of the troops, 
 which usually amount, in time of peace, to from 3,000 to 4,000. 
 
 The bay of Gibraltar is spacious ; and, being protected from all the more dangerous 
 winds, affords a convenient station for ships. Two moles have been constructed at a 
 vast expense, for the protection of the shipping. The old mole projects from the north 
 end of the town, N. W. by N., 1,100 feet into the sea : the new mole is mile more to 
 the south, extending outwards about 700 feet ; it has an elbow formed by the shore, and 
 in winter large vessels anchor inside ; the farthest out in from 5 to 6 fathoms. The plan 
 on the opposite page gives a better idea of the position of Gibraltar, as well as of the 
 Straits, than could be derived from any description. It is taken from Captain Smyth's 
 beautiful chart of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Trade, Political Importance, 8^e. — Gibraltar is of considerable consequence as a com- 
 mercial station. Being a free port, subject to no duties and few restrictions, it is a con- 
 venient entrepot for the English and other foreign goods destined for the supply of the 
 contiguous Spanish and African provinces. In this respect, however, it has greatly fallen 
 ofiT. This has been owing to a variety of causes : partly, and principally perhaps, to the 
 insecurity and apprehension occasioned by the fear of pestilential diseases, the place 
 never having recovered from the eflfects of the dreadful contagion by which it was visited 
 in 1 804 ; partly to large quantities of those goods being now kept at Malta and Genoa, 
 that were formerly kept at Gibraltar ; and, more recently, to the making of Cadiz a free 
 port. This measure has, however, been revoked ; but, notwithstanding, it is not at all 
 probable that Gibraltar will ever again be of much importance as a trading station. In 
 1831, the declared value of the various articles of British produce and manufacture ex- 
 ported to Gibraltar, was 367,285/.; the official value of the foreign and colonial pro- 
 ducts exported to it during the same year being 121,342/. The trade with Gibraltar, or 
 any British dependency in the Mediterranean, may be regulated by an order in council ; 
 and any goods imported or exported contrary to such order shall be forfeited, together 
 with the ship importing or exporting the same. — (6 Geo. 4. c. 114. § 73.) 
 
 * We are not sure that this is the correct reading, ; hf title to the account being drawn up in so slovenly 
 a way, that it is not easy to say whether it means that o4 ships arrived and 84 departed, or that 42 arrived 
 and 45 dci)artcd 
 
GIBRALTAR. 
 
 GOl 
 
 References to Plan. — A, point and light-house of Tariffa, in lat 36° 0' 30" N., Ion, 5^ 35/ 55// \v. 
 The light-house was erected in 1813, and the light revolves. B, Cabrita Point. C, Europa Point, the 
 extremity of the rock of Gibraltar. D, town and fortress of Ceuta, on the African coast. E, Little 
 Ceuta Bay. F, Point Leona. G, Point Cires. The soundings and the direction of the currents are 
 marked in the chart. Variation in the Straits, 220^31'. 
 
 The real value of Gibraltar to Great Britain consists in its importance in a military 
 and naval point of view ; in its being, in fact, the key of the Mediterranean ; and in its 
 aflTording a convenient and secure station for the outfit, refreshment, repair, and ac- 
 commodation of our ships of war and merchantmen. The revenue collected in the town 
 amounts to from 30,000/. to 40,000/., which is about sufficient to defray the public civil 
 expenditure of the place. The expense annually incurred in Great Britain on account 
 of the garrison, in time of peace, amounts to abotit 200,000/. — a small stmi compai-ed 
 with the important political and commercial advantages it is the means of securing. 
 
 Money. — The effective or hard dollar = 4*. 4<f. ; the current doUar being estimated at § hard dollars 
 = 2s. ]0|rf. Reals and quartos of both hard and current dollars are the same, being, the former — 4i<f., 
 »nd the latter = l^d. 
 
 Accounts are kept in current dollars (pesos), divided into 8 reals of 16 quartos each 5 12 reals curren'-' 
 
602 
 
 GILD. ~ GLASS. 
 
 make a cob or hard dollar, by wliich goods are bought and sold : and 3 of these reals are considered equaJ 
 to 5 Spanish reals vellon. 
 
 Gibraltar draws on London in effective dollars of 12 reals, and London on Gibraltar in current dollars 
 of 8 reals. 
 
 The exchange of Gibraltar on Cadiz, and other cities of Spain, is in hard dollars at a percentage, which 
 varies considerably, and mostly in favour of Gibraltar. 
 
 Weights and Measures are those of England, excepting the arroba = 25 lbs. English : grain is sold by 
 the fanega, 5 of which make 1 Winchester quarter; wine is sold by the gallon, VJU of which are equal to 
 109-4 EngUsh wine gallons. — (See Papers laid before Finance Cummiitce : Edinburah Gazetteer : Inslis's 
 Spain in 1830, voL ii. p. 169. &c.) 
 
 GILD, OR GUILD, a company of merchants or manufacturers, whence the halls of 
 such companies are denominated Gild or Guild Halls. 
 
 GILL, a measure of capacity. See Weights and Measures. 
 
 GIN. English geneva, or gin, is made of spirit obtained from oats, barley, or malt, 
 rectified, or redistilled, with the addition of juniper berries, oil of turpentine, &c. All 
 spirits manufactured in England, and most of the Scotch and Irish spirits imported into 
 England, are subjected to the process of rectification. English gin is said to be one of 
 the most wholesome spirits. — (See Spirits.) 
 
 GINGER (Ger. Ingwer ; Du. G ember ; Fr. Gingemhre ; It. Zenzero ; Sp. Jenjibre, 
 Agengihre ; Rus. Inhir ; Lat. Ziiigiher ; Pers. Zungeheel ; Arab. Zingebeet), the roots of 
 a plant (^Amomuyn Zingiber), a native of the East Indies and China, but which was early 
 carried to and succeeds very well in the West Indies. After the roots are dug, the best 
 are selected, scraped, washed, and dried in the sun with great care. This is called white 
 ginger ; while the inferior roots, which are scalded in boiling water before being dried, 
 are denominated black ginger. Preserved ginger is made by scalding the green roots, or 
 the roots taken up when they are young and full of sap, till they are tender ; then peel- 
 ing them in cold water, and putting them into a thin syrup, from which they are shifted 
 into the jars in which they come to us, and a rich syrup poured over them. Dried 
 ginger has a pungent aromatic odour, and a hot, biting taste. It is imported in bags, each 
 containing about a cwt. The white brings the highest price, being more pungent and 
 better flavoured. The external characters of goodness in both sorts of dried ginger are, 
 soundness, or the being free from worm holes, heaviness, and firmness ; the pieces that are 
 small, light, and soft, or very friable and fibrous, should be rejected. The best preserved 
 ginger is nearly translucent ; it should be chosen of a bright yellow colour ; rejecting 
 that which is dark-coloured, fibrous, or stringy. — (Milburn's Orient. Commerce ^ Thom- 
 son's Dispensatory.') 
 
 F The consumption of ginger is but trifling, not exceeding 5,000 cwt. a year. This is principally to be 
 ascribed to the oppressive duties with which it is burdened, they being no less than 21. 13s. a cwt. on 
 foreign ginger, and \ls. on that brought from a British possession. The revenue derived from it is 
 about 3,250/. a year ; a sum which might be doubled by reducing the duties on all descriptions of ginger 
 to 7*. a cwt. Of 5,315 cwt. of ginger imported in 1831, 3,551 came from the British West Indies, 849 from 
 the East India Company's possessions and Ceylon, 807 from the Netherlands, and 106 from Western 
 Africa. 
 
 GINSENG (Du. Ginseng, Ginsem ; Fr. Ginseng; Ger. Kraftwerzel, Ginseng; It. 
 Ginseng ; Sp. Jinseng ; Chin. Yansam ; Tart. Orhota), the root of a small plant (Panax 
 quinquefolium Lin.), growing in China, Tartary, and several parts of North America. 
 The latter is what we generally see in England, arid is an article of trade to China, 
 which is its only market. Large quantities were formerly exported from this country ; 
 but it is now carried direct to China by the Americans. It is sometimes exported crude, 
 and sometimes cured or clarified. Within these few years, it has been discovered in the 
 Himalaya mountains, and small quantities have been thence sent to Canton ; but the 
 speculation has not succeeded. It is only about 30 years since it began to be sent from 
 America to China. Previously to the present century, the Chinese drew their supplies 
 from the wilds of Tartary, and the root brought an exorbitant price. Crude ginseng 
 now sells in the Canton market at from 60 to 70 dollars per picul, and prepared at from 
 70 to 80 dollars. In 1832, there were sent from the United States to China, 407,067 lbs. 
 of ginseng, valued at 99,303 dollars. — (Private information.) 
 
 GLASS (Ger. and Du. Glas ; Fr. Vitre, Verre ; It. Vetro ; Sp. Vidrio ; Rus. Steklo', 
 Lat. Vitriim), a transparent, brittle,^ factitious body. It is formed by mixing together 
 some sort of siliceous earth, as fine sand, or pounded flint, with an alkali, such as soda, 
 potash, or pearlash, and subjecting them to a strong heat. By this means they are 
 melted into a transparent, soft, tenacious mass, that may, when hot, be formed into thin 
 plates, bent and shaped in every possible way. When cool, it becomes brittle, and is 
 denominated glass. Litharge, minium, borax, the black oxide of manganese, &c. arc 
 sometimes used in the manufacture of glass, according to the purposes to which it is to 
 be applied. 
 
 The kinds of glass, and their ingredients, are stated by Dr. Ure as follows : — 
 
 " There are 5 distinct kinils of plass at present manufao- I "1. Flint Glnts, so named because the siliceous Ingredient 
 
 fured: — 1. Flint Klass. or glass of lead; a. Plate glass, or Rlass I was orifrfnaily employed in the form of ground flints. It i« 
 
 /if pur'; <nda ; .1. Ctowii glass, the best window glass : 4. Broad I now made of the following composition t — 
 r ass, a coarse window gla.-is ; 5. Hottle, or coarse green glass. I 
 
GLASS. 
 
 603 
 
 Purified Lynn sand - - 100 parts. 
 
 Litliarf<ei or ml lead - . CO — 
 
 Purified i>earlasli - . 30 — 
 
 " To correct the green colour derived from combustible 
 matter, or oxide of iron, a little black oxide of manganese Is 
 added, and sometimes nitre and arsenic. The fusion is ac- 
 complished usually In about 30 hours. 
 
 " 2. Pl(Ue Glast. — Good carbonate of soda, procured by de- 
 composing common salt with pearlash, is employed as the 
 flux. The proportion of the materials is — 
 
 Pure sand - - 43-0 
 
 Dry subcarbonate of soda - '2.')"5 
 
 Pure quicklime - • 4-0 
 
 Nitre - - - 15 
 
 Broken plate glass - - 25-0 100-0. 
 
 About 70 parts of good plate glass may be run off" from these 
 materials. 
 
 " 3. Crown, or fine WiTuhn) Glass. — This is made of sand 
 vitrified by the impure Uorilla manufactured by incineration 
 
 of sea weed on the Scotch and Irish shores. The most ap 
 
 proved composition is — 
 
 By Mer.»ure. IJy Weight. 
 Fine sand purified - - 6 . 200 
 
 iiest kelp ground • - 11 - 330 
 
 "4. Broad Glass — This is made of a mixture of soap- 
 boilers' waste, kelp, and sand. The first ingredient consists of 
 lime used for rendering the alkali of the soap-boiler causticj 
 the insoluble matter of his kelp or barilla, and a quantity ot 
 salt and water, all in a pasty state. The proportions neces- 
 sarily vary. 2 of the waste, 1 of kelp, and 1 of sand, form a 
 pretty good broad glass. They are mixed together, dried, and 
 tVitted. 
 
 " 6. Ilollle Glass is the coarsest kind. It is made of soapers' 
 ■waste and river sand, in proportions which practice must duter- 
 mine according to the quantity of the waste; some soap- 
 boilers extracting more saline matter, and others less, from 
 their kelps. Common sand and lime, with a little common 
 clay and sea salt, form a cheap mixture for bottle glass." 
 
 1. Historical Notices with respect to Glass. — The manufacture of glass is one of the 
 very highest beauty and utility. It is most probable that we are indebted for this won- 
 derful art, as we are for the gift of letters, to the Phoenicians. According to Pliny 
 {Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvi. c. 26.), glass had been made for many ages, of sand found near the 
 mouth of the small river Belus in Phoenicia. " The report," says he, " is, that the crew 
 of a merchant ship laden with nitre (fossil alkali) having used some pieces of it to sup- 
 port the kettles placed on the fires they had made on the sand, were surprised to see 
 pieces formed of a translucent substance, or glass. This was a sufficient hint for the 
 manufacture. Ingenuity (astuta et ingeniosa solertia) was immediately at work, to im- 
 prove the process thus happily suggested. Hence the inagnetical stone came to be added, 
 from an idea that it contained not only iron, but glass. They also used clear pebbles, 
 shells, and fossil sand. Indian glass is said to be formed of native crystal, and 
 is on that account superior to every other.* Phoenician glass is prepared with light dry 
 wood, to which copper and nitre are added, the last being principally brought from Ophir. 
 It is occasionally tinged with different colours. Sometimes it is brought to the desired 
 shape by being blown, sometimes by being ground on a lathe, and sometimes it is embossed 
 like silver." Sidon, he adds, is famous for this manufacture. It was there that mirrors 
 were first invented. In Pliny's time, glass was made in Italy, of fine sand on the shore 
 between Cumas and the Lucrine bay. 
 
 Glass was manufactured at Rome into various articles of convenience and ornament. 
 Pliny mentions that Nero gave 6,000 sesterces (50,000^. according to the ordinary method 
 of reckoning) for two glass cups, each having two handles! These, however, must have 
 been of an immense size and of exquisite workmanship ; for glass was then in common 
 use for drinking vessels, and was used even in the form of bottles in which to keep wine. 
 
 — (Mart. Epiy. lib. ii. 22. 40., and lib. iv. 86.) 
 
 There is no authentic evidence of glass being used in windows previously to the thira 
 or fourth century ; and then, and for long after, it was used only in churches and other 
 public buildings. In this country, even so late as the latter part of the sixteenth 
 century, glass was very rarely met with. In a survey of Alnwick Castle, made in 
 1573, it is stated — " And, because throwe extreme winds, the glasse of the windowes 
 of this and other my lord's castles and houses here in the country dooth decay and 
 waste, yt were good the whole leights of everie windowe, at the departure of his 
 lordshippe from lyinge at any of his said castels, and houses, and dowring the tyme of 
 his lordship's absence, or others lyinge in them, were taken doune and lade up in safety : 
 And at sooche time as ather his lordshippe or anie other sholde lye at anie of the said 
 places, the same might then be set uppe of newe, with smale charges, whereas now the 
 decaye thereof shall be verie costlie and chargeable to be repayred." — (North. Housh. 
 Book, xvii.) Sir F. M. Eden thinks it probable that glass windows were not introduced 
 into farmhouses in England much before the reign of James I. They are mentioned 
 in a lease in 1615, in a parish in Suffolk. In Scotland, hoAvever, as late as 1661, the 
 windows of ordinary country houses were not glazed, and only the upper parts of 
 even those in the king's palaces had glass ; the lower ones having two wooden shutters, 
 to open at pleasure, and admit the fresh air. From a passage in Harrison's Description 
 of England, it may be inferred that glass was introduced into country houses in the reign 
 of Henry VIII. He says, — " Of old time," (meaning, probably, the beginning of the 
 century,) " our countrie houses instead of glasse did use much lattise, and that made 
 either of wicker or fine rifts of oke in checkerwise. I read also that some of the better 
 sort, in and before the time of the Saxons, did make panels of horne instead of glasse, 
 and fix them in wooden calmes (casements) ; but as horne in windowes is now (1584) quite 
 laid downe in everie place, so our lattises are also growne into disuse, because glasse is 
 
 ' * If this be a correct description of the glass of India 5n the age of Pliny, it has since fallen off very 
 much ; Indian glass being now about the very worst that is made. At present, the Hindoos manufacture 
 it of fragments of broken glass, quartz sand, and impure soda, — an article found native in many parts of 
 India, particularly in the south. The furnaces are so bad that they cannot melt our rommon bottle gla.S5. 
 
 — (Jlami/ton's Mt/sore, voL iii. p. 370.) The glass of C'hu:a :-. mucli better than tlu^n that of India, 
 though still very inferior to that of Europe. 
 
604 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 come to be so plentiful, and within verie little so good, cheape, if not better than the other." 
 Glass is now introduced into the windows of almost every cottage of Great Britain ; and 
 in this cold, damp climate, it ought rather to be considered as a necessary of life, than as 
 the most elegant and useful of conveniences. What Dr. Johnson has said as to glass 
 deserves to be quoted. — " By some fortuitous liquefaction was mankind taught to 
 produce a body at once in a high degree solid and transparent, which might admit the 
 light of the sun, and exclude the violence of the wind ; which might extend the sight of 
 the philosopher to new ranges of existence, and charm him at one time with the un- 
 bounded extent of the material creation, and at another with the endless subordination 
 of animal life ; and, what is yet of more importance, might supply the decays of nature, 
 and succour old age with subsidiary sight. Thus was the first artificer in glass employed, 
 though without his own knowledge or expectation. He was facilitating and prolonging 
 the enjoyment of light, enlarging the avenues of science, and conferring the highest and 
 most lasting pleasures; he was enabling the student to contemplate nature, and the 
 beauty to behold herself." — {Ramhler, No. 9.) 
 
 Venice, for a long time, excelled all Europe in the manufacture of glass, but was sub- 
 sequently rivalled by France. The manufacture was early introduced into England ; 
 but it was not carried on to any extent previously to the 16th century. The first plates 
 for looking-glasses and coach windows were made in 1673, at Lambeth, by Venetian 
 artists under the protection of the Duke of Buckingham. The British Platd Company 
 was incorporated in 1773, when it erected its extensive works at Ravenhead, near St. 
 Helen's, in Lancashire. The manufacture was at first conducted by workmen from 
 France, whence we had previously brought all our plate glass. But that which is now 
 made at Ravenhead, at Liverpool, and London, is equal or sYiperior to any imported from 
 the Continent. 
 
 It is difficult to form any precise estimate of the value of the glass annually pro- 
 duced in Great Britain. We believe, however, that it cannot amount to less than 
 2,000, OOOZ. ; and that the workmen employed in the different departments of the manu- 
 facture exceed 50,000. 
 
 2. Duties on Glass. — The glass manufacture is subjected to the excise ; and it is difficult to say wnether 
 the regulations under which the duty is charged, or the duty itself, be most oppressive. The wealth and 
 population of the country have more than doubled since 1790 ; and we are well convinced that, had the 
 glass manufacture not been interfered 'with, it would have increased in a still greater ratio.. But instead 
 of advancing, it has positively declined ; and is actually less at this moment than it was 40 years ago ! So 
 extraordinary a result is wholly to be ascribed to the exorbitant excess to which the duties have been 
 carried. Instead, however, of submitting any remarks of our own in vindication of this view of the sub- 
 ject, we shall take the liberty of laying before the reader the following extract from the speech delivered 
 by Mr. Poulett Thomson in the House of Commons, 26th of March, 1830, — a speech which combines, in 
 a degree rarely exhibited, a familiar knowledge of practical details and of sound scientific principles. 
 That the administration of which the Right Hon. Gentleman is a distinguished member, has not yet pro. 
 posed the repeal of this oppressive tax, is not, we are sure, owing to his colleagues differing in opinion 
 with him as to its impolicy, but is wholly to be ascribed to other causes — to the res dura et regni novitas— 
 the difficulty of finding a substitute, and the urgency of the claims for relief advanced by others. 
 
 '• The gross duty on glass for the year 1828 amounted, in Great Britain (exclusive of Ireland), to 
 950,103/., and the nett duty to 586,1701. ; the difference beingi either returned, or sacrificed in the collec- 
 tion. And here I would entreat the House to remark, that for the sake of such a sum as 500,000/., a 
 charge of collection on nearly 1,000,000/. is incurred. The duty is 6d. per pound on flint, but equal to jd. 
 from the mode of its collection ; in other words, upwards of 100 per cent. ; the glass, when made, selling 
 for Is. to Is. 2d. This duty, too, is very much reduced from what it was ; and here the House will observe 
 an admirable illustration of the effect of heavy duties on consumption, and consequently on revenue. In 
 1794, the last year in which the duty was 1/. Is. 5d. per cwt for plate and flint, and other kinds in pro 
 portion, the quantities paying duty were as follow : — 
 
 Flint and Plate. Broad. Crown. Bottle. 
 
 Cwt. 67,615 20,607 83,940 227,476 
 
 The duties were successively raised to 2/. 9s. ; and at last, by Mr. Vansittart, in pursuit of his favourite 
 theory, in 1813, toj4/. 18s. ! and let us see the result. In 1816, the consumption had declined to 
 
 Plate. Broad. Crown. Bottle. 
 
 Cwt. 29,60C 6,140 55,502 155,595 
 
 In 182.5, government saw a part of their error, and reduced the duty by one half, still leaving it too high ; 
 but mark the effect. In 1828, the last year for which I have the returns, the consumption rose to 
 Plate. Broad. Crown. Bottle. 
 
 Cwt. 68,134 6,956 90,603 224,864 
 
 Still, however, only about the same as in 1794. It appears, therefore, that notwithstanding the increase 
 of population and general luxury, the consumption has been kept down by your improvident system, and 
 is actually now less than it was 35 years ago. But here, again, the duty is far from being the greatest evil 
 Let any one turn to the act: he will find 32 clauses of regulations, penalties, and prohibitions ; all vex- 
 atious to the manufacturer, and all to be paid for by the public. I have said that the duty on flint glass 
 is 6d. per pound ; the glass, when made, selling for Is. But the excise officer has the power of imposing 
 the duty, either when the glass is in the pot, 3d. per pound, or after it has been turned out, at 6d. ; the 
 glass, when turned out, gaining 100 per cent. It is found more advantag(^us to the revenue to exact the 
 duty on glass in the pot, at 3d. ; and in this way the duty is raised to Id. Nor is this all The manu- 
 facturcr is driven by this method into the necessity of producing frequently an article which he does not 
 want. He makes the fine glass from the middle; the coarser from the top and bottom of the pot. He 
 frequently wants only fine glass, and he would re-melt the flux of the coarser parts if he had not paid duty 
 upon it ; but of course he is unable to do so. All the glass manufacturers whom I have consulted, agree 
 that the whole cost of the excise to the consumer, besides the duty, which is 100 per cent, is 25 per cent. ; 
 and besides, there is great inconvenience and oppression from the frauds that are daily taking place. And 
 observe the eH'ect which is produced upon your trade, both at home and abroad. 
 
 " A maiiufiicturcr who has lately travelled through France, the Netherlands, and Germany, has 
 assured me that our manufacturers could advantageously cope with foreigners, were it not for the duties 
 
GLASS. 
 
 60S 
 
 imposed by the government, 
 rials are also as cheap 
 
 the advantage over the English. But the effect of the duty goes further : it operates to prevent all im 
 
 Labour is as cheap in this country, our ingenuity is greater, and the mate, 
 s are also as cheap; it is, then, the vexatious onerous duty alone that gives the foreign manufacturer 
 
 provement in the article ; because, to imjirove, ex|)erimciits must be made ; but a man with a duty of 125 
 per cent, over his head is not very likely to make many experiments. 1 his argument applies especially 
 with respect to colours. A manufacturer has assured me that he has never been able to produce a beau- 
 tiful red, because the duties have prevented his trying the necessary experiments, without his incurring 
 a great, risk or loss. Thus a miserable duty, amounting to only .''jOO.OaO/., and upon which a charge of 
 10 per cent, is made for collecting, is allowed to impede our native industry, and to jmt a stoj) to all im- 
 provement, and be a source of endless oppression and fraud. I really caimot believe that the legislature 
 will resist suoh an appeal as the manufacturers of this article could make to them, or refuse to relieve them 
 from the gratuitous injury which is inflicted on them." 
 
 The following accounts show, better than any reasoning, the injurious influence of the existing duties. 
 — Instead of increasing, as it certainly would have done, had it not been crushed by exorbitant duties, 
 the glass manufacture has gone on progressively declinirjg from the period when Mr. 'I'homson made the 
 excellent speech now quoted, down to the present day. 'J'he falling off in the bottle glass department is 
 particularly striking. The duties being so very high, the necessity of giving drawbacks on tht glass 
 exported opens a wide door to every species of fraud. If the duty must be kept up, it ought, at all events, 
 to be reduced a half, and simplified as much as possible. This would materially relieve the manufacture ; 
 and would not, wfe feel confident, occasion the smallest loss of revenue. It is monstrous, indeed, to see 
 destructive duties tenaciously defended on the stale and stupid pretence of their being necessary to the 
 preservation of the revenue, when, in point of fact, there is not a single instance in which they have beeu 
 reduced, that the revenue has not increased. 
 
 I. Account of the Number of Glass-houses respectively employed in the Manufacture of Broad, Crown, 
 Flint, Plate, and common Bottle Glass, in each Year, from 1829 to 1832 inclusive, in the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1 Broad 
 Glass. 
 
 Crown. 
 
 Flint. 
 
 Plate. 
 
 Common Bottle 
 Glass. 
 
 1829 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 51 
 
 3 
 
 42 
 
 1830 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 39 
 
 1831 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 55 
 
 2 
 
 Sfi 
 
 1832 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 59 
 
 2 
 
 39 
 
 II. Account of the Quantities of Flint, Plate, Broad, Crown, and Bottle Glass, charged with the Duty in 
 each Year, from 1829 to 1832, respectively, with the Rates of Excise Duty and Revenue accruing 
 thereon. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Flint 
 Glass. 
 
 Kate 
 of 
 Dutv 
 
 Plate. 
 
 Rate 
 
 of 
 Duty 
 
 Broad. 
 
 Rate 
 of 
 Duty 
 
 Crown. 
 
 Rate 
 
 of 
 Duty 
 
 Bottle 
 Glass. 
 
 Rate 
 of 
 Duty 
 
 Gjoss Duty. 
 
 Drawback. 
 
 Rerenne. j 
 
 ! 
 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1822 
 
 Civt. 
 79,250 
 72,942 
 75,619 
 75,771 
 
 t. 
 
 56 
 
 Cmt. 
 14,484 
 13,301 
 15,067 
 12,270 
 
 60 
 
 Cn't. 
 6,864 
 4,845 
 5,915 
 5,304 
 
 30 
 
 Cwt. 
 114,862 
 
 100,086 
 103,902 
 
 >. d. 
 
 73 6 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 382,894 
 340,793 
 293,868 
 316,365 
 
 s. 
 
 7 
 
 L. 
 
 831,809 
 725,597 
 736,512 
 748,097 
 
 «. d. 
 
 18.10 
 1 3 
 0 1 
 3 11 
 
 L. 1. d. 
 
 224,794 17 2 
 182,678 4 8 
 204,152 2 0 
 189,565 7 8 
 
 L. $. d. 
 
 607,015 1 8 
 542,918 16 7 
 532,359 18 1 
 558,531 16 3 
 
 III. Account of the Quantities of British-made Glass retained for Home Consumption, with the Imports 
 of Foreign Glass entered for Home Consumption ; the Amount of Customs Duty on the latter, and the 
 Nett Revenue arising from British Glass, in each Ypa\-, from 1829 to 1832, both inclusive. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Flint. 
 
 Plate. 
 
 Broad. 
 
 Crown. 
 
 Bottle. 
 
 Plate. 
 
 Crown. ' 
 
 Bottle. 
 
 Revenue on 
 Foreign 
 Glass. 
 
 Nett Revenue 
 on British 
 Glass. 
 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Cn-t. 
 49,004 
 48,063 
 48,887 
 49,552 
 
 Cwt. 
 14,299 
 13,057 
 14,796 
 11,990 
 
 Cat. 
 6,864 
 4,845 
 5,915 
 5,304 
 
 Cwt. 
 97,134 
 84,178 
 83,527 
 90,253 
 
 Cwt. 
 209,862 
 165,549 
 143,989 
 151,705 
 
 Sq. Feet. 
 
 1,763 
 1,436 
 863 
 717 
 
 Cwt. 
 152 
 104 
 104 
 
 25 
 
 Quarts. 
 764,778 
 743,768 
 693,454 
 645,526 
 
 L. 
 16,708 
 16,411 
 15,841 
 14,532 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 610,307 1 8 
 526,507 16 7 
 516,518 18 1 
 543,999 16 3 
 
 (Compiled from the Pari. Papers, Nos.364. and 747. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 ' 3. Rcfrulaiions at to the Manvfadvre of Glass. — The excise 
 regulations with respect to glass are numerous, complex, and 
 enforced under heavy penalties. M'e can notice only a few of 
 the leading regulations. All glass makers must lake out a 
 licence, renewable annually, which costs 'Ml. for each glass- 
 house ; and thev must make entry at the next excise office of 
 all workhouses,?umaces, pots, pot-chamliei s, annealing arches, 
 warehouses, &c., under a penalty of 2uiil. No pot is to be 
 charged without giving twelve hours' previous notice, in 
 writing, of the time of beginning, the weight of metal, and 
 species of glass, on pain of 50/. If, after notice given and a 
 gauge taken by the officer, any material or preparation be }>ut 
 into any pot, a penalty of 50/. is incurred ; but if the manu- 
 ferture be of flint glass, the penaltyis 200/. Manufacturers of 
 flint glass are allowed 3 hours for beginning to charge their 
 pots after the time specified in their notices. Entries of the 
 quantities made are to be made in writing, upon oath, and the 
 duties paid monthly in London, and every 6 weeks in the 
 country. Dutv upon materials lost or spoiled is allowed for, 
 upon due proof being made of the fact. Officers at all times, 
 by day and night, are to have access to workhouses, &c., to 
 gauge the materials, and mark the pots as they think fit ; anv 
 attempt to obstruct the officers so employed incurs a penalty of 
 200/. : the counterfeiting, altering, or effacing any marks made 
 by the officers is visited with a penalty of 600/. ; a penalty of 
 2u0/. being also imposed upon any one procuring or conniving 
 at its being done. Officers are entitled to take samples, not 
 exceeding 4 ounces in all, out of each pot ; paying for them, if 
 demanded, an ounce. The whole of the metal intended to 
 be manufacture<l into common glass bottles is to be worked 
 ■within 16 hours next after the same shall be begxm ; and when 
 
 the bottles are deposited in the annealing arches, manufac- 
 turers are again, in the presence of the officer, to charge each 
 pot with fresh materials, other than broken glass, not less than 
 50 lbs. weight ; and declarations are to be delivered, in writ- 
 ing, of the number of such bottles, on penalty of 100/. 
 
 Manufacturers of glass bottles are to affix proper hooks or 
 staples, with scales and weights, to be approved of, in writing, 
 by the surveyor or supervisor, under a penalty of 5o/. ; the 
 using any false or insufficient scales or weights in the weighing 
 of bottles, incurs a penalty of 10l7. 
 
 Notices are not to he given for drawing out bottles, but only 
 between 8 o'clock in the morning and 6 in the afternoon. 
 
 No crown glass, or German sheet glass, or broad or spread 
 window glass, shall be made of grea'.er thickness, excluding 
 the centre or bullion and the selvage or rim thereof, than one 
 ninth part of an inch, unless notice shall have been given that 
 it was intended to manufacture the metal into jilate glass, and 
 the duty on plate glass be paid thereon. — (See the Statutes in 
 Burn's Justice, Marriott's ed. vol. ii. pp. 186 -228.) 
 
 For an account of the duties on foreign glass imported into 
 Great Britain, and the drawback, &c. allowed upon the ex- 
 l^rtation of British-made glass, see Tariff- 
 
 4. Exix>rtatio7i of Glass — It is enacte-d by stat. 6 Geo. 4. 
 c. 1 17., that no flint glass shall be entitled to the drawback on 
 exportation, if it be not of the specific gravy v of 3,000, that of 
 water being 1,000 ; and if it be not worth at least 1 1</. a pound 
 for home consumption at the time when it i-s entered tor ex- 
 portation. All flint glass entered for exportation, of less spe- 
 cific gravity than 3,0b0, or of less value than llrf. per pound, 
 is forfeited," and may be seized by any officer of excise. —Sects. 
 24, 23. 
 
606 
 
 GLOVES. 
 
 The exporter of glass Js to make oath that he believes it to be 
 entirely of British manufacture, and that tlie duties imposed 
 upon it by law have been paid. Persons wilfully taking a false 
 oaili in this matter are liable to the pains and penalties of per- 
 'ury — (55 Geo. 3. c. 15. sect. 3.) 
 
 Security by bond is to be given (usually for a larger sum and 
 a greater quantity of goods than are intended to be exported), 
 that glass, on the exportation of which a drawback is allowed, 
 shall be shipped within 1 month after the date of such security ; 
 but if the commissioners be satisfied that the shipment of the 
 glass within the specified time has been prevented by some 
 unavoidable accident, they may grant further time, not ex- 
 ceeding 3 months, for the shipment thereof. — Sect. 7. 
 
 No drawback is to be allowed upon the exportation of used, 
 old, or second hand glass. — Sect. 9. 
 
 By Stat. 54 Geo. 3. c. 97- sect. 6. it is enacted, that no draw- 
 back shall be allowed for any regular panes, squares, or rectan- 
 gular figures of spread glass or other window glass, any part of 
 which bhall consist of or include the bullion or thick centre 
 part of the table from which such panes, squares, or rectan- 
 gular figures shall have been cut or taken, or any part of the 
 said bullion, unless no side of any such panes, &c. shall 
 measure less than 8 inches ; nor shall any drawback be allowed 
 for any lozenges, any part whereof shall consist of or include 
 the bullion or thick centre part of the table from which such 
 lozenges shall have been taken, or any part of the bullion, 
 unless no side of any such lozenge shall measure less than 8 
 inches ; nor unless the distance between the two obtuse angles 
 of each such lozenge shall mecisure 8 inches at the least ; nor 
 shall any drawback be allowed for any lozenges not containing 
 the bullion or thick centre part of the table from which such 
 lozenges shall have been cut or taken, or any part of the bul- 
 lion, unless the distance between the two obtuse angles of every 
 such lozenge shall measure 3^ inches at least; and all window 
 glass, any part whereof shall include or consist of the bullion 
 or thick centre part of the table from which the same shall 
 have been cut or taken, and which shall be of any other shape 
 orof less dimensions than as aforesaid, shall be deemed to be 
 rv.iste t^lass ; and if any person shall knowingly enter or ship 
 for exportation, in order to obtain any drawback, any panes, 
 squares, or rectangular figures or lozenges of spread window 
 glass, commonly known by the na.me o{ broad glass, or othet 
 window glass, not being spread glass as aforesaid, containing 
 or including the bullion or thick part of the table from which 
 such panes, squares, rectangular figures, or lozenges of spread 
 glass or other window glass respectively, which shall not be of 
 the dimensions in that behalf aforesaid, such person shall, for 
 every package containing any such glass so entered or shipped 
 contrary to this act,forfeit 100/. 
 
 By 52 Geo. 3. c. 77. sect. 6. it is enacted, that no glass what- 
 soever made in Great Britain, or made in Ireland and imported 
 into Great Britain, shall be packed for exportation on draw- 
 back, in any package made with any void space in or between 
 the component parU thereof, but all such glass shall be packed 
 for exportation in casks, boxes, or chests only, and in which 
 the exporter shall, previous to the packing of such glass, 
 therein, have cut or sunk a sufficient number of circular 
 cavities, each thereof not less than ^ of an inch, nor more than 
 14 inch in diameter, to receive the seal directed to be put on 
 giich package, and for the purpose of protecting such seal from 
 being destroyed, defaced, broken, or damaged; and where any 
 such glass shall be packed for exportation in any cask, box, or 
 chest, each such cavity shall be cut and sunk, one part thereof 
 on the edge of the lid or cover, and the other on the side of such 
 box or chest, so that each such seal may be conveniently placed 
 by the proper officer of excise, part on the wood of such lid or 
 cover, and the residue on the wood of the side of each such box 
 or chest ; and no drawback shall be paid for any glass not 
 packed in a cask, box, or chest as aforesaid, nor for any glass 
 packed in any box or chest not having a sutlicient number of 
 such cavities : provided that nothing herein shall prohibit the 
 packhig of whole or half tables of spread glass, or of crown 
 glass, or any common bottles made of common bottle metal, 
 in any crate or other package whatsoever. 
 
 Fraudulent Packing. — If any person shall place any brick, 
 stone, or any other heavy substance, other than flint glass, or 
 phial glass, or broad glass, or crown glass, in any cask, box, or 
 chest containing flint glass, &c. packing or packed for export- 
 ation on drawback, the person so offending shall for each such 
 offence forfeit 200/., and all such glass, brick, stone, or other 
 heevy substance contained therein shall be forfeited. — (52 
 3. c. 77. sect. 7.) , ^ 
 
 Any person altering or defacing any marks on any cask, box, 
 &c. containuig glass for exportation, expressing the weight 
 and tare of such cask, &c., or the weight of the glass therein, 
 or the time or place of packing, or the number of the cask, &c., 
 shall for each oflTence forfeit 200/., with the glass. — Sect. 8. 
 
 The officers of excise are to brand or mark every cask, bor, 
 &c. of glass for exportation with the letters E. G. ; and if anj 
 cask, &c. of glass so branded be not put on board within 12 
 hours after the branding thereof, or if any cask, &c. so branded 
 be found on land after 12 months from the time when such glass 
 was packed for exportation, the same shall be forfeited. Any 
 person obliterating, defacing, altering, &c. the aforesaid let- 
 ters, to forfeit 200/ Sect. 9. 
 
 By 5G Geo. 3. c. ICS. it is enacted, that no drawback shall 
 be paid for the exportation of any ground or polished plate 
 glass made in Great Britain, unless such glass be exported in 
 rectangular plates of the size of G inches in length by 4 inches 
 in breadth at the least, and unless each plate of such glass be 
 free from stains and blisters,and be perfect and fit for immediate 
 use, as and for ground and polished plate glass ; and if any 
 person shall pack or ship for exportation on drawback, any 
 plate of plate glass as ground and polished plate glass made 
 m Great Britain, which is not plate glass, or has not been 
 ground and polished, or which shall be foreign glass, or of less 
 dimension or thickness throughout than aforesaid, or shall be 
 stained, or blistered, or imperfect, or not immediately fit for 
 use as ground and polished plate glass, or any other sort of 
 glass with any ground and polished plate glziss, the same, and 
 all the glass therewith, shall be forfeited, and the person so 
 offending shall forfeit for each such package 100/. 
 
 Any person packing for exportation on drawback any un- 
 ground or impolished plate glass of less or greater dimensions 
 m thickness and size inan as last aforesaid, or any foul, im- 
 perfect, or unmerchantable unground or unpolished plate 
 glass, in any package, with or amongst any other kind of 
 glass, the same, and all the glass therewith, shall be forfeited, 
 and the person so offending shall forfeit for each such package 
 100Z._(56 Geo. 3. c. 108. sect. 4.) 
 
 By 17 Geo. 3. c. 39. it is enacted, that if glass shipped- for 
 drawback be fraudulently unshipped or relanded, every person 
 in anywise concerned or assisting in the same shall, over and 
 above all other penalties, forfeit for every such offence 100/. ; 
 and every person knowingly entering any broken orrvaslc glass 
 for exportation upon a drawback shall, exclusive of all other 
 pains and penalties, forfeit 100/. — Sect. 37. 
 
 By 6 Geo. 4. c. 117- it is enacted, that every person shipping 
 or intending to ship, or being about to ship, in Ireland, any 
 plate glass, broad glass, or crown glass, for exportation on 
 drawback, or for the removal thereof to Great Britain, shall 
 give 24 hours' notice of such intention, and of the place of 
 shipping, to the nearest collector or officer of excise ; and such 
 collector and officer are required thereupon to attend, and to 
 cause all such glass to be weighed and measured ; and in case 
 such glass has not been charged with the respective duties 
 under the provisions of-lhis act, and is about to be removed to 
 Great Britain, it shall be lawful for such collector or officer, 
 and he is required to charge all such glass with duty at the 
 respective rates of duty made payable by this act on such sort 
 or kind of glass respectively ; and upon payment of such duty, 
 it shall be lawful for such collector or officer to grant a cer- 
 tificate of the payment of such duty, to accompany such 
 glass upon such removal, and to be produced at the port of 
 entry in Great Britain ; and in case any such glass which shall 
 have been duly charged with the respective duties payable by 
 this act shall be entered for exportation to foreign parts upon 
 drawback, or be sent and removed to (ireat Britain, it shall 
 be lawful for such collector or officer, upon proof that such 
 duties have been paid, or have been charged and duly secured 
 to be paid, to grant a certificate of the payment of such duty, 
 or a certificate that such duty has been charged and is duly 
 secured to be paid, to accompany such glass upon such ex- 
 portation to foreign parts or such removal to Great Britain, 
 and to be there produced as aforesaid ; and if at any time any 
 person shall export or enter for exportation from Ireland, upon 
 drawback, or shall remove or send from Ireland to be brought 
 into Great Britain, or shall bring into Great Britain, any plate 
 glass, broad glass, or crown glass, unaccompanied by such 
 certificate, containing such particulars as aforesaid; or if any 
 person shall refuse to produce such certificate at the port of 
 entry in Great Britain, or shall forge or counterfeit any cer- 
 tificate required m this act, or shall make use of or deliver any 
 false or untrue certificate as and for a certificate required by 
 this act ; all such glass respectively shall be forfeited, and may 
 be seized by any officer of excise, and the person so offending 
 shall forfeit 500/. : provided always, that if any plate glass, 
 broad glass, crown glass, which shall have been previously 
 sent to Ireland from Great Britain, on drawback, shall at any 
 time afterwards be sent or retnoved to Great Britain, the rate 
 of duty to be charged thereon as aforesaid shall be equal and 
 according to the rate of drawback now payable thereon 
 respectively when exported to foreign pcirts. — Sect. 7« 
 
 GLOVES (Ger. Handschuhe ; Fr. Gants ; It. Guanti ; Sp. Guantes ; Rus. Ru-. 
 kawizii, Pertschatki, Golizii), well known articles of dress used for covering the hands, 
 usually made of leather, but frequently also of cotton, wool, silk, &c. The leather used 
 in the manufacture of gloves is not, properly speaking, tanned, but prepared by a peculiar 
 process that renders it soft and pliable. Some sorts of leather gloves admit of being 
 washed, and others not. Woodstock and Worcester, but particularly the former, are 
 celebrated for the manufacture of leather gloves of a superior quality ; in which a great 
 number of women and girls, as well as men, are employed. The produce of the Wor- 
 cester manufacture has been estimated at about 42,000 dozen pairs of oil leather, or beaver 
 gloves ; and 470,000 dozen pairs of kid and lamb-skin gloves ; the value of the whole, 
 when finished, being about 375,000Z. Besides Worcester and Woodstock, London, Yeovil, 
 Ludlow, and Leominster are the principal seats of the leather glove manufacture. Gloves 
 are sometimes sewed by machinery ; but this is done only to improve the work by ren- 
 dering the stitches more correctly equidistant, as it is not cheaper than manual labour. 
 Limerick used to be famous for the manufacture of a sort of ladies' gloves, called chicken 
 gloves. Large quantities of cotton gloves are made at Nottingham and Leicester, 
 
GOLD. — GOMUTI. 
 
 607 
 
 Influence of Repeal of Prohibition of Importation. — The importation of leather gloves and mitts wfia 
 formerly prohibited, under the severest penalties. This prohibition had the eflect, by preventing all 
 competition and emulation with the foreigner, to check improvement, and to render British gloves at 
 once inferior in quahty and high in price. This system was, however, permitted to continue till 182.5, 
 when the prohibition was repealed, and gloves allowed to be iini)ortcd on payment of duties, which, though 
 high, are not prohibitory. This measure was vehemently opposed ; and many predictions were made of 
 the total ruin of the manufacture; but in this, as in every similar instance, experience has shown that 
 the trade had not been really benefited ; but that, on the contrary, it had been injured by the prohibition. 
 The wholesome competition to which the manufacturers now felt themselves, for the first time, exposed, 
 made them exert all their energies ; and it is admitted on all hands, that there has been a more rapid 
 improvement in the manufacture during the last hdf dozen years than in the previous half century. There 
 is still, no doubt, a great deal of complaining of a decay of trade among the leather glove manufacturers ; 
 but we are assured that, if there be any real foundation for their complaints, it is ascribable far more 
 to the growing use of home-made cotton gloves than to the importation of foreign leather gloves ; and had 
 it not been for the improved fabric, and greater cheapness of British leather gloves, that has grown out of 
 the new system, it is abundantly certain that cotton gloves would have gained still more rapidly on them. 
 In point of fact, however, it does not appear that there has been any falling off'in the leather glove trade. 
 On the contrary, the fair inference seems to be that it has materially increased : at all events, there has 
 been a very considerable increase in the number of skins brought from abroad to be used in the manufac- 
 ture, and consequently in the number of pairs of gloves produced from such skins ; and there is no reason 
 for thinking that it is at all different with the other departments. 
 
 Leather gloves must be imported in packages, containing each 100 dozen pairs at least, and in vessels 
 of 70 tons burden or upwards, on penalty of forfeiture. — (7 Geo. 4. c. 48. ^ 7.) 
 
 Account of the Number of Dozen Pairs of Habit Gloves, Men's Gloves, and Women's Gloves and Mitts, 
 imported into the United Kingdom ; the Amount of Duty paid thereon during the \ ears 1828, 1829, and 
 1830 ; and the Rates of Duty. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Habit Gloves. 
 
 Men's Gloves. 
 
 Women's Gloves 
 and Mitts. 
 
 Total Quantity 
 of Leather Gloves 
 and Mitts imported. 
 
 Total Receipt 
 of Duty on Leather 
 Gloves and Mitts. 
 
 \ 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 Rates of duty 
 throughout the 
 whole period - 
 
 Dozen. Pairs. 
 69,564 7 
 45,679 5 
 62,925 10 
 
 4s. per doz. pair. 
 
 Dozen. Pairs. 
 27,668 10 
 23,635 6 
 25,013 3 
 
 55. per doz. pair. 
 
 Dozen. Pairs. 
 3,025 8 
 2,781 6 
 3,187 8 
 
 7*. per doz. pair. 
 
 Dozen. Pairs. 
 
 100,259 1 
 T2,{)96 5 
 91,126 9 
 99,705 5 
 
 126,386 0 
 
 L. 3. d. 
 
 21,653 3 8 
 15,510 15 8 
 19,488 1 7 
 21,848 0 0 
 27,106 0 0 
 
 Account of the Number of Lamb and Kid Skins entered for Home Consumption in the Twelve Years end- 
 ing with 1831, with an Estimate of the Quantity of Gloves which such Skins would produce, on the Sup. 
 position that from each 120 Skins there would be manufactured 18 Dozen Pairs of Gloves. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Number of 
 Lamb Skins- 
 
 Number of 
 Kid Skins. 
 
 Total Lamb 
 and Kid. 
 
 Doz. Gloves 
 produced 
 each Year. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Number of 
 Lamb Skins. 
 
 Number of 
 Kid Skins. 
 
 Total Lamb 
 and Kid. 
 
 Doz. Gloves 
 produced 
 each Year. 
 
 iiiiii 
 
 932,817 
 1,202,029 
 1,908,651 
 1,974,143 
 2,201,295 
 2,098,553 
 
 286,443 
 242,996 
 408,523 
 497,444 
 631,995 
 771,522 
 
 1,219,260 
 1,445,025 
 2,317,174 
 2,471,587 
 2 833,290 
 2,870,075 
 
 182,889 
 216,756 
 347,562 
 370,728 
 424,980 
 430,506 
 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 1,743,778 
 2,749,3;»7 
 2,917,476 
 1,930,390 
 1,859,8.50 
 2,892,934 
 
 575,533 
 640,863 
 904,639 
 698,604 
 1,086,209 
 1,008,307 
 
 2,319,311 
 3,390,260 
 3,822,115 
 2,628,994 
 2,946,059 
 3,901,241 
 
 347,886 
 508,536 
 573,300 
 394,344 
 441,900 
 585,180 
 
 GOLD (Ger. Gold; Du. Goud ; Da. and Sw. Guldj Fr. Or; It. and Sp. Oro; 
 Port. Oiro, Ouro ; Rus. Soloto ; Pol. Zloto ; Lat. Aurum ; Arab. Tihr and Zeheh ; 
 Sans. Swarna ; Malay, Mas), the most precious of all the metals, seems to have been 
 known from the earliest antiquity. It is of an orange red, or reddish yellow colour, 
 and has no perceptible taste or smell. Its lustre is considerable, yielding only to that of 
 platinum, steel, silver, and mercury. It is rather softer than silver. Its specific gravity 
 is 19"3. No other substance is equal to it in ductility and malleability. It may be 
 beaten out into leaves so thin, that one grain of gold will cover 56f square inches. 
 These leaves are only ^mm "^'^^ thick. But the gold leaf with which silver wire 
 
 is covered has only -^^ of that thickness. An ounce of gold upon silver is capable of 
 being extended more than 1,300 miles in length. Its tenacity is considerable, though 
 in this respect it yields to iron, copper, platinum, and silver. From the experiments of 
 Seckingen, it appears that a gold wire 0-078 inch in diameter, is capable of supporting 
 a weight of 150'07 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. It melts at 32° of Wedgwood's 
 pyrometer. When melted, it assumes a bright bluish green colour. It expands in the 
 act of fusion, and consequently contracts while becoming solid more than most metals ; 
 a circumstance which renders it less proper for easting in moulds. — ( T/iomso7i's 
 Chemistry. ) 
 
 For the quantities of gold produced, and the places where it is produced, see Pre- 
 cious Metals. 
 
 GOMUTI, OR EJOO, a species of palm (Borassus Goimitus), growing in the 
 Indian islands. A valuable product is obtained from this palm, resembling hlnck horse 
 hair ; it is found between the trunk and the branches, at the insertion of the latter, in a 
 matted form, interspersed with long, hard, woody twigs of the same colour. When 
 freed from the latter, it is manufactured by the natives into cordage. Its fibres are 
 stronger and more durable, but less pliant, than those of the cocoa nut, or coir — 
 
608 GOOD HOPE, CAPE OF. — GOTTENBURGH. 
 
 (see Coir) ; and is, therefore, fitter for cables and standing rigging, but less fit for running 
 rigging. The native shipping of the Eastern islands of all kinds are chiefly equipped with 
 cordage of the gomuti ; and the largest European shipping in the Indies use cables of it. 
 It undergoes no preparation but that of spinning and twisting ; no material similar to 
 our tar or pitch, indispensable to the preservation of hempen cordage, being necessary 
 with a substance that, in a remarkable degree, possesses the quality of resisting alter- 
 nations of heat and moisture. The gomuti of Amboyna, and the other Spice islands, is 
 the best. That of Java has a coarse ligneous fibre. Gomuti is generally sold in twisted 
 shreds or yarns, often as low as 1 dollar a picul, and seldom more than 2. Were 
 European ingenuity applied to the improvement of this material, there seems little doubt 
 that it might be rendered more extensively useful. — ( Crawfurd's East. Archip. vol. iii. 
 p. 425.) 
 
 GOOD HOPE, CAPE OF. See Cape Town. 
 
 GOTTENBURGH, or, more properly, GOTHABORG, on the south-west coast of 
 Sweden, bordering the Cattegat, near the mouth of the river Gotha, lat. 57° 42' 4" N., 
 Ion. 11° 57' 45" E. Population 21,000 *, and increasing. Vessels do not come close to 
 the city, but lie in the river or harbour at a short distance from the shore, goods being 
 conveyed from and to them by lighters that navigate the canals by which the lower part 
 of the town is intersected. The depth of water in the port is 17 feet, and there is no 
 tide, bar, or shallow. A vessel entering the Gotha must take a pilot on board, whose 
 duty it is to meet her ^ a league west of Wingo beacon. After Stockholm, Gottenburgh 
 has the most extensive commerce of any town in Sweden. Iron and steel, the farmer 
 excellent, but the latter inferior to that made in England, form the principal articles of 
 export. They are brought from the rich mines of Wermeland, distant about 200 miles ; 
 being conveyed partly by the lake Wener, partly by the Trbllhaetta canal — (see Canals), 
 — and partly by the river Giitha. The exports of iron, in 1831, amounted in all to 21,639 
 tons, of which 15,400 tons were taken by the United States, and 4,511 tons by England, 
 The original cost of iron is supposed to be increased about 5 per cent, by the expense of its 
 conveyance to Gottenburgh ; and the shipping charges, inclusive of the export duty, are 
 about 10 per cent, additional. The next great article of export is timber, particularly 
 deals, which are also furnished by Wermeland. Of these, the exports, in 1831, were 
 52,866 dozen, of which 40,600 dozen went to Great Britain, and the residue to 
 France, Holland, &c. The other articles of export are, linen, sail-cloth, tar, copper, 
 alum, glass, cobalt, manganese, linseed, oak bark, bones, juniper berries, cranberries, 
 rock moss for dyeing, &c. Grain is sometimes imported and sometimes exported. The 
 principal articles of import are sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton yarn and twist, salt, indigo, 
 and dye woods, South Sea oil, rice, herrings, wine, spices, &c. In 1831, 529 ships, of the 
 burden of 63,075 tons, entered Gottenburgh. Of these, 68 ships, carrying 16,770 tons, 
 were American ; and 41 ships, carrying 5,131 tons, British. The rest belonged, for the 
 most part, to Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. About 80 vessels, of the burden of 
 14,000 tons, belong to the port ; but the native shipping is decreasing. 
 
 Herring Fishery. — Gottenburgh used, at no distant period, to be one of the principal seats of the 
 herring fishery ; but at present this branch of industry is quite extinct, and it has always been very 
 capricious. From 1556 to 1588, great quantities of herrings were taken ; from 1588 to 1660, they left the 
 coast; during the next 15 years they were again abundant;; but from 1675 to 1747, they entirely disap- 
 peared. From 1747 to 1770, they were abundant, 180,614 barrels being taken in 1763, and 151,483 in 
 1768. From 1786 to 1799, the fishery was very good, from 110,000 to 190,000 barrels being annually 
 exported. In 1804, the export was 79,512 barrels. In 1808 and 1809, fish were very scarce ; and in 1812 
 they entirely disappeared, and have not hitherto returned ; so that Gottenburgh, instead of exporting, 
 at present imports considerable supplies of herrings. 
 
 The customs duties produced, in 1831, 749,732 dollars banco, or 53,552/. Both iron and timber pay 
 duties on exportation, but they are not very heavy. 
 
 Caslom-house Re<rulations and Port Charges. — On arriTing m 
 port, no person is allowed to board or to leave a vessel till she be 
 in custody of the officers ; who, having inspected the manifest 
 and papers, send them to the Custom-house. An officer is ap- 
 pointed to superintend the unloading and also the loading. 
 The public charges of all sorts on a Swedish ship and on a 
 foreign snip not privileged, each of 300 tons burden, unload- 
 ing and loading mixed cargoes at Gottenburgh, would be, 
 on the former 'lil. ds. Id., on the latter 49/. 5*. Id. On a pri- 
 vileged foreign ship the charges are the same as on a Swedish 
 ship- 
 
 Warehousing System. — Goods may be bonded for .iny length 
 of time, on paying i per cent, ad valorem for the first 2 years, 
 3nd j per cent, atmually thereafter. 
 
 Commission, Credit, SfC. - The usual rate of commission is 
 5! per cent. Goods are commonly sold on credit. Haw sugar 
 at 9 months, with 3 months' interest to the seller. Other goods 
 at 3, 4, and 6 montlis. 
 
 Commercinl Policy. — But for the perverse policy of its government, the trade of Gottenburgh, and 
 of Sweden in general, would be far greater than it is. Us rich and cxhaustless mines and forests fur- 
 nish an ample supply of equivalents for whatever might be imported into the country; but instead of 
 allowmg the energies of the nation to be employed in this safe and natural channel, government has 
 attempted, by a system of prohibitions and heavy duties, to raise, coutc qui coute, a manufacturing inter- 
 
 * This is the po ulation as given in the Weimar Almanac for 1832; accerding to the Consul's report 
 it U under 18,000. 
 
 • Banking, cvc — There are no public or private banking esta- 
 blishments at Gottenburgh for the issue of notes ; but the 
 national bank has two offices here which advance limited 
 sums of money, at 5 per cent, on the security of goods, and in 
 discount of bills. Some of the English insurance companies 
 have agents liere, who do a good deal of business. 
 
 Sea Stores, Water, cVc. — These may be had here of excellent 
 quality and cheap. B^^ef i.^d. per lb., best rye bread 2^d. per 
 lb., and butter 6d. per lb. 
 
 Freight to London, in 1832, Iron, 10s. a ton; deals, per 
 Petersburgh standard hundred, '2/. \ 0s. 
 
 Monet/, Weights, Measures, S(C., same as at Stockholm, 
 ■which see. 
 
 In compiling this article, we have made use of the Consul's 
 Answers, dated 19th of January, 1833; Coxe's Travels in tht 
 North of Europe, vol. iv. pp. 267—275. ; Oddy's European Com. 
 merce, p. 314. ; and some valuable private communications. 
 
GRACE, DAYS OF. — GU AIACUM 
 
 609 
 
 est, and to make Sweden independent of foreiRners ! In consequence, a good many cotton and woollc-n 
 mills have been established in different parts of the country. It would, however, be absurd to imagine 
 that they should ever be able to furnish products at so cheap a rate as they may be imported for from 
 this and other countries, enjoying superior facilities for the prosecution of manufacturing industry. 
 This forced system is, therefore, doubly injurious to Sweden ; first, by lessening the foreign demand for 
 her peculiar products, and secondly, by diverting capital and industry into the least productive channels, 
 forcing the inhabitants to pay an artificially enhanced price for some highly necessary articles, and encou- 
 raging smuggling. But, pernicious as the system is, so great a proportion of the scanty capital of Sweden 
 is now embarked under its ffigis, that the return to a better ontcr of things will be a work of much difli- 
 culty. It need not surprise us to learn that the imposition in this country of oppressive discriminating 
 duties on timber from the north of Euroi)e had a material influence in stimulating the Swedes to endeavour 
 to dispense with foreign, that is, with British, manufactured articles ! 
 
 GRACE, DAYS OF. See Exchange. 
 
 GRAPES (Ger. Trauhen ; Fr. Raisins; It. Grappoli, Grappi ; Sp. XJhas, Racimos ; 
 Lat. Uv(b), a well known fruit, produced from the vine. France, Spain, Portugal, and 
 Italy, as well as some parts of Germany and Hungary, produce grapes which yield wines 
 of various qualities and flavour, many of them excellent. We import green ^grapes from 
 Malaga and some other parts of Spain ; they are brought packed in jars, and secured from 
 damage by means of saw-dust, plentifully strewed between the layers of fruit. The grapes 
 grown in Great Britain in the open air are much smaller, and by no means so luscious, as 
 those of foreign countries ; but those raised in hot-houses are quite equal, if not superior, 
 to the former. Grapes are imported not only in their natural state, but dried and pre- 
 served, in which latter state they are denominated Raisins ; which see. 
 
 GRINDSTONES, flat circular stones of different diameters and thickness, mounted 
 on spindles or axles, and made to revolve with different degrees of velocity, employed to 
 polish steel articles, to give an edge to cutting instruments, &c. Grindstones not in constant 
 use are commonly turned by winch handles ; but at Sheffield and other places, where 
 polished articles and cutlery are extensively manufactured, large numbers of grindstones, 
 being mounted in buildings appropriated to that purpose, called grind or blade mills, 
 are turned by straps, acting on their axles, the moving power being either water or 
 steam. The stone best suited to form grindstones is what is called a sharp-grit ; it 
 being chosen finer or coarser grained according to the purposes for which they are 
 destined. The principal grindstone quarry in England is at Gateshead Fell, in the 
 county of Durham ; where they are produced in vast numbers, not only for home use, 
 but for exportation to all parts of the world. But those principally in use at Sheffield 
 are mostly quarried at Wicker sley, in Yorkshire. 
 
 They are classed in eight different sizes, called foots, according to their dimensions, as in the fol- 
 lowing Table : — 
 
 Denominations. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 No. in a Chaldron. 
 
 Denominations. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 No. in a Clialdron- 
 
 1 Foot 
 
 2 Foots 
 
 3 Foots 
 
 4 Foots 
 
 Inches. 
 10 
 14 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 ItKhm. 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 27 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 5 Foots 
 
 6 Foots 
 Y Foots 
 8 Foots 
 
 Inchet. 
 
 35 
 42 
 50 
 56 
 
 Inches. 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 1» 
 
 A grindstone foot is 8 inches : the size is found by adding the diameter and thickness together. 
 Thus, a stone 55 inches diameter by 8 thick, making together 64 inches, is an 8-foot stone, of 8 inches 
 each foot. 
 
 Besides the above sizes, grindstones are made, when ordered, of any intermediate dimensions : many 
 are made much larger than any of the above sizes ; some as large as 76 inches diameter, and 14 or 15 
 inches thick, which are a great weight, a cubic foot weighing 1 cwt. 1 qr. 14 lbs. — {Rees's Cyclopcedia s 
 Bailey's Survey of Durham, p. 43.) 
 
 Grinding is an unhealthy and dangerous employment. For some purposes, the stones are made to 
 revolve with an extreme degree of velocity ; which makes them occasionally fly in pieces. But the 
 greatest annoyance to which the grinder is exposed, is from his inhaling the minute particles of stone, 
 and of iron and steel, that are always flying about, particularly in the process termed dry grinding. 
 Contrivances have been suggested for obviating this serious inconvenience ; but whether it be owing to 
 their unsuitableness, or to the carelessness of the workmen, none of them has succeeded in practice.— 
 {Treatise on Iron and Steel, Lardner's Cyclopedia, p. 293.) 
 
 GUAIACUM, OR LIGNUM VITiE (Fr. Gayac, Bois saint : Ger. Pockhaln ; It. 
 Guajaco ; Lat. Guaiacum, Lignum vitcB ; Sp. Guagaco), the wood of a tree, a native of 
 Jamaica, Hayti, and the warmer parts of America. It is a dark-looking evergreen, 
 growing to from 40 to 50 feet in height, and from 14 to 18 inches in diameter. The 
 bark is hard, smooth, and brittle ; the wood is externally yellowish, and internally of a 
 blackish brown colour. Lignum vitaa is the weightiest timber with which we are ac- 
 quainted, its specific gravity being 1'333. It is exceedingly hard, and difficult to work. 
 It can hardly be split, but breaks into pieces like a stone, or crystallised metal. It is 
 full of a resinous juice (^guaiac), which prevents oil or water from working into it, and 
 renders it proof against decay. Its weight and hardness make it the very best timber 
 for stampers and mallets ; and it is admirably adapted for the sheaves or pulleys of blocks, 
 and for friction rollers or castors. It is extensively used by turners. 
 
 The guaiac, or gum, spontaneously exudes from the tree, and concretes in very pure 
 tears. It is imported in casks or mats ; the former containing from 1 to 4 cwt., the latter 
 generally less than 1 cwt. each. Its colour differs considerably, being partly brownish, 
 partly reddish, and partly greenish ; and it always becomes green when left exposed to 
 
 2 li 
 
610 
 
 GUERNSEY. — GUMS. 
 
 the light in the open air. It has a certain degree of transparency, and breaks with a vi- 
 treous fracture. When pounded, it emits a pleasant balsamic smell, but has scarcely any 
 taste, although when swallowed it excites a burning sensation in the throat. When heated, 
 it melts, diffusing, at the same time, a pretty strong fragrant odour. Its specific gravity 
 is 1*229. — (See Veget. Sub., Lib. of Entert. Knowledge ; Thomson's Chemistry, ^c.) 
 
 GUERNSEY. For the peculiar regulations to be observed in trading with Guern- 
 •sey, Jersey, &c., see Importation and Exportation. 
 
 GUMS, RESINS, GUM-RESINS. In commerce, the term gum is not only 
 applied to gums properly so called, but also to resins and gum-resins. But though 
 these substances have many properties in common, they are yet sufficiently distinct. 
 
 I. Gum is a thick transparent fluid that issues spontaneously from certain species of 
 plants, particularly such as produce stone fruit, as plum and cherry trees. It is very 
 adhesive, and gradually hardens by exposure to the atmosphere. It is usually obtained 
 in small pieces, like tears, moderately hard and somewhat brittle while cold ; so that it 
 can be reduced by pounding to a fine powder. When pure, it is c(»lourless : but it has 
 commonly a yellowish tinge ; it is not destitute of lustre ; it has no smell ; its taste is 
 insipid; its specific gravity varies from 1 '31131 to 1-4317 ; it readily dissolves in water, 
 but is insoluble in alcohol. Gum is extensively used in the arts, particularly in calico 
 printing, to give consistence to the colours, and to hinder them from spreading. It is 
 also used in painting, in the manufacture of ink, in medicine, &c. 
 
 The only important gums, in a commercial point of view, are gum Arabic and gum 
 Senegal. 
 
 1. Gum Arabic (Vr. Gomme Arabique ; It. Gomma Arabica ; Ger. Arabische gummi ; 
 Arab. Tolh), the produce of the Acacia vera, a tree growing in Arabia, and in many 
 parts of Africa. The gum exudes naturally from the trunk and branches, and hardens 
 by exposure to the air. " The more sickly the tree appears, the more gum it yields ; 
 and the hotter the weather, the more prolific it is. A wet winter and a cool or mild 
 summer are unfavourable to gum." — (^Jackson's Morocco, p. 84.) It is in irregularly 
 shaped pieces,'hard, brittle, and semi-transparent. When pure it is almost colourless, 
 or of a pale yellowish Ime ; being insipid, inodorous, and dissolving completely in the 
 mouth. Specific gravity 1*31 to 1*43. It is often mixed with gum Senegal. East 
 India gum Arabic is, though a useful, a spurious article, not being the produce of the 
 acacia vera, but of other species of plants. The best gum is either imported direct 
 from Alexandria, Smyrna, Tripoli, Mogadore, Tangiers, &c., or at second hand from 
 them through Gibraltar, Malta, and the Italian ports. The price depends principally 
 on its whiteness and solubility, increasing and diminishing, according as the article has 
 more or less of these qualities. — ( Thomson's Dispensatory, and private information. ) 
 
 At an average of the 3 years ending with 1831, the gum Arabic entered for consumption amounted 
 to 13,574 cwt. a year. Previously to last year (1832), the duty on gum Arabic from a British possession 
 was 6s. a cwt, and from other^parts 12*. ; but the duty on it and all other gums is now fixed at 6s. 
 a cwt. without regard to origin. Of 7,784 cwt. of gum Arabic imported in 1830, Tripoli, Barbary, and 
 Morocco furnished 2,063; Egypt, 579; Gibraltar, 1,587 ; Italy, 1,0U7; Malta, 36*/; the East Indies, 1,962, 
 &c. The reduction of the duty on foreign gum will most probably occasion an increase of the imports 
 from the Rlediterranoan and Mogadore. The price of gum Arabic in bond in the London market 
 was, in December, 1853, — East India, from Sis. to 6Ss. per cwt. ; Turkey, from 100s. to 211s. per do. ; 
 and Barbary, from^50s. to IGOs. per do. 
 
 2. Gum Semgal, principally brought from the island of that name on the coast of Africa, 
 is obtained from various trees, but chiefly from two : one called Vereck, which yields a 
 white gum^; the other called Nebuel, which yields a red gum ; varieties of the acacia 
 gummifera. Gum Arabic is very often mixed with gum Senegal. The latter is nearly 
 as pure as the former, but it is usually in larger masses, of a darker colour, and more 
 clammy and tenacious. It is the sort of gum principally employed by calico printers. 
 It was worth, in December, 1833, duty (6s.) paid, from 75s. to 78s. a cwt. — ( Thomson's 
 Chemistry, Thomson's Dispensatory, Ainslie's Materia Indica, 8f-c.) 
 
 II. Resins, for the most part, exude spontaneously from trees, though they are often 
 obtained by artificial wounds, and are not uncommonly, at first, combined with volatile 
 oil, from which they are separated by distillation. They are solid substances, naturally 
 brittle ; have a certain degree of transparency, and a colour most commonly inclining to 
 yellow. Their taste is more or less acrid, and not imlike that of volatile oils ; but they 
 have no smell, unless they happen to contain some foreign body. They are all heavier 
 than water, their specific gravity varying from l-018i2 to 1'1862. They diflPer from 
 gums in being insoluble in water, whether cold or hot ; while they are, with a few 
 ejjiicptions, soluble in alcohol, especially when assisted by heat. When heated, they 
 melt ; and if the heat be increased, they take fire, burning with a strong yellow flame, 
 and emitting a vast quantity of smoke. Common rosin funiLshcs a very perfect example 
 of a resin, and it is from this substance that the whole genus have derived their name. 
 Rosin is, indeed, frequently denominated resin. The principal resins arc Animi, Elemi, 
 Copal, Lac, Lahdanum, Mastic, Rosin, Sandarach, T'acamahac, &c. ; which see, under 
 their respective name?;. — (Thomson's Chemistry.) 
 
GUNPOWDER. 
 
 611 
 
 III. Gum-restns, a class of vegetable substances consisting of gum and resin. They 
 dlflfer from resins in this — that they never exude spontaneously from the plant, being 
 obtained either by bruising the parts containing them, and expressing the juice, wliich 
 is always in a state of emulsion, generally white, but sometimes of a different colour, or 
 by making incisions in the plant, from which the juice flows. The juice, being ex[)osed 
 to the action of the sun, is condensed and inspissated, till it forms the gum-resin of 
 commerce. Gum-resins are usually opaque, or, at least, their transparency is inferior to 
 that of resins. They are always solid, and most commonly brittle, and have, sometimes, 
 a fatty appearance. When heated, they do not melt as resins do ; neither are they so 
 combustible. Heat, however, commonly softens them, and causes them to swell. They 
 burn with a flame. They have almost always a strong smell, which, in several instances, 
 is alliaceous. Their taste, also, is often acrid, and ahvays much stronger than tJiat 
 of resins. They are usually heavier than resins. They are partially soluble in water, 
 but the solution is always opaque, and usually milky. Alcohol partially dissolves them, 
 the solution being transparent. 
 
 The most common gum-resins are Aloes, Ammonia, Euphorhium, Galbanum, Gamlof/e, 
 Myrrh, Olibanum, Sagapenum, Scammony, &c. ; which see, under their respective names. 
 — (^LoudorCs Ency. of Agricult. ; Thomson's Chemistry.) 
 
 GUNPOWDER (Ger. Puher, Schiesspulver Du. Bushruid ; Da. Krudt, Pnlver ; 
 Sw. Krtd ; Fr. Poudre It. Polvere ,• Sp. and Port. Polvora ; Rus. Poroch ; Pol. Proch ; 
 Lat. Pulvis pyrius). This well known inflammable powder is composed of nitre, 
 sulphur, and charcoal, reduced to powder, and mixed intimately with each other. The 
 proportion of the ingredients varies very considerably ; but good gunpowder may be 
 composed of the following proportions; viz. 76 parts of nitre, 15 of charcoal, and 9 of 
 sulphur. These ingredients are first reduced to a fine powder separately, then mixed 
 intimately, and formed into a thick paste with water. After this has dried a little, it is 
 placed upon a kind of sieve full of holes, through which it is forced. By this process it 
 is divided into grains, the size of which depends upon the size of the holes through which 
 they have been squeezed. The powder, when dry, is put into barrels, which are made 
 to turn round on their axis. By this motion the grains of gunpowder rub against each 
 other, their asperities are worn off, and their surfaces are made smooth. The powder is 
 then said to be glazed. — ( Thomson's Chemistry.) 
 
 Dr. Thomson, whose learning is equal to his science, has the following remarks with 
 respect to the introduction of gunpowder into warlike operations : — *' The discoverer of 
 this compound, and the person who first thought of applying it to the purposes of war, 
 are unknown. It is certain, however, that it was used in the fourteenth century. From 
 certain archives quoted by Wiegleb, it appears that cannons were employed in Germany 
 before the year 1372. No traces of it can be found in any European author previously 
 to the thirteenth century ; but it seems to have been known to the Chinese long before 
 that period. There is reason to believe that cannons were used in the battle of Cressy, 
 which was fought in 1346. They seem even to have been used three years earlier, at 
 the siege of Algesiras ; but before this time they must have been known in Germany, as 
 there is a piece of ordnance at Amberg, on which is -inscribed the year 1303. Roger 
 Bacon, who died in 1292, knew the properties of gunpowder; but it does not follow 
 that he was acquainted with its application to fire-arms." — ( Thomson's Chemistry.) For 
 further particulars as to the introduction of cannon, see that article. 
 
 The manufacture and sale of gunpowder is regulated by several statutes. By the 12 Geo. 3. c. fil. it is 
 enacted, that no person shall use mills or other engines for making gunpowder, or manufacture the same 
 in any way, except in mills and other places which were actually in existence at the time of j)asping the 
 act, or which, if erected afterwards, have been sanctioned by a licence, under pain of forfeiting the gun- 
 powder, and 2s. a pound. It is further enacted, that no mill worked by a pestle, and usually termed a 
 pestle mill, shall be used in making gunpowder, under the above-mentioned penalty ; and that no more 
 than 40 lbs. of gunpowder, or materials to be made into gunpowder, shall be made at any one time under 
 a single pair of mill-stones, on pain of forfeiting all above 40 lbs., and 2s. for everj' pound ; nor shall more 
 than 40 cwt. be dried in any one stove or place at any one time, under forfeiture of all above that quantity, 
 and 2*. for every pound thereof. The powder mills erected at Battle, Crowhurst, Saddlescombe, anVi 
 Brede, in Sussex, previously to 1772, are exempted from the above regulations so far as relates to the 
 making of fine fowling powder. 
 
 No dealer is to keep more than 200 lbs. of powder, nor any person not a dealer, more than 50 lbs., in the 
 cities of London or Westminster, or within 3 miles thereof, or within any other city, borough, or market 
 town, or 1 mile thereof, or within 2 miles of the king's palaces or magazines, or | a mile of any parish 
 church, on pain of forfeiture, and 2s. per lb. ; except in licensed miUs, or to the amount of 300 lbs. for the 
 use of collieries, within 200 yards of them. 
 
 Not more than 25 barrels are to be carried by any land carriage, nor more than 200 barrels by water, 
 unless going by sea or coastwise, each barrel not to contain more than 100 lbs. 
 
 All vessels, except his Majesty's, coming into the Thames, are to put on shore, at or below Blackwall, 
 all the gunpowder they have on board exceeding 25 lbs. Vessels outward bound are not to receive on 
 board more than 25 lbs. of gunpowder previously to their arrival at Blackwall. The Trinity House have 
 authority to appoint searchers to inspect ships, and search for gunpowder. All the gunpowder found 
 above 25 lbs., and the barrels containing it, and 2s. for every lb. above that quantity, are forfeited. Any 
 person obstructing an oHiccr searching for concealed gunpowder is liable to a penalty of 10/. The places 
 of deposit for gunpowder are regulated by the 54 Geo. 3. c. 159. 
 
 The exportation of gunpowder may be proliibited by order in council. Its importation is prohibited on 
 pain of forfeiture, except by licence from his Majesty; such licence to be granted for furnishing his Ma- 
 jesty's stores only. — (6 Geo. 4. c. 107-) 
 
 2 R 2 
 
612 
 
 GUNNY. — HALIFAX. 
 
 The act 1 Will. 4. c. 44. prohibits the manufacture and keeping of gunpowder in Ireland by any person 
 wlio has not obtained a licence from the Lord Lieutenant ; such licences may be suspended on notice from 
 the chief secretary, and any one selling gunpowder during the suspension of such licence shall forfeit 
 500/. Gunpowder makers under this act are to return monthly accounts of their stock, &c. to the chief 
 secretary. This act, which contains a variety of restrictive clauses, was limited to one year's duration, 
 but has been j)rolonged. 
 
 GUNNY (Hi ad. Tdt; Ben. Guni), a strong coarse sackcloth manufactured in 
 Bengal for making into bags, sacks, and packing generally, answering at once the two 
 purposes for which canvass and bast are used in Europe. The material from which this 
 article is manufactured, is the fibre of two plants of the genus Corchorus ; viz. Corchorus 
 olitorius, and Corchorus capsularis (Bengali, pat)', both, but particularly the first, 
 extensively cultivated throughout Lower Bengal. Besides a large domestic consumption 
 of gunny, the whole rice, paddy, wheat, pulses, sugar, and saltpetre of the country, as 
 well as the pepper, coffee, and other foreign produce exported from Calcutta, are packed 
 in bags or sacks made of this article. There is also a considerable exportation of manu- 
 factured bags, each commonly capable of containing two maunds, or about 160 lbs. 
 weight, to Prince of Wales Island, Malacca, Singapore, Java, and Bombay. In 1828-29, 
 the number exported from Calcutta was 2,205,206, of the value of 166,109 sicca rupees, 
 or about 1 6,000Z. sterling, showing the price of each sack to be less than 2d. — ( Wallich ; 
 Roxburgh; BelVs Review of the Ecsternal Commerce of Bengal.) 
 
 GYPSUM, OR SULPHATE OF LIME, is found in various parts of the Con- 
 tinent, and in Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire. When reduced to a powder, and 
 formed into a paste with water, it is termed plaster of Paris, and is much used for form- 
 ing casts, &c. It is also used for laying floors ; and has been advantageously employed 
 as a manure. 
 
 H. 
 
 HAIR, Human (Ger. Haare, Menschen-haar ; Du. Hair ; Fr. Cheveux ; It. CapeUi 
 vtnani ; Sp. Cabellos ; Lat. Capilli). " Human hair makes a very considerable article 
 in commerce, especially since the mode of perruques has obtained. Hair of the growth of 
 the northern countries, as England, &c., is valued much beyond that of the more southern 
 ones, as Italy, Spain, the southern parts of France, &c. Good hair is well fed, and 
 neither too coarse nor too slender ; the bigness rendering it less susceptible of the arti- 
 ficial curl, and disposing it rather to frizzle ; and the smallness making its curl of too 
 short duration. Its length should be about 25 inches ; the more it falls short of this, 
 the less value it bears." — {Ency. Brit.) 
 
 Hair of Beasts (Ger. Haare, Huhaare ; Du. Hair; Fr. Foil; It. and Sp. Pelo ; 
 Lat. Pelles). The hair of horses is extensively used in the manufacture of chairs, sofas, 
 saddles, &c. ; while the hair or wool of beavers, hares, rabbits, &c. is much employed iit 
 the manufacture of hats, &c. 
 
 HAIR- POWDER (Ger. Puder ; Fr. Poudre d poudrer ; It. Polvere di cipri ; Sp. 
 Polvos de peluca), is used as an ornament for the hair, and generally made from starch 
 pulverised, and sometimes perfumed. A tax of IZ. 3s. 6d. a year is laid upon all persons 
 who wear hair-powder. Different statutes prohibit the mixing of hair-powder with starch 
 or alabaster. And hair-powder makers are prohibited having alabaster in their custody. 
 
 HALIFAX, the capital of Nova Scotia, on the south-east coast of that province, 
 lat. 44^ 36' N., Ion. 63° 28' W. It is situated on a peninsula on the west side of Che- 
 bucto Bay, and has one of the finest harbours in America. Population, exclusive of the 
 military, about 18,000. The town is irregularly built, and most of the houses are of 
 wood. The government-house is one of the most splendid edifices in North America. 
 Halifax was founded in 1749. 
 
 Port. — The best mark in sailing for Halifax is Sambro light-house, on a small island off the cape of the 
 same name, on the west side of the entrance to the harbour, in lat. 44° .30', Ion. 63° 32'. The light, which 
 is fixed, is 210 feet above the level of the sea ; and a detachment of artillery, with two 24-pounders, is upon 
 duty at the light-house, firing at regular intervals during the continuance of the dense fogs with which 
 this part of the coast is very much infested — {Coulter, Tables des Principales Positions Giographiques, 
 p. 78.) The course into the harbour for large ships, after passing Sambro light, is between the main land 
 on the west and Macnab's Island on the east. On a spit projecting from the latter, a light-house has re- 
 cently been constructed ; and when this is seen, ships may run in without fear. The harbour is defended 
 by several pretty strong forts. Ships usually anchor abreast of the town, where the harbour is ratlier more 
 than a mile in width. After gradually narrowing to about ^ of that width, it suddenly expands into a 
 noble Blieet of water, called Bedford Basin, completely land-locked, with deep water throughout, and ca- 
 pable of accommodating the whole navy of Great Britain. The harbour is accessible at all times, and is 
 rarely impeded by ice. There is an extensive royal dockyard at Halifax ; which during war is an im- 
 portant naval station, being particularly well calculated for the shelter, repair, and outfit of the fleets 
 cruising on the American coast and in the West Indies. Mr. M'Gregor has severely, and, we believe, 
 justly, censured the project for the removal of the dockyard from Halifax to Bermuda. 
 
 Trade, Sfc. of Halifax and Nova Scotia — Halifax is the seat of a considerable fishery ; but the British 
 colonists seem to be, for what reason it is not easy to say, both less enterprising and less successful fishers than 
 tlie Now Englanders. The principal trade of the town and province is with the West Indies, Great Britain, 
 and the United States. To the former they export dried and pickled fish, lumber, coals, grindstonea. 
 
HAMS. 
 
 613 
 
 cattle, llour, butter, cheese, oats, potatoes, &c. They export the same articles to the southern ports of the 
 United States, and gypsum to the eastern ports of New England. To Great Britain they send timber, 
 deals; whale, cod, and seal oil; furs, 8iC. The principal exports of timber are from Pictou on the St 
 Lawrence. The imports consist principally of colonial produce from the West Indies ; all sorts of inanu- 
 factured goods from Great Hritain ; and of flour, lumber, &c. from the United States, principally lor ex. 
 portation to the West Indies. 
 
 The government packets sail regularly once a month from Halifax to Fahnouth ; but packet ships to 
 Liverpool have recently been established, which are, in all respects, superior to the former. 'J here are 
 also regular packets from Halifax to Boston, New York, and the West Indies. A steam-boat plies con- 
 stantly between Halifax and the little town of Dartmouth, on the opposite side of the harbour. 
 
 In 1826 a company was formed for making a canal across the country from Halifax to the basin of Minaa, 
 which unites with the bottom of the Bay of Fundy. The navigation is formed, for the most part, by Shu- 
 benacadie lake and river. The legislature gave 15,000/. to this undertaking; but it has not hitherto been 
 completed, 'i'he excavated part of the canal is CO feet wide at top, 36 feet at bottom, and is intended to 
 admit vessels drawing 8 feet water. It seems very questionable whether this canal will be profitable to the 
 shareholders j but tliere can be no doubt that it would, if finished, be of considerable service to the trade 
 of Halifax. 
 
 There are 2 private banking companies at Plalifax. Accounts are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence, 
 the same as in England, and the weights and measures are also the same. 
 
 About 100 large square-rigged vessels, and about the same number of large schooners, with several 
 smaller craft, belong to Halifax. 
 
 The total revenue of Nova Scotia for the year 1831, including balances and arrears, was 85,018/. ; the 
 expenditure during the same year, exclusive of that incurred on account of the garrison, being Lf4,87fi/. 
 
 We borrow from the valuable work of Mr. M'Gregor the following statements as to the trade of Nova 
 Scotia in 1832 : — 
 
 Produce of the Fisheries exported in the Year ending 5th of 
 January, 1833. 
 
 160,640 cwt. dry fish, at 10s. - - 
 37,154 barrels pickltd fish, at I5s. 
 8,641 boxes smoked herrings, at 3s. 
 704 tuns oil, at 201. 
 51,918 seal skins, at - - - 
 
 Total 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 80,320 0 0 
 27,865 10 0 
 
 1,296 3 0 
 14,080 0 0 
 
 3,893 17 0 
 
 127,455 10 0 
 
 Produce of Agriculture. 
 
 Barley and oats, 3,478 bushels, at 24. 
 Potatoes and turnips, 64,712, at 1*. 6d. - 
 Oatmeal, 7 barrels, at 20s. 
 Flax-seed, 10 bushels - - - 
 Homed cattle, horses, sheep, and swine, 
 926, value - - . - 
 Butter, cheese, and lard, 85,724 lbs., value 
 Cranberries, 496 gallons 
 Apples, 260 barrels 
 
 Beef and pork, 434 barrels ... 
 
 Total 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 347 16 0 
 4,853 12 0 
 7 0 0 
 2 10 0 
 
 4,630 0 0 
 4,286 4 0 
 24 6 0 
 130 0 0 
 1,302 0 0 
 
 15,583 8 0 
 
 Produce of the Mines, exported. 
 
 Coals, 12,020 chaldrons, at 25*. 
 
 Ditto, from Cape Breton, 50,677 chaldrons 
 
 Gypsum, 45,508 toi\s, at lOi. 
 
 L)itto, from Cape Breton, 628J tons 
 
 Grindstones, 19,240, at 30j. 
 
 Total 
 
 L. «. (I. 
 
 15,025 0 O 
 
 38,371 15 0 
 
 22,754 0 0 
 
 318 5 0 
 
 28,860 0 0 
 
 105,329 0 0 I 
 
 Produce of the Forests. 
 
 Square timber, 38,191 tons, at 15». 
 Deals and inch boards, 9,984,000 - 
 Latliwood, 228 loads 
 
 Sta-es, 2,714,000 - - - - 
 Shingles, 3,042,000 
 
 Handspikes, 2,300 - . . - 
 Oars, poles, &c., 3,894 
 Masts and spars, 642 - - - 
 
 Hoops, 228,150 
 
 Value of timber shipped from Cape Breton 
 Total 
 
 e. d. 
 
 29,643 6 
 
 24,280 0 
 
 228 0 
 
 7i,'jr.\) 0 0 
 
 2,281 10 0 
 
 115 0 0 
 
 45 0 0 
 
 2U0 0 0 
 
 114 1 5 
 
 1,972 0 0 
 
 0 I 
 
 62,447 16 3 
 
 The balance of exports consists of various articles, transhipped, principally West India produce, let 
 from China, &c. 
 
 Account of Vessels entered inwards in the Port of Halifax and Nova Scotia generally, in the Year end- 
 ing 5th of January, 1833 ; and of those cleared outwards from the same. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Inwards. 
 
 Outwards. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Wen. ' 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 110 
 
 17,454 
 
 2,317 
 
 104 
 
 25,429 
 
 1,174 
 
 Bordeaux - 
 
 2 
 
 254 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 Oporto 
 
 1 
 
 160 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 112 
 
 6 
 
 Guernsey and Jersey 
 
 3 
 
 379 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
 Smyrna - - 
 
 2 
 
 251 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 Memel - - - 
 
 4 
 
 992 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 289 
 
 27,023 
 
 1,563 
 
 292 
 
 27,430 
 
 1,724 
 
 Petersburgh 
 
 1 
 
 227 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 British N. A. colonies 
 
 1,046 
 
 63,945 
 
 3,784 
 
 1,104 
 
 69,166 
 
 4,048 
 
 Azores and Madeira 
 
 2 
 
 187 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 350 
 
 19 
 
 Malaga and Gibraltar 
 
 7 
 
 834 
 
 46 
 
 2 
 
 237 
 
 13 
 
 Foreign vessels from India 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 or Europe 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 150 
 
 13 
 
 United States, British vessels 
 
 397 
 
 31,443 
 
 1,559 
 
 598 
 
 31,666 
 
 1,598 
 
 Ditto, foreign vessels 
 
 77 
 
 7,921 
 
 413 
 
 75 
 
 9,549 
 
 461 
 
 Brazil 
 
 6 
 
 1,881 
 
 98 
 
 10 
 
 1,.584 
 
 82 
 
 Mauritius • 
 
 1 
 
 187 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 Canton . _ - 
 
 1 
 
 594 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 Africa - " - 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 90 
 
 
 Rio Janeiro - 
 
 1 
 
 151 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 Havannah 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 191 
 
 11 
 
 Totals 
 
 1,950 
 
 163,385 
 
 9,973 
 
 1,995 
 
 166,047 
 
 9,162 
 
 (See M'Gre^or's British America, 2d ed. vol i. p. 481. 483. &a; Moorsom's Letters from Nova Scotia, 
 passim ; Papers laid before the Finance Committee, ifc.) 
 
 HAMS (Ger. Schinken; Du. Hammen ; Fr. Jambons j It, Prosciutti ; Sp, Jaynones ; 
 llus. Okorokii), the thighs of the hog salted and dried. York, Hants, Wilts, and Cum- 
 berland, in England, and Dumfries and Galloway in Scotland, are the counties mobt 
 famous for producing fine hams. Those of Ireland are comparatively coarse and without 
 flavour. — (See Bacon.) The hams of Portugal, Westphalia, and Virginia, are ex- 
 (luisitely flavoured, and axe in high estimation. The imports of bacon and hams, prii> 
 
 *2 R 3 
 
614 
 
 HAMBURGH. 
 
 cipally the latter, amount to about 1,350 cwt. a year. The duty is very heavy, being 
 no less than 28s. a cwt. 
 
 HAMBURGH, a free Hanseatic city, on the north bank of the river Elbe, about 70 
 miles from its mouth, in lat. 53° 32' 51" N., Ion. 9° 58' 37" E. Population, 125,000. 
 Hamburgh is the greatest commercial city of Germany, and, perhaps, of the Continent. 
 She owes this distinction principally to her situation. The Elbe, which may be navi- 
 gated by lighters as far as Prague, renders her the entrepot of a vast extent of country. 
 Advantage, too, has been taken of natural facilities that extend still further her internal 
 navigation ; a water communication having been established, by means of the Spree and 
 of artificial cuts and sluices, between the Elbe and the Oder, and between the latter and 
 the Vistula ; so that a considerable part of the produce of Silesia destined for foreign 
 
 markets, and some even of that of Poland, is conveyed to Hamburgh (See Canals.) 
 
 There is, also, a communication by means of a canal with the Trave, and, consequently, 
 mth. Lubeck and the Baltic, by which the necessity of resorting to the difficult and 
 dangerous navigation of the Sound is obviated. Vessels drawing 14 feet water come up 
 to the town at all times ; and vessels drawing 18 feet may come safely up with the spring 
 tides. The largest vessels sometimes load from and unload into lighters at Cuxhaven. ' 
 The trade of Hamburgh embraces every article that Germany either sells to or buys 
 from foreigners. The exports principally consist of linens, grain of all sorts, wool and 
 woollen cloths, leather, flax, glass, iron, copper, smalts, rags, staves, wooden clocks and toys, 
 Rhenish wines, spelter, &c. Most sorts of Baltic articles, such as grain, flax, iron, pitch and 
 tar, wax, &c., may generally be bought as cheap at Hamburgh, allowing for difference of 
 freight, as in the ports whence they were originally brought. The imports consist prin- 
 cipally of sugar ; coffee, which is the favourite article for speculative purchases ; cotton wool, 
 stuffs, and yarn ; tobacco, hides, indigo, wine, brandy, rum, dye woods, tea, pepper, &c. 
 Being brought from many different places, there is a great variety of quality in the grain 
 found at Hamburgh ; but a large proportion of the wheat is inferior. Some of the barley 
 is very good, and fit for malting. The oats are feed of various qualities. The customs 
 revenue is found to amount, one year with another, to from 30,000Z. to 35,000^. The 
 rate may, perhaps — (see post), be taken, on imports and exports, at a rough average, at 
 5s. 3c?. per cent., which would give, at a medium, 12,380,000/. a year for the value of 
 the trade in articles subjected to duties ; and adding 2,000,000/. for the trade in articles 
 exempted from duties, we have 14,380,000/. as the total annual value of the import and 
 export trade of the port ! And, as the largest portion of this immense trade is in our 
 hands, it will be necessary that we should be a little fuller than ordinary in our details 
 as to this great emporium. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept at Hamburgh in marcs, divided into 16 sols or schillings lubs, and the 
 schilling into 12 pfenings lubs. 
 
 Accounts are also kept, particularly in exchanges, in pounds, schillings, and pence Flemish. The pound 
 consisting of 2| crowns, 3f thalers, 7^ marcs, 20 schillings Flemish, and ?A0 grotes Flemish. 
 
 The monies in circulation at Hamburgh are divided into banco and current money. The former con- 
 sists of the sums inscribed in the books of the bank opposite to the names of those who have deposited 
 specie or bullion in the bank. Banco is intrinsically worth about 23 per cent, more than currency, but 
 the agio '\s, constantly varying. — (For an account of the Bank of Hamburgh, see Banks (Foreign).) 
 
 Of the coins in circulation at Hamburgh, the rixdollar banco and the rixdollar current are the most 
 common. The weight of the former is not uniform ; but Dr. Kelly estimates it, at a medium, at 391*6 
 Eng. grains pure silver = 4s. 6Jrf, The current rixdoUar = 318 3 grains = 3s. 8|rf. very nearly. The Ham- 
 burgh gold ducat = 9s. 4d. 
 
 Taking the mean value of the rixdollar banco at 54p. sterling, it follows, that \l. sterling = 13 marcs 
 27 schillings banco, or 1^. sterling =; 35s. \d. Flemish banco. No fixed par of exchange can, however, be 
 established between London and Hamburgh, on account of the fluctuation of banco. \l. sterl. = 16 marcs 
 2 schillings Hamburgh currency, or 1 marc current = 14 8£?. sterL — (^Kelly's Cambist, Hamburgh.) 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The commercial weights are, 
 
 2 Loths = 1 Ounce. | 14 Pounds = 1 Lispound. I 2| Centners = 1 Shippound. 
 16 Ounces =: 1 Pound. | 8 Lispounds = 1 Centner. | 
 
 100 Hamburgh pounds = 106-8 lbs. avoirdupois = 129-81bs. Troy = 48"43 kilogrammes = 98 lbs. of Am- 
 sterdam. A stone of flax is 20 lbs. A stone of wool or feathers is 10 lbs. 
 
 In estimating the carriage of goods, the shippound is reckoned at 380 lbs. 
 
 The measures for liquids are, 
 
 2 Oessels = 1 Quartier. I 2 Stubgens = 1 Viertel. I 6 Ahms or ■) _ , p.,, 
 
 2 Quartiers = 1 Kanen. 4 Viertels = 1 Eimer. 24 Ankers 3 ~ 
 
 2 Kanens = 1 Stubgen. | 5 Eimers = 1 Ahm or 4 Ankers. | 
 
 The ahm is equal to 38?, and the fuder to 229|,.English wine gallons. 
 
 A fass of wine = 4 oxhoft — 6 tierces. The oxhoft or hogshead is of various dimensions. 1 oxhoft 
 French wine = 62 to 64 stubgens ; an oxhoft of brandy = 60 stubgens. A pipe of Spanish wine = 96 to 
 100 stubgens. A tun of beer is 48 stubgens. A pipe of oil is 820 lbs. nett. Whale oil is sold per barre 
 of 6 steckan = 32 Eng. wine gallons. 
 
 The dry measures are, 
 
 4 Spints = 1 Himtems. | 3 Fass =: 1 Schcffel. I 2 Wisps = 1 Last. 
 2 Himtems = 1 Fass | 10 Scheffels = 1 Wisp. | 1| Last = 1 Stock. 
 
 The last = 112 Winchester quarters. A keel of coals yields from 8 to 9 lasts. 
 
 The Hamburgh foot = 11-289 English inches. The Rhineland foot, used by engineers and land 
 surveyors, = 12'36 inches. The Brabant eU, most commonly used in the measurement of piece goods, 
 ~i 27-585 inches. 
 
 A ton in the lading of a ship is generally reckoned at 40 cubic feet. Of things that are sold by number, 
 a gross thousand = 1,200 ; a gross hundred = 120 ; a ring = 240 ; a common oi small thousand =: 1,000 ; 
 a shock = 60; a stcigs 20 ; a gross = 12 dozen. 
 
 Imports.— yVc subjoin an account of the imports, consumption, exports, stocks, and prices, of someof the 
 principal articles imi)orted into Hamburgh, during eacli of the 10 years ending with the 1st of Jan., 1840. 
 
HAMBURG. 
 
 615 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 J 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 I iiiil P 1 
 
 s'iillliilil 
 
 1 
 
 ^ lilliii 
 
 alSlllilll 
 
 r 
 11 
 
 liiiiiiiiii 'A 
 
 1 
 
 pi 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 i'lilllllll 
 
 ii 
 
 I 
 
 ill 
 
 r ii 
 
 in 
 
 ii 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 iiiP 
 
 1 
 
 llllllii-l 
 
 Ii 
 
 ii 
 
 I: 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 i ii 
 
 Ii 
 
 i 
 
 d|M-iHBH|j 
 
616 
 
 HAMBURGH. 
 
 Exports. — We regret that no materials exist by which it is possible to give any account of tlie quantity 
 and value of the different articles exported from Hamburgh. — (For some particulars as to the corn trade, 
 see CoRiv Laws and Corn Trade.) Linens are one of the most important articles of export. They ars 
 generally sold by the piece ; but there are great differences in the dimensions of pieces of different deno- 
 minations. The following Table is, therefore, of importance, as it exhibits the various descriptions of linen 
 usually met with at Hamburgh, with the length and breadth of the different pieces. It also gives their 
 cost on board, in sterling, on 1st January, 1856b 
 
 Descriptions. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Sold. 
 
 Cost on Board, 
 
 in Sterling. 
 
 
 
 Yard), 
 
 Yaxdt. 
 
 
 £ S. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. £ s. d. 
 
 Platillas royales 
 
 
 35 
 
 T6 
 
 per piece. 
 
 0 15 
 
 10 to 1 
 
 10 
 
 3 to 1 19 4 
 
 Brown Silesias 
 
 
 35 
 
 '0 
 
 
 
 0 12 
 
 6 — 0 
 
 18 
 
 2—142 
 
 Britannias 
 
 
 7 
 
 is 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 •0 3 
 
 9-0 
 
 7 
 
 7 — 0 9 10 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 7 
 
 _ 
 
 0 7 
 
 7 — 0 
 
 12 
 
 1 — 0 15 1 
 
 Dowlas 
 
 
 67| 
 
 
 
 1 14 
 
 9 — 2 
 
 5 
 
 4 — 2 12 11 
 
 Creas a la Morlaix 
 
 
 67i 
 
 
 
 1 13 
 
 3 — S 
 
 0 
 
 6-432 
 
 Listados 
 
 
 43 
 
 i 
 
 — 
 
 0 18 
 
 2 — 1 
 
 7 
 
 3 — 1 16 3 
 
 White sheetings 
 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 ? 
 
 
 1 19 
 
 4 — 2 
 
 8 
 
 5 — 3 5 6 
 
 Plain lawns 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 TB 
 
 
 0 6 
 
 10 — 0 
 
 18 
 
 2 — 1 10 3 
 
 Clear, figured, and worked lawns 
 
 
 \l 
 
 
 0 7 
 
 7-0 
 
 9 
 
 1 — 0 13 7 
 
 Arabias * 
 
 
 21i 
 
 I 
 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 — 0 
 
 12 
 
 ] - 0 18 2 
 
 Checks, No. 2, 
 
 
 IVJ 
 
 I 
 
 
 0 4 
 
 6 — 0 
 
 5 
 
 4-0 6 10 
 
 Striped and checked books 
 
 
 43 
 
 \ 
 
 per 3 pieces. 
 
 0 13 
 
 3 — 0 
 
 Ih 
 
 1 - 0 18 11 
 
 Hessia rolls 
 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 per piece. 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 - 0 
 
 15 
 
 1 — 0 18 11 
 
 Linen for coarse bags 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 — G 
 
 15 
 
 1 — 15 8 
 
 Osnaburghs 
 
 
 
 
 r per 100 7 
 t double ells 3 
 
 3 9 
 
 7 — 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 — 4 10 9 
 
 Tecklenburghs 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 0 
 
 6 — 3 
 
 12 
 
 7 — 3 15 7 
 
 The Platillas and Britannias come principally from Silesia ; the Creas from Lusatia, &c. Osnaburghs 
 are made of flaxen, and Tecklenburghs of hempen, yarn. Linens are sold with a discount of 1 per cent. 
 
 Shipping, — The ships arriving at Hamburgh in the undermentioned years (ending 30th of September) 
 have oeen as under : — 
 
 From the 
 
 1830. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 East Indies 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 Brazil - - 
 
 82 
 
 93 
 
 103 
 
 79 
 
 91 
 
 121 
 
 156 
 
 HO 
 
 West Indies 
 
 102 
 
 113 
 
 130 
 
 149 
 
 131 
 
 139 
 
 160 
 
 143 
 
 United States 
 
 23 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 63 
 
 41 
 
 55 
 
 39. 
 
 40 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
 61 
 
 54 
 
 62 
 
 76 
 
 65 
 
 6.5 
 
 77 
 
 80 
 
 Spain - - - 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 49 
 
 36 
 
 45 
 
 32 
 
 23 
 
 38 
 
 Portugal ... 
 
 28 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 36 
 
 21 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 France - - 
 
 65 
 
 107 
 
 124 
 
 105 
 
 149 
 
 125 
 
 118 
 
 138 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 710 
 
 672 
 
 950 
 
 936 
 
 1,062 
 
 1,160 
 
 1,249 
 
 1,490 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 375 
 
 387 
 
 500 
 
 599 
 
 614 
 
 634 
 
 654 
 
 619 
 
 Baltic 
 
 443 
 
 385 
 
 583 
 
 64A 
 
 580 
 
 513 
 
 
 494 
 
 Totals 
 
 1,922 
 
 1,896 
 
 2,576 
 
 2,138 
 
 2,815 
 
 2,884 
 
 2,992 
 
 3,233 
 
 Navigation of the Elbe, Pilotage, S(c. — The mouth of the Elbe is encumbered with Sana banks. The 
 channel leading to Cuxhaven is bounded on the north by the Vogel Sands and North Grounds, and on the 
 south by the Schiarhorn Sands and Neuwerk Island. On the latter there are 2 light-houses and 2 beacons, 
 and on the Schaarhorn is another beacon. The light-houses on Neuwerk Island are about 700 yards 
 apart ; the most southerly, which is also the most elevated, being in lat. 53° 54' 57" N., Ion. 8° 29' 40" E. 
 It is 128 feet high, being twice the height of the other. The channel is, in some places, hardly f of a 
 mile wide. The outer red buoy in the middle of the channel, at its mouth, bears from Heligofand S.E. 
 by S., distant nearly 20 miles. But the best mark in entering the Elbe is the floating light, or signal ship, 
 moored 2 miles N.W. by N. of the red buoy, in 11 fathoms at low water. This vessel never leaves 
 her station, unless compelled by ice in the winter season. By night slie exhibits a lantern light, 38 feet 
 above deck, and in foggy weather rings a bell every quarter of an hour. A second signal ship is sta- 
 tioned 5i miles S.E. by E. from the first, at the westernmost point of a sand bank dividing the fair way of 
 the river. She is rigged like a galliot, to distinguish her by day from the first signal ship ; and during 
 night she exhibits two lights, one 18 feet above the other. The distance from the outer red buoy to 
 Cuxhaven is about 16 miles ; thence to Gliickstadt the course is east, 28 miles ; from the latter to Stade 
 the course is south-easterly, 9 miles ; and then easterly to Hamburgh, 18 miles. The channel through- 
 out is marked with black and white buoys, which are numbered and specified in the charts. The black 
 ones are to be left, in passing up the river, on the starboard or right-hand side, and the white on the 
 larboard side. 
 
 Every vessel coming from sea into the Elbe, and drawing 4 feet water, is directed to take a pilot on board, 
 and must pay pilotage, though she do not take one. However well the signals, lights, beacons, and buoys, 
 may be arranged, an experienced pilot is very necessary, in case of a fog in the night, or of a storm. To take 
 in a pilot, a vessel must heave to by the pilot galliot, which lies, in good weather, near the red buoy, and in 
 bad weather, N.N.E. from Neuwerk, and is known by having at the flagstaff an admiral's flag, and a long 
 streamer flying at the top. If the pilot boat have no pilot on board, or if the weather be so bad that the 
 pilot cannot leave her, she lowers her flag, and then the vessel coming in must sail, with the signal for a 
 pilot hoisted, to Cuxhaven, and heave to there, where she is certain of getting one. 
 
 There are no docks or quays at Hamburgh ; and it is singular, considering the great trade of the port, 
 that none have been constructed. Vessels moor in the river outside of piles driven into the ground a short 
 distance from shore ; and in this situation they are not exposed to any danger unless the piles give way, 
 which rarely happens. There is a sort of inner harbour, formed by an arm of the Elbe which runs into 
 the city, where small craft lie and discharge their cargoes. Larger vessels load and unload from their 
 moorings, by means of lighters. These carry the goods from and to the warehouses which front the various 
 small arms and channels of the river, and the canals carried from it into different parts of the city. 
 The charges on account of lighterage are extremely moderate. 
 
HAMBURGH. 
 
 617 
 
 Port Charges. — The charpes of a nuWic nature payable by 
 ■vessels entering the jiort of Hamburf;n. unloading and loading, 
 are pilotage and lastagc. The separate items of which are 
 given in the following Table. 
 
 PUoluKe and Ltisliige — The Hamburgh pilots, generally 
 speaking, take charge of vessels only from tne Heil lUiut/ to 
 
 Preyburfr/t or GlUckstaJt, the pilotag 
 law of the 18th of February, 1760, as follows 
 
 for which is regulated by 
 
 Vessels coming northwards; 
 
 and colliers 
 All vessels, smacks, and kayen 
 
 drawing more than 4 feel 
 
 water, and in ballast 
 Vessels laden with salt or com 
 
 wheresoever they may come 
 
 from 
 
 Vessels which, besides salt 
 corn, or ballast, have one 
 third of the cargo consisting 
 of piece goods 
 
 Vessels laden with herrings - 
 
 All vessels laden with wine, 
 oil, vinegar, train oil, iron, 
 lead, packages, or bags, and 
 all vessels coming from fo- 
 reign parts, whether laden 
 or not . . . 
 
 All smacks going between 
 Holland, Friesland, and 
 Ham burgh with piece goods 
 
 For each Foot Hamburgh 
 Measure which a Vessel 
 draws.* 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 During the Six £ 
 mer Months, 1 
 Ist Mar. to 1st i 
 
 ■§^§ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marks Cuirencj. 
 
 English 
 Money. 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 2 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 2 4 
 
 3 6 
 
 2 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 2 4 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 0 
 
 4 8 
 
 3 6 
 
 5 3 
 
 4 0 
 2 0 
 
 6 0 
 3 0 
 
 4 8 
 2 4 
 
 7 0 
 3 6 
 
 4 0 
 
 6 0 
 
 4 8 
 
 7 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 6 0 
 
 4 8 
 
 7 0 
 
 Half Pilotage only. — N.B. In case the Hamburgh pilots 
 enter a vessel only within the first buoy bevond the Rosshacken, 
 Strangfly, or Cuxhaven, half the above mentioned pilotage is 
 paid. Also half pilotage must be paid at all events, whether 
 the vessel has taken a pilot from the pilot galliot or not. 
 
 Pilotage earned. — 'I he above pilotage is earned if vessels are 
 
 * Sixteen feet English are equal to 17 feet Hamburgh. 
 
 brought as far m Freyhurgh or GlHcksiniU , and when from 
 stress of wind or weather, which seldom hapiiens, the Ham- 
 burgh pilots take vessels to Willenhergli or NeumlMen, thej 
 are to pay, without distinction — 
 
 Marcs cui renci/. d. stg. 
 To Witfenbergh - 10' HO 
 
 — NeumUhlen - 18 21 0 
 
 Pilotage all the Way. —For pilotage the whole way from Cur- 
 ha^en to Hamburgh, there is no table of rates, for, generally 
 S]>eaking, the Hamburgh pilots do not take vessels up beyond 
 lloeach. 
 
 From Boesch to Hamburgh. — Vesiels are generally piloted 
 from Hoesch to Hamburgh b) Danish or Hanoverian pilots, to 
 whom it is customary to pay 3 marcs. 
 
 Harbour-matter's Charges Hy a Custom-house order of the 
 
 16th of December, 1816, the Hamburgh harbour-master is not 
 entitled to fees. 
 
 Lastage and Cuslom-hmise Charges British and other foreign 
 
 Tcssels pay the same as Hamburgh vessels. For clearing in and 
 clearing out, no separate charges are made ; visiting the port is 
 considered as one voyage, and the charges on vesDels are paid as 
 follows : — 
 
 For vessels arrived with cargoes from the undermentioned 
 places : viz. _ 
 
 Places. 
 
 For every 
 Commer- 
 cial Last. 
 
 Sterling. 
 
 The East Indies 
 
 West Indies, North and South Anjerica 
 Portugal, Spain,and the Mediterranean 
 The rest of the European ports 
 Holland, East Friesland, the Weser, 
 
 Eyder, and Jutland 
 For vessels under 20 commercial lasts • 
 
 without distinction 
 Vessels arriving and departing in bal- 
 last, of upwards of 20 commercial 
 lasts 
 
 Marcs. 
 3 0 
 2 8 
 2 0 
 1 8 
 
 0 12 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 8 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 0 3 6 
 0 3 5 
 0 2 4 
 0 1 9 
 
 0 0 lO.i 
 
 0 0 3.i 
 
 0 0 7 
 
 For all vessels laden with coals, wood, or turf, no lastcige is 
 paid, provided they do not take return cargoes. 
 
 Halj Lastage — Vessels arriving in ballast and departing 
 with a carf^o pay half the above lastage, according to their 
 destination. 
 
 N.B. - Exclusive of the above dues, which are all remark- 
 ably moderate, vessels coming to the port of Hamburgh are 
 obliged to pay certain dues to Hanover, called Stade or Bruns- 
 hauscn dues. These are rated according to the numlier of the 
 vessel's masts, and are over and above the Stade duties on the 
 cargo. — (For the items, see Stade.) 
 
 * It is difficult to determine the exact ratio of a last to a ton , 
 but it may be taken at about 3 or 2^ to 1. But in Hamburgh 
 all vessels are measured by the harbour-master ; and it is upon 
 his report that the lastage is calculated. 
 
 Tai-iff. — The customs duties at Hamburgh are as moderate as possible, being only \ per cent, ad valorem 
 on exports, and \ per cent, on imports ; tut in truth they are not quite so much, being calculated in money 
 of one value and paid in money of less vaJue. The duty is, in fact, estimated in banco marcs, while it is 
 paid in current marcs, which are more than 20 per cent, under, the former ; so that in reality the import 
 duty is only about 2-5ths per cent. A few years ago it was li per cent.*, but the competition of the Altona 
 merchants, where there are no duties, obliged the authorities at Hamburgh to reduce these duties to the 
 present level. There is no inspection of goods at the Custom-house. The merchant makes oath to the 
 nett weight of the article, and to its value at the current prices of the day, and on this the duty is assessed. 
 
 The following articles are free from both import and export duties, viz. — 
 
 1. Linen, rags, flax yarn, hemp yarn, cotton yarn, raw sheep and lamb's wool. 
 
 2. "Wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, and malt. 
 
 3. Unwrought copper and brass, plates of copper, raw zinc, tinned and untinned iron plates. 
 
 4. Cash and coin, unwrought gold and silver, and scrapings of the precious metals. 
 
 5. Pamphlets and printed works. 
 
 Articles free from Import Duty. 
 
 1. Timber, staves, and fire wood brought down the Elbe or in carriages mto the city, the latter with the 
 exception of that coming from the sea. 
 
 2. Merchandise coming by post, if the goods for the same individual do not exceed the value of 50 marcs 
 banco. 
 
 Articles free from Export Duty. 
 
 1. All articles manufactured in Hamburgh, and all foreign manufactures worked up in the city. 
 
 2. Small packages of 100 lbs. weight and under, provided their value do not exceed 100 marcs banco. 
 N.B. — An import duty of 4 schilUngs current is payable upon lemons and oranges, for the whole chest 
 
 to 1,000 ; 2 schillings current for the | chest to 500 ; and for casks in the same proportion. 
 
 The duties are the same whether the importation be ed'ected by Hamburgh or by foreign ships. Ex- 
 clusive of the above or customs duties, most articles of juovision imported for the consumption of the 
 town are subject to an excise duty. 
 
 Stade Duties. — Besides the duties levied at Hamburgh, all articles passing up the Elbe to Hamburgh, 
 whether for transit or not, pay duties to Hanover at Brunshausen, near Stade. These duties are rated 
 according to a tariff, and are computed from the ship's manifest, bills of lading, and cockets, which have 
 all to be sent on shore for that purpose. On some articles, particularly those of British manufacture, 
 these duties are very heavy, being frequently much larger than the Hamburgh duties! They are par- 
 ticularly grievous, too, from heavy penalties being attaolied even to the slightest unintentional mistakes. 
 It is really surprising, considering the source of this nuisance, that it should not have been abated long 
 ago. It might, at all events, have been expected that British ships and goods would have been exempted 
 from such a tax. We do hope that some portion of the public attention will be directed to this crying 
 evil. With what face can we protest against the conduct of Prussia and other German states in throwinij 
 obstacles in the way of the free navigation of the Elbe, when we submit, without a murmur, to similar 
 proceedings on the part of Hanover ? — (For further particulars, see St.\de.) 
 
 * It was so stated by mistake in the former edition of this work. 
 
618 
 
 HAMBURGH. 
 
 Transit Goods are totally exempted from duty. They are such only as arrive at Hamburgh direct, and 
 which are neither sold nor exchanged while in the city. The liberty of transit is limited to the term of 3 
 months from the time of receiving the transit ticket; but, upon application being made for a prolongation 
 of the term previously to the expiration of the first 3 months, it is granted on payment of 4 per cent, on 
 the banco value of the goods ; but under no circumstances is the term extended beyond 6 months. If the 
 goods be not then exported, they become liable to the ordi.»ary duties. 
 
 B'arehousing System. — This has not been introduced at Hamburgh ; nor, from the smallness of the 
 duties, is it necessary, though it would sesm that the time during which goods are allowed to be in transitu 
 might be advantageously extended. The warehouse rent of a quarter of wheat may be about l^d. sterling 
 per month, and of a ton of sugar, about 9d. ; but there are no fixed rates. 
 
 Custom-house Regidatioris. — On passing Stade, the masters of vessels must send their papers, including 
 the manifest, bills of lading, and cockets, on shore, that the amount of the Stade duties may be calculated. 
 On the vessel's arrival at Hamburgh, the broker repoEts her to the Custom-house, and gives his guarantee 
 for payment of the duties ; he either delivers her papers, or undertakes to deliver them as soon as they 
 can be got from Stade, and, upon a receipt being produced for the Stade duties by the Hanoverian au, 
 thorities at Hamburgh, the vessel is allowed to unload. On clearing, a manifest of the outward cargo, 
 together with the consul's certificate of the regularity of the ship's papers, must be produced at the 
 Custom-house by the broker, who obtains in return a clearance certificate, authorising the vessel to go 
 to sea. 
 
 Quarantine is enforced, when occasion requires, at Hamburgh, and is performed near Cuxhaven. 
 
 Credit, Brokerage, SjC. — Almost all goods are sold for ready money, with an allowance of 1 per cent, for 
 discount. Sometimes, but not frequently, sales are made at 2 or 3 months' credit, and in such cases a 
 higher price is obtained than for cash. Sometimes sugar is sold to the sugar baker at this credit. 
 
 Brokers are positively forbidden to act as merchants or factors. They are licensed by the Senate, and 
 must conform to the established regulations. 
 
 Urokerage is paid wholly by the seller, and amounts to — 
 
 " Five SLXlhs per cent, on cotton, cotton twist, cocoa, co- 
 chineal, copper, liides, indigo, munufactured goods, nankeens, 
 sugar, and tea* . 
 
 " One i)er cent, on annotto, camphire, cinnamon, carda- 
 mons*, cassia*, cloves*, drugs not denominated*, deer skins, 
 dye woods, ginger*. Jalap*, mace*, nutmegs*, pepper, pi- 
 mento, potashes, Peruvian bark, quercitron bark, rice*, salt- 
 petre, sarsaparilla*, shellac*, tamarinds*, tobacco in leaves* 
 and tobacco stems* of the growth of the United States of 
 America, whale oil*, vanelloes*. 
 
 " N.B Tobacco stems* of all other origin, segars, and 
 
 other manufactured tobacco, pay 2 per cent. ; all other leaf 
 and roll tobacco*, I2 per tent. 
 
 "One and a half percent, on wine, brandy, rum, and arrack, 
 if sold in parcels amoimting to 3,000 marcs banco and upwards. 
 
 " Two per cent, on ditto, for sales of and under 3,000 marcs 
 banco. 
 
 " In auction the selling broker is entitled to Ih per cent, and 
 the purchasing broker to 2 per cent., without" regard to the 
 amount." 
 
 All articles marked (*) pay the brokerage before-mentioned, 
 if the quantity sold amounts to 600 marcs banco, or higher ; 
 for smaller lots of less than 600 marcs banco, and down to 150 
 marcs banco, the brokerage is paid, with the addition of one 
 half, and under 150 marcs banco, the double is allowed. All 
 other merchancUse pays 1^ per cent, at least for sales not ex- 
 ceeding 150 marcs banco. 
 
 It is, however, to be observed, that all augmentations, in 
 proportion to the amount sold, are only to be understood for sale 
 by private contract, and not for those by auction ; and even not 
 for such private sales, w here a broker has made the purchase of 
 a larger quantity of goods above the said amount of 600 marcs 
 banco, and has afterwards divided it into smaller lots. 
 
 Conditiotts i>f Sale. — Imports. — Coffee is sold jier pound in 
 schill. banco ; discount, 1 per cent. ; good weight is 4 per cent. 
 Tare is as follows: viz. on casks, real weight; on bagsot 1301l)s. 
 or less, 21bs. ; above 130 lbs. and not above ISO lbs., 3 lbs. ; 
 above 180 !bs. and not exceeding 200 lbs., 4 lbs. On Mocha 
 bales of about 300 lbs., 14 lbs. ; if 600 lbs., 50 lbs. On Bourbon 
 single bales, 2 lbs. ; on double, 4 lbs. 
 
 Cotton is sold per lb. in schill. banco ; discount, 1 per cent. ; 
 good weight, 1 per cent. ; tare on bales,West Indian and North 
 American, 4 per cent. ; on square bales, 6 per cent. ; on Bom- 
 bay and Surat bales, 8 per cent. ; on Bourbon bales and Ma- 
 nilla serons, 6 per cent. ; on Caraccas and Guiana small serons, 
 10 per cent. For the regulation of the Stade duty, all packages 
 should be called bags, and not bales, in the bill of lading. 
 
 East India piece goods are sold per pie('e, in marcs banco ; 
 discount, 1 percent. For saving in the Stade duty, if more 
 than 30 pieces are in a bale, the number of pieces should not 
 be mentioned in the bill of lading, but only the number of 
 bales. 
 
 Flour is sold per 100 lbs. in marcs currency, uncertain agio ; 
 discount 1 per cent. ; good weight, 1 per cent. ; tare, 20 lbs. 
 per barrel. 
 
 Fustic is sold per 100 lbs. in marcs currency ; agio, 20 per 
 cent.; discount, 1 per cent. ; good weight, 1 per cent. and 
 frequently an allowance in weight is made, if the wood is not 
 very solid. 
 
 Indigo is' sold per lb. in schill. banco; discount, 1 percent. ; 
 good weight, Jt)er cent. ; tare, if in serons upwards of 120 lbs., 
 22 lbs.; in serons less than 120 lbs., 20 lbs. ; in chests, real 
 tare. 
 
 I ogwood is sold like fustic. — N.B. To avoid a high Stade 
 
 duty, the nett weight of all dye woods should be stated in the 
 bills of lading. 
 
 Pepper is sold per lb. in schill. banco ; discount, 1 per cent. ; 
 good weight, ^ per cent. ; tare, if in single bales of 300 lbs., 
 3 lbs. ; in double bales, 6 lbs. 
 
 Quercitron bark is sold per 100 lbs. in marcs currency ; agio, 
 20 per cent. ; discount, 2 per cent. ; good weight, 1 per cent. 
 To determine the tare, the American tare is reduced to Ham- 
 burgh weight. 
 
 Rice is sold per 100 lbs. in marcs banco; discount, 1 per 
 cent. ; good weight, 1 per cent. ; tare, real ; and super-lare 
 for tierces, 4 lbs. ; for tierces, 2 lbs. 
 
 Rum is sold per 30 quarts in rixdoU. currency, agio un 
 certain. 
 
 Sugar, raw and clayed, is sold per lb. in banco groats, with 
 a rebate of 8 2-ods per cent. ; discount, X per cent., and some- 
 times li percent.; Brazil or Havannah chest, good weight, 
 I per cent. ; real tare ; super-tare, 10 lbs. for Brazil, and 5 lbs. 
 for Havannah sugar, per chest. Muscovados in casks, good 
 weight, 1 per cent. ; tare, if the casks weigh upwards ot 
 1,000 lbs., 18 per cent. ; if less, 20 per cent. Clayed sugars, 
 good weiglit, 1 per cent. ; tare, 16 percent. East India sug.irs, 
 in bags, good weight, | per cent. ; tare for white, 4 to 5 lbs.; 
 for brown, 6 to 7 lbs. 
 
 Tea, per lb. in schill. currency, agio uncertain ; discount, 1 
 per cent. ; gord weight, ^ per cent. Tare of bohea, in chests 
 of 400 lbs., 70 lbs. ; of 150 to ISO lbs., 45 lbs. All black tea, 
 28 lbs. tare; green, 24 lbs. For the regulation of the Stade 
 duty, the nett weight should likewise be mentioned in the bill 
 of lading. 
 
 Tobacco. — Leaf tobacco is sold per lb. in schill. banco, 
 agio xmcertain; discount, IJ per cent.; good weight, 1 per 
 cent. ; tare per cask, 80 lbs. Brazil leaf in serons ; tare 5 per 
 cent. In rolls ; canister, in baskets of about 100 lbs. ; good 
 weight, 1 lb. per basket ; tare, 14 )bs. if the basket is packed up 
 in linen, and 12 lbs. if without linen. Porto Rico rolls, good 
 weight, 1 per cent. ; no tare, as the rolls are weighed by them- 
 selves. Brazil rolls, in serons of 400 to 600 lbs., are sold per 
 lb., in schillings banco; good weight, f per cent. ; tare, 8 lbs. 
 per seron. Tobacco stems per 100 lbs., in marcs currency, agio 
 uncertain ; discount, l.J per cent. ; good weight, 1 per cent. ; 
 tare, if in casks, real weight; if packed up with cords, 2 to 4 
 per cent, according to the thickness of the rope. As there is a 
 great difterence in the Stade duty for the different sorts of 
 tobacco, it is necessary that, on shipping leaf tobacco, there 
 should be inserted in the bill of lading. Leaf Tobacco, omitting 
 tlie weight With tobacco in rolls, cnly the number of pack- 
 ages containing roll tobacco, and the nett weight,without men- 
 tioning the number of rolls, should appear in the bill of lading. 
 
 Glass (window) is sold per chest, in marcs currency, ag-o 
 uncertain ; other glass ware per piece, dozen; or hundred, in 
 schillings or marcs currency, with uncertain agio ; discoiut, 
 1 per cent. 
 
 Hares' wool is sold per 2 lbs., in marcs currency agio un- 
 certain ; discount, 1 per cent. 
 
 Hare skins (German, grey) are sold per 100 pieces, inrixdolU 
 banco. Russian, grey, per 104 pieces, in rixdoU. banco. White, 
 in marcs currency, agio uncertain; discount, 1 per cent. 
 
 Iron is sold per 100 lbs., in schill. currency, agio uncertain ; 
 discount, 1 per cent. 
 
 Copper is sold per 100 lbs. in schill. banco; discount, 1 per 
 cent. 
 
 The exchange business done at Hamburgh is very great ; for 
 besides the business of the place, most of the merchants in the 
 inland towns have their bills negotiated there. 
 
 The usual charge for commission is, on sales 2 percent, and 1 percent, for del credere, if such guarantee 
 be required ; on purchases, 2 per cent. Under particular agreements, the rates sometimes vary considerably 
 from the above 
 
 Citizenfhip. — Fore'jgncrs cannot establish themselves as merchants, or carry on any business in their 
 own names, at Hamburgh, without becoming burghers ; and to be manufacturers, they must also enter the 
 guild or coq)oration peculiar to the trade they mean to follow. But to become a burgher one has only to 
 comply with certain forms and pay certain fees, which do not, in all, exceed 10/. He tlien becomes, in 
 the eye of the law, a Hamburgh subject; and enjoys all the rights and privileges of a native. 
 
 Banking, Insurance, 8(C. — For an account of the Bank of Hamburgh, see Banks (Foreign). All sorts 
 of insurances are effected at Hamburgh. A municipal regulation compels the insurance of all houses 
 within the city, the rate varying according to the number of fires, and the amoiuit of loss. Marine in- 
 •surancc is principally effected by joint stock comiianies, of whicli there are several ; their competition has 
 reduced the premiums to the lowest level, and the business is not understood to be profitable. The high 
 duties on policies of insurance in this country has led to the insuring of a good many English sliips at Ham 
 
HAMBURGH. 
 
 619 
 
 burgh. Life insurance is not prosecuted in Germany to any considerable extent ; but some of the Engl«li 
 companies have agents here, who arc said not to be very scrupulous. 
 
 consists of those whose books show that misfortune alone ha« 
 occasioned tlie banltruptcy ; that the party has all along lived 
 
 Bankruptcy. Considering the vast number of merchants 
 
 and tradcs'people at Hamburfih, bankruptcy does not seem to 
 be of frequent occurrence. l)urinK the 3 years ending with 
 1831, the number of declared bankrupts and the amount of 
 their debts were as under : — 
 
 1 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Number 
 of Bank- 
 rupts. 
 
 Amount 
 of Debts. 
 
 Number 
 of Bank- 
 rupts. 
 
 Amount 
 of Debts. 
 
 Number 
 of Bank- 
 rupts. 
 
 Amount 
 of Debts. 
 
 69 
 
 L. 
 
 109,948 
 
 93 
 
 L. 
 
 118,M1 
 
 117 
 
 L. 
 
 277,615 
 
 But this account does not include the failures settled by pri- 
 vate comjiromise, and of which no public notice is taken. The 
 increase in 1831 is owing, in a ureat measure, to the failure, 
 for 111,0()0/., of a company which had lent their money im- 
 providently on houses, &c. Much of the business transacted 
 at Hamburgh being on commission and for account of houses 
 abroad, the failure of foreign merchants is a prevalent source 
 of bankruptcy. Another source of banki-uptcy is losses on 
 goods imported or exported on speculation, and occasionally 
 losses in the funds, in which a good deal of gambling gOLS on 
 here. Expensive living is not nearly so prevalent a source of 
 bankruptcy here as in London and other places- 
 
 The law of Hamburgh makes 3 classes of bankrupts ; — the 
 unfortunate, the careless, and the fraudulent. 
 
 The first class 
 
 within his probable income, and can account to his assignees 
 completely for all his losses. Whoever is adjudged by the court 
 to belong to this class (which contains hut few in number), is 
 considered entirely free from his debts, and is not subject to be 
 called upon hereafter. The second and most numerous class, 
 contains those termed " careless " bankrupts. These are per- 
 sons who have entered into s)>eculations exceeding their means, 
 who have gone on for a considerable time after they found their 
 adairs in arrear, who have lived beyond their income, have not 
 kept their books in good order, and so forth. They are liable to 
 be confined in prison ibr a period of 3 or 6 months ; and, provided 
 they have not paid a dividend of 40 per cent., may be called 
 upon for payment of their debt after 5 years from their dis- 
 charge. If a claim be made by any creditor after this lapse of 
 
 pay any thing, or not above a certain sum, without depriving 
 himself and his family of necessaries. Kvery 5 years the claim 
 may be re]>eated. All careless bankrupts are disabled from 
 holding offices of honour. The third class contains the "fraud- 
 ulent" bankrupts, who are liable to be imprisoned according 
 to the extent of their frauds, for a limited period or even for 
 life, besides being rendered incapable of holding any office what- 
 ever. Should a bankrupt abscond, he is called upon by public 
 advertisement to appear by a certain day, in default of which 
 he is adjudged a fraudulent bankrupt, and his name is posted 
 up on a black board on the Hxchange. 
 
 Repair of Ships, Sea Stores, 8(C. — Materials and labour being cheap, Hamburgh may be regarded, in se 
 far as respects expense, as a favourable place for careening and repairing ships ; but, having no docks, these 
 operations are inconveniently performed. All articles of provision may be obtained in great abundance 
 and at moderate prices. 
 
 An Account of the Prices of the principal Articles of Ships' Provision at Hamburgh in 1831, stated in 
 Imperial Weights and Measures, and in Sterling Money. 
 
 , January 
 
 April 
 i July 
 f October 
 
 December 
 
 Pork. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Butter 
 (equal to 
 CorkThirds) 
 
 Ship Bread. 
 
 Seconds 
 Flour. 
 
 Eydam 
 Cheese. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 Jamaica 
 Kum. 
 
 Per Barrel 
 of 200 lbs. 
 Nett. 
 
 Per Barrel 
 of2'20 lbs. 
 Nett. 
 
 Per Cwt. 
 
 Per Bag of 
 112 lbs. 
 Nett. 
 
 Per Barrel 
 of 196 lbs. 
 Nett. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Per 
 Imperial 
 Quarter. 
 
 Per 
 Imperial 
 Gallon. 
 
 *, d. s. d. 
 
 48 0 to 50 0 
 56 0 — 58 0 
 37 0—64 0 
 
 none. 
 59 0 — 60 0 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 
 45 0 to 0 0 
 48 0 — 50 0 
 45 0 — 48 0 
 42 0 — 45 6 
 42 0 — 45 0 
 
 t. d. 3. d. 
 
 61 0 to 70 0 
 
 62 0 — 69 0 
 45 0—56 0 
 50 0 — 74 0 
 54 0 — 68 0 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 13 6 to 14 6 
 15 0- 17 0 
 13 0— 14 0 
 12 0— 0 0 
 11 6— 12 0 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 27 0to28 0 
 30 0 — 32 0 
 24 0 — 27 0 
 23 0 — 0 0 
 23 0 — 0 0 
 
 d. d. 
 4 to 4i 
 4i - 4 
 44 - 4| 
 4 -4| 
 4—3 
 
 s. d. 3. d. s. d. 3. d. 
 
 34 0 to 37 0 3 1 to 3 7 
 31 0—33 6 3 2 — 4 1 
 27 0 29 0 2 9 — 3 10 
 29 0—33 6 2 6 — 3 4 
 29 0 — 34 0 2 3 — 3 3 
 
 Fuel Coals. 19 marcs current, or about 22s. 6(7. per ton, British weight, in large quantities. 
 
 Do. 23 marcs current, or about 27*. 6d, per ton, British weight, in small quantities, free on board. 
 Fresh beef^ 25*. 6d. to 30*. per cwt. 
 Fresh pork, is. '2d. to 5*. Id. per 14 lbs. 
 
 N.B. — The prices mclude the cost of the packages of all the articles, excepting cheese and peas. In 
 September and October no pork was to be had in a wholesale way. 
 
 Freights.— The different ship agents engaged in the trade with Great Britam have pubhshed a Table of 
 freights ; but as they are, notwithstanding, materially influenced by the demand at the time, the season, &c., 
 it seems unnecessary to insert it. 
 
 General Remarks. — The trade of Hamburgh is, in a great measure, passive ; that is, 
 it depends more on the varying wants and policy of others than on its own. There is 
 nothing of such vital importance as the free navigation of the Elbe to the prosperity ot 
 Hamburgh, and, indeed, of all the countries through which it flows. This, too, is a 
 matter of paramount consequence as respects our interests ; for the Elbe is the grand 
 inlet by which British manufactures find their way into some of the richest and most 
 extensive European countries. The principle that the navigation of the Elbe, the Rhine, 
 the Weser, &c. should be quite free along their whole course, was distinctly laid down by 
 tlie Congress of Vienna in 1815. But no general tariff of duties being then established, 
 this declaration has hitherto had no practical effect. Prussia, who is endeavouring 
 to bolster up a system of home manufactures, has laid heavy transit duties on articles 
 passing by the Elbe, and has prevailed on Anhalt, and some of the smaller states, to follow 
 her example. These duties amount, on some of the coarser sorts of British woollen goods, 
 to no less than 60 per cent, ad valorem, and are, even when lightest, a great obstacle to 
 trade. It is to be hoped that a just sense of their own real interests may, at no distant 
 period, open the eyes of the German governments to the impolicy of such proceedings. 
 It is in an especial manner for the interest of Saxony, Austria, and England, that these 
 duties should be abolished; and their influence in the diet, if properly exerted, might 
 countervail that of Prussia. So long, however, as the Stade duties are kept up, it would 
 be folly to imagine that much attention should be paid to our remonstrances against the 
 Prussian duties. If we cannot prevail on Hanover to emancipate our commerce from 
 oppressive restrictions and burdens, we need hardly expect to succeed with any other 
 power. Were the Stade duties and those in the upper parts of the Elbe wholly abolished, 
 we have little doubt that, in a dozen years, the trade of Hamburgh would be nearly 
 doubled ; an increase which, however advantageous to her, would be far more advan- 
 tageous to the extensive countries of which she is the grand emporium. 
 
620 
 
 HANSEATIC LEAGUE. 
 
 In compiling this article we have made use of Oddy^s European Commerce, pp. 412 — 439. ; Itordansz^s 
 
 European Commerce, Xi"^ 302 — 320.; the Dictionnairede Commerce {Ency. Methodique), tome i. pp.44 53.; 
 
 and of the Circulars of Berenberg, Gossler and Co., Anderson, Hobef, and Co., and other eminent mer- 
 chants. We have also been much indebted to Mr. Consul Canning's Answers to the Circular Queries. 
 That functionary has replied to the various questions submitted to him in a way that does equal credit to 
 his industry and intelligence. From the circumstance of no official returns being published or obtainable 
 at Hamburgh, the returns of imports given above must not be regarded as quite accurate, though the 
 errors they involve connot be material They are principally taken from Berenberg and Co.'s Circular. 
 
 HANSEATIC LEAGUE, an association of the principal cities in the north of 
 Germany, Prussia, &c., for the better carrying on of commerce, and for their mutual 
 safety and defence. This confederacy, so celebrated in the early history of modern 
 Europe, contributed in no ordinary degree to introduce the blessings of civilisation and 
 good government into the North. The extension and protection of commerce was, how- 
 ever, its main object ; and hence a short account of it may not be deemed misplaced in a 
 work of this description. 
 
 Origin and Progress of the Hanseatic League. — Hamburgh, founded by Charlemagne 
 in the ninth, and Lubeck, founded about the middle of the twelfth century, were the earliest 
 members of the League. The distance between them not being very considerable, and' 
 being alike interested in the repression of those disorders to which most parts of Europe, 
 and particularly the coast of the Baltic, were a prey in the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth 
 centuries, they early formed an intimate jiolitical union, partly in the view of maintaining 
 a safe intei course by land with each other, and partly for the protection of navigation 
 from the attacks of the pirates, with which every sea was at that time infested. There 
 is no very distinct evidence as to the period when this alliance was consummated ; some 
 ascribe its origin to the year 1169, others to the year 1200, and others to the year 1241. 
 But the most probable opinion seems to be, that it would grow up by slow degrees, and be 
 perfected according as the advantage derivable from it became more obvious. Such was 
 the origin of the Hanseatic League, so called from the old Teutonic word hansa, signi- 
 fying an association or confederacy, 
 
 Adam of Bremen, who flourished in the eleventh century, is the earliest writer who 
 has given any information with respect to the commerce of the countries lying round 
 the Baltic. And from the errors into which he has fallen in describing the northern 
 and eastern shores of that sea, it is evident they had been very little frequented and not 
 at all known in his time. But from the beginning of the twelfth century, the progress 
 of commerce and navigation in the North was exceedingly rapid. The countries which 
 stretch along the bottom of the Baltic, from Holstein to Russia, and which had been 
 occupied by barbarous tribes of Sclavonic origin, were then subjugated by the kings of 
 Denmark, the dukes of Saxony, ^nd other princes. The greater part of the inhabitants 
 being exterminated, their place was filled by German colonists, who founded the towns 
 of Stralsund, Rostock, Wismar, &c. Prussia and Poland were afterwards subjugated 
 by the Christian princes and the Knights of the Teutonic Order. So that, in a com- 
 paratively short period, the foundations of civilisation and the arts were laid in countries 
 whose harbarism had ever remained impervious to the Roman power. 
 
 The cities that were established along the coast of the Baltic, and even in the interior 
 of the countries bordering upon it, eagerly joined the Han.seatic confederation. They 
 were indebted to the merchants of Lubeck for supplies of the commodities produced in 
 more civilised countries, and they looked up to them for protection against the bar- 
 barians by whom they were surrounded. The progress of the League was in conse- 
 quence singularly rapid. Previously to the end of the thirteenth century, it embraced 
 every considerable city in all those vast countries extending from Livonia to Holland, 
 and was a match for the most powerful monarchs. 
 
 The Hanseatic confederacy was at its highest degree of power and splendotir during 
 the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It then comprised from 60 to 80 cities, 
 which were distributed into 4 classes or circles. Lubeck was at the head of the first 
 circle, and had under it Hamburgh, Bremen, Rostock, Wismar, &c. Cologne was at 
 the head of the second circle, with 29 towns under it. Brunswick was at the 
 head of the third circle, consisting of IfJ towns. Dantzic was at the head of the 
 fourth circle, having under it 8 towns in its vicinity, besides several that were more 
 remote. The supreme authority of the League was vested in the deputies of the dif- 
 ferent towns assembled in congress. In it they discussed all their measures ; decided 
 upon tlie sum that each city should contribute to the common fund ; and upon the 
 questions that arose between the confederacy and other powers, as well as those that 
 frequently arose between the different members of the confederacy. The place for the 
 meeting '^f congress was not fixed, but it was most frequently held at Lubeck, which 
 was considered as the capital of the League, and there its archives were kept. Some- 
 times, however, congresses were held at Ilamburgh, Cologne, and other towns. They 
 met once every .'3 years, or oftcner if occasion required. The letters of convocation 
 specified the principal subjects which would most probably be brought under discussion. 
 Any one might be chosen for a deputy ; and the congress consisted not of merchants 
 
HANSEATIC LEAGUE. 621 
 
 only, but also of clergymen, lawyers, artists, &c. When the deliberations were con- 
 cluded, the decrees were formally communicated to the magistrates of the cities at the 
 head of each circle, by whom they were subsequently communicated to those below 
 them ; and the most vigorous measures were adopted for carrying them into tflcct. 
 One of the burgomasters of Lubeck presided at the meetings of congress; and during 
 the recess the magistrates of that city had the sole, or at all events the principal, direction 
 of the affairs of the League. 
 
 Besides the towns already mentioned, there were others that were denominated con- 
 federated cities, or allies. The latter neither contributed to the common fund of the 
 League, nor sent deputies to congress ; even the members were not all on the same 
 footing in respect to privileges : and the internal commotions by which it was frequently 
 agitated, partly originating in this cause, and partly in the discordant interests and con- 
 flicting pretensions of the different cities, materially impaired the power of the con- 
 federacy. But in despite of these disadvantages, the League succeeded for a lengthened 
 period, not only in controlling its own refractory members, but in making itself respected 
 and dreaded by others. It produced able generals and admirals, skilful politicians, and 
 some of the most enterprising, successful, and wealthy merchants of modern times. 
 
 As the power of the confederated cities was increased and consolidated, they became 
 more ambitious. Instead of ' limiting their efforts to the mere advancement of com- 
 merce and their own protection, they endeavoured to acquire the monopoly of the trade 
 of the North, and to exercise the same sort of dominion over the Baltic tliat the Vene- 
 tians exercised over the Adriatic. For this purpose they succeeded in obtaining, partly 
 in return for loans of money, and partly by force, various privileges and immunities 
 from the northern sovereigns, which secured to them almost the whole foreign com- 
 merce of Scandinavia, Denmark, Prussia, Poland, Russia, &;c. They exclusively 
 carried on the herring fishery of the Sound, at the same time that they endeavoured to 
 obstruct and hinder the navigation of foreign vessels in the Baltic. It should, however, 
 be observed, that the immunities they enjoyed were mostly indispensable to the security 
 of their commerce, in consequence of the barbarism that then prevailed ; and notwith- 
 standing their attempts at monopoly, there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that the 
 progress of civilisation in the North was prodigiously accelerated by the influence and 
 ascendancy of the Hanseatic cities. They repressed piracy by sea and robbery by land, 
 which must have broken out again had their power been overthrown before civilisation 
 was fully established ; they accustomed the inhabitants to the principles, and set before 
 them the example, of good government and subordination ; they introduced amongst 
 them conveniences and enjoyments unknown by their ancestors, or despised by them, and 
 inspired them with a taste for literature and science ; they did for the people round the 
 Baltic, what the Phoenicians had done in remoter ages for those round the Mediterranean, 
 and deserve, equally with them, to be placed in the first rank amongst the benefactors of 
 mankind. 
 
 " In order," as has been justly observed, " to accomplish their purpose of rendering 
 the Baltic a large field for the prosecution of commercial and industrious pursuits, it 
 was necessary to instruct men, still barbarous, in the rudiments of industry, and to 
 familiarise them in the principles of civilisation. These great principles were laid by 
 the confederation, and at the close of the fifteenth century the Baltic and the neigh- 
 bouring seas had, by its means, become frequented routes of communication between 
 the North and the South. The people of the former were enabled to follow the pro- 
 gress of the latter in knowledge and industry. The forests of Sweden, Poland, &c. 
 gave place to corn, hemp, and flax ; the mines were wrought, and in return the produce 
 and manufactures of the South were imported. Towns and villages were erected in 
 Scandinavia, where huts only were before seen : the skins of the bear and the wolf were 
 exchanged for woollens, linens, and silks : learning was introduced ; and printing was 
 hardly invented before it was practised in Denmark, Sweden, &c." — (^Catteau, Tableau 
 de la Mer Baltique, torn. ii. p. 175.) 
 
 The kings of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway were frequently engaged in hostilities 
 with the Hanse towns. They regarded, and, it must be admitted, not without pretty 
 good reason, the privileges acquired by the League, in their kingdoms, as so many 
 usurpations. But their efforts to abolish these privileges served, for more than 2 
 centuries, only to augment and extend tliem. 
 
 " On the part of the League there was union, subordination, and money ; whereas 
 the half-savage Scandinavian monarchies were full of divisions, factions, and troubles ; 
 revolution was immediately followed by revolution, and feudal anarchy was at its height. 
 There was another circumstance, not less important, in favour of the Hanseatic cities. 
 The popular governments established amongst them possessed the respect and confidence 
 of the inhabitants, and were able to direct the public energies for the good of the state. 
 The astonishing prosperity of the confederated cities was not wholly the effect of com- 
 merce. To the undisciplined aimies of the princes of the North — armies composed of 
 
622 
 
 HANSEATIC LEAGUE. 
 
 vassals without attachment to their lords — the cities opposed, besides the inferior nobles, 
 whose services they liberally rewarded, citizens accustomed to danger, and resolved to 
 defend their liberties and property. Their military operations were combined and 
 directed by a council composed of men of tried talents and experience, devoted to their 
 country, responsible to their fellow citizens, and enjoying their confidence. It was 
 chiefly, however, on their marine forces that the cities depended. They employed their 
 ships indifferently in war or commerce, so that their naval armaments were fitted out 
 at comparatively small expense. Exclusive, too, of these favourable circumstances, tlie 
 fortifications of the principal cities were looked upon as impregnable ; and as their 
 commerce supplied them abundantly with all sorts of provisions, it need not excite our 
 astonishment that Lubeck alone was able to carry on wars with the surrounding 
 monarchs, and to terminate them with honour and advantage ; and still less that the 
 League should long have enjoyed a decided preponderance in the North."* — (^L'Art de 
 verifier les Dates, 3'^® partie, tom. viii. p. 204.) 
 
 The extirpation of piracy was one of the objects which had originally led to the 
 formation of the League, and which it never ceased to prosecute. Owing, however, to 
 the barbarism then so universally prevalent, and the countenance openly given by many 
 princes and nobles to those engaged in this infamous profession, it was not possible 
 wholly to root it out. But the vigorous efforts of the League to abate the nuisance, 
 though not entirely successful, served to render the navigation of the North Sea and the 
 Baltic comparatively secure, and were of signal advantage to commerce. Nor was this 
 the only mode in v/hich the power of the confederacy was directly employed to promote 
 the common interests of mankind. Their exertions to protect shipwrecked mariners 
 from the atrocities to which they had been subject, and to procure the restitution of 
 shipwrecked property to its legitimate owners*, though, most probably, like their 
 exertions to repress piracy, a consequence of selfish considerations, were in no ordinary 
 degree meritorious ; and contributed not less to the advancement of civilisation than ta 
 the security of navigation. 
 
 Factories belonging to the League. — In order to facilitate and extend their commercial 
 transactions, the League established various factories in foreign countries ; the principal 
 of which were at Novogorod in Russia, London, Bruges in the Netherlands, and 
 Bergen in Norway. 
 
 Novogorod, situated at the confluence of the Volkof with the Imler Lake, was, for a 
 lengthened period, the most renowned emporium in the north-eastern parts of Europe. 
 In the beginning of the eleventh century, the inhabitants obtained considerable privi- 
 leges that laid the foundation of their liberty and prosperity. Their sovereigns were at 
 first subordinate to the grand" dukes or czars of Russia; but as the city and the con- 
 tiguous territory increased in population and wealth, they gradually usurped an almost 
 absolute independency. The power of these sovereigns over their subjects seems, at the 
 same time, to have been exceedingly limited ; and, in effect, Novogorod ought rather to 
 be considered as a republic under the jurisdiction of an elective magistrate, than as a 
 state subject to a regular line of hereditary monarchs, possessed of extensive prerogatives. 
 During the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, Novogorod formed the grand 
 entrepot between the countries to the east of Poland and the Hanseatic cities. Its fairs 
 were frequented by an immense concourse of people from all the surroimding countries, 
 as well as by numbers of merchants from the Hanse towns, who engrossed the greater 
 part of its foreign commerce, and who furnished its markets with the manufactures and 
 products of distant countries. Novogorod is said to have contained, during its most 
 flourishing period, towards the middle of the fifteenth century, upwards of 400,000 
 souls. This, however, is most probably an exaggeration. But its dominions were then 
 very extensive ; and its wealth and power seemed so great and well established, and the 
 city itself so impregnable, as to give rise to a proverb. Who can resist the Gods and 
 great Novogorod? Quis contra Deos et magnam Novogordiam 9 — (Coxe's Travels in the 
 North of Europe, vol. ii. p. 80.) 
 
 But its power and prosperity were far from being so firmly established as its eulogists, 
 and those who had only visited its fairs, appear to have supposed. In the latter part of 
 the fifteenth century, Ivan Vassilievitch, czar of Russia, having secured his dominions 
 against the inroads of the Tartars, and extended his empire by the conquest of some of 
 the neighbouring principalities, asserted his right to the principality of Novogorod, and 
 supported his pretensions by a formidable army. Had the inhabitants been animated 
 by the spirit of unanimity and patriotism, they might have defied his efforts ; but their 
 dissensions facilitated their conquest, and rendered them an easy prey. Having entered 
 the city at the head of his troops, Ivan received from the citizens the charter of their 
 
 * A series of resolutions were unanimously agreed to by the merchants frequenting the port of Wishy, 
 one of the j)rinci|)al emporiums of the I>caguo, in 1287, providing for the restoration of shipwrecke«l 
 property to its original owners, and tiireatening to eject from the " co7isod(xlilate mar.alorum," any city 
 that did not act conformably to the regulations laid down. 
 
IIANSEATIC LEAGUE. 
 
 623 
 
 liberties, which they either wanted courage or inclination to defend, and carried off an 
 enormous bell to Moscow, that has been long regarded with a sort of superstitious 
 veneration as the palladium of the city. But notwithstanding the despotism to which 
 Novogorod was subject, during the reigns of Ivan and his successors, it continued for a 
 considerable period to be the largest as avcU as most commercial city in the Russian 
 empire. The famous Richard Chancellour, who passed through Novogorod in 1554, 
 in his way from the court of t)ie czar, says, that " next unto Moscow, the city of 
 Novogorod is reputed the chiefest of Russia ; for although it be in majestic inferior to 
 it, yet in greatness it goeth beyond it. It is the chiefest and greatest mart town of all 
 Muscovy; and albeit the emperors seat is not there, bvit at Moscow, yet the com- 
 modiousness of the river falling into the Gulf of Finland, whereby it is well frequented 
 by merchants, makes it more famous than Moscow itself." 
 
 But the scourge of the destroyer soon after fell on this celebrated city. Ivan IV., 
 having discovered, in 1570, a correspondence between some of the principal citizens 
 and the King of Poland, relative to a surrender of the city into his liands, punished 
 them in the most inhuman manner. The slaughter by which the bloodthirsty bar- 
 barian sought to satisfy his revenge was alike extensive and undiscriminating. The 
 crime of a few citizens was made a pretext for the massacre of 25,000 or 30,000. 
 Novogorod never recovered from this dreadful blow. It still, however, continued to 
 be a place of considerable trade, until the foundation of Petersburgh, which immediately 
 became the seat of that commerce that had formerly centred at Novogorod. The de- 
 gradation of this ill-fated city is now complete. It is at present an inconsiderable place, 
 with a population of about 7,000 or 8,000 j and is remarkable only for its history and 
 antiquities. 
 
 The merchants of the Hanse towns, or Hansards, as they were then commonly 
 termed, were established in London at a very early period, and their factory here was 
 of considerable magnitude and importance. They enjoyed various privileges and im- 
 munities ; they were permitted to govern themselves by their own laws and regulations ; 
 the custody of one of the gates of the city (Bishopsgate) was comnaitted to their care; 
 and the duties on various sorts of imported commodities were considerably reduced 
 in their favour. These privileges necessarily excited the ill-will and animosity of the 
 English merchants. The Hansards were every now and then accused of acting with 
 bad fiiith ; of introducing commodities as their own that were really the produce of 
 others, in order to enable them to evade the duties with which they ought to have been 
 charged ; of capriciously extending the list of towns belonging to the association ; and 
 obstructing the commerce of the English in the Baltic. Efforts were continually 
 making to* bring these disputes to a termination ; but as they really grew out of the 
 privileges granted to and claimed by the Hansards, this was found to be impossible. 
 The latter were exposed to many indignities ; and their factory, which was situated in 
 Thames Street, was not vmfrequently attacked. The League exerted themselves vigor- 
 ously in defence of their privileges ; and having declared war against England, they 
 succeeded in excluding our vessels from the Baltic, and acted with such energy, that 
 Edward IV. was glad to come to an accommodation with them, on terms which were 
 any thing but honourable to the English. In the treaty for this purpose, negotiated in 
 1474, the privileges of the merchants of the Hanse towns were renewed, and the king 
 assigned to them, in absolute property, a large space of groimd, with the buildings upon 
 it, in Thames 'Street, denominated the Steel Yard, whence the Hanse merchants have 
 been commonly denominated the Association of the Steel Yard ; the property of their 
 establishments at Boston and Lynn was also secured to them ; the king engaged to allow 
 no stranger to participate in their privileges ; one of the articles bore that the Hanse 
 merchants should be no longer subject to the judges of the English Admiralty Court, 
 but that a particular tribunal should be formed for the easy and speedy settlement of all 
 disputes that might arise between them and the English ; and it was further agreed 
 that the particular privileges awarded to the Hanse merchants should be published as 
 often as the latter judged proper, in all the sea-port towns of England, and such 
 Englishmen as infringed upon them should be punished. In return for these con- 
 cessions; the English acquired the liberty of freely trading in the Baltic, and especially 
 in the port of Dantzic and in Prussia. In 1498, all direct commerce with the Nether- 
 lands being suspended, the trade fell into the- hands of the Hanse merchants, whose 
 commerce was in consequence very greatly extended. But, according as the spii it of 
 commercial enterprise awakened in tlie nation, and as the benefits resulting from the 
 prosecution of foreign trade came to be better known, the privileges of the Hanse 
 merchants became more and more obnoxious. They were in consequence considerably 
 modified in the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII., and were at length wholly 
 abolished in 1597. — (AnJcrson''s Hist. Com. Anno 1474, Sfc.) 
 
 The different individuals belonging to the factory in London, as well as those be- 
 longing to the other factories of the League, lived together at a common table, and 
 
62t 
 
 HANSEATIC LEAGUE. 
 
 were enjoined to observe the strictest celibacy. The direction of the factory in London 
 was intrusted to an alderman, 2 assessors, and 9 councillors. The latter were sent 
 by the cities forming the different classes into which the League was divided. The 
 business of these functionaries was to devise means for extending and securing the 
 privileges and commerce of the association ; to watch over the operations of the 
 merchants ; and to adjust any disputes that might arise amongst the members of the 
 confederacy, or between them and the English. The league endeavoured at all times 
 to promote, as much as possible, the employment of their own ^hips. In pursuance of 
 this object, they went so far, in 1447, as to forbid the importation of English merchan- 
 dise into the confederated cities, except by their own vessels. But a regulation of this 
 sort could not be carried into full effect ; and was enforced or modified according as 
 circumstances were favourable or adverse to the pretensions of the League. Its very 
 existence was, however, an insult to the English nation ; and the irritation produced by 
 the occasional attempts to act upon it, contributed materially to the subversion of the 
 privileges the Hanseatic merchants had acquired amongst us. 
 
 By means of their factory at Bergen, and of the privileges which had been either 
 granted to or usurped by them, the League enjoyed for a lengthened period the mono- 
 poly of the commerce of Norway. 
 
 But the principal factory of the League was at Bruges in the Netherlands. Bruges 
 became, at a very early period, one of the first commercial cities of Europe, and the 
 centre of the most extensive trade carried on to the north of Italy. The art of navi- 
 gation in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was so imperfect, that a voyage from 
 Italy to the Baltic and back again could not be performed in a single season ; and 
 hence, for the sake of their mutual convenience, the Italian and Hanseatic merchants 
 determined on establishing a magazine or store-house of their respective products in 
 come intermediate situation. Bruges was fixed upon for this purpose ; a distinction 
 which it seems to have owed as much to the freedom enjoyed by the inhabitants, and 
 the liberality of the government of the Low Countries, as to the conveniency of its 
 situation. In consequence of this preference, Bruges speedily rose to the very highest 
 rank among commercial cities, and became a place of vast wealth. It was at once a 
 staple for English wool, for the woollen and linen manufactures of the Netherlands, for 
 the timber, hemp, and flax, pitch and tar, tallow, corn, fish, ashes, &c. of the North ; and 
 for the spices and Indian commodities, as well as their domestic manufactures imported 
 by the Italian merchants. The fairs of Bruges were the best frequented of any in 
 Europe. Ludovico Guicciardini mentions, in his Description of the Low Countries, 
 that, in the year 1318, no fewer than 5 Venetian galleases, vessels of very considerable 
 burden, arrived in Bruges in order to dispose of their cargoes at the fair. The Han- 
 seatic merchants were the principal purchasers of Indian commodities ; they disposed of 
 them in the ports of the Baltic, or carried them up the great rivers into the heart of 
 Germany. The vivifying effects of this coraraerce were everywhere felt; the regular 
 intercourse opened between the nations in the north and south of Europe made them 
 sensible of their mutual wants, and gave a wonderful stimulus to the spirit of industry. 
 This was particularly the case with regard to the Netherlands. Manufactures of wool 
 and flax had been established in that country as early as the age of Charlemagne ; and 
 the resort of foreigners to their markets, and the great additional vent that was thus 
 opened for their manufactures, made them be carried on with a vigour and success that 
 had been hitherto unknown. These circumstances, combined with the free spirit of 
 their institutions, and the moderation of the government, so greatly promoted every 
 elegant and useful art, that the Netherlands early became the most civilised, best cul- 
 tivated, richest, and most populous country of Europe. 
 
 Decline of the Hanseatic League. — From the middle of the fifteenth century, the 
 power of the confederacy, though still very formidable, began to decline. This was 
 not owing to any misconduct on the part of its leaders, but to the progress of that 
 improvement it had done so much to promote. The superiority enjoyed by the League 
 resulted as much from the anarchy, confusion, and barbarism that prevailed throughout 
 the kingdoms of the North, as from the good government and order that distinguished 
 the towns. But a distinction of this sort could not be permanent. The civilisation 
 which had been at first confined to the cities, gradually spread from them, as from so 
 many centres, over the contiguous country. Feudal anarchy was every where super- 
 seded by a system of subordination ; arts and industry were diffused and cultivated ; 
 and the authority of government was at length firmly established. This change not 
 only rendered the princes, over whom tlie League had so frequently triumphed, superior 
 to it in power ; but the inhabitants of the countries amongst which the confederated 
 cities wcro scattered, having learned to entertain a just sense of the advantages derivable 
 from commerce and navigation, could not brook the superiority of the association, or 
 bear to see its members in possession of immunities of which they were deprived : and 
 in addition to these circumstances, which must speedily luuo occasioned the dissolution 
 
HARBOUR. 
 
 625 
 
 of the League, the interests of the difFcrent cities of which it consisted became daily- 
 more and more opposed to each other. Lubeck, Hamburgh, Bremen, and the towns in 
 their vicinity, were latterly the only ones tliat had any interest in its maintenance. The 
 cities in Zealand and Holland joined it, cliiefly because they would otherwise have been 
 excluded from the commerce of the Baltic; and those of Prussia, Poland, and Russia 
 did the same, because, had they not belonged to it, they would have been shut out from 
 all intercourse with strangers. When, however, the Zealanders and Hollanders became 
 sufficiently powerful at sea to be able to vindicate their right to the free navigation of 
 the Baltic by force of arms, they immediately seceded from the League ; and no sooner 
 had the ships of the Dutch, the English, Sec. begun to trade directly with the Polish 
 and Prussian Hanse towns, than these nations also embraced the first opportunity of 
 withdrawing from it. The fall of this great confederacy was really, therefore, a con- 
 sequence of the improved' state of society, and of the development of the commercial 
 spirit in the different nations of Europe. It was most serviceable so long as those for 
 whom its merchants acted as factors and carriers were too barbarous, too much occu- 
 pied with other matters, or destitute of the necessary capital and skill, to act in these 
 capacities for themselves. When they were in a situation to do this, the functions of 
 the Hanseatic merchants ceased as a matter of course ; their confederacy fell to pieces ; 
 and at the middle of the seventh century the cities of Lubeck, Hamburgh, and Bremen 
 were all that continued to acknowledge the authority of the League. Even to this day 
 they preserve the shadow of its power ; being acknowledged in the act for the esta- 
 blishment of the Germanic confederation, signed at Vienna, the 8th of June, 1815, as 
 free Hanseatic cities. — ( From an ai-ticle in No. 1 3. of the Foreign Quarterly Itevietv, 
 contributed by the author of this work.) 
 
 HARBOUR, HAVEN, or PORT, a piece of water communicating with the sea, 
 or with a navigable river or lake, having depth sufficient to float ships of considerable 
 burden, where there is convenient anchorage, and where ships may lie, load, and unload, 
 screened from the winds, and without the reach of the tide. 
 
 Qualities of a good Harbour. — There is every variety in the form and quality of 
 harbours. They are either natural or artificial ; but, however formed, a good harbour 
 should have sufficient depth of water to admit the largest ships at all times of the tide ; 
 it should be easy of access, without having too wide an entrance ; the bottom should be 
 clean and good ; and ships should be able to lie close alongside quays or piers, th^t the 
 expense and inconvenience of loading and unloading by means of lighters may be 
 avoided. Ships lying in a harbour that is land-locked, and surrounded by high grounds 
 or buildings, are, at once, without the reach of storms, tides, and cui rents ; and may, in 
 most cases, be easily protected from hostile attacks. Bar harbours are those that have 
 bars or banks at their entrances, and do not, therefore, admit of the ingress or egress of 
 large ships except at high water. Tiiese are most commonly river harbours; the sand 
 and mud brought down by the stream, and driven back by the waves, naturally forming 
 a bar or bank at their mouths. 
 
 Best British Harbours. — Good harbours are of essential importance to a maritime 
 nation ; and imme*se sums have Ijeen expended in all countries ambitious of naval or 
 commercial greatness in their improvement and formation. Portsmouth, Milford Haven, 
 and the Cove of Cork are the finest harbours in the British islands, being surpassed by 
 very few, if any, in the world. Of these, Portsmouth is entitled to the pre-eminence. 
 This admirable harbour is about as wide at its mouth as the Thames at -Westminster 
 Bridge, expanding within into a noble basin, almost sufficient to contain the whole navy 
 of Great Britain. Its entrance is unobstructed by any bar or shallow ; and it has, 
 throughout, water adequate to float the largest men of war at the loM-est tides. The 
 anchorage ground is excellent, and it is entirely free from sunken rocks, sand banks, or 
 any similar obstructions. The western side of the harbour is formed by the island of 
 Portsea ; and on its south-western extremity, at the entrance to the harbovn*, is situated 
 the town of Portsmouth, and its large and important suburb Portsea. Here are docks 
 and other establishments for the building, repair, and outfit of ships of war, constructed 
 upon a very large scale, and furnished with every conveniency. The fortifications that 
 protect this great naval depCit, are superior, both as respects strength and extent, to any 
 other in the kingdom. " Thus," to use the words of Dr. Campbell, " it appears that 
 Portsmouth derives from nature all the prerogatives the most fertile wits and most 
 intelligent judges coidd devise or desire ; and that these have been well seconded by art, 
 without consideration of expense, which, in national improvements, is little to be 
 regarded. Add to all this the striking excellence of its situation, which is such as if 
 Providence had expressly determined it for that use to which we see it applied, — the 
 bridling the power of France, and, if I may so speak, the peculiar residence of Neptune." 
 — ( Survey of Great Britain, vol. i. p. 370. ) 
 
 Portsmouth harbour has the additional and important advantage of opening into the 
 
 2 S 
 
626 
 
 HARBOUR. 
 
 celebrated road of Spithead, between the Hampshire coast and the Isle of Wight, forming 
 a safe and convenient retreat for the largest fleets. 
 
 Milford Haven deeply indents the southern part of Pembrokeshire. It is of great 
 extent, and has niany subordinate bays, creeks, and roads. The water is deep, and the 
 anchorage ground excellent ; and being completely land-locked, ships lie as safely as if 
 they were in dock. 
 
 Cork harbour has a striking resemblance to that of Portsmouth, but is of larger 
 extent ; it has, like it, a narrow entrance, leading into a capacious basin, affording a 
 secure asylum for any number of ships. 
 
 Plymouth, which, after Portsmouth, is the principal naval depot of England, has an 
 admirable double harbour. The roadstead in Plymouth Sound has recently been much 
 improved by the construction, at a vast expense, of a stupendous breakwater more than 
 1,700 yards in length. This artificial bulwark protects the ships lying inside from the 
 effects of the heavy swell thrown into the Sound by southerly and south-easterly winds. 
 
 London stands at the head of the river ports of Great Britain, Considering the 
 limited course of the Thames, there is, probably, no river that is navigable for large ships 
 to so great a distance from sea, or whose mouth is less obstructed by banks. London is 
 mainly indebted for the unrivalled magnitude of her commerce to her favourable 
 situation on this noble river ; which not only gives her all the advantages of an excellent 
 port, accessible at all times to the largest ships, but renders her the emporium of the ex- 
 tensive, rich, and populous country comprised in the basin of the Thames. 
 
 The Mersey, now the second commercial river in the empire, is more incommoded 
 by banks than the Thames ; and is in all respects inferior, as a channel of nstvigation, 
 to the latter. Still, however, it gives to Liverpool very great advantages ; and the new 
 channel that has recently been discovered in the banks promises to be of much importance 
 in facilitating the access to and from the port. This channel will be found laid down 
 in the map of Liverpool and its environs, attached to the article Docks in this work. 
 
 Bristol and Hull are both river ports. Owing to the extraordinary rise of the tide 
 in the Bristol Channel, the former is accessible to the largest ships. The Humber 
 is a good deal impeded by banks ; but it also is navigable as far as Hull, by very larga 
 vessels. The Tyne admits vessels of very considerable burden as far as Newcastle, which, 
 next to London, is the most important port, for the extent of the shipping belonging to 
 it, of any in the empire. 
 
 The shallowness of the Clyde from Greenock up to Glasgow has been a serious draw- 
 back upon the commercial progress of the latter. Large sums have been expended in 
 attempts to contract the course and to deepen the bed of the river ; and they have been 
 so far successful, that vessels of 150 tons burden may now, generally speaking, ascend to 
 the city, at all times of the tide. But there seems little probability of its ever becoming 
 suitable for the navigation of ships of pretty large burden. 
 
 Generally speaking, the harbours on the east coasts, both of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 are, with the exception of the Thames, very inferior to those on the south and west 
 coasts. Several harbours on the shores of Sussex, Kent, Lincoln, &c., that once admitted 
 pretty large ships, are now completely choked up by sand. Lar^ sums have been 
 expended upon the ports of Yarmouth, Boston, Sunderland, Leith, Dundee, Aberdeen, 
 &c. Dublin harbour being naturally bad, and obstructed by a bar, a new harbour has 
 been formed, at a great expense, at Kingstown, without the bar, in deep water. There 
 has also been a large outlay upon the harbours of Donaghadee, Portpatrick, &e. 
 
 For an account of the shipping belonging to the different ports of Great Britain and 
 Ireland, the reader is referred to the article Ships in this work. The charges on 
 account of Docks, Pilotage, &c. are specified under these articles. 
 
 Foreign Harbours and Ports. — The reader will find the principal foreign commercial 
 harbours described in this work at considerable length under their respective titles. 
 The principal French ports for the accommodation of men of war are Brest, Toulon, 
 and Cherbourg. The latter has been very greatly improved by the construction of a 
 gigantic breakwater, and the excavation of immense basins. Besides Cadiz, the prin- 
 cipal ports for the Spanish navy are Ferrol and Carthagena. Cronstadt is the principal 
 rendezvous of the Russian navy ; Landscrona of that of Sweden ; and the Helder of that 
 of Holland. 
 
 Law of England as to Harbours. — The anchorage, &c. of ships was regulated by 
 several statutes. But most of these regulations have been repealed, modified, or re- 
 enacted, by the 54 Geo. f?. c. 149. 
 
 This act authorises the Admiralty to provide for the moorings of his Majesty's ships ; and prohibits any 
 private ship from fastening thereto. It further authorises the Admiralty to prohibit the breaming of any 
 ship or vesoel at anyplace or places on shore they may think fit; and to point out the places where 
 l)rivate ships shall deposit the gunpowder they may liave on board exceeding 5 lbs. — 6.) It prohibit.s 
 the use of any (ire on board any shij> or vessel that is being breamed in any port, harbour, or haven, be. 
 twcen the hours of 1 1 in the evening and .G in the morning, from the 1st of October to the 31st of March 
 inclusive; and between the liours of 11 in the evening and 4 in the morning, from the 1st of April to the 
 3<Jth of September iuc/usive : and it prohibits the melting or boiling of any pitch, tar, tallow, &c. witiiiK 
 
HARDWARE. 
 
 627 
 
 250 yards of any of his Majesty's ships, or of his Majesty's dock.yards. By another section, the keeping of 
 guns shotted, and the firing of the same in any port, is prohibited under a penalty of 5*. for every gun 
 kept shotted, and 10*. for every gun disehargod. — (§ 9 ) The sweeping or creeping for anchors, &c. 
 within the tiistarkce of 150 yards of any of his Majesty's ships of war, or of his Majesty's moorings, is pro- 
 hibited under a penalty of UU. for every offence. — 10.) The loading and unloading of ballast is also 
 regulated by this statute ; but for the provisions with respect to it, see Ballast, 
 
 HARDWARE (Ger. Kurze waaren ; Du. Yzerhramery ; Da. Isenhramvarer ; Sw. 
 Jarnkram ; Fr. Clinquaillerie, Quincaillerie ; It. Chincaglio ; Sp. Quinquilhria Port. 
 Quincalharia ; Rus. IM^elotzchnue townrii), includes every kind of goods manufactured 
 from metals, comprising iron, brass steel, and copper articles of all descriptions. 
 Birmingham and Sheffield are the principal seats of the British hardware manufjictures ; 
 and from these, immense quantides of knives, razors, scissars, gilt and plated ware, fire- 
 ai-ms, &c. are supplied, as well !cr exportation to most parts of the world, as for home 
 consumption. 
 
 The hardware manufacture is one of the most important carried on in Great Britain; 
 and from the abundance of iron tin, and copper ores in this country, and our inex- 
 haustible coal mine.s, it is one w ich seems to be established on a very secure foundation. 
 The late Mr. Stevenson, in his elaborate and excellent article on the statistics of Eng- 
 land, in the Edinburgh EncgclopcEdia, published in l815, estimated the value of all the 
 articles made of iron at 10,000,000/., and the persons employed in the trade at 200,000. 
 Mr. Stevenson estimated the value of all the articles made of brass and copper at 
 3,000,000/., and the persons employed at 50,000 : and he further estimated the value of 
 steel, plated, and hardware articles, including toys, at 4,000,000/., and the persons em- 
 ployed at 70,000. So that, assuming these estimates to be nearly correct, the total 
 value of the goods produced from different sorts of metals in England and Wales, 
 in 1815, must have amounted to the sum of 17,000,000/., and the persons employed 
 to 320,000. 
 
 There is reason to believe that this estimate, in so far, at least, as respects the value of 
 the manufacture, was at the time rather too high ; but at this inoment it is most probably 
 within the mark. There has been a very extraordinary augmentation of the quantity of bar 
 and pig iron produced within the last 15 years; and the rapid increase of Birmingham 
 and Sheffield, as well as of the smaller seats of the hardware manufacture, shows that it has 
 been increased in a corresponding proportion. We have been assured, by those well ac- 
 quainted with most departments of the trade, that if to the iron and other hardware 
 manufactures of England be added those of Scotland, their total aggregate value cannot 
 now be reckoned at less than 17,500,000/. a year, affisrding direct employment, in the 
 various departments of the trade, for at least 360,000 persons. 
 
 Eall of Prices. — Owing partly to the reduced cost of iron, but incomparably more to 
 improvements in manufacturing, a very extraordinary fall has taken place in the price of 
 most hardware articles during the last 12 or 15 years. In some articles the fall exceeds 
 80 per cent. ; and there are few in which it does not exceed 30 per cent. In conse- 
 quence, the poorest individuals are now able to supply themselves with an infinite variety 
 of commodious and useful articles, which, half a century ago, were either wholly unknown, 
 or were too dear to be purchased by any but the richer classes. And those who reflect 
 on the importance of the prevalence of habits of cleanliness and neatness will readily agree 
 with us in thinking that the substitution of the convenient and beautiful hardware and 
 earthenware household articles, that are now every where to be met with, for the wooden 
 and horn articles used by our ancestors, has been in no ordinary degree advantageous. 
 But it is not in this respect only that the cheapness and improvement of hardw^are is 
 essential. Many of the most powerful and indispensable tools and instruments used by 
 the labourer come under this description ; and every one is aware how important it is 
 that they should be at once cheap and efficient. 
 
 Account of the real or declared Value of the different Articles of Hardware exported from Great Britaia 
 to Foreign Countries, during the Year ended 5th of January, 1833. 
 
 ^ s. d. 
 
 Brass and copper manufactures „ _ - . 916,226 4 9 
 
 Hardware and cutlery ... - - 1,433,297 17 5 
 
 Iron and steel, wrought and unwrought _ _ - - 1,189,250 10 2 
 
 Mathematical and optical instruments - - - - 16,430 18 5 
 
 Plate, plated ware, jewellery, and watches - - » - 173,617 13 1 
 
 Tin and pewter wares (exclusive of unwrought tin) - - - 243,191 5 10 
 
 Total . 3,972,014~9~8 
 
 The exports of the same articles during the year ended 5th of January, 1820. were as follows : — 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Brass and copper manufactures - - - . - 653,859 13 5 
 
 Hardware and cutlery . . - - . 1,4;")9,51() 19 7 
 
 Iron and steel, wrought and unwrought (mathematical instruments not specified) 924,448 8 1 
 Tin and pewter wares ^exclusivf-f unwrought tin) - - - 187,^>11 10 7 
 
 Total - ,£^,915,630 lT~8 
 
 Increase of the exports of 1832 over those of 1819 
 
 2 3 2 
 
628 
 
 HARPOONER. — HATS. 
 
 'iTie East Indies and China are by far the most important markets for our brass and copper manufac* 
 lures. The total exports of" these articles, in 1831, amounted to 80.3,124;. ; of which they took 348,045/., the 
 United States lfi9,563/., and France 91,580/. Of the total exports of hardware and cutlery in 1831, 
 amounting to 1,622,429/. the United States took nc less than 998,469/. ! The British possessions in North 
 America and the West Indies were the next most important customers; but the exports to them both 
 did not amount to 190,000/. The United States, and the possessions now referred to, take the greatest 
 quantity of our iron and steel ; the ex|!orts to the former, in 1831, being 248,707/., and those to the latter 
 245,223/. The United States take nearly a half of our exports of plate and plated ware, &c. 
 
 HARPOONER, the man that throws the harpoon in fishing for whales. By 
 35 Geo. 3. c. 92. § 34., no harpooner, line manager, or boat steerer, belonging to any 
 ship or vessel litted out for the Greenland or Soutiiern whale fisheries, shall be impressed 
 from the said service ; but shall be privileged from being impressed so long as he shall 
 belong to, and be employed on board, any ship or vessel whatever in the fisheries 
 aforesaid. 
 
 HATS (Ger. Hiite ; Du. Iloeden ; Fr. Chapeaux ; It. Cappelli ; Sp. Sombreros; 
 Rus. Schlopii), coverings for the head in very general use in Great Britain and many 
 other countries, and known to every body. They are made of very various forms and 
 sorts of material. They may, however, be divided into two great classes, viz. those 
 made of fur, wool, silk, &c., and those made of straw ; the former being principally worn 
 by men, and the latter by women. 
 
 Hats (Fur, Wool, etc.). — The manufacture of this description of hats, which is one 
 of very considerable importance and value, was first noticed as belonging to England in 
 the 14th century, in reference to the exportation 'of rabbit or coney skins from the 
 Netherlands. About a century afterwards (1463), the importation of hats was pro- 
 hibited. A duty of 10s. 6d. a hat was substituted for this absolute prohibition in 1816, 
 and is still continued. The following instructive details with respect to the species of 
 hats manufictured, their value, &c., have been obtained from the highest practical au- 
 thority ; and may, v/e believe, be safely relied on : — 
 
 1. Stuff Hats. ^ThXs term is applied by the trade only to the best description of hats, or to those 
 brought to the higliest perfection in London. Since the introduction of " waterproofing," it is found 
 unnecessary to use so valuable a material as beaver in the foundation or frame-work of the best hats. 
 Instead of it, fine seasoned backs of English coney wool, red Vigonia wool, Dutch carroted coney wool, 
 and a small quantity of fine Saxony lamb's wool, are employed with equal advantage. 
 
 The covering, i. e. the "napping," of the best qualities is a mixture of cheek beaver, with white and 
 brown stage beaver, or seasoned beaver, commonly called ^^wooms." Inferior stuffs are napped with 
 mixtures of stage beaver, nutria, hares' wool, and musquash. 
 
 Of late years, hats have been much reduced in weight. This is principally owing to the new method of 
 
 waterproofing," which is effected in the bodies of the hats prior to their being nappcu. The elastic 
 properties of the gums employed for this purpose, when dissolved in pure spirits of wine, give a body to 
 the stuffs which allows a good deal of their weight to be dispensed with. 
 
 Not 20 years ago, 96 ounces of stuff were worked -p into 1 dozen ordinary sized hats for gentlemen ; 
 at present, from 33 to 34 ounces only are required to complete the same quantity. It is proper to observe 
 that the heavy duty on English spirits of wine is very injurious to the manufacture, as it causes the em- 
 ployment of inferior dissolvents, as naphtha and gas spirit, which injure the gums. 
 
 The manufacture of the best hats employs in London nearly 1,000 makers and finishers, besides giving 
 employment to nearly 3,000 men in Gloucestershire and Derbyshire, in body-making and ruffing. Tiie 
 gross returns amount to about 040,000/. 
 
 2. Plated Hats. — Next to fine hats are those designated " plated," so called from the plate, or napping, 
 being of a distinct and superior nature to the foundation or body. The latter is generally formed of Kent, 
 Spanish, or Shropshire wool ; while the former consists of a mixture of tine beaver, hares' wool, mus- 
 quash, nutria, and English back wool. From the cheapness of coal and the purity of the water in Lan- 
 cashire, Cheshire, and Staffordshire, the whole of the plating trade is engrossed by them. The men 
 employed in the 3 counties, including apprentices, do not exceed 3,000. The total amount of returns 
 amount to about 1,080,000/., inclusive of bonnets, and children's fancy beaver hats. 
 
 3. Felt Hats and Cordies are the coarsest species, being made wholly of Kent, Shropshire, and Italian 
 wools. Cordies are distinguished by a fine covering of camel or goat hair. A very large trade was at one 
 time carried on in these articles; but since the introduction of caps, and the manutacttire of inferior 
 plates, the returns have sunk from 1,000,000/. to scarcely 150,000/.! Atherstone, Rudgeley, Bristol, and 
 Newcastle-under-Line, are the principal places where they are manufactured. 
 
 4. Silk Hats, made from silk, plush, or shag, manufactured in Coventry, Banbury, and Spitalfields, form, 
 at present, a very important branch of the hat trade. Many thousand dozen are exported to Italy, Gib- 
 raltar, the Cape, Sydney, and Van Diemen's Land. Little progress was made in this article for the first 
 •■juarterof a century after its invention, in consequence of the hard appearance which the cane and wil- 
 low frame-work necessarily gave the hats; but now that beaver hat bodies have been used, as well as 
 those of lawn and muslin, this difliculty has been overcome, and silk hats have as soft an outline and as 
 great a variety of shapes as beaver hats. London alone produces nearly 150,000dozen silk hats annually ; 
 and the quantity manufactured in Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and Glasgow, is estimated at 
 upwards of 100,000 dozen more, making a total of above 2.50,000 dozen. Large quantities of the wool 
 shells, used as the foundations or frame-work, are made in Ireland by the aid of machinery. The work- 
 men are distinct from beaver hatters ; and, owing to the competition of labourers, the trade has advanced 
 in a greater ratio. This branch gives employment to about 3,000 men. 
 
 5. Machinery, as applied to Hats. — Mr. Williams, an American, introduced, a few years since, ma- 
 chinery for the bowing, breaking up, and felting wools for hats. The opposition of the journeymen 
 body-makers, who refused to assist in the necessary process termed basining, caused it to be laid aside : 
 it is now used only in the preparation of the shells required for silk hats, wliich, as already observed, are 
 principally made in Ireland. 
 
 Mr. Edward OUerenshaw, of Manchester, began, in 1824, the finishing of hats by the aid of machinery, 
 but the pertinacious opposition of the men prevented his accomplishing this desirable object. Lately, 
 ]\Ir. Johnson of Edinburgh obtained a patent for machinery calculated to effect very important improve- 
 ments in the art of ruffing or covering the bodies of hats. But we understand that the opposition of the 
 workmen has, also, made him lay aside his invention. 
 
HATS. 
 
 629 
 
 6. Summary of Results. 
 
 HiU. Value. \ Declared Value of Hal fjporUd, lH:i2. 
 
 L. t. d. j r„ 
 All sorts, 02,851 dozen - . 170,18? 
 
 Plated ..... 1,080,000 
 
 Stuffs 640,000 
 
 Wools* .... . I(i0,000 
 
 Silk - - . ... 540,000 
 
 L. 2,420,000 0 0 
 
 * Including fultcd caps for soldiers. 
 
 Ofpclal Value. 
 Beivcr and fcKs - . - lH,9fi5 0 
 
 AUothtr - . . 1»,377 0 
 
 Total numlier of men emjiloycd in the manufacture of 
 beaver hats . . . - . 17,000 
 
 Ditto, silk hats .... 3,00tt 
 
 Hats (Straw). — It is most probable that the idea of plaiting straws was first suggested 
 by the making of baskets of osiers and willow, alluded to by Virgil, in liis Pastorals, as 
 one of the pursuits of the agricultural population of Italy. We arc ignorant of the 
 period when the manufacture of straw plait first became of importance in that country ; 
 but it appears from Coryat's Crudities, published in 1611, that "the most delicate 
 strawen hats" were worn by both men and women in many places of Piedmont, " many 
 of them having at least an hundred seames." It is evident, therefore, that the art of 
 straw plaiting must have arrived at great perfection upwards of two centuries since; but 
 it does not appear to have been followed in England for more than 60 or 70 years, as it 
 is within the remembrance of some of the old inhabitants of the straw districts, now 
 alive, that the wives and daughters of the farmers used to plait straw for making their 
 own bonnets, before straw plaiting became established as a manufacture. In fact, the 
 custom, among the women in England, of wearing bonnets at all, is comparatively mo- 
 dern : it is not yet 100 years since " hoods and pinners" were generally worn, and it was 
 only the ladies of quality who wore small silk hats. — ( See Malcolm'' s Manners and 
 Customs. ) 
 
 British Plait. — The rfraw plait district comprises the counties of Bedford, Hertford, and Bucking- 
 ham, b^ing the most favourable for the production of the wheat straw, which is the material chiefly used 
 in England. The manutiuture is also followed" in some places in Essex and Suffolk, but very partially in 
 other counties. During the late war, the importation of straw hats from Leghorn having in a great 
 measure ceased, an extraordinary degree of encouragement was given to our domestic manufacture, and 
 a i)roportional degree of comfort was derived by the agricultural labourers in these places, by the wives 
 and children of whom it was chiefly followed. This produced competition, and led to an imnrovement c\ 
 the plait by splitting!; the straw, which had formerly been used entire — to a more careful selection of the 
 straw itself — and also to improvements in finishing and bleaching. So successful was straw plaiting at 
 this period, that it has been ascertained that women have earned as much as 22s. a week for their labour. 
 (Sec Evidence on the Poor Laics, p. 277.) But at the conclusion of the war, Leghorn hats again came 
 into the market ; and from their superiority in fineness, colour, and durability, they speedily acquired a 
 preference over our home manufacture, which consequently began to decline. Still the wages continued 
 good, as the fashion of wearing Dunstable straw hats had gradually established itself over the country, 
 which kept up the demand for them ; and many individuals abandoned the working of pilloio lace (another 
 domestic manufacture peculiar to Bedford and Bucks, which in 1S20 had fallen into decay, owing to the 
 application of machinery), and betook themselves to straw plaiting, as a more profitable emplojment. 
 With the view of improving the condition of the straw plaiters, who from their increased numbers were 
 reduced to great distress, and enabling them to meet the foreign competition, the Society of Arts, in the 
 years 1822 to 1827, held out premiums for the successful application of some of our native grasses or 
 straw, other than the wheat straw in general use, and for improvements in plaiting, finishing, and bleach- 
 ing. Many specimens were sent to the Society ; and, amongst other candidates, Mr. Parry, of London, in 
 18'i2, received the large silver medal for an iniitation and description of the mode of plaiting the Lc>ghoiTt 
 hats. Mr. Cobbett, also, who had contributed samples of plaiting, made from 15 different sorts of grass iiv- 
 digenous ta England, received a similar reward. The publication of these contributions in the Societyo 
 Transactions was followed by the most beneficial results to the British m.anufacture. Our native grasses 
 were not found to promise much success, owing to the brittleness of their stems and the unevenness of 
 their colour ; but Mr. I'arry's communication was of especial importance, as the straw of Tuscany speedily 
 became an article of import. He immediately set the example, by teaching and employing above 70 
 women and children to plait the straw by the Italian method ; and it is peculiarly gratifying to observe, as 
 an evidence of its success, that while the importation of Leghorn hats has, during the last few years, 
 been on the decline, the immanvfaciured material has been progressively on the increase. I'his straw, 
 which is imported at a nominal duty of \d. a cwt., is chiefly plaited in our straw districts ; and the 
 Tuscan plait, which pays a duty of 17s. per lb., has likewise been largely impoited, and made up into 
 bonnets in this country, of equal fineness and beauty to the genuine Leghorn hat. 
 
 I here is, perhaps, no manuiacture more deserving of encouragement and sympathy than that of straw 
 plait, as it is quite independent of machinery, and is a domestic and healthful employment, affording 
 subsistence to great numbers of the families of agricultural labourers, who without this resource would 
 be reduced to parish relief By the estimate of an intelligent individual, intimately acquainted with the 
 manufacture, it is considered 'that every score (or 20 yards) of plait consumes a pound of straw in the 
 state in which it is bought of the farmer; that, at an average, every plaiter makes 15 yards per diem ; 
 that in the counties of Hertford, Bedford, and Bucks, there are, at an average, 10,000 scores brought to 
 mai ket everv dav, to make which 13,oC0 persons (women and children) must be employed. In Essex and 
 Siifl[blk, it is'estimated that 2,000 scores are the daily produce, to make which about 3,000 persons are em- 
 j>loyed ; and about 4,(4 0 persons more must be employed to convert these quantities into bonnets. In- 
 cluding other places where the manufacture is carried on in England, there arc, pcrhajis, in all, about 3(\000 
 persons engaged in it. The earnings of the women and children vary from Zd. to cs. 6d. per score, or from 
 Is.Gd. to ICS. per week. There are 7 descriptions of plait in. general use ; \\z. whole Dunstable (the 
 first introduced), plaited with 7 entire straws ; split straw, introduced about SO years since; patent Dun- 
 stable, or double 7, formed of 14 split straws, every 2 wetted and laid together, invented about 25 years 
 since ; Devonshire, formed of 7 split straws, invented about Ifi years since ; Luton plait (an imitation 
 of whole Dunstable), formed of double 7, and coarser than patent Dunstable, ir.vented about 10 years 
 since ; Bedford Leghorn, formed of 22 or double 11 straws, and plaited similarly to the Tuscan ; and Italian, 
 formed of 11 split straws. But there are other varieties in fancy straw plait, not generally in demand for 
 the home trade, but chiefly required for exportation; such as the backbone, of 7 straws ; the lustre, of 
 17 straws ; the wave, of 22 straws ; and dia?nond, of i!o straws. There were other plaits, called rttstic, of 
 4 coarse straws split ; and pearl, of 4 small straws entire ; but these are now superseded. The principal 
 markets are Luton, Dun.stablc, and St. Alban's, wliere the plait is usually brought every morning by the 
 plaiters, and bought by the dealers, 
 
 2 S 3 
 
630 
 
 HATS. 
 
 But the advantages which followed the publication, by the Society of Arts, of the various attempts to 
 improve tlie trade, were not confined ta England. Messrs. J. & A. Muir, of Greenock, (who subsequently 
 sent specimens to the Society, and received 2 different rnedals), were in consequence attracted to the 
 manufacture, and in 182-3 established straw plaiting, in imitation of Leghorn, in the Orkney Islands, with 
 singular success, adopting rye straw, dwarfed by being grown on poor land, as the material best suited for 
 the purpose. In the estimation of persons largely employed in the trade in London, hats manufactured 
 in Orkney are quite equal, both in colour and quality, to those of Leghorn ; indeed, some of the plait sent 
 to the Society was so fine, as to be capable of making a hat of 80 rows in the brim, being equal to 10 or 11 
 rows in an inch ; but we learn with regret that the prevalence of mildew in that humid climate is so in- 
 auspicious to the bleaching of the straw, that it is equal to 50 per cent, on the value of the crop. To this 
 circumstance, and to the low prices of Leghorn hats of late years, is to be ascribed the difficulty they have 
 had, even with the protecting duty of M. 8s. per dozen, in withstanding the competition of the foreign 
 manufacturer. In their letter to the Society of Arts, of the 10th of February, 18'26, Messrs. Muir stated, — 
 *' We had last year about 5 acres of straw, which will produce about 12,000 score of plait, — suppose on 
 the average of o score to the hat, will be 4,000 hats, not more. We think them one hundredth part of the 
 consumption of the United Kingdom. These 4,000 hats may give to the manufacturer, including his profit, 
 5,000/. For seed and straw 7 acres of land would be required, and in manufacturing 500 persons would be 
 constantly employ ed all the year. We suppose the consumption of Leghorn hats to be not less than 
 500,000/. in the United Kingdom : now, were these all made by our own industrious population, 7(X) acres 
 of poor land would be required, and 50,000 persons would be employed in the manufacture." — (Trans, of 
 Soc. Arts.) The plaiters in Orkney were earning, in 1827, only from 2s. to 2*. 6rf. per week, and since that 
 period the trade, it is understood, has declined. 
 
 Italian Plait. — In Italy, the manufacture is principally followed in the neighbourhood of Florence, Pisa, 
 Sienna, and the Vai d'Arno, in the Duchy of Tuscany; and it is also established at Venice and othei 
 places. There, as in England, it is purely a domestic manufacture, and the produce is collected by dealers 
 who go round the country. There is no means of estimating, with any degree of accuracy, the number ol 
 individuals employed, as the government is entirely unprovided with statistical data, and is even opposed 
 to any being collected. But supposing that England took about a third of the Italian manufacture (and it 
 is believed that we have taken nearer a half), it would not appear that, even in the most prosperous times, 
 more than o0,000 persons could have been engaged in it. 
 
 The description of straw used, which is cultivated solely for the purposes of the manufacture, and not 
 for the grain, is the triticum turgidum, a variety of bearded wheat, which seems to ditler in no respect 
 from the spring wheat grown in the vale of Evesham and other parts of England. — {Trans, of Soc. Arts.) 
 After undergoing a certain preparatory process, the upper parts of the stems (being first sorted as to colour 
 and thickness) arc formed into a plait of generally 13 straws, which is afterwards knitted together at the 
 edges into a circular shape called a "flat," or hat. The fineness of the flats is determined by the 
 number of rows of plait which compose them (counting from the bottom of the crown to the edge of the 
 brim), and their relative fineness ranges from about No. 20. to 60., being the rows contained in the breadth 
 of the brim, which is generally 8 inches. They are afterwards assorted into 1st, 2d, and 3d qualities^ 
 wiiich are determined by the colour and texture; the most faultless being denominated the 1st, while the 
 most defective is described as the 3d quality. These qualities are much influenced by the season of the 
 year in which the straw is plaited. Spring is the most favourable, not only tor plaiting, but for bleaching 
 and finishing. The dust and perspiration in summer, and the benumbed fingers of the workwomen in 
 winter, when they are comi)elled to keep within their smoky huts, plaiting the cold and wet straw, are 
 equally injurious to the colour of the hats, which no bleaching can improve. The flats are afterwards 
 made up in cases of 10 or 2U dozen, assorted in progressive numbers or qualities, and the price of the 
 middle or average number governs the whole. The Brozzi make bears the highest repute, and the Sinna 
 is considered secondary ; which names are given to the flats, from the districts where they are plaited. 
 Florence is the principal market, and the demand is chiefly from England, France, Germany, and Ame- 
 rica ; but the kinds mostly required are the lower numbers ; the very finest hats, and particularly of late, 
 being considered too expensive by the buyers. 
 
 The importation of Leghorn straw hats has very sensibly decreased of late years, owing to the change 
 of fashion in favour of silk bonnets, and.also the prevailing and increasing practice of English dealers, from 
 the high duty on tiie maimfactured article, importing the straw plait, and the straw itself for the purpose 
 of being knitted, plaited, and finished in this country. This has been attended with serious consequences 
 to the poor straw |)laiters of Tuscany, many of whom have abandoned the trade and betaken themselves 
 to other occupations, particularly to the working of red woollen caps for Greece and Turkey; immense 
 quantities of which have been exported from Leghorn since the peace. With the view of counteracting 
 the ruinous effects which our high duty entailed on their trade, the merchants and dealers jn Tuscany, 
 interested in the straw hat manufacture, petitioned their government, in 1830, to remonstrate with ours on 
 the subject ; but this remonstrance, if ever made, was not likely, from the condition of our own popu- 
 lation, to be very favourably received. 
 
 The following prices of different numbers and qualities of Leghorn hats are considered such as would 
 encourage the work-people in Tuscany to produce good work: — 
 
 No. 50. 
 40. 
 45. 
 
 First Quality. 
 
 Second Quality. 
 
 Third Quality. 
 
 Tuscan. EnsHsh. 
 
 £ s d. 
 11 lire =074 
 21 _ = 0 14 0 
 26 — = 0 17 4 
 
 Tuscan. English. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 10 lire =068 
 20 — = 0 13 4 
 25 — = 0 16 8 
 
 Tuscan. English. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 8 lire = 0 .') 4 
 18 — = 0 12 0 
 
 23 — = 0 15 4 
 
 The straw for plaiting a No. 30. at 8 lire, costs 2 lire, about \s. 4(/. English ; for bleaching and finishing, 
 1 lira = 8^/. ; the estimated loss of rows in a mass, that either go up into the crown in the process of 
 finishing and pressing, or that must be taken from the brim to reduce it to London measure (22 inches), 
 may be calculated at 1 lira more, or 8c?. As it requires not less than 6 days for plaiting and knitting the 
 hat there therefore -emains only 4 lire, or '2s. M. English, for a week's work ! Cheap as subsistence may 
 be on the Continent, surely this miserable pittance is not calculated to excite the envy of the poorest 
 labourer in England. But the earnings of the straw plaiters solely depend on their abilities and in. 
 dustry The straw is furnished to them to be plaited and knitted, and they are paid according to the 
 number or fineness of the hat. Some of the Brozzi women have earned as much as 4 lire, or about 2s. 9d. 
 to .3s per day, when hats were at the highest, (calculating the time in which they can plait and knit a hat, 
 at 8 days for" a No. 30., and a fortnight for a No. 40.) ; and these chosen few still earn about Is. 6d. per day ; 
 but taking the whole plaiters, the following, in the opinion of a house largely iirterested in the trade in 
 Italy, may be considered as a fair calculation of the average wages which have been paid during the last 
 15 years : — 
 
 Women earned per diem, in the year 1817, Is. Cd. ; 1819-20, Sd. ; 1823-5, Is. 6d. ; 1826-7, 6d. ; 1828-32) 
 M. Men, for ironing the hats, 4s. a day ; ditto, for pressing and washing. Is. 6d. to 2s. ; women, for 
 picking straw. Is. to Is. 2rf. 
 
HAVANNAH. 
 
 631 
 
 The following statement shows the imports into England of Italian straw hats, straw plait, and un- 
 aianufactured straw, during the last 13 years : — 
 
 185!0 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 182.') 
 1826 
 1827 
 182S 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Hats or Bonnets of Straw. 
 
 Imi)orted. Exported. 
 
 No. 
 
 62,510 
 111,412 
 143,225 
 129,902 
 199,432 
 327.1MO 
 231,607 
 2.'>3,863 
 384,072 
 160,195 
 162,660 
 
 84,066 
 169,433 
 
 No. 
 
 2,633 
 12,595 
 19,950 
 
 5,075 
 
 9,281 
 13,433 
 12,334 
 
 8,377 
 27,030 
 54,132 
 24,980 
 35,271 
 
 Consump- 
 tion. 
 
 No. 
 71,929 
 120,068 
 117,020 
 121,651 
 195,568. 
 247,447 
 204,974 
 255,fi40 
 274,906 
 234,254 
 16S,.'>25 
 93,947 
 60,830 
 
 20,4t!8 
 34,365 
 34,.037 
 35,360 
 55,771 
 69,047 
 58,145 
 72,468 
 77,784 
 66,393 
 47,760 
 26.644 
 17,280 
 
 The duty on hats of less than 22 inches in dia- 
 meter was, during the above period, 3/. Us. per 
 dozen ; above 22 inches, 6/. 16*. 
 
 Plaitinf? of Straw. 
 
 Imported.'Exported.l Consump. Nett ]U 
 
 44 
 518 
 4,254 
 4,233 
 14,037 
 8,836 
 .3,928 
 5,502 
 6,282 
 6,183 
 23,354 
 19,109 
 
 955 
 904 
 283 
 487 
 756 
 2,102 
 1.605 
 
 30 
 525 
 3,034 
 4,906 
 11,850 
 6,916 
 3,947 
 5,100 
 3,310 
 7,884 
 16,450 
 17,911 
 
 L. 
 
 2 
 26 
 447 
 
 ;,350 
 ,335 
 :,834 
 ,669 
 i,287 
 1,174 
 
 The rate of duty, during the above period, 
 was 17.S. per lb. 
 
 Unmanufact. Straw, 
 
 Imi;orted 
 
 I Nctt Ke- 
 
 787 
 
 82 
 36 
 79 
 420 
 
 4,199 
 6,050 
 18,.'i86 
 22,314 
 48,1154 
 
 The duty, from 
 1820 to 182.">, wag 
 20 i)er cent. ; from 
 1825 to 1832, 10 
 percent. It is now 
 1(/. per cwt. 
 
 We are indebted for this very excellent article on straw hats to Mr. Robert Slater, of Fore Street, 
 London. 
 
 HAVANNAH, or HAVANA, a large and flourishing city, situated on the north 
 coast of the noble island of Cuba, of which it is the capital, the Morro castle being, 
 according to Humboldt, in lat. 23° 8' 15" N., Ion. 82'' 22' 45" W. The population, 
 exclusive of troops and strangers (which may amount to 25,000), is probably not far 
 short of 115,000. In 1817, the resident population amounted to 83,598; viz. 37,885 
 whites, 9,010 free coloured, 12,361 free blacks, 2,543 coloured slaves, and 21,799 black 
 slaves. The port of Havannah is the finest in the West Indies, and one of the best in 
 the world. The entrance is narrow, but the water is deep, without bar or obstruction 
 of any sort, and within it expands into a magnificent bay, capable of accommodating 
 1,000 large ships; vessels of the greatest draught of water coming close to the quays. 
 The city lies along the entrance to, and on the west side of, the bay. The suburb Regla 
 is on the opposite side. The Morro and Punta castles, the former on the east, and the 
 latter on the west, side of the entrance of the harbour, are strongly fortified, as is the 
 entire city ; the citadel is also a place of great strength ; and fortifications have been 
 erected on such of the neighbouring heights as cominancl the city or port. The arsenal 
 and dock-yard lie toward the western angle of the bay, to the south of the city. In the 
 city the streets are narrow, inconvenient, and filthy ; but in the suburbs, now as extensive 
 as the city, they are wider and better laid out. Latterly, too, the police and cleanliness 
 of all parts of the town have been materially improved. — (See Plan of Havajinah, in the 
 Map of Central America and the West Indies, in this work. ) 
 
 From its position, which commands both inlets to the Gulf of Mexico, its great strength, and excellent 
 harbour, Havannah is, in a political point of view, by far the most important maritime station in the 
 West Indies. As a commercial city it also ranks in the first class ; being, in this respect, second to none 
 in the New World, New York only excepted. For a long period, Havannah engrossed almost the whole 
 foreign trade of Cuba ; but since the relaxation of the old colonial system, various ports, such, for 
 instance, as Matanzas*, that were hardly known 30 years ago, have become places of great commercial 
 importance. The rapid extension of the commerce of Havannah is, therefore, entirely to be ascribed to 
 the freedom it now enjoys, and to the great increase of wealth and population in the city, and generally 
 throughout the island. 
 
 The advance of Cuba, during the last half century, has been very great ; though not more, perhaps, 
 than might have been expected, from its natural advantages, at least since its ports were freely opened 
 to foreigners, in 1809. It is at once the largest and the be.<t situated of the West India islands. It is 
 about 603 miles in length; but its breadth from north to south nowhere exceeds 117 miles, and is in 
 many places much less. Its total area, exclusive of that of the numerous keys and islands attached to it, 
 is about 31,500 square miles. The climate is, generally speaking, delightful ; the refreshing sea breezes 
 preventing the heat from ever becoming excessive, and fitting it for the growth of a vast variety of pro- 
 ducts. Hurricanes, which are so destructive in Jamaica and the Caribbee Islands, are here comparatively 
 rare; and, when they do occur, far less violent. The soil is of very various qualities : there is a con- 
 siderable extent of swampy marshes and rocks unfit for any sort of cultivation ; but there is much soil 
 that is very superior, and capable of affording the most luxuriant crops of sugar, coffee, maize, &c. The 
 ancient policy, now fortunately abandoned, of restricting the trade of the island to 2 or 3 ports, caused all 
 the population to congregate in their vicinity, neglecting the rest of the island, and allowing some of the 
 finest land and best situations for planting to remain unoccupied. But since a different and more liberal 
 policy has been followed, population has begun to extend itself over all the most fertile districts, wherever 
 they are to be met with. The first regular census of Cuba was taken in 1775, when the whole resident 
 
 population amounted to 170,370 souls. Since tbis period the increase has been as follows; l/Oj 
 
 272,140 J 1817, 551,998; and 18i!7, 704,867 ; exclusive of strangers. We subjoin a " ' 
 
 • In 1827, Matanzas had a population of 15,000 souls. During the same year, its imports were valued 
 at 1,387,500 dollars, and its exports at 1,717,347 dollars; and 231 vessels entered, and 251 cleared fropj 
 its port. We have looked into our latest Gazetteers, but to no purpose, for any notice of this place. 
 Those, indeed, who know that the best of these publications sets dcvn the population of Havannah at 
 25,000, will probably think that this was very unnecessary labour. 
 
 2 S 4 
 
632 HAVANNAH. 
 
 Classification of the Population of Cuba according to the Censuses of 1775 and 1827. 
 
 
 1775. 
 
 1827., 1 
 
 Whites 
 
 Free mill at toes 
 Frtv .ilacks 
 Slaves 
 
 Male. 
 54,555 
 10,021 
 5,9 '.g 
 2S,774 
 
 Female. 
 40,864 
 
 9,003 
 
 15,5G2 
 
 Total. 
 95,419 
 19,027 
 1] ,558 
 44,35G 
 
 Male. 
 
 168,053 
 28,058 
 23,904 
 
 183,^90 
 
 Female. 
 
 142,398 
 29,456 
 25,079 
 
 103.fi52 
 
 Tntal. , 
 311,051 
 
 57,514 
 
 4S,9S0 
 286,942 
 
 Total 
 
 99,.30y 
 
 71,0G1 
 
 170,570 
 
 403,905 
 
 300,582 
 
 704,487 1 
 
 We reidily discover, from this Talile, thnt, in the term of 52 
 years, from 1775 to 1827, the increase of thj iliiferent classes 
 of the population has been as follows : — 
 
 From To Per ct. 
 The white male population increased 51,555 168,653, or 209 
 The white female — 40,864 142,398, — 248 
 
 The free mulatto male population 
 
 The free mulatto female _ 
 
 The free black male 
 
 'I'he free black female — 
 The slave (black and mulatto), mile 
 
 From To Per cf . 
 10,021 28,058, — 180 
 9,0f)6 29,156, - 227 
 5,959 23,901,-301 
 5,629 25,076, — 345 
 28,774 183,5!90, - 537 
 
 The slave (black and mulatto), female 15,562 103,652,-556 
 A very large part of the rapid increase of the black population is to be ascribed to the continuance of 
 the slsve trade ; which, unfortunately for the real interests of the island, has been prosecuted of late years 
 to an extent, ami with a vigour, unknown at any former period. From 1811 to 18-'5 there were imported 
 into Cuba 185,000 African slaves ; of wh ch number llri,()00 are said to have been entered at the Havannah 
 Custom-house, between ISl 1 and 1820 ! lince 1825, the imports of slaves are understood to have increased • 
 and were believed, indeed, to be about as great in 1832 as ever, notwithstanding the trade was to have 
 entirely ceased in 1820. — {Report of 1832 on West India Colonies, Minutes of Evidence, p. ) It is be 
 sides, supi)osed that the slaves were under-rated in the census of 1827; so that, perhaps the entire 
 population of the island is, at present, little, if at all, under 900,000. The planters of Cuba derive con- 
 siderable assistance from free labourers, mostly of an Indian mixed breed, who work for moderate wages 
 They are not much employed in the fiel.ls, but in other branches of labour; and particularly in brinsuT^ 
 the sugar from the interior to the shipping ports. ° 
 
 But Havannah having ceased to he the only port for the 
 exportation of sugar, as it was in former times, we must ad- 
 vert to the trade of" the other ports, to obtain a correct account 
 of the whole exports of sugar. The following are the Custom- 
 
 the finest quality, coffee, tobacco, bees' wax, honey, molasses, 
 &c. Of these, the first is decidedly the most i'.nportaaf. The 
 following statements show the astonishing increase that has 
 taken place in the exportation of this staple article : — 
 
 
 
 Boxes, at 400 lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 om 1760 to 
 
 1767 
 
 13,000 = 
 
 5,200,000 
 
 1786 - 
 
 1790 
 
 68,150 
 
 27,260,000 
 
 1790 — 
 
 1800 
 
 110,091 
 
 44,036,400 
 
 1800 - 
 
 1810 
 
 177,998 
 
 71,199,200 
 
 1810 - 
 
 1820 
 
 207,695 
 
 83,078,400 
 
 1820- 
 
 1825 
 
 250,384 
 271,0131 
 
 100,153,600 
 
 In 1S'<;6 
 
 
 108,405,500 
 
 1827 
 
 
 264,954i 
 
 105,981,800 
 
 1828 
 
 
 268,586 
 
 107,434,400 
 
 1829 
 
 
 260,857 
 
 104,312,800 
 
 1830 
 
 
 292,732 
 
 117,092,800 
 
 1831 
 
 
 276,330 
 
 110,532,000 
 
 1H32 
 
 
 297,557 
 
 119,022,800 
 
 1S33 
 
 
 284,925 
 
 113,970,000 
 
 house returns for 1827 ; 
 
 Exports of sugar from Havannah 
 
 — Santiago 
 
 — Nuevitas 
 
 — Matanzas - 
 
 — Trinidad 
 
 — Holguin 
 
 — Jagiia 
 
 — Manzanilla 
 
 Total 
 
 But as the Custom-house reports are 
 founded upon the assumption that a box 
 of sunar weighs but 15 armhas (375 lbs ), 
 while its true weight is, after deducting 
 the tare, at least 16 arrobas (400 lbs.), 
 they add to their amount one sixteenth (it 
 should be one fifteenth}, viz. 
 
 Making a totcil of 
 
 99,354,137 lbs. 
 6,032,673 — 
 375,275 _ 
 30,364,844* — 
 10,561,337 — 
 351,450 — 
 12,500 — 
 120,800 — 
 
 149,973,106 lbs. 
 
 156,158,924 lbs. 
 
 This is, however, only the Custom-house report. A great deal of sugar has been smuggled out of the 
 country. The exports from Santiago in 1827, as given above, are certainly much under their real 
 amount ; for at that period, and for 3 or 4 years after, the customs officers connived with the planters to 
 defraud the revenue, and carried their depredations to such an extent, that the duties became nominal 
 merely, and the official returns are in no degree to be depended upon. Subsequently, however, these 
 officers were dismissed ; and there is reason to think that the returns have since been more accurate, 
 liut smuggling is still extensively practised, particularly from the unlicensed ports. 
 
 It appears from the subjoined account (No. III.), that there has been, since 1827, a great increase in 
 the exports of sugar, the quantity shipped from the various licensed ports of the island having amounted, 
 in 1833, to 7,621,553 arrobas, or 190,613,825 lbs. But to this we may safely add at least one fourth part for 
 shipments from the unlicensed ports, and what was otherwise sent out of tlie country without any official 
 notice; so that the entire export of sugar from Cuba, at present, cannot be less than 250,000,000 lbs., or 
 rather more than 110,000 tons! 
 
 Next to sugar, coffee is the most valuable production of Cuba. Its cultivation has increased with un- 
 precedented rapidity. In 1800, there were but 80 plantations in the island ; in 1817, there were 779; and 
 in 1827, there were no fewer than 2,067, of at least 40,000 trees each ! In 180+, the exportation from 
 Havannah was 1,250,000 Ib.s. ; in 1809, it amounted to 8,000,000 lbs. ; from 1815 to 1820, it averaged 
 annually 18,186,200 lbs. ; and, in 1827, it amounted to 35,837,175 lbs. ! The exports from the other ports 
 have increased with equal rajndity. They amounted, in 1827, to 14,202,406 lbs. ; making the total export- 
 ation for that year 50,039,,581 lbs. The low prices seem to have checked the growth, or, at all events, to 
 have diminished the exports of coffee from Cuba in 1828, 1829, and 1830 ; but since the last mentioned 
 year, they have more than recovered their old level. The total exports in 1833 amounted, according to 
 the Custom-house returns, to 2,566,359 arrobas, or 64,2.59,975 lbs. ; but, as in the case of sugar, considerable 
 additions must be made to this quantity to get the true export. In the Custom-house estimates, coffee 
 bags are supposed uniformly to weigh 1.50 lbs., though it is well known that they frequently exceed that 
 limit. The exports in 1833 were distributed as follows : viz. from the Havannah, 47 ,333, 100 lbs. ; Matanzas, 
 6,423,075 lbs. ; all other ports, 10,503,800 lbs. 
 
 Tobacco differs much in quality ; but the cigars of Cuba are esteemed the finest in the world. — (See 
 Tobacco.) Formerly, the culture and sale of this important plant were monopolised by Government ; 
 but since 1821 this monopoly has been wholly relinquished f, there being no longer any restrictions either 
 on the growth or sale of the article. The cultivator pays a duty, which, however, is to a great extent 
 evaded, of 1 per cent, ad valorem upon his crop. In consequence of the freedom thus given to the busi- 
 ness, the culture and exportation of tobacco are both rapidly extending; so much so, that the exports of 
 cigars, which amounted in 1826 to only 197,194 arrobas, had increased to 617,713 arrobas in 1833! 
 
 Of 9.5,768 hhds. of molasses exported in 1833, 4(),652 were from Havainiah, and 31,620 from Matanzas. 
 
 "Wax and honey of excellent quality are largely produced in Cuba, and form considerable articles of 
 trade. 
 
 * The exports fVom Matanzas in 1833 were 57,746,400 lbs. 
 
 f In the former edition of this work, the tobacco monopoly was inadvertently represented as still sub- 
 sisting. 
 
HAVANNAH. 
 
 633 
 
 The principal imports consist of corn and grain of all sorts, chiefly from the United States and Spain ; 
 cotton, hardware, and earthenware goods, from England ; linens from Hamburgh, Bremen, the Nether- 
 lands, Ireland, &c. ; silver and gold from Mexico and South America : indigo and cochineal from ditto; 
 wines, spirits, liqueurs, fruits, &c., from France and Spain ; lumber, dried fith, and salt provisions, from 
 the United Slates, Newfoundland, &c. ; with every article, in short, that an opulent community, in a 
 tropical climate, without manufactures, requires. 
 
 I. An Account of the Value of the Trade between Cuba and other Countries in 1833, as ascertained by 
 
 the Customs' Returns. 
 
 Coim tries. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Kxports. 
 
 Spain 
 
 J*ouih America 
 The Hanse Towns 
 The United States 
 (ir.at Britain 
 France - - 
 Italy 
 
 L. 
 
 83fi,193 
 2S,'>,6,S8 
 196,3S!5 
 929,481 
 3.'58.577 
 193,327 
 10,735 
 
 L. 
 
 565,317 
 4,099 
 315,356 
 913,9.34 
 189,787 
 110,691 
 47,6!0 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden and Denmark . 
 Turkey - - - 
 Foreign produce in ships 
 of Cuba 
 
 L. 
 
 42,417 
 9,401 
 
 10,971 
 7,138 
 
 99,495 
 
 L. 
 
 55,681 
 4,548 
 207 .S.^^ 
 15,8(,7 
 13,833 
 
 265,42.5 
 
 But a considerable portion of the imports, especially of those from Spain, are not intended for consumn- 
 tion in Cuba, but are sent there merely en entrepot, or till it be found convenient to ship them lor other 
 
 II. Classified Account of the Articles of all Sorts, and their Value, imported into Cuba in 1831 1832 and 
 
 1833. 
 
 Liquids, viz. — Wines, spirits, heer, oil, &c. 
 
 Proviiions, viz. - Pork, beef, jerked be.f, &c. 
 
 Spices, riz. _ Cinnamon, cloves, pepper, &c. 
 
 Fruits, viz. _ Olives, almonds, rai.,ins, &c. 
 
 Agricultural, viz. _ Flour, rice, peas, beans, potatoes, &c. 
 
 Groceries, viz. — Lard, butter, cheese, candles, soap, &c. 
 
 Fish, viz. — Herrings, cod, anchovies, &c. 
 
 Cottons and mercery .... 
 
 Wool 'ens - 
 
 Linens - - . . . 
 
 Leather goods - .... 
 Silks ^ - 
 
 Wood, viz — Deals, hoops, casks, &c. 
 Hardware - - . . 
 
 Metals, viz. _ Copper, iron, lead, &c. 
 
 Gold coin - - . . . 
 
 Silver coin 
 
 Glassware . . 
 
 Earthenware ..... 
 Dye stuffs, as logwood, indigo, &c. 
 
 Cordage - - . . . 
 
 Books and paper ... 
 Meilicines - 
 
 Perfumery .... 
 Jewellery ... 
 AU other articles 
 
 204 
 
 31,220 
 597,520 
 264,104 
 56,205 
 314,3.37 
 50,039 
 472,.-.4S 
 118,906 
 94,641 
 124,257 
 117,270 
 30,5(«i 
 177,298 
 22,065 
 19,583 
 31,211 
 49,518 
 3S2 
 34,100 
 30,756 
 8,429 
 7,417 
 115,691 
 
 1832. 
 
 L. 
 
 276,562 
 165,7,13 
 14,129 
 22,434 
 5-5,373 
 21,260 
 64,577 
 382,763 
 52,770 
 514,194 
 9.3,514 
 115,909 
 125,919 
 1,33,662 
 18,557 
 77,858 
 41,546 
 20,560 
 27,817 
 31,894 
 10,596 
 42,869 
 25,100 
 8,830 
 6,084 
 107,820 
 
 III. Account of the Quantities of the principal Articles of Proivice exported from the various licensed 
 Ports of the Island of Cuba, from 18ii6 to 1833, both inclusive. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Wax. 
 
 Leaf 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Cigars. 
 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 18.10 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 
 Arrohas, 
 6,237,390 
 5,878,924 
 5,967,066 
 6,588,428 
 7,868,881 
 7,133,381 
 7,585,413 
 7,624,55.5 
 
 Pipes. 
 2,567 
 2,457 
 2,8^;4 
 4,518 
 6,595 
 3,8.18 
 3,429 
 3,227 
 
 Pipes. 
 68,880 
 74,083 
 8fi,891 
 63,537 
 66,219 
 83,001 
 100,178 
 95,768 
 
 Arrobas. 
 1,773,798 
 2,001,583 
 1,284,088 
 1,7,16,257 
 1,798,598 
 2,130,582 
 2,01S,8£0 
 2,566,359 
 
 A rrnl as. 
 22,918 
 22,,' 03 
 21,404 
 23,481 
 .38,741 
 29,850 
 30,203 
 41,5.-6 
 
 Arrobas, 
 79,581 
 79,106 
 70,031 
 125,.-,02 
 160„-5S 
 117,454 
 76,430 
 92,475 
 
 A rrvl us. 
 197,194 
 167,.161 
 2I0„1.15 
 243,443 
 407,152 
 .131,159 
 448, lv3 
 617,713 
 
 IV. Account of the Number of Vessels that entered the Port of Havannah from Foreign Countries in 
 1831, 1832, and 1833, specifying the Countries to which such Vessels belonged, and their Tonnage. 
 
 Flags. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 
 
 
 Ships. 
 
 T()i?J. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tvns. 
 
 Spanish 
 
 
 
 33 i 
 
 41,7581 
 
 325 
 
 558,6.363 
 
 379 
 
 46,247 
 
 American 
 
 
 
 496 
 
 85,1051 
 
 489 
 
 84, 957 i 
 
 509 
 
 91,624i 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 4,226-* 
 
 34 
 
 6,344 
 
 26 
 
 4,500 
 
 Danish 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 1,078 
 
 12 
 
 2,313 
 
 10 
 
 1.7'z9 
 
 French 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 3,975 „ 
 
 18 
 
 4,067 
 
 48 
 
 10,162.J 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 1,067S 
 
 2G 
 
 4,764 
 
 8 
 
 1,477 
 
 English 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 6,403i 
 
 69 
 
 12.558.J 
 
 46 
 
 9,067i 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 142 
 
 4 
 
 548 
 
 5 
 
 494 
 
 Prussian 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2931 
 
 1 
 
 221.J 
 
 1 
 
 290 
 
 Sardinian 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 762| 
 
 1 
 
 222.1 
 
 6 
 
 939\ 
 
 Swedi^h 
 
 
 
 
 280 
 
 
 280 
 
 6 
 
 l,06li 
 
 Hanoverian 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 256 
 
 2 
 
 5661 
 
 Tuscan 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1933 
 
 
 
 Mecklenburgh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 159 
 
 Ilussian 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 176 
 
 1 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 953 
 
 145,092^ 
 
 9S2 
 
 1.55,.162.i 
 
 i.nis 
 
 168,293i_ 
 
HAVRE. 
 
 Duties. — A customs du!y Is charged on most articles ex- 
 ported and imported. In 1828, the duties on imports produced 
 4,194,495 dollars, bein? equal to an ad valorem duty of I85 per 
 cent, on the imports of* tliat year. The duties on exports during 
 the same year produced 1,114,641 dollars, equil to an ad va- 
 lorem duty of 18A per cent, on their amount. According to 
 the tariff, the duties on most imported articles are fixed at 
 either 24 or 30 per cent, ad valorem ; but all Spanish products 
 imported from tne peninsula in Spanish bottoms (except flour, 
 •which pays \\ dollar per barrel], pay only 6^^ per cent, duty ; 
 and when imported in foreign bottoms, they pay 12 per cent, 
 less than the duties on corresponding foreign articles. These 
 products make about a third part of the imports. Until lately, 
 the export duty on sugar was much complained of, being so 
 high as 23 dollars a box ; but in the course of 1833 it was re- 
 duped to little more than 1 dollar, — a reduction which has 
 been of material consequence to the planters. Merchandise 
 that has once paid the duties on importation, pays nothing on 
 exportation. 
 
 Custom-lioiise Regulations Every master of a vessel is bound 
 
 to have, on his arrival, ready for delivery to the boarding offi- 
 cers of the revenue, two manifests, containing a detedled state- 
 ment of his cargo ; and, in the act of handing them over, is to 
 ■write thereon the hour when he so delivers them', taking care 
 that they be countersigned by the boarding officers. Within 12 
 hours from that time he may make any alteration he pleases in 
 the said manifests, or deliver in new ones corrected. After the 
 expiration of these 12 hours, no alteration will be permitted. 
 Goods not manifested will be contiscati d withoutremedy ; and, 
 if their value should not exceed 1 ,000 dollars, masters of ves- 
 sels will be liable to pay a penalty of double the amount of such 
 non-manifested goods : if they do exceed that sum, and belong 
 to the master, or come consigned to him, his vessel, freight, 
 and other emoluments, will be forfeited to the revenue. Goods 
 over-manifested will pay duties as if they were on board. Goods 
 not manlTested, but claimed in time by a consignee, will be de- 
 livered up to the latter ; but the master, in this case, will be 
 subject to a fine equal in amount to that of such goods. Gold 
 and silver, not manifested by either captain or consignee, are 
 liable to a duty of 4 per cent. Goods falling short of the quan- 
 tity manifested, when landed, and not being included in any 
 invoice of a consignee, will render the master liable to a pe- 
 nalty of 200 dollars for each package so falling short. Every 
 consignee is obliged to present his invoice or note of goods, 
 •within 48 hours after the arrival of a vessel; if not, such 
 goods are lialile to 2 per cent, extra duty. The same is the 
 case, if such note do not contain a statement of the number of 
 pieces, contents, quantity, weight, and measure. All goods 
 
 imported in vessels exceeding 80 tons burthen, except perisli* 
 able provisions, bulky articles, and liquors, may be put in de- 
 posit for an indefinite term, jwying 1 per cent, inward and 1 
 per cent, outward duty on the value, each year. When en- 
 tered for home consumption, they are liable to the correspond, 
 ing duty. If sold in deposit, the exporter pays the outward 
 duty. 
 
 Tonnage Duties. — Spanish ve&^els, 5 reals per ton. Other 
 nations, 20 reals per ton : in case of arrival and departure in 
 ballast, none ; arriving in distress, 4 reals per ton, but full du- 
 ties if the cargo be landed oV taken in. 
 
 Wharf Duties — Spanish vessels, 6 reals per day. Other 
 nations, 19 reals per day for each 100 tons of tlieir register 
 measurement. 
 
 Monies. — One dollar = 8 reals plate = 20 reals vellon. One 
 doubloon = 17 dollars. The merchants reckon 444 dollars 
 = 100/., or 1 dollar = 4*. 6d. very nearly. There is an export 
 duty of 1 per cent, on gold, and 2 per cent, on silver. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — One quintal = 100 lbs., or4 arrobas 
 of 25 lbs.; 100 lbs. Spanish = 101^ lbs. English, or 46 kiio. 
 grammes. 108 varas = 100 vards , 140 varas = 100 French 
 ells or aunes; 81 varas = 100 Brabant ells; 108 varas = 160 
 Hamburgh ells. 1 fanega = 3 bushels nearly, or 100 lbs. 
 Spanish. An arroba of wine or spirits = 4-1 English wine 
 gallons nearly. 
 
 The Spanish authorities disgraced themselves by the counte- 
 mnce which they gave to piratical banditti that infested many 
 of the ports of Cuba during the late contest between Spain and 
 her revolted colonies, and, on pretence of cruising against the 
 Mexicans and Columbians, committed all sorts of enormities. 
 The commerce of the United States suffered so much from 
 their attacks, that they were obliged to send a considerable 
 squadron to attack the banditti in their strongholds, and to 
 obtain that redress they had in vain sought from the govern- 
 ment of the island ; but we are not sure that the nuisance is 
 as yet entirely abated. 
 
 In compiling this article, we have consulted Humboldt's 
 standard work, the Essai Politique sur I'Isle de Cuba, Paris, 
 1826; and the Supplement (Tableau Statisiique) thereto, Paris, 
 1831 ; the excellent abstract of the Cuadro Esladistico de Cuba, 
 published at Havannah in 1829, in the American Quarterly 
 Revierv for June 1830; the Bulletin des Sciences Gi!ographiques, 
 torn. xxii. p. 333. ; PoinseH's Notes on Mexico, pp. 2/9—298. 
 ( Eng. etl.) ; Papers pulUished by Board of Trade, part iii. 
 pp. 648—652. ; and private communications from intelligent 
 British merchants established at Havannah. 
 
 HAVRE, Oft HAVRE DE GRACE, a commercial and strongly fortified sea-port 
 town of France, on the English channel, near the mouth of the Seine, on its northern 
 bank, in lat. 49^ 29" 14' N., Ion. 0° 6' 38" E. Population 24,000. 
 
 Harbour. —■ The harbour of Havre consists of 2 basins, in- 
 closed within the walls of the town, afibrding accommodation 
 for about 450 ships. Cape de la Heve, forming the northern 
 extremity of the Seine, lies N. N.W. from Havre, distant 
 about 2'i miles. It is elevated 390 feet above the level of the 
 sea, and'is surmounted by 2 light-houses 50 feet high. These, 
 Avhict are 325 feet apar:, exhfbit powerful fixed lights. There 
 is also a brilliant harbour-light at the entrance to the port, on 
 the extremity of the western jetty. Havre has 2 roadsteads. 
 The great or outer road is about a league from the port, and 
 rather more than ^ league W. S. W. from Cape de la Heve ; 
 the little or inner road is about 4 league from the port, and 
 about 4 of a mile S. S. E. from Cape de la Heve. They are 
 separated by the sand bank called Leclat ; between which and 
 the bank called Les Hauls de la Rode is the west passage to the 
 
 port. ■ The Hoc, or southern passage, lies between the last 
 mentioned bank and that of Amtar. In the great road there 
 is from 6 to 7^ fathoms water at ebb ; and in the little, from 3 
 to 3g;. Large ships always lie in the former. The rise of the 
 tide is from 22 to 27 feet ; and by taking advantage of it, the 
 largest class of merchantmen enter the port. The water in 
 the harbour does not begin perceptibly to subside till about 3 
 hours after high water, — a peculiarity ascribed to the current 
 down the Seine, across the entrance to the harbour, being suf- 
 ficiently powerful to dam up for a while the water in the latter. 
 Large fleets, taking advantage of this circumstance, are able to 
 leave the port in a single tide, and get to sea, even though the 
 wind should be unfavourable. — (See Plan of Havre, published 
 by Mr. Laurie ; Annuaire du Commerce Maritime for 1S33, 
 p. 211. ; Coulier sur les Phares, p. 59. &c.) 
 
 Trade, Sjc. — Havre being, in fact, the principal sea-port of Paris, most of the colonial and other foreign 
 products destined for the consumption of that city are imported into it. It has also a considerable trade 
 of its own. The principal articles of export are silk and woollen stuffs, lace, gloves, trinkets, perf umery. 
 Burgundy, Champagne, and ether wines, brandy, books, &c. Besides colonial products and spices, the 
 imports principally consist of cotton, indigo, tobacco, hides, dye woods, iron, tin, dried fish, &c. Grain 
 and flour are sometimes imported and sometimes exported. • 
 
 Monies, IVeightSy and Measures same as those of the rest of France. — (See Bordeaux, and Weights 
 AND Measures ) 
 
 It is estimated that the entire value of the different articles imported into Havre, in 1829, amounted to 
 250,000,(,00 francs, or about 10,000.0()0Z. sterling. Of this sum, the cotton imported was estimated at 
 26,000,000 fr. ; the sugars of the French colonies at 44,000,000 fr. , and those of foreign countries at 
 8,000,000 fr. ; coffee' 14,000,000 fr. ; indigo 2,0()0,(j()0 fr. ; tobacco 4,000,000 fr., &c. The customs duties at 
 Havre during the same year amounted to 23,876,535 fr., being nearly 11 per cent, upon the estimated value 
 of the imports. There entered the i)ort, in the same year, 1,481 French and other ships, coming from 
 foreign countries and the colonies of France, and 2,995 coasting vessels, including those navigating the 
 river : 62 ships entered en rclache and in ballast. — {Bulletin des Sciences Geographiques, torn. xvi. p. 390. 
 and torn, xxiii. p. 370.) 
 
 Arrivals.— In 1833, there entered the port, 44 ships from Martinique, 78 from Guadaloupe, 213 from the 
 United States, 30 troiiQ Brazil, 1 from Peru and Chili, 23 from Hayti, 6 from Mexico, 11 from Monte- 
 Video and Buenos Ayres, 2 from Colombia, 10 from the Havannah and St. lago, 1 from St. Thomas, 2 
 from Cayenne, 3 from Senegal, 4 from the Isle de Bourbon and the Mauritius, 6 from the Fast Indies, 2 
 from China, and 1 1 from the whale fishery ; in all, 447. — {Annuaire du Commerce Maritime, torn. ii. p. 345.) 
 
 The total arrivals at Havre in 1833 were — 
 
 Foreign vessels 
 
 Shins. 
 250 
 l.'iO 
 
 2,521 
 14 
 495 
 
 3,410 
 
 Tonnage. 
 44,y.?4 
 .32,721 
 
 159 ,(.93 
 4,940 
 
 125,029 
 
 36(;,717 
 
 Crews. 
 2,535 
 l,fi43 
 0,.52.S 
 424 
 
 In respect to the imports of cotton, Havre is to the other French ports, what Liverpool is to the other 
 ports of England. We subjoin an 
 
HAVRE. 
 
 635 
 
 Account of the Imports of Cotton into France in 1833 and 1834, with the Stocks on Hand, &c., specifying 
 in detail the Imports and Stocks of Havre and Marseilles. 
 
 Stock, 1st Jan. 
 Havre 
 Marseilles 
 Oilier Ports 
 
 mports. 
 
 Havre 
 Marseilles 
 Other Forts 
 
 Sold. 
 Havre 
 Marseilles 
 Other Ports 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Other 
 Sorts. 
 
 Total in 
 dWerent 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 Uracil. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 0»h« Total In 
 
 Bales. 
 16,-270 
 1,150 
 
 Bales. 
 649 
 
 Bales. 
 '750 
 
 Bales. 
 181 
 1,300 
 850 
 
 Bales. 
 
 17,000 
 3,'^00 
 1,800 
 
 Balis. 
 
 29,832 
 3,911 
 1,400 
 
 Bales. 
 3,310 
 350 
 100 
 
 Bales. 
 6,632 
 
 Bates. 
 828 
 4,107 
 1,500 
 
 Bales. 
 34,(K)0 
 15,000 
 3,000 
 
 18,370 
 
 549 
 
 750" 
 
 2,331 
 
 22,000 
 
 35,143 3,790 
 
 6 632 
 
 6,435 
 
 52,000 
 
 201,447 
 51,251 
 23,974 
 
 181,611 
 21,470 
 14,239 
 
 22,410 
 2,127 
 
 726 
 
 37^280 
 
 6,283 
 16,012 
 4,285 
 
 210,301 
 76,889 
 19,250 
 
 184,057 
 19,667 
 18,074 
 
 14,258 
 2,822 
 792 
 
 20^243 
 
 3,134 
 11,519 
 5,108 
 
 217^20 
 
 25,263 
 
 37,2.S0 
 
 26,580 
 
 306,443 
 
 221,798 
 
 17,872 
 
 20,243 
 
 19,761 
 
 276,674 
 
 168,019 
 1S,709 
 13,789 
 
 19,619 
 1,777 
 
 626 
 
 SljsDS 
 
 5,636 
 13,205 
 3,635 
 
 193,301 
 65,089 
 18,050 
 
 194,180 
 23,078 
 18,874 
 
 15,598 
 3,172 
 742 
 
 23,375 
 
 3,662 
 13,626 
 5,358 
 
 213,440 
 
 63,251 
 24,974 
 
 200,547 
 
 22,022 
 
 31,398 
 
 22,476 
 
 276,143 ' 236,132 1 19,512 
 
 23,375 
 
 22,646 
 
 301,665 
 
 Stock, 1st Jan. 1835. 
 Havre 
 Marseilles 
 Other Ports • 
 
 United States. 
 
 Bales. 
 19,700 
 
 500 
 600 
 
 Bales. 
 2,000 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Bales. 
 ' 3,500 
 
 Bales. 
 
 300 
 2,000 
 1,250 
 
 Bales. 
 30,000 
 
 According to the American official accounts, there were shipped for France, during the year ended 30th of September, 1833, 
 76,832,449 lbs. of cotton, valued at 8,845,359 dollars. The exports " " " 
 
 valued at 26,254,970 dollars ! _ {Pape 
 
 England during the same year were 238,241,740 lbs., 
 I laid before Congress, 22d of April, 1831.) 
 
 For the quantities of sugar and coffee imported into Havre in the j'ears 1829, 1830, 1831, and 1832, see 
 post. We avail ourselves of this opportunity to lay before our readers the following official statements as 
 to the 
 
 Foreign Trade and Navigation of France for 1833. 
 Summary Statement of the Commerce of France, during the Year 1833. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Merchandise imported. 
 (General Commerce.) 
 
 Merchandise entered for 
 Consumption. 
 (Special Commerce.) 
 
 Ex- 
 ports. 
 
 French Merchandise. 
 (General Commerce.) 
 
 French Merchandise. 
 (Special Commerce.) 
 
 By Sea. 
 
 By Land. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Duty 
 received. 
 
 By Sea. 
 
 By Land. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Duty 
 received. 
 
 Mat. for 
 manuf. 
 
 For cons. 
 Haw - 
 VVrought 
 
 Total 
 
 Francs. 
 
 .'?03,280,562 
 
 1.-6,021,198 
 27,815,419 
 
 Francs. 
 
 136,347,233 
 
 14,575,987 
 75,235,353 
 
 Francs. 
 
 439,627,795 
 
 150,597,185 
 103,050,772 
 
 Francs. 
 
 344,524,041 
 
 111,914,600 
 54,698,830 
 
 Francs. 
 
 41,851,677 
 
 53,626,584 
 6,178,555 
 
 Kaw 
 Man. 
 
 Total 
 
 Francs. 
 205,328,084 
 345,080,475 
 
 Francs. 
 58,501,568 
 157,406,185 
 
 Francs. 
 263,829,652 
 502,486,660 
 
 Francs. 
 154,65.3,027 
 404,772,027 
 
 Francs. 
 828,877 
 427,502 
 
 467,117,179 
 
 226,158,573 
 
 693,275,752 
 
 491,137,471 
 
 101,656,816 
 
 550,408,559 215,907,753 766,316,312 
 
 559,425,054 
 
 1,256,379 
 
 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
 NAVIGATION. 
 
 French 
 Foreign 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Ton- 
 nage. 
 
 No. Tons. 
 3,561 358,157 
 5,115 622,735 
 
 Merchandise imported. 
 (General Commerce.) 
 
 Franci. 1 Francs. 
 64,095,215 214,058,139 
 - 1 188,963,825 
 
 8,676 980,892 64,095,215 403,021,964 
 
 Francs. 
 278,153,354 
 188,963,825 
 
 French 
 Foreign 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Ton- 
 nage. 
 
 Tons. 
 318,840 
 4,580 464,028 
 
 French and Foreign Merchandise. 
 (General Commerce.) 
 
 Francs. Francs. Francs. 
 42,629,864 197,318,494 239,948,358 
 - 310,160,201,310,460,201 
 
 42,629,864 507,778,695 550,408,559 
 
 WAREHOUSE TRADE. 
 
 Value of merchandise : — 
 
 In warehouse on the 31st of December, 1832 
 
 Entered during the year 1833 
 
 Withdrawn from warehouse during the year 1833 
 
 By importation - - 
 By change of warehouse 
 
 For consumption 
 
 [ For re-exportation - d^^'f^ft 
 By change of warehouse 
 
 Francs. 
 405,295,487 
 
 10.:^ 
 
 24,( 
 
 ,295,487 ) 
 .901,069 V 
 ,042,571 i 
 
 76,812,9,547" 
 67,740,708 (. 
 47,152,549 f 
 32,827,582 J 
 
 537,493,704 
 424,533,593 
 
 In warehouse on the 31st of December, 18,33 
 
 - 112,960,111 
 
 TRANSIT TRADE. 
 
 BOUNTIES, COIN, &c. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Value of Articles, which, passing through France 
 in transitu, have been despatched in 1833. 
 
 Bounties:— Francs. 
 
 Value ofexports, with bounty - - - 99,260,916 
 
 Received for bounties - - - - 18,485,634 
 Coin and bullion : — 
 
 The trade in coin and bullion is not taken into account in the 
 above statement of imports and exports. _ j 
 
 Value of imports and exports of coin and bullion {^T^^ 1 ^99,'945;i3i 
 Seizures :- 
 
 Amount of seizures on importation - - 1,171,560 
 
 By French 
 Ships. 
 
 By Foreign 
 Ships. 
 
 By Land. Total. 
 
 Rawprod. 
 ,Manufac. 
 
 1 Totals 
 
 Francs. 
 25,662,961 
 9,762,189 
 
 Francs. 
 1,011,950 
 27,236,083 
 
 Francs. 
 20,.358,112 
 23,839,760 
 
 Francs. 
 47,0,33,023 
 60,858, 03V 
 
 35,425, LM) 
 
 28,248,053' 44,197,872 
 
 107,871,055 
 
636 
 
 ft) 
 
 HAVRE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Id 
 
 
 -a 
 0 
 
 
 3 -a 
 =1 0 
 
 g ''i ^i'i'^ «'> ^J-^" O^t^ r^r- S S S C 
 «( .H 
 
 s 
 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 .Ceo" 
 
 :I5§ 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 5 2; S °""2 2; ^, ~ ^- S •-'S •'"""^ i-^ioo^ -^x'cnio tot^o 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 "•oocoaai 
 
 
 ll 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 2 s s 5 s 2 g 0 2 s 5 s ^ s g §! a s 
 
 .I OIl-rH CO — CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 /ills 
 
 
 he Mod 
 
 H 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 
 Francs. 
 9,080,062 
 61,766,458 
 1,685,084 
 314,540 
 4 32,98 1 
 9,682',222; 
 9,877,280, 
 24,158,264 
 18,280,523 
 2,031,190 
 7,001,813 
 1,546,300 
 11,791,819 
 12,759,502 
 2,579,892 
 4,242,704 
 7,703,138 
 8,637,300 
 7,772,077 
 1,657,867 
 25,886,819 
 73,064,170 
 12,890,734 
 4,088,811 
 336,148,239 
 11,705,0841 
 99,532,439 
 
 N 
 
 lO 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 to 
 •o 
 
 ice in 1833. specifying t 
 orts. — {Administration 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <NOCN06 
 
 ?* 
 
 0 
 w 
 
 c 
 k-1 
 
 m 
 
 Francs. 
 
 7,284,732 
 
 6,025,963 
 
 801,195 
 92,188 
 84, 144 
 1,900,880 
 1,673,715 
 7,653,804 
 2,211,994 
 
 382,696 
 1/J63,015 
 
 213,512 
 6,574,269 
 6,649,955 
 1,640,563 
 2,371,535 
 4,005,073 
 2,293,471 
 3,721,137 
 
 979,958 
 6,559,071 
 6,058,569 
 2,714,853 
 2,313,013 
 108,583,520 
 4,209,550: 
 27,049,570 
 
 10 
 3 
 
 
 
 "1 
 
 ll 
 
 .CT! CO 00 CM 
 g t-jO CN 
 
 c ot^gj cft 
 
 ,S OC_S 0^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 c 
 
 
 .Is. 
 
 If 
 
 Francs, 
 
 368,401 
 19,574,336 
 
 428,911 
 
 118,878; 
 
 126 350' 
 2,589;506 
 6,090,919, 
 9,643,505; 
 9,250,391; 
 1,107,6471 
 2,705,454, 
 
 900,092; 
 2,810,018; 
 5,015,106 
 
 580,697 
 1,062,266 
 2,017,898 
 4,451,060 
 1,922,707 
 
 275,261 
 9,792,522 
 46,927,657 
 4,957,644 
 
 760,742 
 143,6:0,146 
 2,792,202: 
 50,581,875 
 
 o 
 0 
 
 to 
 
 O! 
 
 c 
 
 = 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 H 
 
 S OC -Nto TT 
 5 O Ol -O 
 
 >oo<MOcn 
 f^cotcoj' 
 
 CI 
 
 to 
 
 from Frai 
 an the Exp 
 
 
 
 JS ^ 
 
 s. 
 
 ,929 
 ,159 
 ,978 1 
 474 
 ,487 
 ,836 
 646 
 ,955 
 138 
 ,847 
 ,344 
 ,696 
 ,502 
 ,443i 
 ,6321 
 ,103 
 ,167 
 
 233 
 ,648 
 226 
 ,964 
 257 
 026 
 ,573 
 ,3521 
 ,994 
 
 
 
 ! \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Franc 
 1,426, 
 36,167, 
 454 
 103, 
 222, 
 5,191, 
 2,112, 
 6,860, 
 6,818, 
 540, 
 2,333, 
 432, 
 2,407, 
 1,094, 
 458, 
 809, 
 1,682, 
 1,912, 
 2,128, 
 404, 
 9,535, 
 20,077, 
 5,218, 
 1,015, 
 83,934, 
 4,703, 
 41,900, 
 
 ^ ^. 
 
 i 
 
 B 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 
 . "O Tf XIO 
 
 S to 00 00 
 » Oi .^ to to 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 1833. 
 
 \ exported 
 reon, and ( 
 
 
 0 a. 
 
 0 S 
 
 71V65 
 572,755 
 322,713 
 116,134 
 172,707 
 753,450 
 954,029 
 448,572 
 161,702 
 225,171 
 571,170 
 889,466 
 258,953 
 346,664 
 341,269 
 041,248 
 64ii,434 
 088,145 
 160,870 
 89,638 
 20,935 
 271,192 
 345,672 
 419,596 
 096,312 
 67,374 
 538,880 
 
 1 T 
 
 \ 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 > c« CTi o cn 
 
 CO 
 
 
 fti-To? ^.onT CO lotOTJi-T to <N ' 
 
 c 
 
 ^ 00 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 ot~t-o 
 
 . TJ-OOC CN 
 
 re 
 
 ^1 
 
 <N 
 06 
 
 to 
 
 Exports in 
 sorted into anc 
 ii the Duty the 
 
 
 §0 
 
 « 
 
 Francs. 
 9,635,756 
 107,047,296 
 13,129,922 
 1,791,042 
 2,862 93'> 
 5,27o;830 
 19,650,622 
 70.011,211 
 40,459,696 
 1,607,258 
 24,173,218 
 3,752,512 
 67,566,854 
 2,353,672 
 1.801,053 
 14,278,688 
 3.V>00,484 
 5,101,156 
 19,004,667 
 699,510 
 63,613 
 664,402 
 937,301 
 9,966,795 
 19,811,003 
 818,085 
 13,378,013 
 
 ^ es 
 2 fa 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 gtOCJl^'.^JJ 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 Francs. 1 
 9,763,270 
 155,419,462! 
 14,055,7951 
 2,178,885 
 3,294,392 
 10,658,746 
 22,525,246 
 95,156,200 
 50,587,403 
 3,479,489 
 27,516,608 
 4,995.980 
 83,436,165 
 5,282,544 
 2,054,740 
 14,750,718 
 37,006,225 
 6,389,527 
 33,611,249 
 746,015 
 1,155,688 
 2,641,988 
 1,540,018 
 10,503,246 
 75,560,741 
 957,400 
 22,428,014 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^ lOC^ (N 
 . (N CT! » O 
 
 s 
 
 S AND 
 
 •n) im] 
 in, witi 
 
 
 
 f o 
 
 
 o 
 H 
 
 
 1 
 
 io 
 
 S'-S 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 •d 
 
 .CiCNtOTfO-<0'*-*T)-to.occ-— 'looaTTj'.otoco — o-ootoyj i- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 m| 
 
 •-I -a to 
 
 0 ''o 
 
 g 
 
 i 
 p. 
 
 
 c 
 >^ 
 
 Francs. 
 9,388,1 
 97,389,4 
 1,416,5 
 
 '290:5 
 1,107,3 
 3,916,6 
 
 802,4 
 403,3 
 8,882,9 
 2,0 
 830,3 
 930,5 
 1,461,9 
 11,722,1 
 5,512,3 
 229,9 
 86,4 
 421,5 
 
 l,08i;o 
 5,058,4 
 
 57,810,5 
 426,7 
 
 15,402,0 
 
 < 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 (A 
 
 s 
 
 u 
 
 
 O w 
 tu 3 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 > .S 
 
 5 0 s 
 
 
 •= 
 
 i 
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 la 
 
 CO tO-H 0 to t^^tO <)0^ t^<£ OJ 0 '.Ti'C 10 M ^ t-O t^cN tO^ 1 »r 
 
 c, — , t^^ c: oi o >' 1^-^ CO i-o ^ o ^ c^-' to o c 
 wOi-c:^-*0'-lc2'*tO'Oto-.CTrtotoio_y:_^cc ex 
 
 ft C~. ^ to w t^ 3^ O CD CO cr- 1-^ *0 or? :>C r- CO w CO '3' CO to ,^1* I'- cc 
 
 to 
 to 
 
 "irJeJTf to 
 
 
 I. Su.mm; 
 elusive of 
 ered for H( 
 
 
 
 <u 
 
 
 5: cN i^cN t^t^oo t^^Tj^Tj* CO CO — cn to — o o^c^ to >o^3^t to — to t^ c 
 
 ^ cTtO CC rc"l-rtO |C CN CN t<3 -H -H i-ToT to ry 
 —•-(—. to i-H OC 
 
 ■ $ 
 
 3 
 o 
 
 
 2 
 
 cDcNcnej) 
 
 .l^kOCOCC 
 ^ CO C to O) 
 
 
 
 
 >-. 
 
 11 
 
 CNtOIOCJ — tOIOOOTJI^-WJ^OOClO-. OOCli.OCCl^l^S^'-iTrcO t 
 O I-l 00 05 to •O- CN lO 02 O) 1 - — GC CO >0 O CO CI CC C Ti- OC ^ 1^ CO ..- 
 to OtOJJCN =^3^<OCO tO'OCN S tO-O Tf^OJOl 1^ 
 
 5 icco to to ?T CO :o"oo — < co'O to^ o a;0 tCto csf t-^'O ^ co'co— ' r 
 
 < 
 
 "aj 
 1 
 
 
 s nToeC tC 
 
 E — TT-OtO 
 
 o 
 
 OJ 
 
 o 
 
 Is 
 
 
 
 
 
 SrHI^^COC^tQCI-^tO^^OailO.^TftOCOtOOTj^'^'cOC^^O'S'^OJ ^ 
 
 ^ crT &0 oTc^ to *.o CO o< ,^oc^ cntoc^ "^ootooo 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .0 ^ ^ « 
 
 >!; 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1$ of Good; 
 jorted Good 
 
 
 
 
 
 . ' . ' 1 ' . ' u ' 
 
 ' ' ' i' ' , ' 
 . .s 
 
 '1 ' ' 1 
 
 1 . a , S ' • « 
 
 H 
 
 c 
 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 S? tOiOC o 
 
 •*! ^ CO O g 
 
 m 
 
 nt Descriptioi 
 ilue of the imj 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 to 
 
 
 ifl-*O00 
 
 •;t^titoto 
 
 CNS^tO'-' 
 
 
 Account of the Value of tha differe 
 imported and exported j the Va 
 
 
 0 
 C 
 _o 
 
 p. 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 Live animals 
 
 Products and parts of animals 
 Fish - ... 
 Animal substances belonging to medicine ai 
 Hard substances fit for cuttiiig, &c. (ivory, ( 
 Farinaceous articles 
 
 Fruits .... 
 Colonial products 
 Vegetable juices (gums, &c.) 
 Vegetable matters suitable for medicine 
 Common wood 
 Fine wood 
 
 Fruits, stalks, and filaments, as cotton, flax 
 
 Stuffs for tanning 
 
 Various leguminous products 
 
 Stones andi minerals 
 
 Metals 
 
 Chemical products 
 
 Prepared dye stuffs (indigo, cochineal, &c.) 
 Colours - . . 
 Different compounds (perfumery, soap, coir 
 
 Wove goods and felt 
 Paper 
 
 Various prepared substances 
 
 Total ^ 
 
 
 
 «- 5! 5! !r> 
 |Ml 
 
 &; 
 
 c 
 h 
 
 1 
 
638 
 
 HAVRE. 
 
 OOOCO OOOOOrCt^COOOOO 
 
 OOCCCNO OOOOOOC f^OOO :noo 
 
 CCl-.CiC5>-. C^ti=(?J^U=.- I^«53^__00 r);^<0«5 
 
 to to -o-'oot-T cc -^(O too oi't-rtotCTi<"cri'r-* 
 
 '-to'ooio loioocx:— i>NtoocN->j<rtoaj 
 
 ^QO 00 i-Ht^ Tj- O rH Tl* ^ to CN 1-H 
 
 •0 W (0--_^t--C t-jtO t-jCn O 00 00 TflD O "O l^t^CJO* t^OC 0>0 !N >o 
 
 Qtl •VJ'l-ltOO Oll-lt- rlOOO (N T1 l-HrH 1-1 
 
 ^tO »-H CI C^tO ^^iOtNOOTj-rHX^Ot-* 
 
 M r-1 »0 f C>HO ©I 3>1 ■* 
 
 <MK5-*t 
 
 <«3iO>r5i3)OOTjiK5oOO<N • «^T)<0 
 
 t^-H»o>0'0(NOOt<50)CiO-*000-HlO>.'5-*K5rtO>«'r;U5'-noiO>r5i3)OOTji 
 .oOO^tDi^i-Hi^'Ocrj-^wootO'^t^^totO'oeou^jw^t^c^^w^'i^OOi^O 
 Jt-To (Of-*o t-ToocN T« o?oo-* -r-^T^^rto tor-rco=^c^>o t-^'^ 
 :ciooo'r5T»'rt-acoo-<i<toc^oi«5Mtowt£.T)<oo-*ioO)-(CNOi^>ot^tO')'(o«5- - 
 
 3 iJKNtOvOtC t^aitoccrj" tcracCOJ 01T)<-*rt i^M-Ht)- t^rH — (N0JO> 
 
 SCNoerfOtO-r 
 
 (J n cn oi 
 
 ttOOl-OoO 00 
 
 •no 
 
 oi cToc -ai'o c~^' I ?i 
 
 - t^t^oO-*— lOO . I- 
 
 5 O « 3? I^-^OCCNO'I^ 
 
 ;-*i^iOOOt)'0>CNt)'vOO^so,-i,-(0 
 
 ^ooa)a)-^a?co^:rCiiOoc^t^co3^'-i<NwOi torJ'tO'^'Ci^fNCoci-^xx'Occto 
 
 (O O) ;0 O >0 to t<3 to Tj^o>_>C^ai^t-;,tO to 00 to K> ■* =C C5 >-^>0 — >0 tO_i-H^C^CC to to 
 
 ico)ooooto ".-Hto«;i<^to t^'wtotN^ -a-s^tootocctcm 
 
 ^ O) o o> Ol o c 
 
 
 
 o ^ 00 ^ '-''O CN 00 to* to irT 00 oTo (3^00 ffTto tdo 00 to 00 o 00 tN hS" to • 
 
 g to loto o i^-* O) »o ootNoi ^ "^*to F-o to-*< tr o >o t^c to too i-<r-ic^ oj^ji^^cqo cn t<5 tn »^ o . 
 
 I, "OMoo-^-^o c t<5-^o-*<otooi t'i^*'?,''' •^tl, "t'-i'^'*'^ ' "^l 
 
 ■- i-t^-r 11 (N i-li-l r~r- 'f. 
 
 !22'^°°toS^Sc 
 )_^!^2SSntcS 
 
 DS^Tor « tOOC OOOtN 
 ^Kii 
 
 MO'<<<Ot^tOOW-HCNt^t^OOO)Mo<;— lOl^tOQCCNOOOtN •OT«r~iD«-. 
 
 oea>«oo)o>oix'OrH-*r^i^(Ntoooo-<<N«— r->o:T>o <^aoa>m^ 
 ,ootoc2 i-^^toi-^t-^O ootp i-05_oi^cnOT(0»o to 
 
 toii «— oo<) iitjo 00 wto to ^oto iCc^-r^'to tcto i-ToTo 00 eoOtN'i-to' 
 et-xrptoi^^ooroiOo '^cno-^i^»-OTi<Tj^-Ho^aDoc--toai»0(^t>-t-^CCi^>OC^Oc^i ^o^ait>- 
 
 ^•cT irf •^oox o^-H rfc^ lot-Too to to r-r^jT-|^ to to '^i;"' to (n > J2 
 
 to IM O Ol ifl 5^ C 
 
 roct^oTocTi-'t 
 
 CM O 1^ to 00 O to 
 
 too 
 
 <35t?c>'lotCoo''c oi" 
 oe^*oj^togo 
 
 aTwooaoTfto-TsJ' 
 
 OtOt^-Nifl^OiOO— itOt^— lOOO<NlOOtCOO<NiOtO?)CnO)0500tOtO>-OtOCN(NtO 'OOtOtOt^cMOJ-^tO^OO't^'Ot^r-l 
 
 •wt^'OOooo^'-ot^i^O'-itoi^tNtj-.-itotDOJ^toooooiai.-toi^iooe'rsa) totDoototDociootDt03^t-iOiO>o 
 
 5 t-^t-roo-^-I'to -o Tp-ToJ i-^-o to o!r>oort-Tt-T5^ sToT-^t-^o ■o"'Offr'ioe— "r-T'O o? to ni" '-"eT?? .-h''0'* too ?i 
 
 ef^J^t^CTlTfO to---* tCOltJI-*'* to T!"tJl-* — ^r^tOO'0'<r'CtO OtOJJiO — -I t^l^tOtO— I ^ Cn to (N 131 
 
 ^TjTiH ■aTio'tCrJo' tototottfto^oo' ttf otTi-c i-T 
 
 1^^ 
 
 5a E 
 e l lis 
 
HAVRE. 
 
 639 
 
 '^ote. — General commerce, as applied to imports, means all articles importcrl by sea or land, without 
 inquiring whether tliey are intended to be consumed, re-exported, or warehoused. Special commerce, a« 
 applied to imports, means such imported articles as have been admitted for home consumption, under 
 payment of the customs duties. 
 
 The same distinction obtains in relation to exports. General commerce, in this case, means all ex- 
 ported articles, without regard to their origin j while special commerce means such only as are produced 
 by the soil or manufactures of France. 
 
 IV. Account of the Quantities of the difFerent Sorts of Cotton, Sugar, Coffee, Indigo &c., imported into 
 Havre, during ISSS.^lSa-J-, 1833, 1832, and 1831, with the Stocks of Cotton, &c. existing on the 1st of 
 January, 1836. — {^Journal du Havre, 2d January, 1836.) 
 
 Countries whence they came. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Stocks 1st 
 of January, 
 1856. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U. S. of America 
 
 - bales 
 
 188,053 
 
 184,027 
 
 181,900 
 
 165,864 
 
 124,116 
 
 
 Urazil 
 
 
 18,!)43 
 
 14,258 
 
 22,4 1 0 
 
 15,926 
 
 1 4,1)0^1 
 
 
 Other sorts - 
 
 
 7,511 
 
 3,131 
 
 G,2S3 
 
 2,438 
 
 2,379 
 
 
 
 
 214,509 
 
 201,419 
 
 210,593 
 
 184,228 
 
 137,501 
 
 18,800 
 
 Suear. 
 
 Alartinique & Guadaloupe, hhds. 
 
 55,549 
 
 69,430 
 
 50,3.30 
 
 48,000 
 
 58,450 
 
 9,000 
 
 Bourbon 
 
 - bags 
 
 27,520 
 
 37,836 
 
 22,570 
 
 29,696 
 
 26,270 
 
 
 Havannah and St. Jago 
 
 - boxes 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 
 77 
 
 868 
 
 
 Brazil - , 
 
 
 9G2 
 
 471 
 
 374 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 
 Other sorts 
 
 
 4,245 
 
 5,587 
 
 7 
 
 5,823 
 
 3,585 
 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Martinique & Guadaloupe, hhds. 
 
 971 
 
 1,858 
 
 1,832 
 
 2,148 
 
 1,032 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 3,071 
 
 4,070 
 
 2,744 
 
 4,390 
 
 3,008 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 56 
 
 42 
 
 56 
 
 1.30 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 Bourbon 
 
 - bales 
 
 2,494 
 
 1,591 
 
 2,689 
 
 2,261 
 
 824 
 
 
 liv. 
 
 Hayti, direct 
 Ditto - 
 
 . bags 
 - casks 
 
 74,030 
 21 
 
 49,719 
 
 26,810 
 24 
 
 42,926 
 45 
 
 9,734 
 192 
 
 
 2,320,000 
 
 Various other sorts 
 
 - bags 
 
 39,133 
 
 73,218* 
 
 72,541 
 
 73,161 
 
 29,565 • 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 tcs 
 
 GO 
 
 306 
 
 808 
 
 492 
 
 136 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 - hhds. 
 
 1,391 
 
 854 
 
 1,312 
 
 647 
 
 483 
 
 
 
 Indiso. 
 
 
 
 
 4,630 
 
 
 
 
 East Indian 
 
 - chests 
 
 3,G15 
 
 5,985 
 
 3,270 
 
 3,577 
 
 
 American 
 
 
 37 
 
 555 
 
 490 
 
 SO 
 
 376 
 
 
 Cocoa 
 
 packages 
 
 1,170 
 
 2,745 
 
 7,214 
 
 4,774 
 
 2,6.38 
 
 
 Tea 
 
 - chests 
 
 4,546 
 
 7,308 
 
 13,205 
 
 8,158 
 
 9,69-) 
 
 
 Hides 
 
 - No. 
 
 180,240 
 
 209,520 
 
 118,094 
 
 135,250 
 
 124,200 
 
 
 Prices of Commodities, Duly paid and in Bond, Tares, Commercial Allowances, 8(C. — These important 
 particulars may be learned by the inspection of the subjoined Price Current for the second week of Sep- 
 tember, 1836. 'I'he duties on the articles mentioned are also given ; but it is most probable that some of 
 these will, at no very distant period, be varied. But the other particulars embodied in it will always 
 render it an important document. 
 
 Havre Price Current, 15th of September, 1836. 
 
 Duty paid. In Bond. 
 
 Fr. ct. Fr. ct. Fr. ct. Fr. ct. 
 
 Ashes, per 50 kil. 
 
 Pot, New York - - 57 0 to 00 00 to 00 
 do. - . - 0 Oto 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 
 
 Finland - - - 50 50 - 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 
 Russia Casan - 55 0-00 00-00 
 
 Bearl, American - - 57 0-00 00-00 
 do. - - -00-00 00-00 
 
 Duty on nett weight: by French vessels from European 
 ports, 9 fir. 90 ct. ; trom elsewhere, 8 fr. 25 ct. By foreign 
 vessels, 1 1 fr. 55 ct. — (See exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Commercial and Custom-house tare, 12 per cent. 
 Bark (Jesuits'), per J kil. 
 
 Lochsa - - - nommal 1 50 to 0 0 
 
 Callyssaya, curled - - do. 1 35 - 2 0 
 
 do. flat - - do. 1 35 - 2 0 
 
 Duty on nett weight : by French vessels from any port what- 
 ever, 274 ct. From countries west of Cape Horn, 13| ct. 
 By foreign vessfls, 55 ct. 
 
 Custom-house tare : on chests, 12 per cent. ; on serons, 2 per 
 cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : on cases, real ; on serons of 70 kil. and 
 upwards, 8 kil. ; of 40 Jcil. and upwards, 6 kil. ; and of 20 kil. 
 and upwards, 4 kil. 
 Bees' wax per \ kil. 
 
 North American yellow 1 90 to 2 0 nominal 
 New Orleans, do. - - 1 80 - 1 90 nominal 
 Russia - • -20-2 10 nominal 
 
 Havannah • - • 1 70 - 1 80 nominal 
 Senegal - - - 0 0- 00 00-00 
 
 Duty on gross weight : by French vessels from European 
 ports, 5\ ct. ; from elsewhere, 4 2/5 ct. By foreign vessels 
 from any port whatever, 8^ ct. — (See exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 Cassia lignea, per J kil. 
 
 in mats ... nominal 0 70 to 0 72 
 in chests . - - nominal 0 72 - 0 75 
 
 Duly on nett weight: by French vessels from the East In- 
 dies, 18 1 /3 ct. ; from elsewhtre, 33 2/3 ct. By foreign vessels 
 from any port whatever, 55 ct. — (See exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Custom-house tare : on chests, 12 per cent. ; on mats, 2 per 
 cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 Cochineal, per 4 kil. 
 
 silvery, from ord. to tine 0 0 to 0 0 10 50 to 10 75 
 foxv,"do. do. - - - 0 0 - 0 0 10 0 - 10 25 
 blabk, do. do. • - 0 0 - 0 0 11 0 - 11 25 
 
 Duty on nett weight: ^^y Frtnich vessels from any port 
 ■whatever, 82J ct. By foreign vessels, do. SSct. — (See ex- 
 ceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Custom-house tare ; in casks, 12 per cent. ; in serons, 2 per 
 C«nt. 
 
 Commercia] tare : real. 
 
 Duty paid. In Bond. 
 
 Fr. ct. Fr. ct. Fr. ct. Fr. ct. 
 Cocoa, Caraccas, per J kil. - nominal 1 10 to 1 15 
 Guayaquil - - - none 0 50 - 0 ,55 
 
 Brazil - - - by French vessels 0 60 - 0 62 
 
 Trinidad ... none 0 0 0 0 
 
 Duty on nett weight: by French vessels from the French 
 colonies, 22 ct.; from countries west of Cape Horn, 27ict. ; 
 from European ports, 52 J ct. ; from elsewhere, 30^ ct. By 
 foreign vessels from any port whatever, 57f ct. — (See ex- 
 ceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Custom-house tare : on casks, 12 per cent. ; on bags, 3 pel 
 cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : on casks, real ; on bags, 2 per cent. 
 Coffee, per ^ kil. 
 
 St. Domingo, from ordi-1 „ „ . - „ /-t . n rr 
 
 nary to lin4 - .j 0 0 to 0 0 0 63 to 0 65 
 
 Cuba and Porto Rico - 00-00 0 73 -lC 
 La Guayra - 00-00 0 75 .00 
 
 Rio - . - 0 0 - 0 0 0 62 - 0 75 
 
 d'a^'ng^""!^'"' (• 1 0 - 1 20 0 0 - 0 0 
 
 Mocha . . - 1 40 - I 45 0 0 - 0 0 
 
 Duty on nett weight : by French vessels from the East In- 
 dies, 42 9/10 ct. ; from Eui-opean ports, 55 ct. ; from elsewhere 
 52] ct. By foreign vessels from any port whatever, 57tct 
 (See exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Custom-house tare : on casks, 12 per cent. ; on bags, 2 per 
 cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : on casks, real ; on bags, 2 per cc:it. ; on 
 Mocha coffee the tare runs from 4i to 12i kil. upon bales of 
 75 to 200 kil. 
 
 Copper, South American,! , in*,, i io .^^-.^^ -.^^r^ 
 per J kil. . . 1 10 to 1 12 none, nom. 
 
 Russian and British - 1 25 - 1 20 none, nom. 
 Duty on gross weight : by French vessels from Euro;i?a:-. 
 ports, 1 1/10 ct. ; from elsewhere, 11/20 ct. By foreign ves- 
 sels from any port whatever, 1 13/20 ct. — (See exceptions at 
 Note A.) 
 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 Cotton, per J kil. 
 
 Upland - - - 1 12 to 1 57 1 1 to 1 46 
 
 Alabama and Ter.essee - 1 10 - 1 47 0 99 - 1 36 
 Mobile - - - 1 12 - 1 70 1 1 - 1 59 
 
 Louisiana - - - 1 12 > 1 77 1 1 - 1 66 
 Sea Island - - .30. 5 50 00.00 
 Pemambuco . - 1 ."0 . 1 95 1 19 - 1 84 
 
 Bahia - . . 1 30 - 1 85 1 19 - 1 74 
 
 Maranham • . .00-00 none 
 St. Domingo - - 1 35 . 1 45 1 24 . 1 34 
 
 Paita - - . 1 .-^S - 1 45 0 0 . Q O 
 
 Surat and Bengal . - 0 SO - 0 90 0 0 - 0 0 
 Duty on nett weight : on long or short staple, by French ves- 
 sels from the French colonies, 2| ct. ; from European ports. 
 
640 
 
 HAVRE. 
 
 0 0 to 0 0 
 fi5 0 0 - 0 0 
 
 Duty paid. In Bond. 
 Fr. ct. Fr. ct. Fr. ct. Fr. ct. 
 (Turkey excepted), 16.\ct. ; from the Kast Indies, 5.Jct.; 
 from other countries, 11 ct. By foreign vessels (except from 
 Turkey), 19 ^ct. By French vessels from Turkey, 8^ ct. ; 
 by foreign vessels from Turkey, 13 £ ct. — (See exceptions at 
 Note A., ■ 
 
 Custom-house tare: 6 per cent, on bales of 50kil. and above, 
 and 8 per cent, on bales under 50 kil. 
 
 Commercial tare: on United States' cottons, 6 percent, cords 
 oft"; on Brazil cottons, 4 per cent. ; on St. Domingo, in bales, 
 6 per cent. ; on Cumana and Caraccas, 7 kil. per seron above 
 40 kil. ; and 6 kil. per seron of 40 kil. and under. 
 
 Draft : 2 kil. on Sea Island and Bengal ; 3 kil. on all other 
 descriptions in bales exceeding 50 kil. ; and 1^ kil. upon 
 bales under 50 kil. 
 
 Elephants' teeth, per J kil - 3 50 to 8 0 none 
 
 Duty on nett weight: whole or in pieces of more than 1 kil. 
 by French vessels from Senegal, 13| ct. ; from other Afri- 
 can settlements, 22 ct. ; from the East Indies, 19^ ct. ; 
 from elsewhere, 30 ^ ct. 'By foreign vessels from any port 
 whatever, .38.^ ct. Pieces of 1 kil. and under, double the 
 above duties — (See exceptions at Note A.) 
 Commercial and Custom-house tare: real. 
 
 Gums, Senegal, per i kil. - 1 2.0 to 0 0 1 20 to 0 0 
 E. India copal, scraiied - 2 0- 2 5 00-00 
 copal, soft, not scraped - 0 50 - 0 55 0 0 - 0 0 
 shellac, orange - - 1 92 - 1 95 nominal 
 do. garnet - - - 1 60 - 1 82 nominal 
 do. liver - - . 1 45 - 1 55 nominal 
 
 Duty on Senegal, gross weight : by French vessels from 
 Senegal, 5J ct. ; froni Eurojiean ports, 13^ cl. ; from elsej 
 •where, 11 ct. By foreign vessels from any port whatever, 
 \6 \ ct. — (See exceptions at Note A.) 
 Commercirtl tare : on casks, real ; on b::gs, 2 per cent. 
 Duty on copal, nett weight : by French vessels from the 
 East Indies, 27i ct. ; from Euroi>ean ports, 55 ct. ; from 
 elsewhere, 494 ct. By foreign vessels from any port what- 
 ever, 6S| ct. — (See exce 
 Commercial tare : rea 
 Duty on shellac, nett weight : by French vessels from the 
 East Ind es, 77/100 ct. ; from elsewhere, 2 1/5 ct. By foreign 
 vessc Is from any port whatever, 327/200 et — (See exceptions 
 at Note A.) 
 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 Hops, American - -00 to 00 00 none 
 
 Duty on nett weight: by French vessi Is from any port what- 
 ever, 33 fr. per 50 kil. By foreign vessels, 56 fr. 2ii ct. — (See 
 exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Commercial tare : on bales, 2 per cent. 
 Hides, per J kil. 
 
 lluenos Avres - - 0 7G to 0 90 
 
 Peniambuco and Bahia, 1 n a-t n 
 salted - . u 47 . U 
 
 Rio .Janeiro - . 0 70 • 0 84 0 0 - 0 0 
 
 Carlhagena and Caraccas 0 55 - 0 CO 0 0 - 0 o 
 South American hor^elgQ q - 65 0 0 0 - 0 0 
 hide.s, per 50 - -J 
 Duty on gross weight: by Fr.ench vessels from European 
 ports, 5', ct. ; from eUewhere, 2^ ct. By foreign vessels from 
 
 any port whatever, ct (See exceptions at iN'nte A.) 
 
 Five bull hides are admitted among 100 hides without 
 allowance, and 1 kil. is allowed for every bull hide above that 
 number to the extent of 12; when more than 12 the allow- 
 ance is conditional. 
 Horse hair, per \ kil. 
 
 Buenos Ayres, sliort - 1 5 to 1 10 none 
 from mixed to long . 1 15 - 1 75 none 
 Duty on gross weight: bv French and foreign ve.ssels, 
 1 3/Sct. — (.See exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Commercial tare ; real. 
 Indigo, per ^ kil. 
 
 Bengal - - ,- 0 0 to 0 0 0 0 to 0 0 
 
 *Tue"! '''°'!' ^"'^J 11 50 - 11 75 0 0 - 0 0 
 do. violet and purple - 10 50 - 10 75 0 0 - 0 0 
 tine violet and do. - lO 0 - 10 25 0 0 - 0 0 
 good and middl. violet 9 25 - 9 75 0 0 - 0 0 
 do. red do. - - 9 75 - 10 0 0 0 - 0 0 
 
 superfine red - . 10 0 - 10 25 0 0 - 0 0 
 good do. - - - 9 25 - 9 50 0 0 - 0 0 
 ordin. to fine copper - 7 £0 -90 00-00 
 Egyptian - - - 6 0 - 80 00-00 
 Madras, ordin. to fine - 5 50 - 7 50 none 
 Manilla, do. - - - 50-80 00-00 
 Guatemala, flores - - 7 75 - 80 00-00 
 sobre saliente - - 7 25 - 7 50 0 0 - 0 0 
 cortes - - - 6 50 - 7 25 0 0 - 0 0 
 
 Caraccas • - . 6 0 - 8 25 none 
 Duty on nett weight ; by French vessels from all places of 
 growth out of Europe, 27^ ct. ; from European ports, 
 1 fr. 65 ct.; from elsewhere, llOct. By fnrti^n v( ssels from 
 anv port whatever, 2 fr. 20 ct. — (See exceptions at Note A ) 
 
 Custom-house tare: on chests, cisks, and si ions, real, or at 
 the option of the importer, 12 per ceni . on eliests or cask.s, and 
 9 per cent, on serons. 
 
 Commercial tare : on casks or chests, real ; on seron.<; of 100 
 to 110 kil., 11 kil.; on do. of 85 to 99 kil., 10 kil.; on do. of 
 70 to 81 kil., 9 kil. ; on do. of 50 to 69 kil., 7 kil. 
 
 Allowance: 1 kil. per chest. 
 Lac dye, per .1 kil. - 2 0 to 5 40 « 0 to 0 0 
 
 Duly on nett weight: by French vessels from the E'st 
 Indies, 27\ct.; from elsewhere, 41^ ct. By foreign vess< Is 
 from any port whatever, 55 ct. — (See exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Commercial and custom-house tare : real. 
 Lead, (jerman, per 50 kil. - .35 50 to .35 87 nominal 
 Spanish and British - 35 50 - 35 87 nominal 
 Dutv on gross weight: by French vessels from any j ort 
 ■whatever, 2 fr. 75 ct. By foreign vessels, 3fr. 85 ct. — (See 
 exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 l't-i)per, light, per i kil. - 0 79 to 0 80 0 0 to 0 0 
 Duty on nett weight: by Frencli vessels from the Ea.st In- 
 dies, and from countries west of Cajic Horn, 22 ct. ; from else- 
 where, 41 ct. By foreign vessjris from any port whatever, 
 t '2 ct — (See exceptions at Note A .) 
 CUflom-hoiise tare : on bags, 3 per cent. 
 Commercial tare : on sin^jfc bi'K" > 2 per c ent, 
 
 Duty paid. In Bond. 
 Fr. ct. Fr. ct. Fr. ct. Fr. ct 
 
 Pimento, per J kil. 
 
 Jamaica - . . French vessel 0 50 to 0 r 
 
 Tobago ... none 0 0 - 0 C 
 
 Duty : by French vessels from the East Indies and from 
 countries west of Cape Horn, 24| ct. ; from elsewhere, 49^ cl. 
 By foreign vessels, fiSJ ct. 
 
 Tares : as for pepper. 
 Quercitron, per 50 kil. 
 
 Philadelphia - - 16 0 to 16 12 0 0 to 0 0 
 
 New Vork - - - 14 75 - 15 0 0 0 - 0 0 
 
 Duty on gross weight: by French vessels from Eurojiean 
 ports, 3 fr. 85 ct. ; from other countries, 2 fr. 20 rt. By foreign 
 
 vessels from any port whatever, 4fr. 95 ct (See exceptions 
 
 at Note A.) 
 
 Commercial tare : 12 per -ent. 
 Quicksilver, per ^ kil. - 4 30 to 4 40 nominal 
 
 Duty on gross weight: by French vessels from any port 
 whatever, 11 ct. By foreign vessels, 12 1/10 ct. — (See excep- 
 tions at Note A.) 
 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 
 ^'"'O kiU 'l^^' 1*^"} 23 50 to 26 0 0 0 to 0 „ 
 
 Duty on gross weight : by French vessels from places of 
 growth out of Eurojie, 1 fr. 374 ct.; by do. from places of 
 growth in Europe, 2fr. 20 ct. ; by do. from European ports, or 
 from Piedmont by land, 3 fr. 30 ct. By foreign vessels from 
 any port whatever, or by land from any country whatever. 
 Piedmont excepted, 4fr. 25 cU — (See exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Commercial tare : 12 per cent. 
 Saltpetre, crude, per 50 kil. nominal 41 0 to 41 50 
 
 Nitrate of soda - - 00 - 0 0 24 0 - 00 
 
 Duty on nett weight : by French vessels from countries out 
 of Europe, 8 fr. 25 ct. ; from elsewhere, 11 fr. By foreign 
 vessels from any port whatever, 13 fr. 75 et. Nitr.-ile of soda 
 by French vessels from countrie'S out of Europe, 8 fr. 25 ct. ; 
 from elsewhere, 1 1 fr. By foreign vessels, 13 fr. 75 ct. 
 
 Custom-house tare : 2 per cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : 6 kil. per double bale of the customary 
 form. 
 
 Sarsaparilla, per ^ kil. 
 
 Caraccas ... nominal 1 25 to 1 50 
 
 Mexico . - - 0 0 - .0 0 0 95 - 1 0 
 
 Honduras ... nominal 1 25 - 1 50 
 
 Duty on nett weight : by French vessels .from European 
 
 ports, 55 ct. ; from elsewhere, 41J ct. By foieigii vessels 
 
 from any port whatever, 68 | ct. — (See exceptions at 
 
 Note A.) 
 
 Custom-house tare : on bales, 2 per cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : on bales, according to broker's estiraa. 
 tion ; on naked bundles, the cords are deducted. 
 Skins, deer, each - . 1 7.') to 6 0 0 0 to 0 0 
 
 Duty per 50 kil. on gross weight : by French vessels from 
 any port whatever, 65 ct. By foreign vesi^e s, 60 ct — (See 
 exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Spelter, per 50 kil. - - 28 50 to 29 50 none 
 
 Duty on gross we'ght : 5 .J ct. per 50 kil. without distinc. 
 tion of flag or derivation. 
 Sugar, per 50 kil. 
 
 Martinique and Guad. . bonne 4e 39 25 to 39 0 
 
 Havaiinah, white . - none 50 0 - 53 0 
 
 yellow - . . none 0 0-00 
 
 St. Jago, white - . none 0 0 - 66 0 
 
 brown to vellow . - none 0 0 - 45 0 
 
 Brazil, white - . 0 0 - 0 0 42 0 - 44 0 
 
 brown to yellow - - 0 0 - 0 0 20 50 - » 0 
 Benares ... nom. by Fr. ves. 38 0 .45 0 
 Manilla . - - nom. by Fr. ves. 38 0 - 45 0 
 Duty on nett weight: raw sugars not white, by French 
 vessels from the East Indies, 44 fr. ; from European ports, 
 62 fr. 25 ct. ; from elsewhere, 46 fr. 75 ct. By foreign vess; Is, 
 35 fr. Kaw !Ugars, white or clayed, without distinction of 
 quality or mode of f^ibrication, by French vessels from the 
 Eiist indies, 49 fr. 50 ct.; from European ports, 57 fr. 75 ct.; 
 from elsewhere, 52fr. 25ct. By foreign vessels, 66fr.— (See 
 exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Custom-house tare : on chests, 12 per cent. • on single bags, 
 2 per eeiit. ; on double bags, 4 per cent. 
 
 Commercial tare: Havknnah and St. Jago, chests, 13 per 
 cent; Brazil, 17 per cent.; on b<fgs under 75 kil., 5 kil. per 
 bag; do. on 75 kil. and upwards, 6 kil. 
 Tallow, Russia, per 50 kil. - 61 0 to 62 0 none 
 
 Duty on gross weight: bv French vessels from any po' 
 whatever, 5 fr. 50 ct. By foreign vessels, 7 fr. 15ct. — (See 
 .exceptions at Note A.) 
 
 Commercial tare : 12 per cent. 
 Teas, imperial, per A kil. - 5 15 to 5 25 3 70 to 4 0 
 Gunpowder - - . 6 0 - 6 .35 4 25 - 4 27 
 Hyson - - . 4 90 • 5 0 3 10 - 5 £0 
 
 Young hyson - . 3 SO . 3 DO 0 0-00 
 
 Hyson skin - - . 5 20 . 3 25 ) 65 - 1 70 
 Pekoe - . -40-60 3 75 - 4 50 
 
 Sotu hong . . - 2 85 . 3 0 1 CO - 1 75 
 Pouchong . . - 4 SO . 4 50 1 90 - 2 0 
 Duty on nett weight : by French vessels from the East In- 
 dies, 82. ct. ; from China, 66 et.; from elsewhere, 2 fr. 75 ct. 
 By foreign vessels from any port whatever, 3fr. 30ct.'— (See 
 exceptions at Note A.) 
 Custom-house tare : real. 
 
 Commercial tare: on imperial, gunpowder, young hyson, 
 and lukoe, 10 kil. per chest ; on hyson and hyson-skin, 9 kil.; 
 on souchong, 13 kil. ; on half chests and boxes, conventional. 
 Tin, Banca, per 4 kil. - 1 74 to 1 76 0 0 to 0 0 
 British - . . 1 70 . 1 72 none 
 
 I'eruvian - - . I 60 - 1 63 none 
 Duly on gross weight : by French ve.ssels from the East In- 
 dies, 27\ct. ; from elsewhere, 1 fr. 10 ct. By foreign vessels 
 from anv poit whatever, 2 fr. 20 ct. per 60 kU. — (See excep- 
 lions at Note A.) 
 
 Commercial tare: on casks, real. 
 Tortoise-shell, per * kil. - .35 0 to 45 0 0 0 to 0 0 
 Dutv on nett weight: by French vessels from the East In. 
 dies, 55 ct.; from China, 44 ct.; from European ivjii-s, 1 fr. 
 10 ct.; from elsewhere, 82.^ ct. By foreign vessels, 1 fr.Mct. 
 _ (See exceptions at Note A.) 
 Custom-house tare : on casks or casc«, 12 per cent. 
 Commercial tare : on casks or cases, r«al. 
 
HAVRE. 
 
 041 
 
 Duty paid. In Bond. 
 
 Fr. ct. Fr. ct. Fr. ct. Fr. d. 
 
 Whalebone, per i kil. 
 
 northern - - - 2 80 to 3 0 nominal 
 southern - - - 1 88 - 1 90 0 0 - 0 0 
 Duty on gross weight: by French vessels from any port what- 
 ever,* 16J ct. By foreign vessels, 19J ct. 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 Allowance : 2 per cent, on southern bone. 
 VVoods, per50kil■ 
 Locwood, Campeachy - 9 75 to 10 0 0 0 to 0 0 
 Honduras - - 8 50 - 8 73 none 
 
 St. Domingo - - 7 25 - 7 50 0 0 - 0 0 
 
 Fustic, Cuba - 9 75 -10 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 .Santa Martha - - 19 0 - 22 50 0 0 - 0 0 
 Pernambuco - - 92 0 - 125 0 0 0 - 0 0 
 Duty on gross weight : Brazil, by French vessels from Euro- 
 pean ports, 4 fr. 40 ct. ; from elsewhere, 2 fr. 75 ct. By foreign 
 vessels, 6 fr. 60 ct. Other dye-woods, by French vessels from 
 the French colonies, 44 ct. ; from European ports, 1 fr. 65 ct. ; 
 from elsewhere, 824 ct. By foreign vessels, 3 fr. 30 ct. — 
 (See exceptions at Note A .) 
 Allowance : 1 to 2 per cent. 
 
 Explanatory Remarks. 
 The above duties include the sur-tax of 10 per cent. • the 
 
 custom-house admits the real tare whenever the importer 
 
 desires it. 
 
 Note A. — The treaties of reciprocity entered into with the 
 countries hereafter mentioned introduce the following devi- 
 ations from the above rates of duty. 
 
 Vieiicd Slates. — The produce of the Unit«'d States, exce|>t 
 that of the fisheries, direct from the Unite<l States, in United 
 States vessels, pays the same duty as If imported by French 
 vessels from the lynited States. 
 
 Brazils and Mexico. — The produce of the Brazils and 
 Mexico, imported direct in national vessels, enjoys also the 
 above privilege. 
 
 Enelanil. — The produce of Africa, Asia, or America, im- 
 ported from any country whatever in British vessels, or from 
 
 or foreign vessels, can only be admitted in bond lor re-exj'ort- 
 ation. 
 
 The same regulation is applicable to all European produce 
 (except that, of (Jreat Britain and its possessions in V,UTo\>e), 
 when importe<l by British vessels from other jiorts than those 
 of (ireat Britain or its jiossessions in Europe- 
 
 The weight of 60 kil. is equal to 110 4/5 lb. English, or 
 100 lb. English are equal to 45 35/100 kil., and the cwt. equal 
 to 50 79/100 kil. 
 
 Credit — 4^ months, except on coffee, pimento, pepper, quick- 
 silver, and clayed sugars, which are sold at 3i months, and 
 wheat at 2J months. 
 
 Navigation op France, 1833. 
 L Account showing the Ships, with their Tonnage and Crews, that entered the different Ports of France 
 in 1833, specifying those that entered each and distinguishing between French and Foreign Ships. — 
 (Administration des Bouanes for 1833, p. 39f>.) 
 
 Bayonne 
 Bordeaux - 
 
 Other ports 
 Bochelle - 
 Nantes 
 
 Other ports 
 L'Orient - 
 Brest - 
 Saint Malo 
 Cherbourg - 
 Rouen 
 Havre 
 
 Other ports 
 Abbeville - 
 Boulogne - 
 Dunkirk - 
 Digne - - 
 Toulon 
 Marseilles - 
 
 Other ports 
 Montpellier 
 Perpignan - 
 Bfistia 
 
 Totals 
 
 Navigation carried on jointly with the Foreigner. 
 
 French Ships. 
 
 SAip, 
 13 
 159 
 
 15 
 125 
 245 
 112 
 250 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 405 
 145 
 
 40 
 
 82 
 1,006 
 
 16 
 171 
 
 91 
 166 
 
 Tonn 
 
 635 
 30,113 
 71 
 123 
 12,990 
 282 
 231 
 877 
 4,983 
 7,316 
 10,235 
 44,934 
 1,237 
 
 1,113 
 5,947 
 
 93,975 
 721 
 
 11,277 
 2,730 
 3,736 
 
 Crem. 
 
 72 
 1,974 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 858 
 
 1,138 
 783 
 2,535: 
 
 2, 
 
 1,079 
 163 
 530 
 
 7, 
 
 83 
 1,083 
 427 
 1,071 
 
 Foreign Ships. 
 
 Carrying the 
 Flag of the 
 Countries 
 whence they 
 
 113 
 
 205 
 2 
 
 102 
 90 
 4 
 27 
 53 
 115 
 172 
 97 
 470 
 126 
 181 
 1,044 
 144 
 11 
 31 
 1,135 
 3 
 167 
 26 
 76 
 
 Tonn. 
 
 3,596 
 34,450 94 
 
 280 
 21,059 
 14,778 
 316 
 3,G95 
 8,554 
 9,167 
 19,210 
 6,984 
 121,360 
 21,049 
 24,394 
 68,016 
 12,165 
 198 
 3,083 13 
 135,309 399 
 1091 4 
 9,2051 14 
 
 922 - 
 1,914 7 
 
 Other Flags 
 
 Tonn 
 
 1,460 
 14,329 
 
 672 
 5,618 
 
 601 
 154 
 
 966 
 3,660 
 260 
 295 
 600 
 6,709 
 
 999 
 64,225 
 130 
 1,876 
 
 3,175 262,109:22,856 4,394 519,820 721 102,915 
 
 Navigation reserved to French Ships. 
 
 Colonial Trade. 
 
 Tonn 
 17,08f 
 
 32,721 
 176 
 4,959 
 
 24,691 
 
 Crew 
 1,005 
 
 1,645 14 
 14 
 
 10 5 
 
 Cod and Whale 
 Fishery. 
 
 Tonn 
 487 
 4,545 
 
 7,469 
 5,983 
 
 4,940 
 1,716 
 .384 
 516 
 5,081 
 
 11,055 
 1,516 
 
 Coasting Trade. 
 
 Ship 
 
 295 
 2,472 
 2,562 
 12,140 
 2,668 
 7,136 
 8,010 
 11,061 
 3,668 
 3,019 
 2,525 
 2,521 
 2,147 
 1,638 
 236 
 9S0 
 651 
 1,914 
 4,127 
 3,296 
 1,332 
 1,177 
 2,548 
 
 Tonnage 
 15,68: 
 134,189 
 64,691 
 376,726 
 105,465 
 138,303 
 186,738 
 147,594 
 114,425 
 102,985 
 146,696 
 159,095 
 62,611 
 67,828 
 10,801 
 57,543 
 19,715 
 84,551 
 237,906 
 145,740 
 78,225 
 39,486 
 56,653 
 
 i 5,224 581 48,695' 8,055 78,123 2,523,652 308,478 | 
 
 Crew. 
 
 1,580 
 13,949 
 
 8,36 
 44,556 
 9,542 
 20,664 
 30,144 
 36,487 
 15,781 
 13,057 
 13,261 
 9,328 
 7,409 
 6,406 
 1,113 
 6,191 
 2,9371 
 9,5631 
 19,2291 
 15,333 
 7,595 
 5,fi73! 
 13,519 
 
 Ports. 
 Bayonne 
 Bordeaux 
 
 Other ports 
 Rochelle 
 Nantes 
 
 Other ports 
 L'Orient 
 Brest 
 
 Saint Malo 
 
 Ships. 
 442 
 3,032 
 2,565 
 
 12,284 
 2,955 
 7,146 
 8,043 
 
 11,129 
 3,969 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 21,866 
 234,712 
 
 56,042 
 402,465 
 155,725 
 138,980 
 191,052 
 157,025 
 137,225 
 
 Ports. 
 Cherbourg 
 Rouen 
 Havre 
 
 Other porta 
 Abbeville 
 Boulogne 
 Dunkirk 
 Digne 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 3,479 
 
 135,648 
 
 2,746 
 
 164,881 
 
 3,410 
 
 366,717 
 
 2,301 
 
 86,873 
 
 1,844 
 
 94,067 
 
 1,695 
 
 97,076 
 
 1,459 
 
 96,807 
 
 702 
 
 21,026 
 
 Ports. 
 Toulon 
 Marseilles 
 
 Other ports 
 Montpellier 
 Perpignan 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 2,040 
 
 94,680 
 
 6,831 
 
 567,161 
 
 3,319 
 
 146,700 
 
 1,694 
 
 102,099 
 
 1,294 
 
 43,138 
 
 2,797 
 
 42,554 
 
 87,180 
 
 3,553,219 
 
 (For Table II, see next page.") 
 
 Irade between France and England Nothing can more strikingly illustrate the 
 
 miserable effects of commercial restrictions, than the present state of the trade between 
 Great Britain and France. Here we have two countries of vast wealth and population, 
 near neighbours, and each possessing many important articles that the other wants, and 
 yet the intercourse between them is inconsiderable. At a distant period this was not 
 the case. Previously to the accession of William III., the import of wine only from 
 France amounted to about 1 3,500 tuns a year, our imports of brandy and other articles 
 being proportionally large. But Louis XIV. having espoused the cause of the exiled 
 family of Stuart, the British government, not recollecting that the blow they aimed at 
 the French would also smite their own subjects, imposed, in 1693, a discritm}iatinff duty 
 of 8/. a tun on French wine, and in 1697 raised it to no less than 33/. a tun! It is 
 probable that this excess of duty would have been repealed as soon as the peculiar cir- 
 cumstances in which it originated had disappeared, had not the stipulations in the fimous 
 commercial treaty with Portugal, negotiated by Mr. Methuen, in 1703, given it per- 
 manence. But, according to this treaty, we bound ourselves for the future to charge 
 one third higher duties on the wines of France imported into England, than on those cf 
 Portugal; the Portuguese, by way of compensation, binding themselves to admit our 
 
 2 T 
 
642 
 
 HAVRE. 
 
 II. Account showing the total Number of Ships, with their Tonnage and Crews, entered inwards in 
 the different Ports of France in 1833, specifying the Countries whence they came, and distinguishing 
 between French and Foreign Ships. — {Administration des Douanes for 1833, p. 398.) 
 
 Ships entered. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Foreian. 
 
 
 
 Conntries. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 French. 
 
 
 Carrying the Flags of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Country whence 
 they came. 
 
 Other Flags. 
 
 
 alitps. 
 
 
 
 „, . 
 
 J. OTiTUxeet 
 
 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Crew. 
 
 Russia 
 
 finn 
 
 
 
 541 
 
 137 
 
 23,611 
 
 1,228 
 14 
 
 oweuen - • • 
 
 
 
 
 . ;~ 
 
 
 1,577 
 
 I 
 
 280 
 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 r'nci 
 
 101 967 
 
 5,234 
 
 20 
 
 2,980 
 
 161 
 
 96 
 
 Penmark 
 
 
 
 
 
 2*665 
 
 193 
 
 ^9 
 
 1 ,403 
 
 
 
 ■^97 
 
 91 
 
 rf 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 5,364 
 
 312 
 
 H^iseatic Towns 
 
 -•t 
 
 _ ^iL 
 
 VI 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 2,490 
 
 148 
 
 HoiUincl . . , • 
 
 Ifi 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 7 dlQ 
 11 in 
 
 
 60 
 
 5,798 
 
 555 
 
 Be'yium - . • - 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 1 fi-'i 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 1,217 
 
 71 
 
 Knf^laiid (Oibrnltar, IVfaltaj &c.) 
 
 Portugal (Madeira, CapeV erde Islands, Azores] 
 
 Q91 
 
 
 
 
 1 IQ 9fin 
 
 13,293 
 
 12 
 
 2,489 
 
 116 
 
 65 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 7 
 
 768 
 
 65 
 
 Spain (the Canaries) 
 
 516 
 
 
 
 
 17,771 
 
 
 57 
 
 9,084 
 
 590 
 
 Austria - - - 
 
 
 __ Tli 
 
 fin 
 
 
 ?q'^9c 
 
 1119 
 
 o'qyif 
 
 17 
 
 3,510 
 
 215 
 
 Sardinia • ■ ~ 
 
 
 
 qn^ 
 
 41 5 
 
 if ^7K 
 
 
 
 1,637 
 
 205 
 
 Two Sicilies - ~ 
 
 
 1071') 
 
 I'niii 
 
 171 
 
 
 9 9ns 
 
 15 
 
 1,881 
 
 lU 
 
 Tuscany, Koinan States, Lucca 
 
 (ireece, and its islands in the Archipelago 
 
 13U 
 
 
 R78 
 
 Ofi 
 
 9n^ 
 
 
 127 
 
 12,682 
 
 1,189 
 
 
 
 »1 
 
 9r 
 
 409 
 
 2 
 
 364 
 
 28 
 
 Turkey, and its islands in the Archipelago 
 
 r<) 
 
 Q nd9 
 
 197 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 5,758 
 
 340 
 
 Egypt - ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 Algiers 
 
 Other states or xiarDary 
 
 7 1 
 
 Q OQS 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 4 8'0 
 
 272 
 
 lid 
 
 \ 
 
 1 1 Q^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 9*148 
 
 627 
 
 Other territories in Africa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 India, ICnglish possessions 
 
 Oi 
 
 s n 1 Q 
 
 dfin 
 
 * 
 
 ■ 
 
 * 
 
 3 
 
 824 
 
 41 
 
 Dutch do. " 
 
 A 
 
 ins 
 
 61 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fren(;h do. * ■ 
 
 
 '970 
 
 62 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'nv,.!- • - * 
 
 
 767 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cocnin tviiina, f nilippines, occ. 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 95,248 
 
 4,102 
 
 
 
 
 United States 
 
 59 
 
 15,615 
 
 759 
 
 298 
 
 2 
 
 594 
 
 24 
 
 Hayti - - • - 
 
 41 
 
 8,648 
 
 496 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Knglish possessions in America 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 1,641 
 
 67 
 
 
 
 
 Spanish do. ... 
 
 48 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 321 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 2,006 
 
 113 
 
 Danish do. - - - 
 
 6 
 
 1 ms 
 
 Q Vio 
 
 71 
 
 ,1 r 
 
 1 
 
 250 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 256 
 
 11 
 
 Brazil - ... 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 250 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 2,385 
 
 122 
 
 Mexico - - 
 
 17 
 
 3 709 
 
 234 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 865 
 
 37 
 
 Colombia - - - - 
 
 15 
 
 3'062 
 
 179 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 204 
 
 10 
 
 Peru (Lower Peru) 
 
 2 
 
 409 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chili - - - - - 
 
 6 
 
 1,542 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hio de la Plata, Monte Video, Buenos Ajres 
 
 22 
 
 4,389 
 
 261 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 197 
 
 11 
 
 Martinique - ... 
 
 114 
 
 28,523 
 
 1,505 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Guadaloupe - - - 
 
 159 
 
 39,165 
 
 2,017 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cayenne ... 
 
 23 
 
 4,485 
 
 289 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Senegal - ... 
 
 20 
 
 2,139 
 
 180 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bourbon ... 
 
 70 
 
 21,736 
 
 1,233 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total of French ships 
 
 3,561 
 
 358,157 
 
 28,080 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fishery, cod - - - - 
 
 369 
 
 43,938 
 
 7,629 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 whale ... 
 
 12 
 
 4,757 
 
 406 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coasting trade, in the same sea 
 
 56,C0.S 
 
 1,937,512 
 
 239,863 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 from one sea to the other 
 
 1,363 
 
 189,767 
 
 11,314 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 interior navigation 
 
 20,152 
 
 396,353 
 
 57,301 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 82,065 
 
 2,930,484 
 
 344,593 
 
 4,394 
 
 519,820 
 
 38,811 
 
 721 
 
 102,915 
 
 6,554 
 
 woollens into their markets in preference to those of other countries, at a fixed and 
 invariable rate of duty. 
 
 Though very generally regarded, at the time, as the highest effort of diplomatic skill 
 and address, the Methuen treaty was, undoubtedly, founded on the narrowest and most 
 contracted views of national interest ; and has, in consequence, proved, in no common 
 degree, injurious to both parties, but especially to England. By binding ourselves to 
 receive Portuguese wines for two thirds of the duty payable on those of France, we, in 
 effect, gave the Portuguese growers a monopoly of the British market ; at the same 
 time that we excluded one of the principal equivalents the French had to offer for our 
 commodities, and provoked them to retaliate. This, indeed, was no difficult task. — 
 Unhappily, they were but too ready to embark in that course of vindictive policy of 
 which we set them the example ; so that prohibitions on the one side boing immediately 
 followed by counter-prohibitions on the other, the trade between the two countries was 
 nearly annihilated ! But the indirect were still more injurious than the direct conse- 
 quences of this wretched policy. It inspired both parties with feelings of jealousy and 
 dislike, and kept them in the frowning attitude of mutual defiance. Each envied the 
 other's prosperity ; and being disposed to take fire at even fancied encroachments, the 
 most frivolous pretexts were sufficient to engage them in contests that have filled the whole 
 world with bloodshed and confusion. But had things been left to their natural course, — 
 had an vinfettered commercial intercourse been allowed to grow up between the two 
 countries, — the one would have formed so near, so vast, and so profitable a market for 
 the produce of the other, that they could not have remained long at war without oc- 
 casioning the most extensively ruinous distress, — distress which no government would 
 be willing to inflict on its subjects, and to which, though the government were willing, 
 it is most probable no people would be disposed to submit. A free trade between England 
 and France would give these two great nations one common interest. It would occasion 
 not only a vast increase of the industry, and of the comforts and enjoyments, of the 
 
HAVRE. 
 
 people of both countries, but would be the best attainable security against future 
 hostilities. *' Ve know," said Mr. Villiers, in his very able and instructive speech (15th 
 of June, 1830), " that British enterprise will fetch the extremest points on earth in the 
 business of exchange; but here are the shores of France nearer to England than those 
 of Ireland itself — nay, Bordeaux is commercially nearer to London than it is to Paris; 
 and, but for the lamentable perversion of the gifts and dispositions of nature, and of 
 the ingenuity of man — the highways of commerce between these countries — the seas 
 which surround Great Britain and Ireland, and wash the shores of France, should 
 literally swarm with vessels, engaged, not only in the interchange of material products, 
 but in diffusing knowledge and stimulating improvement j in creating every where new 
 neighbourhoods ; in consolidating international dependence ; in short, in drawing daily 
 more close the bonds of international peace and confidence, and thus advancing, while 
 they also served to confirm and secure, the peace, the civilisation, and the happiness of 
 Europe." * 
 
 The commercial treaty which Mr. Pitt negotiated with France in 1786, was the first 
 attempt to introduce a better system into the trade between the two countries ; and it is 
 one of the few treaties of this description that have been bottomed on fair and liberal 
 principles. But the Revolution in France, and the lengthened and bloody wars by 
 which it was followed, totally suppressed that mutually beneficial intercourse which had 
 begun to grow up under Mr. Pitt's treaty ; and when peace was again restored, in 1815, 
 the French government unwisely resolved to continue the system of Napoleon, and to 
 exclude most sorts of foreign products for which a substitute could be found at home ! 
 But the wide-spread distress that has resulted from this absurd policy, and the more 
 general diflfusion of sounder notions as to the real sources of public wealth, will, it may 
 be confidently predicted, at no distant period, induce the government of France to adopt 
 a less illiberal and irrational system. — (See Bordeaux.) The equalisation of the wine 
 duties in this country will accelerate this desirable result. It shows the French that we 
 are no longer influenced by the prejudices in which the discriminating system originated ; 
 and that we are ready to deal with them on the same fair and equal terms as with any 
 one else. In this respect the measure is entitled to the highest praise ; and we have no 
 doubt that it will be the harbinger of others of the same kind — of a reduction of the 
 exorbitant duties on brandy, for example — both here and in France. The statesman 
 who shall succeed in abolishing the restraints on the commerce of the two countries, will 
 render the most essential service to them both ; and not to them only, but to all the 
 world, the furthest parts of which have been harassed by their wars. It admits of de- 
 monstration, that, under a free system, the trade with France would be incomparably 
 more important and valuable than that with Russia, the United States, or any other 
 country. And we trust, should another edition of this work be called for, that we shall 
 have to congratulate the public on the opening of this " broad and deep " channel of 
 employment. 
 
 The following Tables, prepared expressly for this work, give a pretty complete view of 
 the trade with France. Brandy, madder, silk manufactures, flax, wine, gloves, &c. are 
 the principal articles of import ; for the raw and thrown silk comes, as already mentioned, 
 almost wholly from Italy. Brass and copper manufactures are by far the most important 
 of all the articles we send to France, at least through the regular channels. It will, pro- 
 bably, surprise some of our readers to learn that, in 1832, the real or declared value of 
 the silk goods manufactured in this country and exported to France amounted to no less 
 than 75,187Z. ! This is an instructive commentary on the sinister auguries of those 
 who predicted the ruin of our manufacture by French competition, in consequence of 
 the subversion of the old monopoly system in 1825. The most important of the other 
 articles of export are cottoiis, woollens, sheep's wool, hardware and cutlery, horses, 
 tin, &c. 
 
 A glance at the first of the following Tables will suflSciently explain the real causes of 
 tlie depressed state of the French trade. The duty of 22s. 6d. a gallon on brandy is, 
 probably, about the ne plus ultra of fiscal rapacity. The duties on wine, verdigris, gloves, 
 Sec. are all very much beyond the mark. Till they be adequately reduced, the trade 
 with France can never be any thing but inconsiderable, compared, at least, with what it 
 ought to be. 
 
 * We regret to have to add, that this was one of the last public appearances made by Mr. Villiers. He 
 died in December, 1832, at the early age of 31. His death was a national loss that will not easily be re- 
 paired. Few have ever entered upon public life with better dispositions, more enlarged and comprehensive 
 views, or a more sincere desire to promote the happiness of their species. 
 
 2 T 2 
 
HAVRE. 
 
 . Account of the Imports into the United Kingdom from France, specifying the Quantity and Value of 
 each Article, and the Amount of Customs Duty paid thereon, during the Year 1832 ; with the Customs 
 Duty received on each Article. 
 
 Species of Imports. 
 
 Annotto 
 
 Books ... 
 Boots, shoes, and galoshes 
 China and eartheuware 
 Clocks 
 
 Cotton manufactures of Europe 
 
 ^ggs 
 Flax 
 
 Flowers, artificial 
 Glass bottles, common 
 Hals, straw 
 Leather gloves 
 Linen, cambrics 
 Madder - - 
 
 Madder root 
 
 Needlework and embroidery 
 
 Oysters 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Silk, raw 
 
 thrown 
 
 waste 
 
 Silk manufactures, viz. : 
 Silk or satin 
 Gauze 
 
 Crape - - 
 Velvet 
 
 Lace, millinery, &c. &c. 
 Skins, goat, undressed 
 kid, dressed 
 
 lamb, tanned or dressed 
 Spirits, brandy 
 Toys 
 
 Verdigris . . . 
 
 Wine, French 
 Wool, sheep's 
 Woollen manufactures 
 All other articles 
 
 Jjenotninations* 
 
 Quantities 
 imported. 
 
 Oihcial Value 
 of the 
 Imports. 
 
 Amount of Cus- 
 toms Duties 
 received on 
 each Article 
 imported. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IDS. 
 
 _ . 
 
 QA± 
 
 \ 
 
 12 
 
 cwt. 
 
 
 
 5,042 
 
 
 
 
 
 fler'ired valup 
 
 ;■ 8 ROT 
 
 
 
 
 A'. -c0,5y3 
 
 20,59a 
 
 5,028 
 
 
 
 
 775 
 
 number 
 
 55 651 243 
 
 17*391 
 
 
 cwt. 
 
 ' 3l',r,V2 
 
 55^558 
 
 '131 
 
 declared value 
 
 L. 2,160 
 
 2,160 
 
 524 
 
 quarts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 07 10J 
 
 
 1 ""I^' infi 
 
 
 
 pieces 
 
 fion 
 
 
 12,193 
 
 cwt. 
 
 
 °4,()o3 
 
 8,006 
 
 
 
 246,059 
 
 2,321 
 
 aeciared value 
 
 T 1 ■^'fi^Q 
 
 
 
 Dusnels 
 
 
 
 oy»46 
 
 
 
 
 6,121 
 
 IDS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 48,589 
 
 
 
 i>>,701 
 
 115 
 
 
 74 723 
 
 148 45S 
 
 40,909 
 
 z 
 
 48*171 
 
 184',254 
 
 63,737 
 
 — 
 
 15,510 
 
 33,346 
 
 12,201 
 
 
 7,790 
 
 20,824 
 
 8,635 
 
 declared value 
 
 L. 53,702 
 
 63,702 
 
 16,522 
 
 number 
 
 20,29S 
 
 1,691 
 
 240 
 
 
 664,019 
 
 11,961 
 
 3,319 
 
 
 5,069 
 
 51 
 
 
 proof gallons 
 
 2,647,372 
 
 360,428 
 
 1,799,947 
 
 declared value 
 
 L. 1,230 
 
 1,230 
 
 243 
 
 Ibs.^ 
 
 44,089 
 
 2,798 
 
 2,434 
 
 gallons 
 
 297,157 
 
 33,232 
 
 65,287 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1,973 
 
 49 
 
 33 
 
 declared value 
 
 L. 61,749 
 
 61,749 
 
 9,34 i 
 
 value 
 
 
 331,211 
 
 84,574 
 
 
 Total - L. 
 
 2,452,894 
 
 2,271,249 
 
 11. Account of the Exports of British and Irish Produce and Manufactures from the United Kingdom 
 to France, specifying the Quantity and Value of each Article, during the Year 1832. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Official Value 
 
 Declared A'alui 
 
 
 
 Quantities 
 'exported. 
 
 of British and 
 
 of British and 
 
 Species of Exports. 
 
 Denominations. 
 
 Irish Produce 
 
 Irish Produce 
 
 
 and Manufac- 
 tures exported. 
 
 and Manufac- 
 tures exported. 
 
 Apothecary wares - - . _ 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1,023 
 
 L. 
 2,046 
 
 L. 
 
 8,225 
 
 Apparel .... 
 
 value 
 
 55.^ 
 
 4,441 
 
 4,441 
 
 Beer and ale - .... 
 
 tuns 
 
 277 
 
 975 
 
 Books, printed ... . . 
 
 cwt. 
 
 243 
 
 973 
 
 5,518 
 
 Brass and copper manufactures 
 
 
 36,267 
 
 191,822 
 
 147,193 
 
 Cabinet and upholstery wares - - - 
 
 value 
 
 
 2,217 
 192 
 
 2,217 
 
 Cheese .... 
 
 cwt. 
 
 160 
 
 .558 
 
 Coals . - ... 
 
 tons 
 
 41,006 
 
 40,867 
 
 11,119 
 
 Cotton manufactures - - - 
 
 yards 
 
 4,567,067 
 
 186,398 
 
 61,324 
 
 Ditto - .... 
 
 value 
 
 
 3,542 
 
 3,670 
 
 Earthenware of all sorts 
 
 pieces 
 
 " 96,376 
 
 241 
 
 1,7.'^S 
 
 Glass of all sorts - - . ■ 
 
 value 
 
 
 74 
 
 238 
 
 Hardware and cutlery ... 
 
 cwt. 
 
 3,673 
 
 10,101 
 
 28,260 
 
 Horses - .... 
 
 number 
 
 529 
 
 5,290 
 
 25,995 
 
 Iron, pig - . - 
 
 tons 
 
 2,759 
 
 2,759 
 
 9,548 
 
 bar and bolt - - 
 
 
 1,656 
 
 16,567 
 
 8,119 
 
 cast and wrought ... 
 
 
 1,063 
 65^ 
 
 32,916 
 
 11,831 
 
 Lead and shot - - - 
 
 
 686 
 
 804 
 
 Leather and saddlery • • 
 
 value 
 
 1,156 
 
 1,946 
 
 Linens - - - - - 
 
 yards 
 
 291,961 
 
 14,626 
 
 14,780 
 
 Litharge of lead . . ,. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 Alachinery and mill-work • - . 
 
 value 
 
 
 4,528 
 
 4,528 
 
 Musical instruments ... 
 
 
 
 1,742 
 
 1,742 
 
 Painters' colours and materials ... 
 
 
 
 2,295 
 
 2,293 
 
 Plate of silver - - - - 
 
 ounces 
 
 4,026 
 
 1,812 
 
 1,528 
 
 Silk goods manufactured in tlie United ICingdom 
 
 value 
 
 
 87,803 
 
 75,187 
 
 Spermaceti .... 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1,008 
 
 7,562 
 
 5,177 
 
 Stationery - - - 
 
 value 
 
 
 3,046 
 
 3,046 
 
 Steel, unwrought - - 
 Tin, unwrought . - 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1,851 
 
 2,638 
 
 3,263 
 
 
 8,508 
 
 31,055 
 
 29,472 
 
 Tin and pewter wares, and tin plates 
 
 value 
 
 7,399 
 
 7,399 
 
 Whalebone .... 
 
 cwt. 
 
 701 
 
 3,505 
 
 5,048 
 
 Wool, sheep's - ... 
 
 lbs. 
 
 736,482 
 
 26,303 
 
 38,541 
 
 Woollen manufactures ... 
 
 value 
 
 
 45,320 
 
 43,187 
 
 All other articles • • • • 
 
 
 
 106,062 
 
 105,860 
 
 
 
 Total - L. 
 
 848,270 
 
 674,791 
 
 It would seem, from the subjoined account, as if the imports into Great Britain from 
 France very much exceeded the exports, the official value of which amount to only 
 848,270/. a year. But though the fact were so, it would not, as some appear to suppose, 
 afford the shadow of a foundation for the statements of those who contend that the 
 trade with France is a losing one. A man carries nothing but money to the baker's 
 shop, or the butcher's ; and yet it is not said that he is injured by dealing with them, or 
 that he .should become baker or butcher for himself. We buy certain articles from 
 France, becaiire we find we can procure them from her on more reasonable terms than 
 
HAWKERS AND PEDLARS. 
 
 from any other country ; for, were it otherwise, does any one suppose we should send a 
 single ship to her ports? Whether we carry on our intercourse with the French by 
 sending them returns in bullion or ordinary products, is of no consequence whatever. 
 We may be assured that bullion is not sent to another country, unless it be more valuable 
 there than here; that is, unless its exportation be for our advantage. — (See 13alan'ck 
 OF Trade.) In point of fact, however, we very rarely send any bullion to France; 
 and the proof of this is, that, since the peace, the exchange with Paris has beerw oftener in 
 our favour than against us. When the bills drawn by the French on us exceed those 
 we draw on them, the balance is usually paid by bills on Holland and Hamburgh, 
 where there is, at all times, an excess of British produce. It is idle, therefore, to 
 attempt to revive the ridiculous cry as to the disadvantageousness of the French trade, 
 because the imports from France exceed the exports ! The imports into all commercial 
 countries uniformly exceed the exports ; and the fact brought forward as a ground of 
 complaint against the French trade, is the strongest recommendation in its favour. 
 Perhaps, however, it may be consolatory to those who are so alarmed at the excess of 
 imports from France, to be told that it is to a great extent apparent only. As already 
 observed, large quantities of silk and other produce from Italy come to us through 
 France, and are reckoned among the imports from that country, when they are in reality 
 imports from Italy. Taking this circumstance into account, it will be found that the 
 discrepancy between the exports to and imports from France is immaterial. 
 
 Account of the Amount in Official and Real Value of all British Exports to France, in each Year since 
 1814; distinguishing those of British from Colonial Produce; also, an Abstract of the Amount in 
 Official Value of all Imports from France in each Year, as far as the same can be made up during that 
 rime. 
 
 Official Value of Im- 
 ports into the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Official Value of Exports from the United Kmgdom. 
 
 British and Irish 
 Pnduce and Manu- 
 factures. 
 
 Fotfeign and Colo- 
 nial Merchandise. 
 
 Total Exports. 
 
 Declared Value of 
 British and Irish 
 Produce and Manu- 
 factures exported 
 from the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 £ 
 
 740,226 
 754,372 
 417,782 
 527,865 
 1,162,423 
 642,011 
 775,132 
 865,616 
 878,272 
 1,115,800 
 1,556,733 
 1,835,984 
 1,247,426 
 2,625,747 
 3,178,825 
 2,086,993 
 2,328,483 
 3,056,154 
 2.452,894 
 
 s. d. 
 10 0 
 8 11 
 
 17 2 
 
 13 6 
 15 7 
 
 14 2 
 5 6 
 
 12 9 
 
 15 0 
 7 0 
 
 17 5 
 12 0 
 0 6 
 
 11 10 
 3 9 
 
 10 10 
 14 11 
 
 12 4 
 0 0 
 
 377,799 
 214,823 
 321,070 
 596,753 
 318,850 
 248,078 
 334,086 
 582,404 
 346,810 
 241,837 
 260,498 
 279,212 
 426,819 
 416,726 
 448,945 
 509,921 
 486,284 
 635,927 
 848.270 
 
 s. a. 
 
 9 7 
 
 15 9 
 
 4 11 
 
 12 11 
 9 9 
 3 7 
 
 13 9 
 
 0 8 
 2 7 
 
 1 3 
 0 1 
 
 13 5 
 
 0 0 
 
 £ 
 
 1,867,913 
 1,228,856 
 1,313,151 
 1,054,261 
 877,912 
 734,779 
 829,814 
 1,037,100 
 839,150 
 743,574 
 864,500 
 892,402 
 656,124 
 133,503 
 195,497 
 337,896 
 181,065 
 256,081 
 
 s. cL 
 
 19 4 
 
 5 3 
 
 17 8 
 
 9 9 
 
 13 0 
 
 9 10 
 
 9 6 
 
 £ 
 
 2,245,713 
 1,443,680 
 1,634,222 
 1,651,014 
 1,196,763 
 982,857 
 1,163,901 
 1,419,504 
 1,185,961 
 985,412 
 1,124,999 
 1,171,615 
 1,082,944 
 550,529 
 644,442 
 847,817 
 667,349 
 392,009 
 
 s. d. 
 
 8 11 
 
 1 0 
 
 2 7 
 
 16 9 
 
 12 1 
 
 10 7 
 2 8 
 
 17 9 
 6 5 
 
 9 3 
 6 1 
 1 8 
 4 6 
 
 13 2 
 
 11 9 
 
 12 9 
 1 6 
 
 13 0 
 
 £ 
 
 582,702 
 298,291 
 407,699 
 1,003,486 
 369,503 
 299,493 
 390,744 
 438,265 
 437,009 
 
 338,635 
 360,709 
 488,438 
 446,951 
 498,937 
 491,388 
 475,884 
 602,688 
 674,791 
 
 s. d. 
 
 15 0 
 
 10 1 
 
 11 4 
 
 12 7 
 14 9 
 
 6 8 
 
 10 3 
 
 18 5 
 
 2 5 
 4 1 
 8 11 
 
 10 1 
 
 6 7 
 
 0 9 
 
 12 0 
 
 3 11 
 3 2 
 0 0 
 0 0 
 
 HAWKERS AND PEDLARS. It is not very easy to distinguish between hawkers 
 and pedlars. Both are a sort of itinerant retail dealers, who carry about their wares 
 from place to place ; but the former are supposed to carry on business on a larger scale 
 than the latter. They are subject to the same regulations. 
 
 Regulations as to Hawkers and Pedlars. — The legislature has always looked with sus- 
 picion upon itinerant dealers ; and has attempted, by obliging them to take out licences, 
 and placing them under a sort of surveillance, to lessen their numbers, and to hinder 
 them from engaging in dishonest practices. But the resident dealer has so many advan- 
 tages on his side, that these precautions seem to be in a great measure superfluous. It 
 should also be recollected, that before shops were generally established in villages and 
 remote districts, hawkers and pedlars rendered macerial services to country people ; and 
 even now the competition which they excite is certainly advantageous. 
 
 By the 50 Geo. 3. a 41., hawkers and pedlars are to pay an annual licence duty of 47. ; and if they travel 
 with a horse, ass, or other beast, bearing or drawing burden, they are subject to an additional duty of 4/. 
 for each beast so employed. The granting of licences, and management of the duties, are, by a late act, 
 placed under the control of the commissioners cf stamps. 
 
 Hawkers and pedlars, unless householders or residents in the place, are not allowed to sell by auction 
 to the highest bidder : penalty 50/ — half to the informer, the other half to the king. But nothing in the 
 act extends to hinder any person from selling, or exposing to sale, any sort of goods, in any public market 
 or fair ; or to hinder a hawker or pedlar from selling in a liired room, where he is not a resident, provided 
 such sale is not by auction. 
 
 Every hawker, before he is licensed, must produce a certificate of good character and reputation, signed 
 by the clergyman and two reputable inhabitants of the place w here he usually resides. 
 
 Every hawker must have inscribed, in Roman capitals, on the most conspicuous part of every pack, box, 
 trunk, case, cart, or other vehicle, in which he shall carry his wares, and on every room and shop in 
 which he shall trade, and likewise on every hand-bill which he shall distribute, the words " Licenspd 
 Hawker." Penalty, in default, 10/. Unlicensed persons wrongfully using this designation forfeit V.L 
 
 2 T 3 
 
646 
 
 HAY. — HEMP. 
 
 Hawkers dealing in smuggled goods, or in ^oods fraudulently or dishonestly procured, are punishable 
 by forfeiture of licence, and incapacity to obtain one in future, besides being liable to all the other penal, 
 ties, forfeitures, &c. applicable to such illegal dealing. 
 
 By Stat. 6 Geo. 4. c. 80. it is enacted, that any person or persons hawking, selling, or exposing to sale, 
 any spirits on the streets, highways, &c., or in any boat or other vessel on the water, or in any place 
 other tlian those allowed in this act, shall forfeit such spirits and lOOZ. for every such offence. Any per- 
 son may detain a hawker of spirits, and give notice to a peace officer to carry the offender before a 
 justice. 
 
 Hawkers trading without licence are liable to a penalty of 10/. So also, if they refuse to show their 
 licence on the demand of any person to whom they offer goods for sale, or on the demand of any justice, 
 mayor, constable, or other peace officer, or any officer of the customs or excise. By 5 Geo. 4. c. 83., 
 hawkers trading without a licence are punishable as vagrants. 
 
 To forge or counterfeit a hawker's licence incurs a penalty of 300/. To lend or hire a hawker's licence 
 subjects lender and borrower to 40/. each, and the licence becomes forfeited. But the servant of a 
 licensed hawker may travel with the licence of his master. 
 
 Hawkers trading without a licence are liable to be seized and detained by any person who may give 
 notice to a constable, in order to their being carried before a justice of peace. Constables refusing to 
 assist in tiie execution cf the act are liable to a penalty of 10/. 
 
 Nothing in the act extends to prohibit persons from selling fish, fruit, or victuals; nor to hinder the 
 maker of any home manufacture from exposing his goods to sale in any market or fair, in every city, 
 borough, town cor|)orate, and market town : nor any tinker, cooper, glazier, plumber, harness-mender, 
 or other person, from going about and carrying the materials necessary to their business. 
 
 A single act of selling, as a parcel of handkerchiefs to a particular person, is not sufficient to constitute 
 a hawker within the meaning of the statutes. — [Rex v. Little, B. 613.) 
 
 By the 52 Geo. 3. c. 1U8., no person, being a trader in any goods, wares, or manufactures of Great Britain, 
 and selling the same by wholesale, shall be deemed a hawker ; and all such persons, or their agents, 
 selling by wholesale only, shall go from house to house, to any of their customers who sell again by whole- 
 sale or retail, v/ithout being subject to any of the penalties contained in any act touching hawkers, ped- 
 lars, and petty chapmen. 
 
 No person committed under these acts for non-payment of penalties can be detained in custody for a 
 longer period than 3 months. 
 
 Hawl<ers exposing their goods to sale in a market town, must do it in the market-place. 
 
 Persons hawking tea without a licence are liable to a penalty, under 50 Geo. 3. c. 41. ; and even though 
 they had a licence, they would be liable to a penalty for selling tea in an unentered place. — {Chitty's edit. 
 of Burn's Justice, vol. ii. p. 1113.) 
 
 Any person duly licensed to trade as a hawker and pedlar may set up any lawful trade in any place 
 where he is resident, though he have not served any apprenticeship to the same, and, if prosecuted, he 
 may plead the general issue, and have double costs. — (See Chitty^s edit, of Burn's Justice, vol. ii. 
 pp. 1102—1124.) 
 
 The hawkers' and pedlars' duty produced in 1832,28,542/. gross revenue ; the charges of collection are 
 very heavy, amounting to between 5,000/. and 6,000/. Whatever, therefore, may be the other advantages 
 of this tax, it cannot, certainly, be said to be very productive. 
 
 HAY (Ger. Hew ; Dii. Hovi ; Fr. Foin ; It. Fieno ; Sp. Heno ; Lat. Fcenum), any 
 kind of grass, cut and dried for the food of cattle. The business of hay-making is said 
 to be better understood in Middlesex than in any other part of the kingdom. The great 
 object is to preserve the green colour of the grass as much as possible, and to have it 
 juicy, fresh, and free from all sort of mustiness. 
 
 The sale of hay within the bills of mortality, and 30 miles of the cities of London and Westminster, is 
 regulated by the act 36 Geo. 3. c. 88. It enacts, that all hay shall be sold by the load of 36 trusses, each 
 truss weighing 56 lbs., except new hay, which is to weigh 60 lbs. till the 4th of September, and afterwards 
 56 lbs. only ; so that till the 4th of September a load of hay weighs exactly a ton, but thereafter only 18 cwt. 
 The clerk of the market is bound to keep a regular book for the inspection of the public, specifying the 
 names of the seller, the buyer, the sales-man, and the price of each load. Salesmen and factors are pro- 
 hibited from dealing on their own account. 
 
 There are three public markets in the metropolis for the sale of hay and straw; Whitechapel, Smithfield, 
 and the Haymarket. An act (11 Geo. 4. c. 14.) has been obtained, for the removal of the market from the 
 Haymarket to the vicinity of the Regent's Park : but the removal has not yet taken place. 
 
 Straw is sold by the load of 36 trusses, of 36 lbs. each, making in all 11 cwt. 64 lbs. 
 
 It is affirmed, we know not with wiiat foundation, that considerable frauds are perpetrated in the sale 
 of hay and straw. 
 
 HEMP (Ger. Hanf ; Du. Hennip, Kennip ; Da. Hamp ; Sw. Hampa ; Fr. Chanvre s 
 It. Canape ; Sp. Canamo ; Rus. Konapli, Konopel ; Pol. Konope) a valuable plant (the 
 Cannabis sativa of Linnasus), supposed to be a native of India, but long since naturalised 
 and extensively cultivated in Italy, and many countries of Europe, particularly Russia 
 and Poland, where it forms an article of primary commercial importance. It is also 
 cultivated in different parts of America, thougli not in such quantities as to supersede 
 its importation. It is stronger and coarser in the fibre than flax ; but its uses, culture, 
 and management, are pretty much the same. When grown for seed, it is a very ex- 
 hausting crop ; but when pulled green, it is considered as a cleaner of the ground. In 
 this country its cultivation is not deemed profitable ; so that, notwithstanding the en- 
 couragement it has received from government, and the excellent quality of English 
 hemp, it is but little grown, except in some few districts of Suffolk and Lincolnshire. 
 The quantity raised in Ireland is also inconsiderable. — {Loudon's Encyc. of Agricult.'^ 
 
 Exceedingly good huckaback is made from hemp, for towels and common tablecloths. Low-priced 
 hempen cloths are a general wear for husbandmen, servants, and labouring m.anufacturers ; the better 
 sorts for working farmers and tradesmen in the country ; and the finer ones, | wide, are |)referrcd by 
 some gentlemen for strength and warmth. They possess this advantage over Irish and other linens, — that 
 their colour improves in wearin}.', while that of linen deteriorates. But the great consumption of hemp is 
 in the manufacture of sailcloth and cordage, for which purposes it is peculiarly fitted by the strength of 
 its fibre. English hemp, when properly prepared, is said to bo stronger than that of every other country, 
 llussia not excepted ; and would, thcrcibre, make the best cordage. It is, however, but little used in that 
 way, or in the making of sailcloth ; being principally made into cloth for the uses already stated. 
 
 Hemp has been cultivated in Bengal from the remotest anti(]uity, but not, as in Eurojje, for the purpose 
 ol bc'ing manufactured into cloth and cordage. In the Hindoo economy it serves as a substitute for malt; 
 
HEMP. G17 
 
 & favourite intoxicating liquor, caWcd banga, being produced from it! This, also, is tlie use to wliicli it is 
 applied in Egypt. — {Mil/mrn's Orient. Commerce, <^c.) 
 
 The price of hemp fluctuated very much during the war. In consequence of diflficulties in the way of 
 its importation, it stood at a very higli level from 1808 to 1814. 'I'his was the principal circumstance that 
 originally brought iron cable* into use; and the extent to which they are now introduced, has contributed 
 materially to diminish the consumption and importation of hemp. — {Tookc on High and, Low Prices, 2d 
 ed. p. 345.) 
 
 Of 530,820 cwt of undressed hemi) imported in 1831, 500,803 were brought from Russia, 9,472 from the 
 East Indies, 7,405 from Italy, 2,262 from the Philippine Islands, 2,248 from the United States, and some 
 small quantities from a few other places. Tlie duty on hemp was reduced, in 1832, from 4*. 8rf. to \d. per 
 cwt. ; a reduction which, consiilering the importance of cordage, and other articles made of liemp, cannot 
 fail to be of very great advantage. 
 
 We borrow the following particulars with respect to the hemp trade of Pctersburgh, from the work of 
 Mr. Borrisow on the commerce of that city : — 
 
 Hemp forms a very important article of export from Petersburgh, and deserves particular notice. It 
 is assorted, according to its quality, into clean hemp, or firsts ; out. shot hemp, or seconds ; hay-clean hemp, 
 or thirds ; and hemp codilla. 
 
 Of the first 3 .'^orts, there are annually exported about 2,000,000 |X)ods, the greatest part in English and 
 American bottoms. It is brought to Petersburgh, from the interior beyond Moscow, by water ; and its 
 quality de|)ends very much qn the country in which it is produced. That brought from Kariitshev is the 
 best; next to this, that produced in Belev; hemp from Gshatsk is considered inferior to the latter. 
 
 As soon as the hemp is brought down in the spring, or in the course of the summer, it is selecled and 
 made up in bundles ; both operations being performed by sworn selectors {brackcrs) «nd binders appointed 
 by government for this purpose; and it is a well known fact, that this is done with great impartiality and 
 exactness. 
 
 A bundle of clean hemp weighs from 55 to 65 poods ; ditto out-shot, 48 to 55 ditto ; ditto half-clean, 
 40 to 45 ditto.— (1 pood = 36 lbs. avoirdupois.) 
 
 Binding of hemp is paid for at the rate of 2 roubles 50 copecks for clean, 2 roubles for out-shot, and t rouble 
 60 copecks for half-clean, per Inuidle ; one half is paid by the seller, and the otlier half by the purchaser, 
 and is charged accordingly by their agents. 
 
 The expense of selecting hemp is 50 copecks per bercovitz (or 10 poods), and is the same for every sort. 
 To every bundle of assorted hemp is attached a ticket with the names of the selector, binder, and owner, 
 and the date and year. Every bundle has also affixed to it a piece of lead, stamped on one side with the 
 name of the selector, and on the other with the sort of hemp and the time when it was selected. The 
 external marks of good hemp are, its being of an equal green colour and free from spills; but its good 
 quality is proved by the strength of the fibre, which should be fine, thin, and long. The first sort should 
 be quite clean and free from spills ; the out-shot is less so ; and the halj-clean contains a still greater por. 
 tion of spills, and is moreover of mixed qualities and colours. 
 
 As a })erfect knowledge of the qualities of hemp and flax can only be acquired by experience and 
 attention, agents usually employ men constantly occupied in this business; by which means they are sure 
 of getting goods of the best quality, and have the best chance of giving satisfaction to their principals; 
 because, although tlie hemp is selected by sworn selectors, yet, owing to the quantity of business and the 
 speed with which it must be executed, &c., there are often great differences in the same soits. The 
 charges are in this way somewhat increased ; but this is trifling in comparison of the advantage gained. 
 The part separated, or picked out in cleaning hemp, is called hemp codilla- it is generally marie up in 
 small bundles of 1 i«)od, which are again, when shipped, bound together in large bundles, each consisting 
 of about 30 small ones. 
 
 Particular care must be taken to ship hemp and flax in fine dry weather ; if it get wet, it heats and is 
 totally sijoiled. For this reason every vessel taking in hemp or flax is furnished with mats to prevent its 
 getting damp. Hemp, being light and bulky, is, when stowed, forced into the hold by means of winches, 
 which renders the operation of loading rather slow. 
 
 It may be taken as a general rule, that the prices of hemp are highest in the montlis of May, Jime, 
 July, and the early part of August, the demand for this article being then greatest, and the exportation 
 to North America being principally effected at this season. Again, the prices of hemp are lowest in the 
 month of September; the reason of which is, that the less opulent hemp-merchants return at the end of 
 this month to their own country, in order to make new purchases for the ensuing year ; and rather than 
 be detained, sell the remainder of their stock some roubles below the market price. Ihis causes a general 
 decline ; although an unusual demand for the article happening at the same time, or political events or 
 rumours, occasionally produce a contrary effect. Two large warehouses, called amhares, are built in 
 Petersburgh for the special purpose of housing hemp, where the greatest order is observed. 
 
 Account of the Total Export of Hemp from Petersburgh during the last Eight Years, specifying the 
 Quantities exported in British, American, and other Foreign Ships. 
 
 
 In BriUsh Ships. 
 
 American. 
 
 Other Foreign Ships. 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Clean. 
 
 Out-shot. 
 
 Half- 
 clean. 
 
 Total in Bri- 
 tish Ships. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Clean. 
 
 Out-shot. 
 
 Half- 
 clean. 
 
 Total in 
 Foreign 
 Ships. 
 
 Grand 
 Total. j 
 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 Poods. 
 
 1,098,952 
 941,934 
 
 1,011,931 
 859,753 
 324,719 
 481,000 
 682,976 
 617,237 
 
 Poods. 
 101,«33 
 73,750 
 36,959 
 106,098 
 213,452 
 282,664 
 202,611 
 167,155 
 
 Poods. 
 
 154,637 
 111,975 
 166,304 
 103,744 
 95,563 
 187,355 
 210,919 
 273,638 
 
 Poods. 
 1,355,232 
 1,127,659 
 1,215,194 
 1,069,601 
 633,734 
 952,943 
 1,096,506 
 1,058,030 
 
 Poods. 
 336,152 
 216,963 
 288,700 
 292,652 
 139,567 
 
 74,221 
 277,881 
 334,482 
 
 Poods. 
 104,144 
 185,643 
 166,963 
 192,302 
 38,947 
 43,481 
 21,481 
 92,380 
 
 Poods, 
 
 146,941 
 186,105 
 114,155 
 150,130 
 
 94,937 
 157,629 
 
 81,498 
 120,703 
 
 Poods. 
 
 99,045 
 125,130 
 128,(199 
 128,822 
 108,311 
 104,950 
 
 57,109 
 229,961 
 
 Poods. 
 350,130 
 496,878 
 409,817 
 471,254 
 242,185 
 506,150 
 1(>0,W<S 
 443 044 
 
 Poods. 1 
 2,041,514 
 1,841,500 
 1,913,711 
 1,833,501 1 
 1,015,496 ' 
 1,323,424 1 
 I,.'- 34,475 
 1,835,556 
 
 Sixty poods of hemp and 40 poods of codilla make a last at Petersburgh ; 63 poods make an English ton. 
 -(pp. 47-52,) 
 
 Riga hemp fetches a higher price that than of Petersburgh. It is divided into 3 sorts : viz. rein, rhine, 
 or clean, out-shot, and pass hemp. The following are the prices of hemp, duty paid, as quoted in the 
 London markets, December, 1833 : — 
 
 Hemp, East India, d. p. 
 
 Petersburgh, clean 
 
 out-shot 
 half-clean 
 
 Riga rhine 
 
 £ s. 
 0 0 
 25 10 
 24 0 
 21 0 
 £9 0 
 
 d. £ s. 
 Oto 0 0 
 0 — 26 0 
 0 — 24 10 
 0 — 21 10 
 0—0 0 
 
 d. 
 
 0 per ton. 
 0 — 
 0 — 
 0 — 
 0 — 
 
 2 T 4 
 
648 HEMP-SEED. — HERRINGS. 
 
 We subjoin a statement of the various charges on the exportation of hemp from Petersburgh, and 
 its importation into this country. 
 
 Clean Hemp. — 1 bundle = 63 poods = 1 ton. 
 
 Re%i. con. 
 
 Duty, 3 rou. CO cop. per bercovitz - - 22 68 
 
 Additional duty, 10 per cent. - - • 2 27 
 
 Quaraniine duty, 1 per cent. - - - 0 22 
 
 Custom-house charges, 4 per cent. - - 1 i 
 
 Beceivinp, weighing, and shipping, 3J rou. per 
 
 bundle - - - 3 75 
 
 Bracking, SO cop. per bercovitz - • - 3 15 
 
 Binding, 40 con. pur ditto - - - 2 52 
 
 Lighterage and attendance to Cronstadt, 8 lou. per 
 
 bundle - - . -80 
 
 Rebindiiig, 2^ rou. per bundle, \ charged - - 1 12 
 
 Brokerage, CO cop. per ton - - - 0 60 
 
 Charges of importation per ton, taking the price at 40/. per ton. 
 
 L. s. <l. 
 
 Insurance, say 1/., and policy - • 0 10 6 
 
 Freight, 52*. 6d. per ton - . - 2 12 6 
 
 Customs and Russia dues - - • 4 13 8 
 
 Landing charges - • - - 0 10 0 
 
 Sound dues - - - - 0 5 0 
 
 Discount, 3^ per cent. - - - 1 10 0 
 
 Brokerage - • - - 0 4 0 
 
 Per ton, L. 10 
 
 In the above calculation, no allowance is made for damage ; 
 which, if care be taken to select a good vessel and an early 
 season, does not amount to much. The estimates are nearly 
 the lowest rates of charge. The insurance, indeed, is some- 
 times as low as 12«. 6d. per cent., and policy. That, however, 
 is only in the very earliest pait of the season ; it rises to HI. 
 per cent, in the autumn. 
 
 Out-shut Hemp. — 1 bundle = 63 poods = 1 ton. 
 
 Brokerage, i per cent. I pi^ed charges - - - f "46 Ti 
 
 Commission and extra charges, 3 per cent. | Other charges same. 
 
 Stamps on drafts, ^ per cent.j ^ per cent. j HalJ-dean Hemp. - 1^ bundle = 63 poods = 1 k>n. 
 
 I Fixed charges - • - - 48 
 
 ' Other charges same. 
 
 Brokerage, \ per cent. 
 
 :op. 
 
 Hemp the produce or manufacture of Europe may not be imported into the United Kingdom for home 
 consumption, except in British ships, or in ships of the country of which it is the produce, or from 
 which it is imported, under penalty of forfeiting tho same and 100/. by the master of the ship. — 
 f3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 54. \ ^ 2. and 22.) 
 
 Hump (Manilla), commonly called Manilla white rope. Mr. Crawfurd gives the following account of 
 this article : — "Of the wild banana, one kind {Musa textilis) grows in vast abundance in some of the 
 most northerly of the spice islands. In the great island of Mindanao, in the Philippines, it fills extensive 
 forests. From the fibrous bark or epidermis is manufactured a kind of cloth, in frequent use among the 
 natives. It also affords the material of the most valuable cordage which the indigenous products of the 
 Archipelago yield. This is known to our traders and navigators under the name of Manilla rope, and is 
 equally iipplicable to cables, and to standing or running rigging." — [Hist, of Archipelago, vol. i. p. 412.) 
 
 Hemp (.L^dian), or Sunn. This consists of the fibre of the crotolaria juncea^ a totally different plant 
 from the cannabis saliva, which, as already stated, is never used by the Hindoos for cloth or cordage. 
 Sunn is grown in various places of Hindostan. The strongest, whitest, and most durable species is pro- 
 duced at Coinercoily. During those periods of the late war when the intercourse with the Baltic was 
 interrupted, and hemp bore an enormous price, large quantities of sunn were imported j but the fibre being 
 comparatively weak, the article was not found to answer, and the importation has since been discontinued. 
 — [Milbiirn's Orient. Commerce private information.) 
 
 HEMP-SEED (Fr. Chenevis, Chenevi ; Ger. Hanfsaat ; It. Cannapuccia ; Lat. Semen 
 eannahinum ; Rus. Konopljanoe Semja), the seed of hemp. The best hemp-seed is that 
 which is brightest, and will not J)i-eak when rubbed. It is used either as seed, or for 
 crushing for oil, or as food for fowls. Being loaded with a duty of 21. per quarter, it is 
 but little imported into this country. 
 
 HERRINGS, AND HERRING FISHERY. The herring (Clupea harengus of 
 Linnaius) is a fish too well known to require any description. It is every where in high 
 esteem, both when fresh and when salted. 
 
 " Herrings are found from the highest northern latitudes yet known, as low as the 
 northern coasts of France. They are met with in vast shoals on the coast of America 
 as low as Carolina. In Chesapeake Bay is an annual inundation of those fish, which 
 cover the shore in such quantities as to become a nuisance. We find them again in the 
 seas of Kamtschatka ; and probably they reach Japan. The great winter rendezvous of 
 the herring is within the Arctic circle : there they continue for many months, in order to 
 recruit themselves after the fatigue of spawning ; the seas within that space swarming 
 with insect food in a far greater degree than those of our warmer latitudes. This mighty 
 army begins to put itself in motion in spring. They begin to appear off the Shetland 
 Isles in April and May. These are only the forerunners of the grand shoal, which 
 comes in June ; and their appearance is marked by certain signs, such as the numbers 
 of birds, like gannets and others, which follow to prey on them: but when the main 
 body approaches, its breadth and depth is such as to alter the appearance of the very 
 ocean. It is divided into distinct columns of 5 or 6 miles in length, and 3 or 4 in 
 breadth ; and they drive the water before them, with a kind of rippling. Sometimes they 
 sink for the space of 10 or 15 minutes, and then rise again to the surface; and in fine 
 weather reflect a variety of splendid colours, like a field of the most precious gems. 
 
 " The first check this army meets in its march southward, is from the Shetland Isles, 
 which divide it into two parts : one wing takes to the east, the other to the western shores 
 of Great Britain, and fill every bay and creek with their numbers : the former proceed 
 towards Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of herrings ; they then pass through tlie 
 British Channel, and after that in a manner disappear. Those which take towards the 
 west, after offering themselves to the Hebrides, where the great stationary fishery is, 
 proceed to the north of Ireland, where they meet with a second interruption, and are 
 obliged to make a .second division : the one takes to the western side, and is scarcely 
 perceived, being soon lost in the immensity of the Atlantic ; but the other, that pa.sses 
 into the Irish Sea, rejoices and feeds tlie inhabitants of most of the coasts that border on 
 it- 'J'hcse brigades, as we may call them, which arc thus separated from the greater 
 
HERRINGS AND HERRING FISHERY. 
 
 649 
 
 columns, are often capricious in their motions, and do not show an Invariahlc attachment 
 to their haunts. 
 
 '* This instinct of migration was given to tlie herrings, that they miglit deposit their 
 spawn in warmer seas, that would mature and vivify it more assuredly than tliose of the 
 frozen zone. It is not from defect of food that they set themselves in motion ; for they 
 come to us full of fat, and on their return are almost universally ohscrved to he lean and 
 miserable. What their food is near the pole, we are not yet informed ; but in our seas 
 they feed much on the oniscus marinus, a crustaceous insect, and sometimes on their own 
 
 fry- 
 
 *' They are full of roe in the end of June, and continue in perfection till the beginning 
 of winter, when they deposit their spawn. The young herrings begin to approach the 
 shores in July and August, and are then from ^ an inch to 2 inches long. Though we 
 have no particular authority for it, yet, as very few young herrings are found in our seas 
 during winter, it seems most certain that they must return to their parental haunts 
 beneath the ice. Some of the 'old herrings continue on our coast the whole year." — 
 (Pennant's British Zoology.) 
 
 The herring was unknown to the ancients, being rarely, if ever, found within the Me- 
 diterranean. The Dutch are said to have engaged in the fishery in 1164. The invention 
 of pickling or salting herrings is ascribed to one Beukels, or Beukelson, of Biervliet, 
 near Sluys, who died in 1397. The emperor Charles V. visited his grave, and ordered 
 a magnificent tomb to be erected to his memory. Since this early period, the Dutch 
 have uniformly maintained their ascendancy in the herring fishery ; but, owing to the 
 Reformation, and the relaxed observance of Lent in Catholic countries, the demand for 
 lierrings upon the Continent is now far less than in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 
 
 Importance of the Herring Fishery. Progress of it in Great Britain. — There is, perhaps, no branch of 
 industry, the importance of which has been so much over-rated as that of the herring fishery. For more 
 than 2 centuries, company after company has been formed for its prosecution, fishing villages have been 
 built, piers constructed, Boards and regulations established, and vast sums expended in bounties, and yet 
 the fishery remains in a very feeble and unhealthy state. The false estimates that have been long current 
 with respect to the extent and value of the Dutch herring fishery, contributed more, perhaps, than any 
 thing else, to the formation of exaggerated notions of the importance of this business. That the Hollanders 
 prosecuted it to a greater extent, and with far greater success, than any other people, is, indeed, most 
 true. There is not, however, the shadow of a ground for believing that they ever employed, as has often 
 been stated, about 450,000 individuals in the fishery and the employments immediately subservient to it. 
 We question whether they ever employed so many as 50,000. At the time when the Dutch carried on 
 the fishery to the greatest extent, the entire population of the Seven United Provinces did not certainly 
 exceed 2,400,000; and deducting a half for women, and from a half to two thirds of the remaining 1,2(;0,0{)0 
 for boys and old men, it would follow, according to the statement in question, that every able-bodied man 
 in Holland must have been engaged in the herring fishery! It is astonishing how such ridiculously 
 exaggerated accounts ever obtained any circulation ; and still more so, that they should have been referred 
 to and quoted, without, apparently, any doubt being ever entertained of their authenticity, down to our 
 own times! * Had they been sifted ever so little, their falsehood would have been obvious ; and we should 
 have saved many hundreds of thousands of pounds that have been thrown away in attempting to rival 
 that which never existed. 
 
 It would be impossible, within the limits to which this article must be confined, to give any detailed 
 account of the various attempts that have been made at different periods to encourage and bolster up the 
 herring fishery. In 1749, in pursuance of a recommendation in his Majesty's speech at the opening of 
 parliament, and of a report of a committee of the Houseof Commons, 500,000/. was subscribed for carrying 
 on the fisheries, under a corporation called " The Society of the Free British Fishery." The Prince of 
 Wales was chosen governor of the Society, which was patronised by men of the first rank and fortune in 
 the state. But this Society did not trust entirely to its own efforts for success. The duties were remitted 
 upon the salt used in the fisheries ; and besides this reasonable encouragement, a high tonnage bounty 
 was granted upon every buss fitted out for the deep sea fishery. In consequence, many vessels were sent 
 out, as Dr. Smith has truly stated, not to catch herrings, but to catch the hoitnty ; and to such an extent 
 was this abuse carried, that in 1759, when the tonnage bounty was 50s., the almost incredible sum of 
 159/. 7s. 6</. was paid as bounty wpon every barrel of lyierchantable herrings that was produced ! — ( Wealth 
 of Nations, vol. iii. p. 386. M'Cultoch's eA.) But, notwithstanding this encouragement, such was the waste 
 and mismanagement of the Company's affairs, that it was speedily destroyed. Dr. Smith says, that in 1794 
 hardly a vestige remained of its having ever been in existence. 
 
 But, notwithstanding this ill success, a new company was formed, for nearly the same objects, in 1786, 
 of which George III. was patron. It has had nearly the same fate. " For a season or two, busses were 
 fitted out by the society ; but if every herring caught had carried a ducat in its mouth, the expense of its 
 capture would scarcely have been repaid. The bubble ended by the society for fishing in the deep sea 
 becoming a kind of building society, for purchasing ground in situations where curers and fishermen find 
 it convenient to settle, and selling or letting it in small lots to them, at such advance of price as yields 
 something better than fishing profits." — (See an excellent article on the Herring Fishery in the 11th 
 Number of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.) 
 
 In 1808, a fresh attempt was made for the improvement and extension of the fishery. The act 48 Geo. 3. 
 established a distinct set of commissioners for the superintendence of all matters connected with the 
 fishery, and authorised them to appoint a sufficient number of fishery officers, to be stationed at the dif- 
 ferent ports, whose duty is to see that the various regulations with respect to the gutting, packing, &c of 
 the herrings, and the branding of the barrels, are duly carried into effect. In 1809, a bounty of 31. per ton 
 was granted on all vessels employed in the deep sea herring fishery, of above 60 tons burden, but payable 
 only on 100 tons; and in 1820, a bounty of 20s. per ton, which, under certain specifieti circumstances, 
 might be increased to 50s., was granted on all vessels of from 15 to 60 tons, fitted out for the shore herring 
 fishery; and, exclusively of these bounties on the tonnage, a bounty of 2s. a barrel was allowed on all 
 herrings cured gutted during the 6 years ending the 5th of April, 1815, and a bounty of 2s. Srf. a barrel 
 
 * They seem to have been first set forth in a treatise ascribed to Sir Walter Raleigh ; and, what is very 
 singular, they wore admitted by De Witt into his excellent work, the Ti-ue Inter est of Holland. They 
 have been implicitly adopted by Mr. Barrow, in the article Fisheries in the Supplement to the Encyclo. 
 pcedia Britannica. 
 
650 
 
 HERRINGS AND HERRING FISHERY. 
 
 on their exportation, whether cured gutted or ungutted. During the 11 years ending the 5th of April, 
 1826, the bounty on herrings cured gutted was 4s. a barrel. 
 
 It is stated in the article already referred to, that the cost of a barrel of cured herrings is about Ifi.v. 
 the half going to the fisherman for the green fish, the other half to the curer for barrel, salt, and labour 
 The bounty of 4s. a barrel was, therefore, equal to ^rt//the value of the herrings as sold by the fisherman, 
 and to one fourth of their value as sold by the curer! In consequence of this forced system, the fishery 
 was rapidly increased. The following statement, extracted from the Report oj the Commissioners of the 
 Fishery Board, dated 1st of October, 1831), shows the progress it has made since lb09 : — 
 
 Abstract of the Total Quantity of White Herrings cured, branded for Bounty, and exported, in «o far 
 as the same have been brought under the Cognisance of the Officers of the Fishery, from the 1st 
 of June, 1809, when the System hitherto in force for the Encouragement of the British Herring 
 Fishery took place, to the 5th of April, 1830 ; distinguishing each Year, and the Herrings cured Gutted, 
 from those cured Ungutted. — {Pari. Paper, No. 51. Sess. 18S0; and Papers published by the Board oJ 
 Trade, Part I.) 
 
 Period extending from 1st of 
 June, 1809, to 5th of April, 
 1810 
 
 Year ended 5th of April, 1811 
 
 1812 
 
 1813 
 
 1814 
 
 1815 
 
 1816 
 
 1817 
 
 1818 
 
 1819 
 
 1820 
 
 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 , 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1851 
 
 Gutted. lUngutted.l Tota l. 
 Barrels. Barrels, Barrels. 
 
 42,548 47,6371 
 
 65,m 
 72,515i 
 89,9()0f 
 52,931 i 
 105,S72A 
 135,981 
 155,776 
 204,270i 
 303,7771 
 347,190i 
 413,308 
 291,6261 
 225,037 
 335,450 
 303,397 
 340,118 
 259, 17 U 
 339,360 
 300,2421 
 280,933i 
 371,096 
 
 26,3971 
 
 39,004 
 
 63,5871 
 
 57,611 
 
 54,767 
 
 26,670| 
 
 36,5674 
 
 23,420| 
 
 37,1161 
 
 35,301 
 
 28,8871 
 
 24,897f 
 
 23,832 
 
 56,740f 
 
 4l,2S8i 
 
 39,115| 
 
 29,324 
 
 60,418 
 
 55,737 
 
 48,623i 
 
 68.274 
 
 90,185i 
 
 91,8271 
 lll,519i 
 153,488| 
 110,.542i 
 I60,139i 
 162,651f 
 192,343i 
 227,691 
 340,894 
 382,491 i 
 442,195f 
 316,542i 
 248,869 
 392,l90f 
 347,665i 
 379,233$ 
 288,495i 
 399,778 
 355,9791 
 329,537 
 439,370 
 
 Total 
 Quantity of 
 
 Herrings 
 branded for 
 
 Bounty. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 34,701 
 
 55,662| 
 58,430 
 70,0271 
 S8,184i 
 83,376 
 116,436 
 140,0181 
 183,089i 
 270,022i 
 3()9,700i 
 363,872" 
 263,2051 
 203,110 
 299,631 
 270,8441 
 294,4221 
 223,606 
 279,3 1 7i 
 234,827 
 218,4181 
 237,085 
 
 ToUl Quantity of Herrings 
 exported. 
 
 Gutted. Ungutted. Total 
 
 11,063| 
 
 18,880 
 27,564 
 40,100| 
 34,929 
 68,938 
 81,544i 
 115,480i 
 I48,147i 
 212,3014 
 24-4,096 
 289,4451 
 212,8901 
 169,459i 
 238,505i 
 201,882i 
 21 7,053 A 
 165,741 
 210,766 
 202,8131 
 177,776 
 260,976 
 
 24,784| 
 
 19,253 
 35,256 
 69,625 
 I 83,4741 
 72,367i 
 ! 26,143i 
 I 23,148 
 i 14,192 
 14,8601 
 9,420 
 5,360 
 2,065i 
 9854 
 1,125 
 134 
 20 
 695 
 893 
 3,062 
 3,8784 
 3,927 
 
 35,848 
 
 38,133 
 62,820 
 109,725* 
 118,4034 
 141,S05i 
 107,688 
 138,628i 
 162,3^94 
 227,162 
 253,516 
 294,8054 
 214,956 
 170,445 
 239,6304 
 202,0164 
 217,073i 
 166,406 
 211,659 
 205,8754 
 181,6544 
 264.903 
 
 On looking at this Table, it is seen that the fishery made no progress under the new system till 1815, 
 when the bounty was raised to 4.«. This is a sufficient proof of the factitious and unnatural state of the 
 business. Its extension, under the circumstances in question, instead of affording any proof of its being 
 in a really flourishing condition, was distinctly the reverse. Individuals without capital, but who obtained 
 ioan.^ sufficient to enable them to acquire boats, barrels, salt, &c. on the credit of the bounty, entered in 
 vast numbers into the trade. The market was most commonly glutted with fish ; and yet the temptation 
 held out by the bounty caused it to be still further overloaded. Great injury was consequently done to 
 those fish curers who possessed capital ; and even the fishermen were injured by the system. " Most of 
 the boats employed in the fishery never touch the water but during 6 weeks, from the middle or end of 
 .July to the middle of September. They are owned and sailed, not by regular fishermen following that 
 vocation only, but by tradesmen, small farmers, farm-servants, and other landsmen, who may have suffi- 
 cient skill to manage a boat at that season, but who do not follow the sea except for the 6 weeks of the 
 herring fishery, when they go upon a kind of gambling speculation, of earning a twelvemonth's income 
 by 6 weeks' work." — {Quarterly Journal, No. 11. p. 653.) 
 
 It has been often said, in vindication of the bounty system, that by extending the fishery it extended an 
 important nursery for seamen ; but the preceding statement shows that such has not been its effect. On the 
 contrary, it has tended to depress the condition of the genuine fisherman, by bringing a host of interlopers 
 into the field ; and it has also been prejudicial to the little farmers and tradesmen, by withdrawing tiieir 
 attention from their peculiar business, that they may embark in what has hitherto been little less than a 
 sort of lottery adventure. 
 
 These consequences, and the increasing amount of the sum paid for bounties, at length induced the 
 government to adopt a different system ; and by an act passed in 1825, the bounty of 2s. 8d. on exported 
 herrings was made to cease in 1826, and Is. was annually deducted from the bounty of 4s. a barrel paid on 
 gutted herrings, till it ceased in 1830. Time has not yet been afforded to learn the full effect of this 
 measure. We, however, have not the slightest doubt that it will be most advantageous. The fore- 
 going Table shows, that though the quantity of herrings taken and exported in 1829 and 1830 fell off, 
 there was a material increase in 1831. This is the more encouraging, as there can be little doubt that 
 the supply will henceforth be proportioned to the real demand ; while the genuine fishermen, and those 
 curers who have capital of their own, will no longer be injured by the competition of landsmen, and of 
 persons trading on capital furnished by government. 
 
 The repeal of the salt laws, and of the duty on salt, which preceded the repeal of the bounty, must be 
 of signal service to the fishery. It is true that salt used in the fisheries was exempted from the duty ; but, 
 in order to prevent the revenue from being defrauded, so many regulations were enacted, and the diffi- 
 culties and penalties to which the fishermen were in consequence subjected were so very great, that some 
 of them chose rather to pay the duty upon the salt they made use of, than to undertake compliance with 
 the regulations. 
 
 It is much to be regretted, that when government repealed the bounty, it did not also abolish the 
 " Fishery Board," and the officers and regulations it had appointed and enacted. So long as the bounty 
 existed, it was quite proper tiiat those who claimed it should be subjected to such regulations as govern, 
 ment chose to enforce ; but now that it has been repealed, we see no reason whatever why the fishery 
 should not be made perfectly free, and every one allowed to prepare his herrings as he thinks best. It is 
 said, indeed, that were there no inspection of the fish, frauds of all sorts would be practised : that the 
 barrels would be ill made, and of a deficient size; that the fish would not be i)roperly packed ; that the 
 bottom and middle of the barrels would be filled with bad ones, and a few good ones only placed at the 
 top; that there would not be a sufficiency of pickle, &c. But it is obvious that the reasons alleged in 
 vindication of the official inspection kept up in the herring fishery, might be alleged in vindication of a 
 similar inspection in almost every other branch of industry. It is, in point of fact, utterly useless. It is 
 an attempt, on the part of government, to do that for their subjects, which they can do far better for them- 
 
 I 
 
HIDES. 
 
 (351 
 
 selves. Supposing the official inspection were put an end to, the merchants .tiid others who buy herrings 
 of the euros would themselves inspect the barrels : and while any attempt at fraud by the curers would 
 thus be effectually obviated, they would be left at liberty to prepare their herriti(;s in any way that they 
 pleased, without being compelled, as at present, to follow only one system, or to jjrepare fish in the same 
 way for the tables of the poor as for those of the rich. So far, indeed, is it from being true that 
 the inspection system tends to jjut down trii kery, that there is much reason to think that its eHect is 
 directly the reverse. The surveillance exercised by the officers is any thing but strict ; and the official 
 brand is ofTten affixed to barrels which, were it not for the undeserved confidence that is too frequently 
 placed in it by the unwary, would lie on the curcr's hands. It is rather a security against the detection 
 of fraud, than against its existence. 
 
 The grand object of the herring fishery " Board " has been to enforce such a system of curing as would 
 bring British herrings to a level with those of the Dutch. In this, however, they have completely 
 failed; Dutch herrings generally fetching double, and sometimes even three times the price of British 
 herrings in every market of Europe. Neither is this to be wondered at. The consumers of Dutch her. 
 rings are the inhabitants of the Netherlands and of the German towns, who use them rather as a luxury 
 than as an article of food, and wiio do not grudge the price that is necessary to have them in the finest 
 order. The consumers of British herrings, on the other hand, are the negroes of the West Indies, and 
 the poor of Ireland and Scotland. Cheapness is the prime requisite in the estimation of such persons ; 
 and nothing can be more entirely absurd, than that a public Board should endeavour to force the fish 
 curers to adopt such a system in the preparation of herrings as must infallibly raise their price beyond 
 the means of those by whom they are bought. Why should not the taste of the consumers be consulted 
 as much in this as in any thing else ? It would not be more ridiculous to attempt to liave all cheese made 
 of the same richness and flavour as Stilton, than it is to attempt to bring up all herrings to the standard 
 of the Dutch. 
 
 We do, therefore, hope that a speedy end may be put to this system ; and that our legislators and 
 patriots will cease to torment themselves with schemes for the improvement of the fisheries. The very 
 best thing they can do for them is to let them alone. It is not a business that requires any sort of adven- 
 titious encouragement. Every obstacle to the easy introduction of fish into London and other places 
 ought certainly to be removed ; but all direct interferences with the fishery are sure to be in the last 
 degree pernicious. 
 
 Of the 181,654 barrels of herrings exported from Great Britain in the year ending the 5th 'of April, 
 1830,89,680 went to Ireland, 67,672 to places out of Europe (chiefly the West Indies), and 24,3C2 to places 
 in Europe other than Ireland. 
 
 HIDES (Ger. Haute; Du. Hidden; Fr. Peaux; It. Cuoja; Sp. Pellejos, Pieles; Rus. 
 Koshi), signify, generally, the skins of beasts ; but the term is more particularly applied 
 to those of large cattle, such as bullocks, cows, horses, &c. Hides are raw or green ; 
 that is, in the state in which they are taken off the carcase, or dressed with salt, alum, 
 and saltpetre, to prevent them from putrefying ; or they are cured or tanned. The hides 
 of South America are in the highest repute, and vast quantities of them are annually im- 
 ported into Great Britain. Large quantities are also imported from various parts of the 
 Continent ; and from Morocco, the Cape of Good Hope, &c. 
 
 An Account of the Weight of the Hides imported into the United Kingdom in each of the Seven Years 
 ending with 1832, and the Revenue annually derived from the same ; specifying the Countries whence 
 the Hides were imported, with the Quantities brought from each. 
 
 Countries from which 
 imported. 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 " 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830, 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 Vntanned Hides. 
 
 Crvt. qrs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Civt. qrs.lbs. 
 
 Cwt. qrs.lbs. 
 
 Cn't. qrs.lbs 
 
 Crvt, qrs.lbs 
 
 Cmt. ars. 
 
 bs 
 
 Cnrt. qrs.lbs. 
 
 Russia 
 
 5,426 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 14,792 
 
 3 2 
 
 14,484 
 
 2 21 
 
 17,189 
 
 0 6 
 
 22,.7l5 
 
 1 6 
 
 10,262 
 
 2 
 
 2' 
 
 8,771 0 16 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 0 15 
 
 3 
 
 0 5 
 
 1 
 
 0 0 
 
 101 
 
 0 2C 
 
 38 
 
 1 
 
 2f 
 
 78 
 
 0 26 
 
 Denmaric 
 
 9,2.'^2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 12,919 
 
 0 14 
 
 12,338 
 
 3 6 
 
 4,994 
 
 0 11 
 
 2,476 
 
 1 6 
 
 9,142 
 
 1 
 
 ( 
 
 7,256 
 
 0 20 
 
 Prussia 
 
 930 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 2,074 
 
 3 27 
 
 6,775 
 
 3 15 
 
 2,945 
 
 2 20 
 
 3,098 
 
 2 16 
 
 635 
 
 
 If 
 
 197 
 
 0 24 
 
 Germany 
 
 14,260 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 33,386 
 
 2 22 
 
 38,335 
 
 1 23 
 
 23,353 
 
 3 2.- 
 
 31,914 
 
 1 10 
 
 23,534 
 
 2 
 
 c 
 
 18,804 
 
 0 a7 
 
 United Netherlands - 
 
 12,747 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 21,518 
 
 0 27 
 
 27,289 
 
 3 2 
 
 19,102 
 
 2 26 
 
 23,966 
 
 1 4 
 
 19,468 
 
 3 
 
 It 
 
 11,845 
 
 3 11 
 
 France 
 
 422 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 182 
 
 0 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Portugal, Madeira, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 1 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and the Azores 
 
 283 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 119 
 
 0 15 
 
 Spain and the Canaries 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "30 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 Gibraltiir 
 
 2,903 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1,259 
 
 2 22 
 
 1,232 
 
 1 7 
 
 1,808 
 
 1 4 
 
 1,552 
 
 0 27 
 
 1,781 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 1,051 
 
 0 16 
 
 Italy 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Turkey 
 
 1,058 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 342 
 
 0 0 
 
 2,250 
 
 0 12 
 
 4,784 
 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 2 22 
 
 Africa, viz. Morocco 
 
 10,805 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 668 
 
 0'l7 
 
 3 
 
 2' 4 
 
 64 
 
 0 13 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 Sierra Leone and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 coast to Cape of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Good Hope 
 
 1,228 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 3,1 U 
 
 1 27 
 
 2,875 
 
 2 17 
 
 3,696 
 
 2 25 
 
 3,334 
 
 2 18 
 
 3,502 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 3,575 
 
 2 27 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15,844 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Eastern coast 
 
 7,520 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 12,207 
 
 I 3 
 
 12,963 
 
 1 20 
 
 0 22 
 
 19,957 
 
 1 21 
 
 16,900 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 13,193 
 
 3 14 
 
 East Indies (including 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Mauritius) 
 
 2,375 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 1,111 
 
 1 25 
 
 3,322 
 
 3 12 
 
 3,605 
 
 1 19 
 
 5,104 
 
 0 19 
 
 3,376 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 10,739 
 
 0 26 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Van Piemen's 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Land 
 
 518 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 1,167 
 
 1 7 
 
 1,112 
 
 3 1 
 
 3,161 
 
 1 10 
 
 3,945 
 
 0 13 
 
 5,662 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 6,719 
 
 2 1 
 
 South Sea Islands and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Southern Fishery - 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 0 0 
 
 15 
 
 3 12 
 
 5 
 
 2 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 2 12 
 
 British North Ameri- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 973 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 can colonies 
 
 2,492 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1,092 
 
 2 20 
 
 1,548 
 
 1 22 
 
 3 24 
 
 1,052 
 
 2 6 
 
 515 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 399 
 
 3 11 
 
 Briti^h West Indies - 
 
 3,775 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 4,238 
 
 1 13 
 
 4,537 
 
 0 24 
 
 2,922 
 
 2 25 
 
 2,622 
 
 3 2 
 
 2,498 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1,807 
 
 2 16 
 
 Foreign do- 
 
 173 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 62 
 
 1 15 
 
 201 
 
 3 23 
 
 13 
 
 2 15 
 
 86 
 
 2 8 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 
 U.S. of America 
 
 12,162 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 11,549 
 
 0 7 
 
 19,627 
 
 3 11 
 
 20,162 
 
 3 7 
 
 16,030 
 
 0 26 
 
 4,206 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 12,316 
 
 0 15 
 
 Mexico 
 
 
 
 
 2,474 
 
 0 24 
 
 73 
 
 0 26 
 
 67 
 
 2 2 
 
 3,916 
 
 2 17 
 
 153 
 239 
 
 
 2 
 
 1,428 
 
 1 2 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 
 
 
 1,326 
 
 2 4 
 
 446 
 
 0 8 
 
 49 
 
 V 8 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 Colombia 
 
 651 
 
 3' 
 
 12 
 
 1,4)54 
 
 1 20 
 
 1,454 
 
 2 21 
 
 1,197 
 
 2 24 
 
 1,242 
 
 0 18 
 
 259 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 289 
 
 1 20 
 
 Brazil 
 
 16,124 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 12,942 
 
 2 11 
 
 23,547 
 
 3 17 
 
 3,207 
 
 0 1 
 
 11,258 
 
 2 19 
 
 13,204 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 17,767 
 
 1 3 
 
 States of the Rio de 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 la Plata 
 
 79,027 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 5,.598 
 
 3 18 
 
 40,605 
 
 f ? 
 
 156,049 
 
 3 18 
 
 174,422 
 
 0 10 
 
 146,008 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 65,643 
 
 0 4 
 
 Chili 
 
 7,949 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 6,366 
 
 2 15 
 
 11,266 
 
 
 3,434 
 
 3 15 
 
 5,417 
 
 3 26, 
 
 4,096 
 
 1 17 
 
 1 ,253 
 
 2 2 
 
 Peru 
 
 2,011 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 914 
 
 3 7 
 
 1,726 
 
 1 17 
 
 2,332 
 
 3 22 
 
 3,817 
 
 2 8 
 
 553 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 2,938 
 
 1 27 
 
 Guernsey, Jersey, Al- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 demey, and Man, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 foreign 
 Do. do. produce of 
 
 l.TO 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 284 
 
 1 15 
 
 134 
 
 2 7 
 
 ID 
 
 1 22 
 
 
 
 504 
 
 
 6 
 
 452 
 
 1 2 
 
 36 No. 
 
 
 lis 
 
 2 14 
 
 37 
 
 3 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 302 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 
 
 and 9S 
 
 No. 
 
 and 182 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 121 No. 
 
 and 163 
 
 No 
 
 
 
 Total . - 
 
 194,243 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 152,434 
 
 0 15 
 
 225,975 
 
 3 15 
 
 286,416 
 
 3 13 
 
 339,773 
 
 0 24 
 
 271,477 
 
 3 
 
 
 186,982 
 
 3 3 
 
 
 and 36 
 
 No. 
 
 and 98 
 
 No. 
 
 and 182 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 and I'il 
 
 No. 1 
 
 and 163 
 
 No 
 
 •1 
 
 
 i 
 
652 HOGSHEAD. — HONEY. 
 
 An Account of the^eight of the Hides impoitcA — conimtied. 
 
 Countries from which 
 imported. 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 182S. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. ~ 
 
 1832. 
 
 
 N f 
 
 Lbs. of 
 
 f 
 
 hbs. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 Lbs. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 Lbs. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 Lbs. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 Lbs. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 Tanned Hides. 
 
 R 
 
 
 11 9 
 
 
 
 H^'des 
 
 Jilts. 
 
 
 
 
 
 other 
 
 
 Hi' 
 
 
 £des 
 
 H'de's 
 
 HiJe's 
 
 Hit's 
 
 Hide's 
 
 
 
 Hid^' 
 
 Hkh's 
 
 Hides. 
 
 Hide's 
 
 Hides. 
 
 Hick's 
 
 Ides. 
 
 Russia 
 
 1 ,542 
 
 
 1,506 
 
 
 7,620 
 
 
 ^,095 
 
 
 1,096 
 
 
 3,219 
 
 
 1,686 
 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 825 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 Prussia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 970 
 
 
 3,761 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 216 
 
 Germany 
 
 40S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 
 305 
 
 
 
 
 266 
 
 104 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,858 
 
 
 218 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 East Indies (including 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Mav.ritius) 
 
 
 
 
 3,408 
 
 1 
 
 9,030 
 
 
 1,740 
 
 
 36,222 
 
 
 15,033 
 
 
 13,142 
 
 Britibh North Ameri- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27,914 
 
 
 35,519 
 
 
 33,752 
 
 Brlti.sh West Indies - 
 
 
 
 
 7,559 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U. S. of America 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,119 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 
 
 'l72 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 2^067 
 
 
 3,-19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 Guernsey, Jersey, Al- 
 derney, and jian. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Do. do. produce of 
 
 
 62,008 
 
 
 92,669 
 
 
 86,668 
 
 
 84,971 
 
 
 50,440 
 
 
 77,848 
 
 
 69,173 
 
 Total 
 
 1,950 
 
 62,313 
 
 1,506 
 
 103,808 
 
 7,621 
 
 105,876 
 
 8,199 
 
 91,515 
 
 1,096 
 
 115,745 
 
 .3,219 
 
 140,487 
 
 1,686 
 
 120,038 
 
 The rates of duty on the hides imported during the above years were the same as those now charged j 
 for which, see Tariff. 
 
 Amount of Duty received on Foreign and Colonial Hides. 
 
 Untanned hides 
 Tanned do. 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 24,491 14 6 
 1,747 12 4 
 
 /,. *. d. 
 
 26,319 19 3 
 2,219 8 0 
 
 L. s. d. 
 31,841 15 0 
 2,512 1 4 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 37,379 11 5 
 2,388 2 8 
 
 L. 3. d. 
 
 42,538 18 6 
 1,337 12 6 
 
 L. 3. d. 
 
 32,814 9 8 
 1,037 2 3 
 
 L. 3. d. 
 
 24,242 2 9 
 1,170 13 2 
 
 Total 
 
 26,239 6 10 
 
 28,539 7 3 
 
 37,353 16 4 
 
 39,767 14 1 
 
 43,876 11 0 33,851 11 11 
 
 25,412 15 11 
 
 His Majesty is authorised to prohibit, by proclamation or order in council published in the London 
 Gazette, the importation of any hides or skins, horns or hoofs, or any other part of any cattle or beast, in 
 order to prevent any contagious distemper from being brought into the kingdom. — (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52 
 \ 58.) 
 
 Hides and skins paying duty by weight, may be delivered from the bonded warehouses, on the parties 
 entering an average weight, due care being' taken that the lockers actually retally and reweigh the 
 hides and skins on delivery; and in the case of delivery for exportation, to express in cart notes the 
 exact number delivered from the warehouse, in order to enable the export officer on the quay to check 
 the quantity ; and the merchant is to indorse on the cocket and bill the total number and weight shipped, 
 before the vessel is suffered to clear. — [Customs Order, 4th Dec. 1824.) 
 
 HOGSHEAD, a measure of capacity, containing 52|- Imperial gallons. A hogshead 
 is equal to ^ a pipe. — (See Weights and Measitres.) 
 
 HOLIDAYS, are understood to be those days, exclusive of Sundays, on which no 
 regular public business is transacted at particular public offices. They are either fixed 
 or variable. They are not the same for all public offices. Those kept at the Bank of 
 England have recently been reduced a full half. 
 
 The variable holidays are, Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Easter Monday and Tuesday, 
 Holy Thursday, Whit Monday and Tuesday. 
 
 It is enacted by stat. 6 Geo. 4. c. 106. § 13., that no holidays shall be kept by the customs except Christ- 
 mas-day and Good Friday, the King's birthday, and such days as may be appointed by proclamation for 
 the purpose of a general fast. 
 
 The 7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 53. § 16. enacts that no holidays shall be kept at the Excise, except Christmas-day 
 and Good Friday, the birthdays of his Majesty and the Prince of Wales, the anniversaries of the Restor- 
 ation of Charles 11., and of his Majesty's coronation, and such days as may be appointed by proclamation 
 for the celebration of a general fast, or such days as may be appointed as holidays by any warrant issued 
 for that purpose by the Lords of the Treasury. 
 
 HONEY (Du. Honig, Honing; Fr. Miel; Ger. Honig ; It. Mele; Lat. Mel; Rus. 
 Med; Sp. Miel), a vegetable juice collected by bees. *' Its flavour varies according to 
 tlie nature of the flowers from which it is collected. Thus, the honeys of Minorca, 
 Narbonne, and England, are known by their flavours ; and the honey prepared in dif- 
 ferent parts even of the same country differs. It is separated from the comb by dripping, 
 and by expression : the first method affords the purest sort ; the second separates a less 
 pure honey ; and a still inferior kind is obtained by heating the comb before it is pre.s.scd. 
 When obtained from young hives, which have not swarmed, it is denominated virgin 
 honey. It is sometimes adulterated with flour, which is detected by mixing it with tepid 
 water: the honey dissolves, while the flour remains nearly unaltered." — (Thomson^s 
 Dispensatory. ) 
 
 By Stat. 23 Eliz. c. 8. § 4., all vcs.sels of honey arc to be marked with the initial 
 letters of the name of the owner, on pain of forfeiting 6s. 8d. ; and contain, the bai'rcl 
 32 gallons, the kilderkin 16 gallons, and the firkin 8 gallons, or forfeit 5s. for every gallon 
 wanting ; and if any honey sold, be corrupted with any deceitful mixture, the seller shall 
 forfeit the honey, &c. 
 
HOPS. — HORSE. 
 
 G53 
 
 HOPS (Ger. Hopfen ; Du. Iloppe ; Fr. Houhlon ; It. Luppoli, BruiscandoU ; Sp. 
 Obion; Rus. Chmel; Lat. Humulus Lupulus). The hop is a perennial rooted plant, 
 of which there are several varieties. It has an annual twining stem, which when sup- 
 ported on poles, or trees, will }each the height of from 12 to 20 feet or more. It is a 
 native of Britain, and most parts of Europe. When the hop was first used for preserving 
 "and improving beer, or cultivated for that purpose, is not known — (see Alje); but its 
 culture was introduced into this country from Flanders in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 Hops are first mentioned in the Statute Book in 1552, in an act 5 & G Edward 6. c. 5. ; 
 and it would appear from an act passed in 1G03 (1 Jac. 1. c. 18.), that hops were at that 
 time extensively cultivated in England. Walter Blithe, in his Improver Improved, pub- 
 lished in 1649 (3d ed. 1653, p. 240.), has a chapter upon improvement by plantations 
 of hops, in which there is this striking passage. He observes that " hops were then 
 grown to be a national commodity : but that it was not many years since the famous 
 city of London petitioned the parliament of England against two nuisances ; and these 
 were, Newcastle coals, in regard to their stench, &c., and hops, in regard they would 
 spoyl the taste of drink, and endanger the people : and had the parliament been no wiser 
 than they, we had been in a measure pined, and in a great measure starved ; whicli is 
 just answerable to the principles of those men who cry down all devices, or ingenious 
 discoveries, as projects, and thereby stifle and choak improvement." 
 
 After the hops have been picked and dried, the brightest and finest are put into pockets or fine bagging, 
 and the brown into coarse or heavy bagging. The former are chiefly used in the brewing cf fine ales, 
 and the latter by the porter brewers. A pocket of hops, if they be good in quality, well cured, and tight 
 trodden, will weigh about 1^ cwt. ; and a bag of hops will, under the same conditions, weigh about 2| cwt 
 If the weight of either exceeds or falls much short of this medium, there is reason to suspect that the hops 
 are of an inferior quality, or have been badly manufactured. The brighter the colour of hops, the greater 
 is the estimation in which they are held. Farnham hops are reckoned best. The expense of forming Jiop 
 plantations is very great, amounting in some instances to from 70/. to 100/. an acre; and the produce is 
 very uncertain, the crop being frequently insufficient to defray the expenses of cultivation. 
 
 The hop growers are placed under the surveillance of the excise, a duty of 2d. per lb. being laid on ail 
 hops produced in this country. A hop planter is obliged to give notice to the excise, on or befc;re the 1st 
 of August each year, of tlie number of acres he has in cultivation; the situation and number of his oasts 
 or kilns for drying ; the place or places of bagging, which, with the storerooms or warerooms in which tlie 
 packages are intencied to be lodged, are entered by the officer. No hops can be removed from the rooms 
 thus entered, before they have been weighed and marked by a revenue officer ; who marks, or ought to 
 mark, its weight, and the name and residence of the grower, upon each bag, pocket, or package. C ounter- 
 feiting the officer's mark is prohibited under a penalty of 100/., and defacing it under a penalty of WL 
 A planter or grower knowingly putting hops of different qualities or values into the same bag or package, 
 forfeits 20/. And any person mixing with hops any drug, or other thincr, to change or alter the colour or 
 scent, shall forfeit 51. a cwt. on all the hops so changed or altered. The malicious cutting or destroying 
 of hop plantations may be punished by transportation beyond seas for life, or any term not less than T 
 years, or by imprisonment and hard labour in a common gaol, for any term not exceeding 7 years. — 
 [Loudoti's Ency. of Agriculture ; Stevenson's Surrey • Burn's Justice, Sfc.) 
 
 Thedutyon hops of the growth of Great Britain produced, in 1832, 241,771/.; ofwhich sum the Rochester 
 district paid 75,861/. 105. 10c?., the Sussex 86,406/. 135. 8c?., and the Canterbury 48,689/. 18*. 2c?. The number 
 of acres occupied by hop plantations in that year were 47,101; of which there were in the Rochester 
 district 12,330, in Sussex 8,514, in Hereford 11,939, and in Canterbury 7,802. During the same year there 
 were 703,153 lbs. of British hops exported. Of foreign hops 11,167 lbs. were imported, and 50,113 lbs. 
 exported. — [Pari. Paper, Nos. 96. 196. and 217. Sess. 1833.) 
 
 Hops exported from Great Britain are, on being again imported, to be treated as foreign, whether 
 originally so or not. 
 
 HORN (Du. Hoorn; Fr. Corne,- Ger. Horn; Lat. Cornu), a substance too well 
 known to require any description. Horns are of very considerable importance in the 
 arts, being applied to a great variety of useful purposes. They are very extensively used 
 in the manufacture of handles for knives, and in that of spoons, combs, lanterns, snufF- 
 horns, &c. When divided into thin plates, horns are tolerably transparent, and were 
 formerly used instead of glass in windows. Glue is sometimes made out of the refuse of 
 horn. We annually import considerable quantities. At an average of 1831 and 1832, 
 the entries of foreign horn for home consumption amounted to 15,766 cwt. 
 
 HORSE (Ger. Pferd ; Du. Paard ; Da. Hest ; Sw. Heist; Fr. Chevol ; It. Ca~ 
 vallo ; Sp. Cahallo ; Rus. Loschad ; Pol. Kon ; Lat. Equus ; Gr. 'Ittttos), a domestic 
 quadruped of the highest utility, being by far the most valuable acquisition made by man 
 among the lower animals. 
 
 There is a great variety of horses in Britain. The frequent introduction of foreign 
 breeds, and their judicious mixture, having greatly improved the native stocks. Our 
 race horses are the fleetest in the World ; our carriage and cavalry horses are amongst the 
 handsomest and most active of tho.se employed for these purposes ; and our heavy draught 
 horses are the most powerful, beautiful, and docile of any of the large breeds. 
 
 Number and Value of Horses in Great Britain. — The number of horses used in Great 
 Britain for different purposes is very great, although less so, perhaps, than has been 
 generally supposed. Mr. Middleton (^Survey of Middlesex, 2d ed. p. 639.) estimated the 
 total number of horses in England and Wales, employed in husbandry, at 1,200,000, 
 and those employed for other purposes at 600,000. Dr. Colquhoun, contrary to his usual 
 practice, reduces this estimate to 1,500,000 for Great Britain; and in this instance we 
 are inclined to think his guess is pretty near the mark. The subjoined ofl^icial state- 
 ments give the numbers of the various descriptions of horses in England and Wales, which 
 
654. 
 
 HORSE. 
 
 paid duty in 1814, when those used in husbandry were taxed; and the numbers, when 
 summed up, amount to 1,204,307. But this account does not include stage coach, 
 mai) '^oach, and hackney coach horses, nor does it include those used in posting. Poor 
 persons keeping only one horse were also exempted from the duty ; as were all horses 
 employed in the regular regiments of cavalry and artillery, and in the volunteer cavalry. 
 In Mr. Middleton's estimate, already referred to, he calculated the number of post chaise, 
 mail, stage, and hackney coach horses, at 100,000 ; and from the inquiries we have made, 
 we are satisfied that if we estimate the number of such horses in Great Britain, at this 
 moment, at 125,000, we shall be decidedly beyond the mark. 
 
 On the whole, therefore, it may be fairly estimated that there are in Great Britain 
 from 1,400,000 to 1,500,000 horses employed for various purposes of pleasure and utility. 
 They may, probably, be worth at an average from 12Z. to 15/., making their total value 
 from 1 8,000,000/. to 22,500,000/. sterling, exclusive of the young horses. 
 
 The duties begin to be charged as soon as horses are used for drawing or riding, and 
 not previously. 
 
 An Account of the Number of Horses charged with Duty in the Years ending the 5th of April, 1815, 
 1826, and 1833, the Rates of Duty, and the Produce of the Duties. 
 
 Horses used for riding or 
 drawing carriages, and 
 cliarged at progressive 
 rates : 
 
 Persons keeping 1 
 
 — 5 
 
 _ 6 - 
 
 _ 7&8 - 
 
 — 9 - 
 _ 10 to 12 
 _ 13-16 
 
 — 17 
 _ 18 
 _ 19 
 
 — 20 St upwards 
 
 Total - 
 
 Horses let to hire - 
 
 Race horses . . - 
 
 Other horses and mules : 
 
 Not wholly used in hus- 
 bandry ... 
 
 Horses used bond Jide in 
 husbandry, 1 3 hands 
 hi^h and above - 
 
 Do. for husbandry or other 
 purposes of labour, un- 
 der 13 hands 
 
 Horses belonging to small 
 farmers, under 201. 
 rent, keeping not more 
 than 2 horses 
 
 Horses used for riding or 
 drawing carriages, and 
 not exceeding 13 hands 
 
 Horses rode by farming 
 bailiffs - - - 
 
 Do. by butchers, where 
 1 only is kept 
 
 Do. where 2 are kept 
 solely for trade - 
 
 Horses not chargeable to 
 any of the foregoing 
 duties, and not ex- 
 empted . . . 
 
 Mules ... 
 
 Totals - 
 
 161,123 
 
 31,842 
 12,774 
 7,612 
 3,670 
 3,060 
 3,372 
 720 
 2,079 
 746 
 
 Rates of 
 Duty for 
 
 each 
 Horse. 
 
 4 U 6 
 
 5 4 6 
 5 10 0 
 5 11 6 
 5 16 
 
 5 19 
 
 516 8 
 
 14416 9 
 
 38 6 10 
 
 1,348 6 12 
 
 l,454i2 17 
 560,2 17 
 
 177,025 1 1 0 
 722,863.0 17 6 
 
 35,816,0 
 
 3,010,0 3 0 
 
 Amount of 
 Duty. 
 
 150,453 9 
 66,744 3 
 41,866 9 
 20,460 5 
 17,748 0 
 20,147 14 
 4,374 0 
 13,201 13 
 4,755 15 
 326 8 
 928 16 
 247 0 
 8,896 16 
 
 185,876 5 0 
 632,505 2 6 
 
 5,372 8 0 
 
 No. of 
 Horses. 
 
 Rates of 
 
 Duty for Amount of 
 each Duty. 
 Horse, i 
 
 116,529 
 
 27,418 
 10,281 
 5,748 
 3,190 
 2,172 
 2,279 
 585 
 1,486 
 520 
 34 
 54 
 
 2 7 
 2 12 
 2 15 
 2 15 
 2 18 
 
 2 19 
 
 3 0 
 3 3 
 3 3 
 3 4 
 3 4 
 
 171,447 
 
 19,121 
 1,251 
 2,089 
 1,085 
 
 No. of 
 IHorses. 
 
 .167,510 8 
 64,77 
 
 1 1 0 
 
 1 5 0 
 
 1 8 9 
 
 0 10 6 
 for the 
 2d horse 
 
 15,807 
 8,892 
 6,298 
 6,808 
 1,776 
 4,718 
 1,657 
 108 
 174 
 432 
 3,359 
 
 9,178 2 0 
 
 2,446 12 6 
 1,022 1 3 
 
 20,077 1 0 
 
 1,563 15 0 
 
 4,296 13 9, 
 
 569 12 6, 
 
 123,668 
 
 31,073 
 10,740 
 5,845 
 3,210 
 2,138 
 2,204 
 532 
 1,354 
 719 
 51 
 126 
 76 
 1,142 
 
 182,1 
 
 24,639 
 1,438 
 3,364 
 1,213 
 
 59,319 4 6 123,728 
 215 5 0 348 
 
 Rates of | 
 
 Duty for Amount of 
 each Duty. 
 Horse. 
 
 CSame| 
 
 h825.i 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do, 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 73,409 19 3 
 
 28,058 5 01 
 
 16,073 15 Ol 
 
 8,947 17 6 
 
 6,200 4 0 
 
 6,584 9 01 
 
 1,615 19 0 
 
 4,298 19 Ol 
 
 2,291 16 3' 
 
 163 4 0 
 
 406 7 0 
 
 247 0 0 
 
 3,768 12 0 
 
 329,839 2 0 
 
 2,979 18 9 
 1,433 3 9 
 
 25,870 19 0 
 
 1,797 10 0 
 
 4,835 15 0 
 
 636 16 6 
 
 Exemptions. — Besides the above account of the horses charged with duty, we have been favoured, by 
 the Stamp Office, with an account of the numbers exempted from duty in 1832. This account is not, how. 
 ever, to be relied on ; inasmuch as very many of those whose horses are not liable to the duties never 
 think of making any returns. By not attending to this circumstance, we inadvertently, in the former 
 edition of this work, under-rated the number of horses engaged in certain departments of industry. 
 
 Influence of Railroads on Horses. — The statements now made, show the dependence that ought to be 
 placed on the estimates occasionally put forth by some of the promoters of railroads and steam carriages. 
 These gentlemen are pleased to tell us, that, by superseding the employment of horses in public convey- 
 ances, and in the regular carriage of goods, the adoption of their projects will enable 1,000,(X)0 horses to 
 be dispensed with • and that, as each horse consumes as much food :is 8 men, it will at once provide sub- 
 sistence for 8,000,000 human beings ! To dwell upon the absurdity of such a statement would be 
 worse than useless ; nor should we have thought of noticing it, but that it has found its way into a report 
 of a committee of the House of Commons. It is sufficient to observe, that though all the stage and mail 
 coaches, and all the public wagons, vans, &c. employed in the empire, were superseded by steam car. 
 riages, 100,000 horses would not certainly be rendered superfluous. The notion that 1 horse consumes 
 as much as 8 men, at least if we suppose the men to be reasonably well fed, is too ridiculous to deserve 
 notice. 
 
 'J'he rates of duty payable at present (1834.) on horses, are the same as those specified m the above 
 Table for 1825 and 1832. A horse bomifidc kept and usually employed for the purpose ot husbandry, on a 
 farm of less value than 200/. a year, though occasionally used as a riding horse, is exempt from the duty. 
 And husbandry horses, whatever may be the value of the farms on which they are kept, may be rode, 
 free of duty, to and from any place to which a burden shall have been carried or brought back ; to procure 
 
HOUSE DEALERS. — JAMAICA PEPPER. 
 
 655 
 
 meilical assistance, and to or from markets, places of public worship, elections of members of parliament, 
 courts of justice, or meetings of conunissioners of taxes. 
 
 Brood mares, while kept for the sole purpose of breeding, are exempted from all duty. 
 
 Horses may be let or lent for agricultural purposes, without any increase of duty. 
 
 Mules employed in carrying ore and coal are exempted from any duty. — (See the Statutes in Chitty^a 
 edition of Burn's Justici', vol. v. tit. Assessed Taxes.) 
 
 I'he facility with which horses may be stolen has led to the enactment of several regulations with re- 
 spect to their sale, &c. The property ot a horse cannot be conveyed away without the express consent of 
 the owner. Hence, a bond fide purchaser gains no property in a horse that has been stolen, unless it be 
 bought in a/air, or an open market. It is directed that the keeper of every (air or market shall appoint 
 a certain open place for the sale of horses, and one or more persons to take toll there, and keep the place 
 from 10 in the forenoon till sunset. The owner's property in the horse stolen is not altered by sale in a 
 legal fair, unless it be openly ridden, led, walked, or kejit standing for one hour at least, and has been re- 
 gistered, for which the buyer is to pay id. Sellers of horses in fairs or markets must be known to the toll- 
 takers, or to some other creditable person known to them, who declares his knowledge of them, and enters 
 the same in a book kept by the toll-taker for the purpose. Without these formalities, the sale is void. The 
 owner of a horse stolen may, notwithstanding its legal sale, redeem it on payment or tender of the price 
 any time within 6 months of the time of the theft. — {Burn's Justice of the Peace, Chitty's ed. voU iii. 
 p. 264.) 
 
 In order to obviate the facility afforded by means of slaughtering houses for the disposal of stolen horses, 
 it was enacted in 1786 (26 Geo. 3. c. 71.), that all persons keeping places for slaughtering horses, geldings, 
 sheep, hogs, or other cattle not killed for butcher's meat, shall obtain a licence from the quarter sessions, 
 first producing from the minister and churchwardens, or from the minister and 2 substantial house- 
 holders, a certificate of their fitness to be intrusted with the management and carrying on of such business. 
 Persons slaughtering horses or cattle without licence are guilty of felony, and may be whipped and im- 
 prisoned, or transported. Persons licensed, are bound to affix over the door or gate of the place w here 
 their business is carried on, in legible cliaracters, the words " Licensed for s/auffhtering Horses, pursuant 
 to an Act passed in the 26th Year of his Majesty King Geo. III.'' The parishioners entitled to meet in vestry 
 are authorised to choose annually, or oftener, inspectors, whose duty it is to take an account and descrip- 
 tion, &c. of every living horse, &c. that may be brought to such slaughtering houses to be killed, and of every 
 dead horse that may be brought to be flayed. Persons bringing cattle are to be asked an account of them- 
 selves, and if it be not deemed satisfactory, they may be carried before a justice. This act does not extend 
 to curriers, fellmongers, tanners, or persons killing aged or distempered cattle, for the purpose of using or 
 curing their hides in their respective businesses ; but these, or any other person.s, who shall knowingly or 
 wilfully kill any sound or useful horse, &c., shall for every such offence forfeit not more than iiO/., and not 
 less than 10/. 
 
 The stealing of horses and other cattle is a capital crime, punishable by death. The maliciously 
 wounding, maiming, killing, &c. of horses and other cattle, is to be punished, at the discretion of the court, 
 by transportation beyond seas for life, for any term not less than 7 years, or by imprisonment for any 
 term not exceeding 4 years; and if a male, he may be once, twice, or thrice publicly or privately 
 whipped, should the court so direct. — (7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 29. ^ 25. ; 7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 30. \ 16.) 
 
 French Trade in Horses. — The horses of France are not, speaking generally, nearly so handsome, fleet, 
 or powerful, as those of England. Latterly, however, the French have been making great efforts to im- 
 prove the breed of horses, and have, in this view, been making large importations from England and 
 other coimtries. At an average of the 5 years ending with 1827, the excess of horses imported into 
 France, above those exported, amounted to about 13,000 a year. — {Bulletin des Sciences GeographiqueSy 
 torn. xix. p. 5.) The imports from England have, in some late ye.ars, amounted to nearly 2,000 horses. 
 
 HORSE DEALERS, persons whose business it is to buy and sell horses. 
 
 Every person carrying on the business of a horse dealer is required to keep a book, in which he shall 
 enter an account of the number of the horses kept by him for sale and for use, specifying the duties to 
 which the same are respectively liable ; this book is to be open, at all reasonable times, to the inspection 
 of the officers ; and a true copy of the same is to be delivered quarterly to the assessor or assessors of the 
 parish in which the party resides. Penalty for non-compliance, 50/. — (43 Geo. 3. c. 161.) Horse dealers 
 are assessed, if they carry on their business in the metropolis, 25/. j and if elsewhere^ 12/. 10^. 
 
 Account specifying the Number of Horse Dealers in Great Britain, in 1831 ; distinguishing between those 
 in the Metropolis and the Country ; witli the Rates of Duty on each Class, and the Produce of the 
 Duties. — {Papers published by the Board of Trade, vol. ii. p. 45.) 
 
 Within the Cities of London and West- 
 minster, St. Marylebone, St. Pancras, and 
 Weekly Bills of Mortality. 
 
 In any otlier Part of Great Britain. 
 
 Total Number of Horse 
 Dealers. 
 
 Number 
 assessed. 
 
 Rate of 
 Charge. 
 
 Amount of 
 Duty. 
 
 Number 
 assessed. 
 
 Rate of 
 Charge. 
 
 Amount of 
 Duty. 
 
 Number 
 assessed. 
 
 Amount of 
 Duty. 
 
 74 
 
 L. 1. d. 
 
 25 0 0 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 l.S.OO 0 0 
 
 963 
 
 L. ». d. 
 12 10 0 
 
 L. s. d. 
 12,037 10 0 
 
 1,037 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 13,887 10 0 
 
 HUNDRED WEIGHT, a weight of 112 lbs. avoirdupois, generally written cwt. 
 
 % 
 
 I. AND J. 
 
 JALAP, OR JALOP (Ger. Jalapp; Fr. Jalap ; It. Sciarappa; Sp. Jalapa), the root 
 of a sort of convolvulus, so named from Xalapa, iu Mexico, whence we chiefly import 
 it. The root, when brought to this country, is in thin transverse slices, solid, hard, 
 weighty, of a blackish colour on the outside, and internally of a dark grey, with black 
 circular striae. The hardest and darkest coloured is the best ; that which is light, 
 spongy, and pale coloured, should be rejected. The odour of jalap, especially when in 
 powder, is very characteristic. Its taste is exceedingly nauseous, accompanied by a 
 sweetish bitterness. — (Lewis's Mat. Med.; Brande's Pharmacy.) The entries of jalap 
 for home consumption amounted, at an average of 1831 and 1832, to 47,816 lbs. a year. 
 
 JAMAICA PEPPER. See Pimento. 
 
656 JAPANNED WARES. — IMPORTATION. 
 
 JAPANNED WARES (Ger. Japanische ware,- Du. Japansch lakwerkj Fr. 
 Marchandises de Japon), articles of every description, such as tea-trays, clock-dials, can- 
 dlesticks, snuff-boxes, &c. covered with coats of japan, whether plain, or emhellished with 
 painting or gilding. Birmingham is the grand staple of this manufacture, which is tliere 
 carried on to a great extent. Pontypool, in Monmouthshire, was formerly famous for 
 japanning ; but it is at present continued there on a very small scale only. It is pro- 
 secuted with spirit and success at Bilston and Wolverhampton. 
 
 JASPER (Ger. Jaspiss ; Du. Jaspis ; Fr. Jaspe ; It. Diaspro ; Sp. Jaspe ; Rus. 
 Jaschma). This stone is an ingredient in the composition of many mountains. It oc- 
 curs usually in large amorphous masses, sometimes in round or angular pieces ; its frac- 
 ture is conchoidal ; specific gravity from 2 to 2*7. Its colours are various : when heated 
 it does not decrepitate : it is usually divided into 4 species, denominated Egyptian jasper, 
 striped jasper, porcelain jaspef, and common jasper. It is sometimes employed by 
 jewellers in the formation of seals. 
 
 JERSEY. See Guernsey. 
 
 JET, OR PITCH COAL (Du. Git, Zwarte barnsteen; Fr. Jais, Jayet ; Ger. Gagat ; 
 It. Gagata, Lustrino ; Lat. Gagus, Gagates), of a black velvet colour, occurs massive, 
 in plates ; soiuetimes in the shape of branches of trees, but without a regular woody 
 texture. Internal lustre shining, resinous, soft ; rather brittle ; easily frangible ; specific 
 gravity 1 -3. It is used for fuel, and for making vessels and snuff-boxes, In Prussia it 
 is called black amber, and is cut into rosaries and necklaces. It is distinguished by its 
 brilliancy, and conchoidal fracture. — ( Thomson's Chemistry. ) 
 
 JETSAM. See Flotsam. 
 
 IMPORTATION and EXPORTATION, the bringing of commodities from 
 and sending them to other countries. A very large portion of the revenue of Great 
 Britain being derived from customs duties, or from duties on commodities imported from 
 abroad ; and drawbacks being given on many, and bounties on a few articles exported ; 
 the business of importation and exportation is subjected to various regulations, which 
 must be carefully observed by those who would avoid incurring penalties, and subjecting 
 their property to confiscation. The regulations referred to, have been embodied in the 
 act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52., which is subjoined. 
 
 General Regulations. 
 
 No Goods to be landed nor Bulk broken before Report and Entry. — No goods shall be unladen from any 
 ship arriving from parts beyond the seas at any port or place in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of 
 Man, nor shall bulk be broken after the arrival of such ship within 4 leagues of the coasts thereof, before 
 due report of such ship and due entry of such goods shall have been made, and warrant granted, in 
 manner herein-after directed ; and no goods shall be so unladen except at such times and places, and in 
 such manner, and by such persons, and under the care of such officers, as is and are lierein-after di- 
 rected ; and all goods not duly reported, or which shall be unladen 'contrary hereto, shall be forfeited ; 
 and if bulk be broken contrary hereto, the master of such ship shall forfeit the sum of 100/. ; and if, after 
 the arrival of any ship within 4 leagues of the coast of the United Kingdom or of the Isle of Rlan, any 
 alteration be made in the stowage of the cargo of such ship, so as to facilitate the unlading of any part of 
 such cargo, or if any part be staved, destroyed, or thrown overboard, or any package be opened, such ship 
 shall be deemed to have broken bulk : provided always, that the several articles herein-after enumerated 
 may be landed in the United Kingdom without report, entry, or warrant ; (that is to say,) diamonds and 
 bullion, fresh fish of British taking, and imported in British ships, turbots and lobsters fresh, however 
 taken or imported. — § 2. 
 
 Manifest. 
 
 All British Ships, and all Ships with Tobacco, to have Manifests. — No goods shall be imported into the 
 United Kingdom, or into the Isle of Man, from parts beyond the seas, in any British ship, nor any tobacco 
 in any ship, unless the master shall have on board a manifest of such goods or of such tobacco, made out, 
 dated, and signed by him at the place or respective places where the same or the difierent parts of tlie 
 same was or were taken on board, and authenticated in the manner herein-after provided ; and every 
 such manifest shall set forth the name and the tonnage of the ship, the name of the master and of the 
 place to which the ship belongs, and of the place or places where the goods were taken on board re- 
 spectively, and of the place or places for'which they are destined respectively, and shall contain a particular 
 account and description of all the packages on board, with the marks and numbers thereon, and the sorts 
 of goods and different kinds of each sort contained therein, to the best of .the master's knowledge, and of 
 the particulars of such goods as are stowed loose, and the names of the respective shippers and consignees, 
 as far as the same can be known to the master ; and to such particular account shall be subjoined a general 
 account or recapitulation of the total number of the packages of each sort, describing tffe same by their 
 usual names, or by such descriptions as the same can best be known by, and the different goods therein, 
 and also the total quantities of the difil'rent goods stowed loose : provided always, that every manifest 
 for tobacco shall be a separate manifest distinct from any manifest for any other goods, and shall, without 
 fail, contain the particular weight of tobacco in each hogshead, cask, chest, or case, with the tare of the 
 same ; and if such tobacco be the produce of the dominions of the Grand Seignior, then the number of the 
 parcels or bundles within any such hogshea^J, cask, chest, or case shall be stated in such manifest. — ^ S. 
 
 To be produced to Officers in Colonics, S;c. — Before any ship shall be cleared out or depart from any 
 place in any of the British possessions abroad, or from any place in China, with any goods for the United 
 Kingdom or for the Isle of Man, the master of such ship shall produce the manifest to the collector or 
 comptroller of the customs, or other proper ofhcer, who shall certify upon the same the date of the i)ro. 
 duction thereof to him: provided always, that in all places within the territorial possessions of the East 
 India Company the servant of the said Company by whom the last dispatches of such ship shall be 
 delivered shall be the proper officer to authenticate the manifest as aforesaid ; and in all places in China 
 the chief supercargo of the said (Company shall be the jjroper officer for such purpose. — § 4. 
 
 To be produced to Consuls. — Before the departure of any ship from any place beyond the seas not uniier 
 the British dominions, where any tobacco lias been taken on board such snip for the Unitc«i Kingdom or 
 tor the Isle of Man, the master of such ship shall produce the manifest ot such tobacco to the British 
 
IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 657 
 
 consul or otiicr chief British officer, if there be any such resident at or near such place; and such consul 
 or other oHicer shall certify upon the same the date of the production thereof to him. — ^5, 
 
 IJ Manting, Master to forfeit 100/. — If any goods be imported into the United Kingdom or into the 
 Isle of Man, in any British ship, or any tobacco in any ship, without such manifest, or if any goods con- 
 tained in such manifest be not on board, the master of such ship shall forfeit the sum of 100/. — \ fi. 
 
 Manifest to be produced within 4 Leaf^ues. — The master of every ship required to have a manifest on 
 board shall produce such )nanifest to any otlicer of the customs who shall come on board his ship after her 
 arr'val within 4 leagues of the coast of the United Kingdom or of the coast of the Isle of Man, and who 
 shall demand the same, for his inspection ; and such master shall also deliver to any such officer who shall 
 be the first to demand it, a true copy of such manifest signed by the master ; and shall also deliver another 
 copy ;o any other officer of the customs who shall be the first to demand the same within the limits of 
 the port to which such ship is bound ; and thereupon such officers respectively shall notify on such mani- 
 fest and on such copies the date of the production of such manifest and of tiie receipt of such copies, and 
 shall transmit such copies to the collector and comptroller of the port to which such vessel is first bound, 
 and shall return such manifest to the master: and if such master shall not in any case produce such 
 manifest, or deliver such copy, he shall forfeit the sum of 100/. — ^ 7. 
 
 Report. 
 
 Master, within 24 Hours, and before breaking Bulk, shall report. — The master of every ship arriving 
 from parts beyond the seas at any port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, whether laden or 
 in ballast, shall, within 24 hours after such arrival, and before bulk be broken, make due report of such 
 ship, and shall make and subscribe a declaration to the truth of the same, before the collector or comp- 
 troller of such port; and such report shall contain an account of the particular marks, numbers, and 
 contents of all the different packages or parcels of the goods on board such ship, and the particulars of 
 such goods as are stowed loose, to lh<^ best of his knowledge, and of the place or places where such goods 
 were respectively taken on board, and of the burden of such ship, and of the country where such ship 
 was built, or, if British, of the port of registry, and of the country of the people to whom such ship be- 
 longs, and of the name and country of the person who was master during the voyage, and of the number 
 of the people by whom such ship was navigated, stating how many are subjects of the country to which 
 such ship belongs, and how many are of some other country ; and in such report it shall be further de- 
 clared, whether and in what cases such ship has broken bulk in the course of her voyage, and what part 
 of the cargo, if any, is intended for importation at such port, and what part, if any, is intended for im- 
 portation at another port in the United Kingdom, or at another port in the Isle of Man respectively, 
 and what part, if any, is prohibited to be imported, except to be warehoused for exportation only, and 
 what part, if any, is intended for exportation in such ship to parts beyond the seas, and what surplus 
 stores or stock remain on board such ship, and, if a British ship ; what foreign-made sails or cordage, not 
 being standing or running rigging, are in use on board such ship; and the master of any ship, who shall 
 fail to make such report, or who shall make a false report, shall forfeit the sum of 100/. — ^8. 
 
 Masters of Vessels cofningfro?n Africa to report how many Natives tliey have on board. — The master 
 of every vessel coming from the coast of Africa, and having taken on board at any place in Africa any 
 person or persons being or appearing to be natives of Africa, shall, in addition to all other matters, state, 
 in the report of his vessel, how many such persons have been taken on board by him in Africa ; and any such 
 master failing herein shall forfeit the sum of 100/. : provided also, that the master or owner or owners of 
 such vessel, or some or one of them, at the time of making such report, be required to enter into bond to 
 his Majesty in the sum of 100/., conditioned to keep harmless any parish, or any extra-parochial or other 
 place maintaining its own poor, against any expense which such parish or other place may be put to in 
 supporting any such person during their stay in the United Kingdom ; and any such master, owner or 
 owners refusing or neglecting to enter into such bond shall forfeit the sum of 200^. — ^9. 
 
 Packages reported " Contents unknown,'" 7nay be opened and examined. — If the contents of anj 
 package so intended as aforesaid for exportation in the same ship to parts beyond the seas shall be re 
 ported by the master as being unknown to him, it shall be lawful for the officers of the customs to open 
 and examine such package on board, or to bring the same to the king's warehouse for that purpose; and 
 if there be found in such package any goods which may not be entered for home use, such goods shall be 
 forfeited ; or if the goods be such as may be entered for home use, the same shall be chargeable with the 
 duties of importation ; unless in either case the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, in consideration 
 of the sort or quality of such goods, or the small rate of duty payable thereon, shall see fit to deliver the 
 same for exportation. — ^10. 
 
 Master to deliver Manifest, S^c. — The master of every ship shall, at the time of making such report, 
 deliver to the collector or comptroller the manifest of the cargo of sucli ship, where a manifest is required, 
 and, if required by the collector or comptroller, shall produce to him any bill or bills of lading, or a true 
 copy thereof, for any and every part of the cargo laden on board ; and shall answer all such questions 
 relating to the ship and cargo, and crew and voyage, as shall be put to him by such collector or conip. 
 troller ; and in case of failure or refusal to produce such manifest, or to answer such questions, or to 
 answer them truly, or to produce such bill of lading- or copy, or if such manifest, or bill of lading, or copy, 
 shall be false, or if any bill of lading be uttered by any master, and the goods expressed thereni shall not 
 have been bond fide shipped on board such ship, or if any bill of lading uttered or produced by any ma.stcr 
 shall not have been signed by him, or any such copy shall not have been received or made by him pre- 
 viously to his leaving the place where the goods expressed in such bill of lading or copy were shijjped, 
 then and in every such case such master shall forfeit the sum of IdO/. — \ 11. 
 
 Part of Cargo reported for another Port. — If any part of the cargo of any ship for which a manifest 
 is required be reported for importation at some other port in the United Kingdom, or at some other 
 port in the Isle of Man, the collector and comptroller of the port at which some part of the cargo has 
 been delivered shall notify such delivery on the manifest, and return the same to the master of such 
 ship. — ^ 12. 
 
 Ship to come quickly to Place of unlading, SjC. — Every ship shall come as quickly up to the proper place 
 of mooring or unlading as the nature of the port ^vill admit, and without touching at any other place; 
 and in proceeding to such place shall bring to at stations appointed by the commissioners of customs for 
 the boarding of ships by the officers of the customs ; and after arrival at such place of mooring or un- 
 lading such ship shall not remove from such place except directly to some other proper place, and with 
 the knowledge of the proper officer of the customs, on penalty of luO/., to be paid by the master of such 
 ship : provided always, that it shall be lawful for the commissioners of customs to appoint places to be 
 the proper places for the mooring or unlading of ships importing tobacco, and where such ships only shall 
 be moored or unladen ; and in case the place so ai)poh)ted for the unlading of such ships shall not be 
 within some dock surrounded with walls, if any such ship after having been oischarged shall remain at 
 such place, or if any ship not importing tobacco shall be moored at such place, the master shall in either 
 case forfeit and pay the sum of 20/. — § 13. 
 
 Officers to board Ships. — It shall be lawful for the proper officers of the customs to board any ship 
 arriving at any port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, and freely to stay on board until all 
 the goods laden therein shall have been duly delivered from the same; and such officei's shall have free 
 access to every part of the ship, with power to fasten down hatchways, and to mark any goods before 
 landing, and to lock up, seal, mark, or otherwise secure any goods on board such ship; and if any piace, 
 or any box or chest, be locked, and the keys be withheld, such officers if they be of a degree superior to 
 
 2 U 
 
658 
 
 IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 tidesmen or watermen, may open any such place, box, or chest in the best manner in their power: and 
 if they be tidesmen or watermen, or only of that degree, they shall aend for their superior officer, who 
 may o|)en or cause to be opened any such place, box, or chest in the best manner in his power; and if any 
 goods be found concealed on board any such ship, they shall be forfeited ; and if the officers shall-place 
 any lock, mark, or seal upon any goods on board, and such lock, mark, or seal be wilfully opened, altered, 
 or broken before due delivery of such goods, or if any of such goods be secretly conveyed away, or if the 
 hatchways, after having been fastened down by the officer, be opened, the master of such ship shall for. 
 feit the sum of 100/. — ^ 14. 
 
 National Ships, British or Foreign, having Goods on board. Person in charge to deliver an Account, or 
 forfeit loot. — If any ship (having commission from his Majesty, or from any foreign prince or state) ar- 
 riving as aforesaid at any port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man shall have on board any 
 goods laden in parts beyond the seas, the captain, master, purser, or other person having the charge of 
 such ship or of such goods for that voyage shall, before any part of such goods be taken out of such ship, 
 or when called upon so to do by any officer of the customs, deliver an account in writing under his hand, 
 to the best of his knowledge, of the quality and quantity of every package or parcel of such goods, and of 
 the marks and numbers thereon, and of the names of the respective shippers and consignees of the same, 
 and shall make and subscribe a declaration at the foot of such account, declaring to the truth thereof, 
 and shall also truly answer to the collector or comptroller such questions concerning such goods as shall 
 be required of him ; and on failure thereof such captain, master, purser, or other person shall forfeit the 
 sum of 100/. ; and all such ships shall be liable to such searches as merchant ships are liable to ; and the 
 officers of the customs may freely enter and go on board all such ships, and bring from thence on shore 
 into the king's warehouse any goods found on board any such ship as aforesaid; subject nevertheless to 
 such regulations in respect of ships of war belonging to his Majesty as shall Irom time to time be directed 
 in that respect by the commissioners of his Majesty's treasury of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
 and Ireland. — \ 15. 
 
 Master to deliver List of Creto of Ships frO)?i West Indies. — The master of every British ship arriving 
 at any port in the United Kingdom, on her return from any British possessions in the West Indies, shall, 
 within 10 days of such arrival, deliver to the collector or comptroller a list, containing the names and 
 descriptions of the crew which was on board at the time of clearing from the United Kingdom, and of 
 the crew on board at the time of arrival in any of the said possessions, and of every seaman who has de- 
 serted or died during the voyage, and also the amount of wages due at the time of his death to each sea- 
 man so dying, and shall make and subscribe a declaration at the foot of such list, declaring to the truth 
 thereof ; and every master omitting so to do shall forfeit the sum of 50/. ; and such list shall be kept by 
 the collector for the inspection of all persons interested therein. — ^ 16. 
 
 After 14 Dai/s, Officer may land Goods not entered, Sfc. — Every importer of any goods shall, within 14 
 days after the arrival of the ship importing the same, make perfect entry inwards of such goods, or entry 
 by bill of sight, in manner herein-after provided, and shall within such time land the same ; and in default 
 of such entry and landing it shall be lawful for the officers of the customs to convey such goods to the 
 king's warehouse; and whenever the cargo of any ship shall have been discharged, with the exception 
 only of a small quantity of goods, it shall be lawful for the officers of the customs to convey such remaining 
 goods, and at any time to convey any small packages or parcels of goods, to the king's warehouse, although 
 such 14 days shall not have expired, there to be kept waiting the due entry thereof during the remainder 
 of such 14 days ; and if the duties due upon any goods so conveyed to the king's warehouse shall not be 
 paid within 3 months after such 14 days shall have expired, together with all charges of removal and 
 warehouse rent, the same shall be sold, and the produce thereof shall be applied, first to the payment of 
 freight and charges, next of duties, and the overplus, if any, shall be paid to the proprietor of the goods. 
 
 Bill of Entry to be delivered. — The person entering any goods inwards (whether for payment of duty, 
 or to be warehoused upon the first perfect entry thereof, or for payment of duty upon the taking out of 
 the warehouse, or whether such .goods be free of duty,) shall deliver to the collector or comptroller a bill 
 of the entry of such goods, fairly written in words at length, expressing the name of the ship, and of the 
 master of the ship in which the goods were imported, and of the place from whence they were brought, 
 and the description and situation of the warehouse, if they are to be warehoused, and the name of the 
 person in whose name the goods are to be entered, and the quantity and description of the goods, and the 
 number and denomination or description of the respective packages containing the goods, and in the 
 margin of such bill shall delineate the respective marks and numbers of such packages, and shall pay 
 down any duties which may be payable upon the goods mentioned in such entry ; and such person shall 
 also deliver at the same time 2 or more duplicates, as the case may require, of such bill, in which all suras 
 and numbers may be expressed in figures, and the particulars to be contained in such bill shall be written 
 and arranged in such form and manner, and the number of such duplicates shall be such as the collector 
 and comptroller shall require ; and such bill being duly signed by the collector and comptroller, and 
 transmitted to the landing waiter, shall be the warrant to him for the landing or delivering of such goods. 
 — § 18. 
 
 Unauthorised Persons not permitted to make Entries. — Every person who shall make or <;ause to be 
 made any such entry inwards of any goods, not being duly authorised thereto by the proprietor or con- 
 signee of such goods, shall for every such offence forfeit the sum of 100/. : provided always, that no such 
 penalty shall extend or be deemed to extend to any person acting under the directions of the several dock 
 companies or other corporate bodies authorised by law to pass entries. — § 19. 
 
 Not valid unless agreeing with Manifest, Report, and other Documents. — No entry nor any warrant 
 for the landing of any goods, or for the taking of any goods out of any warehouse, shall be deemed valid, 
 unless the particulars of the goods and packages in such entry shall correspond with the particulars of 
 the goods and packages, purporting to be the same, in the report of tlie ship, and in the manifest, wnere 
 a manifest is required, and in the certificate or other document, where any is required, by which the im- 
 portation or entry of such goods is authorised, nor unless the goods shall have been properly described in 
 such entry by the denominations and with the characters and circumstances according to which sucli 
 goods are charged with duty or maybe imported, cither to be used in the United Kingdom, or to be 
 warehoused for exportation only ; and any goods taken or delivered out of any ship, or out of any ware- 
 house, or for the delivery of which, or for any order for the delivery of which, from any warehouse, 
 demand shall have been made, not having bcen'duly entered, shall be forfeited. — § 20. 
 
 Goods />'/ Nutnbur, Measure, ar Weight, S(C. — If the goods in such entry l)e charged to pay duty ac- 
 cording to the number, m.easure, or weight thereof, such number, measure, or weight shall be stated in 
 the entry ; and if the goods in such entry be charged to pay duty according to the value thereof, such 
 value shall be stated in tlie entry, and shall be affirmed by the declaration of the importer or his known 
 agent, written upon the entry, and attested by his signature ; and if the goods in such entry be chargeable 
 at the' option of the officers of customs, either according to the number, measure, or weight thereof, or 
 according to the value thereof, then as well such number, measure, or weight, as also such value, shall 
 bo in like manner -stated in the entry, and attested ; and if any person make such declaration, not being 
 the imiwrter or proprietor of such goods, nor his agent duly authorised by him, such person shall forfeit 
 the sum of 100/. ; and such declaration shall be made in manner and form following, and shall be binding 
 upon the person by or in behalf of whom the same shall be made; (that is to say,) 
 
 Entry. 
 
 17. 
 
IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 659 
 
 I A. B. of [j)lace of abode'] do hereby declare, that I am [the importer, or authorised by the importer] 
 of thegoods contained in this entry, and tliat I enter the same {^stating which, if part only] atthesumof 
 
 . Witness my hand the day of . 
 
 " A. B." _ ^ 21. 
 
 Goods undervalued. Officers may detain. — If upon examination it shall appear to the officers of the 
 customs that such goods are not valued according to the true value thereof, it shall be lawful for such 
 officers to detain and secure such goods, and (within 5 days from the landing thereof if it be in the ports 
 of London, Leith, or Dublin, or within 7 days if in any other port in the United Kingdom, or if in any 
 port in the Isle of Man,) to take such goods for the use of the Crown ; and if a diff erent rate of duty shall 
 be charged upon any goods according as the value of the same shall be described in the entry to be above 
 or to be below any particular price or sum, and such goods shall be valued in the entry so as to be liable 
 to the lower rate of duty, and it shall appear to the officers of the customs that such goods, by reason of 
 their real value, are properly liable to tne higher rate of duty, it shall be lawful for such officers in like 
 manner to take such goods for the use of the Crown ; and the commissioners of his Majesty's customs 
 shall thereupon in any of such cases cause the amount of such valuation, together with an addition of 10/. 
 per cent, thereon, and also the duties paid upon such entry, to be paid to the importer or proprietor of 
 such goods in full satisfaction for the same, and shall dispose of such goods for the benefit of the Crown ; 
 and if the produce of such sale shall exceed the sums so paid and all charges incurred by the Crown, one 
 moiety of the overplus shall be given to the officer or officers who had detained and taken the goods ; and 
 the money retained for the benefit of the Crown shall be paid into the hands of the collector of the cus- 
 toms, with the knowledge of the comptroller, and carried to account as duties of customs. — ^ 22. 
 
 East India Company to sell Goods. — The value of goods imported by the East India Company shall be 
 ascertained by the gross price at which the same shall have been sold by auction at the public sales of the 
 said Company; and that the said Company shall fairly and openly expose to sale and cause to be sold all 
 such goods so charged to pay duty according to the value thereof by way of public auction in the city of 
 London, within 3 years from the importation thereof, and shall give due notice at the Custom-house in 
 London to the officers appointed to attend such sales of the time and place thereof. — ^ 23. 
 
 BUI of Sight if Goods be not known. — If the importer of any goocfs, or his agent after full conference 
 with him, shall declare before the collector or comptroller that he cannot for want of full information make 
 a full or perfect entry of such goods, and shall make and subscribe a declaration to the truth thereof, it 
 shall be lawful for the collector and comptroller to receive an entry by bill of sight for the packages or par- 
 cels of such goods by the best description which can be given, and to grant a warrant thereupon, in order 
 that the same may be provisionally landed, and may be seen and examined by such importer, in presence 
 of the proper officers; and within 3 days after any goods shall have been so landed, the importer shall 
 make a full or perfect entry thereof, and shall either pay down all duties which shall be due and payable 
 upon such goods, or shall duly warehouse the same, according to the purport of the full or perfect entry 
 or entries so made for such goods, or for the several parts or sorts thereof : provided always, that if, when 
 full or perfect entry be at any time made for any goods provisionally landed as aforesaid by bill of sight, 
 such entry shall not be made in manner herein-before required for the due landing of goods, such goods 
 shall be deemed to be goods landed without due entry thereof, and shall be subject to the like forfeiture 
 accordingly: provided also, that if any sum of money shall have been deposited upon anv entry by bill of 
 sight, on account of the duties which may be found to be payable on the goods intendecl therein, it shall 
 be lawful for the officers of the customs to deliver, in virtue of the warrant for landing the same, any 
 (juantity of goods the duty on which shall not exceed the sum so deposited. — § 24. 
 
 Goods to be token to King's Warehouse. — In default of perfect entry within such 3 days, such goods shall 
 be taken to the king's warehouse by the officers of the customs ; and if the importer shall not, within 1 
 month after such landing, make perfect entry or entries of such goods, and pay the duties thereon, or on 
 such parts as can be entered for home use, together with charges of removal and of warehouse rent, such 
 goods shall be sold for payment of such duties (or for exportation, if they be such as cannot be entered 
 for home use, or shall not be worth the duties and charges,) and for the payment of such charges; and 
 the oven^lus, if any, shall be paid to the importer or proprietor thereof. — ^ 25. 
 
 East India Company may enter by Bill of Sight. — It shall be lawful for the East India Company, with, 
 out making the proof herein.before required, to enter by bill of sight, to be landed and secured in sucli 
 manner as the commissioners of his Majesty's customs shall require, any goods imported by them, and 
 also any goods imported by any other person from places within the limits of the charter of the said Com- 
 pany^ with the consent of such person, upon condition to cause perfect entry to be made of such goods 
 within 3 months from the date of the importation thereof, either to warehouse the same or to pay the 
 duties thereon within the times and in the manner herein-after mentioned ; (that is to say,) if such goods 
 be charged to nay duty according to the value, then to pay such duty within 4 months from the sale of 
 the goods ; and if such goods be charged to pay duty according to the number, measure, or weight thereof, 
 then to pay one moiety of such duties within 6 calendar months from the time of the importation of 
 such goods, and the other moiety within 12 calendar months from such time ; and such goods shall be 
 secured in such places and in such manner as the commissioners of his Majesty's customs shall require, 
 until the same shall have been duly entered, ^nd the duties thereon shall have been duly paid, or until 
 the same shall have been duly exported : provided also, that it shall be lawful for any other person who 
 shall have imported any goods from places within the said limits into the port of London in like manner 
 to enter such goods by bill of sight in his own name, upon giving sufficient security by bond, to the satis- 
 faction of the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, with the like conditions as are required of the said 
 Company for making perfect entries, and for the securing and the paying of duties, provided such goods be 
 entered by such bill of sight to be warehoused in some warehouse under the superintendence of the said 
 Comjiany, and in which goods imported by the said Company may be secured in manner before men- 
 tioned. — ^ 26, 
 
 In defajilt of Payment of Duties, Goods to be sold. — In defaiilt of perfect entry within 3 months as afore- 
 said, or of due entry and payment of duty within the times and in the manner herein-before respectively 
 required, it shall be lawful for the commissioners of his Majesty's customs to cause any such goods in 
 respect of which such default shall have been made to be sold for the payment of such duties, (or for 
 exportation, if they be such as cannot be entered for home use,) and for the payment of all charges in- 
 curred by the Crown in respect of such goods ; and the overplus, if anv, shall be paid to the proprietor 
 thereof — § 27. 
 
 Goods landed by Bill of Sight fraudulently conceaUd, forfeited. — Where any package or parcel shall have 
 been landed by bill of sight, and any goods or other things shall be found in such package or parcel con- 
 cealed in any way, or packed with intent to deceive the officers of his Majesty's customs, as well all such 
 goods and other things as the package or parcel in which they are found, and all other things contained 
 in such package or parcel, shall be forfeited. — \ i;8. 
 
 East India Company to pay Duties to Receiver general. — The East India Company shall pay into the 
 hands of the receiver-general of the customs every sum of money due from the said Company on account 
 of the duties of customs at the respective times when the same shall become due ; and the said receiver- 
 general shall give to the said Company a receipt for the monies so paid, on the account of the collector 
 of the customs, which receipt, when delivered to such collector, shall be received by him as cash. — § 29. 
 
 Goods damaged cm. Voyage. — Any goods which are rated to pay duty according to the number, mea- 
 sure, or weight thereof (except certain poods herein-after mjentioned) shall receive damage during the 
 voyage, an abatement of such duties shall be allowed in proportion to the damage so received ; provided 
 
660 
 
 IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 All goods for which bill of store cannot be issued m manner 
 herein-after directed, except small remnants of British goods 
 by special permission of the commissioners of his Majesty's 
 customs, upon proof to their satisfaction that the same are 
 British, and had not been sold — Sect. 33. 
 
 proof be made to the satisfaction of the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, or of any officers of cus- 
 toms acting therein under their directions, that such damage was received after the goods were shipped 
 abroad in the ship importing the same, and before they were landed in the United Kingdom ; and pro- 
 vided claim to such abatement of duties be made at the time of the first examination of such goods. — 
 
 ^ 30. 
 
 Officers to examine Damage, and state Proportion, or choose two Merchants. — The officers of the cus- 
 toms shall thereupon examine such goods with reference to such damage, and may state the proportion 
 of damage which, in their opinion, such goods have so received, and may make a proportionate abate- 
 ment of duties ; but if the officers of customs be incompetent to estimate such damage, or if the importer 
 be not satisfied with the abatement made by them, the collector and comptroller shall choose two indiflerent 
 merchants experienced in the nature and value of such goods, who shall examine the same, and shall 
 make and subscribe a declaration, stating in what proportion, according to their judgment, such goods 
 are lessened in their value by reason of such damage, and thereupon the officers of customs may make an 
 abateme.it of the duties according to the proportion of damage so declared by such merchants. — ^ 31. 
 
 No Abatement fm- certain Goods. — No abatement of duties shall be made on account of any damage 
 recei' <;d by any of the sorts of goods herein-after enumerated; (that is to say,) cocoa, coffee, oranges, 
 pepper, currants, raisins, figs, tobacco, lemons, and wine. — § 32. 
 
 Returned Goods. — It shall be lawful to re-import into the United Kingdom from any place, in a ship 
 of any country, any goods (except as herein-after excepted) which shall have been legally exported from 
 the United Kingdom, and to en-ter the same by bill of store, referring to the entry outwards, and export- 
 ation thereof, provided the property in such goods continue in the person by whom or on whose account 
 the same have been exported, and that such re-importation take place within 6 years from the date of 
 the exportation; and if the goods so returned be foreign goods, which had before been legally imported 
 into the United Kingdom, the same duties shall be payable thereon as would, at the time of such re-im- 
 portation, be payable on the like goods under the same circumstances of importation as those under which 
 such goods had been originally imported, or such goods may be warehoused as the like goods might be 
 warehoused upon a first importation thereof : provided always, that the several sorts of goods enumerated 
 or described in the Table following shall not be re-imported into the United Kingdom for home use upon 
 the ground that the same had been legally exported from thence, but that the same shall be deemed to 
 be foreign goods, whether originally such or not, and shall also be deemed to be imported for the first 
 time into the United Kingdom; (that is to say,) 
 
 A Table of Goods exported which may not be re-imported for Home U,se. 
 
 Com, grain, meal, flour, and malt, hops, tobacco, tea. 
 
 <joods for which any bounty or any drawback of excise had 
 been received on exportation, unless by special permission of 
 the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, and on repay- 
 ment of such bounty or such drawback. 
 
 Bill of Store, by whom may he taken out. — The person in whose name any goods so re-imported were 
 entered for exportation shall deliver to the searcher at the port of exportation an exact account, signed 
 by him, of the particulars of such goods, referring to the entry and clearance outwards and to the return 
 inwards of the same, with the marks and numbers of the packages, both inwards and outwards ; and 
 thereupon the searcher, finding that such goods had been legally exported, shall grant a bill of store for 
 the same; and if the person in whose name such goods were entered for exportation was not the pro- 
 prietor thereof, but his agent, hs shall declare upon oath on such bill of store the name of the person by 
 whom he was employed as such agent; and if the person to whom such returned goods are consigned 
 shall not be such proprietor and exporter, he shall make and subscribe a declaration on such bill of store 
 of the name of the person for whose use such goods have been consigned to him ; and the real proprietor, 
 ascertained to be such, shall make and subscribe a declaration upon such bill of store, to the identity of 
 the goods so exported and so returned, and that he was at the time of exportation and of re-importation 
 the proprietor of such goods, and that the same had not during such time been sold or disposed of to any 
 other person ; and such declaration shall be made before the collectors or comptrollers at the ports of ex- 
 portation and of importation respectively; and thereupon the collector and comptroller shall admit such 
 goods to entry by bill of store, and grant their warrant accordingly. — \ 34. 
 
 Surplus Stores subject as Goods. — The surplus stores of every ship arriving from parts beyond the seas, 
 in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, shall be subject to the same duties, and the same prohibi- 
 tions, restrictions, and regulations, as the like sorts of goods shall be subject to when imported by way of 
 merchandise ; but if it shall appear to the collector and comptroller that the quantity or description of such 
 stores is not excessive or unsuitable, under all the circumstances of the voyage, it shall be lawful for them 
 to permit such surplus stores to be entered for the private use of the master, purser, or owner of such 
 ship, or of any passenger of such ship to whom any such surplus stores may belong, on payment of the 
 proper duties, or to be warehoused for the future use of such ship, although the same could not be legally 
 imported by way of merchandise. — § 35. 
 
 Goods from Plantations, ^c. — No goods shall be entered as being of or from any British possession in 
 America (if any benefit attach to such distinction) unless the master of the ship importing the same shall 
 have delivered to the collector or comptroller a certificate, under the hand of the proper officer of the 
 pjace where such goods were taken on board, of the due clearance of such ship from thence, containing an 
 account of such goods. — ^ 3& 
 
 Certificate' of Growth of Sugar, Coffee, Cocoa, Spirits, from Plantations. — Before any sugar, cofFee, 
 cocoa, or spirits shall be entered as being of the produce of some British possession in America, or the 
 Island of Mauritius, the master of the ship importing the same shall deliver to the collector or comptroller 
 a certificate, under the hand of the proper officer of the place where such goods were taken on board, 
 testifying that proof had been made in manner required by law that such gootls are of the produce of some 
 British possession in America, or of the Island of Mauritius, stating the name of the place where such 
 goods were produced, and the quantity and quality of the goods, and the number and denomination of the 
 I)ackages containing the same, and the name of the ship in which they are laden, and of the master 
 thereof ; and such master shall also make and subscribe a declaration before the collector or comptroller, 
 that such certificate was received by him at the place where such goods were taken on board, and that the 
 goods so imix)rted are the same as are mentioned therein. — § 37. 
 
 Certificate of Sugar froin Limits of Charter. — Before any sugar shall be entered as being the produce of 
 any British possession within the limits of the East India Company's charter, the master of the ship im- 
 porting the same shall deliver to the collector or comptroller a certificate under the hand and seal of the 
 proper officer at the place where such sugar was taken on board, testifying that oath had been made 
 yefore him, by the shipper of such sugar, that the same was really and bond fide the produce of such 
 British possession ; and such master shall also make and subscribe a declaration before the collector or 
 comptroller, that such certificate was received by him at the i)laco where such sugar was taken on board, 
 and that the sugar so imported is the same as is mentioned therein. — \ 38. 
 
 Certificate of Wine, Produce of Cape of Good Hope. — Before any wine shall be entered as being the i)ro. 
 duce of the Cape of Good Hope, the master of the ship importing the same shall deliver to the collector 
 or comptroller a certificate under the hand of the proper ollicor of the Cai)c of (iood Hope testifying that 
 proof had been made, in manner required by law, that such wine is of the produ(;e of the Cape of (Jood 
 llopc or the dei)endencios thereof, stating the quantity and sort of such wine, and the number and deno- 
 mination of the jiackagcs containing the same; and such master shall also make and subscribe a declar 
 
IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 6GI 
 
 Ation before Uie collector or comptroller, that sucli certificate was received by him at the Cape of Good 
 Hone, and that the wine so imported is the same as is mentioned therein. — § 39. 
 
 Goods <if Guernsey, Jersey, ^c. — It shall be lawful to import into the United Kingdom any good« of the 
 produce or manufacture of the islands of (juernscy, Jersey, Alderncy, Sark, or Man, from the said islands 
 respectively, without payment of any duty (except in the cases herein. alter mentioned) ; and such 
 goods shall not be deemed to be included in any charge of duties imposed l)y any act hereafter to be made 
 on the importation of goods generally from parts l)eyond the seas : provided always, that such goods may 
 nevertheless be charged with any proportion of such duties as shall fairly countervail any duties of excise, 
 or any coast duty, payable on the like goods the produce of the part of the United Kingdom into which 
 they shall be imported : provided also, that such exemption from duty shall not extend to any manufac- 
 tures of the said islands made from materials the produce of any foreign country, except manufacture* 
 of linen and cotton made in and imported from the Isle of Man. — § 40. 
 
 Master to deliver Certificate qf Produce, and declare to Certificate. — Before any goods shall be entered 
 as being the produce ol the said islands (if any benefit attach to such distinction), the master of the ship 
 or vessel importing the same shall deliver to the collector or comptroller a certificate from the governor, 
 lieutenant-governor, or commander-in-chief of the island from whence such goods were imported, that 
 proof had been made, in manner required by law, that such goods were of the produce of such island, 
 stating the quantity and quality of the goods, and the number and denomination of the packages con- 
 taining the same ; and such master shall also mitke and subscribe a declaration before the collector or 
 comptroller, that such certificate was received by him at the place where such goods were taken on board, 
 and that the goods so imported are the same as are mentioned therein. — h 41. 
 
 Treasury may permit Produce of colonial Fisheries to he imported from Guernsey, Sfc. — It shall be law- 
 ful for the Lords Commissioners of his Majesty's Treasury, when and so long as they shall see fit, to permit 
 any goods the produce of the British possessions or fisheries in North America, which shall have been 
 legally imported into the islands of Guernsey or Jersey direct from such possessions, to be imported into 
 the United Kingdom for home use direct from those islands, under such regulations as the said commis- 
 sioners shall direct, any thing in the law of navigat ion to the contrary notwithstanding. — § 42. 
 
 Vessels with Stone from Guernsey, S(C. not to be piloted. — No vessel arriving on the coast of England 
 from Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Man, wholly laden with stone the production thereof, shall be 
 liable to be conducted or piloted by pilots appointed and licensed by the corporation of the Trinity House 
 of Deptford Strond, any law, custom, or usage to the contrary notwithstanding. — ^ 4.3. 
 
 Fish, British taking and curing, and Lobsters and Turbots, free qf Duty on Importation. — Fresh fish 
 of every kind of British taking, and imported in British ships, and fresli lobsters and turbots, however 
 taken or in whatever ship imported, and cured fish of every kind, of British taking and curing, imported in 
 British ships, shall be imported free of all duties, and shall not be deemed to be included in any charge of 
 duty imposed by any act hereafter to be made on the importation of goods generally : provided always, 
 that before any cured fish shall be entered free of duty, as being of such taking and curing, the master of 
 the ship importing the same shall make and subscribe a declaration before the collector or comptroller, that 
 such fish was actually caught and taken in British ships, and cured by the crews of such ships, or by his 
 Majesty's subjects. — § 44. 
 
 Certificate of Blubber, Train Oil, ^c. British colonial taking. — Before any blubber, train oil, spermaceti 
 oil, head matter, or whale fins, shall be entered as being the produce of fish or creatures living in the sea 
 taken and caught wholly by his Majesty's subjects usually residing in some part of his Majesty's dominions, 
 and imported from some British possession, the master of the shij) importing the same shall deliver to the 
 collector or comptroller a certificate under the hand of the proper officer of such British possession where 
 such goods were taken on board, (or if no such officer be residing there, then a certificate under the hands 
 of two principal inhabitants at the place of shipment,) notifying that oath had been made before him or 
 them, by the shipper of such goods, that the same were the produce of fish or creatures living in the sea 
 taken wholly by British vessels owned and navigated according to law ; and such master shall also make 
 and subscribe a declaration before the collector or comptroller, that such certificate was received by him at 
 the place where such goods were taken on board, and that the goods so imported are the same as men- 
 tioned therein ; and the importer of such goods shall also make and subscribe a declaration before the 
 collector or comptroller, at the time of entry, that to the best of his knowledge and belief the same were 
 the produce of fish or creatures living in the sea taken wholly by British vessels in manner aforesaid. — \ 45. 
 
 Before entry oj Blubber, 8(C. of British fishing. Master and Importer to make Declctration of the same. — 
 Before any blubber, train oil, spermaceti oil, head matter, or whale fins, imported direct from the fishery, 
 shall be entered as being the produce of fish or creatures living in the sea taken and caught wholly by the 
 crews of ships cleared out from the United Kingdom, or from one of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, 
 Alderney, Sark, or Man, the master of the ship importing such goods shall make and subscribe a declar- 
 ation, and the importer of such goods (to the best of his knowledge and belief) shall make and subscribe a 
 declaration, that the same are the produce of fish or creatures living in the sea taken and caught wholly 
 by the crew of such ship, or by the crew of some other ship (naming the ship) cleared out from the United 
 Kingdom, or from one of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Man (stating which). — \ 46. 
 
 Blubber from Greenland may be boiled, and entered as Oil imported, and be exported as such. — It shall 
 be lawful upon the return of any ship from the Greenland seas or Davis's Straits to the United Kingdom 
 with any blubber, being the produce of whales or other creatures living in the sea, for the importers 
 thereof to cause the same to be boiled into oil at the port of importation, under the care and inspection of 
 the proper officers of the customs ; and the oil so produced shall be admitted to entry, and the duties be 
 paid thereon, as if imported in that state, and such oil shall not afterwards, if the same come to bt ex- 
 ported, be subject to duty of exportation as a manufacture of the United Kingdom. — \ 47. 
 
 Importation direct. — No goods shall be deemed to be imported from any particular place unless they 
 be imported direct from such place, and shall have been there laden on board the importing ship, either 
 as the first shipment of such goods, or after the same shall have been actually landed at such place. — § 48. 
 
 Salvor mail sell Goods sufficient to defray Salvage. — It shall be lawful for the owner or salvor of anv 
 property liable to the payment of duty saved from sea, and in respect of which any sum shall have been 
 awarded under any law at the time in force, or in respect of which any sum shall have been paid or agreed 
 to be paid by the owner thereof or his agent, to the salvors, to defray the salvage of the same, to sell so 
 much of the property so saved as will be sufficient to defray the salvage so awarded, or such other sum so 
 paid^or agreed to be paid ; and upon the production of an award made in execution of any such law to 
 the commissioners of customs, or upon proof to the satisfaction of the said commissioners that such 
 sum of money has be<>n paid, or has been agreed to be paid, the said commissioners are hereby empowered 
 and required to allow' Jie sale of such property aforesaid, free from the payment of all duties, to the amount 
 of such sum so awarded, paid, or agreed to be paid, or to the amount of such other sum as to the said 
 commissioners shall seem just and reasonable: provided always, that if such owner or salvor shall be 
 dissatisfied with any determination of the said commissioners as to the amount of such property to be sold 
 duty free, it shall be lawful for such owner or salvor to refer any such determination of the said com- 
 missioners to the judgment and revision of the High Court of Admiralty ; and in that case such sale shall 
 be suspended until the decision of such court shall have been had thereon. — 49. 
 
 Foreign Goods derelict, S{C. to be subject to same Duties as on Importation. — All foreign goods, derelict, 
 jetsam, flotsam, and wreck, brought or coming into the United Kingdom or into the Isle of :Man, shall at 
 all times be subject to the same duties as goods of the like kind imported into the United Kingdom 
 respectively are subject to : provided always, that if, for ascertaining the proper amount ot duty so payable, 
 any question shall arise as to the origin of any such goods, the same shall be deemed to be of the growth, 
 
 2 U ;j 
 
662 
 
 IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 produce, or manufacture of such country or place as the commissioners of customs shall upon investigation 
 by them determine : provided also, that if any such goods be of such sorts as are entitled to allowance for 
 damage, such allowance shall be made under such regulations and conditions as the said commissioners 
 shall from time to time direct : provided also, that all such goods as cannot be sold for the amount of duty 
 due thereon shall be delivered over to the lord of the manor or other person entitled to receive the same, 
 and shall be deemed to be unenumerated goods, and shall be liable to and be charged with duty ac- 
 cordingly. — ^ 50. 
 
 Persons having such Goods in Possession, without Notice, liable to a Penalty of 100/. — If any person 
 shall havp possession of any such goods, either on land or within any port in the United Kingdom, and 
 shall not give notice thereof to the proper officer of the customs Avithin 24 hours after such possession, or 
 shall not on demand pay the duties due thereon, ordeUver the same into the custody of the proper officer of 
 the customs, such person shall forfeit the sum of 100/. ; and if any person shall remove or alter in quan- 
 tity or quality any such goods, or shall open or alter any package containing any such goods, or shall cause 
 any such act to be done, or assist therein, before such goods shall be deposited in a warehouse in the cus- 
 tody of the officers of the customs, every such person shall forfeit the sum of 100/. ; and in default of the 
 payment of the duties on such goods within 18 months from the time when the same were so deposited, the 
 same maybe sold in like manner and for the like purposes as goods imported may in such default be sold : 
 provided always, that any lord of the manor having by law just claim to such goods, or if there be no such 
 lord of the manor, then the person having possession of the same, shall be at liberty to retain the same in 
 his own custody, giving bond, with 2 sufficient sureties, to be approved by the proper officer of the cus- 
 toms, in treble the value of such goods, for the payment of the duties thereon at the end of 1 year and 1 
 day, or to dehver such goods to the proper officer of the customs in the same state and condition as the 
 same were in at the time of taking possession thereof — § 51. 
 
 Goods under Excise Permit Regulations. — No goods which are subject to any regulations of excise 
 shall be taken or delivered out of the charge of the officers of customs, (although the same may have been 
 duly entered with them, and the full duties due thereon may have been paid,) until such goods shall also 
 have been duly entered with the officers of excise, and permit granted by them for delivery of the same, 
 nor unless such permit shall correspond in all particulars with the warrant of the officers of the customs : 
 provided always, that such entry shall not be received by the officers of the excise, nor such permit granted 
 by them, until a certificate shall have been produced to them of the particulars of the goods, and of the 
 warrant for the same, under the hand of the officers of the customs who shall have the charge of the 
 goods : provided also, that if upon any occasion it shall appear necessary, it shall be lawful for the proper 
 officers of excise to attend the deUvei y of such goods by the officers of the customs, and to require that 
 such goods shall be delivered only in their presence ; and it shall be lawful for such officers of excise to 
 count, measure, gauge, or weigh any such goods, and fully to examine the same, and to proceed in all 
 respects relating to such goods in such manner as they shall be authorised or required by any act for the 
 time being in force relating to the excise. — § 52. 
 
 Commissioners of Customs may direct certain Goods to be stamped. — The commissioners of customs 
 are hereby authorised, after any goods have been entered at the Custom-house, and before the same shall 
 be discharged by the officers, and delivered into the custody of the importer or his agent, to mark or stamp 
 such goods in such manner and form as they may deem fit and proper for the security of the revenue, and 
 by such officer as they shall direct and appoint for that purpose. — § 53. 
 
 Orders for stamping Goods to be published. — Every order made by the said commissioners of his Ma- 
 jesty's customs in respect of marking or stamping any goods shall be published in the London Gazette and 
 Dublin Gazette. — § 54. 
 
 Penalty 200/. on forging such Statnps. — If any person or persons shall at any time forge or counterfeit 
 any mark or stamp to resemble any mark or stamp which shall be provided and used for the purposes of 
 this act, or shall forge or counterfeit the impression of any such mark or stamp, or shall sell or expose to 
 sale, or have in his, her, or theix custody or possession, any goods with a counterfeit mark or stamp, 
 knowing the same to he counterfeit, or shall use or affix any such mark or stamp to any other goods re- 
 quired to be stamped as aforesaid other than that to which the same was originally affixed, all and every 
 such offender or ofifenders, and his, her, or their aiders, abettors, and assistants, shall for every such offence 
 forfeit and pay the sum of 200/. — § 55. 
 
 Times and Places for landing Goods. — No goods whatever (except diamonds, bullion, fresh fish of 
 British taking and imported in British ships, and turbots and lobsters,) shall be unshipped from any ship 
 arriving fiom parts beyond the seas, or landed or put on shore, but only on days not being Sundays or 
 holidays, and in the day-time, (that is to say,) from the first day of September until the last day of March 
 between sun-rising and sun-setting, and from the last day of March to the first day of September between 
 the hours of 7 o'clock in the morning and 4 o'clock in the afternoon ; nor shall any goods, except as afore- 
 said, be so unshipped or landed unless in the presence or with the authority of the proper officer of the 
 customs ; and such goods, except as aforesaid, shall be landed at one of the legal quays appointed by his 
 Majesty for the landing of goods, or at some wharf, quay, or place appointed by the commissioners of the 
 customs for the landing of goods by sufferance ; and no goods, except as aforesaid, after having been 
 unshipped shall be transhipped, or after having been put into any boat or craft to be landed shall be 
 removed into any other boat or craft previously to their being duly landed, without the permission or 
 authority of the proper officer of the customs. — § 56. 
 
 Goods to be unshipped, S(C. at the Expense of Importer. — The unshipping, carrying, and landing oi 
 all goods, and the bringing of the same to the proper place after landing, for examination or for weighing, 
 and the putting of the same into the scales, and the taking of the same out of and from the scales after 
 weighing, shall be performed by or at the expense of the importer. — § 57. 
 
 Prohibitions and Restrictions absolute or modified. — The several sorts of goods enumerated or described 
 in the Table following, denominated " A Table of Prohibitions and Restrictions inwards," shall either be 
 absolutely prohibited to be imported into the United Kingdom, or shall be imported only under the 
 restrictions mentioned in such Table, according as the several sorts of such goods are respectively set forth 
 therein ; (that is to say,) 
 
 A Table of Prohibitions and Restrictions Inwards. 
 A List of Goods absolutely prohibited to be imported. 
 
 Arms, ammunition, and utensils of war, by way of merchan- 
 dise, except by licence from his Majesty, for furnishing 
 his Majesty's public stores only. 
 
 Beef, fresh or corned or slightly salted. 
 
 Bopks ; vi/.. first composed or written or printed in the United 
 ICingdom, and printed or reprinted in any other country, 
 imported for sale, except books not reprinted in the United 
 Kingdom with 20 years ; or being parts of collections, 
 the greater parts of whicli had been composed or written 
 abroad . 
 
 Cattle, great. 
 
 Clocks and watches of any metal, impressed with any mark or 
 stamp ap)iearing to be or to represent any legal British 
 assay mark or stamp, or purporting by any mark or ap- 
 pearance to be of the manufacture of the United King- 
 <lom, or not having the name and place of abode of some 
 foreign mak«T abroad visible on the frame and also on 
 the face, or not being in a complete state, with all tlie 
 p.-\rt» properly fixed in the rase. 
 
 Coin ; viz. false money, or counterfeit sterling. 
 
 silver, of the realm, or any money purporting to be such, 
 not being of the established standard in weight or fine- 
 
 geon, botargo, and caviare. 
 Gunpowder ; except bv licence from his Majesty, such licence 
 to be granted for the furnishing his Majesty's stores 
 only. 
 
 Lamb, malt, mutton, pork (fresh or corned or slightly salted), 
 
 sheep. 
 SnufT-work. 
 
 Spirits from the Isle of M.m. 
 Swine. 
 
 Tobacco stalks stripped from the leaf, whether manufactured 
 
 or not. 
 Tobacco stalk flour. 
 
IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 66S 
 
 List of Goods subject to certain Ttestrictions on Importation. 
 
 China, goods fironn, unless bv the East India Company, and into 
 the port of London, during the continuance of their ex • 
 ( lusive privilegjes of trade. 
 
 East India ; goods ot places within the limits of the Kast India 
 Company's charter, unless into such ports as shall be ap. 
 proved of by the Lords of the Treasury, and declared by 
 order in council to be fit and proper for such im|)ortation. 
 
 Gloves of leather, unless in ships of 70 tons or upwards, and in 
 packages containing 100 dozen pairs of such gloves. 
 
 Hides, skins, horns, or hoofs, or any other part of cattle or 
 beast, his Majesty may by order in council proliibit, in 
 order to prevent any contagious distemper. 
 
 Parts of articles; viz. any distinct or separate part of any ar- 
 ticle not accompanied by the other part or all the other 
 parts of such article, so as to be complete and perfect, if 
 such article be subject to duty according to the value 
 thereof. 
 
 Silk ; manufactures of silk, being the manufactures of Europe, 
 unless into the port of London, or into the port of Dublin 
 direct from Bordeaux, or into the port of Dover direct 
 from Calais, and unless in a ship or vessel of 70 tons or 
 upwards, or into the port of Dover in a vessel of the 
 burden of 60 tons at least, with licence of the com- 
 missioners of the customs. 
 
 Spirits, not being perfumed or medicinal spirits ; viz. all spirits, 
 unless in ships of 70 tons or upwards, 
 rum of and from the British plantations, if In casks, unless 
 
 in casks containing not less than '20 gallons, 
 all other spirits, if in casks, unless in casks containing not 
 less than 40 gallons. 
 
 Tea ; unless from the place of its growth, and by the East India 
 Company, and into the port of London, duiing the con- 
 tinuance of their exclusive privileges of trade. 
 
 Tobacco and snuff ; viz. xmless in a ship of the burden of 120 
 tons or upwards, 
 tobacco of and imported from the state of Colombia, and 
 made up in rolls, unless in packages containing at least 
 320 lbs. weight of such rolls. 
 
 Segars, unless in packages containing 100 lbs. weight of 
 segars. 
 
 all other tobacco and snuff, unless in hogsheads, caskx, 
 chests, or cases, each of which shall contain of nett to- 
 bacco or snuff' at least ] 00 lbs. weight if from the Kast 
 Indies, or 450 lbs. weight if from anv other place, and 
 not packed in l)ags or packages within any such hogs- 
 head, cask, chest, or case, nor separated nor divided in 
 any manner whatever, exi;ei)t tobacco of the dominions 
 of the Turkish empire, which may be packed in inward 
 bags or packages, or sejiarated or divided in any manner 
 within the outward package, provided such outward 
 package be a hogsheau, cask, chest, or case, and contain 
 450 lbs. nett at least. 
 
 and unless the particular weight of tobacco or snuff in each 
 hogshead, cask, chest, or case, with the tare of the same, 
 be marked thereon. 
 
 and unless into the ports of London, Liverpool, Bristol, 
 Lancaster, Cowes, Falmouth, Whitehaven, Hull, I'ort 
 Glasgow, (ireenock, Leith, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
 Plymouth, Belfast, Cork, Droghcda, Dublin, (iaiway. 
 Limerick, Londonderry, Newry, Sligo, Waterford, and 
 Wexford. 
 
 or into some other port or ports which may hereafter b» 
 appointed for such purpose by the Lords Commissioners 
 of Ills Majesty's Treasury ; such appointments in (jreat 
 Britain being published in the Londim Gazette, and such 
 appointments in Ireland bekig published in the Dublin 
 Gazette. 
 
 but any ship wholly laden with tobacco may come into 
 the ports of Cowes or Falmouth to w ait for orders, and 
 there remain 14 days, provided due report of such shi>j 
 be made by the master with the collector or comptroUei 
 of such port. 
 
 And all goods from the Isle of Man, except such as be of the 
 growth, produce, or manufacture thereof. 
 
 Forfeiture. — And if any goods shall be imported into the United Kingdom contrary to any of the 
 prohibitions or restrictions mentioned in such Table in respect of such goods, the same shall be forfeited. 
 — ^58. 
 
 But Goods may be warehoused for Exportation only, although prohibited. — Any goods, of whatsoever 
 sort, maybe imported into the United Kingdom to be warehoused under the regulations of any act in force 
 for the time being for the warehousing of goods, without payment of duty at the time of the first entry 
 thereof, or notwithstanding that such goods may be prohibited to be imported into the United Kingdom 
 to be used therein, except the several sorts of goods enumerated or described in manner following ; (that 
 is to say,) goods prohibited on account of the package in which they are contained, or the tonnage of the 
 ship in which they are laden ; tea and goods trom China in other than British ships, or by other persons 
 than the East India Company during the continuance of their exclusive privileges of trade; gunpowder, 
 arms, ammunition, or utensils of war; dried or salted fish, not being stock-fish; infected hides, skins, 
 horns, hoofs, or any other part of any cattle or beast; counterfeit coin or tokens ; books first composed 
 or written or printed and published in the United Kingdom, and reprinted in any other country or place ; 
 copies of prints first engraved, etched, drawn, or designed in the United Kingdom ; copies of casts of 
 sculptures or models first made in the United Kingdom ; clocks or watches, being such as are prohibited 
 to be imported for home use. — § 59. ' 
 
 Goods to be entered to be warehoused for Exportation only. — If by reason of the sort of any goods, or 
 of the place from whence, or the country, or navigation of the ship in which any goods have been im. 
 ported, they be such or be so imported as that they may not be used in the United Kingdom, they shall 
 not be entered except to be warehoused, and it shall be declared upon the entry of such goods that they 
 are entered to be warehoused for exportation only. — \ 60. 
 
 ExNTRY Outwards. 
 
 Goods not to be shipped till Entry of Ship and Entry of Goods, and Cocket granted y nor till cleared. — 
 No goods shall be shipped, or waterborne to be shipped, on board any ship in any port or place in the 
 United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, to be carried to parts beyond the seas, before due entry outwards 
 of such ship and due entry of such goods shall have been made, and cocket granted, nor before such goods 
 shall have been duly cleared for shipment in manner herein-after directed ; and no stores shall be 
 shipped for the use of any such ship bound to parts beyond the seas, nor shall any goods be deemed or 
 admitted to be such stores, except such as shall be borne upon the victualling bill duly granted for such 
 ship ; and no goods shall be so shipped, or waterborne to be so shipped, except at such times and places, 
 and in such manner, and by such persons, and under the care of such officers, as is and are herein-after 
 directed ; and all goods and stores which shall be shipped, or be waterborne to be shipped contrary hereto 
 shall be forfeited.— \ 61. 
 
 Ships to be cleared, or Master to forfeit 1001. — No ship on board ot which any goods or stores shall have 
 been shipped in any port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, for parts beyond the seas, shall 
 depart from such port until such ship shall have been duly cleared outwards for her intended voyage, in 
 manner herein-after directed, under forfeiture of the sum of lOOZ. by the master of such ship. — § 62. 
 
 Victualling Bill for Stores. — The master of every ship which is to depart from any port in the United 
 Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, for parts beyond the seas, shall, upon due apphcation made by him, receive 
 from the searcher a victualling bill for the shipment of such stores as he shall require, and as shall be allowed 
 by the collector and comptroller, for the use of such ship, according to the voyage upon which she is about 
 to depart ; and no articles taken on board any ship shall be deemed to be stores except such as shall be 
 borne upon the victualling bill for the same. — ^ 63. 
 
 Master to deliver Certificate of Clearance of last Voyage, and to make Entry Outwards. — The master 
 of every ship in which any goods are to be exported from the United Kingdom or from the Isle of Man to 
 parts beyond the seas shall, before any goods be taken on board, deliver to the collector or comptroller a 
 certificate from the proper officer of the clearance inwaids or coastwise of such ship of her last vovage, 
 specifying what goods, if any, have been reported inwards for exportation, and shall also deliver to the 
 collector or comptroller an account, signed by the master or his agent, of the entry outwards of such ship 
 for her intended voyage, setting forth the name and tonnage of the ship, the name of the place to which 
 she belongs if a British ship, or of the country if a foreign ship.tlie name of the master, and the name or 
 names of the place or places for which she is bound, if any goods are to be shipped for the same, and the 
 name of the place in such port at which she is to take in her lading for such voyage ; and if such ship 
 shall have commenced her lading at some other port, the master shall state tlie name of any port at which 
 any goods have been laden, and shall produce a certificate from the searcher that the cockets for such 
 goods have been delivered to him ; and the particulars of such account shall be written and arranged in 
 such form and manner as the collector and comptroller shall require ; and such account shall be the entry 
 outwards of such ship, and shall be entered in a book to be kept bv the collector, for the infoi-mation of 
 
 2 U 4 
 
664 
 
 IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 all parties interested ; and if any goods be taken on board any ship before she shall have been entered 
 outwards, the master shall forfeit the sum of 100/. : provided always, that where it shall become necessary 
 to lade any heavy goods on board any ship before the whole of the inward cargo is discharged, it shall be 
 lawful for the collector and comptroller to issue a stiffening order for that purpose, previous to the entry 
 outwards of the ship. — ^ 64. 
 
 Bill of the Entry to be delivered. — Tlie person entering outwards any goods to be exported to parts 
 beyond the seas, from any port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, shall deliver to the collector 
 or comptroller a bill of the entry thereof, fairly written in words at length, expressing the name of the ship 
 and of the master, and of the place to which the goods are to be exported, and of the person in whose 
 name the goods are to be entered, and the quantities and proper denominations or descriptions of the 
 several sorts of goods, and shall pay down any duties which may be due upon the exportation of any such 
 goods; and such person shall also deliver at the same time 1 or more duplicates of such bill, in which all 
 sums and numbers may be expressed in figures ; and the particulars to be contained in such bill shall be 
 written and arranged in the form and manner, and the number of duplicates shall be such as the col- 
 lector and comptroller shall require; and thereupon the collector and comptroller shall cause a cocket to 
 be written for such goods, making it known that such goods have been so entered ; and every cocket shall 
 be signed by such collector and comptroller, and be delivered to the person who shall have made such entry, 
 and such person shall keep and be responsible for the proper use of the same. — § 65. 
 
 Goods for Drawback or Bounty. — If any drawback or bounty be allowable upon the exportation of any 
 such goods, or any duty be payable thereon, or any exemption from duty claimed, or if any such goods be 
 exportable only according to some particular rule or regulation, or under some restriction or condition, 
 or for some particular purpose or destination, such goods shall be entered and cleared for shipment by 
 such denominations or descriptions as are used, mentioned, or referred to in the granting of such draw- 
 back or bounty, or in the levying of such duty, or granting such exemption, or in the directing of such 
 rules, regulations, restrictions, conditions, purpose, or destination ; and if the goods in such entry are 
 charged to pay duty according to the value thereof, such value shall be stated in the entry, and shall be 
 affirmed by the declaration of the exporter or his known agent, to be made upon the entry, and attested 
 oy his signature ; and if any person shall make such declaration, not being the exporter of such goods, 
 nor his agent duly authorised by him, such person shall forfeit the sum of 100/. ; and such declaration 
 shall be made in manner and form following, and shall be binding upon the person making the same; 
 (that is to say), 
 
 " T, A. B. of Iplace of abode'} do hereby declare, that I am the exporter of the goods mentioned in this 
 
 entry, [or, that 1 am duly authorised by him,] and I do enter the same at the value of . . 
 
 Witness my hand the — day of . A. B."— § 66. 
 
 Goods iindervalued detained. — If upon examination it shall appear to the officers of the customs that 
 such goods are not valued according to the true value thereof, the same may be detained, and (within 2 
 days) taken and disposed of for the benefit of the Crown, in like manner as is herein-before provided in 
 respect of goods imported, except that no sum in addition to the amount of the valuation and the duties 
 paid shall be paid to the exporter or proprietor of the goods. — \ 67. 
 
 For Draivback, or from Warehouse, or Duties to be first paid. — The person intending to enter out- 
 wards any foreign goods for drawback, at any other port than that at which the duties inwards on such 
 goods had been paid, shall first deliver to the collector or com(>troller of the port where the duties on such 
 goods were paid, 2 or more bills, as the case may require, of the particulars of the importation of such 
 goods, and of the en4ry outwards intended to be made ; and thereupon such collector and comptroller, find- 
 ing such bills to agree with the entry inwards, shall write off' such goods from the same, and shall issue a 
 certificate of such entry, with such particulars thereof as shall be necessary for the computation of the 
 drawback allowable on such goods, and setting forth in such certificate the destination of the goods, and 
 the person in whose name they are to be entered for exportation, and also the name of such other port; 
 and such certificate, together with 2 or more bills of the same, as tlie case may require, in which all 
 sums and numbers may be expressed in figures, being delivered to the collector or comptroller of the port 
 from which the goods are to be exported, shall be the entry outwards of such goods; and &uch collector 
 and comptroller shall thereupon cause a cocket to be written and delivered for such goods, in manner 
 herein-before directed. — § 68. 
 
 Coals Export Bond to Isle of Man and British Possessions. — No cocket shall be granted for the ex- 
 portation of any coals to the Isle of Man, or to any British possession, until the exporter thereof shall have 
 given security by bond in a penal sum of 405. the chaldron, with condition that the same shall be landed 
 at the place for which they shall be exported, or otherwise accounted for to the satisfaction of the com- 
 missioners of the customs ; and also with condition to produce (within such time as the said commissioners 
 shall require, to be expressed in such bond,) a certificate of the landing of such coals at such piace, under 
 the hand of the collector or comptroller or other proper officer at such place: provided always, that the 
 bond so to be given in respect of coals shall not be liable to any duty of stamps. — § 69. 
 
 Clearanck of Goods. 
 
 Packages to be indorsed on Cocket. — Before any part of the goods for which any cocket shall have been 
 granted shall be shipped or waterborne to be shipped, the same shall be duly cleared for shipment with 
 the searcher ; and before any goods be cleared for shipment, the particulars of the goods for each clear- 
 ance shall be indorsed on such cocket, together with the number and denomination or description of the 
 respective packages containing the same; and in the margin of each such indorsement shall be delineated 
 the respective marks and numbers of such packages ; and to each such indorsement shall be subjoined, in 
 words at length, an account of the total quantities of each sort of goods intended in such indorsement, and 
 the total number of each sort of package in which such goods are contained, distinguishing such goads, if 
 any, as are to be cleared for any bounty or drawback of excise or customs, and also such goods, if any, as 
 are subject to any duty on exportation, or entitled to any exemption from such duty, and also such goods, 
 if any, as can oidy be exported by virtue of some particular order or authority, or under some particidar 
 restriction or condition, or for some particular purpose or destination ; and all goods shipped or water- 
 borne to be shipped, not being duly cleared as aforesaid, shall be forfeited. — § 70. 
 
 Cocket indorsed, S;c The person clearing such goods for shipment shall upon each occasion produce 
 
 the cocket so indorsed to the searcher, and shall also deliver a shipping bill or copy of such indorsement, 
 referring by names and date to the cocket upon which such indorsement is made, and shall obtain the 
 order of the searcher for the shipment of such goods ; and the particulars to be contained in such indorse- 
 ment and in such shipping bill shall be written and arranged in such form and manner as the collector 
 and comptroller shall require. — § 71. 
 
 Coals brought coastwise may be exported ivithottt landing. — If any coals shall have been brought coast- 
 wise from one port of the United Kingdom to another, and the master shall be mindeil to proceed with 
 such coals, or any part of them, to parts beyond the seas, it shall be lawful for such master to enter such 
 ship and such coals outwards for the intended voyage, without first landing the coals intended for ex- 
 portation, provided the officers of the customs shall bo satisfied that the quantity of coals left on board 
 does not exceed the quantity so entered outwards. — ^ 72, 
 
 Account of Value to be delivered to tiie Searcher. — Upon the clearance for shipment of any goods, the 
 produce or manufacture of the United Kingdom, not liable to any eximrt duty, an account, containing an 
 accurate specification of the quantity, quality, and value of such goods, together with a declaration to Ihe 
 truth of tiie same, signed by the exporter or his known iigent, shall be delivered to tlic searcher by the 
 
LMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 665 
 
 pet'son clearing such goods; and if such declaration be false, the person signing the same shall forfeit 
 the sum of 201.; and it sliail be lawful for the searclier to call for the invoice, bills of parcels, and 
 such other documents relating to the goods, as he may think necessary for ascertaining the true value 
 of the same : provided always, that if such exporter or agent shall make and subscribe a declaration before 
 the collector or comptroller, that the value of the goods cannot be ascertained in time for the shipment of 
 the same, and such declaration shall be delivered to the searcher, at the time of clearance, a further time 
 of 3 months shall be allowed for the delivery of such separate shipping bill, on failure whereof such ex- 
 porter or agent shall forfeit the sum of 20/. — ^ 73. 
 
 Goods for Excise Drawback. — No drawback of excise shall be allowed upon any goods so cleared, 
 unless the person intending to claim such drawback shall have given due notice to the officer of excise, in 
 form and manner required by any law in force relating to the excise, and shall have obtainetl, and have 
 produced to the searcher, at the time of clearing such goods, a proper document, under the hand of the 
 officer of excise, containing the necessary description of the goods for which such drawback is to be 
 claimed ; and if the goods to be cleared and shipped under the care of the searchers shall, upon examin- 
 ation, be found to correspond in al! respects with the particulars of the goods contained in such document, 
 and such goods shall be duly shipped and exported, the searcher shall, if required, certify such shipment 
 upon such document, and shall transmit the same to the officer of excise. — ^ 74. 
 
 Officer of Excise may attend Examination. — It shall be lawful for the officer of excise, if he see fit, to 
 attend and assist at such examination, and to mark or seal the packages, and to keep joint charge of the 
 same, together with the searcher, until the same shall have been finally delivered by him into the sole 
 charge of the searcher, to be shipped and exported under his care. — \ j5. 
 
 Goods for Duty, Bounty, or Drawback, 8fc. brought for Shipment. — If any goods which are subject to 
 any duty or restriction, in respect of exportation, or if any goods, which are to be shipped for any draw- 
 back or bounty, shall be brought to any quay, wharf, or other place, to be shipped for exportation, 
 and such goods shall not agree with the indorsement on the cockct, or with the shipping bill, the same 
 shall be forfeited; and if any goods prohibited to be exported be found in any package brought as afore, 
 said, such package and every thing contained therein shall be forfeited. — ^76. 
 
 Searcher may open any Package s but if correct, must repack. — It shall be lawful for the searcher to 
 open all packages, and fully to examine all goods shipped or brought for shipment at any place in the 
 United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man ; and if the goods so examined shall be found to correspond in all 
 respects with the cocket and clearance purporting to be for the same, such goods shall be repacked at the 
 charge of such searcher, who may be allowed such charge by the commissioners of the customs, if they 
 shall see fit so to do. — \ 11. 
 
 Clearance of Ship. 
 
 Content to be delivered to Searcher, 8jc. — Before any ship shall be cleared outwards at any port in the 
 United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, for parts beyond the seas, with any goods shipped on board the 
 same in such port, the master shall deliver a content of such ship to the searcher, setting forth the name 
 and tonnage of such ship, and the place or places of her destination, and the name of the master, and also 
 an account of the goods shipped on board, and of the packages containing such goods, and of the marks 
 and numbers upon such packages, and a like account of the goods on board, if any, which had been re- 
 ported inwards for exportation in such ship, so far as any of such particulars can be known by him ; and 
 also, before the clearance of such ship, the cockets, with the indorsements and clearances thereon for the 
 goods shipped, shall be finally delivered by the respective shippers of such goods to the searcher, who shall 
 file the same together, and shall attach with a seal a label to the file, showing the number of cockets con- 
 tained in the file, and shall compare the particulars of the goods in the cockets with the particulars of 
 the goods in such content, and shall attest the correctness thereof by his signature on the label, and on 
 the content ; and the master of the ship shall make and sign a declaration before the collector or comp- 
 troller to the truth of such content, and shall also answer to the collector or comptroller such questions 
 concerning the ship, the cargo, and the intended voyage, as shall be demanded of him* and thereupon 
 the collector or comptroller shall clear such ship for her intended voyage, and shall notify such clearance, 
 and the date thereof, upon the content, and upon the label to the file of cockets, and upon the victualling 
 bill, and also in the book of ships' entries outwards, for the information of all parties interested, and shall 
 transmit the content, and the cockets, and the victualling bill to the searcher ; and the particulars to be 
 contained in such content shall be written and arranged in such form and manner as the collector and 
 comptroller shall require. — § 78. 
 
 File of Cockets, S^c. deliveredXo Master. — The file of cockets and the victualling bill shall thereupon be 
 delivered by the searcher to the master of such ship, at such station within the port and in such manner 
 as shall be appointed by the commissioners of his Majesty's customs for that purpose; and such file of 
 cockets and victualling bill, so delivered, shall be kept by the master of such ship as the authority for de- 
 parting from the port with the several parcels and packages of goods and of stores on board, so far as they 
 shall^agree with the particulars in the indorsements on such cockets or with such victualling bill. — § 79. 
 
 In Ballast. — If any ship is to depart in ballast from the United Kingdom or from the Isle of Man for 
 parts beyond the seas, having no goods on board except the stores of such ship borne upon the victualling 
 bill or any goods reported inwards for exportation in such ship, the master of such ship shall, before her 
 depu"ture, answer to the collector or comptroller such questions touching her departure and destination 
 as shall be demanded of him ; and thereupon the collector or comptroller shall clear such ship in ballast, 
 and shall notify such clearance and the date thereof on the victualling bill, and also in the book of ships' 
 entries outwards, for the information of all parties interested; and such victualling bill shall be kept by 
 the inaster of such ship as the clearance of the same. — § 80. 
 
 Part of former Cargo reported for Exportation. — If there be on board any ship any goods of the in- 
 ward cargo which were reported for exportation in the same, the master shall, before clearance outwards 
 of such ship from any port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, dehver to the searcher a copy 
 of the report inwards of such goods, certified by the collector and comptroller ; and such copy, being found 
 to correspond with the goods so remaining on board, shall be the authority to the searcher to pass such 
 ship with such goods on board ; and being signed by the searcher, and filed with the cockets, shall be the 
 clearance of the ship for those goods. — \ 81. 
 
 If any Passengers, Master may enter Baggage in his Name. — If any passengers are to depart in any 
 ship from the United Kingdom of from the Isle of Man for parts beyond the seas, it shall be lawful for the 
 master of such ship to pass an entry and to receive a cocket in his name for the necessary personal bag- 
 gage of all such i)assengers, and duly to clear such baggage for shipment in their behalf, stating in such 
 clearances the particulars of the packages and the names of the respective passengers; and if such ship is 
 to take no other goods than the necessary personal baggage of passengers actually going the voyage, it 
 shall be lawful for such master to enter such ship outwards in ballast for passengers only ; and if no other 
 goods than such baggage duly entered and cleared be taken on board such ship, the same shall be deemed 
 to be a ship in ballast, notwithstanding such baggage, and shall be described in the clearance, on the con- 
 tent, and on the label to the cocket or cockets, and on the victualling bill, and in the book of ships' entries, 
 as a ship cleared in ballast, except as to the necessary personal baggage of passengers going the vovage. — 
 5 82. 
 
 Master may enter Goods for private Use of Self Crcu: — If the master and crew of any foreign ship 
 which is to depart in ballast from the United Kingdom for parts beyond the seas, shall be desirous to take 
 on board chalk rubbish by way of ballast, or to take with them for their private use any small quantities of 
 goods of British manufacture, it shall be lawful .'"or such master, wHhout entering such ship outwards, to paas 
 
666 
 
 IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 an entry in his name, and receive a cocket free of any export duty for all such goods, under the general de- 
 nomication of British manufactures not prohibited to be exported, being for the use and privilege of the 
 master and crew, and not being of greater value than in the proportion of 20^. for the master, and \0l. for 
 the mate, and 5L for each of the crew, and stating that the ship is in ballast ; and the master shall duly 
 clear such goods for shipment in behalf of himself and crew, stating in such clearances the particulars 
 of the goods and packages, and the names of the crew who shall jointly or severally take any of such goods 
 under this privilege ; and such ship shall be deemed to be a ship in ballast, and be cleared as such, and 
 without a content, notwithstanding such goods or such cocket or cockets ; and such clearance shall be 
 notified by the collector or comptroller on the label to the cocket or cockets, and on the victualling bill, 
 and in the book of ships* entries, as a clearance in ballast, except as to the privilege of the master and 
 crew. — § 83. 
 
 Officers may board any Ship after Clearance. — It shall be lawful for the officers of the customs to go 
 on board any ship after clearance outwards, within the limits of any port in the United Kingdom or in the 
 Isle of Man, or within 4 leagues of the coast thereof, and to demand the file of cockets and the victual, 
 ling bill, and if there be any goods or stores on board not contained in the indorsements on the cockets, 
 nor in the victualling bill, such goods or stores shall be forfeited ; and if any goods contained in such in- 
 dorsements be not on board, the master shall forfeit the sum of 20Z. for every package or parcel of goods 
 contained in such indorsements and not on board ; and if any cocket be at any time falsified, the person 
 who shall have falsified the same, or who shall have wilfully used the same, shall forfeit the sum of 100/ 
 — ^84. 
 
 Ships to bring to at Stations. — Every ship departing from any port in the United Kingdom or in the 
 Isle of Man shall bring to at such stations within the port as shall be appointed by the commissioners of 
 his Majesty's customs for the landing of officers from such ships, or for further examination previous to 
 such departure. — % 85. 
 
 Debenture Goods. 
 
 Entry in Name of real Owner. — No drawback or bounty shall be allowed upon the exportation from 
 the United Kingdom of any goods, unless such goods shall have been entered in the name of the person 
 who was the real owner thereof at the time of entry and shipping, or of the person who had actually pur- 
 chased and shipped the same, in his own name and at his own liability and risk, on commission, accord- 
 ing to the practice of merchants, and who was and shall have continued to be entitled in his own right to 
 such drawback or bounty, except in the cases herein-after provided for. — § 86. 
 
 Declaration to Exportation, and to Property, and to Right to Drawback or Bounty. — Such owner or 
 commission merchant shall make and subscribe a declaration upon the debenture that the goods men- 
 tioned therein have been actually exported, and have not been relanded, and are not intended to be re- 
 landed in any part of the United Kingdom, nor in the Isle of Man (unless entered for the Isle of Man), 
 nor in the islands of Faro or Ferro, and that he was the real owner thereof at the time of entry and ship- 
 ping, or that he had purchased and shipped the said goods in his own name and at his own liability and 
 risk, on commission, as the case may be, and that he was and continued to be entitled to the drawback or 
 bounty thereon in his own right : provided always, that if such owner or merchant shall not have pur- 
 chased the right to such drawback or bounty, he shall declare under his hand upon the entry and upon the 
 debenture the person who is entitled thereto, and the name of such person shall be stated in the cocket 
 and in the debenture ; and the receipt of such person on the debenture shall be the discharge for such 
 drawback or bounty. — \ 87. 
 
 Agent may pass Entry, and receive Drawback, and make the Declaration, 8;c. — If such owner or mer- 
 chant shall be resident in some part of the United Kingdom, being more than 20 miles from the custom- 
 house of the port of shipment, he may appoint any person to be his agent to make and pass his entry, and to 
 clear and ship his goods, and to receive for him the drawback or bounty payable on his debenture, if pay- 
 able to him, provided the name of such agent and the residence of such owner or merchant be subjoined 
 to the name of such owner or merchant in the entry and in the cocket for such goods j and such agent, 
 being duly informed, shall make declaration upon the entry, if any be necessary, and also upon the de- 
 benture, in behalf of such owner or merchant, to the eflfect before required of such owner or merchant, 
 and shall answer such questions touching his knowledge of the exportation of such goods and the property 
 therein, and of the right to the drawback or bounty, as shall be demanded of him by the collector or 
 comptroller; and if any such goods be exported by any corporation or company trading by a joint stock, 
 it shall be lawful for them to appoint any person to be tlieir agent for the like purposes and with the like 
 powers to act in their behalf — ^88. 
 
 Property of Persons abroad. — If any goods which are to be exported for drawback be the property of 
 any person residing abroad, having been consigned by the owner thereof to some person as his agent re- 
 siding in the United Kingdom, to be exported through the same to parts beyond the seas, by such agent, 
 upon account of such owner, it shall be lawful for such person (being the consignee by whom and in 
 whose name the duties inwards on such goods had been paid, or his legal representative), in like manner, 
 as agent for such owner, to enter, clear, and ship such goods for him, and upon like conditions to receive 
 for him the drawback payable thereon. — \ 89. 
 
 Shipment within 3 Years, and Payment within 2 Years. — No drawback shall be allowed upon the 
 exportation of any goods unless such goods be shipped within 3 years after the payment of the duties 
 inwards thereon, and no debenture for any drawback or bounty allowed upon the exportation of any 
 goods shall be paid after the expiration of 2 years from the date of the shipment of such goods, and 
 no drawback shall be allowed upon any goods which by reason of damage or decay shall have become of 
 less value for home use than the amount of such drawback ; and all goods so damaged which shall be 
 cleared for any drawback shall be forfeited, and the person who caused such goods to be so cleared shall 
 forfeit the sum of 200/., or treble the amount of the drawback in such case, at the election of the commis. 
 sioners of the customs. — \ 90. 
 
 Issuing and passing Debenture. — For the purpose of computing and paying any drawback or bounty 
 payable upon any goods duly entered, shipped, and exported, a debenture shall, in due time after such 
 entry, be prepared by the collector and comptroller, certifying in the first instance the entry outwards ot 
 such goods ; and so soon as the same shall have been duly exported, and a notice containing the parti- 
 culars of the goods shall have been delivered by the exporter to the searcher, the shipment and export 
 ation thereof shall be certified to the collector and comptroller, upon such debenture, by the searcher, 
 and the debenture shall thereupon be computed and passed with all convenient despatch, and be delivcrei 
 to the person entitled to receive the same. — § 91. 
 
 Certificate of landing in Isle of Man. — No drawback or bounty shall be allowed for any goods exported 
 from the United Kingdom to the Isle of Man, until a certificate shall be produced from the collector and 
 comptroller of the customs of the Isle of Man of the due landing of such goods. — ^ 92. 
 
 Press-packing, and Declaration of Packer. — No drawback or bounty shall be allowed for any goods 
 exported from the United Kingdom in bales cleared as being press-packed, unless the quantities and qua- 
 lities of the goods in each of such bales shall be verified by the master packer thereof, or, in case of un- 
 avoidable absence, by the foreman of such packer, having knowledge of the contents of the bales, by 
 declaration made and subscribed upon the cocket before the collector or comptroller ; or.if such packer 
 reside more than 10 miles from the port, then by declaration made and subscribed upon an account of 
 such goods, before a magistrate or justice of the peace for the county or place where such packer shall 
 reside ; and if such bales be iiot cleared as being press-packcl, thea the searcher, having opened any sach 
 bale, shall not be required to repack the same at his charge. — ^ 93. 
 
IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 667 
 
 Licensed Lightermen, Sfc. — No goods cleared for drawback or bounty, or from the warehouse, shall be 
 carried waterbornc, to be put on board any ship for exportation from the United Kingdom, by any per- 
 son, unless such persons shall be authorised for that purpose by licence under the hands of he ' ommi*- 
 sioners of the customs ; and before granting such licence, it shall be lawful for the said commissioners to 
 require such security by bond for the faithful and incorrupt conduct of such person as they shall deem 
 necessary ; and after granting such licence it shall be lawful for the said commissioners to revoke 
 the same, if the person to whom the same shall have been granted shall be convicted of any offence 
 against the laws relating to the customs or excise : provided always, that all such licences which shall be 
 in force at the time of the commencement of this act shall continue in Ibrce as if the same had been 
 afterwards granted under the authority of this act. — ^94. 
 
 Warehouse or Debenture Goods not exported. — If any goods which have been taken from the ware- 
 house to be exported from the same, or any goods which have been cleared to be exported for any draw- 
 back or bounty, shall not be duly exported to parts beyond the seas, or shall be relanded in any part of 
 the United Kingdom (such goods not having been duly relanded or discharged as short-shippe<l under 
 the care of the proper officers), or shall be landed in the islands of Faro or Ferro, or shall be carried to 
 any of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Man (not having been duly entered, cleared, 
 and shipped to be exported directly to such island), the same shall be forfeited, together with the shin 
 from or by which the same had been so relanded, landed, or carried, and any other ship, vessel, boat, or 
 craft which may have been used in so relanding, landing, or carrying such goods; and any person by 
 whom or by whose orders or means such goods shall have been so taken or cleared, or so relanded.. 
 landed, or carried, shall forfeit a sum equal to treble the value of such goods. — ^95. 
 
 Drawback of Duties on Wine allowed for Officers iiv the Navy. — Drawback of the whole of the duties 
 of customs shall be allowed for wine intended for the coaisumptio.n of officers of his Majesty's navy, on 
 board such of his Majesty's ships in actual service as they shall serve in, not exceeding the quantities of 
 wine, in any 1 year, for the use of si " " 
 
 year, for the use of such officers, herein-after respectively mentioned ; (that is to say,) 
 
 Gallotu. 
 
 every captain of the third, fourth, and fifth rate 4'2(> 
 
 — captain of an inferior rate - - 210 
 
 — lieutenant, and other commanding officer, 
 and for every marine officer - - 105 
 
 Gailom 
 
 For every admiral ... I,2(i0 
 
 — vice-admiral - - l,o50 
 
 — rear-admiral ... 840 
 
 — captain of the first Eind second rate - 630 
 
 provided always, that such wine be shipped only at one of the ports herein-after mentionedj (that is to 
 say,) London, Rochester, Deal, Dover, Portsmouth, Plymouth, Yarmouth, Falmouth, Belfast, Dublin, 
 Cork, Leith, or Glasgow § 9fi. 
 
 Persons entering Wine for Drawback to declare the Name and Rank of Officer claiming same. — The 
 person entering such wine, and claiming the drawback for the same, shall state in the entry and declare 
 on the debenture the name of the officer for whose use such wine is intended, and of the ship in which 
 he serves ; and such wine shall be delivered into the charge of the officers of the customs at the port of 
 shipment, to be secured in the king's warehouse until the same shall be shipped under their care ; and 
 such officers having certified upon the debenture the receipt of the wine into their charge, the debenture 
 shall be computed and passed, and be delivered to the person entitled to receive the same. — \ 97. 
 
 Officers leaving the Service, S(C. such JVine permitted to be transferred to others. — If any such officer 
 shall leave the service or be removed to another ship, it shall be lawful for the officers of the customs of 
 any of the ports before mentioned to permit the transfer of any such wine from one officer to another, as 
 part of his proportion, whether on board the same ship or another, or the transhipment from one ship to 
 another for the same officer, or the relanding and warehousing for fpture reshipment; and it shall also 
 be lawful for the officers of customs at any port to receive back the duties for any of such wine, and de- 
 liver the same for home use : provided always, that if any of such wine be not laden on board the ship 
 for which the same was intended, or be unladen from such ship without permission of the proper officer 
 of the customs, the same shall be forfeited. — \ 98. 
 
 Pursers of his Majesty's Ships of War may ship Tobacco for Use of Crew free of Duty ^ on giving Bond. 
 — It shall be lawful for'the purser of any of his Majesty's ships of war in actual service to enter and ship 
 at the ports of Rochester, Portsmouth, or Plymouth, in the proportions herein-after mentioned, any 
 tobacco there warehoused in his name or transferred into his name, for the use of the ship in which he. 
 shall serve; provided such purser shall deliver to the collector or comptroller of such port a certificate 
 from the captain of such ship, stating the name of the purser and the number of men belonging to the 
 ship, and shall also give bond, with one sufficient surety, in treble the duties payable on the tobacco, that 
 no part thereof shall be relanded in the United Kingdom without leave of the officers of the customs, or 
 be landed in either of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Man. — ^ 99. 
 
 Purser removed from one Ship to another may tranship Tobacco with Permission of Collectm: — If any 
 purser shall be removed from one ship to another, it shall be lawful for the collector and comptroller of 
 the port where such ship shall be to permit the transhipment of the remains of any such tobacco for the 
 use of such other ship, upon due entry of such tobacco by such purser, setting forth the time when and 
 the port at which such tobacco was first shipped; and if any such ship shall be paid off, it shall be lawful 
 for the collector and comptroller of any port where such ship shall be paid off to permit the remains of any 
 such tobacco to be landed, and to be entered by the purser of such ship, either for payment of duties, or 
 to be warehoused for the term of 6 months, for the supply of some other such ship, in like manner as any 
 tobacco may be warehoused and supplied at either of the ports before mentioned, or for payment of all du. 
 ties within such 6 months : provided always, that all tobacco warehoused for the purpose of so supplying 
 his Majesty's ships of war shall be subject to the provisions of this act made for the warehousing of tobacco 
 generally, as far as the same are applicable, and are not expressly altered by any of the provisions herein 
 particularly made. — § 100. . . , , v „ , „ j ^ 
 
 Quantity of Tobacco not to exceed, SfC. — No greater quantity of such tobacco shall be allowed to any 
 ship of war than 2 lbs. by the lunar month for each of the crew of such ship, nor shall any greater quantity 
 be shipped at any one time than sufficient to serve the crew of such ship for 6 months, after such rate of 
 allowance; and the collector and comptroller of the port at or from which any such tobacco shall be sup- 
 plied to any such ship, or landed from any such ship.^or transferred from one such ship to another, shall 
 transmit a particular account thereof to the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, in order that a general 
 account may be kept of all the quantities supplied to and consumed on board each of such ships under the 
 allowances before granted. — §101. ^„ , , , 
 
 Times and Places for shipping Goods. — No goods shall be put off from any wharf, quay, or other place, 
 or shall be waterborne in order to be exported, but pnly on days not being Sundays or nolidays, and in 
 the day-time; (that is to say,) from the first dav of September until the last day of March, betwixt sun- 
 rising and sun-setting, and from the last day of March until the first day of September, between the hours 
 of 7 of the clock in the morning and 4 oftheclock in the afternoon ; nor shall any such goods be then put 
 off or waterborne for exportation unless in the presence or witl> the authority of the proper officer of the 
 customs, nor except from a legal quay appointed by his Majesty, or at some wharf, quay, or place 
 appointed by the commissioners of his Majesty's customs for the shipping ot such goods by sufferance. 
 
 ~V^altyfor exporting prohibited Goods.— If any goods liable to forfeiture for being shipped for ex- 
 portation shall be shipped and exported without discovery by the olBcers of the customs the person or 
 persons who shall have caused such goods to be exported shall forfeit double the value of such goods. — 
 4 103. 
 
668 
 
 IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 Prohibitions Outwakds. 
 
 Prohibitions and Restrictions absolute or modified. — The several sorts of goods enumerated or de- 
 scribed in the Table following (denominated " A lable of Prohibitions and Restrictions Outwards") shall 
 be either absolutely prohibited to be exported from the United Kingdom, or shall be exported only under 
 the restrictions mentioned in such Table, according as the several sorts of such goods are respectively set 
 forth therein ; (that is to say,) 
 
 A Table of PROHiBrnoNs and Restrictions Outwards. 
 
 Clocks and watches ; viz. any outward or inward box, case, or 
 dial i>late, of any metal, without the movement in or 
 with every such box, case, or dial plate, made uj> fit for 
 use, with the clock or watchmaker's name enf;raven 
 thereon. 
 
 I^ce; viz. any metal inferior to silver which shall be spun, 
 mixed, wrought, or set uiion silk, or which shall be gilt, 
 or drawn into wive, or flatted into plate, and spun or 
 woven, or wrought into or upon, or mixed with lace, 
 fringe, cord, embroidery, tambour work, or buttons, made 
 in the gold or silver lace manufactory, or set upon silk, 
 or made into bullion spangles, or pearl or any other ma- 
 terials made in the gold or silver lace manufactory, or 
 which shall imitate or be meant to imitate such lace, 
 fringe, cord, embroidery, tambour work, or buttons ; 
 nor shall any person export any copper, brass, or other 
 metal which shall be silvered or tlrawn into wire, or 
 flatted into plate, or made into bullion spangles, or pearl 
 or any other materials used in the gold or silver lace ma- 
 nufactory, or in imitation of such lace, fringe, cord, em- 
 broidery, tambour work, "or buttons, or of any of the 
 materi2ils used in making the same, and which shall 
 hold more or bear a greater proportion than 3 penny- 
 weights of fine silver to the pound avoirdupois of such 
 copper, brass, or other metals, 
 any metal inferior to silver, whether gilt, silvered, stained, 
 or coloured, or otherwise, which shall be worked up or 
 mixed with gold or silver in any manufacture of lace, 
 fringe, cord, embroidery, tambour work, or buttons. 
 
 Tools and utensils; viz. any machine, engine, tool, press, paper, 
 utensil, or instrument used in or proper for the prepar- 
 ing, working, pressing, or finishing of the woollen, cot- 
 ton, linen, or silk manufactures of this kingdom, or any 
 other goods wherein wool, cotton, linen, or silk is used, 
 or any part of such machines, engines, tools, presses, 
 paper, utensils, or instruments, or any model or plan 
 thereof, or any part thereof; except wool cards or stock 
 cards not worth above 4*. per pair, and spinners' cards 
 not worth above \s. 6<i. per pair, used in the woollen 
 manufactures. 
 
 blocks, plates, engines, tools, or utensils commonly used in 
 
 or proper for the preparing, working up, or finishing of 
 the calico, cotton, muslin, or linen printing manufactures, 
 or any part of such blocks, plates, engines, tools, or 
 utensils. 
 
 rollers, either plain, grooved, or of any otlier form or deno- 
 mination, of cast iron, wrought iron, or steel, for the 
 rolling of iron or any sort of metals, and fraines, beds, 
 pillars, screws, pinions, and each and every implement, 
 tool, or utensil thereunto belonging; rollers, slitters, 
 frames, beds, pillars, and screws for slittting mills ; 
 presses of all sorts, in iron and steel, or other metals, 
 which are used with a screw exceeding IJ incli in dia- 
 meter, or any parts of these several articles, or any rnodel 
 of the before-mentioned utensils, or any part thereof; all 
 sorts of utensils, engines, or machines used in the casting 
 or boring of cannon or any sort of artillery, or any parts 
 thereof, or any models of tools, utensils, engines, or ma- 
 chines used in such casting or boring, or any parts thereof; 
 hand-stamps, dog-head stamps, pulley stamps, hammers, 
 and anvils for stamps ; presses of all sorts called cutting, 
 out presses, beds or punches to be used therewith, either 
 in parts or pieces, or fitted together; scouring or shading 
 engines ; presses for horn buttons ; dies for horn buttons ; 
 rolled metal, with silver thereon ; parts of buttons not 
 fitted up into buttons, or in an unfinished state; engines 
 for chasing, stocks for casting buckles, buttons, and 
 rings ; die-sinking tools of all sorts; engines for making 
 button-shanks ; laps of ali sorts , tools for pinching of 
 glass; engines for covering of whips; bars of metal 
 covered with gold or silver, and burnishing stcnes, com- 
 monly called blood-stones, either in the rough state or 
 finished for use ; wire moulds for making paper ; wheels 
 of metal, stone, or wood, for cutting, roughing, smooth- 
 ing, polishing, or engraving gUiss ; purcellas^ pincers, 
 sheers, and pipes used in blowing glass ; potters wheels 
 and lathes, for plain, round, and engine turning ; tools 
 used by saddlers, harness-makers, and bridle-makers, 
 viz. candle strainers, side strainers, point strainers, creas- 
 ing irons, screvv creasers, wheel irons, seat irons, prick- 
 ing irons, bolstering irons, clams, and he.id knives. 
 
 frames for making wearing apparel. 
 
 A List of Goods which may be prohibited to be exported by Proclamation or Order in Council. 
 Anns, ammunition, and gunpowder. | verted into or made useful in increasing the quantity of 
 
 Ashes, pot and pearl. military or naval stores. 
 
 Military stores and naval stores, and any articles (except cop- Provisions, or any sort of victual which may be used as food by 
 per) which his Majesty shall judge capable of being con- I man. 
 
 And if any goods shall be exported, or be waterborne to be exported, from the United Kingdom, contrary 
 to any of the prohibitions or restrictions mentioned in such table in respect of such goods, the same shall 
 be forfeited. — ^ 104. 
 
 The sections from 105. to 118., both inclusive, relate to the Coasting Trade, and are given under that 
 head. 
 
 Construction in General. 
 
 Terms used in Acts. — Whenever the several terms or expressions following shall occur in this act, or 
 in any other act relating to the customs, or to trade and navigation, the same shall be construed respect- 
 ively in the manner herein-after directed ; (that is to say,) the term " ship " shall be construed to mean 
 ship or vessel generally, unless such term shall be used to distinguish a ship from sloops, brigantines, 
 and other classes of vessels ; and the term " master " of any ship shall be construed to mean the person 
 having or taking the charge or command of such ship ; the term " owners " and the term " owner " 
 of any ship shall be construed alike to mean 1 owner, if there be only 1, and any or all the owners if 
 there be more than 1 ; the term " mate " of any ship shall be construed to mean the person next in com. 
 mand of such ship to the master thereof ; the term " seaman " shall be construed to mean alike seaman, 
 mariner, sailor, or landsman, being one of the crew of any ship ; the term " British possession " shall be 
 construed to mean colony, plantation, island, territory, or settlement belonging to his Majesty; the 
 term " his Majesty " shall be construed to mt.in his Majesty, his heirs, and successors ; the term 
 •*East India Company "shall be construed to mean the United Company of Merchants of England trading 
 to the East Indies; the term " limits of the East India Company's charter" shall be construed to 
 mean all places and seas eastward of the Cape of Good Hope to the Straits of Magellan ; the term " col- 
 lector and comptroller " shall be construed to mean the collector and comptroller of the customs of the 
 port intended in the sentence ; whenever mention is made of any public officer, the officer mentioned 
 shall be deemed to be such officer for the time being ; the term " warehouse " shall be construed to 
 mean any place, whether house, shed, yard, timber pond, or other place in which goods entered to be 
 warehoused upon importation may be lodged, kept, and secured without payment of duty, or although 
 prohibited to be used in the United Kingdom ; the term " king's warehouse " shall be construed to mean 
 any place provided by the Crown for lodging goods therein for security of the customs. — \ 119. 
 
 Malta in Europe. — The island of Malta and its dependencies shall be deemed to be in Europe. 
 
 \ 120. 
 
 General Regulations. 
 
 Weights, Measures, Currency, and Management. — All duties, bounties, and drawbacks of customs 
 shall be paid and received in every part of the United Kingdom and of the Isle of Man in British currency, 
 and according to Imperial weights and measures ; and in all cases where such duties, bounties, and 
 drawbacks are iinimsed and allowed according to any specific quantity, or any specific value, the same shall 
 be deemed to apply in the same proportion to any greater or less quantity or value; and all such duties, 
 bounties, and drawbacks shall be under the management of the commissioners of the customs. — ^ 121. 
 
 Collector to take Bonds in respect of Goods relating to the Customs. — All bonds relating to the customs 
 required to be given in respect of goods or ships shall be taken by the collector and comptroller for the 
 use of his Majesty; and after the exi)iration of .'3 years from the date thereof, or from the time, if any, 
 limited therein for the performance of the condition thereof, every such bontl upon which no prosecution 
 or suit shall have been commenced shall be void, and may be cancelled and destroyed. — \ 122. 
 
 Mode of ascertaining Strength of Foreign Spirits. — The mode of ascertaining the strengtlis and quan- 
 tities of foreign spirits imported into the United Kingdom should at all times be exactly similar to tlio 
 mode in practice for ascertaining the strengths and quantities of -spirits made within the United Kingdom ; 
 be it therefore enacted, that the same instruments, and the same fables and scales of graduation, and tiie 
 
 4 
 
IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 
 
 669 
 
 same rules and methods, as the officers of the excise shall by any law in force for the time being be 
 directed to use, adopt, and employ in trying and ascertaining the strengths and quantities of spirits made 
 within the United Kingdom, for the purpose of computing and collecting the duties of excise jmyable 
 thereon, shall be used, adopted, and employed by the officers of the customs in trying and ascertaming 
 the strengths and quantities of spirits imported into the United Kingdom, for the purpose of computing 
 and collecting the duties of customs payable thereon. — ^ 123. 
 
 Officers 0/ Customs to take Sample of Goods. — It shall be lawful for the officers of the customs to take 
 such samples of any goods as shall be necessary for ascertaining the amount of any duties payable on the 
 same j and all such samples shall be disposed of and accounted for in such manner as the commibsioners of 
 his Majesty's customs shall direct. — ^ 124. 
 
 Time of an Importation and of an Exportation d<fined — If, upon the first levying or repealing of any 
 duty, or upon the first granting or repealing of any drawback or bounty, or upon the first permitting or 
 prohibiting of any importation or exportation, whether inwards, outwards, or coastwise, in the United 
 Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, it shall become necessary to determine the precise time at which an 
 importation or exportation of any goods made and completed shall be deemed to have had effect, such 
 time, in respect of importation, shall be deemed to be the time at which the ship importing such goods 
 had actually come within the limits of the port at which such ship shall in due course be rei^orted, and 
 such goods be discharged ; and such time, in respect of exportation, shall be deemed to be the time at 
 which the goods had been shipped on board the ship in which they had been exijortcd ; and if such 
 question shall arise upon the arrival or departure of any ship, in respect of any charge or allowance upon 
 such ship, exclusive of any cargo, the time of such arrival shall be deemed to be the time at which the 
 report of such ship shall have been or ought to have been made ; and the time of such departure shall be 
 deemed to be the time of the last clearance of such shij) with the collector and comptroller for the voyage 
 upon which she had departed. — \ 125. 
 
 Iteturn of Duty overpaid. — Although any duty of customs shall have been overpaid, or although, after 
 any duty of customs shall have been charged and paid, it shall appear or be judicially established that the 
 same had been charged under an erroneous construction of the law, it shall not be lawful to return any 
 such overcharge after the expiration of 3 years from the date of such payment. — ^ 126. 
 
 Tonnage or Burden qf Ships declared. — The tonnage or burden of every British ship within the 
 meaning of this act shall be the tonnage set forth in the certificate of registry of such ship, and the 
 tonnage or burden of every other ship shall, for the purposes of this act, be ascertained in the same man- 
 ner as the tonnage of British ships is ascertained. — § 127. 
 
 Officers may refuse Master of British Ship, unless indorsed on Register. — It shall be lawful for the 
 officers of customs at any port under British dominion where there shall be a collector and comptroller of 
 the customs to refuse to admit any person to do any act at such port as master of any British ship, unless 
 his name shall be inserted in or have been indorsed upon the certificate of registry of such ship as being 
 the master thereof, or until his name shall have been so indorsed by such collector and comptroller. — § 128. 
 
 Falsifying Documents. — If any person shall counterfeit or falsify, or wilfully use when counterfeited or 
 falsified, any entry, warrant, cocket, or transire, or other document for the unlading, lading, entering, 
 reporting, or clearing of any ship or vessel, or for the landing or shipping of any goods, uteres, baggage, or 
 article whatever, or shall by any false statement procure any writing or document to be made for any of 
 such purposes, every person so offending shall for every such ofl'ence forfeit the sum of 200/. : provided 
 always, that this penalty shall not attach to any particular offence for which any other penalty shall be 
 expressly imposed by any law in force for the time being. — § 129. 
 
 Authority of an Agent may be required. — Whenever any person shall make any application to any 
 officer of the customs to transact any business on behalf of any other person, it shall be lawful for such 
 officer to require of the person so applying to produce a written authority from the person on whose behalf 
 such application shall be made, and in default of the production of such authority, to refuse to transact 
 such business. — ^ 130. 
 
 Fersons falsifying Declaration liable to Penalty. — If any declaration required to be made by this act 
 or by any other act relating to the customs (except declarations to the value of goods) be untrue in any 
 particular, or if any person required by this act or by any other act relating to the customs to answer 
 questions put to him by the officers of the customs, touching certain matters, shall not truly answer such 
 questions, the person making such declaration or answering such questions shall, over and above any 
 other penalty to which he may become subject, forfeit the sum of 100/. — § 131. 
 
 Seizures. — All goods, and all ships, vessels, and boats, which by this act or any act at any time in force 
 relating to the customs shall be declared to be forfeited, shall and may be seized by any officer of the cus- 
 toms ; and such forfeiture of any ship, vessel, or boat shall be deemed to include the guns, tackle, apparel, 
 and furniture of the same ; and such forfeiture of any goods shall be deemed to include the proper package 
 in which the same are contained. — § 132. 
 
 Restoration qf seized Goods, Ships, %c. — In case any goods, ships, vessels, or boats shall be seized as 
 forfeited, or detained as under-valued, by virtue of any act of parliament relating to the customs, it shall 
 be lawful for the commissioners of his Majesty's customs to order the same to be restored in such manner 
 and on such terms and conditions as they shall think fit to direct ; and if the proprietor of the same shall 
 accept the terms and conditions prescribed by the said commissioners, he shall not have or maintain any 
 action for recompence or damage on account of such seizure or detention; and the person making such 
 seizure shall not proceed in any manner for condemnation. — § 133. 
 
 Remission of Forfeitures, ^c. — If any ship shall have become liable to forfeiture on account of any 
 goods laden therein, or unladen therefrom, or if the master of any ship shall have become liable to any 
 penalty on account of any goods laden in such ship or unladen therefrom, and such goods shall be small in 
 quantity or of trifling value, and it shall be made appear to the satisfaction of the commissioners of his 
 Majesty's customs that such goods had been laden or unladen contrary to the intention of the owners of 
 such ship, or without the privity of the master thereof, as the case may be, it shall be lawful for the said 
 commissioners to remit such forfeiture, and also to remit or mitigate such penalty, as they shall see reason 
 to acquit such master of all blame in respect of such offence, or more or less to attribute the commission 
 of such offence to neglect of duty on his part as master of such ship; and every forfeiture and every 
 penalty, or part thereof, so remitted, shall be null and void, and no suit or action shall be brought or 
 maintained by any person whatever on account thereof. — \ 134. 
 
 Ships not bringing to at Stations, Masters to forfeit. — If any ship coming up or departing out of any 
 port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, shall not bring to at the proper stations in such port 
 appointed by the commissioners of his Majesty's customs for the boarding or landing of officers of the 
 customs, the master of such ship shall for every such offence forfeit the sum of 100/. — \ 135. 
 
 Officers may be stationed in Ships in the Limits of any Port. — It shall be lawful for the commissioners 
 of his Majesty's customs, and for the collector and comptroller of any port under their directions, to 
 station officers on board any ship while within the limits of any port in the United Kingdom or in the 
 Isle of Man ; and the master of every ship on boaid of which any olncer is so stationed shall provide every 
 such officer sufficient room under the deck, in some part of the forecastle or steerage, for his bed or 
 hammock, and in case of neglect or refusal so to do shall forfeit the sum of 100/. — § 136. 
 
 Power to charge Rent in King's Warehouse. — Whenever any goods shall be taken to and secured in 
 any of the king's warehouses in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, for security of the duties 
 thereon, or to prevent the same from coming into home use, it shall and may be lawful for the commis- 
 sioners of his Majesty's customs to charge and demand and receive warehouse rent for such goods for aU 
 such time as the same sJiall remain in such w;:rchouse, at the same rate as may be payable for the like 
 
670 
 
 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
 goods when warehoused In any warehouse in which such goods may be warehoused without payment ot 
 duty: provided always, that it shall be lawful for the Lords Commissioners of his Majesty's Treasury, or the 
 commissioners of his Majesty's customs, by warrant or order under their hands respectively, from" time to 
 time to fix the amount of rent which shall be payable for any goods secured in any of the king's ware- 
 houses as aforesaid. — § 137. 
 
 Power to sell Goods not cleared from. King's Warehouse. — In case such goods shall not be duly cleared 
 from the king's warehouse within 3 calendar months, (or sooner, if they be of a perishable nature,) it 
 shall be lawful for the commissioners of his Majesty's customs to cause such goods to be publicly sold by 
 auction, for home use or for exportation, as the case may be ; and the produce of such sale shall be applied 
 towards the payment of the duties, if sold for home use, and of the warehouse rent and all other charges ; 
 and the overplus (if any) shall be paid to the person authorised to receive the same : provided always, that 
 it shall be lawful for the said commissioners to cause any of such goods to be destroyed as cannot be sold 
 for a sum sufficient to pay such duties and charges, if sold for home use, or sufficient to pay such charges, 
 if sold for exportation : provided also, that if such goods shall have been landed by the officers of the 
 customs, and the freight of the same shall not have been paid, the produce of such sale shall be first applied 
 to the payment of such freight. — § 138. 
 
 Power for his Majesty to appoint Ports and legal Quays. —It shall be lawful for his Majesty, by his 
 commission out of the Court of Exchequer, from time to time to appoint any port, haven, or creek in the 
 United Kingdom, or in the Isle of Man, and to set out the limits thereof, and to appoint the proper places 
 within the same to be legal quays for the lading and unlading of goods, and to declare that any place 
 which had been set out as a legal quay by such authority shall be no longer a legal quay, and to appoint 
 any new place within any port to be a legal quay for the lading and unlading of goods : provided always, 
 that all ports, havens, and creeks, and the respective limits thereof, and all legal quays, appointed and set 
 out and existing as such at the commencement of this act under any law till then in force, shall continue 
 to be such ports, havens, creeks, limits, and legal quays respectively as if the same had been appointed 
 and set out under the authority of this act. — \ 139. 
 
 Averment of Offence. — In any information or other proceeding for any offence against any act made 
 or to be made relating to the customs, the averment that such offence was committed within" the limits 
 of any port shall be sufficient, without proof of such limits, unless the contrary be proved. — \ 140. 
 
 Commissioners may appoint Sufferance Wharfs. — It shall be lawful for the commissioners of his Ma- 
 jesty's customs from time to time, by any order under their hands, to appoint places to be sufferance 
 wharfs, for the lading and unlading of goods by sufferance, to be duly issued by them, or by the proper 
 officers under their directions, in such manner and in such cases as they shall see fit. — § 141. 
 
 No Ships engaged in the Carriage of Letters to import or export Goods. — No ship or boat appointed 
 and employed ordinarily for the carriage of letters shall import or export any goods without permission 
 of the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, under the penalty of the forfeiture of 100/., to be paid by 
 the master of such ship or boat. — § 142. 
 
 No Person deemed an Apprentice until Indenture enrolled with Collector. — No person shall be deemed 
 to be an apprentice for the purposes of an act passed in the 4th year of the reign of his late Majesty, in- 
 tituled " An Act (4 Geo. 4. c. 25.) for regulating the Number of Apprentices to be taken onboard British 
 Merchant Vessels, and for preventing Desertion of Seamen," unless the indenture of such apprentice 
 snail have been enrolled with the collector and comptroller of the port from which any such apprentice 
 shall first go to sea after the date of such indenture, or in default of such enrolment, until the same shall 
 have been enrolled at some port from which the ship in which such apprentice shall afterwards go to sea 
 shall be cleared — \ 143. 
 
 Licensed Agents. — It shall not be lawful for any person to act as an agent for transacting any business 
 at the Custom-house in the port of London which shall relate to the entry or clearance of any ship, or of 
 any goods, or of any baggage, unless authorised so to do by licence of the commissioners of his Majesty's 
 customs, who are hereby empowered to require bond to be given by every person to whom such licence 
 shall be granted, with 1 sufficient surety, in the sum of 1,000/., for the faithful and incorrupt conduct of 
 such person and of his clerks acting for him : provided always, that such bond shall not be required of any 
 person who shall be one of the sworn brokers of the city of London ; and if any person shall act as such 
 agent, not being so licensed, or if any person shall be in partnership in such agency with any person not 
 so licensed, such person shall, in either case, for every such offence forfeit the sum of 100/. — \ 144. 
 
 Treasury may revoke Licence. — It shall be lawful for the said commissioners of his Majesty's treasury, 
 by any order under their hands, to revoke any such licence ; and after a copy of such order shall have 
 been delivered to such person or to his clerk, or left at his usual place of abode or Dusiness, such licence 
 shall be void. — % 145. 
 
 Not to extend to Clerks or Servants of Individuals, nor to Clerks in Long Room. — Nothing herein con. 
 tained shall extend to prevent the clerk or servant of any person, or of any persons in co-partnership, 
 from transacting any business at the Custom-house on account of such person or persons, without such 
 licence; provided such clerk or servant shall not transact any such business as clerk, servant, or agent 
 to any other person. — § 146. 
 
 Agent may apj)oint Clerks to act for him only. — It shall be lawful for any such agent or agents in co- 
 partnership to appoint any person without licence to be his or their clerk in transacting such agency : 
 provided always, that no person shall be admitted to be such clerk to more than 1 agent or co-partnership 
 of agents, nor until his name and residence, and the date of his appointment, shall have been indorsed on 
 the licence of every such agent, and signed by him, and witnessed by the signature of the collector and 
 comptroller of the customs, unless such person shall have been appointed with consent of the com- 
 missioners of his Majesty's customs before the commencement of this act. — ^ 147. 
 
 Treasury 7nay extend Regulations to other Ports. — It shall be lawful for the said commissioners of his 
 Majesty's treasury, by their warrant, to be published in the London or Dublin Gaxette, to extend the 
 regulations herein-before made relating to agents in the port of London to agents at any other port in 
 Great Britain, or at any port in Ireland. — \ 148. 
 
 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS, the articles imported into and exported from a country. 
 
 "We have explained in another article (Balance of Trade), the mode in which the 
 value of the imports and exports is officially determined by the Custom-house, and have 
 shown the fallacy of the common notions as to the advantage of the exports exceeding 
 the imports. The scale of prices according to which the official value of the imports 
 and exports is determined having been fixed so far back as 1698, the account is of no 
 use as showing their true value ; but it is of material importance as .showing the fluctu- 
 ations in their quantity. "We were anxious, had the means existed, to have given 
 accounts of the various articles imported and exported at diffi;rent periods during the last 
 centiu-y, that the comparative increase or diminution of the trade in each might have 
 been exhibited in one general view. Unluckily, however, no means exist for completing 
 .';uch an account. The Tables published by Sir Charles Whitworth, Mr. Macpherson, 
 and others, specify only the aggregate value of the imports from and exports to particular 
 couiitries, without specifying the articles or their value of which such imports and 
 
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
 671 
 
 exports consisted. And on applying at the Custom-house, we found that the fire in 
 1814 had destroyed the records; so that there were no means of compiling any complete 
 account of the value of the articles imported or exported previously to that period. We 
 therefore have been obliged to confine ourselves, except as respects the period since 1815, 
 to an attempt to exhibit the amount of the trade with each country for such periods as 
 seemed best calculated to show its real progress. Those selected for this purpose, in 
 the first of the following Tables, are periods of peace ; for, during war, tlie commerce 
 with particular countries is liable to be extended or depressed so far beyond its natural 
 limits as to afford no means of judging of its ordinary amount. The averages given in 
 the Table (with the exception of 1802), are sufficiently extensive to neutralise the in- 
 fluence of such extraordinary circumstances (whether arising from bad harvests, the 
 repeal or imposition of duties, or any other cause), as might materially affect an average 
 for 2 or 3 years only; and as they extend from 1698 to 1822, they afford a pretty 
 complete view of the progress of the foreign trade of Great Britain. This Table was 
 compiled from official documents by Mr. Cesar Moreau, and may be safely relied on. 
 The Tables which follow have either been copied from, or have been founded upon, official 
 returns. Nos. IV. and V. give, in a brief space, by far the most complete view of the 
 foreign trade of the empire during the half dozen years ending with 1835, that is any- 
 where to be met with. The proportional value of our export trade to different countries 
 is, for the first time, exhibited in Table V. 
 
 During the firsthalf of last century, and previously, woollen goods formed the principal article of native 
 
 firoduce exported from Great Britain ; and next to it were hardware and cutlery, leather manufactures, 
 inen, tin, and lead, copper and brass manufactures, coal, eartheuwai e, provision, slops, &». Corn formed 
 a considerable article in the list of exports down to 1770; since which period the balance of the corn 
 tradebas been, with a few exceptions, very decidedly on the side of importation. Cotton did not begin to 
 be of any importance as an article of export till after 1770 ; but since then the extension and improvement 
 of the cotton manufacture has been so astonishingly great, that the exports of cotton stuff's and yarn 
 amount, at this moment, to about a half of the entire exports of British produce and manufactures! — 
 (See ante, p. 445.) The export of woollen goods has been comparatively stationary. 
 
 The principal articles of import during the last half century have consisted of sugar, tea, corn, timber 
 and naval stores, cotton wool, sheep's wool, woods and drugs for dyeing, wine and spirits, tobacco, silk, 
 tallow, hides and skins, cofFee, spices, bullion, &c. Of the colonial and other foreign products imported 
 into England, considerable quantities have alvvays been re-exported. 
 
 Tables of Imports and Exports. 
 
 I. Account of the Official Value of the Import and Export Trade of Great Britain with all Parts of the 
 World, at an Annual Medium of the undermentioned Periods ; specifying the separate Amount of the 
 Trade with each Country for such Periods. 
 
 Imports into Great Britain from all Parts, of all Sorts 
 of Products. 
 
 Annual Medium of Five Periods of Peace, viz. 
 
 1698-1701. 1x749-1755. 1784-1792. In 1802. 1816-1822 
 
 Annual Medium of Five Periods of Peace, 
 
 and foreign. 
 
 Foreign, North 
 South - 
 
 Ireland, Guern- 
 sey ,Jeney,Al- 
 derney, Man, 
 and theWhale 
 Fishery - - 
 
 Gibraltar (from 
 1801, Malta, 
 and Ionian 
 Islands) 
 
 2,135,870 
 l,533,r - 
 
 3,885,999 
 2,860,914 
 
 2,433,864 
 
 4,891,885 
 3,308,502 
 
 119,318 147,961 
 
 4,166,669 
 5,129,499 
 
 4,761,965 
 3,187,139 
 
 2,251,081 
 
 641,566 210,838 
 
 17,010,820 
 8,321,987 
 
 3,663,237 4,09^,630 
 
 542,404 2,246,565 
 
 Europe^ritUh 
 and foreign - 
 Asia 
 Africa 
 America - 
 
 Grand Total - 
 
 ;,866,720 
 656,031 
 117,421 
 ,029.780 
 
 4,527,911 
 1,119,158 
 34,279 
 2,529,998 
 
 9,193,015 
 3,179,136 
 92,252 
 5,252,349 
 
 2,997,679 
 5,794,906 
 168,863 
 12,480,870 
 
 5,569,952 
 
 8.211,346' 17,716,752 
 
 31, 442,.?18 34,921,538! 6,449,594 12,220,974 
 
 13,491,568 
 7,119,152 
 267,869 
 14,042,949 
 
 5,383,463 9,291,338 
 214,212 714,105 
 114,043 213,841 
 737,876, 2,001,690 
 
 10,411,023 
 1,795,747; 
 
 809,546' 
 5,605,626 
 
 26,430,141 
 2,929,816 
 6,161,179 
 
 10,890,850 
 
 31 ,680,002 1 
 3,2 1 9, 446 1 
 531,712 
 17,695,33> 
 
 Europe, North, 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden - 
 
 Denmark and 
 Norway 
 
 Prussia - 
 
 Germany • 
 
 Netherlands 
 Europe, South. 
 
 France - -i 
 
 Portugal - 
 
 Spain 
 
 Italy - 
 
 Turkey - 
 
 America,North. 
 
 United Sutes - 
 
 British colonies 
 
 America, South. 
 
 British West 
 Indies - 
 
 Foreign ditto 
 (from 1808, 
 Brazils and 
 Span, colon.) 
 
 1 10,446 
 213,657 
 
 77,308 
 181,186 
 681 
 624,410 
 
 86,025 
 202,909 
 566,527 
 358,537 
 276 
 
 84,507 
 280,633 
 687,805 
 407,240 
 
 60,962 
 288,549 
 437,869 
 578,445 
 168,071 
 
 891,169 
 48,750 
 
 ,619,146 
 261,823 
 
 140,138 
 595,544 
 55'2,291 
 717,057 
 
 452,734 
 645,486 
 724,287 
 853,862 
 184,545 
 
 986,409 
 221,413 
 
 2,182,430 
 327,350 
 
 155,672 
 1,057,603 
 1,192,030 
 1,000,768 
 
 424,434 
 961,711 
 830,937 
 723,501 
 182,424 
 
 ),674 8,531,175 
 
 183,8531 1,658,256 
 
 2,258,975 
 132,305 
 
 196,517 
 658,080 
 084,741 
 961,269 
 
 737,360 
 492,193 
 877,436 
 894,835 
 306,678 
 
 3,267,488 
 716,572 
 
 7,926,215 
 
 39.'-,,696 l,2Sl,55.-> 
 70,617 90,515 
 
 87,206 294,108 427,016 
 
 171,0911 117,247 813,269 
 
 1,345,212 1,566,311 8,005,23; 
 
 2,442,947 2,317,986 4,392,617 
 
 39,874 
 152,209 
 757,621 
 2,044.228 
 
 166,115 437,483; 
 343,4431 1,121,529 
 
 921,492 2,.390,10; 
 
 580,422 
 143,249 
 218,002 
 
 387,516 
 18,491 
 
 1,198,33 
 2.-^8,476 
 133,674 
 
 675,.34S 
 709,179 
 759,243 
 121.877 
 
 1,284,344 
 ,421,294 
 J "^0,4 16 
 163,154 
 
 2,839,484 6,329,490 
 864,489, l,3-'>0,896 
 
 422,810 
 : 1,002,881 
 8,772,871 
 4,337,316 
 
 1,514,079 
 1,935,154 
 
 61.),9'.i3 
 3,699,715 
 
 761,116 
 
 6,593,956 
 1,715,: 
 
 1,862,522 3,925,613: 5,030,367 
 
672 
 
 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
 Foreign Trade of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 II. Account specifying the Official and Declared Value of the Exports of British and Irish Produce and 
 Manufacture, and the Official Value of the Exports of Foreign and Colonial Merchandise, from Great 
 jtiritain to Foreign Parts ; with the Official Value of the Imports into the same, also from Foreign Parts, 
 in each Year since 1800. 
 
 Years ending the 5th 
 of J anuary* 
 
 British and Iriih Produce and Manufactures 
 exported from Great Britain. 
 
 Foreign and Colonial 
 Merchandise exported 
 from Great Britain. 
 
 Imports into Great 
 Britain. 
 
 
 Official Value. 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 C^fficial Value. 
 
 Zojficial Value. 
 
 1800 
 
 a22,284,941 
 
 Jp35,903,850 
 
 Ji 7,271,696 
 
 .£24,066,700 
 
 1804 
 
 20,042,596 
 
 36,127,787 
 
 8,032,643 
 
 25,104,541 
 
 1805 
 
 22,132,367 
 
 37,135,746 
 
 8'938,741 
 
 26,454,281 
 
 1806 
 
 OO nA'7 OTl 
 
 22,907,371 
 
 37,234,396 
 
 7,613,120 
 
 27,334,020 
 
 1807 
 
 25,266,546 
 
 39,746,581 
 
 7,717,555 
 
 25,554,478 
 
 1808 
 
 22,963,772 
 
 36,394,443 
 
 7,624,312 
 
 25,326,845 
 
 1809 
 
 24,179,854 
 
 36,306,385 
 
 5,776,775 
 
 25,660,953 
 
 1810 
 
 
 ACi f\A<i '7*7*7 
 
 4D,U4y,777 
 
 12,750,358 
 
 30,170,292 
 
 1811 
 
 
 A'7 nnn qo*; 
 4/ ,uuu,yzo 
 
 9,357,435 
 
 37,613,294 
 
 1812 
 
 21,723,532 
 
 OA oc^n CIO 
 30,860,618 
 
 6,117,720 
 
 25,240,904 
 
 1813 
 
 
 oy,oo4,ozb 
 
 9,533,065 
 
 24,923,922 
 
 1814 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 « 
 
 1815 
 
 
 A1 AA^ 0*7O 
 
 4o,447,o7o 
 
 19,157,818 
 
 32,020,771 
 
 1816 
 
 41,712,00/ 
 
 4y,o0.5,J4o 
 
 15,708,435 
 
 31,822,053 
 
 1817 
 
 flA ^7*7 A fiOl 
 
 o4,/74,OZl 
 
 Af\ QOQ (iAC\ 
 4U,o^o,y4U 
 
 13,441,665 
 
 26,374,921 
 
 1818 
 
 
 An flACk OOPi 
 
 40,34y,230 
 
 10,269,271 
 
 29,910,502 
 
 1819 
 
 41,9d0,oo5 
 
 An 1 Qrt 1 CA 
 
 45,1.80,150 
 
 10,835,800 
 
 35,845,340 
 
 1820 
 
 
 
 9,879,236 
 
 29,(;81,640 
 
 1821 
 
 37,820,293 
 
 35,569,077 
 
 10,525,026 
 
 31,515,222 
 
 1822 
 
 Af\ t ClA t^Qt 
 
 QI^ QOQ 1 0*7 
 
 10,602,090 
 
 29,769,122 
 
 1823 
 
 43,558,488 
 
 o6, 176,897 
 
 9,211,928 
 
 29,432,376 
 
 1824 
 
 43,166,039 
 
 34,589,410 
 
 8,588,996 
 
 31,591,264 
 
 1825 
 
 48,024,952 
 
 37,600,021 
 
 10,188,596 
 
 36,056,551 
 
 1826 
 
 46,453,022 
 
 38,077,330 
 
 9,155,305 
 
 42,660,954 
 
 1827 
 
 40,332,854 
 
 30,847,528 
 
 10,066,503 
 
 36,174,350 
 
 1828 
 
 51,279,102 
 
 36,394,817 
 
 9,806,343 
 
 43,489,346 
 
 1829 
 
 52,019,728 
 
 36,150,379 
 
 9,928,655 
 
 43,536,187 
 
 1830 
 
 55,465,723 
 
 35,212,873 
 
 10,606,441 
 
 42,311,649 
 
 1831 
 
 60,492,637 
 
 37,691,302 
 
 8,535,786 
 
 44,815,397 
 
 1832 
 
 60,090,123 
 
 36,652,694 
 
 10,729,943 
 
 48,161,661 
 
 1833 
 
 64,582,037 
 
 36,046,027 
 
 11,036,759 
 
 43,237,417 
 
 1834 
 
 69,633,854 
 
 39,305,513 
 
 9,820,586 
 
 44,529,287 
 
 1835 
 
 73,495,536 
 
 41,286,594 
 
 11,549,913 
 
 47,908,931 
 
 1836 
 
 77,932,616 
 
 46,926,370 
 
 12,783,802 
 
 47,463,610 
 
 1837 
 
 84,883,276 
 
 52,940,838 
 
 12,384,538 
 
 55,733,419 
 
 1838 
 
 72,312,207 
 
 41,766,205 
 
 13,223,331 
 
 53,224,874 
 
 1839 
 
 92,107,898 
 
 49,640,896 
 
 12,702,600 
 
 59,878,905 
 
 1840 
 
 96,947,122 
 
 52,701,509 
 
 12,779,057 
 
 60,346,006 
 
 * Records destroyed by fire. — From the year ending the 5th of January, 1815, inclusive, British produce and manufactures 
 have been included in the returns of Irish produce, &c. from Ireland, and consequently omitted in the column headed Exports, 
 Foreign, Colonial, and British, under which they have been previously retumed. The exports from Iieland to foreign parts 
 are inconsiderable. Tlieir declared value, in 1835, was only 445,900/. _ (See post.) 
 
 III. Account showing the Quantities of the principal Articles of British and Irish Produce or Manu- 
 facture exported from Ireland in different Years, from 1801 to 1825, to all Countries ; showing also tlie 
 aggregate Official Value of such Exports, with the Portion thereof exported to Foreign Countries, 
 and to Great Britain. 
 
 Articles exported. 
 
 1809. 
 
 1813. 
 
 1817. 
 
 qrs, 
 
 cwt. 
 
 No. 
 
 Corn and raea), viz. — 
 
 Barley 
 
 Oats 
 
 Wheat - 
 
 Other grain 
 
 Wheat flour 
 
 Oatmeal, &c. 
 Cottle and live stock — 
 
 Cows and oxen 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Swine 
 
 Horses - 
 Bat-on and hams 
 Beef and pork 
 Butter 
 Lard 
 
 Soap and candles 
 Flax, undressed 
 Spirits, Irish 
 Cotton manufactures 
 
 other descriptions 
 Linen manufactures . 
 yarn 
 
 Other articles (ho produce or manu- 
 fact. of theU.K. - - value 
 
 Af^g. official value of prod, and manu- 
 fact. of U.K. exp. from Ireland to 
 all parts .... 
 
 .Apg. ofTicial value of prod, and manu 
 facture of U.K. exp. from Ireland U 
 foreign ports ... 
 
 Aeg. official value of prod, and manu 
 fiict. of U.K. exp. from Ireland t( 
 Great liriUiin ... 
 
 Imp. gals, 
 yards 
 value 
 . yards 
 
 1 
 
 203 
 2,524 
 
 31,664 
 2,891 
 1,968 
 818 
 21,161 
 160,840 
 .-501,666 
 2,049 
 15,557 
 1,6,-9 
 178,6(12 
 1,256 
 4 ,824 
 .-)7,9 11,602 
 2,631,152 
 
 .. 192,259 
 
 17,223 
 223,234 
 82,815 
 5,302 
 22,774 
 34,297 
 
 21,941 
 10,988 
 6,583 
 4,186 
 95,073 
 222,098 
 294,415 
 6, .-563 
 17,713 
 278 
 819,970 
 8,956 
 3,281 
 4^,683,533 
 792,400 
 
 211,184 
 
 26,588 
 828,458 
 85,599 
 3,023 
 18,087 
 
 18,335 
 7,596 
 4,712 
 3,451 
 167,122 
 262,744 
 585,953 
 16,282 
 .30,810 
 6,507 
 60,437 
 34,998 
 31,923 
 37,166,599 
 1,534,512 
 
 302,843 
 
 194,193 
 808,329 
 201,273 
 5,934 
 267,894 
 108,547 
 
 49,592 
 7,690 
 14,521 
 4,001 
 234,606 
 281,503 
 461,514 
 20.,136 
 46,615 
 69,191 
 11.3,316 
 99,141 
 58,074 
 39,023,087 
 2,141,7/6 
 
 280,999 
 
 39,114 
 646,036 
 67,280 
 2,011 
 34,517 
 34,863 
 
 45,322 
 29,478 
 24,418 
 879 
 191,025 
 262,605 
 397,965 
 17,181 
 25,381 
 44,2.39 
 37,884 
 549,261 
 26,250 
 56,230,575 
 1,571,444 
 
 4.14,125 
 
 78,228 
 1,159,824 
 476,940 
 7,897 
 295,035 
 66,063 
 
 26,759 
 25,354 
 104,556 
 2,503 
 366,209 
 219,165 
 472,944 
 28,489 
 18,454 
 68,791 
 326,491 
 921,971 
 6,564 
 49,531,1.39 
 1,150,464 
 
 334,323 
 
 154,822 
 1,503,204 
 283,3401 
 23,832 
 394,507: 
 204,617 
 
 63,524 
 72,191 
 66,919 
 3,140 
 262,278 
 181,276 
 474,161 
 30,261 
 14,791 
 54,898 
 629,529 
 10,567,458 
 301 
 
 55,114,515 
 391,489 
 
 466,390 
 
 I,.3,778,14 
 L. 426,076 
 
 4,670,647 
 469,569 
 
 4,992,840 
 625,41.' 
 
 6,297,264 
 1,132,781 
 
 6,447,424 
 877,959 
 
 7,705,070 9,101,956 
 637,818' 697,667 
 
 L.3,352,069 
 
 5,164,483 5,569,465 
 
 I 
 
 7,067,252 8,40U2S9j 
 
 The aI)ove Table shows the fnconsidoralile amount of the trade of Ireland with all countries, 
 the traile between tlie two divisions of the empire was placed on the footing of a coasting trade, and no accouut luis sinue booit 
 kt pt of tlic 'luantiiy or value of the commodities passing between them, with tlie exception of corn. 
 
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
 073 
 
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
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 0 
 
 t<3 
 
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 . ^ .J 
 
 lOtoS 
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 •otN oodoot^ 
 
 ©TtC to>r,* 
 
 OOg'* 
 
 SS'SSS^'*'"-'*'* o>woeo500 o— tNw 
 S*rs:r2£=» t-ttotoaco tot^.too 
 c^w^t'^to^x^o^o o Tj« 1^ oeot^— — 
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 to 
 
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 b-OtO 
 
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 t»tOT)^io_to — oc — — oot-.-jCT-o to ioJ5?! 
 
 tNWtOtOOtO'^^'^'-'' IO'*to'o''T-*tC oo" lOtOo" 
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 w 
 
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 o-i 1 'HI i ' ' 111 li 
 
 |i 
 
 3 
 
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 1 1 i 
 
 r !| i = ilS" Jill jlsii^|£<'="£ sis> i vi 
 
 XT"^ « 
 
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 677 
 
 2,697 
 6,517 
 2.552 
 15,6H 
 65,771 
 4,236 
 
 1,411,066 
 1,353,614 
 20,518 
 
 10,024 
 
 4,656,892 
 
 183,669 
 10,553 
 3,362,035 
 2,115 
 
 161,112 
 622,261 
 
 3,331 
 
 15,5521 
 58,738 j 
 572,595 
 46,7661 
 10,976 
 12,353 
 
 3,561,812 
 
 78,919 
 
 3,921 
 656 
 
 1 13,992 
 r 797,283 
 1 30,298 
 -| 685,812 
 
 144,645 
 
 'A 
 
 ■S 
 
 A 
 
 2 !-S 
 
 ■0 -,-r 
 2 n'* 
 
 ■§ 2| 
 
 !9S~3!^. "5 ai'OO 2! >o t-inOrt too o — nilto-oi': ao;o n ft to aa «f<o 
 
 oi — I*; o to i^Oti-oo o>~ to 1 - -1 o> ox t~ 10 lo cJ ,-■ ox rtoo o 
 
 "i>'5 W 01_tO -H^ Oiys "5 •* >0 '~ 'JC O <» •'■-.''J.'i'' "^■9' o o> to to — n C^tt o> 
 
 «t-3x<o.OTi< tNcTo o o «<?ooio-7 oo ci" (^^n^oo r^tc-^jTo iC iC « ceo >" 
 
 "to i<^o<N-" to OO-l lOco >0"^Tl<.-ir-< _ to toSo> 
 rri^ t-- t ""^ S 
 -i" to n 
 
 5,315 
 
 5,452 
 3,265 
 15,029 
 99.134 
 6,359 
 
 1,496,156 
 1,413,774 
 22,497 
 
 11,484 
 
 4,134,165 
 
 207,789 
 7,063 
 4,674,535 
 
 152,596 
 647,581 
 
 2.780 
 
 2,119 
 3,443 
 11,490 
 57,334 
 545,074 
 31,318 
 10,043 
 10,934 
 
 3,397,102 
 73,824j 
 
 2,906 
 
 265 
 
 74,435 
 96,554 
 
 1,622,993^ 
 
 to 
 t 
 
 o? en 
 
 00 r- 
 
 9,321 
 5,887 
 13,288 
 17,093 
 117,995 
 7,178 
 
 1,537,694 
 1,476,511 
 22.167 
 
 10,997 
 
 4,667,900 
 
 158,876 
 8,693 
 3,832,427 
 
 127,378 
 582,485 
 
 2,950 
 
 2,482 
 2,550 
 7,144 
 45,021 
 316,143 
 33.098 
 10,595 
 8,659 
 
 [■3,334,234 
 66,043 
 } 3,053 
 
 71,935 
 74,050 
 
 ]. 1,545,507 
 
 ■» 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 10 tCi-1 
 
 "1 '-jto 
 
 10 
 
 107.772 
 11.612 
 
 3,909,665 
 
 1,160,167 
 15,900 
 32,361,593 
 39,670 
 
 17,640 
 70,878 
 
 10,969 
 
 3,690 
 4,595 
 3,889 
 75,461 
 653,899 
 36,155 
 43,525 
 4,518 
 72 
 
 23,149,726 
 189,716 
 
 294 
 
 ' 332,222 
 
 6,202 
 103 
 13,040 
 
 538,528 
 
 417,281 
 2,900.457 
 
 110,294 
 2,497.6581 
 
 526.173 
 
 j3 
 
 01 
 to 
 
 2 fx? 
 
 00 91 
 
 ■0 
 
 86,046 
 13,562 
 18,469 
 
 134,039 
 2,625,075 
 
 335,406 
 
 3,184,255 
 1,208,646 
 18,234 
 
 13,330 
 
 3,934,810 
 
 1,289,514 
 11,510 
 30,625,206 
 35,316 
 
 14,451 
 66,651 
 
 9,763 
 
 3,444 
 4,077| 
 2,199 
 84.45 ll 
 581,059 
 30.9 10 
 48,026 
 4,020 
 
 22,321,489 
 144,585 
 551 
 
 404,922 
 
 3,616 
 46 
 6,538 
 
 500,727 
 
 458,694 
 2,560,252 
 
 111.376 
 2,278,263 
 
 502,319 
 
 0 
 
 fO 
 
 0" tc-^ 
 
 3 
 
 117,159 
 
 9,676 
 22,531 
 115:768 
 2,794,491 
 400,914 
 
 3,324,749 
 1,257,853 
 19,381 
 
 14,437 
 
 3,488,399 
 
 1,314,085 
 9,205 
 49,142,236 
 
 15,677 
 68,500 
 
 9.247 
 
 5,291 
 3,200 
 1 2,871 
 90,811 
 612,865 
 26,062 
 39,514 
 3,988 
 
 22 150,785 
 158.182 
 
 508 
 
 ' 340,123| 
 
 4,6r3i 
 121 
 3,204 
 
 541,511 
 
 352,063 
 2,878,359 
 
 155,675 
 2,588,413 
 
 515,195 
 
 CN 
 
 ■<£ 
 0 
 
 OC 
 
 <o 
 
 'IS 
 
 to 00c 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 93,246 
 10,514 
 18,673 
 
 129,880 
 2,559,575 
 
 344,438 
 
 3,416,966 
 1,314,943 
 19,648 
 
 1-4,149 
 3,856,562 
 
 J 
 
 i 1,005,276 
 11,619 
 
 56,574,0041 
 
 13,386' 
 63,941 
 
 9,703 
 
 5,829 
 3,524 
 1,799 
 99,752 
 614,550 
 26,288 
 41,642 
 3,182 
 . 4 
 
 21,803,775 
 141,625 
 191 
 
 300,831 
 
 4,449 
 243 
 6,568 
 
 522,941 
 
 271,661 
 2,780,021 
 
 139,122 
 2,250,187 
 
 476,107 
 
 0 
 to 
 
 — ti 00 
 .0 t; 
 
 •* 
 
 7,22S; 
 125,297 
 3,077,109 
 807,639 
 
 1,134,436 
 1,010,851 
 466,714 
 
 96,100 
 
 231,316 
 
 374,697 
 
 tual weight. 
 283,646 
 
 2,577,8771 
 17,173 
 
 95| 
 1,.506 
 
 303 
 
 12 1 1 
 75 
 
 1,8*76 
 545 
 
 45 
 
 29,034 
 
 11,640,495 
 6:-2,926| 
 ■ 791 
 74,5121 
 9,802 
 450 
 
 2,641 
 16 
 389 
 
 2,712 
 131,825 
 246,166 
 139,115 
 665,243 
 406.368 
 
 X 
 
 oc 
 
 1,897,860 
 
 2,-586 
 8,611 
 2,050 
 
 153,066 
 11.004 
 
 ■ 8,3110 
 151,148 
 4,768,860 
 1,376,643 
 
 1,174.273 
 640,729 
 251,023 
 
 61,669 
 
 113,311 
 
 Raw. 
 448,382 
 
 Refined, ac 
 227,807 
 52.375 
 287 
 4,716,248 
 9,524 
 
 128 
 946 
 
 199 
 
 i 160 
 19 
 
 1,6.38 
 846 
 2 
 80 
 
 29,216 
 
 17,341,687 
 
 302,8fi|. 
 1 5,472 
 1 65,682 
 j 11,119 
 1,061 
 
 2,880 
 12 
 255 
 
 6,766 
 106,9,55 
 199,518 
 148.107 
 492,.-45 
 381,122 
 
 to 
 
 ..0 cx a-, cc 
 to tr octo 
 
 "2 
 
 00 
 
 i<2>n'>)oc(?i!N lOCi-i cc <x> .jTCcjcNn -sx oc>o rrQ«03x — — — r> (^.ooo tccNtiooMO 
 ci-^^n-oao TT — o o> to ^.■■jr-i'S-i'io, oc?) M< toe; , c-^^ia«Hi^ , r: c tc r. o o oi.oio >^ 3-1 o 
 ibSioxi'Ocn ■* "o abS-'i'^"^ 0 kj (n — ■* '"L ~ '■l-'^ to X3 oc-^okimio 
 tc "^''-ocT-J tC oTox--? 2 0 Soo (5 t-i i. oicxi'ioi-: « c'sj — 30 lOio 
 
 S rHr^n !»<Xn r1 « JX * 5X IOt)- K5 - tO K5 
 * 
 
 ^- 
 
 1^ Cl-^ 00 
 0 — 3X » 
 
 to —'—"to 
 
 301,554 
 
 3,556 
 17,210 
 194,997 
 1,246,482 
 2,462,485 
 
 1,678,374 
 
 '280j68 
 
 • 25,779 
 
 29,732 
 
 Raw. 
 371,230 
 
 Refined,ac 
 549,571 
 31,245 
 645 
 2,158,029 
 
 31 
 748 
 
 472 
 
 200 
 6 
 
 23 
 140 
 
 23,796 
 
 13,218,897 
 205,095 
 556 
 35,235 
 12,257 
 72 
 
 2.978 
 420 
 656 
 
 .5,181 
 113,236 
 475,084 
 179,7.56 
 6!)2,730 
 409,612 
 
 to 
 
 2 
 
 182,210 
 40,276 
 25,902 
 
 2.59,080 
 3,682,342 
 
 905,888 
 
 4,912,227 
 2,398,155 
 566,827 
 
 264,839 
 
 3,521,434 
 428.854 
 195.627 
 604,671 
 
 281,788 
 1,122,449 
 14,831 
 40,413,714 
 36,743 
 
 18,020 
 72,737 
 
 11,240 
 
 3,943 
 4, ,539 
 3,996 
 
 78,181, 
 647,0611 
 
 34,890 1 
 
 45,415! 
 6,757 1 
 
 30,722; 
 
 50,162,024 
 1,445,084 
 557 
 
 ' 430.683 
 
 6,982 
 299 
 13,852 
 
 342,572 
 
 514,129 
 3,135,725 
 
 264,920 
 3,375,847 
 
 857,491 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 =2 ?)».o 
 '■X ex 
 ox 
 0 
 
 185,127 
 
 35.620 
 38,086 
 317,284 
 5.291,993 
 2,113,300 
 
 4,613,095 
 2,092,125 
 294,019 
 
 85,220 
 
 3,305,2.58 
 296,679 
 77.627 
 537,961 
 
 265,073 
 1,314,649 
 11,479 
 36,973,981 
 60,139 
 
 15,985 
 72,832 
 
 9,474 
 
 3,628 
 4.273 
 1,968 
 
 85,721 
 579,960 
 
 31,6.561 
 
 48,484 
 5,595 
 
 29,102 
 
 27,144,107 
 
 652,186 
 4,155 
 
 420,231 
 
 8,132 
 61 
 7,068 
 
 618,105 
 
 725,140 
 2,695,5(i5 
 
 289,400 
 2,802,585 
 
 994,885 
 
 i 
 
 00 
 
 § Sirg 
 
 «- 
 
 25,88.5, 
 26,217 
 84,255 
 335,456 
 7,724,932 
 3,269,238 
 
 4.993,942 
 2,125,167 
 367,426 
 
 144,872 
 
 3,600,517 
 
 " 720,997 
 
 327,647 
 1,186.364 
 9,798 
 49,307,701 
 
 17,247 
 69,318 
 
 8,414 
 
 3,.581 
 2,649 
 3,046 
 
 95,695 
 622,680 
 
 25,684 
 
 39,422 
 4,212 
 
 23,236 
 
 32,232,907 
 168,668 
 13,580 
 
 *. 370,9*81 
 
 7,808 
 191 
 5,929 
 
 580,273 
 
 5.53,241 
 4,089,2,55 
 
 2.55,979 
 3,164,241 
 
 805,109 
 
 g 
 
 to" 
 0 
 
 oT 
 
 t^ c, ^ c 
 cT ■"Tcsto 
 
 124,924 
 
 12.9.55 
 20,611 
 455,047 
 3,343,277 
 2,536,353 
 
 5,540,170 
 2,105,755 
 277,141 
 
 57,651 
 
 3,523,948 
 
 771,883 
 
 1,043,084 
 11,977 
 44,360,350 
 
 13,154 
 61,751 
 
 10,932 
 
 4.245 
 3.241 
 1,347 
 108,507 
 626,529 
 26,346 
 41. .575 
 3.1881 
 19,705 
 
 25„52.5.611 
 
 294.6011 
 753! 
 
 ' 291,104 
 
 7,600 
 'i54 
 7,337 
 
 687.718 
 
 370.44(i 
 4.269.890 
 
 201,825 
 2,7.52,028 
 
 874,614 
 
 s 
 
 t^ O-H 
 
 (iihger - - - cwts. 
 ftlace - - -lbs. 
 Nutmegs . . . _ 
 Pepper - - - — 
 Pimento - - - 
 Spirits, vii. — 
 limn - - -galls. 
 Brandy - - . _ 
 (leneva - - - — 
 Foreign and colonial of 
 
 other sorts - — 
 Foreign and colonial mix- 
 ed in bond - - - 
 
 f'"4^(^t'lndia. of British pos- 
 
 sessions - - cwU. 
 East India - - 
 of foreign possess. - — 
 East India and Mauritius — 
 
 Foreign - - - _ 
 Tallow - . . - 
 Tar . . - lasts 
 Tea .... lbs. 
 Terra Japonica - -cwts. 
 Timber, viz. — 
 
 Batteas & batten ends, great hd. 
 
 Deals and deal ends - — 
 
 MasU, 6 in. and under 8 
 in. in diameter - - No. 
 
 8 in. and under 12 in. 
 in diameter - . — 
 12 in. and upwards - — 
 
 Oak planks - - loads 
 
 .Staves . . great hd. 
 
 Kir, 8 in. stj. and upwards, loads 
 1 <)al( . - - — 
 ( 17nenumerated - - — 
 1 Wainscot logs - - — 
 [Tin . . . -cwts. 
 Tobacco, viz. — 
 
 Unmanufactured - - lbs. 
 
 Manufactured or cigars . — 
 
 British manutact. & cigars — 
 snuff - — 
 
 Tunientine, common - cwto. 
 
 Wax, bees', viz.- 
 Unbl.-athed - — 
 Bleachetl . W . _ 
 
 Whale fins . . _ 
 
 Wine, viz. — 
 Cape - . galls. 
 French . . . _ 
 Portugal - . — 
 Madeira - . . _ 
 Spanish . . . _ 
 Other sorts - . — 
 
 All sorts of wine - — 
 
 Wool, sheep and lambs' - lbs. 
 
 Woollen manufactures, fo- 
 reiKn, viz. — 
 Cloths for exportation - pieces 
 M„nufact. ent. at value , 
 Worsted yarn . . lbs. 1 
 
678 
 
 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
 Amount of the real or declared Value of the various Articles of the Manufacture and Produce of the 
 United Kingdom, exported to Foreign Countries during each of the Six Years ending with 1838; 
 specifying the Countries to which they were exported, and the Value of those annually shipped for 
 each ; and showing, also, the average Amount of Exports during the said Six Years to each Country, 
 and to each of the Five great Divisions of the Globe; and the average Proportion exported to each, 
 supposing the whole Exports to be 1,CU0. 
 
 Couf.trUfs. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 Average 
 annual 
 
 Amount of 
 Exports. 
 
 1833-1838. 
 
 Average anl»i 
 Proportion 
 exported to 
 each Country, 
 supposing 
 whole 
 Exports to be 
 1 ,000. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Russia 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway - - - 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 Jbieli(ium 
 
 France - - - 
 Portugal Proper 
 
 Azores 
 
 Madeira 
 Spain and the Balearic 
 
 Islands 
 Danarj Islands 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italy and the Italian 
 
 Islands 
 Malta 
 
 Ionian Islands - 
 
 Turkey and Continental 
 Greece (exclusive of 
 the Morea) 
 
 Morea & Greek Islands 
 
 Isles of Guernsey, Jer- 
 sey, Alderney, & Man 
 
 L. 
 
 1,531,002 
 59,549 
 55,038 
 99,951 
 144,179 
 4,355,548 
 2,181,893 
 886,429 
 848,333 
 967,091 
 54,430 
 33,411 
 
 442,837 
 30,507 
 385,460 
 
 2,316,260 
 135,438 
 38^15 
 
 1,019,604 
 25,914 
 
 335,934 
 
 L. 
 
 1,382,300 
 63,094 
 61,988 
 94.595 
 13«;423 
 4,547,166 
 2,470,267 
 750,059 
 1,116,885 
 1,600,123 
 63,275 
 38,455 
 
 325,907 
 30,686 
 460,719 
 
 3,282,777 
 242,696 
 94,498 
 
 1,207,941 
 37,179 
 
 360,665 
 
 L. 
 
 1,752,775 
 105,156 
 179,278 
 107,979 
 188,273 
 4,602,966 
 2,648,402 
 818,487 
 1,453,636 
 1,554,326 
 49,717 
 40,082 
 
 405,065 
 24,308 
 602,580 
 
 2,426,171 
 136,925 
 107,804 
 
 1,331,669 
 28,834 
 
 351,612 
 
 i. 
 
 1,742,433 
 113,308 
 79,469 
 91,302 
 160,722 
 4,403,729 
 2,509,622 
 839,276 
 1,591,381 
 1,085,934 
 .53,574 
 52,168 
 
 437,076 
 40,370 
 756,411 
 
 2,921,466 
 143,015 
 109,123 
 
 1,775,034 
 12,003 
 
 318,609 
 
 L. 
 
 2,046,592 
 101,121 
 72,413 
 103,448 
 131,536 
 4,898,016 
 3,040,029 
 804,917 
 1 ,643,204 
 1,079,815 
 56,405 
 46,044 
 
 283,636 
 41,904 
 906,155 
 
 2,406,066 
 103,680 
 124,465 
 
 1,163,426 
 15,431 
 
 330,017 
 
 L. 
 
 1,663,243 
 102,047 
 77,486 
 181,404 
 155,223 
 4,988,900 
 3,549,429 
 1,068,010 
 2,314,141 
 1,165,395 
 38,385 
 34,947 
 
 243,839 
 47,693 
 894,096 
 
 3,076,251 
 226,040 
 96,190 
 
 1,767,110 
 20,887 
 
 343,854 
 
 L. 
 
 1,686,391 
 90,813 
 70,945 
 113,115 
 1.52,726 
 4,642,721 
 2,733,274 
 861,196 
 1,494,597 
 1,242,114 
 52,631 
 40,851 
 
 356,893 
 35,911 
 667,570 
 
 2,738,161 
 164.632 
 95,166 
 
 1,377,464 
 
 23,375 
 
 340,116 
 
 36-902,803 
 1-987,2.34 
 
 1- 552,469 
 
 2- 475,219 
 
 3- 342,059 
 101-595,311 
 
 59-811,438 
 18-845,301 
 32-705,831 
 27-180,819 
 
 1- 151,709 
 •893,930 
 
 7-809,785 
 •786,829 
 14-608,240 
 
 59^9 18,379 
 3-602,594 
 
 2- 082,490 
 
 30^142,643 
 •611,60& 
 
 7-442,63S 
 
 TotaU 
 
 "5,947,723 
 
 18,367,698 
 
 18,816,045 
 
 19,296,025 
 
 19,401,320 
 
 22,056,149 
 
 18,980,659 
 
 416-348,229 
 
 Asia. 
 Syria and Palestine 
 Arabia 
 
 East India Company's 
 Territories.andCeylon 
 China 
 
 Sumatra and Java 
 Philippine Isles - 
 Pons of Siam 
 
 2,704,963 
 790,338 
 471,712 
 185,298 
 
 250 
 
 2,578,569 
 842,852 
 410,273 
 76,518 
 19,742 
 
 6,049 
 
 3,192,692 
 1,074,708 
 353,892 
 129,743 
 
 33,650 
 10,358 
 
 4,285,829 
 1,32H,3S8 
 234,852 
 51,778 
 
 787 
 
 3,612,975 
 678,375 
 313,791 
 33,808 
 
 188,440 
 167 
 
 3,876,196 
 1,204,356 
 505.362 
 51,780 
 
 37,016 
 3,936 
 
 3,375,204 
 986,170 
 381,617 
 84,821 
 3,290 
 
 -810,010 
 •086,108 
 
 73-868,606 
 21-580,071 
 8-351,470 
 1-850,113 
 -071,994, 
 
 Totals 
 
 4,162,311 
 
 3,928,204 
 
 4,757,084 
 
 5,948,855 
 
 4,639,736 
 
 5,806,301 
 
 4,872,083 
 
 106-61 4,372 
 
 Africa. 
 Egypt (Ports on the 
 
 Mediterranean) - 
 Tripoli, Barbary, and 
 
 Morocco 
 Western Coast of Africa 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 Eastern Coast of Africa 
 African Ports on the 
 
 Ascension Island 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands - 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 Isle of Bourbon . 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 145,647 
 
 2,350 
 329,210 
 346,197 
 
 146 
 30,011 
 
 83,421 
 
 158,877 
 
 14,823 
 326,483 
 304,382 
 
 530 
 31,615 
 7,091 
 149,319 
 
 269,225 
 
 29,040 
 292,540 
 326,921 
 
 575 
 31,187 
 
 196,559 
 
 216,930 
 
 29,322 
 467,186 
 482.315 
 
 413 
 11,041 
 
 260,855 
 
 220,080 
 
 54,007 
 312,938 
 488,814 
 
 751 
 
 9,645 
 3,795 
 349,488 
 
 242,505 
 
 74,013 
 415,,354 
 623,323 
 
 10,569 
 
 196 
 1,075 
 1,592 
 13,990 
 
 467,542 
 
 208,877 
 
 33,926 
 356,952 
 428,659 
 1,762 
 
 33 
 179 
 635 
 21,2.53 
 1,814 
 2.51,165 
 
 4- 570,795 
 
 •742,393 
 7-811,077 
 9^380,220 
 
 -038,557 
 
 •000,722 
 •003,917 
 •013,896 
 •465,073 
 -059,695 
 
 5- 496,171 
 
 TotaU 
 
 937,015 
 
 993,120 
 
 1,146,047 
 
 1,468,062 
 
 1,439,519 
 
 1,847,759 
 
 1,506,256 
 
 28-.562,516 
 
 Amrrica. 
 British North American 
 
 Colonies 
 British West Indies 
 Hayii 
 
 Cuba and other Foreign 
 
 West Indies 
 UnitedStatesofAmerica 
 Mexico 
 Guatemala 
 Columbia 
 Brazil 
 
 States of the Rio de la 
 
 2,092,550 
 2,597,589 
 381,528 
 
 377,228 
 7,579,699 
 
 421,487 
 3,700 
 
 121,826 
 2,575,680 
 
 1,671,069 
 2,680,024 
 357,297 
 
 913,005 
 6,844,989 
 
 459,610 
 30,366 
 
 199,996 
 2,460,679 
 
 2,158,158 
 3,187,540 
 305,798 
 
 787,043 
 10,568,455 
 
 15)214 
 132,242 
 2,630,767 
 
 2,732,291 
 3,780,453 
 251,663 
 
 987,122 
 12,425,605 
 
 '764 
 185,172 
 3,030,532 
 
 2,141,0,35 
 3,456,745 
 171,050 
 
 891,713 
 
 4,695.225 
 
 '"78 
 170,461 
 1,824,082 
 
 1,992,457 
 3,395,441 
 290,139 
 
 1,025,392 
 7,585,760 
 
 174,3.38 
 2,606,604 
 
 2,131,200 
 3,183,652 
 502,913 
 
 863,584 
 8,283,288 
 
 8',354 
 164,004 
 2,521, .39; 
 
 46-537,741 
 69-066,491 
 6-628,557 
 
 18-897,-557 
 181-260,779 
 9-1 13,098 
 •182,808 
 3-588,862 
 66-174,864 
 
 Plata 
 Chili 
 Peru 
 
 515,362 
 816,817 
 387,524 
 
 831,564 
 896,221 
 299,235 
 
 658,525 
 600,176 
 441,524 
 
 697,334 
 861,903 
 606,332 
 
 696,104 
 625,545 
 476,374 
 
 680,345 
 413,047 
 412,195 
 
 679,872 
 7a3,386 
 457,164 
 
 14- 877,441 
 
 15- 391,909 
 9-666,.->32 
 
 Totals 
 
 18,070,990 
 
 17,644,055 
 
 21,954,062 
 
 25,819,993 
 
 16,668,002 
 
 19,014,094 
 
 19,695,299 
 
 430-986,489 
 
 Australia. 
 New South Wales, Van 
 
 Diemen's Land, and 
 
 Swan River 
 New Zealand and South 
 
 Sea Islands 
 
 558,372 
 936 
 
 716,014 
 
 696,345 
 2,087 
 
 835,637 
 
 921,508 
 
 1,336,662 
 1,095 
 
 844,100 
 786 
 
 18-471,194 
 •017,200 
 
 Totals 
 
 559,308 i 716,014 
 
 699,0"2 
 
 835,037 
 
 921,568 
 
 1,357,757 
 
 844,886 
 
 1 18-488 394 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 t/urope 
 
 Asia 
 
 Africa 
 
 America 
 
 AuKtralia 
 
 15,947,723 
 4,152,311 
 
 937,015 
 18,070,990 
 
 559,308 
 
 18,3f)7,6!*8 
 3,928,204 
 
 993, 12( 
 17,644,055 
 
 716,014 
 
 1S,810,(H5 
 4,757,084 
 1,116,047 
 
 21,954,002 
 699,032 
 
 19,290,025 
 5,948,855 
 1 ,408,002 
 
 25,819,993 
 835,657 
 
 19,401 ,.320 
 4,079,7.36 
 1,439,618 
 
 1 5,668 ,(;02 
 921,508 
 
 22,055,149 
 6,806,301 
 1,847,759 
 
 19,014,094 
 1,. 337, 7 67 
 
 18,980,65S 
 4,872,0.83 
 1 ,305,255 
 
 19,095,299 
 844,886 
 
 415-.348,229 
 100-011,372 
 
 28-562,516 
 4.3II-9S6,I89 
 
 18-48.S,394 
 
 (Jrand TotaU 
 
 39,607,347 
 
 41,649,091 
 
 47,372,270 
 
 53,308,572 
 
 42,070,744 
 
 50,061,060 
 
 45,698,182 
 
 1-000,000,000, 
 
 i 
 
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
 679 
 
 VI. Acount of the Value of the various Articles of the rroducc and Manufacture the Unit^ 
 Kingdom exported to Foreign Parts, according to the real or declared Value tliereof, in the Years ladO, 
 1837, and 183S. 
 
 GiiEAT Britain. 
 Alum - ..... 
 Apparel, slops, and negro clothing 
 Arms and ammunition ... 
 Bacon and hams .... 
 Beef and pork, salted . . - - 
 
 Beer and ale ..... 
 Books, printed - .... 
 Brass and copper manufactures 
 Bread and biscuit - - . . - 
 
 Butler anil cheese .... 
 Cabinet and upholstery wares 
 Coals and culm ..... 
 Covdaife . . . . - 
 
 Corn, "grain, meal, and flour 
 Cotton manufactures .... 
 
 yarn .... 
 Cows and oxen . . . - . 
 Earthenware of all sorts 
 
 Fish of all sorts 
 
 Glass of all sorts .... 
 Haberdashery and millinery ... 
 Hardwares and cutlery ... 
 Hats, benver and felt ..... 
 of all other sorts - - - - 
 
 Hops 
 
 Horses ..... 
 
 Iron and steel, wrought and unwrouglit 
 Lard ....... 
 
 Lead and shot .... 
 
 Leather, wrought and unwrought 
 
 sadlery and harness - - • - 
 Linen manufactures - - 
 
 yarn ... 
 Machinery and mill work 
 Mathematical and optical instruments 
 Mules ..... 
 
 Musical instruments ... 
 Oil, train, of Greenland fishery 
 Painters' colours ... 
 Plate, plated ware, jewellery, and watches 
 Poutoes ..... 
 
 Salt ..... 
 
 Saltpetre, British refined 
 
 Seeds of all sorts .... 
 Silk manufactures .... 
 Soap and candles .... 
 Spirits • . - . . 
 
 Stationery of all sorts .... 
 Sugar, refined ... . 
 
 Tin, unwrought .... 
 
 and pewter wares, and tin plates 
 Tobacco, manufactured, and snult" 
 Tongues ..... 
 Umbrellas and parasols - - . 
 
 Whalebone . . . . , 
 
 Wool, sheep's - ... 
 
 of other sorts ... 
 Woollen and worsted yam - - . 
 
 Woollen manufactures ... 
 All other articles .... 
 
 Total real or declared value of the produce and ma 
 nufactures of the United Kingdom exported from 
 Great Britain to foreign parts 
 
 Total declared value of the produce and manufac- 
 tures of the United Kingdom exported from Ire- 
 land to foreign parts - - . . 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 L. 
 
 C04,8K3 
 41 1, m 
 42,319 
 
 178,0.-54 
 1,072,002 
 8,184 
 
 7r>,r,ii 
 
 329,7fiO 
 84,475 
 31,297 
 18,482,686 
 6,120,."26 
 .'5,072 
 8.'57,4M 
 185,433 
 .O,--) 1,599 
 681,980 
 2,270,630 
 147,907 
 41,753 
 11,788 
 98,.302 
 2,340,207 
 26,585 
 224,931 
 316,322 
 93,388 
 3,249,053 
 315,608 
 300,852 
 25,030 
 5,366 
 76,120 
 5,836 
 210,811 
 
 4,915 
 171,463 
 14,411 
 
 8,920 
 916,777 
 276,222 
 24,297 
 297,945 
 623,327 
 61,847 
 387,528 
 13,654 
 .3,599 
 62,336 
 10,550 
 323,j49 
 .39,967 
 358,690 
 7,6'56,n7 
 1,293,932 
 
 1837. 
 
 L. 
 
 2,761 
 533,301 
 289,142 
 .35,840 
 119,117 
 268,235 
 147,4.30 
 1,166,082 
 9,991 
 179,073 
 67,357 
 428.690 
 73,231 
 34,781 
 13,6.32,146 
 6,955,936 
 6,107 
 563,082 
 185,120 
 475,995 
 414,687 
 1,460,404 
 104,60fJ 
 46,290 
 10,547 
 75,215 
 2,003,708 
 14,7 82 
 155,210 
 250,.308 
 87,037 
 2,109,897 
 415,726 
 493,298 
 27,259 
 5,104 
 71,618 
 5,700 
 151 ,.-07 
 257,726 
 7,030 
 190,444 
 19,593 
 7,466 
 503,653 
 230,835 
 10,485 
 197,489 
 453,984 
 ■ 73,157 
 371,518 
 13,124 
 3,744 
 39,464 
 6,.347 
 185,350 
 10,076 
 337,140 
 4,654,397 
 1,117,269 
 
 3'>.3,141 303,010 
 
 L. 
 
 5,753 
 ."581,9.34 
 333,697 
 49,226 
 11K,486 
 311,79^ 
 143,9t5 
 l,2i!l,073 
 9,839 
 230,674 
 77,201 
 483,6.30 
 92,986 
 .34, .'.19 
 16,709,1.36 
 7,431,848 
 4, ,344 
 651,095 
 208,601 
 375,859 
 514,053 
 1,497,525 
 91,256 
 61,584 
 17,397 
 63,283 
 2,550,895 
 22,433 
 154,108 
 267,103 
 90,841 
 2,785,236 
 587,891 
 627,146 
 24,474 
 6,131 
 65,292 
 10,463 
 177,678 
 240,393 
 12,570 
 221,111 
 28,079 
 10,331 
 777,273 
 334,248 
 17,385 
 218,176 
 553,222 
 101,800 
 458,798 
 12,446 
 6,490 
 50,702 
 6,201 
 381, .356 
 24,390 
 384,535 
 5,793,417 
 1,535,546 
 
 50,060,970 
 
 * There is a slight discrepancy between the numbers in this and the previous table, 
 rived from different parliamentary papers, and these do not always agree. 
 
 They were de- 
 
 We should have inserted here, had the space permitted, an account of the official value (there being no 
 account of the real value) of the different articles of Foreign and Colonial Merchandise exported from 
 the United Kingdom in 1836, 1837, and 1838 ; but we have been obliged to give it in the SuppUment, 
 ■where the reader will find it under the art. Imports and E.xports. — The value of such merchandise ex- 
 ported from Great Britain in 1838 amounted to .i^l2,702,660, whereas that exported from Ireland amounted 
 to only -£8,658! The great articles of export are cotton wool, sugar, coffee, indigo, and other dye 
 stuffs, rum, cotton manufactures of India, spices, &c. — The countries to %vhich the commodities in 
 question are exported, and the value of those sent to each in 1834, are exhibited in the previously men- 
 tioned article of the Supplement. 
 
 Causes of the Magnitude of British Commerce, — The immediate cause of the rapid 
 increase and vast magnitude of the commerce of Great Britain, is doubtless to be found 
 in the extraordinary improvements, and consequent extension of our manufactures since 
 1770. The cotton manufacture may be said to have grown up during the intervening 
 period. It must also be borne in mind, that the effect of an improvement in the pro- 
 duction of any article in considerable demand is not confined to that particular article, 
 but extends itself to others. Those who produce it according the old plan, are under- 
 sold unless they adopt the same or similar improvements ; and the improved article, by 
 coming into competition with others for which it may be substitued, infuses new energy 
 
 2X4 
 
680 
 
 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
 into their producersj and impels every one to put forth all his powers, that he may either 
 preserve his old, or acquire new advantages. The cotton manufacture may be said to 
 be the result of the stupendous inventions and discoveries of Hargraves, Arkwrio-ht, 
 Crompton, and a few others ; but we should greatly under-rate the importance of their 
 inventions, if we supposed that their influence was limited to this single department. 
 They imparted a powerful stimulus to every branch of industry. Their success, and 
 that of Watt and Wedgwood, gave that confidence to genius so essential in all great 
 undertakings. After machines had been invented for spinning and weaving cottons, 
 whose fineness emulates the web of the gossamer, and steam-engines had been made " to 
 
 engrave seals, and to lift a ship like a bauble in the air," every thing seemed possible nil 
 
 arduum visum est. And the unceasing efforts of new aspirants to wealth and distinction, 
 and the intimate connection of the various arts and sciences, have extended and perpetuated 
 the impulse given by the invention of the spinning-frame and the steam-engine. 
 
 The immense accumulation of capital that has taken place since the close of the 
 American war has been at once a cause and a consequence of our increased trade and 
 manufactures. Those who reflect on the advantages which an increase of capital 
 confers on its possessors can have no difficulty in perceiving how it operates to extend 
 trade. It enables them to buy cheaper, because they buy larger quantities of goods, and 
 pay ready money ; and, on the other hand, it gives them a decided superiority in foreign 
 markets where capital is scarce, and credit an object of primary importance with the 
 native dealers. To the manufacturer, an increase of capital is of equal importance, by 
 giving him the means of constructing his works in the best manner, and of carrying on 
 the business on such a scale as to admit of the most proper distribution of whatever has 
 to be done among diflPerent individuals. These effects have been strikingly evinced in 
 the commercial history of Great Britain during the last half century ; and thus it is, 
 tliat capital, originally accumulated by means of trade, gives, in its turn, nourishment, 
 vigour, and enlarged growth to it. 
 
 The improvement that has taken place in the mode of living during the last half 
 century has been partly the effect, and partly the cause, of the improvement of manu- 
 factures, and the extension of commerce. Had we been contented with the same accom- 
 modations as our ancestors, exertion and ingenuity would long since have been at an 
 end, and routine have usurped the place of invention. Happily, however, the desires of 
 man vary with the circumstances under which he is placed, extending with every exten- 
 sion of tlie means of gratifying them, till, in highly civilised countries, they appear 
 almost illimitable. This endless craving of the human mind, its inability to rest satis- 
 fied with previous acquisitions, combined with the constant increase of population, renders 
 the demand for new inventions and discoveries as intense at one period as at another, 
 and provides for the continued advancement of society. What is a luxury in one age, 
 tecomes a necessary in the next. The fact of Queen Elizabeth having worn a pair o» 
 silk stockings was reckoned deserving of notice by contemporary historians ; while, at 
 present, no individual, in the rank of a gentleman, can go to dinner without them. The 
 lower classes are continually pressing upon the middle ; and these, again, upon the 
 higher; so that invention is racked, as well to vary the modes of enjoyment, as to in- 
 crease the amount of wealth. That this competition should be, in all respects, advan- 
 tageous, is not to be supposed. Emulation in show, though the most powerful incentive 
 to industry, may be carried to excess; and has certainly been ruinous to many indivi- 
 duals, obliged sometimes, perhaps, by their situation, or seduced by example, to incur 
 expenses beyond their means. But the abuse, even when most extended, as it probably 
 is in England, is, after all, confined within comparatively narrow limits ; while the bene- 
 ficial influence resulting from the general diffusion of a taste for improved accommodations 
 adds to the science, industry, wealth, and enjoyments of the whole community. 
 
 We are also inclined to think that the increase of taxation, during the late war, con- 
 tributed to the improvement of manufactures, and the extension of trade. The gradually 
 increasing pressure of the public burdens stimulated the industrious portion of the com- 
 munity to make corresponding efforts to preserve their place in society ; and produced 
 a spirit of invention and economy that we should have in vain attempted to excite by 
 any less powerful means. Had taxation been very oppressive, it woidd not have had 
 this effect ; but it was not so high as to produce either dejection or despair, though it 
 was, at the same time, sufficiently heavy to render a considerable increase of exertion 
 and parsimony necessary, to prevent it from encroaching on the fortunes of individuals, 
 or, at all events, from diminishing the rate at which they were previously accumulating 
 To the excitement afforded by the desire of rising in the world, the fear of falling super- 
 added an additional and powerful stimulus; arid the two together produced results that 
 could not liave been produced by the unassisted operation of either. We do not think 
 that any evidence has been, or can be, produced to show, that the capital of the country 
 would liave been materially greater than it is, had the tranquillity of Europe been ma.in> 
 *Ained uninterrupted from 1793 to the present moment. 
 
IMPRESSMENT. 
 
 681 
 
 We do not state these circumstances in order to extenuate the evils of war, or of op- 
 pressive taxation ; but merely to show the real influence of taxation on industry, when 
 gradually augmented and kept within reasonahie hounds. Under sucli circumstances, it 
 has the same influence on a nation that an increase of his family, or of his unavoidable 
 expenses, has on a private individual. 
 
 But after every fair allowanc»> has been made for the influence of the causes above 
 stated, and of others of a similar description, still it is abundantly certain that a liberal 
 system of government, affording full scope for the expansion and cultivation of every 
 mental and bodily power, and securing all the advantages of superior talent and address 
 to their possessors, is the grand sine qua non of commercial and manufacturing prosperity. 
 Where oppression and tyranny prevail, the inhabitants, though surrounded by all the 
 means of civilisation and wealth, are invariably poor and miserable. In respect of soil, 
 climate, and situation, Spain has a decided advantage over Great Britain : and yet, what 
 a miserable contrast does the former present, when compared with the latter ! I'he 
 despotism and intolerance of her rulers, and the want of good order and tranquillity, 
 have extinguished every germ of improvement in the Peninsula, and sunk the inhal)itants 
 to the level of the Turks and Moors. Had a similar political system been established in 
 England, we should have been equally depressed. Our superiority in science, arts, and 
 arms, though promoted by subsidiary means, is, at bottom, the result of freedom and 
 security — freedom to engage in every employment, and to pursue our own interest in 
 our own way, coupled with an intimate conviction, derived from the nature of our insti- 
 tutions, and their opposition to every thing like arbitrary power, that acquisitions, when 
 made, may be securely enjoyed or disposed of. These form the grand sources of our 
 wealth and power. There have only been two countries, — Holland and the United 
 States, — which have, in these respects, been placed under nearly the same circumstances 
 as England ; and, notwithstanding they inhabit a morass, defended only by artificial 
 mounds from being deluged by the ocean, the Dutch have long been, and still continue 
 to be, the most prosperous and opulent people of the Continent ; while the Americans, 
 whose situation is more favourable, are advancing in the career of improvement with a 
 rapidity hitherto unknown. In Great Britain we have been exempted, for a lengthened 
 period, from foreign aggression and intestine commotion ; the pernicious influence of the 
 feudal system has long been at an end ; the same equal burdens have been laid on all 
 classes ; we have enjoyed the advantage of liberal institutions, without any material alloy 
 of popular licentiousness or violence ; ovir intercourse with foreign nations, though sub- 
 jected to many vexatious restraints, has been comparatively free ; full scope has been 
 given to the competition of the home producers ; the highest offices have been open to 
 deserving individuals ; and, on the whole, the natural order of things has been less dis- 
 turbed amongst us by artificial restraints than in most other countries. But without 
 security, no degree of freedom would have been of material importance. Happily, 
 however, every man has felt satisfied, not only of the temporar)"^, but of the permanent 
 tranquillity of the country, and of the stability of its institutions. The plans and com- 
 binations of capitalists have not been affected by misgivings as to what might take 
 place in future. Monied fortunes have not been amassed in preference to others, be- 
 cause th'^y might be more easily sent abroad in periods of contusion and disorder ; but 
 all individuals have unhesitatingly engaged, whenever an opportunity offered, in imder- 
 takings of which a remote posterity was alone to reap the benefit. No one can look at 
 the immense sums expended upon the permanent improvement of the land, on docks, 
 warehouses, canals, &c., or reflect for a moment on the settlements of property in the 
 funds, and on the extent of our system of life insurance, without being deeply impressed 
 with the vast importance of that confidence which the public have placed in the security 
 of property, and the good faith of government. Had this confidence been imperfect, 
 industry and invention would have been paralysed ; and much of that capital which feeds 
 and clothes the industrious classes would never have existed. The preservation of this 
 security entire, both in fact avd in opiiiion, is essential to the public welfare. If it be 
 anywise impalxed, the colossal fabric of our prosperity will crumble into dust; and the 
 commerce of London, Liverpool, and Glasgow, like that of Tyre, Carthage, and Pal- 
 myra, will, at no very remote period, be famous only' in history. — (From the Treatise 
 on Commerce, contributed by the author of this work to the Society for the Diffusion of 
 Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 IMPRESSMENT, the forcible taking away of seamen from their ordinary em- 
 ployment, and compelling them to serve, against their will, in his Majesty's ships. 
 
 1. Regulations as to Impressment. — This practice is not expressly sanctioned by any act of parliament ; 
 but it is so indirectly by the numerous statutes that have been passed, granting exen-'.ptions from it. 
 According to Lord Mansfield, it is " a power founded upon immemorial usage," and is understood to 
 make a i)art of the common law. All Si a-Jarhig men are liable to imi'rossment^^unless specially protected 
 by custom or statute. Seamen executing particular services for goveri.ment, not unfrtquently get pro. 
 tections from the Admiralty, Navy Board, itc. Some are exempted by load custom : am\ ferrymen are 
 every where privileged from impressment. The statutory exemptioiis'are numerous. 
 
682 
 
 INDEMNITY. — INDIGO. 
 
 1. Every thip in the coal trade has the following persons pro- 
 tected, viz. 2 able seamen (such as the master shall nominate) 
 for every ship of 100 tons; and 1 for every 30 tons for every 
 sl'.ip of 100 tons and upwards ; and any officer who presumes 
 to impress any of the above, shall forfeit, to the master or 
 owner of such vessel, 10/. for every man so impressed ; and such 
 officer shall be incapable of holding any place, office, or em- 
 ployment, in any of his Majesty's ships of war. — (6 & 7 Will. 3. 
 c. 18. sect. 19.) * 
 
 2. No parish apprentice shall be compelled or permitted to 
 enter into his Majesty's sea service till he arrives at the age of 
 18 years. — (2 & 3 Anne, c. 6. sect. 4.) 
 
 3. Persons voluntarily binding themselves apprentices to sea 
 service, shall not be impressed for 3 years from the date of their 
 indentures. But no persons above 18 vears of age shall have 
 any exemption or protection from his Majesty's service, if they 
 have been at sea before they became apprentices. — (2 & 3 
 Anne, c. 6. sect. 15.; 4 Anne, c. 19. sect. 17.; and 13 Geo. 2. 
 c. 17. sect. 2.) 
 
 4. Apprentices. — The act 4 Geo. 4. c. 25. enacts some new 
 regulations with respect to the number of apprentices that ships 
 mast have on board according to their tonnage ; and grants 
 protection to such apprentices till they have attained the age 
 of 21 years. — (For the regulations of this act, see Ap- 
 prentices.) 
 
 5. Persons employed in the Fisheries. — The act 50 Geo. 3. 
 c. 108. grants the following exemptions from impressment, 
 viz. : — 
 
 1st, Masters of , fishing vessels or boats, who, either themselves 
 or their owners, have, or within 6 months before applying for 
 a protection shall have had, 1 apprentice or more under 16 
 years of age, bound for 5 years, and employed in the business 
 of fishing. 
 
 2dly, AH such apprentices, not exceeding eight to every mas- 
 ter or owner of any fishing vessel of 60 tons or upwards ; not 
 exceeding seveii to every vessel or boat of 35 tons and under 50 ; 
 not exceeding six to every vessel of 30 tons and under 35 tons ; 
 and not exceeding four to every vessel or boat under 30 tons 
 
 burden during the time of their apprenticeship, and till th« 
 age of M years ; they continuing, tor the time, in the businei* 
 of fishing only. 
 
 3dly, One mariner, besides the master and apprentices, to 
 every fishing vessel of 10 tons or upwards, employed on Uie 
 sea-coast, during his continuance in such service. 
 
 4thly, Any landsrmin above the age of 18, entering and em- 
 ployed on board such vessel, for 2 years from his first going to 
 sea ; and to the end of the voyage then engaged in, if he so 
 long continue in such service. 
 
 An affidavit sworn before a justice of the peace, containing 
 the tonnage of such fishing vessel or boat, the port or place to 
 which she belongs, the name and description of the master, 
 the age of every apprentice, the term for which he is bound, 
 and the date of his indenture, and the name, age, and descrip- 
 tion of every such mariner and landsman respectively, and the 
 time of such landsman's first going to sea, is to be transmitted 
 to the Admiralty; who, upon finding the facts correctly stated, 
 grant a separate protection to every individual. In case, how- 
 ever, « of an actual invasion qf these kingdoms, or imminent 
 danger thereof," such protected persons may be impressed; 
 but except upon such an emergency, any officer or officers 
 impressing such protected persons shall respectively forfeit 20/. 
 to the party impressed, if not an apprentice, or to his master 
 if he be an apprentice. — Sects. 2, 3, 4. 
 
 •5. General Exemptions. — All persons 55 years of age anil 
 upwards, and under 18 years. Every person being a foreigner, 
 who shall serve in any merchant ship, or other trading vessel, or 
 privateer, belonging to a subject of the Crown of Great Britain ; 
 and all persons, of what age soever, who shall use the sea ; shall 
 be protected for 2 years, to be computed from the time of their 
 first using it. _ (13 Geo. 2. c. 17.) 
 
 7- Harponeers, line managers, or boat steerers, engaged in 
 
 the southern whale fishery, are also protected. (26 Geo. 3. 
 
 C. 60.) 
 
 8. Mariners employed in the herring fishery are exempted 
 •while actually employed. — (48 Geo. 3. c." 110.) 
 
 2. Polict/ of Impi-essment. This practice, so subversive of every principle of justice, is vindicated on 
 the alleged ground of its being absolutely necessary to the manning of the fleet. But this position, not- 
 withstanding the confidence with which is has been taken up, is not quite so tenable as has been sup. 
 posed. The ditficulties experienced in procuring sailors for the fleet at the breaking out of a war, are not 
 natural but artificial, and miglit be got rid of by a very simple arrangement. During peace, not more 
 than a fourth or a fifth part of the seamen are retained in his Majesty's service that are commonly re- 
 quired during war; and if peace continue for a few years, the total number of sailors in the king's and 
 the merchant service is limited to that which is merely adequate to supply the reduced demand of the 
 former, and the ordinary demand of the latter. "When, therefore, war is declared, and 30,000 or 40,000 
 additional seamen are wanted for the fleet, they cannot be obtained, unless by withdrawing them from 
 the merchant service, which has not more than its proper complement of hands. But to do this by offer, 
 ing the seamen higher wages would be next to impossible ; and would, supposing it were practicable, 
 impose such a sacrifice upon the public as could hardly be borne. And hence, it is said, the necessity of 
 impressment; a practice which every one admits can be justified on no other ground than that of its 
 being absolutely essential to the public safety. 
 
 It is plain, however, that a necessity of this sort may be easily obviated. All, in fact, that is necessary 
 for this purpose, is merely to keep such a number of sailors in his Majesty's service during peace as may 
 suffice, with the ordinary proportion of landmen and boys, to man the fleet at the breaking out of a war. 
 Were this done, there would not be the shadow of a pretence for resorting to impressment; and the 
 practice, with the cruelty and injustice inseparable from it, might be entirely abolished. 
 
 But it is said that, though desirable in many respects, the expense of such a plan will always prevent it 
 from being adopted. It admits, however, of demonstration, that instead of being dearer, this plan would 
 be actually cheaper than that which is now followed. Not more than 1,000,000/. or 1,200,000/. a year 
 would be required to be added to the navy estimates, and that would not be a real, but merely a nominal 
 advance. The violence and injustice to which the practice of impressment exposes sailors, operates at all 
 times to raise their wages, by creating a disinclination on the part of many young men to enter the sea 
 service; and this disinclination is vastly increased during war, when wages usually rise to Jour or five 
 times their previous amount, imposing a burden on the commerce of the country, exclusive of other 
 equally mischievous consequences, many times greater than the tax that would be required to keep up 
 the peace establishment of the navy to its proper level. It is really, therefore, a vulgar error to suppose 
 that impressment has the recommendation of cheapness in its favour; and, though it had, no reasonable 
 man would contend that that is the only, or even the principal, circumstance to be attended to. In point 
 of fact, however, it is as costly as it is oppressive and unjust. — (The reader is referred, for a fuller dis. 
 cussion of this interesting question, to the note on Impressment in the 4th volume of the Wealth of 
 Nations.) 
 
 INDEMNITY, is where one person secures another from responsibility against any 
 particular event ; thus, a policy of insurance is a contract of indemnity against any par- 
 ticular loss. Where one person also becomes bail for another, a bond of indemnity is 
 frequently executed ; and where a bond or bill of exchange has been lost or mislaid, the 
 acceptor or obligee would not act prudently in paying it, without being secured by a 
 bond of indemnity. 
 
 INDIAN RUBBER. See Caoutchouc. 
 
 INDIGO (Fr. Indigo ; Ger. Indigo; Sans. Nili ; Arab. Ncel ; Malay, Taroom), 
 the drug which yields the beautiful blue dye known by that name. It is obtained 
 by the maceration in water of certain tropical plants ; but the indigo of commerce is 
 almost entirely obtained from leguminous plants of the genus Indigofera : that cultivated 
 in India being the Indigofera tinctoria ; and that in America the Indigofera aiiil. The 
 Indian plant has pinnate leaves and a slender ligneous stem ; and when successfully cul- 
 tivated, rises to the height of 3, 5, and even 6 feet. 
 
 It appears pretty certain that the culture of the indigo plant, and the preparation of 
 
 • In order that these men shall be thus protected, it is neces.sary for the master to name them, before 
 tfiey are impressed : this is to be done by going before the mayor or other chief magistrate of the place, 
 who is to give the master a certificate, in which is contained the names of the particular men whom he 
 thus nominates; and this certificate will be their protection. 
 
INDIGO. 
 
 683 
 
 the drug, have been practised in India from a very remote epoch It has been ques- 
 tioned, indeed, whether tlic indicum mentioned by Pliny (IJist. Nut. lib. xxxv. c. 6.) 
 was indigo, but, as it would seem, without any good reason. Pliny states that it was 
 brought from India; that when diluted it produced an admirable mixture of blue and 
 purple colours (^in dilucndo misturam purpura: caruleique mirubilem reddit) ; and he gives 
 tests by which the genuine drug might be discriminated with sufficient precision. It is 
 true that Pliny is egregiously mistaken as to the mode in which the drug was pro- 
 duced ; but there are many examples in modern as well as ancient times, to prove that 
 the possession of an article brought from a distance implies no accurate knowledge of 
 its nature, or of the processes followed in its manufacture. Beckmann (Hist, of Inven- 
 tions, vol. iv. art. Indigo) and Dr. Bancroft (Permanent Colours, vol. i. pp. 241 — 252.) 
 liave each investigated this subject with great learning and sagacity ; and agree in tlie 
 conclusion that the indicum of Pliny was real indigo, and not, as has been supposed, a 
 drug prepared from the isatis or woad. At all events, there can be no question that in- 
 digo was imported into modern Europe, by way of Alexandria, previously to the discovery 
 of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope. When first introduced, it was cus- 
 tomary to mix a little of it with woad to heighten and improve the colour of the latter ; 
 but, by degrees, the quantity of indigo was increased ; and woad was, at last, entirely 
 superseded. It is worth while, however, to remark, that indigo did not make its way 
 into general use without encountering rpuch opposition. The growers of woad prevailed 
 on several governments to prohibit the use of indigo ! In Germany, an Imperial edict 
 was published in 1 654, prohibiting the use of indigo, or devil's dye,'' and directing great 
 care to be taken to prevent its clandestine importation, " because," says the edict, " the 
 trade in woad is lessened, dyed articles injured, and money carried out of the country ! " 
 The magistrates of Nuremburg went further, and compelled the dyers of that city to take 
 an oath once a year not to use indigo ; which practice was continued down to a late 
 period. In 1598, upon an urgent representation of the states of Languedoc, at the solicit- 
 ation of the woad growers, the use of indigo was prohibited in that province ; and it was 
 not till 1 737, that the dyers of France were left at liberty to dye with such articles, and 
 in such a way, as they pleased. — (Beckmann, vol. iv. p. 142.) Let not those who may- 
 happen to throw their eyes over this paragraph, smile at the ignorance of our ancestors 
 ■ — Mutato nomine, de te f alula narratur. How much opposition is made at this moment 
 to the importation of many important articles, for no better reasons than were alleged, in 
 the sixteenth century, against the importation of indigo ! 
 
 Indigo is at present produced in Bengal, and the other provinces subject to the presidency of that 
 lame, from the 2Uth to the 30th degree of north latitude ; in the province of Tinnevelly, under the Madras 
 government; in Java; in Luconia, the principal of (he Philippine Islands; and in Guatemala, and the 
 Caraccas, in Central America. Bengal is, however, the great mart for indigo ; and the quantity produced 
 m the other places is comparatively inconsiderable. 
 
 Raynal was of opinion that the culture of indigo had been introduced into America by the Spaniards; 
 Dut this is undoubtedly an erro. Several species of indigofera belong to the New World ; and the 
 Spaniards used it as a substitute for ink very soon after the conquest. — {Humboldt, Essai Politique sur la 
 Houvelle Es^agne, tom. iii. p. 54. 2d ed.) 
 
 For the hrst iO years after the English became masters of Bengal, the culture and manufacture of 
 ;ndigo, now of such importance, was unknown as a branch of British industry ; and the exports were 
 but trifling The European markets were, at this period, principally supplied from America. In 1783, 
 however, the attention of the English began to be directed to this business ; and though the processes 
 pursued by them be nearly the same with those followed by the natives, their greater skill, intelligence, 
 and capital, give them immense advantages. In their hands, the growth and preparation of indigo has 
 become the most important employment, at least in a commercial pointof view, carried on in the country. 
 The indigo made by the natives supplies the internal demand ; so that all that is raised by Europeans is 
 exported. 
 
 In the Delta of the Ganges, where the best and largest quantity of indigo is produced, the plant lasts 
 only for a single season, being destroyed by the periodical inundation ; but in the dry central and western 
 provinces, one or two rattoon crops are obtained : and owing to this circumstance, the latter are enabled 
 to furnish a large supply of seed to the former. 
 
 The fixed capital required in the manulacture of indigc consists of a few vats of common masonry for 
 steeping the plant, and precipitating the colouring matter; a boiling and drying house; and a dwelling 
 house for the planter. These, for a factory of 10 pair of vats, capable of producing, at an average, 
 12,500 lbs. of indigo, worth on the spot about 2,500/., will not cost above 1,500/. sterling. The buildings 
 and machinery necessary to produce an equal value in sugar and rum, would probably cost about 4,000/. 
 This fai t, therefore, without any reference to municipal regulations, affords a ready answer to the ques- 
 tion which has been frequently put, why the British planters in India have never engaged in the manu- 
 facture of sugar. 
 
 During the 9 years which preceded the opening of the trade with India, in 1814, the annual average 
 produce of indigo in Bengal, for exportation, was nearly 5,600,000 lbs. ; but the average produce of the 
 4 last years of this period scarcely equalled that of the preceding 5. But since the ports were opened, the 
 indigo produced for exportation has increased fully a third ; the exports during the 16 years ending with 
 1829-30, being above 7,400,000 lbs. a year. The following brief statement shows the rate of this increase, 
 taking the average produce of each 4' years : — 
 
 and it has continued about the same smce. 
 
 It deserves to be remarked, that since the opening of the trade, Indian capitalists have betaken them- 
 selves to the manufacture of indigo on the European method, and that at present about a filth part of the 
 whole annual produce is preparetl by them. 
 
 The culture of indigo is very precarious, not only in so far as respects the growth of the plant from year 
 
 • 9,000,000 
 
684 
 
 INDIGO. 
 
 to year, but also as regards the quantity and quality of the drug which the same amount of plant m\ 
 afford even in the same season. Thus, the produce of 1825-26 was 41,000 chests, while the produce cl 
 the following year was but 25,000 chests; the produce of 1827-28 was about 42,000 chests, and that a» 
 1828-2'J only 26,500 chests! The average of these years, that is, about 9,000,000 lbs., may be considered 
 as the present annual produce of Bengal. The price of indigo in India increased, for a while, in a far 
 greater ratio than the quantity. In 1813-14, the real value of that exported from Calcutta was 1,461,000/. ; 
 but in 1827-28, although the quantity had increased but 20 per cent, the value rose to 2,920,000/., or was 
 about doubled. There was no corresponding rise in the price in Europe, but, on the contrary, a decline ; 
 and the circumstance is to be accounted for by the restraints placed on the investment of capital in the 
 production of colonial articles suited to the European market, the consequent difficulty of making remit- 
 tances from India, and an unnatural flow of capital to the only great article of Indian produce and export 
 that is supposed capable of bearing its application. 
 
 But the effects of the profuse advances made by the Calcutta capitalists to those engaged in the indigo 
 culture, coupled with the increasing imports from Madras, and the stationary demand for the drug in this 
 country, have at length manifested themselves in the most distressing manner. Prices have been so 
 much reduced that a ruinous reaction has taken place; most of the Calcutta merchants engaged in the 
 trade having been obliged to stop payment, involving in their fall several opulent houses in this country 
 It remains to be seen whether this will occasion any diminution in the supplies of indigo, or whether the 
 supply may not be maintained even at the reduced prices by increased economy. The subjoined Table 
 shows that prices advanced considerably in 1833; but it is doubtful whether this advance will be sus- 
 tained. 
 
 The consumption of indigo has varied but little in this country during the last dozen years, having been, 
 at aa average of that period, about 2,300,000 lbs. a year. This stationary demand, notwithstanding the 
 fall in the price of the drug and the increase of population, is principally to be ascribed to the decreasing 
 use of blue cloth, in the dyeing of which it is principally made use of. Its consumption in France is about 
 as great as in Britain. Besides the exports to Great Britain, France, and the United States, a good deal 
 of Bengal indigo is exported to the ports on the Persian Gulf, whence it finds its way to southern Russia. 
 It is singular that it is not used by the Chinese, with whom blue is a favourite colour. 
 
 The indigo of Bengal is divided into two classes, called, in commercial language, Bengal and Oudej the 
 flrst being the produce of the southern provinces of Bengal and Bahar, and the last that of the northern 
 provinces. The first is, in point of quality, much superior to the other. This arose at «one time, in a 
 considerable degree, from the practice which prevailed in the northern provinces, of the European planter 
 purchasing the wet fecula from the native manufacturer, and completing the processes of curing and drying 
 the drug. This is at present in a great measure discontinued ; and the Oude indigo has, in consequence, 
 considerably improved in quality. Its inferiority is probably more the result of soil and climate, than of 
 any difference in the skill with which the manufacture is conducted. 
 
 In 1827-28, and we are possessed of no later data, the export of indigo from the port of Madras amounted 
 to 880,880 lbs. weight ; having more than quadrupled in the course of the preceding 5 years. Besides the 
 export from Madras, there is also a considerable one from the French settlement of Pondicherry ; of 
 which, however, we have no detailed statement. In 1827, the export of indigo from Manilla amounted 
 to about 290,000 lbs. avoirdupois ; but it is understood to have materially increased since. The export 
 from Batavia, in 1829, amounted to 152,000 lbs. weight, and the production is rapidly increasing. Accord- 
 ing to the statement now given, the annual exports of Asiatic indigo are as follow : — Bengal, 9,000,000 lbs.; 
 Madras, 900,000 lbs. ; Manilla, 300,000 lbs. ; Batavia, 150,000 lbs. Hence the annual average produce 
 for foreign markets, making allowance for a trifling augmentation in the exports from Madras, Java, and 
 the Philippines, is certainly not less than 10,500,000 lbs. 
 
 According to M. Humboldt, the exportation of indigo from Guatemala, in 1825, amounted to 1,800,000 lbs. 
 Indigo is also produced in some of the West India islands, but not in large quantities. 
 
 Good indigo is known by its lightness or small specific gravity, indicating the absence of earthy impuri- 
 ties; by the mass not readily parting with its colouring matter when tested by drawing a streak with it 
 over a white surface; but, above all, by the purity of the colour itself. The first quality, estimated by 
 this last test, is called, in commercial language, blue; then follow ordinary blue, fine purple, pur j)le 
 and violet, ordinary purple and violet, dull blue, inferior purple and violet, strong copper, and ordinary 
 copper. These distinctions refer to the Bengal indigo only, the Oude being distinguished only into fine 
 and ordinary. The qualities of Madras and Manilla indigo are nearly the same, and equal to ordinary 
 Bengal indigo. The indigo of Java is superior to these. 
 
 We are indebted to Mr. Cook for the following Table, which gives a very comprehensive view of the 
 state of the crops of indigo in Bengal, and the imports, consumption, and prices of Bengal indigo, since 
 1811-12: — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Import 
 
 Deli- 
 
 Stock 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 from 
 
 veries 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Crops in Beng 
 
 al. 
 
 
 India 
 into 
 
 for 
 Export 
 
 Great 
 Britain 
 
 
 
 Average Prices in London. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Great 
 Britain 
 
 and 
 Home 
 Con. 
 
 31st of 
 Dec. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Maunds, 
 
 
 Chests. 
 
 
 Chests. 
 
 Chests. 
 
 Chests. 
 
 Vrs. 
 
 Fine Bengal 
 per lb. 
 
 
 Ord. Bengal, 
 per lb. 
 
 Low Oude. 
 per lb. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. s. 
 
 (1. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 • a. 
 
 d. 
 
 t. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 1811-1812 
 
 70,000 
 
 
 19,500 
 
 1812 
 
 17,200 
 
 14,600 
 
 Q9,5(Hj 
 
 ,1812 
 
 8 
 
 Oto 10 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 orto 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 0 to 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1812-1813 
 
 78,000 
 
 
 22,000 
 
 1813 
 
 14,300 
 
 19,300 
 
 24,500 
 24,9(W 
 
 1813 
 
 10 
 
 0—14 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 3 — 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 — 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1813-1814 
 
 74,500 
 
 
 21,300 
 
 1814 
 
 24,200 
 
 23,800 
 23,400 
 
 1814 
 
 10 
 
 0—14 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 — 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0- 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1814-1815 
 
 102,500 
 
 
 27,000 
 
 1815 
 
 28,900 
 
 30,40i; 
 
 '815 
 
 8 
 
 0 — 11 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 — 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 — 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1815-1816 
 
 115,000 
 
 
 29,000 
 
 1816 
 
 15,500 
 
 20,200 
 
 25,700 
 
 1816 
 
 6 
 
 6—10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 9 — 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 8 — 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1816-1817 
 
 87,000 
 
 
 23,500 
 
 1817 
 
 13,500 
 
 15,700 
 
 23,500 
 
 1817 
 
 7 
 
 (i — 10 
 
 0 
 
 ,5 
 
 6 — 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 0 — 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1817-1818 
 
 72,800 
 
 
 19,000 
 17,000 
 
 1818 
 
 16,600 
 
 16,100 
 
 24,000 
 
 1818 
 
 8 
 
 0— 9 
 
 6 
 
 G 
 
 6 — 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 — 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1818-1819 
 
 68,000 
 
 
 1819 
 
 11,500 
 
 1.5,800 
 
 19,700 
 
 1819 
 
 7 
 
 6— 9 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 — 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 3 — 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1819-1820 
 
 72,000 
 
 
 19,000 
 
 1820 
 
 16,500 
 
 21,600 
 
 14,,'500 
 
 1820 
 
 7 
 
 0— 9 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 6 — 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 — 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1820-1821 
 
 107,000 
 
 
 25,500 
 
 1821 
 
 13,000 
 13,500 
 
 17,300 
 
 9,800 
 
 1821 7 
 
 6— 9 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 — 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0- 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 1821-1822 
 
 72,400 
 
 
 19,500 
 
 1822 
 
 15,100 
 
 8,200 
 
 1822 
 
 11 
 
 0—12 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 — 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 9 — 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1822-1823 
 
 90,000 
 
 
 24,000 
 
 1823 
 
 21,700 
 
 16,800 
 
 13,100 
 
 1823 
 
 9 
 
 6—11 
 
 0 
 
 .5 
 
 9 — 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 — 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1823-1824 
 
 113,000 
 
 
 28,000 
 
 1824 
 
 16,300 
 
 17,200 
 
 12,200 
 
 1824 
 
 12 
 
 0—13 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 0 — 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 0 — 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 1824-1825 
 
 79,000 
 
 
 22,000 
 
 1825 
 
 2.5,300 
 
 21,100 
 
 16,400 
 
 182.5 
 
 13 
 
 0—15 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 6 — 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 — 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 182.5-1826 
 
 144,000 
 
 
 41,000 
 
 1826 
 
 27,800 
 
 21,900 
 
 22,300 
 
 182'' 
 
 8 
 
 0— 9 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 — 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 — 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 1826-1827 
 
 90,000 
 
 
 25,000 
 
 1827 
 
 19,000 
 
 I8,.500 
 
 22,800 
 
 1827 
 
 11 
 
 6 — 13 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 0 — 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 — 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1827-1828 
 
 149,000 
 
 
 42,000 
 
 1828 
 
 35,820 
 
 27,500 
 
 31,100 
 
 1828 
 
 8 
 
 0 — 10 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 3 — 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 0 — 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 1828-1829 
 
 98,(;00 
 
 
 26,500 
 
 1829 
 
 23,200 
 
 23,100 
 
 31,200 
 37,600 
 
 1829 
 
 7 
 
 6— 8 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 9 — 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 — 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1829-1830 
 
 141,000 
 
 
 40,000 
 
 1830 
 
 32,120 
 
 25,700 
 
 1830 
 
 6 
 
 6—7 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 () 
 
 2 
 
 0 — 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 18,30-1831 
 
 116,000 
 
 
 33,600 
 
 1831 
 
 23,330 
 
 24,980 
 
 35,970 
 
 1831 
 
 6 
 
 0— 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 — 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 0 — 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 I831-18.J2 
 
 122,0(X) 
 
 
 35,000 
 
 1832 
 
 25,470 
 
 28,920 
 
 32,520 
 
 1832 
 
 
 6— 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 — 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 — 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 1832-1833 
 
 122,000 
 
 
 35,000 
 
 1833 
 
 25,000 
 
 23,000* 
 
 35,000* 
 
 1833 
 
 7 
 
 0— 7 
 
 9 
 
 ,5 
 
 0 — 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 — 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 * These numbers are partly from estimate; but they cannot be far wrong. 
 
INK. — INSOLVENCY. 
 
 685 
 
 Of 7,299,605 lbs. of indigo imi)ortc(l into Great Britain in 1831, G/Jnfi.OfiS 11)8. were from India, 149,3491bg, 
 from the British West Iiiilics, 81,991 lbs. from Ciuatetnala, 10,014 lbs. from Colombia, &c. Of the total 
 quantity imported, 2,490,000 lbs. were retained for consumption. 
 
 The imports of indigo, in 1832, were 6,353,00,'i lbs. ; of which 2,395,6.'53 lbs. were retained. 
 
 In(iigo of British possessions, not deemed their produce unless imported from thence. — (7 Geo. 4. c. 48.) 
 
 For further information as to indigo, see Colehruoke's Husbandry qf Bengal, p. I.'j4. : Millmrn's Orient. 
 Com. ; Bell's Beview of Commerce of Bengal s Wilson's Bevietu qf do. ; evidence of Gillian Maclaine, Esq., 
 East India Committee, 1830-31, &c. 
 
 INK (Du. Ink, Inht : Fr. Encre ; Ger. Dinte; It. Inchiostro; Lat. Atramentum ; 
 Rus. Tschernilo; Sp. Tinta; Sw. Blak.) 
 
 " Every liquor or pigment used for writing or printing is distinguished by the name of ink. Common 
 practice knows only black and red. Of l)lack ink there are three principal kinds : 1. Indian ink ; 2. Printer's 
 ink J and, 3. Writing ink. The Indian ink is used in China for writing with a brush, and for painting upon 
 the soft flexible paper of Chinese manufacture. It is ascertained, as well from exi>eriment as from intornH 
 ation, that the cakes of this ink are made of lampblack and size, or animal glue, with the addition of 
 perfumes or other substances not essential to its quality as an ink. The fine soot from the flame of a lamp 
 or candle received by holding a plate over it, mixed with clean size from shreds of parchment or glove- 
 leather not dyed, will make an ink equal to that imported. Good printer's ink is a black paint, smooth, 
 and uniform in its composition, of a firm black colour, and possesses a singular aptitude to adhere to paper 
 thoroughly impregnated with moisture. 
 
 " Common ink for writing is made by adding an infusion or decoction of the nut-gall to sulphate of iron, 
 dissolved in water. A very fine black precipitate is thrown down, tlie speedy subsidence of which is pre- 
 vented by the addition of a proper quantity of gum Arabic. Lampblack is the common material to give the 
 black colour, of which 2| ounces are sufficient for 16 ounces of the varnish. Vermilion is a good red. They 
 are ground together on a stone with a muUer, in the same manner as oil paints. Among the amusing ex- 
 periments of the art of chemistry, the exhibition of symi)athetic inks holds a dictinguished place. \Vith 
 these the writing is invisible, until some reagent gives it opacity. These inks have been proposed as the 
 instruments of secret correspondence. But they are of little use in this respect, because the properties 
 change by a few days' remaining on the paper ; most of them have more or less of a tinge when thoroughly 
 dry J and none of them resist the test of heating the paper till it begins to be scorched." — {lire's Die. 
 tionary.) 
 
 INKLE, a sort of broad Hnen tape, principally manufactured at Manchester and some 
 other towns in Lancashire. 
 
 INSOLVENCY and BANRUPTCY. Insolvency is a term in mercantile law, 
 applied to designate the condition of all persons unable to pay their debts according to 
 the ordinary usage of trade. A bankrupt is an insolvent ; but persons may be in a state 
 of insolvency without having committed any of the specific acts which render them liable 
 to a commission of bankruptcy. 
 
 We have, under the article Bankruptcy, explained the most important differences in 
 the law as to insolvency and bankruptcy ; and have also briefly stated in that article, and 
 in the article Credit, some of the alterations which seem to be imperatively required 
 to make these laws more in harmony, than they are at present, with the principles of 
 justice, and more conducive to the interests of commerce and the public advantage. In 
 the present article, therefore, we shall confine ourselves to a summary statement of the 
 proceedings under the existing laws. 
 
 Under the bankrupt law.s, the creditors have a compulsory authority to sequestrate the 
 entire possessions of their debtor ; under the insolvent laws, the debtor himself may 
 make a voluntary surrender of his property for the benefit of all his creditors. From 
 this diversity in the initiative process results the greatest diversity in the ultimate oper- 
 ation of the bankrupt and insolvent acts. The proceedings under a commission of bank- 
 ruptcy being instituted by the creditors, they lose all future power over the property and 
 person of the insolvent after he has obtained his certificate ; but the proceedings under 
 the insolvent act having been commenced by the debtor himself, he only, by the sur- 
 render of his eflfects, protects his person in future from arrest — not the property he may 
 subsequently acquire, from liability to the payment of all his debts in full. 
 
 Proceedirips under the exisiivg Insolvent Act — In 1S13, a spe- 
 cial tribunal, called the •' Court for Belief of Insolvent Debt- 
 ors," was aj-pointed for the purpose of receiving the surrender 
 of property and effects for the benefit of the creditors of in- 
 solvents. It consists of a chief and two other commissioners, 
 appointed by the Crown, and is a court of record, with powers 
 similar to those of the superior courts at Westminster; but It 
 cannot award costs, unless in particular cases. The court sits 
 twice a week in Portugal-street ; and no fees are taken, except 
 those established by the court. The commissioners also seve- 
 rally make circuits, and attend at the towns ana places ap- 
 pointed for insolvents in the counti7 to appear: their judicial 
 powers in the provincial towns are the same as tho^ exercised 
 in the metropolis. 
 
 I. The first step in the insolvent's proceeding is the Petition. 
 Any person in actual custody for any debt, damages, costs, or 
 money due for contempt of any court, may, witnin 14 days 
 from his first detention, petition the court for his discharge; 
 stating in such petition the particulars of his arrest, and the 
 amount of his debts, and praying to be discharged not only 
 against the demands of the persons detaining him, but against 
 all other creditors having claims at the time of presenting tlie 
 petition. Persons not acttially in custody within the walls of a 
 prison, and during the proceedings thereon, are not entitled to 
 the benefit of the act. In case of sickness, however, and after 
 an order for hearing the petition has been obtained, this con- 
 dition is not required. 
 
 Notice of the time appointed for hearing the petition must 
 be given to all creditors whose debts amount to 5/., and be ad- 
 "vertised in the Lotidon Gazette. 
 
 At the time of subscribing the petition, the insolvent exe- 
 cutes an assignment to the provisional assignee of the court, 
 ccnouncing all title to his propert;r, except wearing ajipc^^l, 
 
 working tools, bedding, and such neces.>:aries of himself and 
 family as shall not exceed the value of 'iO/. During confine- 
 ment, the court may trder an allowance for the support of the 
 petitioner. 
 
 The filing of a petition is an act of bankruptcy, and, if a 
 commission be issued within i; calendar months, vacates the 
 assignment : but this does not stop the proceetlings of the court ; 
 and any property remaining to the petitioner after obtaining 
 his certificate continues liable as if no commission had been 
 issued. 
 
 The volutitary preference of a creditor, by conveyance of 
 money, goods, bills, or other property, after the filing of the 
 petition, or withui 3 months prior to the imprisonment of the 
 petitioner, being theu in insolvent circumstances, is fraudulent 
 and void. 
 
 M'ithin 14 days after the filing of his jietition, the insolvent 
 must prepare a schedule of his debts ; also of his property and 
 income from every source whence he derives benefit or emo- 
 lument, together with an account of all debts owing to him, 
 the names of the debtors, and tlieir piaces of abode. LasUy, 
 the schedule must describe the wearing appartl and other ar- 
 ti'jles not exceeding "iOl, which the petitioner is allowed to 
 retain. 
 
 Insolvents guilty of omissions in the schedule, with intent to 
 defraud creditors, or excepting in it necessaries to an amount 
 exceeding 20/., or persons assisting therein, are guilty of a mis« 
 demeanour, subjecting to an imprisonment for not more than 
 3 vears. 
 
 11. The Assignees. — Any time after the filing of the petition, 
 the court appoints assipiees from among tlie creditors, to 
 whom, on their acc-eptance of the apixiintment, an assignment 
 is made of the eftecU of the prisoner. In case of any real 
 estate, the same^ within the space of 6 montlis, must be sold 
 
686 
 
 INSOLVENCY AND BANKRUPTCY. 
 
 by public auction, in such manner and place as the major part 
 in value of the creditors approve: but when any part of the 
 property is so circumstanced that the immediate sale of it would 
 be prejudicial to the interests of the prisoner, the court may 
 direct the raanaf;ement of such property till it can be properly 
 sold ; and if the debts can be paid by mortgage in lieu of sale, 
 the court may give directions for that purpose. 
 
 Goods in possession and disposal ot the insolvent, whereof 
 he is reputed owner, are deemed his property ; but this does 
 not affect the Jissii^iment of any ship or vessel, duly registered 
 according to the 6 Geo. 4. c. 110. 
 
 An account upon oath before an officer of the court, or justice 
 of peace, must be made up by the assignees within every 3 
 months at the furthest ; and in case of a balance in hand, a 
 dividend must be forthwith made, of which dividend 30 days' 
 previous notice must be given ; and every creditor is allowed 
 to share in the dividend, unless objected to by the prisoner, 
 assignees, or other creditors, in which case the court decides. 
 
 'I'he assignees may execute powers which the insolvent might 
 have executed, as the grantmg of leases, taking fines, trans- 
 ferring public stock or annuities ; but they cannot nominate to 
 a vacant ecclesicistical benefice. 
 
 The assignees, with the consent of one commissioner, and 
 the major part of the creditors in value, may compound for 
 an v debt due to the prisoner ; or may submit differences con- 
 nected with the estate of the insolvent to arbitration. 
 
 Dividends payable to creditors, unclaimed for 1'2 months, are 
 to be paid into court to the credit of the estate of the insolvent : 
 in default of payment of the dividends by the assignees, their 
 gOu.u> may be distrained ; or, if no distress, they may be im- 
 risoned. 
 
 Tlie assifjnees, in case the insolvent is a beneficed clergyman 
 or curate, are not entitled to the income of the benefice or 
 curacy ; but they may obtain a sequestration of the profits for 
 the benefit of creditors. Neither are the assignees entitled to 
 the pay, half-pay, pension, or other emolument, of any person 
 who is or has been in the army, navy, or civil service of the 
 gove nment or East India Company ; but the court may order, 
 subject to the approval of the heads of public offices, a portion 
 of such pay, haif-pay, pension, or emoluments, to be set aside 
 to A a ds the liquidation of the debts of the insolvent. 
 
 The court may inquire into the conduct of the assignees, on 
 the complaint of the insolvent or any of his creditors ; and, in 
 case of malversation, award costs against them. 
 
 Assignees who wilfully employ or retain any part of the pro- 
 ceeds of the insolvent's estate, may be charged with interest, 
 at a rate not exceeding 201. per cent, per annum. 
 
 III. Dischariie of the Insolvent. — On the day appointed for 
 hearing the petition, any creditor may oppose the discharge of 
 the prisoner ; and, for that purpose, put such questions and 
 examine such witnesses, as the court shall admit, touching the 
 matters contained in the petition and schedule; or a creditor 
 may require, and the court direct, that an officer of the court 
 shall investigate the accounts of the prisoner, and report 
 thereon. In case the prisoner is not opposed, and the court is 
 satisfied with his schedule, it may order his immediate dis- 
 charge from custody ; or it may direct him to be detained in 
 custody for any term not exceeding 6 months, to be computed 
 from the time of filing the petition. 
 
 But if the prisoner has destroyed his books, or falsified en- 
 tries therein, or otherwise acted fraudulently towards his cre- 
 ditors, or wilfully omitted any thing in his schedule, he may be 
 imprisoned for any term not exceeding lliree years : or where a 
 
 prisoner has contracted debts fraudulently , bymeans of a breach 
 of trust; or put creditors to unnecessary expense; or incurred 
 debts by means of any false pretence, or without probable ex- 
 pectation, at the time when contracted, of ever paying them ; 
 or shall be indebted for damages for criminal conver^>ation with 
 thi wife, or for seducing the daughter or servant of the pla.n- 
 titf ; or for breach of promise of marriage ; or for damages in 
 any action for malici ms prosecution, libel, slander, or trespass ; 
 the court may imprison for 2 years. 
 
 The discharge extends to sums payable by annuity ; the an- 
 nuitants being admitted as creditors to the estate of the in- 
 solvent, at a fair valuation of their interest. 
 
 But the discharge does not extend to any debts due to the 
 Crown, nor for any offence against the revenue laws ; nor at 
 suit of any sheriff or other public otficer, upon any bail-bond 
 entered into for any person prosecuted for such offence ; unless 
 the Treasury certify consent to the discharge. 
 
 Insolvents under writ of ciipias or extent, must apply to the 
 Barons of the Exchequer to he discharged 
 
 When the prisoner is not discharged, the court may, on ap- 
 plication for that purpose, order the creditor at whose suit he 
 is detained to pay any sum not exceeding 4s. weekly ; and in 
 default of payment, the prisoner to he liberated. 
 
 IV. Future Liabilities oj'tlie Insolvent Prior to adjudication 
 
 on the petition, the insolvent is required to execute a warrant 
 of attorney, empowering the court to enter up judgment agjinst 
 him, in the name of the assignees, for tne amount of the debts 
 unpaid ; and when tne insolvent is of sufficient ability to pay 
 such debts, or is dead, leaving assets for the purpose, thi court 
 may permit execution to be taken out against 'he property of 
 the insolvent acquired after his discharge ; and this pioceeding 
 may be repeated till the whole of the debt, with costs, is paid and 
 satisfied. 
 
 But no person, after judgment entered up, is liable to im- 
 prisonment for any debt to which the adjudication of the court 
 extended. 
 
 When an insolvent is entitled to the benefit of the act, no 
 execution, except under the judgment before mentioned, can 
 issue against him for debts contracted prior to his confine- 
 ment ; l)ut he may be proceeded against for a debt which could 
 not be enforced at the period of his discharge. 
 
 An insolvent, after his di^charf;e, may, on the applii ation of 
 an assignee to the court, be again ex\mined touching theeff'ects 
 set fortli in the schedule ; and if he refuse to appear or answer 
 questions, he may be recommitted. 
 
 No uncertificated bankrupt, nor any person having had the 
 benefit of the insolvent act, can have it a second time within 
 Jive years, unless 3-4ths in number and value of the creditors 
 consent thereto, or unless it appear to the court that ihc insol- 
 vent, since his bankruptcy or discharge, has done his utmost 
 to pay all just demands ; and that the debts subsequently in- 
 curred have been unavoidable, from inability otherwise to 
 acquire subsistence for himself and family. 
 
 Married women are entitled to the benefit of the insolvent 
 act, and may petition the court on executing a special assign- 
 ment. 
 
 The Insolvent Act, of which the above is a digest, was con- 
 tinued, by an act of the session of 1850, the 1 Will- 4. c. 3S., 
 for 2 years, and " from thence to the end of the next session 
 of parliament." It is important to remark, that the a t of 
 Will 4. prohibits, while the insolvent acts are in force, any 
 debtor from being discharged on his petition under the 32 
 Geo. 2. c. 28., commonly called the " Lords' Act." 
 
 Our next object will be to present a brief exposition of the Bankrupt Laws. 
 
 Bankruptcy. — Blackstone defines a bankrupt — " A trader who secretes himself, or 
 does certain other acts tending to defraud his creditors." But an intention to defraud is 
 not now held to be essential to constitute a bankrupt ; who may be either simply an in- 
 solvent, or a person who is guilty of certain acts tending to defraud his creditors. 
 
 There are, as already observed, some important distinctions between the bankrupt and 
 insolvent laws, not only in their application to different descriptions of individuals, but 
 also in the powers they exercise over the estates of persons subsequently to their being 
 brought under their adjudication. The benefits of the Insolvent Act extend without 
 distinction to every class of persons actually in prison for debt ; the benefits of the Bank- 
 rupt Act extend to traders only. But persons relieved under a commission of bankruptcy 
 for the first time are for ever discharged from all debts proveable against them, and their 
 property from any future liability ; whereas, if relieved under the Insolvent Act, their 
 persons only are protected from arrest, while any property they may subsequently acquire 
 continues liable to their creditors till the whole amount of their debts is paid in full. It 
 follows that the Insolvent Act aflfords merely a personal relief ; while the Bankrupt Act 
 discharges both person and property, and even returns the bankrupt a certain allowance 
 out of the produce of his assets, proportioned to good behaviour, and the amount of his 
 dividend. 
 
 Having already treated of insolvency, we shall now proceed to describe the proceedings 
 under a commission of bankruptcy, as regulated by the act of Lord Brougham, the 1 & 2 
 Will. 4. c. 56., and the 6 Geo. 4. c. 16., which are the last general acts on the subject, 
 and by which former statutes have been consolidated, and several important improvements 
 introduced ; leaving, ho-yvever, untouched, many of the radical defects inherent in this 
 branch of the law. The chief points to be ccaisidered, are — 1. The persons who may 
 become bankrupt ; 2. Acts constituting bankruptcy ; 3. Proceedings of petitioning 
 creditor ; 4. New Court of Bankruptcy ; 5. Debts proveable under the commission ; 
 6. Official assignees; 7. Assignees chosen by creditors; 8. Property liable under 
 bankruptcy; 9. Examination and liabilities of bankrupt ; 10. Payment of a dividend; 
 11. Certificate and allowance to bankrupt. 
 
INSOLVENCY AND BANKRUPTCY. 
 
 G87 
 
 1. Who maxf become Bankrupt. — GeneraWy all persons in 
 trade, capable of making biniling contracts, whctht-rnalural- 
 liorn sulyects, aliens, or deni/.cns, are within the JiirisUic^tion 
 of tlie liankrupt laws ; but the statute expressly includes 
 builders, bankers, brokers, packers, carpenters, scriveners, 
 ship insurers, warehousfmen, wharfingers, shipwrights, vic- 
 tuallers; keepers of inns, taverns, hotels, and coHie-houses; 
 dyers, printers, bleachers, fullers, calenderers, cattle or sheep 
 salesmen, factors, agents, and all persons who use the trade of 
 merchandise by bargaining, bartering, commission, consign- 
 ment, and otherwise, and also all persons who seek their living 
 by buying and selling, letting for hire, or by the manufacturing 
 of goods and commodities. Persons who cannot become bank- 
 rupt, are, graziers, farmers, workmen for hire, labourers, re- 
 ceivers general of taxes, and subscribers to any commercial or 
 trading company establishe<l by charter or act of parliament. 
 
 A clergyman, unless a trader, cannot be made a bankru]>t ; 
 nor an attorney, in the common course of his profession ; nor 
 an infant, nor a lunatic, nor a married woman, except in those 
 cases wheie she may be sued and taken in execution for her 
 debts — (8 T. «. 545.) 
 
 A single act of buying or selling is not sufficient to make a 
 trader ; as a schoolmaster selling books to his scholars only, or 
 a keeper of hounds buyingdead horses and selling the skin and 
 bones. — (6 Moore, 6G.) But the quantity of dealing is imma- 
 terial, where an intention to deal generally may be inferred.— 
 Jl Rose, 84.) A buyer or seller of land, or any interest inland, 
 IS not a trader within the act ; and on this principle It has 
 been decided, that a brick-maker selling bricks made in his 
 own fiuld, or the owner of amine selling minerals from his own 
 quarry, is not liable, because such business is carried on only 
 as a mode of enjoying the profits of a real estate. — (2 lyils. 
 lf>9.) 
 
 Traders having privilege of parliament, are subject to the 
 bankrupt laws, and may be proceetled against as other traders; 
 but such persons cannot be arrested or imprisoned, except in 
 ;cases made felony by the statute. 
 
 '•i. Acts constituting Bankntptci/ — In general, any act which 
 Js intended to delay or defraud creditors, is an act of bank- 
 ruptcy ; such as a trader concealing himself from his creditors, 
 leaving the country, causing himself to be arrested or his goods 
 taken in execution, or making any fraudulent conveyance, gift, 
 or delivery of his property. A trader keeping house commits 
 an act of bankruptcy, if he give a general order to be denied. 
 So is closing the door, and not admitting persons till ascer- 
 tained who they are from window, though no actual denial. — 
 (1 Bar. Cres. 54.) But it is no act of bankruptcy if the de- 
 nial be on Sunday, or at an unseasonable hour of the night, or 
 to prevent interruption at dinner time. 
 
 Traders held in prison for any really subsisting debt for the 
 period of 21 days, or who, being arrested, make their escape 
 out of prison or custody, commit acts of bankruptcy. A pe- 
 nalty due to the Crown is a sufficient debt, and the time is 
 romputed from the first arrest, where the party lies in prison 
 immediately, and the day of arrest is included, and the whole 
 of the last day. 
 
 Filing a petition, in order to take the benefit of the Insolvent 
 Act, is an act of bankruptcy, and a fiat may be issued any time 
 before the petition is heard by the Insolvent Court, or within 
 2 calendar montlis. 
 
 A trader may make a declaration of his insolvency, signed 
 and attested by an attorney or solicitor, and afterwards to be 
 iiled in the Bankrupt Office ; and the secretary signing a me- 
 morandum thereof, is authority for advertising it in the Ga- 
 zette. Upon this act of bankruptcy no commission can issue. 
 If not within 2 calendar months after such advertisement, and 
 unless such advertisement be within 8 days after filing de- 
 claration ; and no docket can be struck till 4 days after adver- 
 tisement, if the commission is to be executed in London, and 
 8 if in the country. Such declaration of insolvency being con- 
 certed between bankrupt and creditor, does not invalidate the 
 commission. 
 
 The execution by a trader of any conveyance by deed, of all 
 his estate and effects for the benefit of all his creditors, is not 
 an act of bankruptcy, unless a commission be sued out withm 
 6 months after, provided the deed be attested by an attorney 
 or solicitor, and executed within 15 days after, and notice 
 thereof within 2 months be given in the Gazetle, and 2 daily 
 newspapers ; or, if the trader reside more than 50 miles from 
 London, notice may be given in the Gazette, and nearest 
 country newspaper. 
 
 3. Proceediuga of Petitioning Creditors. — A person being a 
 trader, and having committed an act of bankruptcy, the next 
 step in the proofing is to petition the Lord Chancellor to 
 issue his fiat. No fiat is issued, unless the petitioning creditor's 
 debt, if 1 person or 1 firm, amounts to Iml. ; if 2 creditors, to 
 I5u/. ; if 3 or more creditors, to 200/. or upwards. The pe- 
 titioning creditor must make an affidavit before a Master in 
 Chancery, of the truth of his debt, and give bond in 200/. to 
 prove it, and the act of bankruptcy. If the debt prove in- 
 sufficient to support a fiat, the Ix>rd Chancellor, upon the 
 application of another creditor who has proved a sufficient 
 debt, contracted posterior to that of the petitioning creditor, 
 mav order the bankruptcy to be proceeded in. 
 
 Ttie petitioning creditor proceeds at his own cost until 
 the choice of assignees, when his expenses are paid out of the 
 first money received under the bankruptcy. 
 
 Creditors entitled to sue out a tiat against all the partners in 
 a firm, may elect to petition only against 1 or more of such 
 partners ; and the commission may be superseded as to 1 or 
 jnore partners, without affecting its validity as to the other 
 partners. 
 
 Creditors who have sued out a fiat compounding with the 
 bankrupt, or receiving more in the pound than other creditors, 
 forfeit the whole of their debt, and whatever giatuity they 
 received, for the benefit of the other creditors, and the Lord 
 Chancellor may either order the commission to be proceeded 
 in or su)>erseded. 
 
 4. New Court of Bankrztjitcf/ Formerly the bankrupt 
 
 biw-iiness of the metropolis was transacted by 70 commissioners, 
 appointed by the Lord Chancellor. They receiveil no regular 
 co.nmission, but derived their authority 'from a letter written 
 to them by the Chancellor, informing them of their appoint- 
 ment. The whole proceedings under a town commission, 
 from its issuing to the winding up of the bankrupt's affairs, 
 were managetl by these commissioners, who acted uy rotation. 
 In lists of 5 each. In place of these an entire new court h.is 
 beer, stibstituted, con.iisting of a chief judge, witli 5 puisiit: 
 
 judges, and fi commissionori . There are also 2 principal re 
 gistiars, and 8 deputy registrars, 'i he secretary </f bankrupUi 
 Is also continued as one of the officers under the new system. 
 
 The Judges, or any 3 of them, sit as a Court of Keview, to 
 adjudicate in all matters of bankruptcy brought before them, 
 Ruhjert to an apiieal to the I>ord Cbanccllor. The 6 com- 
 missioners hit occasionally in 2 subdivision court* of 3 com- 
 missioners each. The powers of the single commissioner are 
 nearly the same as the old commissioners. The examination 
 of any bankrupt or other (lerson, or of a proof of debt, may lie 
 adjourned by a single commis^^ioiier to a subdivi^^ion court ; and 
 disputed debts, if all parties consent, may be tried by a jury. 
 An appeal lies from a single commissioner, or a subdivision 
 court, to the Court of Review ; and a decree of this Court is 
 final, unless appealed against within 1 month. 
 
 The London commissioners und»r the old law had a juris- 
 diction for 40 miles round London, which is continued lo their 
 successors. Commissions in the couiitry beyond tliis distance 
 were directed to barristers, or, if these could not be had, to 
 solicitors, resident near the sji-jt where the commission was to 
 be executed. Under the new act, the judges of assize name 
 to the Lord Chancellor such barristers and solicitors in the 
 county as they think fit for the olhce ; and if he a)>prove, they 
 are to appoint them permanent commissioners tor tl e exe- 
 cution of all bankruptcy business in the county ; and fiats, not 
 directed to the Court of Bankruptcy in London, are directed 
 to them. 
 
 Let us now proceed with the powers and duties of the com- 
 missioners. 
 
 Commissioners are empowered to summon persons, examine 
 them on oath, and call for any deeds or documents necessary 
 to establish the trading and act of bankruptcy ; and upon full 
 proof thereof, to adjudge the debtor a bankrupt. Notice of 
 such adjudication must lie given in the Gazette, and public 
 meetings appointed for the bankrupt to surrender ; the last of 
 which meetings to be the 42d day after. A liankrupt refusing 
 to attend at the appointed time may be apprehended ; and on 
 refusing to answer any question touching his business or pro- 
 perty, may be committed to prison. 
 
 By warrant of the commissioners, persons may break open 
 any house, premises, door, chest, or trunk of any bankrupt, 
 and seize on his body or property ; and if the bankrupt be in 
 prison or custody, they may seize any jiroperty (necessary 
 wearing apparel excepted) in the possession of such bankrupt, 
 or any other person. Authorised by a justice's warrant, pre 
 mises may be searched not belonging to the bankrupt, on sus- 
 picion of property being concealed there ; and persons sus- 
 pected to have any of the bankrupt's property in their possession, 
 refusing to obey the summons of commissioners, or refusing to 
 answer interrogatories, or to surrender do<uments, without 
 lawful excuse, may be imprisoned. The wife of the bankrupt 
 may be examined, or, on refusal, committed. 
 
 Persons summoned are entitled to their expenses ; and those 
 attending, whether summoned or not, to assist the commis- 
 sioners in their inquiries, are protected from arrest on any 
 civil suit- 
 
 5. Debts proveahle nnihr Commission. — At the 3 meetings 
 appointed by the commissioners, and at every other meeting 
 appointed by them for proof of debts, every creditor may prove 
 his debt by affidavit or by his own oath ; incorporated bodies 
 by an agent authorised for the purpose ; and one partner may 
 prove on behalf of the firm. Persons living at a distance may 
 prove by affidavit before a Master in Chancery, or, if resident 
 abroad, before a magistrate where residing, attested by a public 
 notary, or British minister or consul. 
 
 Clerks and servants, to whom the bankrupt is indebted for 
 ■wages, are entitled to be paid 6 months' wages in Jull, and for 
 the residue they may prove under the commission. 
 
 Indentures of apprenticeship are discharged by bankruptcy ; 
 but in case a premium has been received, the commissioners 
 may direct a portion of it to be repaid for the use of the ap- 
 prentice, proportioned to the term of apprenticeship unex- 
 pired. 
 
 Debts upon bill, bond, note, or other negotiable security, or 
 where credit has been given upon valuable consideration, 
 though not due at the time the act of bankruptcy was com. 
 mitted, are proveahle under the commission. Sureties, per 
 sons liable for the debts of, or bail for the bankrupt, may prove 
 after having paid such debts, if they have contracted the 
 liability without notice of any act of bankruptcy. Obligee in 
 bottomry or respondentia bonds, and assured in policy of in- 
 surance, are admitted to claim ; and after loss, to prove as if the 
 loss or contingency had happened before commission had issued 
 against the obligor or insurer. Annuity creditors may prove 
 for the value of their annuities, regard being had to the ori- 
 ginal cost of such annuities. Plaintiffs in any action, having 
 obtained judgment against the bankrupt, may prove for their 
 costs. 
 
 ^\'hen there are mutual debts tietween the bankrupt and a 
 creditor, they may be set off against each other, and the 
 balance, if in favour of the creditor, is proveahle against the 
 bankrupt's estate. 
 
 Interest may be proved on all bills of exchange and promissory 
 notes over -due at the time of issuing commission, up to the 
 date of the commission. 
 
 I'roving a debt under the commission, is an election not to 
 proceed against the bankrupt by action ; and in case the bank- 
 rupt be in" prison at the suit of a creditor, he cannot prove liis 
 debt without first discharging the bankrupt from conhnernent : 
 but the creditor is not liable for the costs of tlie action so re- 
 linquished by him. 
 
 No debt barred by the statute of limitations is proveahle un- 
 der llie commission. 
 
 6. QjKcial Assignees.— An important alteration introduced 
 by Lord Brougham's act, particularly to commercial men, is 
 the appointment of official assipiees. They are.'JO in number, 
 mevchants and traders, resident in the metropolis or vicinity ; 
 and are selected by the Lord Chancellor. They are to act with 
 the assignees chosen by the creditors. All the real and personal 
 estates of tlie bankrupt, all the monies, stock in the public 
 funds, securities and procee<ls of sale, are transferred and vested 
 in the official assignee, subject to the rules, orders, and di- 
 rection of the Lord Chancellor, or a member of the Court of 
 Bankruptcy. The official assignee gives security for the trust 
 leposed in him ; and is required to deposit aU monies, se- 
 curities, &c. in the Bank of Kngland. 
 
 The official assignee is neither remunerated by a percentage 
 nor a fixed salary, but a sum is paid to him for Lis trouble, at 
 
688 
 
 INSOLVENCY AND BANKRUPTCY. 
 
 the discretion of the commissioners, and propoitioned to the 
 estates of the bankrupt and the duties discharged. 
 
 7. Appoiiitmeni of Assignees by Creditors. — The official as- 
 signee is empowered to act as the sole assignee of the bankrupt's 
 estates and effects until others are chosen bv creditors, which 
 must be at the 2d meeting. Every creditor to the amount of 
 10/., who has proved his debt, is eligible to vote ; persons may 
 be authorised by letters of attorney to vote, and the choice is 
 made by the major part in value of the cred-itors : but the com- 
 missioners may reject any person they deem unfit ; upon which 
 a new choice must be made. 
 
 When only 1 or more partners of a firm are bankrupt, a 
 creditor to the whole firm is entitled to vote, and to assent to 
 or dissent from the certificate ; but such creditor, unless a 
 petitioning creditor, cannot receive any dividend out of the 
 separate estate, until all the other creditors are paid in full. 
 
 Assignees may, with consent of creditors declared at any 
 meeting duly summoned, compound or submit disputes to ar- 
 bitration, and such reference be made a rule of the Court of 
 Bankruptcy, or they may commence suits in equity ; but if 
 l-3d in value of creditors do not attend such meeting, the same 
 powers are granted to assignees with the consent, in writing, 
 of commissioners. 
 
 Assignees to keep a book of account, where shall be entered 
 a statement of all receipts and payments relating to bankrupt's 
 estate, and which may be inspected by any creditor who has 
 proved. Commissioners may summon assignees, with their 
 books and papers, before them ; and if they refuse to attend, 
 may cause them to be committed til! they obey tne sum- 
 mons. 
 
 An assignee retaining or employing the money of the bank- 
 rupt, to the amount of 1 00/. or upwards, for his own advantage, 
 mav be charged '20Z. per cent, interest. 
 
 Commissioners at the last examination of bankrupt to ap- 
 •^oint a public meeting, not sooner than 4 calendar months 
 after issuing commission, nor later than 6 calendar months 
 from last examination, of which 21 days' notice must be given 
 in the Gazette, to audit the accounts of the assignee ; which 
 accounts must be delivered on oath, and the commissioners 
 may examine the eissignee touching the truth thereof. 
 
 8. Property liable under Bankruplcij — The official assignee 
 is vested with all the real and personal estate of the bankrupt, 
 and with all such property as may be devised to him, or come 
 into his possession, till the time he obtain his certificate. The 
 commissioners may sell any real property of which the bankrupt 
 is seised, or any estate tail, in possession, reversion, or re- 
 mainder ; and the sale is good against the bankrupt, the issue of 
 his body, and against all persons claiming under him after he 
 became bankrupt, or whom by fine, common recovery, or other 
 means, he can cut off from any future interest. All property 
 •which the bankrupt has in right of his wife passes to tlie as- 
 signee, except such as is settled for her own sole benefit. Any 
 property pledged, or securities deposited, may be redeemed for 
 the benefit of the creditors. 
 
 If a bankrupt, being at the time insolvent, convey his land 
 or goods to his children or others (except upon their marriage, 
 or for a valuable consideration), or deUver securities, or trans- 
 fer debts into other names, such transactions are void. 
 
 A landlord after or out of bankruptcy cannot distrain for 
 more than one year's rent ; but he may prove under the com- 
 mission for the residue. 
 
 The assignee may accept any lense to which the bankrupt is 
 entitled, and his acceptance exonerates the bankrupt from any 
 future liability for rent ; or if the assignee decline the lease, 
 and the bankrupt, within 14 days after, deliver the lease to the 
 lessor, he is not liable for rent. 
 
 Jn general, all power which the bankrupt might lawfully 
 execute in the sale and disposition of his property for the benefit 
 of himself, may be executed by the assignee for the benefit of 
 creditors. 
 
 All contracts, conveyances, and transactions by or with any 
 bankrupt, and all executions and attachments levied, without 
 notice of an act of bankruptcy, for more than 2 months before 
 the issuing of the commission, are valid. All payments what- 
 ever, either by or to the bankrupt, without notice of an act of 
 bankruptcy, are protected down to the date of the commission ; 
 and purchasers for valuable considerations, rvitk notice, cannot 
 be molested, unless a commission issue within 12 months after 
 the act of bankruptcy. 
 
 The circumstance of a commission appearing in tYie Gazette, 
 and a fair presumption that the person to be affected thereby 
 may have seen the same, is deemed sufficient legal notice of an 
 act of bankruptcy having been committed. 
 
 9. Examination and Lialiiiities of Bankrupt. — A bankrupt, 
 not surrendering to the commissioners before 3 o'clock upon 
 the 42d day after notice, or not making discovery of his estate 
 and etfiects, not delivering up goods, books, papers, &c., or 
 removing or embezzling to the value of 10/., is guilty o( felony, 
 and liable to a discretionary punishment, from imprisonment 
 to transportation for life. The period for surrendering may be 
 enlarged by the Lord Chancellor ; and the commissioners, or 
 assignees with approval of commissioners, may grant an al- 
 lowance for support of the bankrupt and his family till he has 
 ])assed his last examination. Durmg his attendance on com- 
 missioners, the bankrupt is protectea from arrest. 
 
 The bankrupt is required to deliver up his books of account 
 to the assignees upon oath, and to attend them on reasonable 
 notice ; he irtay inspect his accounts, assisted by other persons, 
 in presence of assignees. After certificate is allowed, he is 
 required to attend assignees, in settling accounts, at 6«. per 
 day ; and may be committed for non-attendance. 
 
 A penalty of 1 00/. is imposeil on pei-sons concealing bank- 
 rupts' effects, and double the value of the property so con- 
 cealed ; and an allowance of 51. per cent, to i)ersons discovering 
 such concealment, with stvch further reward aa the maior part 
 of the creditors may think fit to grant. 
 
 The bankrupt, or any other person, wilfully swearing falsely, 
 is liable to the penalties of perjury. 
 
 If the bankrupt intend to d'ispute the commission, he must 
 present a petition to the Court of Review within 2 calendar 
 months ; or, if out of the United Kingdom,, within 12. 
 
 At any meeting of creditors, after the last examination, the 
 bankrupt or his friends may tender a composition ; which, ii 
 accepted by 9-lOths in number and value of the creditors, at 
 2 separate meetings, the Lord Chancellor may supersede the 
 commission. In deciding on such otfer, creditors under 20/. 
 are not entitled to vote ; but their debts are computed in value. 
 Persons residmg out of England may vote by letter of attorney, 
 properly attested ; and the bankrupt may be required to make 
 oath that no unfair means have been employed to obtain the 
 assent of any creditor to such arrangement. 
 
 10. Payment of a Dividend. — Not sooner than 4, nor later 
 than 12 calendar months,, the commissioners are to appoint a 
 public meeting, of which 21 days' previous notice must be givers 
 in the Gazette, to make a dividend ; and at which meeting, 
 creditors who have not proved, may prove their debts ; and at 
 such meeting commissioners may order the nett produce of 
 bankrupt's estate to be shared among the creditors that have 
 proved, in proportion to their debts : but no dividend to be 
 declared unless the accounts of the a>signees have been first 
 audited and delivered in as before described . 
 
 If the estate is not wholly divided upon a first dividend, a 
 second meeting must be called, not later than 18 months from 
 the date of commission; and the dividend declared at such 
 second meeting to be final, unless some suit at law be pending, 
 or some part of bankrupts property afterwards accrue to the 
 assignees ; in which case'it must be shared among the creditors 
 within 2 months after it is converted into money. 
 
 Assignees having unclaimed dividends to the amount of 50/., 
 who do not, within 2 calendar months from the expiration of 
 a year from the order of payment of such dividends, either pay 
 them to the creditors entitled thereto, or cause a certificate 
 thereof to be filed in the Bankrupts' Office, with the names, 
 &c. of the parties to whom due, shall be charged with legal 
 interest from the time the certificate ought to have been filed, 
 and suchfurther sum, not exceeding 20/. per cent, per annum, 
 as the commissioners think fit. 'f he Lord Chancellor may 
 order the investment of unclaimeii dividends in the funds , 
 and after 3 years the same may be divided among the othtr 
 creditors. 
 
 No action can be brought against assignees for any divi. 
 dend ; the remedy being by petition to the Lord Chancellor. 
 
 11. Certificate and Allowance to Bankrupt. — Hhe bankrupt 
 w;ho has surrendered, and conformed in all things to the pro- 
 visions of the bankrupt laws, is discharged by the certificate 
 from all debts and demands proveable under the commission ; 
 but this does not discharge his partner, or one jointly bound, 
 or in joint contract with him, nor does it bar a debt due to the 
 Crown. 
 
 The certificate must be signed by 4-5ths in number and 
 value of creditors who have proved debts to the amount of 20/. 
 or upwards ; or, after 6 calendar months from last examin- 
 ation, then either by 3-5ths in number and value, or by 
 9-lOths in number. The bankrupt must make oath the cer- 
 tificate was obtained without fraud ; and any creditors mav 
 be heard before it is finally allowed by the Lord Chancellar. 
 Any contract or security given to obtain signatures to the cer- 
 tificate, is void. 
 
 A bankrupt, after obtaining his certificate, cannot be ar- 
 rested for any debt j>roveable under the commission ; nor is he 
 liable to satisfy any debt from which he is discharged, upon 
 any promise, contract, or agreement, unless made in writing. 
 
 In case a i)erson has been bankruut before, or compounded 
 with his creditors, or taken benefit of Insolvent Act, unless the 
 estate produce 15*. in the pound, the certificate only protects 
 the person of bankrupt from arrest; and any future property 
 he acquires may be seized by assignees for benefit of creditors. 
 
 If the produce of bankrupt's estate does not amount to )0s. 
 in the pound, he is only allowed out of the ass ts so much as 
 assignees think fit, not exceeding 3 per cent., or 300/. in thp 
 whole ; if it ]>roduce 10«., 5 per cent., not exceeding 400/. ; it 
 Vis. 6d. is paid in the pound, 7i per cent., not exceeding 600/. ; 
 if 15j. in the pound and upwards, 10 per cent., and not ex- 
 ceeding fiOO/. One partner may receive his allowance, if en- 
 titled, from the joint and his separate estate, though the others 
 are not entitled. 
 
 A bankrupt is not entitled to certificate or allowance, if he 
 has lost by gaming or wagering, in 1 day, 20/., or within 1 
 year next preceding his bankruptcy, 200/. ; or 200/. by stock- 
 jobbing in the same period ; or, in contemplation of bank- 
 ruptcy, has destroyed or falsified his books, or concealed pro- 
 perty to amount of 10/. ; or, if any person having proved a 
 false debt under the commission, sucfi bankrupt, being privy 
 thereto, or afterwards knowing the same, has not disclosed it 
 to his assignees within 1 month after such knowledge. 
 
 Lastly, upon n quest by the bankrupt, the official assignee is 
 required to declare to him how he has disjiosed of his pro- 
 perty, and account to him for the surplus, if any : but before 
 any surplus can be admitted, interest must be paid, first, on all 
 debts proved that carry interest, at the rate payable thereon ; 
 and next, ujion all other debts, at the rate of 4"/. per cent., to 
 be calculated from the date of the commission. 
 
 I. Account of the Number of Commissions of Bankruptcy issued from 1790 to 1821. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commis- 
 sions. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commis- 
 sions. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commis- 
 sions. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commis- 
 sions. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commis- 
 sions. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commis- 
 si.ms. 
 
 1790 
 
 747 
 
 1796 
 
 9.54. 
 
 1802 
 
 ],()9() 
 
 1807 
 
 1,;5G2 
 
 1812 
 
 2,228 
 
 1817 
 
 1,927 
 
 1791 
 
 7fi9 
 
 1797 
 
 1,1). 5 
 
 1803 
 
 l,'il4 
 
 J 808 
 
 1,4.'33 
 
 18I,'3 
 
 1,953 
 
 1818 
 
 1,245 
 
 1792 
 
 93+ 
 
 1798 
 
 911 
 
 1804 
 
 1,117 
 
 1809 
 
 1,;382 
 
 1814 
 
 I,f5l2 
 
 1819 
 
 1,499 
 
 1793 
 
 l,9.5i5 
 
 1799 
 
 717 
 
 1S0.'> 
 
 1,129 
 
 1810 
 
 i2,;n4 
 
 1815 
 
 2,284 
 
 1820 
 
 i,.;8i 
 
 17!H 
 
 1,'»4I 
 
 1800 
 
 951 
 
 1806. 
 
 1,268 
 
 1811 
 
 '2,500 
 
 1816 
 
 2,731 
 
 1821 
 
 1,238 
 
 179.'? 
 
 879 
 
 1801 
 
 1,1!)9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
INSURANCE. 
 
 G80 
 
 II. Account of the Number of Commissions of Bankrupt and Fiats issued each Year, from 182'2 to 18.',2 
 both included ; distinguishing Town Commissioners and Fiats, and showing how many Country Coni- 
 missionf and Fiats were opened in each Year. — (Pai l. Paper, No. .342. Scss. 18;33.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commissions 
 
 Town Commis- 
 sions opened. 
 
 Country Commis- 
 sions opened. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Commissions 
 
 'I'own Commis- 
 sions opt'ned. 
 
 Country Commis 
 sions opened. 
 
 1822 
 
 1,419 
 
 468 
 
 534 
 
 1831 
 
 1,886 
 
 692 
 
 770 
 
 1823 
 
 1,250 
 
 592 
 
 39f) 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 1,240 
 
 574 
 
 396 
 
 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 1,475 
 
 683 
 
 44« 
 
 1832: 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 3,307 
 
 1,229 
 
 1,220 
 
 Coms. 
 
 61 
 
 20 
 
 37 
 
 1827 
 
 1,688 
 
 671 
 
 742 
 
 Fiats 
 
 1,661 
 
 62.3 
 
 703 
 
 1828 
 
 1,519 
 
 601 
 
 620 
 
 
 1,772 
 
 643 
 
 740 
 
 1829 
 
 2,150 
 
 809 
 
 910 
 
 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 1,720 
 
 661 
 
 748 
 
 
 19,376 
 
 7,563 
 
 7,.'324 
 
 Total commissions and fiats sealed and signed in the above period 
 Total town commissions and fiats opened _ . - - 
 Total country commissions and fiats opened - - - 
 
 
 19,376 
 7,563 
 7,524 
 
 III. Total Number of Persons discharged from Prison under the Acts for the Relief of Insolvent Debtors 
 since the Constitution of the present Court in 1820; and the Number who have been ordered to be 
 detained in Custody for contravening the Provisions of the Acts for the Relief of Insolvent Debtors. — 
 (Pa?-/. Paper, No. 141. Sess. 1831, and Papers published by Board qf Trade.) 
 
 N. B.— The Court malces no orders of detention ; and the following Table shows all the judgments given to the 
 30tli of June, 1831. 
 
 
 Ordered to be discharged forthwith. 
 
 Ordered to be discharged at some future Period. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Years. 
 
 In London. 
 
 On Circuit. 
 
 Before 
 Justices. 
 
 Total. 
 
 In London. 
 
 On Circuit. 
 
 Before 
 Justices. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 830 
 2,347 
 2,071 
 1,811 
 1,745 
 1,955 
 2,429 
 1,929 
 ,1,913 
 2,067 
 2,066 
 1,553 
 
 none, 
 none, 
 none, 
 none. 
 
 388 
 1,342 
 1,865 
 1,988 
 1,450 
 1,580 
 1,823 
 2,031 
 
 1,495 
 2,516 
 2,499 
 2,047 
 1,255 
 73 
 89 
 89 
 112 
 100 
 111 
 135 
 
 2,325 
 4,863 
 4,573 
 3,858 
 3,318 
 3,370 
 4,383 
 4,006 
 3,475 
 3,747 
 3,990 
 3,719 
 
 61 
 219 
 161 
 181 
 142 
 126 
 110 
 
 90 
 127 
 158 
 189 
 159 
 
 none. 
 
 none. 
 
 none. 
 
 none. 
 18 
 161 
 183 
 128 
 131 
 1.52 
 191 
 178 
 
 96 
 208 
 221 
 202 
 115 
 8 
 
 10 
 6 
 10 
 
 9 
 8 
 
 157 
 
 4G7 
 382 
 383 
 275 
 295 
 298 
 228 
 264 
 320 
 389 
 345 
 
 2,4«2 
 5,290 
 4,955 
 4,241 
 3,593 
 3,665 
 4,681 
 4,234 
 3,739 
 4,067 
 '4,379 
 4,064 1 
 
 Totals 
 
 22,709 
 
 12,397 
 
 10,5^21 
 
 45,627 
 
 1,723 
 
 1,142 
 
 898 
 
 3,763 
 
 49,390 i 
 
 INSURANCE, a contract of indemnity, by which one party engages, for a sti 
 pulated sum, to insure another against a risk to which he is exposed. The party who 
 takes upon him the risk, is called the Insurer, Assurer, or Underwriter; and the party 
 protected by the insurance is called the Insured, or Assured ; the sum paid is called the 
 Premium; and the instrument containing the contract is called the Policy. 
 
 1. Insurance (General Principles of). 
 II. Insurance (Marine). 
 
 III. Insurance (Fire). 
 
 IV. Insurance (Life). 
 
 I. Insurance (General Principles of). 
 
 It is the duty of government to assist) by every means in its power, the efforts of 
 individuals to protect their property. Losses do not always arise from accidental cir- 
 cumstances, but are frequently occasioned by the crimes and misconduct of individuals ; 
 and there are no means so effectual for their prevention, when they arise from this source, 
 as the establishment of a vigilant system of police, and of such an administration of the 
 law as may be calculated to afford those who are injured a ready and cheap method of 
 obtaining every practicable redress ; and, as far as possible, of insuring the punishment 
 of culprits. But in despite of all that may be done by government, and of the utmost 
 vigilance on the part of individuals, property must always be exposed to a variety of 
 casualties from fire, shipwreck, and other unforeseen disasters. And hence the importance 
 of inquiring how .such unavoidable losses, when they do occur, may be rendered least 
 injurious. 
 
 The loss of a ship, or the conflagration of a cotton mill, is a calamity that would press 
 heavily even on the richest individual. But were it distributed among several indivi- 
 duals, each would feel it proportionally less; and provided the number of those among 
 whom it was distributed were very considerable, it would hardly occasion any sensible 
 inconvenience to any one in particular. Hence the advantage of combining to lessen 
 the injury arising from the accidental destruction of property : and it is the diffusion of 
 the risk of loss over a wide surface, and its valuation, that forms the employment of those 
 engaged in insurance. 
 
690 INSURANCE (PRINCIPLES OF). 
 
 Though it be impossible to trace the circumstances which occasion those events that 
 are, on that account, termed accidental, they are, notwithstanding, found to obey certain 
 laws. The number of births, marriages, and deaths ; the proportions of male to female, 
 and of legitimate to illegitimate births ; the ships cast away ; the houses burned ; and a 
 vast variety of other apparently accidental events ; are yet, when our experience embraces 
 a sufficiently wide field, found to be nearly equal in equal periods of time : and it is easy, 
 from observations made upon them, to estimate the sum which an individual should pay, 
 either to guarantee his property from risk, or to secure a certain sum for his heirs at 
 his death. 
 
 It must, however, be carefully observed, that no confidence can be placed in such 
 estimates, unless they are deduced from a very wide induction. Suppose, for example, 
 it happens, that during the present year one house is accidentally burned, in a town 
 containing 1,000 houses; this would afford very little ground for presuming that the 
 average probability of fire in that town was as 1 to 1,000. For it might be found that 
 not a single house had been burned during the previous 10 years, or that 10 were burned 
 during each of these years. But supposing it were ascertained, that, at an average of 
 10 years, 1 house had been annually burned, the presumption that 1 to 1,000 was the 
 real ratio of the probability of fire would be very much strengthened ; and if it were found 
 to obtain for 20 or 30 years togethei', it might be held, for all practical purposes at least, 
 as indicating the precise degree of probability. 
 
 Besides its being necessary, in order to obtain the true measure of the probability of 
 any event, that the series of events, of which it is one, should be observed for a rather 
 lengthened period, it is necessary also that the events should be numerous, or of pretty 
 frequent occurrence. Suppose it were found, by observing the birtlis and deaths of 
 1,000,000 individuals taken indiscriminately from among the whole population, that the 
 mean duration of human life was 40 years ; we should have but very slender grounds for 
 concluding that this ratio would hold in the case of the next 10, 20, or 50 individuals 
 that are born. Such a number is so small as hardly to admit of the operation of what is 
 called the law of average. When a large number of lives is taken, those that exceed the 
 medium term are balanced by those that fall short of it j but when the number is small, 
 there is comparatively little room for the principle of compensation, and the result cannot, 
 therefore, be depended upon. 
 
 It is found, by the experience of all countries in which censuses of the population have 
 been taken with considerable accuracy, that the number of male children born is to that 
 of female children in the proportion nearly of 22 to 21. But unless the observations be 
 made on a very large scale, this result will not be obtained. If we look at particular 
 families, they sometimes consist wholly of boys, and sometimes wholly of girls ; and it is 
 not possible that the boys can be to the girls of a single family in the ratio of 22 to 21. 
 But when, instead of confining our observations to particular families, or even parishes, 
 we extend them so as to embrace a population of 500,000, these discrepancies disappear, 
 and we find that there is invariably a small excess in the number of males born over the 
 females. 
 
 The false inferences that have been drawn from the doctrine oif chances, have uniformly, 
 almost, proceeded from generalising too rapidly, or from deducing a rate of probability 
 from such a number of instances as do not give a fair average. But when the instances 
 on which we found our conclusions are sufficiently numerous, it is seen that the most 
 anomalous events, such as suicides, deaths by accidents, the number of letters put into 
 the post-office without any address, &c., form pretty regular series, and consequently 
 admit of being estimated d priori. 
 
 The business of insurance is founded upon the principles thus briefly stated. Suppose 
 it has been remarked that of forty ships, of the ordinary degree of sea-worthiness, 
 employed in a given trade, 1 is annually cast away, the probability of loss will plainly 
 be equal to one fortieth. And if an individual wish to insure a ship, or the cargo on 
 board a ship, engaged in this trade, he ought to pay a premium equal to the l-40th part 
 of the sum he insures, exclusive of such an additional sum as may be required to in- 
 demnify the insurer for his trouble, and to leave him a fair profit. If the premium 
 exceed this sum, the insurer is overpaid ; and if it fall below it, he is underpaid. 
 
 Insurances arc effected sometimes by societies, and sometimes by individuals, the risk 
 being in either case diffused amongst a number of persons. Companies formed for 
 carrying on the business have generally a large subscribed capital, or such a number of 
 proprietors as enables them to raise, witliout difficulty, whatever sums may at any time 
 be required to make good losses. Societies of this sort do not limit their risks to small 
 sums ; that is, they do not often refuse to insure a large sum upon a ship, a house, a life, &c. 
 The magnitude of their capitals affords them the means of easily defraying a heavy loss; 
 and their premiums being proportioned to their risks, their profit is, at an average, in- 
 de])en(leMt of such contingencies. 
 
 Individuals, it is plain, could not act in this way, unless they were possessed of very 
 
INSURANCE (PRINCIPLES OF). 
 
 large capitals ; and besides, the taking of large risks would render the business so 
 hazardous, that few would be disposed to engage in it. Instead, therefore, of insuring 
 a large sum, as 20,000/., upon a single ship, a private underwriter or insurer may not, 
 probably, in ordinary cases, take a greater risk than 200/. or 500/. ; so that, though his 
 engagements may, when added together, amount to 20,000/., they will be diffused over 
 from 40 to 100 ships; and supposing 1 or 2 ships to be lost, the loss would not impair 
 his capital, and would only lessen his profits. Hence it is, that while one transaction 
 only may be required in getting a ship insured by a company, 10 or 20 separate trans- 
 actions may be required in getting the same thing done at Lloyd's, or by private 
 individuals. When conducted in this cautious manner, the business of insurance is as 
 safe a line of speculation as any in which individuals can engage. 
 
 To establish a policy of insurance on a fair foundation, or in such a way that the 
 premiums paid by the insured shall exactly balance the risks incurred by the insTirers, 
 and the various necessary expenses to which they are put, including, of course, their 
 profit, it is necessary, as previously remarked, that the experience of the risks should be 
 pretty extensive. It is not, however, at all necessary, that either party should inquire 
 into the circumstances that lead to those events that are most commonly made tlie subject 
 of insurance. Such a research would, indeed, be entirely fruitless : we are, and must 
 necessarily continue to be, wholly ignorant of the causes of their occurrence. 
 
 It appears, from the accounts given by Mr. Scoresby, in his valuable work on the 
 Arctic Regions, that of 586 ships which sailed from the various ports of Great Britain 
 for the northern whale fishery, during the 4 years ending with 1817, 8 were lost — 
 (vol. ii. p. 131), — being at the rate of about 1 ship out of every 73 of those employed. 
 Now, supposing this to be about the average loss, it follows that the premium required 
 to insure against it should be IZ. 7s. 4d, per cent., exclusive, as already observed, of the 
 expenses and profits of the insurer. Both the insurer and tlie insured would gain by 
 entering into a transaction founded on this fair principle. When the operations of the 
 insurer are extensive, and his risks spread over a considerable number of ships, his profit 
 does not depend upon chance, but is as steady, and may be as fairly calculated upon, as 
 that of a manufacturer or a merchant ; while, on the other hand, the individuals who 
 have insured their property have exempted it from any chance of loss, and placed it, as 
 it were, in a state of absolute security. 
 
 It is easy, from the brief statement now made, to perceive the immense advantage 
 resulting to navigation and commerce fi-om the practice of marine insurance. Without 
 the aid that it affords, comparatively few individuals would be found disposed to expose 
 their property to the risk of long and hazardous voyages ; but by its means insecurity is 
 changed for security, and the capital of the merchant whose ships are dispersed over 
 every sea, and exposed to all the perils of the ocean, is as secure as that of the agricul- 
 turist. He can combine his measures and arrange his plans as if they could no longer 
 be affected by accident. The chances of shipwreck, or of loss by unforeseen occvn-rences, 
 enter not into his calculations. He has purchased an exemption from the eflPects of such 
 casualties ; and applies himself to the prosecution of his business with that confidence and 
 energy which nothing but a feeling of security can inspire. " Les chances de la navigation 
 entravaient le commerce. Le systeme des assurances a paru ; il a consulte Ics saisons ; 
 il a porte ses regards sur la mer ; il a interroge ce terrible element ; il en a juge Tincon- 
 stance ; il en a pressenti les orages : il a epie la politique : il a reconnu les ports et les 
 cotes des deux mondes ; il a tout soumis a des calculs savans, a des theories approxima- 
 tives ; et il a dit au commercant habile, au navigateur intrepide : certes, il y a des 
 desastres sur lesquels I'humanite ne peut que gemir ; mais quant a votre fortune, allez, 
 franchissez les mers, deployez votre activite et votre Industrie ; je me charge de vos 
 risques. Alors, Messieurs, s'il est permis de le dire, les quatre parties du monde se sont 
 rapprochees." — (Code de Commerce, Expose des Motifs, liv. ii.) 
 
 Besides insuring against the perils of the sea, and losses arising from accidents caused 
 by the operation of natural causes, it is common to insure against enemies, pirates, thieves, 
 and even the fraud, or, as it is technically termed, barratry, of the master. The risk 
 arising from these sources of casualty being extremely fluctuating and various, it is not' 
 easy to estimate it with any considerable degree of accuracy ; and nothing more than a 
 rough average can, in most cases, be looked for. In time of war, the fluctuations in the 
 rates of insurance are particularly great : and the intelligence that an enemy's squadron, 
 or even a single privateer, is cruising in the course which the ships bound to or return- 
 ing from any given port usually follow, causes an instantaneous rise in the premium. 
 The appointment of convoys for the protection of trade during war, necessarily tends, by 
 lessening the chances of capture, to lessen the premium on insurance. Still, however, 
 the risk in such periods is, in most cases, very considerable ; and as it is liable to change 
 very suddenly, great caution is required on the part of the underwriters. 
 
 Provision may also be made, by means of insurance, against loss by fire, and almost 
 all the casualties to which property on land is subject. 
 
 2 Y 2 
 
692 
 
 INSURANCE (PRINCIPLES OF). 
 
 But, notwithstanding what has now been stated, it must be admitted, that the advan- 
 tages derived from the practice of insuring against losses by sea and land are not 
 altogether unmixed with evil. The security which it affords tends to relax that vigilant 
 attention to the protection of property which the fear of its loss is sure otherwise to excite . 
 This, however, is not its worst effect. The records of our courts, and the experience of 
 all who are largely engaged in the business of insurance, too clearly prove that ships 
 have been repeatedly sunk, and houses burned, in order to defraud the insurers. In 
 despite, however, of the temptation to inattention and fraud which is thus afforded, there 
 can be no doubt that, on the whole, the practice is, in a public as well as private point 
 of view, decidedly beneficial. The frauds that are occasionally committed raise, in some 
 degree, the rate of insurance. Still it is exceedingly moderate ; and it is most probable, 
 that the precautions adopted by the insurance offices for the prevention of fire, especially 
 in great towns, where it is most destructive, outweigh the chances of increased conflagra- 
 tion arising from the greater tendency to carelessness and crime. 
 
 The business of life insurance has been carried to a far greater extent in Great Britain 
 than in any other country, and has been productive of the most beneficial effects. Life 
 insurances are of various kinds. Individuals without any very near connections, and 
 possessing only a limited fortune, are sometimes desirous, or are sometimes, from the 
 necessity of their situation, obliged, annually to encroach on their capitals. But should 
 the life of such persons be extended beyond the ordinary term of existence, they might 
 be totally unprovided for in old age ; and to secure themselves against this contingency, 
 they pay to an insurance company the whole or a part of their capital, on condition of 
 its guaranteeing them, as long as they live, a certain annuity, proportioned partly, of 
 course, to the amount of the sum paid, and partly to their age when they buy the annuity. 
 
 But though sometimes serviceable to individuals, it may be questioned whether in- 
 surances of this sort are, in a public point of view, really advantageous. So far as their 
 influence extends, its obvious tendency is to weaken the principle of accumulation ; to 
 stimulate individuals to consume their capitals during their own life, without thinking 
 or caring about the interest of their successors. Were such a practice to become general, 
 it would be productive of the most extensively ruinous consequences. The interest 
 Avhlch most men take in the welfare of their families and friends affords, indeed, a pretty 
 strong security against its becoming injuriously prevalent. There can, however, be little 
 doubt that this selfish practice may be strengthened by adventitious means ; such, for 
 example, as the opening of government loans in the shape of life annuities, or in the 
 still more objectionable form of tontines. But when no extrinsic stimulus of this sort is 
 given to it, there do not seem to be any very good grounds for thinking that the sale of 
 annuities by private individuals or associations can materially weaken the principle of 
 accumulation. 
 
 Luckily, however, the species of insurance now referred to is but inconsiderable com- 
 pared with that which has accumulation for its object. All professional persons, or 
 those living on salaries or wages, such as lawyers, physicians, military and naval officers, 
 clerks in public or private offices, &c., whose incomes must, of course, terminate with 
 their lives, and a host of others, who are either not possessed of capital, or cannot dispose 
 of their capital at pleasure, must naturally be desirous of providing, so far as they may 
 be able, for the comfortable subsistence of their families in the event of their death. 
 Take, for example, a physician or lawyer, without fortune, but making, perhaps, 1,000/. 
 or 2,000Z. a year by his business ; and suppose that he marries and has a family ; if this 
 individual attain to the average duration of human life, he may accumulate such a 
 fortune as will provide for the adequate support of his family at his death. But who 
 can presume to say that such will be the case? — that he will not be one of the many 
 exceptions to the general rule? — And suppose that he were hurried into an untimely 
 grave, his family would necessarily be destitute. Now, it is against such calamitous 
 contingencies that life insurance is intended chiefly to provide. An individual possessed 
 of an income terminating at his death, agrees to pay a certain sum annually to an in- 
 surance office ; and this office binds itself to pay to his family, at his death, a sum 
 ctjuivalent, under deduction of the expenses of management and the profits of the insurers, 
 to wliat these animal contributions, accumulated at compound interest, would amount 
 to, supposing the insured to reach the common and average term of hvunan life. Though 
 he were to die the day after the insurance has been effected, his family would be as 
 amply provided for as it is likely they would be by his accumulations were his life of 
 the ordinary duration. In all cases, indeed, in which those insured die before attaining 
 to an average age, their gain is obvious. But even in those cases in which their lives 
 arc prolonged beyond the ordinary term, they arc not losers — they then merely pay for 
 a security which they must otherwise have been without. During the wliole jicviod, 
 from the time when tliey effect their insurances, down to the time when they arrive at 
 the mean duration of human life, they are protected against tlic risk of dying without 
 leaving their families suflifiently provided for ; and the sum which they pay after having 
 
INSURANCE (PRINCIPLES OF). 
 
 693 
 
 passed this mean term is nothing more than a fair compensation for the security they 
 previously enjoyed. Of those who insure houses against fire, a very small proportion 
 only have occasion to claim an indemnity for losses actually sustained ; hut the possession 
 of a security against loss in the event of accident, is a sufficient motive to induce every 
 prudent individual to insure his property. The cjise of life insurance is in no respect 
 different. When estahlished on a proper footing, the extra smns which those pay whose 
 lives exceed the estimated duration is but the value of the previous security. 
 
 In order so to adjust the terms of an insurance, that the party insuring may neither 
 pay too much nor too little, it is necessary that the probability' of his life failing in each 
 subsequent year should be determined with as much accuracy as possible. 
 
 To ascertain this probability, various observations have been made in different countries 
 and periods, showing, out of a given number of persons born in a particular country or 
 place, how many complete each subsequent year, and how many die in it, till the whole 
 be extinct. The results of such observations, when collected and arranged in a tabular 
 form, are called Tables of Mortality ; being entitled, of course, to more or less confidence, 
 according to the number and species of lives observed ; the period when, and the care 
 with which, the observations were made, &c. But, supposing these Tables to be formed 
 with sufficient accuracy, the expectation of life at any age, or its mean duration after 
 such age, may readily be learned from them ; and hence, also, the value of an annuity, or 
 an assurance on a life of any age. Thus, in the Table of Mortality for Carlisle, framed 
 by Mr. Milne, of the Sun Life Office, and which is believed to represent the average law 
 of mortality in England with very considerable accuracy, out of 10,000 persons born 
 together, 4,000 complete their 56th year ; and it further appears, that the number of 
 such persons who die in their 66th year is 124; so that the probability that a life now 
 56 years of age will terminate in the 10th year hence is But, reckoning interest 
 
 at 4 per cent., it appears (Table II. Interest and Annuities), that the present value 
 of 100/. to be received 10 years hence is 67 '5561. ; consequently, if its receipt be made 
 to depend upon the probability that a life now 56 years of age will fail in the 66th 
 year, its present value will be reduced by that contingency toi2iA|I^M' = 2*094/., or 
 21. Is. lO^d. The present value of lOOZ. receivable upon the life of a party now 56 
 years of age terminating in the 57th or any subsequent year of his life, up to its extreme 
 limit (which, according to the Carlisle Table, is the 105th year), being calculated in this 
 way, the sum of the whole will be the present value of 100/. receivable whenever the 
 life may fail, that is, of 100/. insured upon it, supposing no additions were made to it for 
 tlie profits and expenses of the insurers. 
 
 ]\Iore compendious processes are resorted to for calculating Tables of insurances at all 
 ages ; but the above statement sufficiently illustrates the principle on which they all de- 
 pend. In practice, a life insurance is seldom made by the payment of a single sum 
 when it is effected, but almost always by the payment of an annual premium during its 
 continuance, the first being paid down at the commencement of the insurance.* If the 
 Table of Mortality adopted by the insurers fairly represent the law of mortality prevailing 
 among the insured, it follows that wlien a party insured does not attain to the average 
 age according to the Table, the insurers will either lose by him, or realise less than their 
 ordinary profit ; and when,, on the other hand, the life of an insured party is prolonged 
 beyond the tabular average, the profits of the insurers are proportionally increased. But 
 if their business be so extensive as to enable the law of average fully to apply, what they 
 lose by premature death will be balanced by the payments received from those whose 
 lives are prolonged beyond the mean duration of life for the ages at which they were 
 respectively insured ; tio that the profits of the society will be wholly independent of 
 chance. 
 
 The relief from anxiety afforded by life insurance very frequently contributes to pro- 
 long the life of the insured, at the same time that it materially augments the comfort and 
 well-being of those dependent on him. It has, also, an obvious tendency to strengthen 
 habits of accumulation. An individual who has insured a sum on his life, woidd forfeit 
 all the advantages of the insurance, were he not to continue regularly to make his annual 
 payments. It is not, therefore, optional with him to save a sum from his ordinary ex- 
 penditure adequate for this purpose. He is compelled, under a heavy penalty, to do so ; 
 and having thus been led to contract a habit of saving to a certain extent, it is most pro- 
 bable that the habit will acquire additional strength, and that he will either insure an 
 additional sum, or privately accimiulate. 
 
 The practice of marine insurance, no doubt from the extraordinary hazard to which 
 property at sea is exposed, seems to have long preceded insurances against fire and upon 
 lives. We are ignorant of the precise period when it began to be introduced ; but it 
 appears most probable that it dates from the end of the fourteenth or the beginning of tlie 
 
 • For the nietbcd of calculating these annual premiums, sec post. Interest axd Anxi ities 
 
 2 Y 3 
 
694. 
 
 INSURANCE (PRINCIPLES OF). 
 
 fifteenth century. It has, however, been contended by Loccenius (Z)e Jure Maritimo, 
 lib. ii. c. 1.), PutfendorfF {Droit de la Nature et des Gens, lib. v. c. 9.), and others, that 
 the practice of marine insurances is of much higher antiquity, and that traces of it may 
 be found in the history of the Punic wars. Livy mentions, that during the second of 
 these contests, the contractors employed by the Romans to transport ammunition and 
 provisions to Spain, stipulated that government should indemnify them against such losses 
 as might be occasioned by the enemy, or by tempests, in the course of the voyage. — • 
 {Impetratum fuit, nt quce navihus imponerentur ad exercitum Hispaniensem deferenda, ah 
 hostium tempestatisque vi, publico periculo essent. — Hist. lib. xxiii. c. 49. ) Malynes 
 (Lex Mercatoria, 3d ed. p. 105.), founding on a passage in Suetonius, ascribes the first 
 introduction of insurance to the emperor Claudius, who, in a period of scarcity at Rome, 
 to encourage the importation of corn, took upon himself all the loss or damage it might 
 sustain in the voyage thither by storms and tempests. — {Negotiatoribus certa lucra pro- 
 posuit, suscepto in se damno, si cui quid per tempestates accidisset, et naves mercatum 
 causa, fabricantibus, magna commoda constituit. — c. 18.) It is curious to observe that 
 this stipulation gave occasion to the commission of acts of fraud, similar to those so fre- 
 quent in modern times. Shipwrecks were pretended to have happened, that never took 
 place ; old shattered vessels, freighted with articles of little value, were purposely sunk, 
 and the crew saved in boats : large sums being then demanded as a recompence for the 
 loss. Some years after, the fraud was discovered, and some of the contractors were pro- 
 secuted and punished. (Lib. xxv. c. 3.) But none of these passages, nor a similar one 
 in Cicero's letters — (Ad Fam. lib. ii. c. 17.), warrant the inferences that Loccenius, 
 Malynes, and others have attempted to draw from them. Insurance is a contract between 
 two parties; one of whom, on receiving a certain premium (pretium periculi), agrefes to 
 take upon himself the risk of any loss that may happen to the property of the other. 
 In ancient no less than in modern times, every one must have been desirous to be 
 exonerated from the chance of loss arising from the exposure of property to the perils 
 of the sea. But though, in the cases referred to, the carriers were exempted from this 
 chance, they were not exempted by a contract propter aversionem periculi, or by an in- 
 surance ; but by their employers taking the risk upon themselves. And it is abundantly 
 obvious that the object of the latter in doing this was not to profit, like an insurer, by 
 dealing in risks, but to induce individuals the more readily to undertake the performance 
 of an urgent public duty. 
 
 But with the exception of the instances now mentioned, nothing bearing the remotest 
 resemblance to an insurance is to be met with till a comparatively recent period. If we 
 might rely on a passage in one of the Flemish chroniclers, quoted by the learned M. Par- 
 dessus, — (see his excellent work, Collection des Loix Maritimes, tome i. p. 356.), we 
 should be warranted in concluding that insurances had been effected at Bruges so early 
 as the end of the thirteenth century: for the chronicler states that, in 1311, the Earl of 
 Flanders consented, on a requisition from the inhabitants, to establish a chamber of 
 insurance at Bruges. M. Pardessus is not, however, inclined to think that this state- 
 ment should be regarded as decisive. It is evident, from the manner in which the sub- 
 ject is mentioned, that the chronicler was not a contemporary ; and no trace can be 
 found, either in the archives of Bruges, or in any authentic publication, of any thing like 
 the circumstance alluded to. The earliest extant Flemish law as to insurance is dated in 
 1537; and none of the early maritime codes of the North so much as alludes to this 
 interesting subject. 
 
 Beckmann seems to have thought that the practice of insurance originated in Italy, 
 in the latter part of the fifteenth or the early part of the sixteenth century. — {Hist, of 
 Invent, vol. i. art. Insurance.) But the learned Spanish antiquary, Don Antonio de 
 Capmany, has given, in his very valuable publication on the History and Commerce of 
 Barcelona (Memorias Historicas sabre la Marina, ^c. de Barcelona, tomo ii. p. 383.), 
 an ordinance relative to insurance, issued by the magistrates of that city in 1435 ; Avhereas 
 the earliest Italian law on the subject is nearly a century later, being dated in 1523. It 
 is, however, exceedingly unlikely, had insurance been as early practised in Italy as in 
 Catalonia, that the former should have been so much behind the latter in subjecting it 
 to any fixed rules ; and it is still more unlikely that the practice should have escaped, as 
 is the case, all mention by any previous Italian writer. We, therefore, agree entirely 
 in Capmany's opinion, that, until some authentic evidence to the contrary be produced, 
 Barcelona should be regarded as the birthplace of this most useful and beautiful application 
 of the doctrine of chances. — (Tomo i. p. 237.) 
 
 A knowledge of the principles and practice of insurance was early brought into 
 England. According to Malynes — {Lex Mercat. p. 105.), it was first practised amongst 
 us by the Lombards, who were established in London from a very remote epoch. It is 
 prol)al)le it was introduced some time about the beginning of the sixteenth centur}' ; for 
 it is mentioned in tlie statute -13 Eliz. c. 12. — a statute in which its utility is very clearly 
 «et forth — that it had been an immemorial tisage among merchants, both English and 
 
INSURANCE (MARINE). 
 
 695 
 
 foreign, when they made any great adventure, to procure insurance to be made on the 
 ships or goods adventured. From this it may reasonably be supposed that insurance had 
 been in use in England for at least a century previous. It ajijjears from the same sta- 
 tute, that it had originally been usual to refer all disputes that arose with respect to 
 insurances to the decision of " grave and discreet" merchants appointed by the Lord 
 Mayor. But abuses having grown out of this practice, the statute authorised the Lord 
 Chancellor to appoint a commission for the trial of insurance cases; and in the reign 
 of Charles II. the powers of the commissioners were enlarged. But this court soon 
 after fell into disuse ; and, what is singular, no trace can now be discovered of any of its 
 proceedings. — (^Marshall on Insurance, Prelim. Disc. p. 26.) 
 
 Few questions as to insurance seem to have come before the courts at Westminster 
 till after the middle of last century. The decisions of Lord Mansfield may, indeed, be said 
 to have fixed, and in a considerable degree formed, the law upon this subject. His judg- 
 ments were not bottomed on narrow views, or on the municipal regulations of England ; 
 but on those great principles of public justice and convenience which had been sanctioned 
 and approved by universal experience. His deep and extensive information was acquired 
 by consulting the most intelligent merchants, and the works of distinguished foreign 
 jurists; and by carefully studying the famous French ordinance of 1681, the most ad- 
 mirably digested body of maritime law of which any country has ever had to boast. 
 Hence the comprehensiveness and excellence of his Lordship's decisions, and the respect 
 they have justly commanded in all countries.* In his hands the law of insurance be- 
 came, in a far greater degree than any other department of English law, a branch of 
 lhat national or public law, of which Cicero has beautifully said, " Non erit alia lex 
 RomcB, alia Athenis, alia nunc, alia posthac, sed et omnes gentes et omni tempore una lex et 
 sempiterna, et immortalis continebit, unusque erit communis quasi magister et impcrator 
 omnium Deus." — (Fragm. lib. iii. de Eepublicd.) 
 
 Insurance against fire and upon lives is of much later origin than insurance against 
 the perils of the sea. The former, however, has been known and carried on amongst 
 us, to some extent at least, for nearly a century and a half. The Amicable Society, 
 for insurance upon lives, was established by charter of Queen Anne, in 1706; the 
 Royal Exchange and I^ondon Assurance Companies began to make insurances upon 
 lives in the reign of George I, ; and the Equitable Society was established in 1 762. 
 But the advantages of life insurance, and the principles on which the business should 
 be conducted, were then very ill understood ; and the practice can hardly be said to 
 have obtained any firm footing amongst us, till the Equitable Society, by adopting the 
 judicious suggestions of Dr. Price, began its career of prosperity about 1775. Not- 
 withstanding the example of England, life insurance has made very little progress on 
 the Continent. It was, indeed, expressly forbidden by the French ordinance of 1681 
 (liv. iii. tit. 6. art. 10.) ; by the regulations as to insurance issued at Amsterdam in 1612 
 (art. 24.); and it is doubtful whether the practice be not inconsistent with the 334th 
 art. of the Code de Commerce. But we are inclined to think that the want of se- 
 curity, more than any positive regulations, has been the principal cause of the little pro- 
 gress of life insurance on the Continent. Of whatever disadvantages our large public 
 debt may be productive, it is not to be doubted that the facilities it has aflPorded for 
 making investments, and the punctuality with which the national engagements have been 
 fulfilled, have been the principal causes of the extraordinary extent to which the business 
 of life and even fire insurance has been carried in this country, 
 
 II. Insurance (Marine). 
 
 There are few persons who are not acquainted, in some degree, with fire and life insurances. The 
 fiecurity which they afford to individuals and families is a luxury which nobody, in tolerably comfortable 
 circumstances, is willing to be without. Hence the great increase, in our days, of companies professing 
 to afford this security ; and hence the knowledge, on the part of the public generally, of the nature and 
 principles of the engagements into which these companies enter. But marine insurance is a subject 
 which is of immediate interest only to merchants and ship owners ; unless, indeed, we should refer to 
 that small portion of the community, who have occasion to transport themselves bejond seas with 
 capital and effects for purposes of colonisation, or to fill some official situation. Hence the comparative 
 indifference, on the part of the public, as to this subject. The general principles, however, of all 
 insurance are the same ; and in treating of marine insurance, it will be necessary to notice little beyond 
 such topics as are peculiar to that branch of the business. 
 
 Jndividiial Insurers or Umierwrilers. — The first circumstance that cannot fail to strike the general 
 inquirer into the practice of marine insurance in this country, is that, while all fire and life insurances 
 are made at the risk of companies, which include within themselves the desirable requisites of security, 
 wealth, and numbers, the great bulk of marine insurances are made at the risk of individuals. London 
 and Liverpool are the only towns in England in which there are any public companies for this purpose, t 
 In London there are only 4: the 2 old companies, the London and the Royal Eicliattiie ; and the 
 two established in 1824, the Alliance Marine and the Indeynniti/ Mtitiial Marine. In Liverpool there is 
 only 1 company. The individuals engaged in this branch of the insurance business in London, about 
 whom we shall say more presently, assemble in Llojd's Coffee-house, over the Royal Exchange. 
 
 • See Emerigon's famous Traits des Assiiraiices, tome ii. p. 67- 
 
 f Within these few mo)iths a company has been formed at Sunderland, and it is said that some are 
 projected in other sea- ports. 
 
 2 Y 4 
 
696 
 
 INSURANCE (MARINE). 
 
 Prohibition of Companies. — TiW 1824, all firms and companies, with the exception of the 2 chartered 
 companies, the Royal Exchange and London, were prohibited by law from taking marine insurances. 
 Towards the latter end of that year, the prohibition was removed, and the business of marine insurance 
 was placed on the same footing as other descriptions of business. While the restriction lasted, the 2 
 chartered companies did so little business, that marine insurance might, in fact, be said to be wholly in 
 the hands of individuals. These companies were so much higher in their premiums, and so much more 
 exclusive in the risks they were willing to undertake, than their individual competitors, that even those 
 merchants and ship owners, who would cheerfully have paid some trifling consideration to obtain the 
 greater security of a company, were obliged to resort to individuals. And it was only when the repeal of 
 this absurd restriction was proposed, that the companies showed, by defending it, that they set any value 
 upon their privilege. The underwriters at Lloyd's joined them in this opposition ; and pamplilets were 
 written, and speeches made, to demonstrate how much merchants and ship owners would suffer, were the 
 law to allow them the free use of their discretion in insuring their property ; and how much more con. 
 ducive to their interests it was, that they should be forced up to Lloyd's, to pay premiums to individual 
 rather than companies. But these pamphlets and speeches are forgotten ; and we should be sorry to 
 wound the feelings of their authors, or to trespass on the patience of our readers, by referring to them 
 more particularly. 
 
 Formation of Companies. — During the autumn of 1824 and spring of 1S25, 5 companies sprang into 
 existence in London : the two already mentioned, and the St. Patrick, the Patriotic, and the South Devon. 
 The last 3 have since been given up, having proved ruinous concerns to the proprietors. The 2 
 former are composed of some of the most eminent merchants and ship owners of the city of London, who 
 united for the double purpose of providing a more perfect security for their property, and of ascertaining 
 whether the insurance business might not be made to yield a fair return to the capital employed in it 
 The change thus introduced into the business has had the effect of rousing the 2 old companies into 
 activity, and thus maybe said to have afforded to the public the opportunity of transacting their business 
 with 4 substantial companies, in addition to individual underwriters, whereas they could previously 
 deal only with individuals. 
 
 It may be computed that these 4 companies draw to themselves l-5th of the whole business of the 
 country, leaving the other 4-5ths to individual underwriters, and the Liverpool, Scotch, and Irish 
 companies. It has been inferred by some, that the comparatively limited business of the companies is a 
 convincing proof tiiat individuals are much better adapted to engage in this department than societies ; 
 while it is contended by others that the large share of business, thus speedily attracted to the companies, 
 ouglit to satisfy every body, when due allowances are made for the difiiculties to be combated in break- 
 ing through established modes and habits of doing business, that the tendency in the public is practically 
 to confiKm what antecedent investigation would suggest, — that companies, while they must necessarily 
 hold out better security, and greater liberality and punctuality in the settlement of claims, are capable of 
 transacting a given amount of business with a saving both of labour and expense. 
 
 Mode of conducting Business. — We shall now give an account of the existing arrangements for con- 
 ducting the business of marine insurance, as well by individuals as the companies in London. 
 
 Lloyd's. — The individual underwriters meet in a subscription room at Lloyd's. The joint affairs of 
 the subscribers to these rooms are managed by a committee chosen by the subscribers. Agents (who are 
 commonly styled Lloyd's agents) are appointed in all the principal ports of the world, who forward, 
 retfularly, to Lloyd's, accounts of the departures from and arrivals at their ports, as well as of losses and 
 other casualties ; and, in general, all such information as may be supposed of importance towards guiding 
 the judgments of the underwriters. These accounts are regularly filed, and are accessible to all the 
 subscribers. The principal arrivals and losses are, besides, posted in 2 books, placed in 2 conspicuous 
 parts of the room; and also in another book, which is placed in an adjoining room, for the use of the 
 public at large. Many of the merchants of the city of London are subscribers to these rooms; and the 
 2 old companies contribute each 160^. per annum, in return for which they are furnished with copies of 
 the daily intelligence. The 2 new companies made similar proposals, which were, and, we believe, 
 continue to be, rejected; but this feeling of animosity is unworthy of the subscribers, and will, no doubt, 
 speedily disappear. 
 
 The rooms are open from 10 o'clock in the morning till 5 o'clock in the afternoon, but the most con- 
 siderable part of the business is transacted between 1 and 4. Those merchants and ship owners who 
 manage their own insurance business, procure blank policies at the government office, or of their sta- 
 tioners, which they fill up so as to meet the particular object in view, and submit them to those under- 
 writers with whom they are connected ; by whom they are subscribed or rejected. Each policy is handed 
 about in this way until the amount required is complete. The form of the policy and of a subscription 
 is subjoined to this article. 
 
 The premium is not paid to the underwriter in ready money, but is passed to account. Nor does the 
 underwriter debit the account of the pPrson to whom he subscribes a policy, with the whole amount of 
 the premium, but with the premium less 5 per cent. Whenever losses occur which more than absorb the 
 premiums on any one account, the underwriter is called upon to pay the balance. But should the under- 
 writer's account be what is called good, that is, should the premiums exceed the claims, he sends round, 
 during the spring and summer, to collect from his various debtors either the balance of his last year's 
 account, or money on account, according to his judgment; but, upon what he receives, he makes an 
 allowance of 12 per cent. An underwriter, if prudent, therefore, before he consents to receive, will not 
 only look to the goodness of his account, but to the probability of its continuing so. 
 
 Insurance Brokers. — Many merchants and ship owners do not transact their own insurance business. 
 They give their orders for insurance to others, who undertake it for them, and are responsible for its 
 proper management. These' latter persons are called insurance brokers ; and some of them manage the 
 business of a number of principals. To tlicm, likewise, are transmitted the orders for insurance from 
 the outports and manufacturing towns. They charge the whole premium to their principals, and their 
 I)rofit consists in 5 per cent upon the premium, 12 per cent. \i])on the money that they pay to the under- 
 writers, and ^ per cent, that they deduct from all the claims which they recover from the underwriters. 
 It sa proper to remark, that this is the established or regular profit; but competition has occasioned 
 nu.iierous deviations from it oy the brokers, many of whom consent to divide this profit with the princi- 
 pals who employ them. The insurance brokers are not unfrequently miderwriters also ; and as some 
 insurances are considered far more lucrative than others to underwriters, and as the brokers have particu- 
 lar facilities, in some respects, of judging of the goodness of their own risks, so likewise have they an 
 inducement to play into one another's hands, and they do so accordingly. — (See Brokers.) 
 
 It will at once be seen, that the trouble of effecting insurances at Lloyd's is considerable ; that a good 
 deal of time must be consumed ; and that merchants and ship owners, therefore, have great inducement 
 to consigTi their insurance business to brokers. But where the business is transacted with a company, this 
 inducement, if not destroyed altogether, is, at all events, very much diminished. Any party having pro- 
 perty to insure, has merely to go to the mannfjer of the company, and state the particulars of the risk to 
 be insured ; the premium being agreed upon, the manager writes out a memorandum for the policy, 
 which the ])arty signs, and he is thus efl'cctually insured. The companies procure the stamp and write 
 out the policy, which is ready for delivery in 4 or 5 days. The companies, like the underwriters, charge 
 the premium less h per cent. In other respects they vary. 
 
 The Uoyal Exchange Assurance Coini)any allow 12 per cent upon the profitable balance of each year's 
 premiums, with credit till March for the premiums of the preceding year, and 5 per cent, for prompt 
 jiaymfnt. 
 
INSURANCE (MARINE). 
 
 697 
 
 The Alliance Marine Assurance Company allow 12 per cent, upon the profitable balance of cadi ycai "< 
 premiums, with credit till March ; or 10 per cent, lor prompt payment. 
 
 The Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Comj)any allow 12 jicr cent, upon the profitable balance of 
 each year's premiums, with credit till June ; or 10 per cent, for prompt payment. 
 
 The allowances of the London Assurance Company arc the same as those of the Indemnity. 
 
 Payment of Losses. — Losses are paid at all the offices promptly, and without deduction. A month's 
 credit. is allowed to the underwriters; and another month, and sometimes 2 months, are given to the 
 broker, to collect from the underwriters, and pay over to his princijjals. 
 
 Clubs. — Besides the individual underwriters and companies above noticed, there arc clubs or associ- 
 ations formed by ship owners, who agree, e;ich entcriiiji his ships for a certain amount, to divide among 
 themselves one another's losses. These clubs are institutions of long standing; but, since the alteration 
 of the law in 1824, appear to be on the decline. Their formation originated in a twofold reason ; 1st, that 
 the underwriters charged premiums more than commensurate with the risk ; and, 2dly, that they did 
 not attbrd adequate protection. To avoid the first of these two evils, instead of paying a hxed premium, 
 they pay among themselves the actual losses of their .several members as they occur; and to avoid the 
 second, they lay down certain principles of settlement in accordance with their views of indemnity. Each 
 member of one of these clubs gives his power of attorney to the selected manager; and this manager 
 issues a policy for each ship, which policy is subscribed by him as attorney for all the members, the pre- 
 mium inserted in the policy being understood to be nominal. These clubs are open to the leading objec- 
 tions that apply to individual underwriters; for the members are not collectively, but only individually, 
 liable to those of their number who happen to sustain a loss; and the delay of settlement is such, that 
 more than J2 months have been known to elapse before the payment of a loss has been obtained from 
 all the members. 
 
 Rate of Premium. — But little need be said upon the circumstances that influence the rate of premium 
 demanded by the insurers. It must be self-evident that premiums will vary according to the seasons, the 
 quality of the vessel, the known character of the captain, the nature of the commodity, and the state of 
 our political relations. All these, of course, are matters upon which each individual must exercise his 
 own discretion, partly from general experience, and partly Irom particular information ; exaggeration of 
 risk, and consequent exorbitancy of premium for any length of time, being out of the question, where so 
 many individual underwriters, in addition to the companies, are in competition with one another, and 
 where the merchants have the means at hand of effecting their insurances abroad. We have already 
 taken notice of the intelligence of which Lloyd's is the focus. In addition to this, there are 2 sub- 
 scription register books for shipping maintained by the principal merchants, ship owners, and under- 
 writers. These books profess to give an account of the tonnage, build, age, repairs, and quality of almost 
 all the vessels that frequent our ports; and, although exceedingly defective in many respects, are material 
 assistants to the insurers, who have no means of ascertaining by their own observation the particulars 
 of 1 in 100 of the ships they are called upon to insure. But active measures are now in progress 
 for superseding these two register books by unc, giving a much more accurate and faithful account of the 
 state of the mercantile shipping. We doubt, however, whether its real state will ever be revealed, as it 
 ought to be, for the general benefit, until public officers are appointed to perform this duty. This might 
 be done at a trifling expense ; and the advantage to the owners of good ships, to merchants, and to passen- 
 gers, would be immense. 
 
 Contract op Insurance. 
 
 Having thus given a general outline of the mode of transacting business between the insurers and 
 insured, and the means used to enable both parties to come, as near as possible, to a due estimate of the 
 risk to be insured against, our next step will be to explain the nature of the contract, and the bearing of 
 its more important clauses. 
 
 It is unnecessary to state that the object of those who are engaged in commerce, or in moving articles of 
 merchandise from one part of the world to another, is to bjty at such a price that, after paying all the 
 expenses of transport, the sale price may leave them a surplus in the shape of profit. If there were no 
 such contrivance as insurance, merchants would be obliged to calculate upon the probability of the 
 occasional loss of their property, and to regulate their transactions accordingly; but it must be obvious 
 that enterprise, under such circumstances, would be very much crippled Now, insurance, in as far as it 
 approaches perfection in guaranteeing the merchant against all loss, except that of the market, substitutes 
 a fixed charge for uncertain and contingent loss, and enables him to confine his attention exclusively to 
 price and quality, and to charges of transport ; in which latter, of course, the premium of insurance is 
 included. As, however, in practice, insurance is by no means a perfect protection, either to the merchant 
 or ship owner, against all loss that may occur in transitu, there is, even after insurance, some contin- 
 gencies remaining to be taken into consideration ; and we do not know that we can do better, by way of 
 explaining the contract of insurance, than state, as briefly and succinctly as possible, what are the losses 
 aij^ainst which the merchant and ship owner are not protected by an insurance effected in this country. 
 
 1. Acts of our own Government. — All losses arising from the acts of our ow n government. Thus, if an 
 embargo were laid on vessels about to sail for a particular quarter, and the merchant obliged to unload 
 his goods ; or if his goods were condemned to be destroyed in quarantine; or purposely destroyed at sea 
 by some of our cruisers ; no part of his loss would be made good by the insurer. The insurer in this 
 country, although liable for the acts of foreign powers, is not liable for such acts directed against the 
 property of their own subjects. Thus, if French property, insured in this country, were confiscated by 
 the French government, the owner would have no remedy against his insurer. 
 
 2. Breaches of the Revenue Laivs. — All losses arising from a breach of the revenue laws. It may be 
 observed, that if the owner of the ship, by his act, expose the goods of the merchant to loss, the merchant 
 so injured, although he cannot recover from his insurers, may claim from him. It may also be observed, 
 that if the captain of the vessel, by his act, to which neither the owner of the ship nor the merchant is a 
 party, expose the ship and cargo to loss, the insurers, in such case, are bound to make good the loss ; the 
 insurers being liable for all damage arising from illegal acts of the captain and crew, supposing the owner 
 of the ship not to be accessary. The illegal acts of the captain and crew, contrary to the instructions and 
 without the consent of the owners, are termed " barratry " in the policy — ,See Barratry.) 
 
 3. Breaches of the Laiv of l^atlons. — All losses arising from a breach of the law of nations. Thus, if 
 any port is declared by a foreign power to be in a state of blockade, and such blockade is acknowledged 
 nv our government; and if a ship, in defiance of that notification, attempt to break the blockade, and is 
 taken in the attempt; the insurer is not liable to the loss. It will often happen, when a port is under 
 blockade, that the profit is so great upon goods introduced in defiance of the blockade, as to tempt ad- 
 venturers to break it, and to enable them to afford a very high premium to insure against the risk. But 
 as i)olicies for such an object are not acknowledged in our courts of law, when effectetl, they are under- 
 stood to be policies of honour. The same kind of pdlicy is adopted by the underwriters, to protect foreign 
 merchants who prefer insuring in this country against British capture. 
 
 1. Consequences of Deviation. — AW losses subsequent to any deviation from the terms of the policy. 
 Thus, if a merchant, in a policy on produce from the West Indies to London, warrant the ship to sail on 
 or before the 1st of August, and the ship sail alter that day and be lost, the insurer is exonerated. Or, if 
 a merchant insure from London to Lisbon, and the ship call at Havre and is aiterwards lost, the insurer 
 is not liable. It will be understood, of course, that the owner of the ship is liable to the merchant for 
 any breach of contract on his part, as well as that the insurer is liable for the barratry of the master; a 
 deviation on the part of the master, not intended for the benefit of the owner, and contrary to his iustrucv 
 
698 
 
 INSURANCE (MARINE). 
 
 tions, being considered barratry. Should the owner of the goods neglect to describe accurately the voyage 
 for which he wislies to be insured, the loss would be a consequence of his own negligence. 
 
 There is a doctrine connected with barratry which it will here be proper to notice. A captain, owner 
 or part owner of the ship in which he sails, cannot commit an act of barratry. In other words, the in- 
 surers are not, in such a case, liable for an act of his which would otherwise be barratrous. The equity 
 of this doctrine, as far as regards the interests of the captain himself, cannot be called in question ; but 
 it is difficult to understand why the merchant who ships goods on board such a captain's vessel should 
 not be permitted to insure, among other risks, against the captain's illegal acts. We have heard, that a 
 clause has occasionally been introduced into policies to protect merchants against captain- owners, and 
 we do not suppose that our courts of law would refuse to enforce such a clause. Indeed, we cannot dis- 
 cover any reason why every party, saving the captain, should not have the power of insuring against the 
 consequences of illegal acts of the captain. We believe, that among the life offices, which protect them, 
 selves from loss by suicide and the hands of justice, there are some which make a distinction in favour ot 
 those who merely hold policies on the lives of others as a collateral security. The propriety of such a 
 distinction must strike every body. 
 
 5. Unseaworthiness. — All losses arising from unseaworthiness. Unseaworthiness may be caused in 
 various ways, such as want of repair, want of stores, want of provisions, want of nautical instruments, 
 insufficiency of hands to navigate the vessel, or incompetency of the master. It might be supposed, at 
 first sight, that insurance affords a much less perfect security than it really does, seeing on how many 
 pleas it is possible for the insurer to dispute his liability ; but when it is considered that the proof of un- 
 seaworthiness is thrown upon the defendant, and that the leaning of the courts is almost always in favour 
 of the insured, it will be easy to suppose that no respectable insurers would ever plead unseaworthiness, 
 unless they could make out a case of more than ordinary strength and clearness. The degree of un- 
 easiness felt by merchants and ship owners at their liability to be involved in loss by cases of unseaworthi- 
 ness, may be guessed from the fact, that although the Indemnity Assurance Company at one time pre- 
 eluded themselves from pleading unseaworthiness by a special clause in their policy, not only did they 
 obtain no adilitional premium in consequence thereof, but they did not even obtain a preference over 
 other companies and individuals at the same premium. At least, this fact must either be admitted as a 
 proofof the alisence of uneasiness on this head, or of that inveteracy of habit which seems to lead the 
 great bulk of mankind always, if possible, to continue undeviatingly in those courses to which they are 
 accustomed, even where the benefits to be derived from a deviation are undeniable. 
 
 6. Protraction of the Voyage. — All loss arising from unusual protraction of the voyage. Thus, if a 
 ship meet with an accident in the Baltic, and the repairs detain the vessel till the close of the season, when 
 tiie passage home is rendered impracticable by the ice till the opening of the ensuing season, no payment is 
 made to the merchant, in mitigation of his loss from interest of money, loss of market (.if the market fa'.l), 
 or deterioration in the quality of his goods (unless arising from actual sea damage) ; nor to the ship owner, 
 in mitigation of his loss from the extra wages and maintenance of his crew. In most foreign countries 
 the ship owner is remunerated by the insurers for the wages and maintenance of his crew while his 
 ship is detained inconsequence of any loss for the making good of which they are liable. 
 
 7. Liability for doing Damage to other J'esscls. — All loss to which the ship owner is liable when his vessel 
 does damage to others. According to our laws, the owner of every ship not in charge of a pilot, that does 
 damage, by negligence of the master and crew, to any description of craft or vessel, is liable to make 
 good the same to the extent of value of his own ship and freight : for beyond this he is not liable. 
 The common policy in use among the underwriters at Lloyd's and the companies does not protect the 
 ship owner from this loss. But the clubs or associations before mentioned almost universally take this 
 risk. Indeed, this is one of the purposes which gave rise to their formation. But even they limit their 
 liability to the amount of the policy ; so that if a ship insured with them were to run down another, and 
 to sink herself in the concussion, the owner would only receive the value of his own vessel from the 
 club, and still be liable to the owner of the other vessel . The Indemnity Company, by a clause 
 in their policy, make themselves liable for 3-4ths of the loss which the owner of the vessel insured 
 with them may sustain from damage done by his vessel to those of others. If such a case as the one 
 just supposed should occur under their policy, the insured would receive the value of his own vessel 
 and 3-4ths of the loss to be made good by him to the owner of the other vessel. The policies of this 
 Company approach in this respect the nearest of any to perfect protection to the ship owner. But the 
 loss from running down other vessels, although serious, nay sometimes ruinous, seldom occurs ; and 
 many ship owners trust so confidently that it will never fall upon them, that they are as well satisfied to 
 be without as with this protection. 
 
 8. Average Clause. — The next description of loss of which we shall treat, against which the insured 
 are not protected, is described in the following clause of the policy : — " Corn, fish, salt, seed, flour, and 
 fruit, are warranted free from average, unless general, or the ship be stranded; sugar, tobacco, hemp, 
 flax, hides, and skins, are warranted free from average under 5 per cent., unless general, or the ship be 
 stranded ; and all other goods, also the ship and freight, are warranted free from average under 3 per 
 cent, unless general, or the ship be stranded." 
 
 The language employed in this clause, being technical, requires explanation, to render it intelligible 
 to the general reader. Average is a name applied to certain descriptions of loss, to which the merchant 
 and ship owner are liable. There are two kinds of average, general and particular. 
 
 General Average comprehends all loss arising out of a voluntary sacrifice of a part of either vessel or 
 cargo, made by the captain for the benefit of the whole. Thus if a captain throw part of his cargo 
 overboard, cut from an anchor and cable, or cut away his masts, the loss so sustained, being voluntarily 
 submitted to for the benefit of the whole, is distributed over the value of the whole ship and cargo, and 
 is called " general average." 
 
 Particular Average comprehends all loss occasioned to ship, freight, and cargo, which is not of so 
 serious a nature as to debar them from reaching their port of destination, and when the damage to the 
 ship is not so extensive as to render her unworthy of repair. Losses where the goods are saved, but 
 in such a state as to be unfit to forward to their port of destination, and where the sliip is rendered 
 unfit to repair, are called " partial or salvage loss." The leading distinction between particular 
 average and salvage loss is, that, in the first, the property insured remains the propery of the assured— 
 the damage sustained, or part thereof, as the case may be, and as will be hereafter explained, being 
 made good by the insurer"; and in the second, the property insured is abandoned to the insurer, and 
 the value insured claimed from him, he retaining the property so abandoned, or its value. 
 
 Particular Average on Goods. — A few cases illustrative of the method of stating a claim for particular 
 average will best explain the nature of this dcsscription of loss, and will at the same time show the 
 reader what the practical distinction is between particular average and salvage loss. 
 
 The proj)erty insured we shall suppose to be a ton (f hemp, the cost of which at Petersburgh is 
 30/., for which sum it is insured from Petersburgh to Jjondon, and that the duty,- freight, and 
 charges to which the merchant is subject on landing at London are 10/. We shall likewise suppose 
 that the hemp, on its arrival, is so damaged as not to be worth more than half what it would have 
 fetched had it been sound. The insurer would then be called upon to make good to the insured l.i/., 
 or .00 per cent, upon the sum insured. But it does not follow that this payment of 1.0/. would 
 indemnify the merchant, or that it would not more than indemnify him, for the loss sustained. 
 
■■■i 
 
 INSURANCE (MARINE). 
 
 699 
 
 If the hemp iijion arrival in tnis country 
 
 would have futcheii in a sound sUitc - .W 0 
 
 Less duty, lrci|{ht, and charges - 10 U 
 
 But in its damaged state is only worth - 25 0 
 
 Less duty, freight, and charges - lu U 
 
 The merchant's loss by tlie damage is 
 
 15 
 
 Whereas he only receives from the insurer 15/. Upon the 
 principle of a salvage loss he would also receiTe 15/. 
 
 L. a. L. s. 
 
 If the hemp would have fetched in a sound 
 
 state 20 0 
 
 Less duty, freight, and charges - 10 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 But in its damaged state is only worth - 10 0 
 Less duty, freight, and charges 10 0 
 
 The merchant's loss by the damage is 
 
 i.lO 0 
 
 Whereas he receives from the insurer 15/. Upon the prin- 
 ciple of a salvage loss he would receive 30/. 
 
 If the hemp would liave fetchrd in a sound 
 
 state ... - ."JO 0 
 
 Less duty, freight, and charges - '10 0 
 
 But in its damaged state is only worth - 15 0 
 
 Less duty, freight, and charges ■ 10 0 
 
 The meicliant'a loss by the damage is 
 
 5 0 
 Z,.15 0 
 
 And he receives from the insurer 15/. Upon the principle 
 of a salvage loss he would receive 25/. 
 
 It will be observed that the merchant's loss by the damage of his goods varies with the state ot 
 the market. It may also be observed, that in general the merchant will not receive from the insurer 
 the whole amount of the loss that he sustains. Whenever his market is a profitable one (and that 
 it must usually be so will be obvious to every body), whenever, indeed, his market is not a decidedly 
 losing one, his policy does not afford him a complete protection. 
 
 The argument in favour of this mode of settling claims for particular average — and it should be 
 observed that the subject has been discussed, and the principle acknowledged in the courts of law — 
 is, that the insurer's liability is to be guided by the amount upon which he has received a premium 
 or consideration ; that he is not to be affected by the rise or fall of markets ; but that the g7-oss market 
 price of the sound, and the gross market price of the damaged goods, are to be the test by which 
 the rate of damage upon the amount insured is to be adjusted ; the insurer being liable, besides, for 
 all the extra charges arising out of the damage. 
 
 In the first case stated, the merchant's loss by damage is 9,51. upon AQl., or 62| per cent. ; in the 
 second, 10/. upon 10/. or 100 per cent. ; in the third,!.')/, upon 20/., or 15 per cent. It the duty, freight, 
 and charges were diminished in proportion to the diminished value of the goods, the loss in each 
 case would be 50 per cent, upon the nett price, as it is 50 per cept. upon the gross price. As far as the 
 duty is concerned, government, upon many articles, reduces it in proportion to the diminution in the 
 value of the goods ; and if the freight were reduced in a similar manner, the merchant would always, be 
 indemnified for his loss by the insurer. But the practice with regard to freight in this country admits 
 of no such arrangement ; freight being paid according to the quantity delivered. 
 
 To make the principle upon which claims for particular average are adjusted, and its bearing, still 
 clearer, we shall illustrate it by a few more cases. Suppose two packages to be insured at cost price 
 — a cask of rice and a cask of sugar — each weighing 10 cwt; the. cost of each at the port of shipment 
 10/., the freight of each 10*. per cwt. at the port of delivery, both articles free from duty, and to 
 arrive at a market where no more than the cost price is realised ; assuming that both packages are 
 
 damaged 50 per cent the rice by loss of quality, the sugar by loss of weight — the statement will be as 
 
 follows : — 
 
 L. s. L. s. I 10 cwt. of sugar, if sound, would have L. s. L. s. 
 
 produced - - - - - 15 0 
 I Less freight on 10 cwt. at lOs. per cwt. 5 0 
 
 10 cwt. of rice, had it arrived sound, would 
 have produced - - - .15 
 Less freight on 10 cwt. at 10s. per cwt. 5 
 
 But being damaged, did only produce 
 
 Less freight on 10 cwt. at lOi. per cwt. 
 
 10 0 
 
 The barrel being damaged, did only weigh 
 5 cwt., and produce - - - - 7 10 
 Less freight on 5 cwt. at 10*. per cwt. 2 10 
 
 Merchant's loss 
 
 Merchant's loss 
 
 In each case the merchant is entitled to recover from his insurer 51., or 50 per cent., upon 10/., the 
 sum insured, which, although an indemnity to him for his loss on the sugar, is far from being so 
 for his loss upon the rice. If the merchant would contrive so to shape his contract with the ship 
 owner for freight, as to reduce the freight in proportion, to the depreciation in the value of the 
 damaged commodity, he would be completely protected. The ship owner might on his side protect 
 himself by insurance from loss by reduction of quality, as he now does from loss by reduction ot 
 quantity. But we have already more than once adverted to the difficulty of breaking in upon esta- 
 blished practices. The merchants go on from year to year complaining of the losses to which they 
 are subject from this awkward contrivance, while no steps are taken to improve it. To show that the 
 principle is equitable as between the merchant and his insurer, we subjoin one more statement, where 
 the damage is taken at 100 per cent. :— 
 
 L. s. L. 
 
 10 cwt. of rice, if sound, would have 
 
 produced - - . . - 15 0 
 
 Less freight on 10 cwt. at lOi. per cwt. 5 0 
 
 Being totally spoiled, did produce nothing 
 The merchant being still liable for the 
 freight .... ; 
 
 Making his loss - - . L.V 
 
 He receives 10/. only from the insurer. 
 
 10 cwt. of sugar, if sound, would have L. t. L. »• 
 produced - - - - 15 0 
 
 Less freight on 10 cwt. at lOi. per cwt. 5 0 
 
 10 C 
 
 The barrel being washed out produces nothing 
 The merchant however, not being liable 
 to pay freit;ht 
 
 His loss is only • £.10 0. 
 
 AVTiich he Teco\ers from the insurer. 
 
 It will be observed, that in each case the insurer pays 10/., 
 ir the full sum upon wMch he receives the premiuni. 
 
 When whole cargoes, or parcels of goods of considerable value, are insured, the clause in the policy 
 which protects the insurer from particular average under a certain percentage, is often partially set 
 aside. Thus, if a cargo of 500 hogsheads of sugar, valued at 10,(X30/ , were damaged to the extent of 
 460/., the merchant, supposing the protecting clause to remain in force, would recover nothing from 
 the insurer, the loss not amounting to 5 per cent. The additional written clause, by which it is tJie 
 practice to m.odlfy the printed clause, is as follows : — " Particular average, payable upon each 10 lihds. 
 sugar, 10 casks and 50 bags coffee, and 10 bags cotton, following mmibers, and upon each package 
 of manufactured goods, chest of indigo, bag of wool or silk, the same as if separately insured." Such 
 clauses may be, and are, introduced ad libitum by mutual consent of insurer and insuretl, the premium 
 or consideration being arranged accordingly. 
 
 The protecting claiuse is considered, on i\\o other hand, by the insurers, exceedingly unsatisfactory in 
 some respects ; and they, as occasion requires, insist upon additional protection. Thus, saltpetre, hides, 
 cocoa, and tin plates, are generally- warranted free from particular average, unless the ship be 
 stranded ; and upon tobacco, it is customary for the insurers to make themselves liable only to such 
 nartir-niar nvorntro ac cxcceds 5 pcr Cent, throwing 5 per cent., upon the merchant. 
 
 part of the particular average 
 
700 
 
 INSURANCE (MARINE). 
 
 Particular Average on Freight. — The clause, as far as it affects " freig'it," calls for no particular 
 comment. Particular average upon freight can, only arise, according to prevailing practice, from 
 loss of weight ; and whenever the loss of weight amounts to 3 per cent, or upwards, the ship owner is 
 entitled to recover from his insurer. The ship owner, upon the arrival of the ship at its port of des- 
 tination, is entitled to hold the goods as security until the freight is paid. If the owner of the goods 
 should prove insolvent, and the goods should be entirely spoiled by sea damage during the voyage, and 
 the ship owner thus lose his freight, he has no claim upon the insurer; because, although his collateral 
 security is destroyed by a peril of the sea, his right to receive freight remains unimpaired, and it is 
 against the loss or impairing of this right that the insurer protects him. 
 
 Particular Averaije on Ships. — Particular average upon ships is a subject somewhat more beset with 
 difficulties. There is scarcely a ship that makes a voyage of any length, that does not sustain some 
 damage. The clause in the policy warranting the ship free from particular average under 3 per cent., 
 unless stranded, protects the insurer from the constant recurrence of petty claims; but in addition to 
 this, it is the practice to class the damage, that a ship sustains in the prosecution of her voyage, under 
 two heads : ordinary damage, or wear and tear ; and extraordinary damage, or particular average. 
 The splitting of sails, the breaking of anchors and cables, the upsetting of windlasses, are losses that 
 come under the first head. The carrying away of masts and bulwarks, damage to the copper sheathing, 
 and hull, from striking on rocks, come under the second. 
 
 When a ship sustains damage, if she be on her first voyage, the whole expense of the repairs is made 
 good by the insurers. But if she be not on her first voyage, it is the established custom that the insurer 
 pays no more than '2-3ds of the repairs, the owner of the vessel having, as it is thought, an equivalent 
 for the l-3d which falls upon him, in the substitution of new work for old. Where the nature of 
 the damage is such as to require that the copper should be stripped off the ship's bottom, the insurei 
 pays the difierence between the price of the old and the new copper on the weight of the old copper 
 stripped off ; the excess in weight of the new over the old copper is paid for by the ship owner; and 
 the labour of stripping and replacing the copper is paid for on the principle already mentioned. In any 
 general rule of this kind, it must be obvious that the ship owner will sometimes gain and sometimes lose 
 by an accident. As soon as the ship owner, or his captain, learns that his vessel has met with an 
 accident, or as soon after as possible, he summons regular surveyors to examine his vessel and report 
 all defects, discriminating between those defects that have arisen from perils of the sea, and those from 
 wear and tear. The first only are made good by the insurer, together with all charges, such as 
 surveyors' fees, dock dues, &c., caused by the necessity of undergoing repair. It has been already 
 observed, that when a ship is obliged, in the progress of her voyage, to put into port for the purpose of 
 repair, although the owner of the ship be subjected to great expense for the wages and maintenance of 
 his crew during the detention, he can recover no part of this expense from the insurer ; the doctrine 
 being, that the owner of the ship is bound to navigate his vessel, and that the insurer does not 
 undertake to guarantee that the voyage shall be completed within any specific time. Such is the doc- 
 trine, at least, in this country, and the practice is founded upon it ; but in all other countries the doctrine 
 and practice are the reverse. For in them allowance is made to the ship owner for the wages and 
 maintenance of the crew during the whole period that the ship is under repair. Where a vessel, 
 sustains damage and undergoes repair m the progress of her voyage, and is subsequently lost, the insurer 
 is liable both for the particular average and a total loss. Or the owner of the ship may, if he please, 
 insure the amount expended in repair ; and then, in the event of subsequent loss, the insurer is liable 
 for the total loss only, but in the event of subsequent safe arrival, the average is augmented by the 
 charge of insurance. 
 
 The operation of the clause warranting the ship free from average under 3 per cent, unless general, 
 or the ship be stranded, may now be clearly seen. If a ship be insured and valued at 1(),00GZ., and the 
 repairs of the vessel do not, after all the deductions above referred to, amount to 3 per cent, there is no 
 claim upon the insurer, unless the vessel shall have been stranded. — (See Average.) 
 
 Stranding.— The term stranded is not well chosen, admitting of more than one construction ; and the 
 clause of which it forms a part is imperfectly conceived. And in settlements of accounts,when diflerences 
 arise, the parties who discuss them are more apt to strive for that interpretation of terms and clauses 
 which is favourable to their interests, than for that which is best adapted for general purposes. It is 
 commonly understood that merely striking the ground and coming oflf" is not a stranding ; it being 
 necessary, in order to fall within that term, that the ship should remain on the ground or rock, as it may 
 happen, and that efforts should be made to float her. Striking on an anchor and leaking dangerously is 
 not a stranding. We shall only adduce two illustrations, for the purpose of showing how ill adapted this 
 clause is as a means to an end. Corn and other such articles are warranted free from particular average, 
 unless the ship be stranded, because the insurers, considering these articles to be peculiarly susceptible 
 of damage, will not consent to take that risk, except on some extraordinary occasion. A ship laden with 
 corn, makes a very stormy passage from the* Baltic to London, and damages the whole of her cargo. 
 Upon arrival off our coast she is stranded, but got off without straining or sustaining any damage. 
 The insurer is held to be liable for the damage to the corn, under the clause of the policy. On another 
 occasion, after a very favourable passage to our coast, a ship strikes upon a shoal, but is not stranded, 
 sustaining, however, so much damage that she arrives at London with 6 feet water in her hold, and 
 her cargo almost wholly spoiled. The insurer is held not to be liable under the clause of the policy. 
 
 General Average. — The insurer is bound to make good all general average without exception, however 
 trifling the amount. General average is treated as though altogether unconnected with particular 
 average ; and damage to the goods not amounting to 3 per cent is not payable by the insurer, although 
 there may be also a general average, and the general and particular average together may amount to more 
 than 3 or .0 per cent. General average is a charge which must be paid by the merchant and ship owner, 
 even if uninsured ; although, when insured, he transfers, as it were, in virtue of his insurance, the charge 
 from himself to his insurer. All the elements that can by possibility er.ter into general average may be 
 classed under four heads : — 1. Sacrifice of part of the ship and stores ; 2. Sacrifice of part of the cargo and 
 freight ; 3. Remuneration of services required for general preservation ; 4. Expense of raising money to 
 replace what has 'been sacrificed, and to remunerate services. 
 
 1. When any part of the ship is sacrificed for the general benefit, the owner is entitled to receive 
 (deducting, of cour.-e, his share of contribution) the amount of his outlay in the replacing of such sacrifice ; 
 allowance being made, on the principle stated above, where old works and materials are replaced with 
 new. The deduction of l-3d, however, docs not invariably apply. For instance, l-6th only is taken 
 off the price of an iron cable that is slipi)ed from for the general benefit, because iron cables are 
 calculated to last for a great number of years ; and no deduction is ever made from the price of anchors. 
 The charge of rcj)lacing the loss may amount to considerably more than the vaUie lost, computing tlie 
 value at the place where the ship was originally fitted. Thus, the cost of replacing an anchor and cable 
 sli[)|)ed t'rpm in th(' Downs, is frequently double the value of the anchor and cable at London. But 
 whatever the charge may be, such charge forms the basis of settlement 
 
 'i. Sacrifice of the cargo and freight takes place in jettison, or where (lart of the cargo is flung overboard 
 to lighten the vessel. Upon arrival in port, after such jettison, the owner of the goods jettisoned is 
 entitled to receive (deducting his share of contribution) what the goods would have produced nctt to him, 
 supi)()siMg them to have arrived sound ; and the owner of the ship is entitled to receive (^deducting his 
 share of contribution) the freight to which he would have been entitled upon the safe delivery of the 
 goods. 
 
 3. licmuneration of services and other cliargcs. When a sliip loses her anchors and cables, very lavj'.e 
 
INSURANCE (MARINE). 
 
 701 
 
 •iims nre frequently awarded to boatmen who venture ofT to her with new ones at the imminent hazard 
 <»f their lives. A ship disabled at sea is towed into port by another, and ren-iuncration for such service is 
 awarded according to the value saved, the detention occasioned, and the loss sustained. 'I'lie ship ren- 
 dering the service may be laden with fish or fruit, that may be totally spoiled by the detention, or may be 
 in ballast. A ship captured by the enemy may be re-cai)tured by a man of war or armed merchant vessel-, 
 here, again, salvage is awarded according to the circums» *nces of the case. All these charges are general 
 average; that is to say, must be distributed over ship, freight, and cargo. When a ship, with her cargo, 
 is driven on shore, the exi)ense of attempting to get her ofl'is general average. If she cannot be got oft" 
 without discharging, the expense of discharging is general average ; but the expense of getting the ship 
 off after the cargo has been taken out falls exclusively upon the ship. The warehousing of the cargo, 
 and other expenses incurred for its preservation, are charges exclusively upon the cargo. I'he expense 
 of reloading is borne by the freight. "When a ship puts into port in distress, the pilotage inwards i? 
 general average ; the pilotage outwards is a charge upon the freight. '1 his distribution of charges has 
 settled into a tolerably well established practice ; and upon this principle claims are settled at the oIKces, 
 and at Lloyd's. 
 
 4. The money required to meet the above charges is sometimes attainable without expense. If the 
 accident happen near home, and the ship owner be respectable, he advances the money, and recovers 
 from the various parties concerned so soon as the accounts can be made up : or if the accident happen in 
 a foreign port, where the owner of the ship is well known, the captain*s bill upon him will sometimes be 
 received in payment of the charges incurred. But where such facilities do not exist, the captain is em- 
 lK)wercd to pledge his ship, freight, and cargo, as security to any one he may prevail upon to supply the 
 necessary funds. This pledge is termed a bottomry bond. By it the captain admits the recei]jt of the 
 money; consents to the payment of a premium (which varies with the distance of the port of destination, 
 the risk of the voyage, the respectability of the owner, and the necessities of the captain) : and assigns the 
 ship, freight, and cargo, as security for the repayment of the money advanced and the stipulated 
 premium. Should the captain consider the bottomry premium demanded of him exorbitant, or should 
 he deem it preferable in other respects, he may sell a portion of the cargo for the purpose of raising such 
 money as he may stand in need of towards the prosecution of his voyage. The expense of raising the 
 requisite funds, whether by commission, by bottomry premium, or by loss on the sale of the cargo, is 
 charged to those parties for whose interest the money is required. Thus, if a ship, having struck upon a 
 rock, puts mto port in distress, and is obliged to unload to repair ; sui)posing the particular average upon 
 the ship to amount to 500/. ; the general average, consisting of assistance into port and expense of un- 
 loading, 200/. ; particular charges on freight, consisting of expense of reloading and pilotage outwards, 
 100/. ; and particular charges on cargo, consisting of warehouse rent and repair of packages, 2(J0/ ; and 
 the expense of raising money should be 20 per cent. ; — these sums would be severally increased by this 
 addition, and would be raised to 600/., 24ft/., 120/., and 240/. — (See Bottomry.) 
 
 It still remains to be inquired in what proportion the general average is to be paid by the different 
 owners of the cargo, and the owner of ship and freight. Almost all general averages are adjusted at the 
 ship's port of destination, and the values of the ship and cargo are taken at what they would produce in 
 their actual state upon arrival, and the freight according to what is actually receivable, less the wages of 
 the captain and crew ; the general average being distributed in proportion to these values. Should the 
 cargo be altogether worthless, it cannot be made to contribute ; and should the wages of the crew exceed 
 the freight, then the freight is not liable to contribute. In case of jettis-on, the party whose property has 
 been sacrificed for the general benefit receives indemnity on the same principle ; the value to which he 
 is entitled being what his property would have produced nett, supposing it to have been sold on the 
 arrival of the vessel — the same value serving for the basis of his proportion of contribution. Some few 
 cases occur, where the general average is adjusted at the port of departure. Thus, if a ship, outward 
 bound to the British colonies, cut from an anchor and cable in the Downs, or incur other general average 
 on our own coast, the insurances being principally effected in this country, it is the custom to adjust it on 
 the spot, by which means both delay and expense are avoided. On these occasions, the values at the port 
 of shipment are taken as the basis of contribution. A total loss, subsequently to a general average, does 
 not exonerate the insurer from his prior liability ; and although it is customary with the shij) owner, or 
 his agent, specifically to insure the money expended in average, for the purpose of protecting the insurer 
 against any greater liability than 100 per cent., he is not absolutely obliged to do so. When the average 
 funds are raised by bottomry, the party advancing them takes the ship, freight, and cargo, as security, 
 and charges a premium to cover the risk of the ship's non-arrival at her port of destination. And thus, 
 on such an occasion, a subsequent total loss relieves the insurer from all liability to average. 
 
 The laws and customs by which averages are adjusted vary in different countries ; but the insurer in 
 this country is only liable for the averages adjusted according to our laws. The merchant, however, whose 
 goods arrive at a foreign port, is obliged to submit to the laws of that jjort. He may thus be a consider- 
 able loser; paying general average according to one law, and receiving from his insurer according to 
 another. And he never can be a gainer, because, before he is entitled to recover from his insurer, he 
 must prove that he has paid to the owner of the ship. This is one of the many inconveniences to which 
 mercantile men are exposed, which cannot be removed without, what it may be hoped will gradually take 
 place, an assimilation of the commercial laws of diflierent countries. 
 
 Proof of Loss. — The policy of insurance is the instrument under which the merchant and ship owner 
 claim indemnification for all losses that are not specially excepted. The proof that the loss has been sus- 
 tained must also be exhibited ; such as the title to the vessel and cargo, and the evidence of the captain 
 and crew to establish the circumstances out of which the claim arises. If A. were to insure his vessel for 
 the space of 12 months, and at the expiration of 6 months were to sell his ship to B. ; A.'s interest 
 in the vessel having ceased, so also does his insurer's liability ; and B., if he wish to be protected, must 
 make a new insurance. Proof of ownership, therefore, is an essential preliminary to the recovery of a 
 claim. In general practice, no difficulty arises from this, because the fact of ownership is sufticiently 
 notorious. The bill of lading is, in most cases, satisfactory proof that the cargo was on board, as well as 
 of the amount of freight 
 
 Valued and open Policies. — If an insurance for 2,000/. be effected upon 100 hhds. of sugar, valued at 
 20/. per hhd., the bill of lading, showing that the vessel had 100 hhds. on board, establishes the interest 
 at 2,000/, and the policy is termed a valued policy. But if an insurance for 2,00('/. be efi'ccted on ICO hhds. 
 of sugar, and nothing be expressed as to value, the bill of lading only establishes that 100 hhds. are on 
 board, without establishing the amount of interest. The production of the invoice, showing the cost oi 
 the goods, is necessary to that end, the policy being termed an open one. 
 
 Return of Premium for short Interest. — In a valued policy, when the whole of the property insuretl 
 does not appear to have been shipped, the difference between the quantity insured and the quantity 
 shipped is termed short interest. Thus, if 2,000/. be insured upon 100 hhds. of sugar, valued at 20/. p« r 
 hhd., and 80 hhds. only be shipped; as the insurer's liability does not extend beyond l,fiC0/., so lie is 
 obliged to return the premium upon 400/. to which no risk attaches. This return of premium is called a 
 return for short interest. 
 
 For Over-Insurance. — In an open policy, where the value shipped is not equal to the value insured, 
 the difference is termed over-insurance. If a merchant. A., make an insurance for 5,000/. upon goods, 
 without specifying any value, from Calcutta to London, the pr-^mium being 60s. and the stamp duty 5s. 
 per cent., the amount of interest that attaches to the policy is so fixed, that he is neither to gain nor lose 
 by the transaction in the event of the vessel's loss, supposing his insurance to be sufficient. To entitle 
 him to recover a profit, the profit to be insured must be stipulated in the policy. The expense of in 
 
702 
 
 INSURANCE (MARINE). 
 
 surance upon 100/. being 31. 5s., it is clear that every 100/. insurance covers 961. \5s. original cost ; that is 
 to say, protects the merchant from loss to that extent in case of the loss of the vessel, if, then, we assume 
 the invoice of the goods shipped to be 40,000 rupees, or, at the exchange of 2s. per rupee, 4,000/., the 
 interest attaching to the policy is ascertained as follows : — If 96/. 15s. cost is insured by 100/. insurance, 
 what will 4,000/. cost be insured by ? Answer, 4,135/. Under such circumstances, although a policy exists 
 for 5,000/., the insured is not able to prove interest for more than 4,135/. ; and consequently, the insurer 
 being entitled to recover no more than that sum in case of loss, the insurer is called upon to make a 
 return of premium for over-insurance upon 865/. 
 
 Although we have treated separately of returns for short interest and over-insurance, we should observe 
 that these terms in practice are used indiscriminately; and, indeed, v/e cannot say that we perceive 
 much advantage in making the distinction, or preserving the distinctive appellations. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the property expected in a vessel is not all insured at one time or in ene 
 policy. But this makes no difference in the principle of settlement according to our law ; although, 
 according to the laws of most other countries, the policies take precedence of one another according to 
 their dates, the whole short interest falling upon the policy or policies last effected. The foreign law, in 
 this instance, appears to us the more equitable and reasonable of the two ; and that our reason for thinking 
 so may be intelligible, and thus gain assent or meet with refutation, we shall state a case of short interest 
 upon a number of policies, such as not unfrequently appears. A merchant. A., orders his correspondent 
 at Calcutta to ship for his account a quantity of sugar, not exceeding 1,000 tons, at a price not exceeding 
 20/. per ton. In due time he receives a letter from his correspondent acknowledging the receipt of his 
 order, and expressing confident hopes of being able to purchase the quantity, or the greater part of it, at 
 the limits prescribed, and promising to advise as he proceeds. A., on receipt of this letter, say on the 1st 
 of January, makes a provisional insurance for 5,000/. upon sugar valued at 20/. per ton. Continuing with- 
 out further advices, and fearing lest his correspondent's letter should have miscarried, and that he might 
 have property afloat uninsured, on the 1st of February, 1st of March, and 1st of April, he effects similar 
 insurances, thus covering the whole 1,000 tons. He subsequently receives advice that his correspondent 
 had not been able to purchase more than half the quantity ordered, at his limit, and he recovers from his 
 insurers half the premium upon each policy. Now, it was not at all improbable that he might have 
 received advice from his correspondent, as he expected, much sooner. And if he had received advice in 
 the middle of February, of the shipment of 500 tons, and that the ship which contained them was totally 
 lost in tlie river Hooghly, the insurers upon the two first policies would have been liable for a total loss. 
 And it appears to us a defective arrangement, by which a party, who is at one time exposed to a total 
 loss, should at another be compelled to return half his premium. It is true that the merchant may, if he 
 please, insert in his policies a clause by which the policies shall be made to succeed one another; but we 
 should say that the law, in insurance cases, as in the disposal of the property of deceased persons, ought 
 to be the best general disposition, leaving to individuals the right of modification according to particular 
 circumstances. 
 
 Return for Double Insurance. — Besides returns for short interest and over-insurance, there are 
 returns for double insurance They are, in fact, to all intents and purposes, the same thing. Double 
 nisurance exists where the party, through forgetfulness, makes an insurance upon his property twice 
 over; or where the shippers and consignees of goods, when uncertain of one another's intentions, effect 
 each an insurance upon them ; or where the captain of a vessel in foreign parts, fearing lest his advices 
 should not reach his owner, effects an insurance upon it, and the owner at the same time, acting with equal 
 caution, effects one also. The observations already made upon returns for short interest, and upon the 
 difference between our laws and those of other countries, apply with equal force here. 
 
 We have now gone over all the principal topics connected with marine assurance. Those who peruse 
 this article with ordinary attention will, we hope, gain a tolerably clear insight into the principles and 
 practice of the business. But a perfectly familiar acquaintance with it can only be acquired by those who 
 are daily conversant with its details. 
 
 Duh/ on Policies of Marine Insurance. — Amount and Expediency of such Duty. — All policies of 
 marine insurance must be on stamped paper, the duties on which are as follows : — 
 
 For every 100/. insured on a voyage in the coasdng trade of the kingdom, where the premium does not 
 exceed 20*. per cent, Is. Sd. 
 
 Where the premium does exceed 20s. per cent., 2s, Qd. 
 
 For every 100/. insured to or from any colonial or foreign port, where the premium does not exceed 15*. 
 per cent, Is. M. 
 
 Where the premium does exceed 15s. per cent, but does not exceed 30s. per cent, 2s. Qd. 
 Where the premium exceeds 30s. per cent, 5s. 
 
 For every 100/. insured for a period of lime not exceeding 3 months, 2s. Qd. ; exceeding 3 months (no 
 ship can be insured on one stamp for a longer period than 12 months), 5s. 
 
 This duty was reduced in the year 1833. It is now about two thirds of what it was before. The reduc 
 tion, so far as it goes, must of course be beneficial. But the tax is altogether wrong in principle, and 
 ought to be repealed altogether. Its obvious tendency is to discourage the coasting trade, by imposing a 
 duty on goods carried by sea, from which those carried by land and canals are exempted ; and we believe 
 it will be found that this unjust preference costs more to the public in the greater carriage of goods sent, 
 through its means, by the more expensive channel of inland conveyance, than all that portion of the duty 
 which affects coasting vessels produces to the revenue. But the other portion of the tax, or that 
 which affects vessels engaged in the foreign or colonial trade, is still more objectionable. It is 
 immaterial to a merchant sending a ship to sea, whether he insure her in London, Amsterdam, or Ham- 
 burgh ; and as policies executed in the last two cities are either wholly exempted from duties, or subject 
 to such only as are merely nominal, the effect of the duty is to transfer to the Continent a considerable 
 part of the business of marine insurance, that would otherwise be transacted in London. It is plain, 
 therefore, that this duty operates to drive a valuable branch of business from amongst us ; arid even 
 though it had no such effect, still it is sufficiently clear that a tax on providence, or on the endeavour to 
 guarantee the safety of property at sea, is not one that ought to exist in any country, and least of all in 
 so commercial a country as England. Where the latitude given is so great, doubts will arise whether 
 one stamp be adequate to cover a long voyage. And when difficulties are made Iri the settlement of a 
 loss on such grounds, they are very prejudicial to the interests of the assured, and by no means creditable 
 to the character of the underwriter. 
 
 If the trifling revenue (amounting in 1832 to only 210,000/.) derived from these stamps cannot be spared, 
 a very small addition to the import duties would more than cover its amount, save the expense of coiiec- 
 tion, and relieve the mercantile public from the annoyance and loss above alluded to.* 
 
 For7n of a Policy of Insurance executed at Lloyd's. 
 In the Name of God, Amen. Charles Brown and Co., as well in their own names as for 
 and in the name and names of all and every other person or persons to whom the same doth, 
 may, or shall appertain, in part or in all, doth make assurance, and cause themselves and 
 them and every of them, to be insured, lost or not lost, at and from St Petersburgh to any 
 port or ports in the United Kingdom, upon any kind of goods and merchandises, and also 
 
 • This very valuable article (on Marine Insurance) has been, as the reader will easily perceive, fur- 
 nished by a gentleman thoroughly conversant with the principles and details of the business. 
 
INSURANCE (MARINE). 
 
 703 
 
 upon the body, tackle, apparel, ordnance, munition, artillery, boat, and other furniture, of 
 and in the good ship or vessel called the Swift, whereof is master, under God, for this present 
 voyage, lirigiit, or whoever else shall go for master in the said ship, or by whatsoever other 
 name or names the said sliip, or the master thereof, is or shall be named or called ; beginning 
 the adventure upon the said goods and merchandises from the loading thereof on board the 
 said ship 
 
 upon the said ship, &c. 
 
 and so shall continue and endure during her abode there, upon 
 the said ship, Stc. And further, until the said ship, with all her ordisance, tackle, apparel, 
 &c. and goods and merchandises whatsoever, shall be arrived at her final port of discharge (as 
 above), upon the said ship, &c., until she hath moored at anchor twenty-four hours in good 
 safety ; and upon the goods and merchandises, until the same be there discharged and safely 
 landed. And it shall be lawful for the said ship, &c. in this voyage, to proceed and sail to, 
 and touch and stay at any ports or places whatsoever, without prejudice to this insurance. 
 The said ship, &c. goods and merchandises, &c. for so much as concerns the assured, by 
 agreement between the assured and assurers in this policy, are and shall be valued at eight 
 hundred pounds, being on the captain's one fourth share of said ship, said one fourth share 
 valued at that sum. Touching the adventures and perils which we the assurers are contented 
 to bear, and do take upon us in this voyage : they are of the seas, men-of-war, fire, enemies, 
 pirates, rovers, thieves, jettisons, letters of mart and countermart, surjjrisals, takings at sea, 
 arrests, restraints, and detainments of all kings, princes and people, of what nation, condi- 
 tion, or quality soever, barratry of the master and mariners, and of all other perils, losses, 
 and misfortunes, that have or shall come to the hurt, detriment, or damage of the said goods 
 and merchandises and ship, &c. or any part thereof; offences against the revenue of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain or Ireland excepted. And, in case of any loss or misfor. 
 tune, it shall be lawful for the assured, their factors, servants, and assignees, to sue, labour, 
 and travel for, in, and about the defence, safeguard, and recovery ol the said goods and 
 merchandises and ship, &c. or any part thereof, without prejudice to this insurance ; to the 
 charges whereof we the assurers will contribute, each one according to the rate and quantity 
 of his sum herein assured. And it is agreed by us, the insurers, that this writing, or policy 
 of assurance, shall be of as much force and effect, as the surest writing or policy of assurance, 
 heretofore made in Lombard Street, or in the Royal Exchange, or elsewhere in London. 
 And so we the assurers are contented, and do hereby promise and bind ourselves, each one 
 for his own part, our heirs, executors, and goods, to the assured, their executors, adminis- 
 trators, and assigns, for the true performance of the premises, confessing ourselves paid the 
 consideration due unto us for this assurance by the assured, at and after the rate of five 
 guineas per cent, to return one pound per cent, if the voyage end on the east coast of 
 England. 
 
 In Witness whereof, we, the assurers', have subscribed our names and sums assured in 
 London, 
 
 N.B. — Corn, fish, salt, fruit, flour, and seeds, are warranted free from average, unless 
 general, or the ship be stranded. — Sugar, tobacco, hemp, flax, hides, and skins, are warranted 
 free from average under five pounds per cent. ; and all other goods, also the ship and freight, 
 are warranted free from average under three pounds per cent, unless general, or the ship be 
 stranded. 
 
 ^500. Joseph White, Five hundred pounds. 1st of Sept 1833. 
 
 £300. Thomas Black by George Green, Three hundred pounds. 1st of Sept 1833. 
 
 Polio/ by the Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Company. 
 Established 1824. 
 
 , Whereas William Grey hath represented to us whose hands and seals are hereunto sub- 
 
 > 5,000. scribed and affixed, and who are two of the directors of the Indemnity Mutual Marine 
 
 Assurance Company, that he is interested in, or duly authorised as owner, agent, or 
 
 otherwise, to make the assurance hereinafter mentioned and described, with the In- 
 demnity Mutual Marine Assurance Company, and hath covenanted or otherwise 
 obliged himself to pay forthwith for the use of the said Company, at the office of the said 
 Company, the sum of sixty-two pounds ten shillings as a premium or consideration, at and 
 after the rate of twenty-five shillings per cent for such assurance. Now this Policy of 
 Assurance witnesseth, that in consideration of the premises and of the said sum of 
 sixty-two pounds ten shillings. We do, for ourselves and each of us, covenant and agree 
 with the said William Grev, his executors, administrators, and assigns, that the capital 
 stock and funds of the said Company shall, according to the provisions of the deed of settle- 
 ment of the said Company, and the resolutions entered into at two extraordinary general 
 courts of the said Company held on the twenty-ninth day of August, and the twentieth 
 day of September, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven, be subject and liable to 
 pay and make good, and shall be applied to pay and make good all such losses and damages 
 hereinafter expressed as may happen to the subject matter of this policy, and may attach 
 to this policy in respect of the sum of five thousand pounds hereby assured, which as- 
 surance is hereby declared to be upon 
 
 £^5s. /s. V25O. 250hhds. of sugar valued at 20/. each, average payable upon each lOhhds. 
 
 / q\ following landing numbers, the same as if separately insured, laden or to be laden 
 \y on board the ship or vessel called the Nelly, whereof Turner is at present m; ster, or 
 whoever shall go for master of the said ship or vessel, lost or not lost, at and from Grenada 
 to London, including the risk of craft to and from the vessel, warranted to sail on or before 
 the 1st of August, 1831. And We do covenant and agree, that the assurance aforesaid 
 shall commence upon the said ship, at and from Grenada, and until she hath moored at 
 anchor twenty-four hours in good safety ; and upon the freight and goods or merchandise 
 on board thereof, from the loading of the said goods or merchandise on board the said ship 
 or vessel at London, and until the said goods or merchandise be discharged and safely 
 landed at • ^nd that it shall be lawful for ihe said ship 
 
 or vessel to proceed and sail to, and touch, and stay at any ports or places w hatsoever, in 
 the course of her said voyage, for all necessary purposes, without prejudice to this as- 
 surance. And touching the adventures and perils which the capital stock and funds of 
 the said Company are made liable unto, or are intended to be made liable unto, by tliis 
 assurance, they are, of the seas, men-of-war, fire, enemies, pirates, rovers, thieves, jetti- 
 sons letters of mart and countermart, surprisals, takings at sea, arrests, restraints, and 
 detainments of all kings, princes, and people, of what nation, condition, or quality soever; 
 barratry of the master and mariners, and of all other perils, losses, and misfortunes, that 
 
 Stamp 
 £2. 
 
704- 
 
 INSURANCE (FIRE). 
 
 hare or shall come to the hurt, detriment, or damage of the aforesaid subject matter of this 
 assurance, or any part thereof. And in case of any loss or misfortune, it shall be lawful to 
 the assured, their factors, servants, and assigns, to sue, labour, and travel for, in, and about 
 the defence, safeguard, and recovery of the aforesaid subject matter of this assurance, or 
 any part thereof, without prejudice to this assurance, the charges whereof the capital stock 
 and funds of the said Company shall bear in proportion to the sum hereby assured. And 
 it is declared and agreed, that corn, fish, salt, fruit, flour, and seed, shall be and are war- 
 ranted free from average unless general, or the ship be stranded ; and that sugar, tobacco, 
 hemp, flax, hides, and skins, shall be and are warranted free from average under five pounds 
 per centum ; that all other goods, also the ship and freight, shall be and are warranted 
 free from average under three pounds per centum, unless general, or the ship be stranded. 
 Provided nevertheless, that the capital stock and funds of the said Company shall alone 
 be liable, according to the provisions of the deed of settlement and the resolutions above, 
 mentioned,' to answer and make good all claims and demands whatsoever, under or by 
 virtue of this policy ; and that no proprietor of the said Company, his or her heirs, execu- 
 tors, or administrators, shall be in anywise subject or liable to any claims or demands, nor 
 be in anywise charged by reason of this policy beyond the amount of his or her share or 
 shares in the capital stock of the said Company, it being one of the original or fundamental 
 principles of the said Company, that the responsibility of the individual proprietors shall, 
 in all cases, be limited to their respective shares in the said capital stock. 
 
 In Witness whereof. We have hereunto set our hands and seals in London, the tenth 
 day of January, 1834. 
 
 Sealed and delivered'} A. B. (l. s.) 
 
 in the presence of $ C. D. (l. s.) 
 
 E. F. 
 
 III. Insurance (Fire). 
 
 Insurance against fire is a contract of indemnity, by which the insurer, in consideration of a certain 
 premium received by him, either in a gross sum or by annual payments, undertakes to indemnify the 
 insured against all loss or damage he may sustain in his houses or other buildings, stock, goods, and 
 merchandise, by fire, during a specified period. 
 
 Insurances against fire are hardly ever made by individuals, but almost always by joint stock com- 
 panies, of which there are several in all the considerable towns throughout the empire. Of these, the 
 Sun, the Phoenix, the British, &c. insure at their own risk and for their own profit : but there are others, 
 which are called contribution societies, in which every person insured becomes a member or proprietor, 
 and participates in the profit or loss of the concern. The Hand in Hand, Westminster, &c. are of this 
 description. 
 
 The conditions on which the different offices insure are contained in their proposals, which are printed 
 on the back of every policy ; and it is in most instances expressly conditioned, that they undertake to pay 
 the loss, not exceeding the sum insured, " according to the exact tenor of their printed proposals.'' 
 
 Nothing can be recovered from the insurers, in the event of loss, unless the party insuring had an 
 interest or property in the thing insured at the time when the insurance was effected, and when the 
 loss happened. It often occurs that no one office will insure to the full amount required by an individual 
 who has a large property ; and in such a case the party, to cover his whole interest, is obliged to insure 
 at different offices. But, in order to prevent the frauds that might be practised by insuring the full value 
 in various offices, there is, in the proposals issued by all the companies, an article which declares, that 
 persons insuring must give notice of any other insurance made elsewhere upon the same houses or goods, 
 that the same may be specified and allowed by indorsement on the policy, in order that each office may 
 bear its rateable proportion of any loss that may happen ; and unless such notice be given of each in- 
 surance to the office where another insurance is made on the same effects, the insurance made without 
 such notice will be void. 
 
 Any trustee, mortgagee, reversioner, factor, or agent, has sufficient interest in the goods under his 
 custody, to effect a policy of insurance, provided the nature of such property be distinctly specified at the 
 time of executing such policy. 
 
 Most of the offices except in their proposals against making good any loss occasioned by " invasion," 
 " foreign enemy," " civil commotions," &c. ; and under this condition the Sun Fire Office was exonerated 
 from the loss occasioned by the disgraceful proceedings of the mob in 1780. 
 
 One of the principal conditions in the proposals has reference to the proof of loss. The Sun Fire Office 
 — (see post), and most other offices, make it a condition, that the individual claiming shall " procure a 
 certificate, under the hands of the minister and churchwardens, and some other respectable inhabitants 
 of the parish or place, not concerned or interested in such loss, importing that they are well acquainted 
 with the character and circumstances of the person or persons insured or claiming; and do know, or 
 verily believe, that he, she, or they, really, and by misfortune, without any fraud or evil practice, have 
 sustained by such fire the loss or damage, as his, her, or their loss, to the value therein mentioned." 
 This condition has given rise to a great deal of discussion in the courts ; but it has been finally decided, 
 that the procuring of the certificate is a condition precedent to the payment of any loss, and that its being 
 wronirfully refused ivill not excuse the want of it. 
 
 The risk commences in general from the signing of the policy, unless there be some other time specified. 
 Policies of insurance may be annual, or for a term of years at an annual premium ; and it is usual for the 
 office, by way of indulgence, to allow fifteen days after each year for the payment of the premium for the 
 next year in succession ; and provided" the premium be paid within that time, the insured is considered 
 as within the protection of the office. 
 
 A policy of insurance is not in its nature assignable, nor can it be transferred without the express con- 
 sent of the office. When, however, any person dies, his interest remains in his executors or adminis- 
 trators respectively, who succeed or become entitled to the property, provided such representatives 
 respectively procure their right to be indorsed on the policy. 
 
 (For further details, see Marshall on Insurance, book iv. ; Park on Insurance, c. 23.) 
 
 Insurances are generally divided into common, hazardous, and doubly hazardous. The distinguishing 
 characteristics of these may be learned from the subjoined proposals of the Sun Fire Office. The charge 
 for insuring property of the first description is now usually Is. M. per cent, the second 2s. firf., and the 
 third 4s. 6d. These charges are exclusive of the duty payable to government, of Is. on the policy, and 3s. 
 per cent, on the sum in the policy. 
 
 We subjoin a copy of a policy of insurance on a house valued at 1,000/., and furniture, plate, books, &c. 
 in the same, valued also at 1,000/., executed by the Sun Fire Office, and of the proposals indorsed on the 
 same. The latter corres'pond in most particulars with those issued by the other offices. 
 
INSURANCE (FIRE). 
 
 705 
 
 Received, for the insurance of 
 the property undermentioned, 
 from Xmas 18^, to Xmas 1834. 
 
 j£" s. d. 
 
 Policy . - - 0 0 0 
 Premium - - 1 10 0 
 Duty - - - 3 0 0 
 
 ^£•4 10 0 
 
 SUN FIRE OFFICE. 
 
 To be paid annually at Xmaa. 
 
 Premium 
 Duty - 
 
 £ s. d. 
 - 1 10 0 
 -300 
 
 ^ 10 0 
 
 NO. 
 
 550. 
 
 Whereas A.B. Esq. of No. Street, has paid the sum of one pound ten shillings to the Society 
 
 of the Sun Fire Office in London, and has agreed to pay or cause to be paid, to them, at their said office, 
 the sum of one pound ten shillings on the ^fjth of December, 1833, and the like sum of one pound ten 
 shiUings yearly on theS.Oth day of December during tlie continuance of this policy, for insurance from 
 loss or damage by fire, on his now dwelling house only, situate as aforesaid, brick, one thousand pounds j 
 household goods, wearing apparel, printed books, and jilate therein only, one thousand pounds. 
 
 " Now, KNOW YE, That, from the date of these presents, and so long as the said A.B. shall duly pay, 
 or cause to be paid, the said sum of one pound ten shillings at the times and place aforesaid ; and the 
 trustees or acting members of the said Society, for the time being, shall agree to accept the same ; the 
 stock and fund of the said Society shall be subject and liable to pay to the said A. B., his executors, 
 administrators, and assigns, all such his damage and loss which he, the said A. 15., shall suffer by fire, 
 not exceeding upon each head of insurance, the sum or sums above-mentioned, amounting in the whole 
 to no more than two thousand pounds, according to the exact tenor of their printed proposals, endorsed 
 on thi3 policy, and of an act of parliament, of the 55th of George the Third, for charging a duty on persons 
 whose property shall be insui-ed against loss by fire.- In Witness whereof, we (three of the trustees or 
 acting members for the said Society) have hereunto set our hands and seals, the 24th day of 
 December, 1833. 
 
 C. D, (L. s.) 
 
 Signed and sealed (being stamped E. F. (l. s.) 
 
 according to act of parliament) G. H. (l. s.) 
 
 in the presence of J. K. 
 
 " N. B. — The interest in this policy may be transferred by indorsement, made and entered at the office, 
 it the trustees or acting members approve thereof, but not otherwise." 
 
 (indorsement on the policy.) tmf 
 
 SUN FIRE OFFICK 
 
 This office insures £u;ainst loss or damage by fire, in Great 
 Britain and Ireland, all descriptions of buildings, including 
 mills and manufactories, and goods, wares, and merchandise, 
 in the same ; ships in harbour, or in dock ; craft on navigable 
 rivers and canals, and the goods laden on the same ; wagons 
 travelling the roads, and their contents ; and farming stock 
 of all descriptions, upon the following terms £ind conditions :— 
 Common Insurances. 
 
 1. Buildings covered with slates, tiles, or metals, and built 
 on all sides with brick or stone, or separated by party-walls of 
 brick or stone, and wherein no hazardous trade or manufacture 
 is carried on, or hazardous goods deposited. 
 
 2. Qoods in buildings as above described, such as household 
 
 floods, "pi ate, jewels in private use, apparel, and printed books ; 
 iquors in private use, merchandise, stock and utensils in 
 trade, not hazardous, and farming stock. 
 At Is. 6d. per cent, per annum, with certain exceptions. 
 Hazardous Insurances. 
 
 1. Buildings of timber or plaster, or not wholly separated by 
 partition-walls of brick or stone, or not covered with slates, 
 tiles, or metals, and thatched barns and out-houses having no 
 chimney, nor adjoining to any building having a chimney ; 
 and buildings falling under the description of .common insu- 
 rance, but in which some hazardous trade or manufacture is 
 carried on, such as brewers (without a steam-engine), bread 
 and biscuit bakers (not sea biscuit bakers), bottlers and 
 packers of wine, spirits, or beer ; chemists (without a 
 laboratory), inn-holders, maltsters (who make pale malt only), 
 oilmen, soap-boilers, stable-keepers, and certain others ; or in 
 which hazardous goods are deposited, as the stock and uten- 
 sils in the above trades; and, also, tallow, pitch, tar, hemp, 
 flax, rosin, and turpentine ; hay, straw, and all manner of 
 fodder and com unthrashed ; apothecaries' stock, and oil ; and 
 wine and spirituous liquors as merchandise. 
 
 2. Ships and craft, with their contents (lime barges, with 
 their contents, alone excepted). 
 
 At 2i. 6d. per cent per annum, with certain exceptions. 
 
 DouIJy Hazardous Insurances. 
 
 1. Buildings.— All thatched buildings having chimneys, or 
 communicating with, or adjoining to, buildings having one, 
 although no hazardous trade shall be carried on, nor hazardous 
 goods deposited therein : and all hazardous buildings, in which 
 hazardous goods are deposited, or hazardous trades carried on. 
 
 2. Goods All hazardous goods deposited in hazardous 
 
 buildings, and in thatched buildings having no chimney, nor 
 adjoining to any building having a chimney. 
 
 3. Trades— and their stock and utensils, such as maltsters 
 (who make brown malt), 'and certain others ; also china, 
 glass, and earthenware, saltpetre, and wagons with their 
 contents. 
 
 At 4s. 6d. per cent, per annum, with certain exceptions. 
 
 Farming stock on any part of a farm may be insured under 
 general policies, without the average clause, at Is. 6J. per 
 cent., provided it be insured to a fair average value. T^iis 
 office will not be subject to any loss on hay or com, occasioned 
 by its own natural heating, but the loss of any other projierty 
 in consequence of such fire will be made good; as will losses by 
 fire from lightning. 
 
 Insurances may also be made by special agreement on the 
 following risks, and on others of a similar description, not men- 
 tioned under the 2d and ."^d heads of insurance, viz. on mills 
 cf all kinds, and the stock and utensils in them; also on 
 buildings, containing kiln, steajn-engine, stove, or oven, used 
 
 in the process of any manufacture, and the stock therein ; 
 sugar refiners, sea biscuit bakers, distillers, varnish makers, 
 chemists' laboratories, theatres, coach painters, colour manu- 
 facturers, vamishers, musical instrument makers, refiners of 
 saltpetre, spermaceti, wax, and oil, barge and boat builders, 
 carpenters, cabinet makers, coach makers, coopers, cork 
 burners, floor-cloth painters, japanners, lampblack makers, 
 letter-press printers, machine makers, melters of tallow and 
 of rough fat, candle makers, cart-grease makers, rope and sail 
 makers, ship chandlers, hemp and flax dressers, oil leather 
 dressers, medals, curiosities, pictures, prints, drawings, 
 statuary work, spinners of cotton, fiax, lint, and wool, 
 throughout all the operations attending the manufacturing 
 of these materials, from the raw state into thread for the 
 weaver, and such other risks as, by reason of the nature of the 
 trade, the narrowness of the situation, or other dangerous 
 circumstances, may increase the hazard thereof : all which 
 special hazards must be- inserted in the policy, to render the 
 same valid and in force. 
 
 N. B.— Gunpowder, and buildings in which it is made, 
 cannot be insured on any temis ; neither does this office insure 
 writings of any kind, books of accounts, ready money, bonds, 
 bills, or any other securities for money. 
 
 N. B.-By an act of the 55th of Geo. 3. a duty of 3^. per 
 annum is to be levied on every 100/. of property insured 
 against fire. 
 
 N. B.— Persons may insure for more years than one, and in 
 such cases there will be a discount allowed of 5 per cent, per 
 annum, compound interest, on the preniiuut and duty for 
 every year except the first. 
 
 Conditions. 
 
 Art. I Any person desirous of effecting insurances upon 
 
 buildings or goods must furnish the office, or its agents, with 
 a particular description thereof, and of the process of manufac- 
 ture carried on therein ; and if tliere be any omission or mis- 
 representation in describing the building or goods, or process 
 of manufacture, whereby the same may he charged at a 
 different rate of premium than they otherwise would be, this 
 oflice will not be responsible in case of any loss or damage. 
 And if any alteration be made in the state of the buildings or 
 goods, or process of manufacture, after such insurance shall 
 have been eff»?cted, then the insured shall give due notice 
 thereof, in writing, to the office or its agents, or in default 
 of such notice, such insurance sliall become void, and no 
 benefit be derived therefrom. 
 
 Art. II -AH policies shall be signed and sealed by three 
 
 or more trustees or acting members ; and no receints are to 
 be taken for any premiums of ii'.surance, but such as are 
 printed and issued from the office, and witnesse<l by one of 
 its clerks or agents. 
 
 Ar'.. Ill— Houses, buildings, and goods in trust, and mer- 
 chandise on commission (exceut as aforesaid), may be insured, 
 provided the same are declared in the policy to be in trust or on 
 commission, but not otherwise. 
 
 Art. IV On bespeaking policies, all persons shall pay the 
 
 premium to the next qujirter day, and from thence for one 
 year more at least, or shall make a depasit for the same, and 
 shall, as long as the managers agree to accept the same, make 
 all future payments annually at the said office, within fifteen 
 days after the d.iy limited by their respective policies, upon 
 foifeiture of the benefit thereof. 
 
 Art. V Any number of houses and out-houses, and house- 
 hold goods, printed books, wearing a\>parel, plate, prists^ 
 
706 
 
 INSURANCE (FIRE). 
 
 jewels and trinkets in private nse, stock in trade, Roods in 
 trust, or on commission, may be insured in one policy. 
 
 Alt. V'l Persons insured by this olfice shall receive no 
 
 beneBt from their policies, it the same houses, or goods, iVc. are 
 insured in any other office, unless such insurance, and the 
 amount thereof, be first specified and allowed by indorsement 
 on the policy, in which ca,se this office will pay its rateable pro- 
 portion on any loss or damage. 
 
 Art. VXI. — When any person dies, the policy and interest 
 therein shall continue to the heir, executor, or administrator, 
 respectively, to whom the right of the proiierty insured shall 
 b3loni;, provided, before any new payment be made, such heir, 
 executor, or administrator, do procure his or her right to be 
 indorsed on the policy at the said office, or the premium to be 
 paid in the name of the said heir, executor, or administrator. 
 
 Art. VIII — Persons changing; their liabitations or ware- 
 houses may preserve the benefit of their policies, if the nature 
 and circumstance of such policy be not altered ; but such 
 insurance will be of no force till such removal or alleraiion 
 is allowed at the office, by indorsement on the policy. 
 
 Art. IX — Noloss or damage will be ^aid on fire "happening 
 by any invasion, foreign enemy, civil commotion, or any 
 military or usurped power whatever. 
 
 Art. X.— Persons msured sustaining any loss or damage by 
 fire are forthwith to give notice thereof at the office ; and, as 
 soon as possible afterwards^ deliver in as particular an account 
 of their loss or damage as the nature of the case will admit of, 
 and make proof of the same by their oath or affirmation, accord- 
 ing to the form practised in the said office, and by their books of 
 accounts, or such other proper vouchers as shall be reasonably 
 recjuired, and procure a certificate under the hands of the 
 
 minister and churchwardens, and serme other respectable in- 
 halniants ot the pati^h and place, not concerned or interestert 
 sn sucli lo:,s, miporting tnat they are well acquainted with the 
 charu' ter and circumstances of the person or persons insured or 
 claiming ; and do know, or verily believe, that he, she, or they, 
 really, and by misfortune, without any fraud or evif pracUce, 
 havu sustained by such fire the loss or damage, as his, lier, or 
 their loss, to the value therein mentioned. And, till the affi- 
 davit and certificate of such the insured's loss shall be made 
 and produced, the loss money shall not be payable. And, if 
 there appear any fraud or false swearing, or that the fire shall 
 have happened by the procurement, or wilful act, mt ans, or 
 contrivance of the insured or claimants, fie, she, or they shall 
 be excluded from all benefit from their policies. And in case 
 any diff erence shall arise between the office and the insured, 
 touching any loss or damage, such difference shall be submitted 
 to the judgment and determination of arbitrators indifferently 
 chosen, whose award in writing shall be conclusive and binding 
 Oil all parties. 
 
 N. B — In every case of loss the Company reserves tlie right of 
 re instatement in preference to the jiayment of claims, if it 
 sliould judge the former course to be more expedient ; but 
 when any loss is settled and adjusted, the insured will receive 
 immediate payment for the same, without any deduction or 
 discount; and will not be liable to any covenants or calls for 
 contribution to make good losses. 
 
 To encourage the removal of good^, in cases of fire, this 
 ofSce will allow the reasonable charges attending tlie same, 
 and make good tlie suff erer's loss, whetlier destroyed, lost, oc 
 damaged,, by such removal. 
 
 Insitrance of Mills, ^-c— We subjoin for the information of such of our readers as maybe interested i« 
 the insurance of mills, the following statements, put forth by the Leeds and Yorkshire Assurance Company. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF MILLS. 
 
 Class I — Fire Proof. Mills built entirely of stone or brick : 
 the floors laid upon stone or brick arches, resting upon stone, 
 brick, or iron pillars.and consisting of stone flags, tiles, cement, 
 or plaster ; the frame-work of the windows and roof of iron, 
 the roof covered with slates, tiles, or metal; the staircase de- 
 tached, constructed of solid masonry or brick-work, without 
 any mixture of wood or timber, and having no communication 
 with the mill but at the several landings ; the openings for 
 upright sliafts or machinery (if any) to be boxed off with iron 
 or stone. 
 
 Class II — Fire Proof. Mills of which the construction is in 
 all respects the same as Wass I. except that the floors do not 
 rest upan stone or brick arches, but consist of stone flags laid 
 upon iron beams and joists. 
 
 Class 111 — Mills constructed as Classes I. and II. but having 
 the stone floors resting upon timber beams and joists, and the 
 frame-work of the windows and roof of wood. 
 
 Class IV. — Mills built of stone or brick, and having one or 
 moie of the upper floors constructed of stone flags laid upon 
 iron or wood beams, on which floors the dangerous processes 
 are carried on ; the staircase of stone,, and detached. 
 
 Class v.— Mills constructed of stone or brick; having the 
 floors, except the ground floor, of wood, planked and jointed 
 with iron ; the staircase of stone, being detached or on the 
 outside. 
 
 Class VI^MiUs constructed of stone or brick ; having the 
 floors, except the ground floor, of wood ; the staircase cX stone, 
 being detached or on the outside. 
 
 Class VII — Mills constructed of stone or brick; having the 
 stairs and floors of wood ; the stairs being open to the building. 
 
 N.B — In all the classes it is understood that the mill does not 
 adjoin any other mill or extra-hazardous building ; that the 
 heating is by steam, and that the boilers^ and firing places are 
 in a separate building, not endangering the mill. 
 
 Scale of Premiums. 
 
 Class I. 
 It. 
 III. 
 IV. 
 V. 
 VI. 
 VII. 
 
 Build- 
 ing. 
 
 0 7 
 0 9 
 0 19. 
 
 14 0 
 17 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 Machi- 
 nery and 
 Stock. 
 
 Woollen Mills. 
 
 Build- 
 ing. 
 
 Machi- 
 nery and I 
 Stock. '"K- 
 
 Machi- 
 nery and 
 Stock. 
 
 Build- 
 ing. 
 
 L. s. d. It. «. dJL. a. d. \L. 
 
 0 10 0 0 
 
 0 12 0 0 
 
 0 14 0 0 
 
 0 15 0 ;o 
 
 0 17 0 0 
 
 0 19 0 !o 
 
 12 0 10 
 
 0 9 
 0 11 
 0 12 
 0 14 
 0 15 
 
 0 17 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 iO 5 
 
 0 0 7 
 
 0 0 9 
 
 0 0 11 
 
 0 0 12 
 
 0 |0 14 
 
 0 0 16 
 
 0 16 
 0 0 18 
 
 8 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 
 
 2 0 0 
 
 3 0 0 
 -* 0 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 !o 
 
 10 0 
 
 Machi- 
 nery and 
 Stock. 
 
 Build- 
 ing. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 0 6 0 
 
 0 7 0 
 
 0 8 0 
 
 0 9 0 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 0 II 0 
 
 0 12 0 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 0 5 0 
 
 0 6 0 
 
 0 7 0 
 
 0 8 0 
 
 0 9 0 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 MacJvi- 
 nery and 
 Stock. 
 
 0 10 
 0 11 
 0 12 
 0 13 
 
 Worsted and 
 Silk Mills. 
 
 Build- 
 ing. 
 
 Machi- 
 nery and 
 Stock. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 5 0 
 
 5 6 
 
 6 0 
 
 6 6 
 
 7 0 
 
 7 6 
 
 8 6 
 
 Remarks.— The premiums affixed in the above scale are on 
 the supposition that 3-4ths of the value of the building or stock 
 are given in for insurance. If only half the value is given 
 in, the premium will be 1 -3d more ; if only l-4th, the premium 
 will be 2-3ds more ; and so on. Buildings, machinery, and 
 stock, may however be insured for any sum or sums, subject 
 to the average clause; or machinery and stock may be insured 
 by rooms. 
 
 The introduction of stoves or fires, for heating, in lieu of 
 steam, w ill add to classes 
 
 I V. and VI. Is. 6d. premium. 
 1 VII. - - 2i. premium. 
 
 When mills are more than 2 miles distant from any of the 
 company's, or other public engine stations, or have not engines 
 belonging to them, reported in good order, and properly served, 
 there must be added to classes 
 
 I. and II. 6rf. premium. I V. and VI. 1*. 6d. premium. 
 III. and IV. Is. premium. | VII. - - 2j. premium. 
 
 In corn mills, the working of every additional pai^^of stones 
 beyond 4, will add 6d. to the above premiums. 
 
 A kiln adjoining and communicating for the drying of oats 
 or other grain, will add 2s. to the above premiums. 
 
 Wind corn mills, built of brick or stone, and having the roof 
 of wood, will come under Class Vil. 
 
 Amount of Property insured. — Duty. — Insurance against fire, though practised in France, Holland, 
 and some other countries, is not general any where except in Great Britain. It has been known amongst 
 us for a century and a half, and is now very widely extended. It appears from the official accounts, that 
 the f^ross duty received on policies of insurance against fire in the United Kingdom, in 1832, amounted to 
 83fi,096/. ; whioh, as the duty is 3a. per cent., shows that the property insured was valued at the immense 
 sum of 557,397,533/. I But notwithstanding the magnitude of this sum, it is still true that most buildings 
 are not insured up to their full value; even in towns, many are not insured at all ; and in the country 
 it is far from being customary to insure farm buildings or barn-yards. It is difficult to imagine that 
 this can be owing to any thing other than the exorbitance of the duty. On common risks the duty is 
 no less than 200 per cent, upon the premium ; or, in other words, if a person pay to an insurance office 
 15s. for insuring 1,()()0/. worth of property, he must at the same time pay a duty of 30.v. to government! 
 On hazardous and doubly hazardous risks, the duty varies from about 120 to 75 and 80 per cent, upon 
 the premium. Such a duty is in the last degree oppressive and impolitic. There cannot, in fact, be the 
 slightest doubt that, were it reduced, as it ought to be, to one third its present amount, the business of 
 insurance would be very much extended ; and as it could not be extended without an increase of security, 
 and without lessening the injurious consequences arising from the c.tsualties to which property is exposed, 
 the reduction of the duty would be productive of the best consequences in a pubHc point of viewj while 
 the increase of business would prevent the revenue from being materially dimini.slicd. 
 
 During last session (1833), the duty on the insurance of farming stock was repealed. But the relief 
 thence arising is immaterial ; and the increase is, besides, higlily objectionable in point of jirinciple, 
 inasmuch as there is no ground whatever for exempting farming stock from duty in preference to any 
 other description of stock. A duty on insurance is not, in itself, objectionable. We do not wish to see 
 it reiicaled, but to have it effectually reduced. Were it fixed at per cent, it would hardly be felt as 
 u burden i while the revenue would suffer little or nothing from tlie measure. 
 
INSURANCE (LIFE). 
 
 707 
 
 Amount of Dufy on Fire Insurances paid by the different London Offices, during eacli of tlie Ten 
 
 Years ending witii 1835. 
 
 Offices 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 18.30. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 18.34. 
 
 1835. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 It. 
 
 /,. 
 
 /,. 
 
 I.. 
 
 L. 
 
 I.. 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 17,740 
 
 19,095 
 
 19, 166 
 
 20,1 75 
 
 20,715 
 
 20, 1 4 7 
 
 20,428 
 
 2 1 ,034 
 
 22,602 
 
 
 
 20,898 
 
 19,522 
 
 20,199 
 
 20,700 
 
 20,783 
 
 21,010 
 
 21,288 
 
 21 ,.398 
 
 22,098 
 
 Hr^ih " - - 
 
 15,274 
 
 15,464 
 
 16,'^93 
 
 15,812 
 
 15,819 
 
 
 15,614 
 
 15,395 
 
 10,428 
 
 \7,473 
 
 r tv . " I 
 
 40,6SO 
 
 
 47,413 
 
 4 1,8 i2 
 
 4 1,172 
 
 48/>'l'9 
 
 48,507 
 
 44,2.32 
 
 40 471 
 
 42,317 
 
 ( i lol)e - " - 
 
 24',1 17 
 
 26ll'(i'1 
 
 25,367 
 
 25,566 
 
 26,162 
 
 26,597 
 
 27,198 
 
 27,.321 
 
 2 7 1.355' 
 
 28',366 
 
 Guardian 
 
 28,370 
 
 29,063 
 
 29,681 
 
 .30,595 
 
 31,077 
 
 31,885 
 
 31,528 
 
 31,916 
 
 .32,114 
 
 .32,475 
 
 Hand-in-Hand - 
 
 
 11,701 
 
 1 1,975 
 
 
 1 1 ,5S9 
 
 
 10,960 
 
 10,793 
 
 10,950 
 
 1 1,166 
 
 Imperial 
 
 28;965 
 
 28,334 
 
 28,647 
 
 28;5'lO 
 
 'z7,0Sl 
 
 28)2.30 
 
 28,231 
 
 27,154 
 
 27,020 
 
 27,379 
 
 I-oniloii - 
 
 7,411 
 
 7,077 
 
 7,262 
 
 7,485 
 
 8,019 
 
 7,953 
 
 8,125 
 
 8,477 
 
 9,490 
 
 10,173 
 
 Palladium 
 
 3,810 
 
 4,721 
 
 5,028 
 
 5,378 
 
 1,377 
 
 discontin. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phoenix 
 
 r,'.),'j'ji 
 
 60,482 
 
 62,839 
 
 05,619 
 
 68,875 
 
 69,.?90 
 
 75,076 
 
 73,368 
 
 72,821 
 
 73,1.57 
 
 Protector - 
 
 21,752 
 
 35,273 
 
 46,446 
 
 54,287 
 
 56,081 
 
 59,789 
 
 59,182 
 
 57,858 
 
 56,676 
 
 .54 ,.366 
 
 Hojal Exchange 
 
 48,106 
 
 38,034 
 
 49,416 
 
 49,786 
 
 51,891 
 
 54,586 
 
 51,824 
 
 .55,716 
 
 55,266 
 
 57,973 
 
 Sun 
 
 107,172 
 
 111,521 
 
 114,205 
 
 118,856 
 
 120,619 
 
 124,030 
 
 124,1'^7 
 
 124,681 
 
 127,470 
 
 129,112 
 
 Union 
 
 15,(ifK'i 
 
 15,705 
 
 16,412 
 
 16,285 
 
 15,714 
 
 15,8.33 
 
 15,315 
 
 16,1.33 
 
 16,370 
 
 17,.334 
 
 West minster 
 
 14,554 
 
 14,359 
 
 14,264 
 
 15,461 
 
 14,777 
 
 15,116 
 
 1 5, 1 1 1 
 
 15,126 
 
 15,531 
 
 10,312 
 
 Albion 
 
 13,053 
 
 12,869 
 
 diiicontin. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 479,096 
 
 492,941 
 
 513,868 
 
 529,411 
 
 5.34,428 
 
 ,')50,562 
 
 .554,988 
 
 519,886 
 
 .550,394 
 
 562,303 
 
 Amount of Duty on Fire Insurance paid by the different Country Offices in England, during each of the 
 Eight Years ending with 18 j5. 
 
 Offices. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 18.33. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 Bath Sun - . ., . 
 
 1,620 
 
 1,628 
 
 1,583 
 
 1,512 
 
 1,592 
 
 1,567 
 
 1,568 
 
 1,363 
 
 Berks, Gloucester, &c. (_discon.) 
 
 2,395 
 
 2,477 
 
 2,601 
 
 614 
 
 
 
 
 Birmingham - - - 
 
 0,126 
 
 0,186 
 
 6,593 
 
 7,016 
 
 7,049 
 
 7,004 
 
 7,042 
 
 7,070 
 
 Bristol - . . - 
 
 3,836 
 
 3,903 
 
 3,953 
 
 3,977 
 
 .3,751 
 
 .3,722 
 
 3,653 
 
 3,644 
 
 Bristol (Crown) ... 
 
 1,914 
 
 1,882 
 
 1,919 
 
 1,866 
 
 1,862 
 
 1,772 
 
 1,853 
 
 1,751 
 
 Bristol (Union) 
 
 2,490 
 
 2,188 
 
 2,500 
 
 2,581 
 
 2,567 
 
 2,566 
 
 2,552 
 
 2,400 
 
 Essex Economic - - - 
 
 2,852 
 
 2,925 
 
 5,136 
 
 .3,163 
 
 .3,061 
 
 2,821 
 
 2,5!i5 
 
 2,056 
 5,437 
 
 Essex and Suffolk 
 
 6,279 
 
 6,444 
 
 6,407 
 
 0,490 
 
 0,501 
 
 5,753 
 
 5,.356 
 
 Hertford, Cambridgp, &c. {discon.) - 
 
 4,671 
 
 4,866 
 
 5,429 
 
 3,383 
 
 
 
 Hants, Sussex, and Dorset 
 
 2,640 
 
 2,689 
 
 2,792 
 
 2,833 
 
 2,687 
 
 2^598 
 
 2,598 
 
 2,534 
 
 Kent 
 
 9,0.-!5 
 
 9,279 
 
 10,726 
 
 10,662 
 
 10,650 
 
 9,978 
 
 10,290 
 
 10,142 
 
 Leeds and Yorkshire ... 
 
 6,377 
 
 6,728 
 
 6,977 
 
 7,821 
 
 8,068 
 
 8,158 
 
 }<,966 
 
 9,517 
 
 Manchester - - . - 
 
 16,178 
 
 16,703 
 
 16,787 
 
 17,350 
 
 17,532 
 
 17,726 
 
 18,318 
 
 18,654 
 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne - - - 
 
 4,755 
 
 4,94S 
 
 5,093 
 
 5,229 
 
 5,126 
 
 ••V2,093 
 
 5,108 
 
 5,165 
 
 
 1,094 
 
 1,.3.30 
 
 1,430 
 
 1,293 
 
 1,294 
 
 1,374 
 
 1. 
 
 Norwich Equitable 
 
 3,428 
 
 3,491 
 
 2,316 
 
 2,8.38 
 
 .3,0 iO 
 
 discontinue 
 
 Norwich Union ... 
 
 61,916 
 
 61,186 
 
 02,385 
 
 08,.356 
 
 60,889 
 
 01,345 
 
 59,826 
 
 61,863 
 
 Readinf; - ... 
 
 112 
 
 108 
 
 131 
 
 150 
 
 182 
 
 196 
 
 20ii 
 
 207 
 
 Salamander ... 
 
 4,640 
 
 4,800 
 
 4,937 
 
 5,307 
 
 5,324 
 
 5,105 
 
 6,021 
 
 4,973 
 
 Salop - - - 
 Sheffield 
 
 2,616 
 
 2,637 
 
 2,800 
 
 2,811 
 
 2,878 
 
 2,737 
 
 2,612 
 
 2,751 
 
 1,716 
 
 1,804 
 
 1,922 
 
 2,065 
 
 2,067 
 
 1,952 
 
 2,056 
 
 2,144 
 
 Shields (North and South) 
 
 706 
 
 743 
 
 727 
 
 719 
 
 737 
 
 761 
 
 7.58 
 
 729 
 
 Suffolk (East) 
 
 5,530 
 
 5,639 
 
 5,787 
 
 6,277 
 
 6,2 1 3 
 
 5,415 
 
 5,117 
 
 5,221 
 
 Suffolk (West) .... 
 
 5,989 
 
 6,120 
 
 0,332 
 
 6,961 
 
 6,950 
 
 6,199 
 
 5,781 
 
 5,868 
 
 West of England 
 
 22,531 
 
 23,858 
 
 25, 1« 
 
 25,683 
 
 26,601 
 
 27,415 
 
 27,128 
 
 27,733 
 
 Yorkshire - - - - 
 
 2,947 
 
 3,231 
 
 3,936 
 
 4,734 
 
 5,461 
 
 5,558 
 
 5,992 
 
 6,741 
 
 Total - 
 
 183,389 
 
 186,763 
 
 191,049 
 
 20 i, 761 
 
 198,207 
 
 184,097 
 
 185,686 
 
 190,499 
 
 * For two quarters only. 
 
 The Hope, Eagle, Albion, Beacon, British Commerciid, Palladium, Surrey, Sussex, and Southwark, 
 Brighton, Old Bath, Gloucestershire, Canterbury, Berks, Gloucester and Provincial, Hertford, Cambridge, 
 and Country, and others, (in all 22 offices, chiefly those lately established,) have discontinued their fire 
 insurance business. 
 
 IV. Insurance (Life). 
 
 That part of the business of life insurance which consists of granting annuities upon lives, is treated 
 of under Interest and Annuities ; so that we have only to treat, in this place, of the insurance of sums 
 payable at the death of the insurers or their nominees. 
 
 Suppose an individual of a given age wishes to insure lOOZ. payable at his death, the single premium, 
 or the series of annual premiums, he ought to pay an office for such insurance, must plainly depend on 
 the expectation of life of such individual, and on the rate of interest or nett profit which the insurers 
 may make by investing the premiums. 
 
 With respect to the first of these conditions, or the ex-pectation qf life, it is usual in estimating it to 
 liave recourse to Tables framed from the mortality observed to take place in particular cities or districts, 
 as in Northampton, Carlisle, &c. — (See Interest and Annuities.) But though the actual decrement 
 and expectation of life among an average population, at every year of their lives, were accurately 
 determined, it is doubted whether it would form a fair basis for an insurance office to proceed ujjon. The 
 general opinion seems to be, that insured lives are decidedly above the average ; for insurance offices 
 invariably profess to act on the principle of rejecting bad lives or of making tlicm pay a proportional 
 increase of premium ; and it may, besides, it is said, be fairly presumed that persons insuring their 
 lives are of a superior class, and are not, generally speaking, engaged in those manual and laborious 
 occupations that are esteemed most injurious to health. But, on the other hand, the friends of parties 
 whose lives are supposed to be bad, and the parties themselves, are most anxious they should be insured. 
 It is also far from being an uncommon practice, for certain individuals to prevail on'persons whom they 
 happen to know, or believe to be bad lives, to insure ; and then to get a legal assignment of the policy in 
 their favour, on their giving the " men of straw " a bonus for their share in the fraud. At all events, 
 there can be no question tliat large numbers of such lives are perpetually offered for insurance ; and 
 every individual conversant with the business knows that, in despite of all precautions, policies are 
 very frequently effected upon them. Mr. Milne, on whose judgment every reliance may be placed, states 
 distinctly that " all the caution and selection which the offices in general can exercise, is necessary to 
 keep the lives insured up to the average goodness of the bulk of the population." — {Ency. Brit, new ed. 
 art. Annuities.) Since the competition among the different offices became so very keen as it 4ias been of 
 late years, there are but few lives so bad that they will not be taken by one office or another ; and we 
 doubt, were the results of their experience made public, whether it would be found that there is much 
 foundation for the opinion as to the superiority of insured lives. 
 
 With respect to the second condition in valuing an insurance, or the rate at which the interest of 
 money may be estimated, it is impossible (o arrive at any thing like accurate conclusions. At an average,- 
 perhaps, transactions in life insurance may extend over a period of 30 years from the time when they are 
 entered into ; and in such a lengthened term the greatest changes niav take place in the rate of profit 
 and the rate of interest. Mr. Finlaison, of the National Debt (Office, appears to thhik that 4i per cent, 
 may be taken as the true aver.ige rate in this country ; and that 4^ is a rate at which no loss need ba 
 
 2 Z 2 
 
708 
 
 INSURANCE (LIFE). 
 
 apprehended —(Par/. Paper, No. 2S4. Sess. 1829.) But this is not a ])oint on which (as Mr. Finlaison 
 seems to suppose) previo<is experience can be safely depended upon in forming engagements for the 
 future ; and were this the proper place for entering upon such discussions, v/e think we could assign 
 pretty solid grounds for concluding that no institution, intended to last for the next half century, woirid 
 be warranted in reckoning upon realising more than o per cent, upon its investments. We should look 
 upon this as the maximum, a.nd of course could expect nothing' but ruin to fall upon any institution 
 founded upon the hypothesis of realising 4? per cent, of interest. At the same time, we would not be 
 an-derstood as laying any undue stress upon this opinion ; and are ready to admit that there must always 
 be more of conjecture than of certainty in such conclusions. 
 
 Security being the principal object to be aimed at by every insurance office established on sound prin- 
 ciples, they would not act wisely, if they did not calculate their premiums considerably higher than may 
 appear necessary to those who look only at what has taken place during tlie last 30 or 40 years. Societies 
 contracting prospective engagements that may extend for half a century or more, are exposed to innu- 
 merable unforeseen contingencies; and they would be highly censurable, and altogether unworthy of the 
 public contidence, were they so to conduct their affairs, that they might be liable to serious embarrass- 
 ments from fluctuations in the rate of interest, or an increase of sickness, or any other cause. The success 
 that has hitherto attended the Equitable, and some of the long-established offices, must not be taken as 
 any criterion of what may befall them and others during the next 1(X) years. Mr. Morgan, the late able 
 actuary of the Equitable, in his account of the rise and progress of that institution, published in 1H28, 
 has satisfactorily shown that its peculiar prosperity has been in a very great degree owing to circumstances 
 which cannot possibly occur again. The premium, for example, charged by the Society, so late as 1771, 
 for insuring 100/. on the life of a person aged 30, was 4/. \s. B^d., whereas it is now only 21. 13s. it/. ; 
 and there was a corresponding difference in the premiums for the other ages — (p. 36.) But the excessive 
 magnitude of the premiums was not the only extraordinary source of profit enjoyed by this Society in 
 the earlier part of its career. We learn from the same unquestionable authority, that half the inst/rances 
 made dm-ing the first twenty-five years of the Society's existence v)ere abandoned by the insurers, in many 
 cases, after the premiums upon them had been paid for a considerable number" of years, without any 
 valuable consideration being given for them by the Society ! — (p. 38.) So copious a source of profit was 
 alone adequate to enrich any society ; but such things rarely occur now, — people are become too famUiar 
 with life insurance, and sales of policies are of too frequent occurrence, to allow any office to realise any 
 thing considerable in this way. Now, we ask, can any one who takes these facts into view, and couples 
 them with the frugal and cautious management which has hitherto always distinguished the Equitable 
 Society, be surprised at its success ? and can any thing be more absurd than to appeal to its experience 
 in casting the horoscope of the societies that have sprung into existence within the last few years. 
 But, independently of these considerations, there are other circumstances sufficient to account for the 
 great success of some of the old offices. Since the close of the American war, a very decided diminutioQ 
 has taken place in the rate of mortality ; the public tranquillity has neither been disturbed by foreign 
 invasion nor intestine commotion ; we have not been once visited by any epidemic disorder; and the 
 investments in the funds, during the war made at from 50 to 60, may now be realised at from 80 to iX). 
 We do not presume to say that circumstances may not be even more advantageous for the insurance 
 offices during the next half century ; but we should not, certainly, think very highly of the prudence of 
 those who proceeded to insure on such an assumption. Security, we take leave again to repeat, is, in life 
 insurance, the paramount consideration. It is, we believe, admitted on all hands, that the premiunn 
 were at one time too high ; but we doubt whether the tendency at present be not to sink them too low. 
 A great relaxation has taken place, even in the most respectable offices, as to the selection of lives. 
 And the advertisements daily appearing in the newspapers, and the practices known to be- resorted to in 
 different quarters to procui-e business, ought to make every prudent individual consider well what he is 
 about before he decides upon the office with which he is to insure. Attractive statements, unless where 
 they emanate from individuals of unquestionable character and science, ought not to go for much. Life 
 insurance is one of the most deceptive of businesses; and offices may for a long time have all the 
 appeai-ance of prosperity, which are, notwithstanding, established on a very insecure foundation. If 
 a man insure a house or a ship with a society, or an individual, of whose credit he gets doubtful, he will 
 forthwith insure somewhere else. But life insurance is quite a different affair. The bargain is one that 
 is not to be finally concluded for, perhaps, 50 years ; and any inability on the part of an establishment in 
 extensive business to make good its engagements, would be productive of a degree of misery not easy to 
 be imagined. 
 
 Life insurance companies are divided into three classes. The first class consists of joint stock com- 
 panies, who undertake to pay fixed sums upon the death of the individuals insuring with them ; the 
 profits made by such companies being wholly divided among the proprietors. Of this class are the Royal 
 Exchange, the Sun, the Globe, &c. The second class are also joint stock companies, with proprietary 
 bodies ; but instead of undertaking, like the former, to pay certain specified sums upon the death of the 
 insured, they allow the latter to participate to a certain extent, along with the proprietors, in the profits 
 made by the business. The mode in which this sort of mixed companies allot the profit granted to the 
 insured, is not the same in all ; and in some, the principle on which the allotment is made is not disclosed. 
 The Rock, Alliance, Guardian, Atlas, &c. belong to this mixed class. The third species of company is 
 that which is formed on the basis of mutual insurance. In this sort of company there is no proprietary 
 body distinct from the insured ; the latter share among themselves the whole profits of the concern, afler 
 deducting the expenses of management. The Equitable Society, the Amicable, the Norwich Life, &c. 
 belong to this class. 
 
 The advantage to a person insuring in any one office as compared with another, must plainly depend 
 on a comparison between the premiums demanded, the conditions of the policy, and, above all, the security 
 which it holds out. It may appear, on a superficial view, as if the mutual insurance companies would 
 be in all respects the most eligible to deal with, inasmuch as they have no proprietors to draw away any 
 share of the profits from the insured. It is doubtful, however, whether this advantage be not more than 
 balanced by disadvantages incident to such establishments. Every one being a partner in the concern, 
 has not only his own life insured, but is part insurer of the lives of all the other members ; and may, in 
 this capacity, should the affairs of the society get into disorder, incur some very serious responsibilities. 
 The management, too, of such societies, is very apt to get into the hands of a junto; and to be conducted 
 without the greater number of those interested knowing any thing of the matter. There is, also, con- 
 siderable difficulty, in con.stituting such societies, in distinguishing clearly between the rights of old and 
 new members : for, supposing a society to be prosperous, it is but reasonable that those who have belonged 
 to it while it has accumulated a large fund, should object to new entrants participating in this advantage. 
 But the affairs of a society conducted in this way, or makijig distinctions in the rights of the members 
 during a long series of years, could hardly fail of becoming at last exceedingly complicated : nor is it, 
 indeed, at all improbable that the conflicting claims of the parties in some of the societies of this sort now 
 in existence, may ultimately have to be adjusted in the courts of law, or by an act of the legislature. 
 
 Supposing the premiums demanded by the societies which retain the whole i)rolits to themselves, to be 
 fairly pioportioned to the values insured, we should be inclined to think that they are, on the whole, the 
 most advisalile to insure in. The subscribed capital of such associations as the Royal Exchange, Sun, 
 <rl()be, .Scottish Union, &c., and the wealth of the partners (which is all liable, except in the case of the 
 f;hart('red companies, to the claims of the insvired), aflbrd unciuestionable security, individuals dealing 
 with them know exactly what they are about, 'i hey know the precise premiums they will have to pay, 
 and the exact amount of tiic sums that will be paid to their assignees in the event of their death. Tlicy 
 
INSURANCE (LIFE). 
 
 incur no responsibility of any kind whatever. For, unless some very unprecedented and unlooked-for 
 change should take placx" in the condition of the country, they may reckon with certainty on the terms 
 of the policy being fulfilled to the letter. 
 
 But, as already observed, every thing depends, in matters of this sort, on a comparison of the premium 
 with the advantages to be realised. And where the premiums are believed, eitlier through carele.ssness, 
 or intentionally, in order to provide for the safety of the establishment, to be a little too high, it may be 
 more expedient, perhaps, to deal with a mixed company. 'I'he subscribed capital and fortunes of the pro- 
 prietary body afford a guarantee on which the public may depend in dealitig with any rcsjicctaljle com- 
 pany of this sort; while, by receiving a share of the profits, the insured gain by the fiourisliirig condition 
 of the association, and it is of le-ss consequence to them though the premiums should be too high. 
 
 It should, however, be borne in mind, that an individual insuring with a mixed company, on condition 
 of his getting a proportion of the profits, becomes a partner of s?ich comyany ; and being so, incurs re- 
 sponsibilities. In dealing with such associations as the Alliance, the Kock, and a few others, this res|)on6* 
 ibility can hardly be said to amount to any thing. But there are companies of this class in the fii l<l,ar!d 
 holding out very tempting baits to the unwary, those insured in wliich may find, at some future period, 
 that this responsibility is by no means a light matter. 
 
 A highly respectable company of this mixed class, with a large subscribed capital, — the Guardian,—- 
 inserts in all its policies the following condition, viz. — "That the responsibility of the individual members 
 shall, in all cases, be limited to their respective shares." It may be doubted whether this condition be 
 good in law ; but if it be, it materially affects the security afforded by the Company, which otherwise 
 would justly claim a place in the very first class of offices. As no one attempts to secure him.self against 
 a contingency which he is satisfied cannot happen, the existence of a condition of this sort implies a doubt, 
 on the part of the proprietary body, of the perfect solidity of the establishment. Such a doubt may be, 
 and we believe really is, very ill-founded ; but the public will, most likely, be inchned to think that the 
 proprietors ought to know better than any one else. The Albion Fire and Life Insurance Company also 
 inserts in its policies a condition to the same effect. 
 
 The allotment of profit to the insured made by the mixed companies, is sometimes effected by a dimi- 
 nution of the premiums, and sometimes by increasing the sum in the policy; and individuals should, in 
 dealing with such societies, select, other things being equal, the association with which to insure, accord, 
 ing as they wish to insure a larger sum, or to get the premiums reduced. 
 
 We subjoin, from Mr. Babbage's work on Life Assurance*, the following statement of the terms of the 
 various mixed companies, as to the division of profits with the insured. Ihey are, for the most iiart, 
 exceedingly vague. We also subjoin an account of the conditions, in respect of profits, under which new 
 entrants are admitted into the Equitable. 
 
 Alliance. — At the periods of participation of the Company 
 in the profits of its concerns, every policy for the whole term 
 of life, which shall have naid 5 entire annual premiums, shall, 
 if the allowance be made in reduction of annual premium, be 
 entitled to such reduction from the original charge as shall 
 then, and from time to time, be declared ; but if the allowance 
 be in addition to the amount assured, that addition shall also 
 be continually declared from time to time. 
 
 Persons assiirini; their own lives have the option of declaring, 
 at tl-.e time of effecting the assurance, whether they will par- 
 ticipate in the profits by an addition to tlieir policy, or by a 
 reduction of premium. I 
 
 Atlas. — Persons assuring for the whole term of life for 100/. I 
 and upwards, in Great Britain and Ireland respectively, will 
 be entitled, at the end of every 7 th year, to participate in the 
 surplus premiums, to be then ascertained by actual valuation. 
 
 Asylum, — The directors have power to divide such portion 
 of tlie profits quinquennially as may not imprudently check 
 the growth of the funds intended for the benefit of the 
 assured. 
 
 Crown. — Two thirds of such profits as shall periodically be 
 declared divisible, will be apportioned amongst assurers for the 
 w hole term of life, and may be applied to the reduction of the 
 future annual premiums, or to the increase of the sum assured, 
 as may be desired. 
 
 /icoHomif.—At present 3-4ths of thesavingsand profits divided 
 amongst the assured entitled to participate therein, by additions 
 to their policies, proportioned to their respective contributions, 
 and in order to atibrd them the immediate benefit of such 
 additions, interest thereon applied annually in reduction of 
 their jjremiums. 
 
 Equitable. — ThsX in case any prospective addition shall 
 hereafter be ordered to be made to the claims upon policies of 
 assurance in this iSociety, such order shall not take etfect with 
 respect to any policy granted after the 31st of December, 1816, 
 until the assurances existing in the Society prior in number 
 and date to such policy, and if of the same date, prior in the 
 number thereof, shall be reduced to 5,000 ; but as soon as such 
 reduction shall have been ascertained, in manner hereinafter 
 mentioned, the said policy shall be within the effect and oper- 
 ation of the order for such addition, as to the payments made 
 thereon subsequent to such ascertained reduction : so that if 
 such order should be made to take effect generally from the 
 1st of January, 1820, for the space of 10 years then next follow- 
 ing, a policy ell'ected in the year 1817, shall not be within the 
 operation of such order, until the assurances existing prior to 
 the number and date of the policy, as aforesaid, shall have 
 been retluced to 5,000 ; but such policy shall be within the 
 operation thereof from the time when the reduction shall have 
 been ascertained, in manner hereinafter mentione*!, as to the 
 payments made thereon subsequent to such ascertained reduc- 
 tion. And the like as to other cases. And this by-law shall 
 be considered as a part of every such order, and shall be vir- 
 tually incorporated theriin, although the same may iiot be 
 thereby expressly referred to. 
 
 That in case any retrospective addition shall hereafter be 
 ordered to be made to claims ujion policies of assurance in this 
 Society, such order shall not take efl'ett with respect to any 
 policy granted after the 31st of December, ISlfS, until the 
 assurances existing in the Society prior in number and date, 
 and if of the same date, prior in the number thereof, shall be 
 reduced to 5,000 ; but when the said reduction shall have been 
 a^certaincd in manner hereinaftermentioned, such i)olicy shall 
 Ic within the efliect and operation, and entitled to the benefit 
 of such order, with respect to every payment made thereon 
 subsequent to such ascertained reduction'; so that if such order 
 
 shall be made to take effect generally as to payments made 
 before the 1st of January 1820, a policy effected in the year 
 1817 shall not be within the etFect and operation thereof, un- 
 less the life assured shall exist, and the payments continue to 
 be made, until the assurances existing in the Society prior to 
 the number and date of the policy, as aforesaid, shall be re- 
 duced to 5,000 J but as soon as such reduction shall have been 
 ascertained, in manner hereinafter mentioned, such policy 
 shall be within the effect and operation of such order for th; 
 several payments made thereon as aforesaid. And the like as 
 to other cases. And this by-law shall be considered as a part 
 of every such order, and be virtually incorporated theiein, 
 although the same may not be thereby expressly referred 
 to. 
 
 That an inquiry be made on the 1st of April in every year, 
 in order to ascertain the numbtr of assurances made and ex- 
 
 isting in the Society ; and w hen it shall have been ascerlamed 
 by such inquiry that the assurances existing prior to the l?t of 
 January, 1817, were, on the Slstof December immediately 
 preceding such inquiry, reduced below the numl er of 5,()0U, 
 the actuary do report the same to the court of directors, who 
 shall communicate such report to the quarterly general court, 
 to be holden in the June following ; and that as many of such 
 policies as had been made subsequent to the .'51st of Dtcember, 
 1816, and w hich were existing in the Society on the 31st of 
 December immediately preceding such inquiry, be added, 
 according to the priority in their dates and numbers, and if 
 of the same date, according to the priority in their numbers, to 
 those above mentioned, as shall be sufficient to complete the 
 number to 5,000 ; and that the persons holding the policies so 
 added shall be considtred thenceforward as entitled to such 
 additions as shall be thereafter made in respect of all the pay- 
 ments made subsequent to such ascertained reduction, an9, 
 under the same restrictions, to the Scune privileges of attending 
 at the general courts, and of being eligible to the office of 
 director. 
 
 That after the vacant numbers in the assurances existing in 
 the Society on the 1st of January, 1817, shall have been filled 
 up agreeably to the foregoing or'dcr. the actuary, on the 1st of 
 April in every succeeding year, do ascertain the vacancies 
 which have taktn place in the preceding year in the policie* 
 constituting the 5,000 mentioned in tlie '5th resolution, and 
 report the same to the court of directors, who shall commu- 
 nicate such report to the quarterly general court in the month 
 of June following; and that as many policies shall beaddtd, 
 according to the priority of their dates and numl>ers, and if of 
 the same date, according to the priority in itheir numbers, as 
 shall be sufficient to compUte the number to 6,000 ; and that 
 the persons holding those policies shall thenceforward be con- 
 sidered as entitled to such additions as shall be thereafter made 
 in respect of all payments made subsequent to the olst of the 
 preceding December, and, under the same restrictions, to the 
 same privileges of attending the general courts, and being 
 eligible to the office of director. 
 
 Provided that nothing hereby ordered shall he construed to 
 authorise an addition to the sum assured by anv poUcv, upon 
 which policy the number of payments required In that 'respect 
 by the present by-laws of the Society shall not have been 
 niade. 
 
 N. B. — Those by-laws require that 6 annual payments at 
 the least shall have been made before any addition to a claim 
 can take place ; and when such payments shall have be«n 
 made, the party will be qualified to be received, in his turn, 
 into the number of persons entitled to additions as aforesaid. 
 
 European. — The profits derived by this Company are dis- 
 tributed amongst the several persons connected witfi the esta- 
 
 • This work of Mr. Babbage contains a good deal of useful information, intermixed, however, with 
 not a few errors and mis-statements. It was most ably reviewed in an aiticle in the yoth Numl)cr of the 
 Jidinburgh llcvicw. 
 
 2Z 3 
 
710 
 
 INSURANCE (LIFE). 
 
 blishment, according to the contingency or certainty of their | Palladium. — A general inrestigation of the affairs of the 
 contract. Society is to take pl ice every 7th year, when 4-5ths of the 
 
 Life insurers derive an immediate benefit by the reduction 1 declared profit of the life department will be appropriated by 
 of the premiums generally taken, with the prospect of a liberal J way of bonus or addition, to be placed to the credit of the 
 addition to their policies, or a further reduction of the pre- policies then in force for the whole term of life, upon the most 
 mium, in 10 years. equitable principles of division. 
 
 Guardian. — Persons assured for the whole term of life will | Rock. — That the said bonus shall bo short of the acitual 
 be entitled at the end of every 7 years to participate in the j surplus profits at the time of making the same, by the sum of 
 
 profits of the Company, after a deduction of such sum per | 
 a.iniun, for the guaranty of the capital, as the directors may 
 think reasonable; the extent of which is, however, limited by ! 
 the deed of settlement. I 
 
 I'he share of the jirofits to be so allowed to the insured, may 
 either he added to the amount of their respective policies, or 
 the value thereof be a])plied in reduction of the premiums 
 hereafter to be payable on sui-h policies, provided such oiition 
 be declared in writing within ,~ calendar months next after the 
 dividend shall have been declared ; but if such option be not I 
 declared, such share of profits will be added to the amount of 1 
 policies. I 
 
 Hope. — Every person effecting a policy of assurance at this 
 office, is entitled to a participation in the profits equally with [ 
 
 le Company, after a moderate deduction for i . . . 
 
 the guaranty and the expenses of management. j w hich will be added every 7 years to the respective polii 
 
 Imperial. — Upon every policy effected for the whole term of j United Empire. — Persons etfiscting assurances for the wno'e 
 life, the assured will participate in the profit* of the Company, continuance of life will, at the end of the first 5 years, and of 
 by having periodical additions made to the sums insured to the i every subsequent 5 years, be entitled to participate in whatever 
 amount of &-3d parts of such clear gains and j)ro(its. nett surplus profits it may be declared by the directors expe- 
 
 Law Life At stated periods, the surplus of the fund arising 1 dient to divide. 
 
 from the premiums of assurance, and their accumulation be- Two-fifths of the aforesaid profits will be divided amongst 
 yond what may be thought necessary to answer the expe: ted the said assured, in proportion to the premiums they may re- 
 
 surplus profits at the i 
 5,000/. at least. 
 
 That the bonus so declared shall be divided into 3 equal 
 parts. 
 
 That one of the said parts shall be added to and consolidated 
 with the subscription capital stock. (This is the proprietors, 
 fund.) 
 
 That the remaining ^--Ids be allotted to the policies in the 
 manner described in tha deed. 
 
 That the sum to which any person assured by the Company 
 may become entitled under any such distribution, shall be 
 paid by the Company without interest, at the time when the 
 sum assured by the policy shall become jiayable, and not 
 before. 
 
 f/»toii.— Those who assure with this Company vrill partici- 
 the proprietors of the Company, after a moderate deduction for j pate with the proprietors in the profits of the estabhshmeni. 
 
 claims ui>on the Society, will be ascertained ; and as 1; 
 portion of the savings as may be deemed consistent with the 
 secarity of the institution, will be divided between the pro- 
 prietors and the assuved in the following manner: — l-5th 
 will be transferred to the proprietors' guaranty fund ; and re- 
 versionary sums, equivalent to the remaining 4-5ths, will be 
 added to the policies of those who shall have been 3 years 
 assured for the whole term of life. 
 
 London Life Association — The distinguishing principle of 
 this Society is, that the "benefits resulting from its transactions 
 shall be enjoyed by the members during life, so as to render 
 life assurance" as easy to the assured, as a due regard to security 
 will admit. 
 
 Medical and Clerical. — Persons assured for the whole term 
 of life will be entitled to share with the oviginal jiroprietors 
 the general profits of the business, in proportion to the amount 
 of their respective assurances. 
 
 Norwich Union. — The whole of the surplus premiums is 
 added at stated periods to thi policies of the members, in pro- 
 portion to the sums they have respectively contributed. 
 
 In order to hinder t!ae growth of gambling transactions upon life insurance, it was judiciously enacted, 
 by Stat. 14 Geo. 3. c 48., that 
 
 spectively have paid, and will, at their option, be eitlier added 
 to the amount of their policies, or applied in reduction of their 
 future premiums. 
 
 University — -As it is intended that the capital advanced 
 shall be repaid to the shareholder, with a bonus of 100/. per 
 cent., 1-lOth of the profits, when ascertained by a valuation 
 of all existing risks, will every 5 years be applied to form a 
 fund for that purpose. 
 
 The remaining 9-lOihs of the profits to be divided between 
 the assured and the shareholder, in the proportion of 8 jiarts 
 to the former and 1 to the latter. 
 
 The profif or bonus to the assured to be given either by a 
 diminution of the rate of premium, or by an increase of "the 
 amount of policy, at the o)ition of the party, 
 
 M'estminster — By a regulation taking eti'ect from the 9th of 
 May, 1S3'2, this Society makes a positive addition of 10 per 
 cent, every lOth ^ear to all sums insured on sing e lives, for the 
 whole term of lite, by policies issued after that date. 
 
 life or lives of any person or persons, or other event or events, 
 without insertinjr in such policy or jmlicies, Ike name or names 
 the person or persons interested therein, orfbr what use, benefit. 
 
 or on whose account, such policy is so made or underwrote. 
 Sect. 2. 
 
 In all cases where the insured has an interest in such life 
 
 No insurance shall be made by any person or persons, bodies 
 politic or corporate, on the life or lives of any person or per- 
 sons, or any other event or events whatsoever, where the per- 
 son or persons, for whose use or benefit, or on whose account, 
 such policy or policies shall be made, shall have no interest, or 
 by way of gaining or wagering ; and that every insurance made 
 contrary to the true intent and meaning of this act, shail be 
 null and void to all intents and purposes whatsoever. — 
 Sect. 1. 
 
 It shall not be lawful to make any policy or policies on the 
 
 A creditor has an insurable interest in the life of his debtor ; but it was decided, in a case which arose 
 out of a policy on the life of the late Mr. Pitt, that if, after the death of a debtor whose life is insured by 
 a creditor; and before any action is brought on the policy, the debt be paid, no action will lie. 
 
 All insurance offices either insert in their policies or refer in them to a declaration signed by the 
 insured, setting forth his age, or the age of the party upon whom he is making an insurance ; whether he 
 has or has not had the small-pox, gout, &c. ; " that he is not afflicted with any disorder that tends to the 
 shortening of life ;" that this declaration is to be the basis of the contract between him and the society ; 
 and that, if there be any untrue averment in it, all the monies paid to the society upon account of the 
 insurance shall be forfeited to them. — (See Form, post.) 
 
 The condition as to the party not being afflicted with any disorder that tends to the shortening of life 
 is vague, and has given rise to a good deal of discussion. But it is now settled that this condition is suffi- 
 ciently complied with, if the insured be in a reasonably good state of health ; and though he may be 
 afflicted with some disease, yet, if it can be shown that this disease does not tend to shorten life, and'was 
 not, iu fact, the cause of the party's death, vhe insurer will not be exonerated : " Such a warranty," said 
 Lord Mansfield, " can never mean, that a man has not in him the seeds of some disorder. We are all 
 born with the seeds of mortality in us. The only question is, whether the insured was in a reasonably 
 good state of ticalth, and such a life as ought to be insured on common terms." — (See MarshaU on Insur- 
 ance, book iii. ; Park on Inswance, c. 22.) 
 
 Policies of life insurance must be on stamped paper, the duty 
 being as follows : — viz. 
 
 "Where the sum in the policy shall not amount to 500/. - XI. 
 
 ■Where it shall amount to 500/. and not to 1,000/. 
 
 — — 1,000/. - 3,000/. 
 
 — — 5,000/. _. .0,000/. 
 
 — — 6,000/. and upwards 
 
 "We subjoin a statement of the terms and conditions on which the Sun Life Assurance and Equitable 
 Societies transact business, and a copy of one of the policies of the former upon the life of a person aged 
 30, insuring his own life for 1,000/. The conditions of most of the other societies are similar, and may be 
 learned by any one, on applying either at the head offices in town, or at their agents' in the country. 
 The premiums demanded by the principal offices are exhibited in the annexed Table. 
 
 Sun Life An assurance for a term of years, or for the whole 
 
 continuance of life, is a contract on the part of the office to 
 continue the assurance during that term, on the payment of a 
 certain annual i)remium, but the assured may clrop it, when- 
 ever the end is answered for which the assurance was made. 
 
 'I'he person whose life is projiosed for assurance, is recpiired 
 to appear either before the managers at the office in London, 
 or before an agent in the country; in default of which, the 
 non-appearance fine must be paid when the assurance is 
 effected ; whicli, when the term is I year, is 10*. for every 
 10:1/. assured. When the term exceeds 1 year, but does not 
 exceed 7 years, it is l.')*. for every 100/. And when the term 
 exceeds 7 years, the fine is 1 per cent. 
 
 Iteti ri-nce to be made to 2 persons of repute, to ascertai i 
 llie identity of the p.-raon jippearuig. 
 
 Any premium remaining unpnid more than 15 days after (he 
 time siipulated in the policv, such policy becomes void; but 
 the defaulter producing satisfactory proof to the managers, of 
 the health of the person on whose life the assurance was made, 
 and paying the said iiremium within 3 calendar months, 
 togcllur with the additional sum of 10*. upon every lOVU. 
 assmoil by such policy, then such policy is revived, and con- 
 tinues in force. 
 
 Condiliom of Assurance made hy Persons on their own Live*. 
 
 The ass\irance to be void, if the person w hose life is assured 
 shall depart beyoiul the limits of Kurope; shall die upon the 
 seas (except in any whole-decked vessel or steam-boat in pass- 
 ing between any one part of the United Kingdom of (Jreat 
 Diitui'i and Ireland, including; tlie islaniU of (iucrn&ey, Jersey 
 
INSURANCE (LIFE). 
 
 711 
 
 Aldernpy, and Sark, and any other nart thereof; or in jiassing 
 between any port of the said United Kinndoin, and any port 
 on the continent of Kiirope between llamburKhand Bordeaux, 
 both inclusive); or shall enter into or engajje in any military 
 or naval service whatsoever, without the previous consent of 
 the Society ; or shall die by suicrde, duelhnK, or the hands of 
 justice : or shall not be, at the time th» assurance is made, in 
 good health. 
 
 Conditions qf Assurance made by Persons on the Lives of others. 
 
 The party On whose behalf the assurani-e is made, must be 
 Interested in the life of the other to the full amount assured 
 thereon. 
 
 The assurance to be void, if the nerson whose life is assured 
 shall depart beyond the limits of Europe; shall die upon the 
 seas (except in any wl\ole-decked vessel or steam-boat in pass- 
 ing between any one part of the United Kingdom of (jreat 
 Britain and Ireland, including the islands of Guernsey,. Jersey, 
 Alderney, and Sark, and any other part thereof; or in jiassing 
 between any port in the said United Kingdom, and ;iny jiort 
 on the continent of Kurope between Hamburgh and Borcleaux, 
 both inclusive) ; or shall enter into or engage in any military 
 or naval service whatsoever, without the previous consent of 
 the Society ; or shall not be, at the time the assuraiice is made, 
 in good health. 
 
 Assurances on the lives of persons engaged in the army or 
 navy, or going beyond the limits of Europe, may be made by 
 special zi^^ment. 
 
 All claims are paid within Z months after certificates 
 (according to the required forms) of the death and burial of 
 the deceased are approved by the managers. 
 
 Form of a Proposal for Assurance. 
 Name, and rank or profession, of the life to be assured. 
 Present residence. 
 Place of birth. 
 Date of birth. 
 Age next birthday. 
 Sum. 
 Term. 
 
 Reference to a medical practitioner, toT 
 
 ascertain the present and ordinary ( 
 
 state of health of the person whose C 
 
 life is proposed to be assured. j 
 Hjis he ever had gout or asthma, or any fit or fits ? 
 Has he ever been aflflicted Vith rupture ? 
 
 Has he ever exhibited any symptom of consumption of the 
 lungs ? 
 
 Is he afflicted with any disorder tending to shorten life ? 
 
 Has he had the small pox or the cow-pox ? 
 
 Whether the person whose life is proposed to be assured, in- 
 tends to appear at the office ? 
 
 In whose name or behalf the policy is.desired ? 
 
 Date of proposal. 
 
 Annual notices! 
 to be sent to J 
 
 Form <\f Declaration to he nuiik and tif;iud fiv or on behalf <ff a 
 Person tnaking an Assurance on his or her own Life. 
 
 I 
 
 bom in the parish of 
 
 in the county of 
 
 on the day of 
 
 and now residing at 
 
 in the county of 
 
 beiii;; desirous of making an assurance with (he managers fon 
 the Sun J^ife Assurance Society, in the sum of £ 
 ui)on and for the continuance of my own life, for the term of 
 Do hereby declare, that my age does 
 not exceed years; that I have had the* 
 
 that I have had the gout, asthma, 
 
 rupture, nor any fit or fits, and that I am not afflicted 
 with any disor<ler which tends to the shortening <>( 
 
 life ; and this declaration is to be the basis of the contract be- 
 tween me and the Society; and if any untrue averment is 
 contained in this declaration, in setting forth my age, slate of 
 liealth, profession, occupation, oi circumstances, then all mo- 
 nies which shall have been paid to the said Society, iijion ac- 
 count of the assurance so made by me, shall be forfeited. 
 Dated the day of 18 . 
 
 Form qf Declaration to lie made and sif^ned bjj or on liehalfofa 
 Person mho proposes to make an Assurance on the LiJ'e <if 
 another. 
 
 now resident at 
 
 in the county of being 
 desirous of assuring with the Sun Life Assurance Society, 
 the sum of £ for the term of 
 
 on the life of bom in the parish of 
 
 in the county of on the 
 
 day of in the year 
 
 and now resident at in the county of 
 
 Do declare, that I have an interest in the life of the said 
 
 to the full amount of the said sum of 
 £ ; that to the best of my knowledge and 
 
 belief the age of the said does not exceed 
 
 years ; that he has had the * that 
 he liad the gout, asthma, rupture, 
 
 nor any fit or fits, and that he is not afflicted with any 
 disorder tending to shorten life ; and this declaration is to be 
 the basis of the contract lietween me and the said Society ; and 
 if there be any untrue averment therein, all monies which 
 shall have been paid to the Society upon account of the assur- 
 ance made in consequence thereof, shall be forfeited. Dated 
 the day of 18 . 
 
 * Insert small-pox or cow-pox, as the case may require. 
 
 Policy by the Sun Life Assurance Society for 1,000/., on the Life of A. B., aged Thirty^ insuring his own 
 
 Life. 
 
 No. 
 
 SUN LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY. 
 
 This Policy of Assurance witnesseth, that, whereas A. B. Esq. of Square, London, being 
 
 desirous of making an assurance upon his own life, for the whole duration thereof, and having subscribed, 
 or 'caused to be subscribed, and delivered into this office, a declaration setting forth his ordinary and 
 present state of health, wherein it is declared that the age of the said A. B. did not then exceed 30 years ; 
 and having paid to the managers for the Sun Lite Assurance Society, at their office in Cornhill, in the 
 city of London, the sum of twenty-four pounds eleven shillings and eight-pence sterling, as a consideration 
 for the assurance of the sum under-mentioned for one year, from the twentieth day of January, IBS'!. 
 
 Now KNOW ALL Men BY THESE PRESENTS, that in casc the said assured shall happen to die at any time 
 within the term of one year, as above set foith, the stock and funds of this Society shall be subject and 
 liable to pay and make good to the executors, administrators, or assigns, of the said assured, wilhin three 
 months after the demise of the said assured shall have been duly certified to the managers aforesaid, at 
 their said office, the sum of one thousand pounds sterling, of lawful money of Great Britain. 
 
 It is hereby agreed, that this policy may continue in force from year to year, until the expiration of the 
 term first above-mentioned, provided that the said assured shall duly pay, or cause to be paid, to the 
 managers, at their said office, on or before the nineteenth day of October next ensuing, the sum of 
 twenty-four pounds eleven shillings and eight-pence sterling, and the like sum annually, on or before the 
 day aforesaid ; which annual payments shall be accepted, at every such i)eriod, as a full consideration for 
 such assurance. 
 
 And it is hereby further agreed, that the assurance by this policy shall be extended during peace, to the 
 risk of the above-named A. B. Esq. dying upon the sea in any whole-decked vessel or steam-boat, in pass- 
 ing between any one part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, including the islands of 
 Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Sark, and any other part thereof; or in passing between any port in 
 the said United Kingdom, and any port on the continent of Europe, between Hamburgh and Bordeaux, 
 both inclusive. 
 
 Provided nevertheless, that should the said assured depart beyond the limits of Europe, die upon 
 the seas (except as above stated), or engage in any military or naval service whatsoever, w ithin the term 
 for which this policy is granted ; or should the assurance have been obtained through any misre])resent- 
 ation of the age, state of health, or description of the assured : or should the said assured die 1^- duelling, 
 suicide, or the hands of justice j then this policy, and every thing appertaining thereto, shall cease, be 
 void, and of none efi'ect. 
 
 In witness whereof, we, three of the managers for the said Society, have hereunto set our hands and 
 seals, this twentieth day of January, 1834. 
 
 C. D. (L. s ) 
 
 Signed, sealed, and delivered, E. F. (l. s.) 
 
 being first duly stamped. G. H. (Us.) 
 
 2 Z 4 
 
712 
 
 INSURANCE (LIFE> 
 
 Table op Premiums. 
 
 The following tabular statement shows the premiums demanded by the principal Life Insurance Socie- 
 ties for insuring 100/. at every ditFerent age from 15 to 60, for the whole term of life. 
 
 Affe. 
 
 Alliance 
 and Sun. 
 
 Amicable. 
 
 Asylum. 
 
 British 
 Commer- 
 cial. 
 
 Crown. 
 
 Economic. 
 
 Eqmtable. 
 
 Eagle. 
 
 European 
 
 araian 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 «. 
 
 d. 
 
 t. 
 
 ». 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 
 
 s. 
 
 rf. 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 i. 
 
 «. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Z,. 3. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. s. 
 
 rf. 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 i. «. 
 
 d. 
 
 Z.. «. d. 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 1 10 
 
 8 
 
 1 18 
 
 7 
 
 1 18 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 1 13 
 
 7 
 
 1 16 2' 
 
 16 
 
 I 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 1 11 
 
 0 
 
 } 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 1 11 
 
 5 
 
 1 19 
 
 8 
 
 1 19 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 1 14 
 
 5 
 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 1 12 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 1 12 
 
 3 
 
 2 0 
 
 8 
 
 2 0 
 
 5 
 
 _ 
 
 
 1 15 
 
 4 
 
 1 18 1 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 1 13 
 
 0 
 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 1 13 
 
 0 
 
 2 1 
 
 8 
 
 2 1 
 
 4 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 1 16 
 
 2 
 
 1 19 2 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 1 14 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 
 1 13 
 
 10 
 
 2 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 17 
 
 1 
 
 2 0 1 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 1 15 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 1 14 
 
 7 
 
 2 3 
 
 7 
 
 2 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 12 
 
 7 
 
 1 18 
 
 1 
 
 2 10 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 1 16 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 1 15 
 
 5 
 
 2 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 13 
 
 5 
 
 1 19 
 
 0 
 
 2 1 10 
 
 22 
 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 1 17 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 16 
 
 3 
 
 2 5 
 
 4 
 
 2 5 
 
 3 
 
 1 14 
 
 4 
 
 1 19 
 
 11 
 
 2 2 8 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 I 18 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 1 17 
 
 2 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 
 
 2 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 15 
 
 4 
 
 2 0 10 
 
 2 3 6 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 1 19 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 1 18 
 
 1 
 
 2 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 7 
 
 5 
 
 1 16 
 
 5 
 
 2 1 
 
 10 
 
 2 4 6 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 1 19 
 
 0 
 
 2 8 
 
 1 
 
 2 8 
 
 7 
 
 1 1 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 5 4 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 2 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 9 
 
 
 2 9 
 
 9 
 
 1 18 
 
 8 
 
 2 3 
 
 9 
 
 2 6 4 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 2 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 2 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 10 
 
 1 
 
 2 11 
 
 0 
 
 1 19 
 
 9 
 
 2 4 m 
 
 S 7 4 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 2 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 2 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 11 
 
 1 
 
 2 12 
 
 3 
 
 2 0 
 
 9 
 
 
 ^? 
 
 2 8 4 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 2 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 12 
 
 3 
 
 2 13 
 
 7 
 
 2 1 
 
 8 
 
 9 C 
 
 11 
 
 2 9 6 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 5 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 2 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 13 
 
 5 
 
 2 15 
 
 0 
 
 2 2 
 
 6 
 
 9 « 
 
 1 
 
 2 10 7 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 5 
 
 5 
 
 2 14 
 
 7 
 
 2 16 
 
 6 
 
 2 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 9 
 
 3 
 
 2 11 10 
 
 32 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 2 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 15 
 
 9 
 
 2 18 
 
 0 
 
 2 3 
 
 10 
 
 2 10 
 
 6 
 
 2 13 0 
 
 33 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 2 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 17 
 
 
 2 19 
 
 9 
 
 2 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 11 
 
 10 
 
 2 14 4 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 U 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 2 9 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 2 9 
 
 5 
 
 2 18 
 
 6 
 
 3 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 4 
 
 10 
 
 2 13 
 
 2 
 
 2 15 8 
 
 35 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 2 1 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 2 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 2 19 
 
 lo 
 
 3 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 14 
 
 7 
 
 2 17 0 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 2 13 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 2 12 
 
 6 
 
 3 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 5 
 
 5 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 
 
 2 16 
 
 0 
 
 2 18 6 
 
 37 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 2 16 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 2 14 
 
 2 
 
 3 2 
 
 10 
 
 3 ¥ 
 
 7 
 
 2 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 17 
 
 6 
 
 3 0 0 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 J3 
 
 6 
 
 2 16 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 16 
 
 11 
 
 3 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 10 
 
 2 7 
 
 10 
 
 2 19 
 
 1 
 
 3 1 7 
 
 39 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 2 18 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2 17 
 
 9 
 
 3 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 12 
 
 4 
 
 2 8 
 
 10 
 
 3 0 
 
 9 
 
 3 3 3 
 
 40 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 19 
 
 9 
 
 3 7 
 
 11 
 
 3 15 
 
 0 
 
 2 9 
 
 10 
 
 3 2 
 
 6 
 
 3 6 0 
 
 41 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 3 2 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 3 1 
 
 10 
 
 3 9 
 
 9 
 
 3 17 
 
 9 
 
 2 10 11 
 
 3 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 6 9 
 
 42 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 3 4 
 
 1 
 
 3 11 
 
 8 
 
 4 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 12 
 
 0 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 8 8 
 
 43 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 3 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 13 
 
 8 
 
 4 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 13 
 
 3 
 
 3 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 10 8 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 8 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 3 9 
 
 0 
 
 3 15 
 
 9 
 
 4 7 
 
 11 
 
 2 14 
 
 7 
 
 3 10 
 
 5 
 
 3 12 8 
 
 45 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 3 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 3 11 
 
 9 
 
 3 17 
 
 11 
 
 4 11 
 
 8 
 
 2 16 
 
 0 
 
 3 12 
 
 7 
 
 3 14 11 
 
 46 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 3 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 3 14 
 
 7 
 
 4 0 
 
 2 
 
 4 15 
 
 9 
 
 2 L7 
 
 6 
 
 3 15 
 
 0 
 
 3 17 3 
 
 47 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 3 14 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 3 17 
 
 8 
 
 4 2 
 
 7 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 19 
 
 1 
 
 5 17 
 
 6 
 
 3 19 8 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 3 17 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 4 0 
 
 11 
 
 4 6 
 
 1 
 
 5 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 0 
 
 9 
 
 4 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 2 4 
 
 49 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 3 19 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 4 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 7 
 
 10 
 
 5 9 
 
 6 
 
 3 2 
 
 6 
 
 4 2 
 
 8 
 
 4 5 1 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 4 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 4 8 
 
 0 
 
 4 10 
 
 8 
 
 5 14 
 
 7 
 
 3 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 8 0 
 
 51 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 10 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 4 11 
 
 11 
 
 4 13 
 
 6 
 
 6 0 
 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 
 
 4 8 
 
 6 
 
 4 11 0 
 
 52 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 4 13 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 4 16 
 
 1 
 
 4 16 
 
 5 
 
 6 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 11 
 
 7 
 
 4 14 2 
 
 63 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 4 15 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 5 0 
 
 6 
 
 4 19 
 
 7 
 
 6 12 
 
 9 
 
 3 10 
 
 8 
 
 4 15 
 
 0 
 
 4 17 6 
 
 54 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 5 1 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 5 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 2 
 
 10 
 
 6 19 
 
 9 
 
 3 13 
 
 0 
 
 4 18 
 
 7 
 
 5 0 11 
 
 55 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 6 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 10 
 
 3 
 
 5 6 
 
 4 
 
 7 7 
 
 2 
 
 3 15 
 
 8 
 
 5 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 4 8 
 
 56 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 5 9 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 5 15 
 
 7 
 
 6 10 
 
 1 
 
 7 15 
 
 1 
 
 3 18 
 
 6 
 
 5 6 
 
 8 
 
 5 8 7 
 
 57 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 5 13 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 6 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 14 
 
 0 
 
 8 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 1 
 
 7 
 
 5 11 
 
 2 
 
 6 12 10 
 
 68 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 5 18 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 6 7 
 
 4 
 
 5 18 
 
 2 
 
 8 12 
 
 7 
 
 5 4 
 
 0 
 
 5 16 
 
 8 
 
 6 17 4 
 
 59 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 13 
 
 9 
 
 6 2 
 
 8 
 
 9 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 2 2 
 
 60 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 6 7 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 7 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 7 
 
 4 
 
 9 13 
 
 0 
 
 4 12 
 
 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 8 
 
 6 7 2 
 
 Age. 
 
 London, 
 Bircliin 
 Lane. 
 
 London, 
 Life for 
 Members. 
 
 Norwich. 
 
 Pelican. 
 
 Promoter. 
 
 United 
 Empire. 
 
 University. 
 
 West of 
 England. 
 
 Scottish 
 Widows' 
 Fund. 
 
 Scottish 
 Union. 
 
 
 L. t. d. 
 
 L. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 L. s. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 i. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 
 
 
 rf. 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 14 
 
 9 
 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 1 14 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 1 14 
 
 9 
 
 1 16 
 
 6 
 
 1 11 6 
 
 16 
 
 117 '1 
 
 
 
 
 1 15 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 1 16 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 1 15 
 
 9 
 
 1 17 
 
 6 
 
 1 12 5 
 
 17 
 
 1 18 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 16 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 1 16 
 
 9 
 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 1 16 
 
 8 
 
 1 18 
 
 6 
 
 1 13 6 
 
 18 
 
 1 19 0 
 
 
 
 
 1 17 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 1 17 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 1 17 
 
 6 
 
 1 19 
 
 7 
 
 1 14 7 
 
 19 
 
 1 19 11 
 
 
 
 
 1 18 
 
 6 
 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 1 -18 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 1 18 
 
 6 
 
 2 0 
 
 7 
 
 1 15 8 
 
 20 
 
 2 0 9 
 
 
 
 
 1 19 
 
 6 
 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 1 19 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 19 
 
 3 
 
 2 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 16 9 
 
 21 
 
 2 1 5 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 0 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 2 0 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 17 9 
 
 22 
 23 
 
 2 2 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 17 
 
 7 
 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 2 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 0 10 
 
 2 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 18 10 
 
 2 2 7 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 2 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 19 10 
 
 24 
 
 2 3 1 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 2 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 2 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 4 
 
 11 
 
 2 0 10 
 
 25 
 
 2 3 8 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 3 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 2 3 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 2 .3 
 
 3 
 
 2 5 
 
 10 
 
 2 1 10 
 
 26 
 
 2 4 3 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 2 4 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 2 4 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 6 10 
 
 2 2 10 
 
 27 
 
 2 6 1 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 2 5 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 2 6 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 2 5 
 
 0 
 
 2 7 
 
 10 
 
 2 3 10 
 
 28 
 
 2 5 11 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 2 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 2 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 2 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 8 
 
 11 
 
 2 4 11 
 
 29 
 
 2 6 10 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 2 7 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 « 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 2 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 2 6 1 
 
 30 
 
 2 7 10 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 2 8 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 2 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 11 
 
 
 2 7 3 
 
 31 
 
 2 8 10 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 10 
 
 4 
 
 2 11 
 
 11 
 
 2 9 
 
 0 
 
 2 12 
 
 3 
 
 2 8 5 
 
 32 
 
 2 9 11 
 
 2 16 
 
 0 
 
 2 11 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 11 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 
 
 2 13 
 
 6 
 
 2 9 9 
 
 33 
 
 2 11 1 
 
 2 17 
 
 0 
 
 2 12 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 12 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 2 11 
 
 3 
 
 2 14 
 
 9 
 
 2 11 1 
 
 34 
 
 2 12 4 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 2 13 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 14 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 2 12 
 
 9 
 
 2 15 
 
 1 
 
 2 12 6 
 
 35 
 
 2 13 8 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 14 
 
 10 
 
 2 13 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 2 15 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 2 1.3 
 
 10 
 
 2 17 
 
 6 
 
 2 13 10 
 
 36 
 
 2 15 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 16 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 2 16 11 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 2 15 
 
 3 
 
 2 19 
 
 0 
 
 2 16 4 
 
 37 
 
 2 16 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 17 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 2 18 
 
 4 
 
 2 19 
 
 9 
 
 2 16 
 
 8 
 
 3 0 
 
 6 
 
 2 16 11 
 
 38 
 
 2 18 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 19 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 2 13 
 
 6 
 
 2 19 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 18 
 
 0 
 
 3 2 
 
 7 
 
 2 18 6 
 
 39 
 
 2 19 11 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 2 15 
 
 2 
 
 3 1 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 2 11 
 
 2 19 
 
 6 
 
 3 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 0 2 
 
 40 
 
 3 1 8 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 3 2 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 17 
 
 0 
 
 3 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 3 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 1 11 
 
 41 
 
 3 3 6 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 13 
 
 10 
 
 3 4 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 2 
 
 10 
 
 3 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 3 9 
 
 42 
 
 3 6 6 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 3 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 3 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 3 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 5 8 
 
 43 
 
 3 7 8 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 3 7 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 3 8 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 11 
 
 3 
 
 3 7 8 
 
 44 
 
 3 10 0 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 3 9 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 10 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 3 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 13 
 
 4 
 
 3 9 8 
 
 45 
 
 3 12 6 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 3 11 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 3 12 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 3 10 
 
 3 
 
 3 16 
 
 6 
 
 3 11 10 
 
 46 
 
 3 15 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 13 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 3 16 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 3 12 
 
 2 
 
 3 17 
 
 9 
 
 3 14 1 
 
 47 
 48 
 
 3 18 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 3 IG 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 3 11 
 
 5 
 
 3 17 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 IS 
 
 6 
 
 3 14 
 
 6 
 
 4 0 
 
 3 
 
 3 16 6 
 
 4 16 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 19 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 4 0 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 16 
 
 9 
 
 4 2 
 
 9 
 
 3 19 0 
 
 49 
 
 4 4 10 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 4 2 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 3 17 
 
 3 
 
 4 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 19 
 
 3 
 
 4 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 1 7 
 
 50 
 
 4 8 6 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 4 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 
 4 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 1 
 
 8 
 
 4 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 4 3 
 
 51 
 
 4 12 3 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 4 9 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 4 9 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 4 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 11 
 
 2 
 
 4 8 1 
 
 52 
 
 4 16 1 
 
 4 17 
 
 0 
 
 4 13 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 4 13 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 4 6 
 
 9 
 
 4 14 
 
 2 
 
 4 12 2 
 
 63 
 
 5 0 1 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 4 17 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 4 16 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 4 9 
 
 9 
 
 4 17 
 
 4 
 
 4 16 5 
 
 54 
 
 5 4 2 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 5 1 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 6 0 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4 12 
 
 9 
 
 5 0 
 
 8 
 
 6 0 11 
 
 55 
 
 5 8 4 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 6 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 5 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 16 
 
 9 
 
 6 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 6 9 
 
 56 
 
 5 12 8 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 5 9 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 4 19 
 
 0 
 
 5 7 
 
 
 5 ID 9 
 
 67 
 
 5 17 2 
 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 6 13 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 5 12 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 11 
 
 11 
 
 6 16 1 
 
 58 
 
 6 1 10 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 5 17 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 17 
 
 0 
 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 5 0 
 
 6 
 
 5 16 
 
 
 6 19 
 
 69 
 
 6 6 10 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 1 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 5 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 7 10 
 
 i f,0 
 
 6 12 2 
 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 6 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 1 1 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 6 7 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 6 14 
 
 9 
 
 6 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 14 3 
 
INSURANCE (LIFE). 713 
 
 The following offices require the same premiums as ihe Equitable ; viz. Atlas, Globe, Imperial, I^aw 
 Life, London Life Association (for persons not members), ralladium. Provident, llock, Iloyal Exchang»', 
 Union, Westminster. 
 
 The following are the premiums demanded by the Sun Life Assurance Society, for 
 insurances on joint lives and survivorships. 
 
 Joint Lives. — A Table of Annual Premiums payable during the Joint Continuance of Two Lives, for 
 assuring One Hundred Pounds, to be paid as soon as either of the Two ihail drop. 
 
 day. 
 
 Age next 
 Uirihday. 
 
 Annual 
 Premium. 
 
 A ge next 
 Birth- 
 day. 
 
 Age next 
 Birthday.. 
 
 Annual 
 Premium. 
 
 Age next 
 Birth- 
 day. 
 
 Age next 
 Birthday. 
 
 Annual 
 I'reinjuiri. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 15 
 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 60 
 
 £ S. d. 
 
 2 7 5 
 2 110 
 2 14 6 
 
 2 19 4 
 
 3 5 3 
 
 3 11 11 
 
 4 1 1 
 
 4 11 5 
 
 5 7 2 
 
 6 12 5 
 8 6 11 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 60 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 3 17 3 
 
 4 6 1 
 
 4 16 1 
 
 5 117 
 
 6 16 8 
 8 11 1 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 5 7 5 
 
 6 1 11 
 
 7 6 5 
 9 0 6 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 
 55 
 60 
 
 5 5 8 
 
 5 13 10 
 
 6 7 9 
 
 7 11 8 
 
 9 5 5 
 
 . 25 
 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 60 
 
 3 9 6 
 
 3 14 10 
 
 4 0 11 
 4 9 6 
 
 4 19 3 
 
 5 14 7 
 
 6 19 7 
 8 13 1] 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 60 
 
 6 1 0 
 
 6 13 11 
 
 7 16 11 
 
 9 9 8 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 b5 
 60 
 
 2 14 5 
 
 2 17 9 
 
 3 2 5 
 3 8 3 
 
 3 14 9 
 
 4 3 10 
 
 4 14 0 
 
 5 9 8 
 
 6 14 11 
 8 9 6 
 
 
 SO 
 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 GO 
 
 3 19 10 
 
 4 5 6 
 
 4 13 10 
 
 5 3 2 
 5 18 3 
 
 7 3 1 
 
 8 17 5 
 
 50 
 
 SO 
 55 
 60 
 
 7 5 6 
 
 8 7 4 
 
 9 18 11 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 60 
 
 9 8 2 
 10 18 11 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 
 3 0 11 
 3 5 4 
 3 10 11 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 12 8 10 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 4 10 9 
 4 18 6 
 
 Survivorship. — A Table of Annual Premiums payable during the Joint Continuance of Two Lives 
 for assuring One Hundred Pounds, to be paid ai the Decease of One Person, A., provided another, B., 
 be then living. 
 
 Arc of A., 
 the l.ife 
 to he as- 
 sured. 
 
 Age of B., the 
 
 Life agninst 
 which the As- 
 surance is to 
 be made. 
 
 Annual 
 Premium. 
 
 Age of A., 
 the Life 
 to lie as- 
 sured. 
 
 Age of B., the 
 Life against 
 
 which the As- 
 surance is to 
 be made. 
 
 Annual 
 Premium. 
 
 Age of A., 
 the Life 
 to be as- 
 sured. 
 
 Age of B., Ihe 
 Life against 
 
 which the As- 
 surance is to 
 be made. 
 
 Annual 
 Premium. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 SO 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 
 £ S. d. 
 1 3 9 
 1 4 7 
 1 2 10 
 1 1 6 
 1 0 0 
 0 18 5 
 0 16 11 
 0 15 7 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 
 £ s. d. 
 2 2 5 
 2 2 1 
 1 19 11 
 1 18 6 
 1 15 0 
 1 12 2 
 1 9 10 
 1 7 4 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 
 £ s. d. 
 4 7 2 
 4 7 0 
 4 3 3 
 4 1 7 
 3 12 9 
 3 1 6 
 2 11 4 
 2 3 2 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 1 9 11 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 2 19 7 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 7 8 6 
 
 
 20 
 
 1 10 6 
 
 
 20 
 
 2 19 6 
 
 
 20 
 
 7 8 5 
 
 
 30 
 
 1 8 10 
 
 
 SO 
 
 2 15 4 
 
 
 SO 
 
 7 5 3 
 
 
 40 
 
 1 6 7 
 
 
 40 
 
 2 12 10 
 
 
 40 
 
 7 4 11 
 
 
 50 
 
 1 4 7 
 
 
 50 
 
 2 6 2 
 
 
 50 
 
 6 17 5 
 
 
 60 
 
 1 2 8 
 
 
 60 
 
 2 0 6 
 
 
 60 
 
 6 4 5 
 
 
 70 
 
 1 0 9 
 
 
 70 
 
 1 16 3 
 
 
 70 
 
 5 8 8 
 
 
 80 
 
 0 19 3 
 
 
 80 
 
 1 13 6 
 
 
 80 
 
 4 14 4 
 
 From the specimens of premiums in the two preceding Tables, the reader will easily judge of the pro- 
 portional premiums for any combination of two ages not inserted in them. 
 
 Instead of a gross sum payable at the decease of A. provided R. be then living, a reversionary annuity 
 on the remainder of the life of B after the decease of A. may be insured by the payment of an annual 
 premium during the joint continuance of the two lives ; which annual premium may be learnt by appli- 
 cation at the office. 
 
 Equitable Ass?irance Society. — The following is the 
 
 Decliiriition required to /« made and si^tied in the Office, by or on 
 tlie Behalf of a Person * rvho proposes to make an Assurance on 
 his or her own Life. 
 
 being desirous of becoming a member of the Society for Equi- 
 table Assurances on Lives and Survivorships, and intending to 
 make assurance in the sum ot 
 
 upon and for the con- 
 tinuance of my own life, and having perused and considered 
 that * clause of the deed of settlement of the said Society which 
 requires a declaration in writing of the age, state of health, and 
 other circumstances attending the person whose life shall be 
 proposed to be assured, do hereby declare and set forth, Thnt 
 my ave does not exceed ; that I have had the 
 
 small-pox; , j ^"J? 
 
 have h.id the gout ; and that I am not afflicted with 
 
 any disorder vfhich tends to the shortening of life ; and 1 do 
 hereby agree that this declaration be the basis of the contract 
 between the said Society and me, and that if any untrue aver- 
 ment is conulned in this declaration, all monies which shall intents and purposes whatsoever. 
 
 have been paid to the Society upon account of the assurance 
 made in consequence thereof, shall be forfeited. Dated the 
 day of in the year of our Lord 
 
 * The Clause trhich is referred to tn the Declaration. 
 That every person desirous of making .issurance with the So- 
 ciety, shall sign or execute a declaration in writing (in the pre- 
 sence f.f one credible witness, who shall attest the same), setting 
 forth the age, state of health, profession, occupation, and other 
 circumstances attending the person or persons whose life or 
 lives shall be proposed to be assured ; which declaration shall 
 be the basis if the contract between the said Society and the 
 person desiring to make assurance with them ; in which declar- 
 ation it any artful, false, or firaudulent repre>entat ion shzUl be 
 used, and the same shall at any time thereafter be discovered, 
 from thenceforth the sums which shall have been paid to the 
 Society on account of any assurance so fraudulently obtained, 
 shall lie forfeitetl to the use of the Society ; and all claims to be 
 made on that behalf shall cease, determine, and be void, to ail 
 
714< 
 
 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 Weekly Court qf Dl- 
 
 Name and profession of the life to be assured. 
 Place and date of birth. 
 Place of residence. 
 
 Age. Sum. Term. 
 
 By whom made. 
 
 I'o give reference to two f persons of good repute, [one, if pos- 
 
 A Table of Annual Premiums payable during the Continuance of Two Joint Lives for assuring Oi 
 Hundred Pounds, to be paid when either of the Lives shall drop. 
 
 sible, of the medical profession,) to ascertain the present and 
 general state of health of the life to be assured. 
 If had the small-pox. If vaccinated. 
 
 If afTlicterl with the gout. It ever ruptured . 
 
 t Parties who do not appear befori the Court of Directors 
 are required to give a reference to 3 persons for an account of 
 the present and general state of their health. 
 
 [Age. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Jt s. 
 
 a. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Age. 
 
 s. 
 
 a. 
 
 Age. Age. 
 
 J S. if. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Age. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Age. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 2 17 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 35 
 
 4 3 
 
 I 
 
 20 
 
 67 
 
 9 13 9 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 7 15 
 
 0 
 
 45 
 
 4-5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 
 15 
 
 3 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 40 
 
 4 10 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 2.5 
 
 4 0 10 
 
 
 67 
 
 9 18 
 
 1 
 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 
 20 
 
 3 5 
 
 7 
 
 
 45 
 
 4 19 
 
 5 
 
 
 30 
 
 4 5 0 
 
 35 
 
 
 4 19 
 
 0 
 
 
 55 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 
 25 
 
 3 9 
 
 3 
 
 
 50 
 
 5 11 
 
 3 
 
 
 35 
 
 4 10 3 
 
 
 50 
 
 5 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 60 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 1 
 
 
 30 
 
 3 13 
 
 9 
 
 
 55 
 
 6 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 40 
 
 4 17 4 
 
 
 45 
 
 5 18 
 
 10 
 
 
 67 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 
 35 
 
 3 19 
 
 6 
 
 
 60 
 
 7 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 45 
 
 5 6 2 
 
 
 50 
 
 6 5 
 
 0 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 40 
 
 4 6 
 
 10 
 
 
 67 
 
 9 9 
 
 5 
 
 
 50 
 
 5 17 10 
 
 
 55 
 
 6 19 
 
 2 
 
 
 B5 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 45 
 
 4 15 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 3 13 
 
 11 
 
 
 55 
 
 6 12 6 
 
 
 60 
 
 7 18 
 
 6 
 
 
 60 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 
 50 
 
 5 7 
 
 10 
 
 
 25 
 
 3 17 
 
 5 
 
 
 60 
 
 7 12 5 
 
 
 67 
 
 10 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 67 
 
 10 
 
 IS 
 
 10 
 
 
 55 
 
 6 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 30 
 
 4 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 67 
 
 9 15 y 
 
 40 
 
 .40 
 
 5 11 
 
 9 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 60 
 
 7 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 35 
 
 4 7 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 4 8 11 
 
 
 45 
 
 5 19 
 
 9 
 
 
 60 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 
 67 
 
 9 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 40 
 
 4 14 
 
 6 
 
 
 35 
 
 4 14 1 
 
 
 50 
 
 6 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 67 
 60 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 3 5 
 
 0 
 
 
 45 
 
 5 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 40 
 
 5 0 11 
 
 
 55 
 
 7 4 
 
 5 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 
 20 
 
 3 9 
 
 6 
 
 
 50 
 
 5 15 
 
 4 
 
 
 45 
 
 5 9 6 
 
 
 60 
 
 8 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 67 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 25 
 
 3 13 
 
 1 
 
 
 55 
 
 6 10 
 
 2 
 
 
 50 
 
 6 1 0 
 
 
 67 
 
 10 5 
 
 6 
 
 67 
 
 67 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 
 30 
 
 3 17 
 
 6 
 
 
 60 ' 
 
 7 10 
 
 2 
 
 
 55 
 
 6 15 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 An addition of 22 per cent, computed upon the premium, is charged upon military persons ; and an 
 addition of eleven per cent, on officers on half-pay, officers in the militia, fencibles, and the like levies • 
 also on persons not having had the small-pox, or having had the gout. ' 
 
 Persons preferring the payment of a gross sum or single premium upon an assurance for any certain 
 term, are chargeable in a due proportion to the annual premium for such term. 
 
 Every person making any assurance with the Society, pays .55. in the name of entrance money ; and 
 if the sum assured exceeds 100/., the entrance money is charged after the rate of 5s. for every 100/. But 
 if the person upon whose life an assurance is proposed, does not appear before the directors, the entrance 
 money is charged after the rate of \l. for every 100/. 
 
 The following are the premiums demanded by the Equitable Society for insuring 100/., or an equivalent 
 annuity on the contingency of one life's surviving the other : — 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Premium. 
 
 Annuity equivalent to 
 \00l. to be i)aid from 
 the Death of the I-ife 
 assured, during the Ile- 
 mainder of the other 
 Life. 
 
 Life to be 
 assured. 
 
 Life against 
 which the 
 Assurance ib 
 to be made. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 
 £ S. d. 
 1 8 6 
 1 9 1 
 1 8 3 
 1 7 8 
 1 6 11 
 1 6 0 
 1 4 11 
 1 3 4 
 
 £ S. d. 
 
 5 14 6 
 
 6 14 10 
 
 7 14 11 
 9 5 6 
 
 11 13 0 
 15 13 5 
 23 13 0 
 40 10 8 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 
 1 16 6 
 1 17 0 
 1 15 9 
 1 14 8 
 1 13 6 
 1 12 1 
 1 10 6 
 1 8 3 
 
 5 6 11 
 
 6 4 1 
 
 7 0 6 
 
 8 4 11 
 10 1 9 
 13 0 7 
 18 12 8 
 30 9 6 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 
 2 5 5 
 2 6 0 
 2 4 6 
 2 2 9 
 2 0 11 
 1 18 10 
 1 16 7 
 1 13 9 
 
 5 5 8 
 
 6 2 9 
 6 19 6 
 8 3 8 
 
 10 0 6 
 13 0 0 
 18 12 10 
 30 9 3 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 
 2 19 2 
 2 19 10 
 2 18 2 
 2 15 11 
 
 5 3 6 
 
 5 19 9 
 
 6 16 8 
 8 1 0 
 
 Ages. 
 
 
 Annuity 
 
 equivalent to 
 
 
 
 100/. to 
 
 be 
 
 p.iid from 
 
 
 
 
 
 Life against 
 
 Premium. 
 
 the Death o 
 
 f the Life 
 
 Life to be 
 
 which the 
 
 assured, durmg the Re- 
 
 assured. 
 
 Assurance is 
 
 
 mainder 
 
 of 
 
 the other 
 
 
 to be made. 
 
 
 Life. 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ S. d. 
 
 £ 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 6 
 
 1 40 
 
 50 
 
 2 12 10 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 
 60 
 
 2 9 4 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 
 70 
 
 2 5 11 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 80 
 
 2 1 10 
 
 29 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 4 0 11 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 20 
 
 4 1 10 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 
 SO 
 
 4 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 40 
 
 3 17 10 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 
 50 
 
 3 13 10 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 
 60 
 
 3 7 7 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 70 
 
 3 1 6 
 
 17 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 
 80 
 
 2 15 0 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 5 16 9 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 
 20 
 
 5 18 1 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 
 30 
 
 5 16 3 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 40 
 
 5 14 0 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 50 
 
 5 10 7 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 
 60 
 
 5 2 4 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 70 
 
 4 9 10 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 
 80 
 
 3 17 11 
 
 27 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 I 0 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 
 20 
 
 8 2 9 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 
 30 
 
 8 0 10 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 
 40 
 
 7 18 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 50 
 
 7 15 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 60 
 
 7 8 8 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 70 
 
 6 10 8 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 80 
 
 5 8 9 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 It is stated by Mr. Morgan, in his Account of the Equitable Society already referred to, that the number 
 of insurances in that institution for terms of years does not much exceed utifl hundredth part of those for 
 the whole period of life ; and that the business of the office at present is almost wholly confined to the 
 assuranc^e of persons on their own lives — those on the lives of others, whether lor terms or for continu- 
 ance, being, in consequence of the commission money allowed to agents and attorneys, engrossed by the 
 new oliices. — {Account of the Equitable Societf/, p. 53.) 
 
 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. Interest is the sum paid by the borrower of a 
 sum of money, or of any sort of valuable produce, to the lender, for its use. 
 
 The rate of interest, supposing the security for and facility of re-possessing the prin- 
 cipal, or sum lent, to be equal, must obviously depend on what may be made by the 
 employment of capital in industrious undertakings, or on the rate of profit. Where 
 
INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 715 
 
 profits are high, as in the United States, interest is also high ; and where tliey are com- 
 paratively low, as in Holland and England, interest is proportionally low. In fact, the 
 rate of interest is nothing more than the nett profit on capital : whatever returns are oh- 
 tained by the borrower, beyond the interest he has agreed to pay, really accrue to him 
 on account of risk, trouble, or skill, or of advantages of situation and connection. 
 
 But besides fluctuations in the rate of interest caused by the varying productiveness 
 of industry, the rate of interest on each particular loan must, of course, vary according 
 to the supposed solvency of the borrowers, or the degree of risk supposed to be incurred 
 by the lender, of either not recovering payment at all, or not recovering it at the stipu- 
 lated term. No person of sound mind would lend on the personal security of an indi- 
 vidual of doubtful character and solvency, and on mortgage over a valuable estate, at the 
 same rate of interest. Wherever there is risk, it must be compensated to the lender by 
 a higher premium or interest. 
 
 And yet, obvious as this principle may appear, all governments have interfered with 
 the adjustment of the terms of loans ; some to prohibit interest altogether, and others to 
 fix certain rates which it should be deemed legal to charge, and illegal to exceed. The 
 prejudice against taking interest seems to have principally originated in a mistaken view 
 of some enactments of the Mosaical law — (see Michaelis on the Laws of Moses, vol. ii. 
 pp. 327 — 353. Eng. ed.), and, a statement of Aristotle, to the effect that, as money did 
 not produce money, no return could be equitably claimed by the lender ! But whatever 
 may have been the origin of this prejudice, it was formerly universal in Christendom ; 
 and is still supported by law in all Mohammedan countries. The famous reformer, 
 Calvin, was one of the first who saw and exposed the absurdity of such notions — (see an 
 extract from one of his epistles in Mcculloch's Political Economy, 2d ed. p. 510.); and 
 the abuses caused by the prohibition, and the growing conviction of its impolicy, soon 
 after led to its relaxation. In 1554, a statute was passed, authorising lenders to charge 
 10 per cent, interest. In 1624, the legal rate was reduced to 8 per cent. ; and in the 
 reign of Queen Anne it was further reduced to 5 per cent., at which it still continues. 
 It is enacted, by the statute (12 Ann. c. 16.) making this reduction, that " all persons 
 who shall receive, by means of any corrupt bargain, loan, exchange, chevizance, or in- 
 terest of any wares, merchandise, or other thing whatever, or by any deceitful way or 
 means, or by any covin, engine, or deceitful conveyance for the forbearing or giving day 
 of payment, for one whole year for their money or other thing, above the sum of 51. foi 
 100/. for a year, shall forfeit for every such oflTence, the treble value of the monies, oi 
 other things, so lent, bargained," &c. 
 
 It is needless to waste the reader's time by entering into any lengthened arguments to 
 show the inexpediency and mischievous effect of such interferences. This lias been done 
 over and over again. It is plainly in no respect more desiiable to limit the rate of in- 
 terest, than it would be to limit the rate of insurance, or the prices of commodities. And 
 though it were desirable, it cannot be accomplished. The real eflfect of all legislative 
 enactments having such an object in view, is to increase, not diminish, the rate of interest. 
 When the rate fixed by law is less than the market or customary rate, lenders and bor- 
 rowers are obliged to resort to circuitous devices to evade the law ; and as these devices 
 are always attended with more or less trouble and risk, the rate of interest is projjor- 
 tionally enhanced. During the late war it was not uncommon for a person to be paying 
 10 or 12 per cent, for a loan, which, had there been no usury laws, he might have got 
 for 6 or 7 per cent. Neither is it by any means uncommon, when the rate fixed by law 
 is more than the market rate, for borrowers to be obliged to pay more than they really 
 stipulated for. It is singular that an enactment which contradicts the most obvious 
 principles, and has been repeatedly condemned by committees of the legislature, should 
 still be allowed to preserve a place in the statute book. 
 
 Distinction of Simple and Compound Interest. — When a loan is made, it is usual to stipulate that the 
 interest upon it should be regularly paid at the end of every year, half year, &c. A loan of this sort is 
 said to be at simple interest. It is of the essence of such loan, that no part of the interest accruing upon 
 it should be added to tlie principal to form a new principal ; and though payment of the interest were 
 not made when it becomes due, the lender would not be entitled to cliarge interest upon such unpaid 
 interest. Thus, suppose 100/. were lent at simple interest at 5 per cent., jiayableat the end of each year; 
 the lender would, at the end of 3 or 4 years, supposing him to have received no previous payments, be 
 entitled to \5l. or 20/., and no more. 
 
 Sometimes, however, money or capital is invested so that the interest is not paid at the periods when 
 it becomes due, but is progressively added to the principal ; so that at every term a new principal is 
 formed, consisting of the original principal, and the successive accumulations of interest upon interest. 
 Money invested in this way is said to be placed at compound interest. 
 
 It appears not unreasonable, that when a borrower does not pay the interest he has contractetl for, at the 
 period when it is due, he should pay interest upon such interest. This, however, is not allowed by the law 
 of England ; nor is it allowed to make a loan at compound interest. But this rule is often evaded, by taking 
 a new obligation for the principal with the interest included, Avhen the latter becomes due. Investments at 
 compound interest are also very frequent. Thus, if an individual buy into the funds, and regularly buy 
 fresh stock with the dividends, the capital will increase at compound interest ; and so in any similar case. 
 
 Calculation of Interest. — Interest is estimated at so much per cent, per annum, or by dividing the 
 principal into 100 equal parts, and specifying how many of these parts are paid yearly for its use. Tlius, 
 .5 per cent., or 5 parts out of 100, means that 51. are paid for the use of ICQ/, for a year, IQl. for the use ot 
 "iOOl., and 2/. 105. for the use of 50/. for the same period, and so on. 
 
716 
 
 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 Suppose, now, that it is required to find the interest of 210/. 13s. for 3^ years at 4 per cent, simple 
 interest. In this case we must Hrst divide the principal, 210/. 13s. into 100 parts, 4 of which will be the 
 interest for 1 year ; and this being multiplied by 3| will give the interest lor 3i years. But instead of 
 first dividing by 100, and then multiplying by 4, the result will be the same, and the process more expedi- 
 tious, if we first multiply by 4, and then divide by 100. Thus, _ 
 
 210 13 principal. 
 
 4 rate per cent. 
 
 L. s. ,1. 
 
 1,00) 8,42 12 ( 8 8 C4 1 year's interest. 
 20 51 
 
 ^'1*9 25 5 6| 3 years' interest. 
 
 14 3 ^ a year's interest. 
 
 6,21 
 
 — 1 i. 29 9 9| Shears' interest. 
 
 It is almost superfluous to observe, that the same result would have been obtained by multiplyinj? the 
 product of the principal and rate by the number of years, and then dividing by 100. 
 
 Hence, to find the interest of any sum at any rate per cent, for a year, multiply the sum by the rate 
 per cent., and divide the product by 100. 
 
 To find the interest of any sum for a number of years, multiply its interest for one year by the number 
 of years ; or, without calculating its interest for one year, multiply the principal by the rate per cent, 
 and that product by the number of years, and divide tiie last product by 100. 
 
 When the interest of any sum is required for a number of days, they must be treated as fractional 
 parts of a year ; that is, we must multiply the interest of a year by them, and divide by 365. 
 
 Suppose that it is required to find the interest of 210/. for 4 years 7 months and 25 days, at 44 per 
 cent — 
 
 Principal 
 Rate per cent. 
 
 .210 
 4i 
 
 Interest for 4 years = L. 37 8000 
 
 6 months = J of 1 year = 4-7250 
 
 1 month = > of 6 months = •7875 
 
 25 days " = -6472 
 
 i.43 19*. 2irf, 
 
 Interest for 1 year 
 
 The interest for 25 days is - — '-^^ = '6172 ; that is, it is equal to the interest for a year multiplied by the fraction 
 
 division by 100 is performed by cutting off two figures to the right. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to contrive more expeditious processes than the above for calculating 
 interest. The following is the best : — 
 
 Suppose it were required to find the interest upon 172/. for 107 days at 5 per cent. 
 
 This forms what is called in arithmetical books a double rule of three question, and would be stated as 
 follows : — 
 
 £ Days, £ £ Day I. 
 
 100 X 365 : 5 : : 172 X 107 : 2/. 10s. ^d. the interest required. 
 Hence, to find the interest of any sum for any number of days at any rate per cent., multiply the sum by 
 the number of days, and the product by the rate, and divide by 36,500 (365 X 100); the quotient is the 
 interest required. 
 
 When the rate is 5 per cent., or l-20th of the principal, all that is required is to divide the product of the 
 sum multiplied by the days by 7,300 (365, the days in a year, multiplied by 20). 
 
 Five per cent, interest being found by this extremely simple process, it is usual in practice to calculate 
 4 per cent, interest by deducting l-5th ; 3 per cent, by deducting 2-5ths ; 2| per cent, by dividing by 2; 
 2 per cent by taking the half of 4, and so on. 
 
 In calculating interest upon accounts current, it is requisite to state the number of days between each 
 receipt, or payment, and the date (commonly the 31st of December) to which the account current is made 
 up. Thus, 172/. paid on the 15th of September, bearing interest to the 31st of December, 107 days. The 
 amount of such interest may, then, be calculated as now explained, or by the aid of Tables. The reader 
 will find, in the article Bookkeeping (p. 161.) an example of interest on an account current computed as 
 above, without referring to Tables. 
 
 The 30th of June is, after the 31st of December, the most usual date to which accounts current are 
 made up, and interest calculated. In West India houses, the 30th of April is the common date, because 
 at that season the old crop of produce is generally sold off, atid the new begins to arrive. 
 
 It is of great importance, in calculating interest on accounts current, to be able readily to find the 
 number of days from any day in any one month to%any day in any other month. This may be done 
 with the utmost ease by means of the following Table : — 
 
 Table for ascertaining the Number of Days from any one Day in the Year to any other Day. 
 
 10 41 
 
 12 I 43 
 
 13 llT 
 
 70 101 
 
 77.102 
 
 129 160 
 130, Til 
 
 131 1 162 
 132'Tg3 
 
 1.33 Uil 
 'i34i'lC5 
 
 74 1 105 
 
 75" Too 
 
 135^ 16(i 
 
 Tsfi'ifi? 
 
 ISS 219 
 189 220 
 
 355 17 
 
 537| 19 
 538 "20" 
 
 340 22 
 
 282 313 
 283, 314 
 
 341 23 
 342ri4~ 
 
 345 27 
 346"2S" 
 
 25G 2Sfi|317j 
 2.07 287 318: 
 
 258| 288 319 
 25!) 280 .320 
 
 319 31 
 3.'.0 
 
 [ICS 
 
 .301 
 
 211 242 
 212. 243 
 
 272 302 
 ^ 303 
 i 304 
 
1 
 
 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 717 
 
 By tliis Tabic may be readily ascertained tlie number of days from any Riven day in the year to another. 
 For instance, from the 1st of January to the 14th of August (first and last days included], there aie 5i2rt 
 days. To find the tuimber, look tlown the column headed January, to Number 14, and then look along in 
 a parallel line to tlie column headed August, you find Si2(), the number required. 
 
 To find the number of days between any otiier two given days, when they are both after the 1st ot 
 January, the number opposite the 1st day must, of coinse, be^leducted fiom that opposite to the second. 
 Thus, to find the number of days between the 13th of March and the I'Jih of August, deduct from 231, 
 the number in the Table oi)i)()site to I'J and under August, 72, the number opposite to 13 and under 
 March, and the remainder, 151), is the number required, last day included. 
 
 In leap years, one must be added to the number after the 2Hth of February. 
 
 For the mode of calculating discount, or of finding tlie present values of sums due at some future date, 
 at simple interest, see Discount. 
 
 In counting-houses, Interest Tables are very frequently made use of. Such publications havcv in 
 consequence, become very numerous. Most of them have some peculiar recommendation; and are 
 selected according to the object in view. 
 
 When interest, instead of being simple, is compo(md, the first year's or term's interest must be found, 
 and being added to the original principal, makes the princii)al upon which interest is to be calculated for 
 the second year or term ; and the second year's or term's interest being added to this last principal, makes 
 that upon which interest is to be calculated for the third year or term ; and so on for any number of years. 
 
 But when the number of years is considerable, this process becomes exceedingly cumbersome and 
 tedious, and to facilitate it Tables have been constructc<l, which are subjoined to this article. 
 
 The first of these Tables (No. I.) represents the amount of II. accumulating at compound interest, at 3, 
 S^, 4, ^, and five per cent, every year, from 1 year to 70 years, in i)ounds and decimals of a pound. Now, 
 sujipose that we wish to know how much 5(j0/. will amount to in 7 years at 4 per cent. In the column 
 marked 4 per cent, and opposite to 7 years, we find VS\5,9'o'-2l., which shows that \l. will, if invested at 
 4 per cent, compound interest, amount to 1 015,932 in 7 years ; and consequently, 500/. will, in the same 
 lime and at the same rate, amount to 500 x 1-315,932/. or 657-!j667. ; that is, fi57/. 19*. 4r/. 
 
 For the same purpose of facilitating calculation, the present value of 1/. due any number of years 
 hence, not exceeding 70, at 3, o|, 4, 4i,and 5 per cent, compound interest, is given in the subjoined 'J'able 
 No. II. The use of this Table is precisely similar to the foregoing. Let it, for example, be required to 
 find the present worth of 500/. due 7 years hence, reckoning compound interest at 4 per cent. Opposite 
 to7 years, and under 4 per cent, we find -75291,781/., the present worth of 1/. due at the end of 7 years j and 
 multiplying this sum by 500/., the product, being 379-9589/., or 379/. 194'. M., is the answer required. 
 
 Annuities. 
 
 1. Annuities certain. — When a sum of money is to be paid yearly for a certain 
 number of years, it is called an annuity. The annuities usually met with are either for 
 a given number of years, which are called annuities certain ; or they are to be paid so 
 long as one or more individuals shall live, and are thence called contingent annuities. 
 
 By the amount of an annuity at any given time, is meant the sum to which it will 
 then amount, supposing it to have been regularly improved at compound interest during 
 the intervening period. 
 
 The present value of an annuity for any given period, is the sum of the present values 
 of all the payments of that annuity. 
 
 Numbers III. and IV. of the subjoined Tables represent the amount and present value of an annuity of 
 1/., reckoning compound interest at 2|, 3, 3|, 4, 4|, 5, and 6 per cent., from 1 year to 70. They, as well as 
 Nos. I. and II., are taken from " Tables of Interest, Discount, and Annuities, by John Smart, Gent. 4to. 
 London, 1726." They are carried to 8 decimal places, and enjoy the highest character, both here and on 
 the Continent, for accuracy and completeness. The original work is now become very scarce. 
 
 The uses of these Tables are numerous ; and they are easily applied. Suppose, for example, it were 
 required to tell the amount of an annuity of 50/. a year for 17 years at 4 per cent, compound interest. 
 
 Opposite to 17 (Table III.) in the column of years, and under 4 per cent., is 23-69751,239, being the 
 amount of an annuity of 1/. for the given time at the given rate per cent. ; and this multiplied by 50 gives 
 1184-8756195, or 1,184/. lis. 6d., the amount required. 
 
 Suppose now that it is required what sum one must pay down to receive an annuity of 50/. to continue 
 for 17 years, compound interest at 4 per cent. ? 
 
 Opposite to 17 years (Table IV.) and under 4 per cent, is 12 16566,886, the present value of an annuity 
 of 1/. for the given time and at the given rate per cent.; and this multiplied by 50 gives 608 283443, or 
 60^/. 5s. 8d., the present value required. 
 
 When it is required to find the ttme which must elapse, in order that a given sum improved at a speci- 
 fied rate of compound interest may increase to some other given sum, divide the latter sum by the former, 
 and look for the quotient, or the number nearest to it, in Table No. 1. under the given rate per cent, and 
 the years opposite to it are the answer. — Thus, 
 
 In what time will 523/. amount to 1,087/. 5s. Id. at 5 per cent, compound interest 
 
 Divide 1087-2794, &c., by 523, and the quotient will be 2 0789, &c., which under 5 per cent in Table I. 
 is opposite to 15 years, the time required. 
 
 If it had been required to find the time in which a given rjinuity, improved at a certain rate of com- 
 pound interest, would have increased to some given sum, the question would have been answered by 
 dividing, as above, the given sum by the annuity ; and lookijig for the quotient (not in Table No. I, but) 
 in Table No. III., under the given rate per cent, it would be found on a line with the time required. 
 Thus, 
 
 A. owes 1,000/. and resolves to appropriate 10/. a year of his income to its discharge : in what time will 
 the debt be extinguished, reckoning compound interest at 4 per cent ? 
 
 1,(K)0 divided by 10 gives 100, the number in Table No. III. under 4 per cent, and nearest to this quotient is 
 99 8265, &c. opposite to 41 years, the required time. Had the rate of interest been 5 per cent., the debt 
 would have been discharged in somewhat less than 37 years. This example is given l)y Dr. Price {An- 
 nuities, 6th cd. vol. ii. p. 289.); and on this principle the whole fabric of the sinking fund was constructed. 
 Of the abstract truth of the principle there cannot, indeed, be a doubt. But every thing dejicnds on the 
 increasing sums annually produced being immediately invested on the same term's ; and this, when the 
 sum is large, and the period long, is altogether impracticable. 
 
 Let it next be required to find an annuity which, being increased at a given rate of compound interest 
 during a given time, will amount to a specified sum : in this case we divide the specified sum by the amount 
 of 1/. for the time and rate given, as found in Table III., and the quotient is the answer.— Thus, 
 
 What annuity will amount to 1.087/. 55. Id. in 15 years at 5 per cent, compound interest ? 
 
 Opposite to 1.^ years in Table HI., and under 5 per cent, is 21 5785, &c., the amount of 1/, for the given 
 time and rate ; and dividing 1087 2794, &c. by this sum, the quotient 50 387, &c., or 50/. 7*. LU, is the an- 
 nuity required. 
 
718 
 
 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 Deferred Anmtiiies are those which do not commence till after a certain number of yearsj and rever- 
 sionary annuities, such as depend upon tlie occurrence of some uncertain event, as the death of an in- 
 dividual, &c. 
 
 The present value of a deferred annuity is found by deducting, from the value of an annuity for the 
 whole period, the value of an annuity to the term at which the reversionany annuity is to commence. 
 — Thus, 
 
 What is the present value of an annuity of 50Z. to continue for 25 years, commencing at 7 years from 
 the present time, interest at 4 per cent, 'i 
 
 According to Table No. IV., the value of an annuity of IZ. for 25 years at 4 per cent, is 15-6'C207,995, and 
 that of M. for 7 years is 6-002()5,467, which being deducted from the other, leaves 9'62C02,528, which mul- 
 tiplied by 50 gives 481/., the answer required. 
 
 Supposing the annuity, instead of being for 25 years, had been a perpetuity, it would have been worth 
 1,250/., from which deducting .300/. 2^., the value of an annuity for 7 years at 4 per cent., there remains 
 S4!-7. ISs., the value of the reversion. 
 
 For a selection of problems that may be solved by Tables of annuities certain, see SmarVs Tables, pn. 
 92—100. 
 
 2. Life Annuities. — After what has been stated in the article on Insurance (Gene- 
 ral Principles of), respecting Tables of mortality, it will be easy to see how the value 
 of a life annuity is calculated. Supposing, — to revert to the example given before 
 (p. 693.), — that it were required to find the present value of IZ., the receipt of which is 
 dependent on the contingency of a person, now 56 years of age, being alive 10 years 
 hence, taking the Carlisle Table of mortality, and interest at 4 per cent. : Now, accord- 
 ing to that Table, of 10,000 persons born together, 4,000 attain to 56, and 2,894 to 66 
 years of age. The probability that a person, now 56 years, will be alive 10 years hence, 
 2 894 
 
 is, consequently, ^Q^i and the present value of ll, to be received certain 10 years 
 
 hence being 0 '675564/., it follows, that if its receipt be made to depend on a life 
 56 years of age, attaining to 66, its value will be reduced by that contingency to 
 
 2,894 X 0 67o564l. ^ 0-48877Z., or 9s. 9^d. If, then, we had to find the present value 
 
 4,000 
 
 of an annuity of IZ. secured on the life of a person now 56, we should calculate in 
 this way the present value of each of the 48 payments, which, according to the Carlisle 
 Table, he might receive, and their sum would, of course, be the present value of the 
 annuity. 
 
 This statement is enough to show the principle on which all calculations of an- 
 nuities depend ; and this also was, in fact, the method according to which they were 
 calculated, till Mr. Simpson and M. Euler invented a shorter and easier process, de- 
 riving from the value of an annuity at any age, that of an annuity at the next younger 
 age. There is a considerable discrepancy in the sums at which different authors, and 
 different insurance offices, estimate the present value of life annuities payable to persons 
 of the same age. This does not arise from any difference in the mode of calculating 
 the annuities, but from differences in the Tables of mortality employed. These can only 
 be accurate when they are deduced from multiplied and careful observations made, during 
 a long series of years, on a large body of persons ; or when the average numbers of the 
 whole population, and of the deaths at every age, for a lengthened period, have been de- 
 termined with the necessary care. It is to be regretted, that governments, who alone 
 have the means of ascertaining the rate of mortality by observations made on a suffi- 
 ciently large scale, have been .singularly inattentive to their duty in this respect. And 
 until a very few years since, when Mr. Finlaison was emjaloyed to calculate Tables of 
 the value of annuities from the ages of the nominees in public tontines, and of individuals 
 on whose lives government had granted annuities, all that had been done in this country 
 to lay a solid foundation on which to construct the vast fabric of life insurance had been 
 the work of a few private persons, who had, of course, but a limited number of observ- 
 ations to work upon. 
 
 The celebrated mathematician, Dr. Halley, was the first who calculated a Table of 
 mortality, which he deduced from observations made at Breslaw, in Silesia. In 1724, 
 M. De Moivre published the first edition of his tract on Annuities on Lives. In order 
 to facilitate the calculation of their values, M. De Moivre assumed the annual decre- 
 ments of life to be equal ; that is, he supposed that out of 86 (the utmost limit of life on 
 his hypothesis) persons born together, one would die every year till the whole were 
 extinct. This assumption agreed pretty well with the true values between 30 and 70 
 years of age, as given in Dr. Halley's Table ; but was very remote from the truth in the 
 earlier and later periods. Mr. Thomas Simpson, in liis work on Annuities and lieversions, 
 originally publi-shed in 1742, gave a Table of mortality deduced from the I^ondon bills, 
 and Tables founded upon it of the values of annuities. lJut at the period when this Table 
 was calculated, the mortality in London was .so much higher than in the rest of the 
 country, tlmt the values of the annuities given in it were far too small for general u.se. 
 In 1746, M. Deparcieux published, in his Essai sur Ics Prohahilitcs de la Duree de la Vie 
 JIuniaine — a work distinguished by its perspicuity and neatness — Tables of mortality 
 deduced from observations made on tlic mortuary registers of several religious houses, 
 
INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 719 
 
 and on lists of the nominees in several tontines. In this work, fieptOi-ate Tables were 
 first constructed for males and females, and the greater longevity of the latter rendered 
 apparent. M. Deparcieux's Tables were a very great acquisition to the science ; and are 
 decidedly superior to some that arc still extensively used. Dr. Price's famous work 
 on Annuities, the first edition of which was published in 1770, contributed powerfully 
 to direct the public attention to inquiries of this sort ; and was, in this respect, of very 
 great utility. Of the more recent works, the best are those of Mr. Baily and Mr. 
 Milne, which, indeed, are both excellent. The latter, besides all that was previously 
 known as to the history, theory, or practice of the science, contains much new and 
 valuable matter ; and to it we beg to refer such of our readers as wish to enter fully into 
 the subject. 
 
 The Table on which Dr. Price laid the greatest stress, was calculated from the burial 
 registers kept in the parish of All Saints in Northampton, containing little more than 
 half the population of the town. There can be no doubt, however, as well from original 
 defects in the construction of the Table, as from the improvement that has since taken 
 place in the healthiness of the public, that the mortality represented in the Northampton 
 Table is, and has long been, decidedly above the average rate of mortality in England. 
 Mr. Morgan, indeed, the late learned actuary of the Equitable Society, contended that 
 this is not the case, and that the Society's experience shows that the Northampton Table 
 is still remarkably accurate. But the facts Mr. Morgan disclosed in his View of the 
 liise and Progress of the Equitable Society (p. 42.), published in 1828, are quite at 
 variance with this opinion : for he there states, that the deaths of persons insured in the 
 Equitable Society, from 50 to 60 years of age, during the 12 years previously to 1828, 
 were 339 ; whereas, according to the Northampton Table, they should have been 545 ! 
 And Mr. Milne has endeavoured to show (Art. Annuities, new ed. of Ency. Brit.) that 
 the discrepancy is really much greater. 
 
 The only other Table used to any extent in England for the calculation of life annui- 
 ties, is that framed by Mr. Milne from observations made by Dr. Heysham on the rate 
 of mortality at Carlisle. It gives a decidedly lower rate of mortality than the North- 
 ampton Table ; and there are good grounds for thinking that the mortality which it 
 represents is not very different from the actual rate throughout most parts of England ; 
 though it cannot be supposed that a Table founded on so narrow a basis should give a 
 perfectly fair view of the average mortality of the entire kingdom. 
 
 In life insurance, the first annual premium is always paid at the commencement of the 
 assurance, and the others at the termination of each year so long as the party assured 
 survives. Hence, at the beginning of the assurance, the whole of the annual premiums 
 payable for it exceed the value of an equal annuity on the life by one year's purchase. 
 And, therefore, when the value of an assurance in present money is given, to find the 
 equivalent annual premium during the life, the whole present value must be divided by 
 the number of years' purchase an annuity on the life is worth, increased by 1. Thus, for 
 an assurance of 100/. on a life 40 years of age, an office, calculating by the Carlisle 
 Table of mortality, and at 4 per cent, interest, requires 53 '446/. in present money. Now, 
 according to that Table and rate of interest, an annuity on a life just 40 years of age is worth 
 
 53*446/. 
 
 15*074 years' purchase, so that the equivalent annual premium is ^g.Q>-^ ^ ^ — 3-325/., 
 
 or 3Z. 6s. 8d. The annual premium may, however, be derived directly from the value 
 of an annuity on the life, without first calculating the total present value of the assurance. 
 — (See Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities, or the art. Annuities in the new edition of 
 the Ency. Britannica.) 
 
 In order to exhibit the foundations on which Tables of life annuities and insurance 
 have been founded in this and other countries, we have given, in No. V. of the following 
 Tables, the rate of mortality that has been observed to take place among 1,000 children 
 born together, or the numbers alive at the end of each year, till the whole become ex- 
 tinct, in England, France, Sweden, Bic, according to the most celebrated authorities.* 
 The rate of mortality at Carlisle, represented in this Table, is less than that observed any 
 where else : the rates which approach nearest to it are those deduced from the observations 
 already referred to, of M. Deparcieux, and those of M. Kersseboom, on the nominees of 
 life annuities in Holland. 
 
 In order to calculate from this Table the chance which a person of any given age has 
 of attaining to any higher age, we have only to divide the number of persons alive at 
 such higher age, given in that column of the Table selected to decide the question, by the 
 number of persons alive at the given age, and the fraction resulting is the chance 
 
 • Thegreater part of this Table was originally published by Dr. Hutton in his 'Mathematical Dictionari/, 
 art. Life Annuities. Mr. Baily inserted it with additions in his work on Annuities j and it was published, 
 with tne column for Carlisle added, in the Report of the Committee of the House qf Cotmnons on Friendly 
 Societies. 
 
720 
 
 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 We have added, byway of supplement to this Table, Mr. Finlaison's Table (No. VI.) 
 of the rate of mortality among 1,000 children born together, according to the decrement 
 of life observed to take place among the nominees in government tontines and life annui- 
 ties in this country, distinguishing males from females. The rate of mortality which 
 this Table exhibits is decidedly less than that given in the Carlisle Table ; but the lives in 
 the latter are the average of the population, while those in the former are all picked. 
 The nominees in tontines are uniformly chosen among the healthiest individuals ; and 
 none but those who consider their lives as good ever buy an annuity. Still, however, 
 the Table is very curious ; and it sets the superiority of female life in a very striking 
 point of view. 
 
 Tables VII. and VIII. give the expectation of life, according to the mortality observed 
 at Northampton and Carlisle ; the former by Dr. Price, and the latter by Mr. Milne. 
 
 The next Table, No. IX., extracted from the Second Report of the Committee of the 
 House of Commons on Friendly Societies, gives a comparative view of the results of 
 some of the most celebrated Tables of mortality, in relation to the rate of mortality, the 
 expectation of life, the value of an annuity, &c. The coincidence between the results 
 deduced from M. Deparcieux's Table, and that for Carlisle, is very striking. And to 
 render the information on these subjects laid before the reader as complete as the nature 
 of this work will admit, we have given Tables (Nos. X. — XV. ) of the value of an annuity 
 of IZ. on a single life, at every age, and at 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 per cent., according to the 
 Northampton and Carlisle Tables ; we have also given Tables of the value of an annuity 
 of \l. on 2 equal lives, and on 2 lives differing by 5 years, at 3, 4, 5, and 6 per cent., 
 according to the same Tables. It is but seldom, therefore, ihat our readers will require 
 to resort to any other work for the means of solving the questions that usually occur in 
 practice with regard to annuities ; and there are not many works in which they will find 
 so good a collection of Tables. — "We subjoin one or two examples of the mode of using 
 the Tables of life annuities. 
 
 Suppose it were required, what ought a person, aged 45, to give, to secure an annuity 
 of 50/. a year for life, interest at 4 per cent., according to the Carlisle Table? 
 
 In Table No. XI., under 4 per cent., and opposite 45, is 14*104, the value of an 
 annuity of IZ., which being multiplied by 50, gives 705*2, or 705Z. 4s., the value re- 
 quired. According to the Northampton Table, the annuity would only have been worth 
 614Z. 3s. 
 
 The value of an annuity on 2 lives of the same age, or on 2 lives differing by 5 years, 
 may be found in precisely the same way. 
 
 Some questions in reversionary life annuities admit of an equally easy solution. Thus, 
 suppose it is required to find the present value of A.'s interest in an estate worth lOOZ. 
 a year, falling to him at the death of B., aged 40, interest 4 per cent., according to the 
 Carlisle Table? 
 
 The value of the perpetuity of lOOZ. a year, interest 4 per cent., is 2,500Z. ; and the 
 value of an annuity of lOOZ. on a person aged 40, interest at 4 per cent., is 1,507Z. 8s., 
 which deducted from 2,500Z. leaves 992Z. 12s., the present value required. 
 
 A person, aged 30, wishes to purchase an annuity of 50Z. for his wife, aged 25, pro- 
 vided she survive him ; what ought he to pay for it, interest at 4 per cent, according to 
 the Carlisle Table? 
 
 The value of an annuity of IZ. on a life aged 30 is 16*852; from which subtracting 
 the value of an annuity of IZ. on 2 joint lives of 25 and 30, 14-339, the difference, 
 2-513 X 50 = 125-650, or 125Z. 13s., the sum required. 
 
 For the solution of the more complex cases of survivorship, which do not often occur 
 in practice, recourse may be had to the directions in Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuitiesy 
 and other works of that description. To attempt explaining them here would lead us 
 into details quite inconsistent with the objects of this work. 
 
INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 721 
 
 Tables op Inteiiest and ANNtuxins. 
 
 I. Table showing the Amount of j£*l improved at Compound Interest, at 2i, 3, 
 per Cent, at the End of every Year, from 1 to 70. 
 
 ^, 4, 5, and 6 
 
 2| per Cent. 
 
 3 per Cent. 3^ per Cent 
 
 1-02500,000 
 
 ■05062,500 
 07689,062 
 10381,289 
 13140,821 
 15969,342 
 18868,575 
 21840,290 
 1-24886,297 
 28008,454 
 
 ■31208,666 
 34488,882 
 37851,104 
 41297,382 
 44829,817 
 48450,562 
 52161,826 
 55965,872 
 59865,019 
 63861,644 
 
 ■67958,185 
 ^2157,140 
 
 1- 76461,068 
 80872,595 
 85394,410 
 90029,270 
 94780,002 
 99649,502 
 04640,739 
 
 2- 09756,758 
 
 2-15000,677 
 
 2 20375,694 
 2-25885,086 
 2-31532,213 
 2-37320,519 
 2-43253,532 
 2-49334,870 
 2-55568,242 
 2-61957,448 
 2-68506,384 
 
 2-75219,043 
 2-82(,99,520 
 2-89152,008 
 
 2- 96382,808 
 
 3 03790,328 
 311385,086 
 
 3- 19169.713 
 3-27148;956 
 3-35327,680 
 3-43710,872 
 
 3-52303,644 
 3-61111,235 
 3-70139,016 
 3-79392,491 
 3-88877,303 
 
 3- 98599,236 
 
 4- 08564,217 
 4-18778,322 
 4-29247,780 
 4-39978,975 
 
 4-50978,419 
 4-62252,910 
 4-73809,233 
 
 4- 85654,464 
 
 4 97795,826 
 
 5- 10240.721 
 5-22996,739 
 5-3607 1,6<>8 
 5-49473,449 
 5-63210,286 
 
 1 03000,000 
 1-06090,000 
 1-09272,700 
 1-12550,881 
 1-15927,407 
 l-19405,2.-30 
 1-22987,387 
 1-26677,008 
 1-30477,318 
 1-34391,638 
 
 1-38423,387 
 1-42576,089 
 1-46853,371 
 1-51258,972 
 1-55796,742 
 1-60470,644 
 1-65284,763 
 1-70243,306 
 175350,605 
 1-80611,123 
 
 1-86029,457 
 1-91610,341 
 
 1- 97358,651 
 
 2- 03279,411 
 2-09377,793 
 2-15659,127 
 2-22128,901 
 2-28792,768 
 2-35656,551 
 2-42726,247 
 
 2-50000,035 
 2-57508,276 
 2-65233,524 
 2-73190,530 
 2-81386,245 
 2-89827,833 
 
 2- 98522,668 
 
 3- 07478,348 
 3-16702,698 
 3-26203,779 
 
 3-46069,589 
 3-56451,677 
 3-67145,227 
 3-78159,584 
 
 3- 89504,372 
 401189,503 
 413225,188 
 
 4- 25621,944 
 4-38390,602 
 
 4-51542,320 
 4-&%88,590 
 4-79041,247 
 
 4- 93412,485 
 
 5- 08214,859 
 5-23461,305 
 5-39165,144 
 5-55340,098 
 5-72000,301 
 
 5- 89160,310 
 
 6- 06835,120 
 6-25040,173 
 6-43791,379 
 6-63105,120 
 
 6- 82998,273 
 
 7- 03488,222 
 7-24592,868 
 7-46330,654 
 7-68720,574 
 7-91782,191 
 
 4 per 
 
 1 03500,000 
 1-07122,500 
 1-10871,787 
 1-14752,300 
 1-18768,631 
 1-22925,533 
 1-27227,926 
 1-31680,904 
 1-36289,735 
 1-41059,876 
 
 1-45996,972 
 1-51106,866 
 1-56395,606 
 1-61869,452 
 1-67534,883 
 1-73398,604 
 1-79467,555 
 1-85748,920 
 1-92250,132 
 
 1- 98978,866 
 
 2- 05943,147 
 2-13151,158 
 2-20611,448 
 2-28332,849 
 2-36324,498 
 2-44595,856 
 2-53166,711 
 
 2 62017,696 
 2-71187,798 
 2-80679,570 
 
 2- 90503,148 
 
 3- 00670,759 
 3-11194,235 
 3-22086,033 
 3-33359,045 
 
 3 45026,611 
 3-57102,543 
 3-69601,132 
 3-82537,171 
 
 3- 95925,972 
 
 4- 09783,381 
 4-24125,799 
 4-38970,202 
 4-54334,160 
 4-70235,855 
 
 4- 86694,110 
 
 5- 03728,404 
 5-21358,898 
 5-39606,459 
 5-58492,686 
 
 5- 78039,930 
 5 98271,327 
 
 6- 19210,824 
 6-40883,202 
 6-63314,114 
 
 6- 86530,108 
 
 7- 10558,662 
 7-35428,215 
 7-61168,203 
 
 7- 87809,090 
 
 8- 15382,408 
 8 •439-20,793 
 
 8- 73458,020 
 
 9- 04029,051 
 9-35670,068 
 9-68418,520 
 
 10-02313,168 
 10-37394,129 
 
 10- 73702,924 
 
 11- 11282,51:6 
 
 Cent. 4^ per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent 
 
 1-040(X),000 
 1-08160,000 
 1-I248(vl00 
 1 -1(5985,856 
 l-2i6fi5,29e 
 1-26531,902 
 1-31593,178 
 1-36856,905 
 1-42331,181 
 1-48024,428 
 
 1-53945,406 
 1-60103,222 
 1-66507,351 
 1-73167,645 
 1-80094,351 
 
 1- 87298,125 
 1 94790,050 
 
 2- 02581,652 
 2-10684,918 
 2-19112,314 
 
 2-27876,807 
 2-36991,879 
 2-46471,555 
 2-56330,417 
 2-66583,633 
 2-77246,979 
 2-88336,858 
 
 2- 99870,332 
 3 11865,145 
 
 3- 24339,751 
 
 3-37313,341 
 3-50805,875 
 3-64838,110 
 3-79431,634 
 
 3- 94608,899 
 
 4- 10393,255 
 4-26808,986 
 4-43881,345 
 4-61636,599 
 4-80102,063 
 
 4- 99306,145 
 
 5- 19278,391 
 5-40049,527 
 5-61651,508 
 
 5- 84117,568 
 
 6- 07482,271 
 6-31781,562 
 6-57052,824 
 
 6- 83334,937 
 
 7- 10668,335 
 
 7-39095,068 
 
 7- 68658,871 
 7 99405,226 
 
 8- 31381,435 
 8-64636,692 
 
 8- 99222,160 
 
 9- 35191,046 
 9-72598,688 
 
 1011502,636 
 10-51962,741 
 
 10- 94041,251 
 
 11- 37802,901 
 
 11- 83315,017 
 
 12- 30647,617 
 
 12- 79873,522 
 
 13- 31068,463 
 
 13- 84311,201 
 14 39683,649 
 
 14- 97270,995 
 
 15- 57161,835 
 
 1-04500,(X)0 
 1 09202,500 
 1-14116,612 
 1-19251,860 
 1-24618,194 
 1-30226,012 
 1-36086,183 
 1-42210,061 
 1-48609,514 
 1-55296,942 
 
 1-62285,305 
 1-69588,143 
 1-77219,610 
 1-85194,492 
 
 1- 93528,244 
 
 2- 02237,015 
 2-11337,681 
 2-20847,877 
 2-30786,031 
 2-41171,402 
 
 2-52024,116 
 2-63365,201 
 2-75216,635 
 
 2- 87601,383 
 
 3- 00543,446 
 3-14067,901 
 3-28200,956 
 3-42969,999 
 3-58403,649 
 3-74531,813 
 
 3- 91385,745 
 
 4- 08998,104 
 4-27403,018 
 4-46636,154 
 4-66734,781 
 
 4- 87737,846 
 
 5- 09686,049 
 5-32621,921 
 5-56589,908 
 
 5- 81636,454 
 
 607810,094 
 
 6- 35161,548 
 6-63743,818 
 
 6- 93612,290 
 
 7- 24824,843 
 7-57441,961 
 
 7- 91526,849 
 
 8- 27145,557 
 
 8- 64367,107 
 9 03263,627 
 
 9- 43910,490 
 9-86386,463 
 
 10-30773,853 
 
 10- 77158,677 
 
 11- 25630,817 
 
 11- 76284,204 
 
 12- 29216,993 
 
 12- 84531,758 
 
 13- 42335,687 
 
 14- 02740,793 
 
 14- 65864,129 
 
 15- 31828,014 
 
 16- 00760,275 
 16-72794,487 
 17 48070,239 
 
 18- 26733,400 
 
 19- 08936,403 
 
 19- M838,541 
 
 20- 84606,276 
 
 21- 78413,558 
 
 050(X),000 
 10250,000 
 15762,500 
 21550,625 
 27528,156 
 34(j09,564 
 40710,042 
 4774.5,544 
 55132,822 
 628^9,463 
 
 1-71033,936 
 1-79585,633 
 1-88564,914 
 
 1- 97993,160 
 
 2- 07892,818 
 2 18287,409 
 2-29201,832 
 2 40661,923 
 2-52695,020 
 2-65329,771 
 
 2-78596,259 
 
 2- 92526,072 
 
 3- 07152,376 
 3-22509,994 
 3-38635,494 
 3-55567,269 
 3-73345,632 
 
 3- 92012,914 
 
 4- 11613,560 
 4-32194,238 
 
 4-53803,949 
 
 4- 76494,147 
 
 5- 00318,854 
 5-25334,797 
 
 5- 51601,537 
 5 79181,614 
 608140,694 
 
 6- 38547,729 
 6-70475,115 
 7 03998,871 
 
 7-39198,815 
 
 7- 76158,755 
 
 8- 14966,693' 
 8-15715,028 
 
 8- 98500,779 
 
 9- 43425,818 
 9-90597,109 
 
 10-40126,965 
 10-92133,313 
 10-46739,978 
 
 12- 04076,977 
 12 64280,826 
 
 13- 27494,868 
 
 13- 93869,611 
 
 14- 63563,092 
 
 15- 36741,246 
 
 16- 13578,308 
 
 16- 94257,224 
 
 17- 78970,085 
 
 18- 67918,589 
 
 19- 61314,519 
 
 20- 59380,245 
 
 21- 62349,257 
 22 70466,720 
 23-83990,056 
 
 25- 03 189,-559 
 
 26- 2&U9,036 
 
 27- 59766,488 
 
 28- 97754,813 
 3042642,553 
 
 1-06000,000 
 1-12360,(X)0 
 1-19101,600 
 1-26247,696 
 1-33822,558 
 1-41851,911 
 1-50363,026 
 1-59384,807 
 1-68947,896 
 1-79084,770 
 
 1- 89829,856 
 
 2- 01219,647 
 213292,826 
 2-26090,396 
 2 396-35,819 
 2 54035,168 
 2-69277,279 
 
 2- 85433,915 
 
 3- 02559,950 
 3-20713,547 
 
 3-39956,360 
 3-60353,742 
 
 3- 81974,966 
 
 4- 04893,464 
 4-29187,072 
 4-54938,296 
 
 4- 82234,594 
 
 5- 11168,670 
 5 41838,790 
 
 5- 74349,117 
 
 6- 08810,064 
 6-45338,668 
 
 6- 84058,988 
 
 7- 25102,528 
 7 68608.679 
 
 8- 14725,200 
 
 8- 63606,712 
 
 9- 15425,235 
 9-70350,749 
 
 10 28571,791 
 
 10- 90286,101 
 
 11- 55703,267 
 
 12- 25045,463 
 
 12- 98548,191 
 
 13- 76461,083 
 
 14- .59048,748 
 
 15- 46591,673 
 
 16- 39387,173 
 
 17- 37750,403 
 
 18- 42015,427 
 
 19- 52.")36,3.53 
 
 20- 69688,534 
 
 21- 95869,846 
 
 23- 25502,037 
 
 24- 65032,169 
 
 26- 12934,089 
 
 27- 69710,134 
 29-35892,742 
 
 31- 12046,307 i 
 
 32- 98769,085 i 
 
 34-96695,230 I 
 
 37-06496,£« I 
 
 39-28886,761 i 
 
 41-646l9,<-67 
 
 44-14497,165 
 
 46-79366,994 
 
 49-60129,014 
 
 52-57736,755 
 
 .55-732(0,960 
 
 59015S3,018 
 
 3 A 
 
722 
 
 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 II. Table showing the Present Value of .^"1 receivable at the End of any given Year, from 1 to 70 
 reckoning Compound Interest at 2|, 3, 3i, 4, 4^, 5, and 6 per Cent, 
 
 2|- per Cent 
 
 0-97500,976 
 •95181,440 
 •92859,941 
 •90595,064 
 •88385,429 
 •80229,687 
 •84126,524 
 •82074,657 
 •80072,836 
 •78119,840 
 
 •76214,478 
 •74355,589 
 •72542,038 
 •70772,720 
 •69046,556 
 •67362,493 
 •65719,.506 
 •64116,594 
 •62552,772 
 •61027,094 
 
 •59538,629 
 •58086,467 
 •56669,724 
 •55287,535 
 •53939,059 
 •52623,472 
 •51339,973 
 •50087,778 
 •48866,125 
 •47674,269 
 
 •46511,481 
 •45377.055 
 •44270,298 
 •43190,534 
 •42137,107 
 •41109,372 
 •40106,705 
 •39128,492 
 •38174,139 
 •37243,062 
 
 •36334,095 
 •35448,483 
 •34583,886 
 •33740,376 
 •32917,440 
 •32114,576 
 ■31331,294 
 ■30567,116 
 •29821,576 
 •29094,221 
 
 •28384,606 
 •27692,298 
 •27016,876 
 •26357,928 
 •25715,052 
 •25087,855 
 •24475,957 
 •23878,982 
 •23290 508 
 •22728,359 
 
 •22174,009 
 •21633,179 
 •21105,541 
 •20590,771 
 •20088,557 
 •19598,593 
 •19120,578 
 •18654,223 
 •18190,242 
 ■ •17755,358 
 
 3 per Cent 
 
 97087,379 
 94259,591 
 91514,166 
 88848,705 
 86260,878 
 83748,426 
 81309,151 
 78940,923 
 76641,673 
 74409,391 
 
 72242,126 
 701,37988 
 68095,134 
 66111,781 
 64186,195 
 62316,094 
 60501,645 
 58739,401 
 57028,003 
 55367,575 
 
 53754,928 
 52189,250 
 50669,175 
 49193,374 
 47760,556 
 46309,473 
 45018,900 
 43707,075 
 42434,030 
 41198,070 
 
 39998,714 
 38833,703 
 37702,025 
 36604,490 
 35538,340 
 34503,243 
 33498,294 
 32522,015 
 31575,355 
 30655,084 
 
 29762,800 
 28895,922 
 28054,-294 
 27237,178 
 26443,862 
 25673,652 
 24925,877 
 24199,880 
 23495,029 
 22810,708 
 
 22146,318 
 21501,280 
 20875,029 
 20207,019 
 19076,717 
 19103,609 
 18547,193 
 18006,984 
 17482,508 
 10973,309 
 
 16478,941 
 15998,972 
 15532.982 
 15080,505 
 14641,325 
 14214,879 
 13800,853 
 13398,887 
 13008,628 
 12629,730 
 
 per Cent. 
 
 90018,357 
 93351,070 
 90194,270 
 87144,223 
 84197,317 
 81350,064 
 78599,096 
 75941,156 
 73373,097 
 70891,881 
 
 68494,571 
 60178,330 
 63940,415 
 61778,179 
 59689,062 
 57670,591 
 55720,378 
 53836,114 
 52015,509 
 50256,588 
 
 48557,090 
 46915,003 
 45328,503 
 43795,713 
 42314,699 
 40883,767 
 39501,224 
 38165,434 
 36874,815 
 35627,841 
 
 34423,035 
 33258,971 
 32134,271 
 31047,605 
 29997,686 
 28983,272 
 28003,161 
 27056,194 
 26141,250 
 25257,247 
 
 24403,137 
 23577,910 
 22780,590 
 22010,231 
 21265,924 
 20546,787 
 19851,908 
 19180,645 
 18532,024 
 17905,337 
 
 17299,843 
 10714,824 
 10149,589 
 15603,407 
 15075,814 
 14500,004 
 14073,433 
 13597,520 
 13137,701 
 12093,431 
 
 12204,184 
 11849,453 
 11448,747 
 11001,591 
 10687,528 
 10320,114 
 09970,922 
 09039,538 
 09313,503 
 08998,012 
 
 4 per Cent, 
 
 0-96153,846 
 •92455,621 
 •88899,636 
 •85480,419 
 •82192,711 
 •79031,453 
 •75991,781 
 •73009,020 
 •70258,074 
 •67550,417 
 
 •64958,093 
 •62459,705 
 ■00057,409 
 •57747,508 
 •55520,450 
 •53390,818 
 •51337,325 
 •49302,812 
 •47404,242 
 •45638,695 
 
 •43883,360 
 •42195,539 
 •40572,633 
 •39012,147 
 •37511,680 
 ■30008,923 
 •34681,657 
 •33347,747 
 ■32005,141 
 ■30831,867 
 
 ■29646,026 
 •28505,794 
 •27409,417 
 •20355,209 
 •25341,547 
 •24366,872 
 ■■23429,085 
 •22528,543 
 •2100-2,001 
 •20828,904 
 
 •20027,792 
 ■ 19257,493 
 ■18516,820 
 •17804,635 
 •17119,841 
 •16461,386 
 •15828,256 
 •15219,476 
 •14634,112 
 •14071,262 
 
 •13530,059 
 •13009.672 
 •12509,300 
 •12028,173 
 •11505,551 
 •11120,722 
 •10093,002 
 •10281,733 
 •09880,282 
 ■09506,040 
 
 •09140,423 
 •08788,868 
 •08450,835 
 •08125,803 
 •07813,272 
 •07512,760 
 •07223,809 
 •00945,970 
 ■06678,818 
 •06421,940 
 
 4^ per Cent. 
 
 0-95693,780 
 •91572,995 
 •87029,000 
 •83850,134 
 •80245,105 
 •70789,574 
 •73482,840 
 •70318,513 
 •07290,443 
 •64392,768 
 
 •61619,874 
 •58966,386 
 •50427,104 
 •53997,280 
 •51072,044 
 •49440,932. 
 •47317,639 
 •45280,037 
 •43330,179 
 
 •39678,743 
 •37970,089 
 •36335,013 
 •34770,347 
 •33273,000 
 ■31840,248 
 •30469,137 
 ■29157,069 
 ■27901,502 
 ■26700,001 
 
 •255.50,241 
 ■24449,991 
 •23397,121 
 •22389,589 
 •21425,444 
 •20502,817 
 •19619,921 
 •18775,044 
 •17960,549 
 •17192,870 
 
 •10452,507 
 •1-5744,026 
 ■15066,054 
 •14417,276 
 •13796,437 
 •13202,332 
 •12033,810 
 •12089,771 
 •11509,158 
 •11070,905 
 
 •10594,225 
 •10138,014 
 •09701,449 
 •09283,683 
 •08883,907 
 •08501,347 
 •08135,260 
 •07784,938 
 •07449,701 
 •07128,901 
 
 •00821,915 
 •065-28,148 
 •06247,032 
 •05978,021 
 •05720,594 
 •05474,253 
 •05238,519 
 •05012,937 
 •04797,0«9 
 •04590,497 
 
 5 per Cent. 
 
 95238,095 
 90702,948 
 86383,700 
 82270,247 
 78352,016 
 74621,540 
 71068,133 
 07083,936 
 64460,892 
 61391,325 
 
 58407,929 
 55083,742 
 53032.135 
 50500,795 
 48101,710 
 45811,152 
 43629,609 
 41552,005 
 39573,396 
 37088,948 
 
 35894,236 
 34184,987 
 32557,131 
 31006,791 
 29530,277 
 28124,073 
 20784,83^ 
 25509,364, 
 24294,632 
 23137,74.^ 
 
 22035,947 
 20980,617 
 19987,254 
 19035,480 
 18129,029 
 17205,741 
 10443,503 
 15000,530 
 14914,797 
 14204,56f 
 
 13528,160 
 12883,962 
 12270,440 
 11686,133 
 11129,651 
 10599,008 
 10094,921 
 09014,211 
 09150,391 
 08720,373 
 
 08305,117 
 07909,635 
 07532,980 
 07174,272 
 06832,640 
 06507,276 
 06197,406 
 05902,291 
 05621,230 
 05353,552 
 
 05098,621 
 04855,830 
 04624,600 
 04404,381 
 04194,648 
 03994,903 
 03804,670 
 03623,495 
 03450,948 
 03280,617 
 
INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 723 
 
 HI, Table showing the Amount of an Annuiw of £1 per Annum, improved at Compound Interest, at 
 2i, 3, 3J, 4, 4i, 5, and 6 per Cent., at the end of each Year, Irom 1 to 70. 
 
 Years.' 
 
 
 o per L/Cnt. 
 
 1 
 
 1-00000,000 
 
 1-00000,000 
 
 2 
 
 2-02500,000 
 
 2-03000,000 
 
 3 
 
 3-07562,500 
 
 3-09090,000 
 
 4 
 
 4- 15251, .562 
 
 4-18362,700 
 
 5 
 
 5-25632,852 
 
 5-30913,-581 
 
 6 
 
 6-38773,673 
 
 6-46840,988 
 
 7 
 
 7-51743,015 
 
 7-66246,218 
 
 8 
 
 8-736Il,.5<J0 
 
 8-89233,605 
 
 9 
 
 9-95451,880 
 
 10-1.5910,613 
 
 10 
 
 J 1 20338,177 
 
 11-46387,931 
 
 11 
 12 
 
 12' 48346,631 
 
 12-80779,569 
 
 13-79555,297 
 
 14 19202,9-56 
 
 13 
 
 15-14044,179 
 
 15-01779,045 
 
 14 
 
 16-51895,284 
 
 17-08632,416 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 17-93192,666 
 
 18--5989 1,389 
 
 19-38022,483 
 
 20-1.5688,130 
 
 17 
 
 20-86473,045 
 
 21-76158,774 
 
 18 
 
 22-38634,871 
 
 23-41443,-577 
 
 19 
 
 23-94600,743 
 
 25-11686,844 
 
 20 
 
 25-.54405,761 
 
 26-87037 449 
 
 21 
 
 27 18327,405 
 
 28-67648,572 
 
 22 
 
 28-86285,590 
 
 30--53678,030 
 
 23 
 
 30-.58442,730 
 
 32-45288,370 
 
 24 
 
 32-34903,798 
 
 34-42647,022 
 
 25 
 
 34-15776,393 
 
 36-45926,432 
 
 26 
 
 36-01170,803 
 
 38-5-5304,225 
 
 27 
 
 37-91200,073 
 
 40-70963,352 
 
 28 
 
 39-8.5980,075 
 
 42-93092,252 
 
 29 
 
 41-85629,577 
 
 45-21885,020 
 
 30 
 
 43-90270,316 
 
 47-.57.541 
 
 31 
 
 46-00027,074 
 
 50-00267,818 
 
 32 
 
 48-15027,751 
 
 52-50275,852 
 
 33 
 
 50-35403,445 
 
 5-5-07784,128 
 
 34 
 
 52-61288,-531 
 
 .57-73017,652 
 
 35 
 
 54-92820,744 
 
 60-46208,181 
 
 36 
 
 57-30141,263 
 
 63-27594,427 
 
 37 
 
 59-73394,794 
 
 66-17422,2-59 
 
 38 
 
 62-22729,664 
 
 69-1-5944,927 
 
 39 
 
 64-78297,906 
 
 72-23423,275 
 
 40 
 
 67-40255,3.54 
 
 75-40125,973 
 
 41 
 
 70-08761,737 
 
 78-66329,753 
 
 42 
 
 72-83980,781 
 
 82-02319,645 
 
 43 
 
 75-66080,300 
 
 85-48389,234 
 
 44 
 
 78-55232,308 
 
 89-04840,911 
 
 45 
 
 81-51613,116 
 
 92-71986,139 
 
 46 
 
 84-5.5403,443 
 
 96-.501 4-5,723 
 
 47 
 
 87-66788,529 
 
 100-396-50,095 
 
 48 
 
 90-85958,243 
 
 104-40839,-598 
 
 49 
 
 94-13107,199 
 
 108--54064,785 
 
 50 
 
 97-48434,879 
 
 1 12-79686,729 
 
 51 
 
 100-9214.5,751 
 
 117-18077,331 
 
 52 
 
 104 44449,395 
 
 121-69619,651 
 
 53 
 
 108-0.5500,629 
 
 126-34708,240 
 
 54 
 
 111-75699,645 
 
 131-13749,488 
 
 55 
 
 11.5.5.5092,136 
 
 136-07161,972 
 
 56 
 
 119-43969,440 
 
 141-1.5376,831 
 
 57 
 
 123-42.568,676 
 
 146-38838,136 
 
 58 
 
 127-51132,893 
 
 151-78003,280 
 
 .59 
 
 131-69911,215 
 
 157-33343,379 
 
 60 
 
 13.5-99158,995 
 
 103-05343,680 
 
 61 
 
 140-39137,970 
 
 168-94-503,991 
 
 62 
 
 144-90116,419 
 
 17-5-01339,110 
 
 63 
 
 149-52309,330 
 
 181-26379,284 
 
 64 
 
 1 .54-261 78,.563 
 
 187-70170,602 
 
 65 
 
 159-11833,027 
 
 194-3327.5,782 
 
 66 
 
 164-09628,8.53 
 
 201-16274,0-55 
 
 67 
 
 169- 19869,-574 
 
 208-1976-2,277 
 
 68 
 
 174-42866,313 
 
 21-5-443-5.5,145 
 
 69 
 
 179-78937,971 
 
 222-90685,800 
 
 70 
 
 185-28411,421 
 
 230-59400,374 
 
 3^ per Cent. 
 
 1- 00000,000 
 
 2- 03500,000 
 
 3- 10622,-500 
 
 4- 21494,287 
 
 5- 30246,-588 
 
 6- ,55015,218 
 
 7- 77940,751 
 9-05168,677 
 
 10- 36849,-581 
 
 11- 73139,316 
 
 13- 14199,192 
 
 14- 60196,164 
 
 16- 11303,030 
 
 17- 67698,036 
 
 19- 29-568,088 
 
 20- 97102,971 
 22-70-501,-575 
 24-49969,130 
 26-3-5718,0-50 
 28-27968,181 
 
 30-26947,008 
 32-32890,215 
 34-46041,373 
 36-66652,821 
 38-94985,669 
 41-31310,108 
 43-75906,024 
 40-29062,734 
 48-91079,930 
 51-62267,728 
 
 54-42947,098 
 57-33450,247 
 60-34121,005 
 63-4-531-5,240 
 60-67401,274 
 70-00760,318 
 73-4-5786,930 
 77-02889,472 
 80-72490,604 
 84-.55027,775 
 
 88-.509-53,747 
 92-60737,128 
 96-84862,928 
 101-23833,130 
 105-78107,290 
 110-48403,145 
 115-3.5097,2.55 
 120-3882-5,6-59 
 125-60184,557 
 130-99791,016 
 
 136--58283,702 
 142-30323,631 
 148-34594,958 
 
 1- 54 ■'53805,782 
 160-94688,984 
 167-58003,099 
 174-44-5.3.3,207 
 181-.5-5091,869 
 188-90520,085 
 196-51688,288 
 
 204-39497,378 
 212--54879,786 
 220-98800,579 
 229-722-58,-599 
 238-76287,6-50 
 248-119-57,718 
 
 2- 57-80376,238 
 267-82689,406 
 278-20083,-535 
 288-93786,459 
 
 4 per Cent, 
 
 1-00000,000 
 1 -04000,000 
 
 3- 12160,000 
 
 4- 24646,400 
 
 5- 41632,256 
 
 6- 63297,-540 
 
 7- 89829,448 
 9-21422,626 
 
 10-.')8279,-531 
 
 12- 00610,712 
 
 13- 4863.5,141 
 15-02580,-546 
 10-62683,768 
 18-29191,119 
 20*023-58,764 
 21-824-53,114 
 23-69751,239 
 2.5-64-541,288 
 27-67122,940 
 29-77807,858 
 
 31-96920,172 
 34-24796,979 
 36-61788,8-58 
 39 08200,413 
 41-64590,830 
 44-31174,463 
 47-08421,441 
 49-967-58,299 
 52-96628,631 
 ,50 08493,776 
 
 59-32833,527 
 62-70146,868 
 66-209-52,743 
 69-85790,8-53 
 73-65222,487 
 77-.59831,387 
 81-70224,642 
 85-97033,628 
 90-40914,973 
 9502551,672 
 
 99-826.53,635 
 104-819-59,780 
 110-01238,171 
 115-41287,098 
 121-02939,200 
 126-870-56,774 
 132-94-539,045 
 139-26320,607 
 145-83373,431 
 152-66708,368 
 
 1.59-77370,703 
 107-16471,771 
 174-85130,642 
 182-84-535,808 
 191-1-5917,302 
 199-80553,994 
 208-79770,1-54 
 218-14907,200 
 227-87505,888 
 237-99068,524 
 
 248-51031,265 
 2-59-4-5072.516 
 270-82875,416 
 282-66190,433 
 294-96838,0-50 
 307-76711,-572 
 1321-07780,035 
 334-92091,236 
 349-31774,886 
 364-2904-5,881 
 
 4^ per Cent. 
 
 1- 00000,000 
 
 2- 04-500,000 
 
 3- 13702,-500 
 
 4- 27819,112 
 
 5- 47070,973 
 
 6- 71689,166 
 
 8- 0191-5,179 
 
 9- 38001,362 
 10-80211.423 
 
 12- 28820,937 
 
 13- 84117,879 
 15-40403,184 
 
 17- 1-5991,327 
 
 18- 93210,937 
 20-7840,5,429 
 22-71933,673 
 24-74170,089 
 26-85,508,370 
 29-003,56,240 
 31-37142,277 
 
 33-78313,680 
 36-30337,795 
 38-93702,996 
 41-68919,631 
 44-,56-521,014 
 47-,57064,460 
 50-71132,361 
 53-99333,317 
 57-42303,316 
 61-00706,966 
 
 04-75238,779 
 68-bt)624,524 
 72-75622,628 
 77-03025,046 
 81-49661,800 
 86-10396,581 
 91 04134,427 
 90-13820,476 
 101-46442.398 
 107-03032,306 
 
 112-84008,759 
 118-92478,8-54 
 125-27640,402 
 131-91384,220 
 138-84996,510 
 146-09821,353 
 1.53-672(i3,314 
 161 -,58790,103 
 169-85935,720 
 178-50302,828 
 
 187-,53.566,4o5 
 196-97476,946 
 206-838(kJ,408 
 217-14037,201 
 227-91795,938 
 239-17426,7-55 
 250-93710,959 
 263-22927,9-53 
 276-07459,710 
 289-49795,397 
 
 303-52536,190 
 1318-18400,319 
 j333-.50228,333 
 |349-50988,608 
 366-23783,096 
 383-718-53,335 
 401-98586,735 
 421-07.523,138 
 441-02361,679 
 461-86967,955 
 
 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 
 
 1- 00000,000 
 
 2- 05000,000 
 
 3- 1-52-50,000 
 
 4- 31012,-500 
 
 5- 52-563,125 
 
 6- 80191,281 
 
 8- 14200,845 
 
 9- .54910,888 
 
 11- 026-56,432 
 
 12- 57789,254 
 
 14-20678,716 
 1.5-91712,6-52 
 17-71298,285 
 19-59863,199 
 21-678-56,3.59 
 23-6.5749,177 
 25-84030,036 
 28-13238,467 
 30-.53900,391 
 33-06.595,410 
 
 35-7192.5,181 
 38-.50521,440 
 41-43047,512 
 44-50199,887 
 47-72709,882 
 51-11345,376 
 54-66912,645 
 58-402,58,277 
 62-32271,191 
 66-43884,750 
 
 70-76078,988 
 "5-29882,936 
 80-u6377,083 
 85-06695,937 
 90-32030,734 
 95-83032,271 
 101-62813,884 
 107-70954,579 
 114-09.502,308 
 120-79977,423 
 
 127-83976,294 
 135-23175,109 
 142-99333,864 
 151-14300,.5.58 
 159-70016,686 
 168-68516,30.5 
 178-11942,183 
 188-02.539,292 
 198-42666,2-57 
 209-34799,570 
 
 220-81-539,548 
 232-85616,520 
 245-49897,352 
 2-58-77392,220 
 272-71261.831 
 287-34824,922 
 302-71566,168 
 318-85144,477 
 335-79401,700 
 353-58371,785 
 
 372-26290,375 
 391-87604,893 
 412-46985,138 
 434-09334,395 
 456-79801,115 
 480-63791,170 
 .505-66980.729 
 531-9-5329,765 
 -569-5.5096,2.54 
 -588-52851,060 
 
 1 00000,0(X) 
 
 2- 00000,000 
 
 3- 18360,000 
 
 4- 37461,600 
 
 5- 63709,290 
 
 6- 97-531,8-54 
 
 8- 39383,765 
 
 9- 89746,791 
 11-49131,-598 
 
 13- 18079,494 
 
 14- 97164,264 
 16-86994,120 
 18-88213,767 
 2101 -506,-593 
 23-27596,988 
 25-67-52,808 
 28-21287,976 
 30-90565,255 
 33-7-5999,170 
 36-785.59,120 
 
 39-99272,668 
 43-39229,028 
 46-99-582,769 
 50-81-5-57,735 
 54-86451,200 
 59-1-5638,272 
 63-70576,668 
 68-52811,162 
 73-63979,832 
 79-05818,622 
 
 84-80167,739 
 90-88977,803 
 97-34316,471 
 104-1837.5,460 
 111-43477.987 
 119-12086,666 
 127-26811,866 
 135-90420,578 
 145-0-584-5,813 
 154-76196,562 
 
 165-04768,356 
 175-950.54,4.57 
 187-50757,724 
 199-7-5803,188 
 212-74351,379 
 226-50812,462 
 241-09861,209 
 256-56452,882 
 272-95840,055 
 290-33590,458 
 
 5605,886 
 328-28142,239 
 348.97830,773 
 370-91700,020 
 394- 1720-2,657 
 418-82-234,818 
 444-95168,905 
 472-€4879,039 
 .502-00771,782 
 533-12818,089 
 
 566-11.587,174 
 601-08282,404 
 638-14779,349 
 677-43666,110 
 19-08286,076 
 63-22783,241 
 1810-02150.-235 
 859-62279.249 
 912-20016,004 
 !967-93216,i964 
 I 
 
 3 A 2 
 
INTEREST AND ANNUITIES'. 
 
 IV. Table showing the Present Value of an Annuity of £1 per Annum, to continue for any given 
 Number of Years, from 1 to 70, reckoning Compound Interest at 2^, 3, 4, 4|, 5, and 6 per Cent. 
 
 2 1 per Cent 
 
 40 
 
 3 per Cent. 
 
 0- 97560,976 
 
 1 - 02742,415 
 
 2- 85602,356 
 
 3- 76197,421 
 
 4- 64582,849 
 
 5- 50812,536 
 
 6- 34939,060 
 
 7- 17013,717 
 
 7- 97086,553 
 
 8- 75206,393 
 
 9- 51420,871 
 10-25776,460 
 
 10- 98318,497 
 
 11- 69091,217 
 
 12- 38137,773 
 
 13- 05500,266 
 
 13- 71219,772 
 
 14- 35336,363 
 
 14- 97889,134 
 
 15- 58916,228 
 
 16- 18454,857 
 
 16- 76543,824 
 
 17- 33211,048 
 
 17- 88498,583 
 
 18- 42437,642 
 
 18- 95061,114 
 
 19- 46401,087 
 
 19- 96488,865 
 
 20- 45354,991 
 
 20- 93029,259 
 
 21- 39540,741 
 
 21- 84917,796 
 
 22- 29188,093 
 
 22- 72378,628 
 
 23- 14515,734 
 23-55625,107 
 
 23- 95731,811 
 
 24- 34860,304 
 ■24-73034,443 
 "25-19277,505 
 
 25- 46612,200 
 
 25- 82060,683 
 
 26- 16644,569 
 26-50384,945 
 
 26- 83302,386 
 
 27- 15416.962 
 27-46748,255 
 
 27- 77315,371 
 
 28- 07136,947 
 28-36231,168 
 
 28-64615,774 
 
 28- 92308,072 
 
 29- 19324,948 
 29-45682,877 
 29-71397,928 
 
 29- 96485,784 
 
 30- 2iJ96l,740 
 30-44840,722 
 
 30- 68137,290 
 3Q-908G5,649 
 
 31- 1.3039,657 
 31-34672,836 
 31-55778,377 
 31-76369,148 
 
 31- 964.57,706 
 
 32- 16056,298 
 32-35176,876 
 32-53831,()99 
 32-72030,341 
 32-89785,698 
 
 0- 97087,379 
 
 1- 91346,969 
 
 2- 82861,135 
 
 3- 71709,840 
 
 4- 57970,719 
 
 5- 41719,144 
 
 6- 23028,295 
 
 7- 01969,219 
 
 7- 78610,892 
 
 8- 53020,284 
 
 9- 25262,410 
 9-95400,398 
 
 10- 63495,532 
 
 11- 29607,312 
 
 11- 93793,507 
 
 12- .56n 0,201 
 
 13- 16611,845 
 
 13- 75351,306 
 
 14- 32379,909 
 
 14- 87747,484 
 
 15- 41502,412 
 
 15- 93691,662 
 
 16- 44360,837 
 
 16- 93554,210 
 
 17- 41314,766 
 
 17- 87684,239 
 
 18- 32703,145 
 
 18- 76410,820 
 
 19- 18845,456 
 
 19- 60044,132 
 
 20 00042,847 
 
 20- 38876,550 
 
 20- 76579,175 
 
 21- 13183,665 
 21-48722,004 
 
 21- 83225,247 
 
 22- 16723,541 
 22-49246,156 
 
 22- 80821,510 
 
 23- 11477,195 
 
 23-41239,995 
 23 70135,917 
 
 23- 98190,211 
 
 24- 25427,389 
 24-51871,251 
 
 24- 77544,904 
 
 25- 02470,780 
 25-26670,660 
 25-50165,689 
 25-72976,397 
 
 25- 95122,716 
 
 26- 16623,996 
 26-37499,025 
 26-57766,043 
 26-77442,761 
 
 26- 9&'340,370 
 
 27- 15093,563 
 27-33100,546 
 27-50583,055 
 27-67556,364 
 
 27- 84035,504 
 
 28- 00034,276 
 28-15567,258 
 28-30647,823 
 28-45289,149 
 28-59.'504,028 
 28-733(M.,88l 
 28-86703,768 
 
 28- 99712,396 
 
 29- 12342,132 
 
 S^perCent, 
 
 4 per Cent, 
 
 0- 96618,357 
 
 1- 89969,427 
 
 2- 80163,698 
 
 3- 67307,921 
 
 4- 51505,237 
 
 5- 32855,302 
 
 6- 11454,398 
 
 6- 87395,553 
 
 7- 60768,651 
 
 8- 31660,532 
 
 9- 00155,103 
 9-66333,433 
 
 10-30273,848 
 10-92052,027 
 10-51741,089 
 12-09411,681 
 
 12- 65132,058 
 
 13- 18968,172 
 
 13- 70983,741 
 
 14- 21240,330 
 
 14- 69797,420 
 
 15- 16712,483 
 
 15- 62041,047 
 
 16- 05836,760 
 16-48151,459 
 
 16- 89035,226 
 
 17- 28536,450 
 
 17- 66701,884 
 
 18- 03576,700 
 18-39204,541 
 
 18- 73627,576 
 
 19- 06886,547 
 19-39020,818 
 
 19- 70068,423 
 2>')-00066,109 
 
 20- 29049,381 
 20-57052,542 
 
 20- 84108,736 
 
 21- 10249,987 
 21-35507,234 
 
 21-59910,371 
 
 21- 83488,281 
 
 22- 06268,870 
 22-28279,102 
 22-49545,026 
 22-70091,812 
 
 22- 89943,780 
 
 23- 09124,425 
 23-27656,449 
 23-45561,787 
 
 23-62861,630 
 23-79576,454 
 
 23- 95726,043 
 
 24- 11329,510 
 24-26405,323 
 24-40971,327 
 24-55044,760 
 24-68642,281 
 24-81779,981 
 
 24- 1)4473,412 
 
 25- 06737,596 
 25-18587,049 
 25-30035,796 
 25-41097,388 
 25-51784,916 
 25-62111,030 
 25-72087,951 
 25-81727,489 
 25-91041,053 
 26 00039,664 
 
 0-96153,846 
 1 -88609,467 
 
 2- 77509,103 
 
 3- 62989,522 
 
 4- 45182,233 
 
 5- 24213,686 
 600205,467 
 
 6- 73274,488 
 
 7- 43533,161 
 
 8- 11089,578 
 
 8- 76047,671 
 
 9- 38507,376 
 9-98564,785 
 
 10- 56312,293 
 
 11- 11838,744 
 
 11- 65229,561 
 
 12- 16566,886 
 
 12- 65929,698 
 
 13- 13393,940 
 
 13- 59032,635 
 
 14- 02915,995 
 14-45111,534 
 
 14- 85684,167 
 
 15- 24696,314 
 15-62207,995 
 
 15- 98276,918 
 
 16- 32958,575 
 16-66306,322 
 
 16- 98371,464 
 
 17- 29203,330 
 
 17-58849,356 
 
 17- 87355,150 
 
 18- 14764,567 
 18-41119,776 
 18-66461,323 
 
 18- 90828,199 
 
 19- 14257,880 
 19-36786,424 
 19-58448,484 
 19-79277,389 
 
 19- 99305,181 
 
 20- 18562,674 
 20-37079,494 
 20-54884,129 
 
 20- 72003,970 
 20 88465,356 
 
 21- 04293,612 
 21-19513,088 
 21-34147,200 
 21-48218,462 
 
 21-61748,521 
 21-74758,193 
 21-87267,493 
 
 21- 99295,667 
 
 22- 10861,218 
 22-21981,940 
 22-32674.943 
 22-42956,676 
 22-52842,957 
 22-62348,997 
 
 22-71489,421 
 22-80278,289 
 22-88729,124 
 
 22- ai854,927 
 23 04668,199 
 
 23- 12180,959 
 23-19404,768 
 23-26350,739 
 23-33029,-556 
 23-39451,497 
 
 per Cent. 
 
 5 per Cent, 
 
 0 95693,780 
 
 1- ^266,775 
 
 2- 74896,435 
 
 3- 58752,570 
 
 4- 38997,674 
 
 5- 15787,248 
 
 5- 89270,094 
 
 6- 59588,607 
 
 7- 26879,049 
 
 7- 91271,818 
 
 8- 52891,692 
 
 9- 11858,078 
 9-68285,242 
 
 10-22282,528 
 
 10- 73954,573 
 
 11- 23401,505 
 
 11- 70719,143 
 
 12- 15999,180 
 12 59329,359 
 
 13- 00793,645 
 
 13-40472,388 
 
 13- 78442,476 
 
 14- 14777,489 
 14-49547,837 
 
 14- 82820,896 
 1514661, 145 
 
 15- 45130,282 
 
 15- 74287,351 
 
 16- 02188,853 
 16-28888,854 
 
 16-54439,095 
 
 16- 78889,086 
 
 17 02286,207 
 
 17- 24675,796 
 17-46101,240 
 17-66604,058 
 
 17- 86223,979 
 
 18- 04999,023 
 18-22965,572 
 
 18 40158,442 
 
 18-56610,949 
 18-72354,976 
 
 18- 87421,029 
 
 19- 01838,306 
 19-15634,742 
 19-28837,074 
 19-41470,884 
 19-53560,655 
 19-65129,813 
 19-76200,778 
 
 19-86795,003 
 
 19- 96933,017 
 
 20- 06634,466 
 20-15918,149 
 £0-24802,057 
 20-33303,404 
 20-41438,664 
 20-49223,602 
 20-56673,303 
 20-63802,204 
 
 20-70624,119 
 20-77152,267 
 20-83399,2P8 
 20-89377,319 
 
 20- 95097,913 
 
 21- 00.572,165 
 210.'5810,685 
 21-10823,622 
 21-15620,691 
 21-20211,187 
 
 0- 95238,095 
 
 1- 85941,043 
 
 272324,803 
 
 3- 54595,050 
 
 4- 32947,667 
 
 5- 07569,207 
 
 5- 78637,340 
 
 6- 46321,276 
 
 7- 10782,167 
 
 7- 72173,493 
 
 8- 30641,422 
 
 8- 86325,164 
 
 9- 39357,299 
 9-89864,094 
 
 10-37965,804 
 
 10- 8.'r776,956 
 
 11- 27405,625 
 
 11- 68958,690 
 
 12- 08532,086 
 12-46221,034 
 
 12- 82115,271 
 
 13- 16300,258 
 13-48857,388 
 
 13- 79864,179 
 
 14- 09394,457 
 14-/7518,530 
 14-64303,362 
 
 14- 89812,726 
 
 15- 14107,358 
 15-37245,103 
 
 15-59281,050 
 
 15- 80267,667 
 
 16- 00254,921 
 1619290,401 
 16-37419,429 
 16-54685,171 
 16-71128,734 
 
 16- 86789,271 
 17 01704,067 
 
 17- 15908,636 
 
 17-29436,796 
 17-42320,758 
 17-54591,198 
 17-66277,331 
 17-77406,982 
 17-88006,650 
 
 17- 98101,571 
 
 18- 07715,782 
 18-16872,173 
 18-25592,546 
 
 18-33897,663 
 18-41807,298 
 18-49340,284 
 18-56514,556 
 18-63347,196 
 18-69854,473 
 18-76051,879 
 18-819.54,170 
 18-87'>75,400 
 18-92928,953 
 
 18- 98027,574 
 19 02886,404 
 
 19- 07508,003 
 19-11912,384 
 19-16107,033 
 19-20101,936 
 19-23906,606 
 19-27530,101 
 19-30981,048 
 19-34267,665 
 
 6 per Cent. 
 
 0- 94339,623 
 
 1- 83339,267 
 
 2- 67301,195 
 
 3- 46510,561 
 
 4- 21286,378 
 
 4- 91732,432 
 
 5- 58238,144 
 
 6- 20979,381 
 
 6- 801fi),227 
 
 7- 36008,705 
 
 7- 88687,457 
 
 8- 38384,393 
 
 8- 85268,295 
 
 9- 29498,392 
 971224,^98 
 
 10-10589,526 
 10-47725,968 
 
 10- 82760,3.47 
 11 15811,648 
 
 11- 46992,121 
 
 11- 76407,661 
 
 12- 04158,171 
 12-30337,897 
 12-55035,752 
 
 12- 78335,615 
 
 13- 00316,618 
 13-21053,413 
 13-40616,428 
 13-59072,101 
 13-76483,115 
 
 13- 92908,599 
 
 14- 08404,338 
 14-23022,961 
 14-36814,114 
 14-49824,636 
 14-62098,713 
 14-73678,031 
 14 84601,916 
 
 14- 94907,468 
 
 15- 04629,687 
 
 15-13801,591 
 
 15-22454,331 
 
 15-30617,294 
 
 15-38318,202 
 
 15-45583,209 
 
 15-52436,990 
 
 15-58902,821 
 
 15-65002,661 
 
 15-70757,227 . 
 
 15-76186,063 ' 
 
 15-81307,607 
 15-86139,252 
 15-90697,407 
 15-94997,554 
 
 15- 99054,296 
 
 16- 02881,412 
 1606491,898 
 16-09898,017 
 16-13lll,.3;36 
 16-16142,770 
 
 16-19002,613 
 16-21700,579 
 16-24245,829 
 16-26647,008 
 16-28912,272 
 16-31049,313 
 16-33065,390 
 16-34967,349 
 16-36761,650 
 16-38454,387 
 
INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 725 
 
 V. Table of Mortality; showing the Number ol Persons alive at the End of every Year, from 1 to K>0 
 Years of Age, out of 1,000 born together, in the different I'laces, and according to the Authorities un 
 dermentioned. 
 
 
 England. 
 
 France. 
 
 1 
 
 Sweden" 
 
 Vienna. 
 
 Berlin. 
 
 — 
 Swit/cr 
 land. 
 
 Silesia. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 if 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 ■a 
 
 .2 
 
 13 S 
 
 • 
 
 -•1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Breslaw. 
 
 
 < 
 
 . . 
 
 11 
 
 
 Beysham 
 Carlisle. 
 
 c g 
 
 ^ M 
 
 i: 3 
 
 5 Oh 
 
 If 
 
 
 
 ■« > 
 
 
 
 
 Northa 
 
 Depar 
 Annuita 
 
 B §• 
 
 '5 (2 
 
 
 1 
 
 '1 
 
 
 Kerss: 
 1 Life An 
 
 1 
 
 ' 
 
 680 
 
 743 
 
 84G 
 
 745 
 
 731 
 
 708 
 
 — 
 
 780 
 
 — — 
 
 • 542 
 
 T^nn 
 
 633 
 
 81 1 
 
 769 
 
 804 
 
 2 
 
 548 
 
 625 
 
 778 
 
 709 
 
 632 
 
 672 
 
 730 
 
 471 
 
 528 
 
 76.5 
 
 638 
 
 7<J8 
 
 3 
 
 492 
 
 582 
 
 725 
 
 682 
 
 591 
 
 625 
 
 095 
 
 430 
 
 485 
 
 735 
 
 614 
 
 730 
 
 4 
 
 452 
 
 553 
 
 700 
 
 662 
 
 557 
 
 599 
 
 671 
 
 400 
 
 434 
 
 715 
 
 585 
 
 709 
 
 5 
 
 426 
 
 636 
 
 680 
 
 647 
 
 540 
 
 583 
 
 656 
 
 377 
 
 403 
 
 701 
 
 563 
 
 689 
 
 6 
 
 410 
 
 521 
 
 668 
 
 634 
 
 523 
 
 573 
 
 644 
 
 3.57 
 
 387 
 
 088 
 
 546 
 
 676 
 
 7 
 
 397 
 
 509 
 
 659 
 
 624 
 
 51 1 
 
 566 
 
 634 
 
 344 
 
 376 
 
 677 
 
 532 
 
 664 
 
 8 
 
 388 
 
 499 
 
 654 
 
 615 
 
 601 
 
 .560 
 
 625 
 
 337 
 
 367 
 
 667 
 
 523 
 
 6.52 
 
 9 
 
 380 
 
 492 
 
 649 
 
 607 
 
 494 
 
 556 
 
 618 
 
 331 
 
 361 
 
 (159 
 
 515 
 
 646 
 
 10 
 
 373 
 
 487 
 
 646 
 
 600 
 
 489 
 
 551 
 
 611 
 
 327 
 
 3-56 
 
 6-53 
 
 608 
 
 6.39 
 
 11 
 
 367 
 
 483 
 
 643 
 
 595 
 
 486 
 
 547 
 
 606 
 
 322 
 
 353 
 
 648 
 
 502 
 
 633 
 
 12 
 
 361 
 
 478 
 
 640 
 
 590 
 
 482 
 
 543 
 
 602 
 
 318 
 
 350 
 
 643 
 
 497 
 
 627 
 
 13 
 
 356 
 
 474 
 
 637 
 
 585 
 
 479 
 
 538 
 
 597 
 
 314 
 
 347 
 
 639 
 
 492 
 
 621 
 
 14 
 
 351 
 
 470 
 
 634 
 
 581 
 
 476 
 
 534 
 
 594 
 
 310 
 
 344 
 
 635 
 
 488 
 
 616 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 347 
 
 465 
 
 630 
 
 578 
 
 472 
 
 529 
 
 •590 
 
 306 
 
 341 
 
 631 
 
 483 
 
 611 
 
 343 
 
 461 
 
 626 
 
 574 
 
 468 
 
 524 
 
 686 
 
 302 
 
 338 
 
 626 
 
 479 
 
 606 
 
 17 
 
 338 
 
 457 
 
 622 
 
 570 
 
 464 
 
 519 
 
 582 
 
 299 
 
 335 
 
 622 
 
 474 
 
 601 
 
 18 
 
 334 
 
 452 
 
 618 
 
 565 
 
 459 
 
 514 
 
 578 
 
 295 
 
 332 
 
 618 
 
 470 
 
 ■ 590 
 
 19 
 
 329 
 
 446 
 
 613 
 
 561 
 
 455 
 
 608 
 
 574 
 
 291 
 
 328 
 
 614 
 
 465 
 
 690 
 
 20 
 
 325 
 
 441 
 
 009 
 
 556 
 
 449 
 
 602 
 
 .570 
 
 288 
 
 324 
 
 610 
 
 461 
 
 584 
 
 21 
 
 321 
 
 434 
 
 605 
 
 551 
 
 445 
 
 496 
 
 •565 
 
 284 
 
 320 
 
 606 
 
 456 
 
 577 
 
 22 
 23 
 
 316 
 
 428 
 
 601 
 
 545 
 
 438 
 
 490 
 
 560 
 
 280 
 
 315 
 
 602 
 
 451 
 
 571 
 
 310 
 
 421 
 
 596 
 
 540 
 
 432 
 
 484 
 
 555 
 
 276 
 
 310 
 
 597 
 
 446 
 
 566 
 
 24 
 
 305 
 
 415 
 
 592 
 
 534 
 
 430 
 
 478 
 
 551 
 
 273 
 
 305 
 
 592 
 
 441 
 
 559 
 
 25 
 
 299 
 
 409 
 
 588 
 
 629 
 
 419 
 
 471 
 
 546 
 
 269 
 
 297 
 
 587 
 
 436 
 
 551 
 
 26 
 
 294 
 
 402 
 
 584 
 
 523 
 
 414 
 
 465 
 
 541 
 
 265 
 
 293 
 
 682 
 
 431 
 
 643 
 
 27 
 
 288 
 
 396 
 
 579 
 
 617 
 
 408 
 
 458 
 
 535 
 
 261 
 
 287 
 
 677 
 
 426 
 
 535 
 
 28 
 
 283 
 
 389 
 
 575 
 
 512 
 
 402 
 
 452 
 
 530 
 
 256 
 
 281 
 
 5i 2 
 
 421 
 
 526 
 
 29 
 
 278 
 
 383 
 
 570 
 
 506 
 
 398 
 
 445 
 
 525 
 
 251 
 
 275 
 
 567 
 
 415 
 
 517 
 
 30 
 
 272 
 
 376 
 
 564 
 
 500 
 
 388 
 
 438 
 
 519 
 
 247 
 
 269 
 
 563 
 
 409 
 
 508 
 
 31 
 
 266 
 
 370 
 
 559 
 
 495 
 
 384 
 
 432 
 
 513 
 
 243 
 
 264 
 
 558 
 
 403 
 
 499 
 
 32 
 
 260 
 
 364 
 
 553 
 
 490 
 
 377 
 
 425 
 
 507 
 
 239 
 
 2.59 
 
 5.53 
 
 397 
 
 490 
 
 33 
 
 254 
 
 357 
 
 547 
 
 484 
 
 371 
 
 418 
 
 501 
 
 235 
 
 2-54 
 
 548 
 
 391 
 
 482 1 
 
 34 
 
 248 
 
 351 
 
 542 
 
 479 
 
 366 
 
 411 
 
 495 
 
 231 
 
 249 
 
 544 
 
 384 
 
 474 ! 
 
 35 
 
 242 
 
 344 
 
 536 
 
 474 
 
 355 
 
 404 
 
 488 
 
 226 
 
 243 
 
 539 
 
 377 
 
 467 < 
 
 36 
 
 236 
 
 338 
 
 531 
 
 460 
 
 339 
 
 397 
 
 482 
 
 221 
 
 237 
 
 533 
 
 370 
 
 460 1 
 
 37 
 
 230 
 
 331 
 
 525 
 
 464 
 
 341 
 
 390 
 
 477 
 
 216 
 
 230 
 
 527 
 
 363 
 
 453 i 
 
 38 
 
 224 
 
 325 
 
 ' 519 
 
 459 
 
 334 
 
 383 
 
 471 
 
 211 
 
 223 
 
 520 
 
 356 
 
 446 
 
 39 
 
 218 
 
 318 
 
 514 
 
 454 
 
 330 
 
 376 
 
 465 
 
 20^5 
 
 216 
 
 .513 
 
 349 
 
 439 
 
 40 
 
 212 
 
 312 
 
 508 
 
 449 
 
 314 
 
 369 
 
 459 
 
 199 
 
 209 
 
 506 
 
 342 
 
 432 
 
 41 
 
 207 
 
 305 
 
 501 
 
 444 
 
 310 
 
 362 
 
 
 194 
 
 203 
 
 500 
 
 335 
 
 425 
 
 42 
 
 201 
 
 299 
 
 499 
 
 439 
 
 302 
 
 355 
 
 44.5 
 
 189 
 
 197 
 
 494 
 
 328 
 
 419 
 
 43 
 
 194 
 
 292 
 
 487 
 
 434 
 
 297 
 
 348 
 
 437 
 
 185 
 
 192 
 
 488 
 
 321 
 
 413 
 
 44 
 
 187 
 
 285 
 
 480 
 
 429 
 
 292 
 
 341 
 
 430 
 
 181 
 
 187 
 
 482 
 
 314 
 
 407 
 
 45 
 
 180 
 
 279 
 
 473 
 
 424 
 
 279 
 
 334 
 
 422 
 
 176 
 
 182 
 
 476 
 
 307 
 
 400 
 
 46 
 
 174 
 
 272 
 
 466 
 
 419 
 
 273 
 
 327 
 
 414 
 
 171 
 
 177 
 
 469 
 
 299 
 
 393 
 
 47 
 
 167 
 
 265 
 
 459 
 
 413 
 
 269 
 
 320 
 
 407 
 
 165 
 
 172 
 
 461 
 
 291 
 
 386 
 
 48 
 
 159 
 
 259 
 
 452 
 
 408 
 
 262 
 
 312 
 
 400 
 
 159 
 
 167 
 
 451 
 
 283 
 
 378 
 
 49 
 
 153 
 
 252 
 
 456 
 
 402 
 
 258 
 
 305 
 
 392 
 
 153 
 
 162 
 
 441 
 
 275 
 
 370 
 
 50 
 
 147 
 
 245 
 
 440 
 
 396 
 
 242 
 
 297 
 
 385 
 
 147 
 
 157 
 
 431 
 
 267 
 
 362 
 
 51 
 
 141 
 
 238 
 
 434 
 
 390 
 
 239 
 
 289 
 
 376 
 
 142 
 
 152 
 
 422 
 
 259 
 
 354 
 
 52 
 
 135 
 
 231 
 
 428 
 
 384 
 
 233 
 
 282 
 
 367 
 
 137 
 
 147 
 
 414 
 
 250 
 
 345 
 
 53 
 
 130 
 
 224 
 
 421 
 
 378 
 
 229 
 
 274 
 
 358 
 
 133 
 
 142 
 
 406 
 
 241 
 
 336 
 
 54 
 
 125 
 
 217 
 
 414 
 
 371 
 
 224 
 
 265 
 
 349 
 
 128 
 
 137 
 
 397 
 
 232 
 
 327 
 
 55 
 
 120 
 
 210 
 
 407 
 
 363 
 
 212 
 
 258 
 
 340 
 
 123 
 
 132 
 
 388 
 
 224 
 
 318 
 
 56 
 
 116 
 
 203 
 
 400 
 
 355 
 
 207 
 
 249 
 
 331 
 
 117 
 
 127 
 
 377 
 
 216 
 
 309 
 
 57 
 
 111 
 
 196 
 
 392 
 
 346 
 
 202 
 
 240 
 
 322 
 
 Hi 
 
 121 
 
 364 
 
 209 
 
 300 
 
 58 
 
 106 
 
 189 
 
 384 
 
 338 
 
 194 
 
 232 
 
 31 2 
 
 106 
 
 115 
 
 348 
 
 201 
 
 291 
 
 59 
 
 101 
 
 182 
 
 375 
 
 329 
 
 190 
 
 223 
 
 303 
 
 101 
 
 109 
 
 331 
 
 193 
 
 282 
 
 CO 
 
 96 
 
 175 
 
 364 
 
 319 
 
 168 
 
 214 
 
 293 
 
 96 
 
 103 
 
 314 
 
 186 
 
 273 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 168 
 
 352 
 
 309 
 
 165 
 
 204 
 
 282 
 
 91 
 
 97 
 
 299 
 
 178 
 
 264 
 
 62 
 
 87 
 
 161 
 
 340 
 
 299 
 
 157 
 
 195 
 
 271 
 
 87 
 
 92 
 
 286 
 
 170 
 
 255 
 
 63 
 
 83 
 
 154 
 
 327 
 
 288 
 
 1.50 
 
 186 
 
 259 
 
 82 
 
 88 
 
 274 
 
 163 
 
 245 
 
 64 
 
 78 
 
 147 
 
 314 
 
 278 
 
 144 
 
 176 
 
 247 
 
 77 
 
 84 
 
 262 
 
 156 
 
 235 
 
 6ft 
 
 74 
 
 140 
 
 302 
 
 267 
 
 135 
 
 166 
 
 285 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 250 
 
 147 
 
 225 
 
 66 
 
 70 
 
 133 
 
 289 
 
 256 
 
 126 
 
 157 
 
 224 
 
 67 
 
 75 
 
 236 
 
 140 
 
 215 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 126 
 
 277 
 
 245 
 
 117 
 
 147 
 
 212 
 
 62 
 
 70 
 
 220 
 
 132 
 
 205 
 
 68 
 
 61 
 
 119 
 
 265 
 
 234 
 
 106 
 
 137 
 
 20O 
 
 57 
 
 65 
 
 202 
 
 124 
 
 195 
 
 €9 
 
 56 
 
 113 
 
 251 
 
 222 
 
 96 
 
 129 
 
 187 
 
 52 
 
 60 
 
 184 
 
 117 
 
 185 
 
 70 
 
 52 
 
 106 
 
 240 
 
 211 
 
 90 
 
 118 
 
 175 
 
 48 
 
 55 
 
 168 
 
 109 
 
 175 
 
 71 
 
 47 
 
 99 
 
 228 
 
 199 
 
 86 
 
 108 
 
 162 
 
 44 
 
 51 
 
 153 
 
 101 
 
 165 
 
 72 
 
 43 
 
 92 
 
 214 
 
 187 
 
 75 
 
 99 
 
 149 
 
 40 
 
 47 
 
 140 
 
 93 
 
 1.55 
 
 73 
 
 39 
 
 85 
 
 200 
 
 175 
 
 70 
 
 89 
 
 135 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 129 
 
 85 
 
 145 1 
 
 n 
 
 35 
 
 78 
 
 184 
 
 162 
 
 63 
 
 80 
 
 121 
 
 33 
 
 39 
 
 119 
 
 77 
 
 135 
 
 75 
 
 32 
 
 71 
 
 168 
 
 148 
 
 52 
 
 72 
 
 108 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 109 ! 
 
 69 
 
 125 ' 
 
 3 A S 
 
726 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 Table of Mortality — {continued.) 
 
 
 England. 
 
 France. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Vienna. 
 
 Berlin. 
 
 Switzer- 
 land. 
 
 Silesia. 
 
 Holland.! 
 
 ( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 . ^ 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Simpson. 
 London. 
 
 Price. 
 Northampt< 
 
 Heysham. 
 Carlisle. 
 
 Deparcieux 
 Annuitants, ( 
 
 Part Populat 
 
 Duvillard. 
 Whole Popula 
 
 1(2 
 
 ;§ 
 s 
 1 
 
 Susmilch. 
 
 Muret. 
 Pays de Vau 
 
 Halley. 
 Breslaw. 
 
 Kertseboom 
 Life Annuita; 
 
 76 
 
 28 
 
 65 
 
 152 
 
 134 
 
 _ 
 47 
 
 
 96 
 
 27 
 
 32 
 
 98 
 
 61 
 
 114 
 
 77 
 
 25 
 
 58 
 
 136 
 
 120 
 
 42 
 
 56 
 
 84 
 
 £4 
 
 29 
 
 85 
 
 53 
 
 103 
 
 78 
 
 22 
 
 52 
 
 121 
 
 106 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 75 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 71 
 
 55" 
 
 92 
 
 79 
 
 19 
 
 46 
 
 108 
 
 94 
 
 34 
 
 41 
 
 65 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 58 
 
 38 
 
 82 
 
 80 
 
 17 
 
 40 
 
 95 
 
 81 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 56 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 46* 
 
 32 
 
 72 
 
 81 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 84 
 
 70 
 
 21 
 
 29 
 
 47 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 26 
 
 
 82 
 
 I'i 
 
 30 
 
 73 
 
 69 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 53 
 
 83 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 62 
 
 49 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 45 
 
 84 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 53 
 
 40 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 38 
 
 85 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 45 
 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 1& 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 31 
 
 86 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 37 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 25 
 
 87 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 88 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 89 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 90- 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 91 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 5 
 
 92 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 93 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 94 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 97 
 98 
 
 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 VI. Table of the Progressive Decrement of Life among 1,000 Infants of each Sex, born together, 
 according to Mr. Finlaison's Observations on the Mortality of the Nominees in the Government 
 Tontines and Life Annuities in Great Britain. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Fe- 
 males' 
 
 Age. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Fe- 
 males. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Fe- 
 males. 
 
 Age. 
 
 JMales. 
 
 Fe- 
 males. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Fe- 
 males. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Fe- 
 males. 
 
 0 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 17 
 
 860 
 
 870 
 
 34 
 
 696 
 
 748 
 
 51 
 
 552 
 
 616 
 
 68 
 
 322 
 
 443 
 
 83 
 
 56 
 
 117 
 
 1 
 
 981 
 
 981 
 
 18 
 
 854 
 
 863 
 
 35 
 
 687 
 
 740 
 
 52 
 
 542 
 
 608 
 
 69 
 
 305 
 
 428 
 
 86 
 
 44 
 
 103 
 
 2 
 
 963 
 
 967 
 
 19 
 
 846 
 
 856 
 
 36 
 
 679 
 
 732 
 
 53 
 
 531 
 
 601 
 
 70 
 
 288 
 
 412 
 
 87 
 
 34 
 
 89 
 
 3 
 
 949 
 
 955 
 
 20 
 
 837 
 
 848 
 
 37 
 
 670 
 
 724 
 
 54 
 
 520 
 
 593 
 
 71 
 
 270 
 
 595 
 
 88 
 
 24 
 
 76 
 
 4 
 
 937 
 
 945 
 
 ■21 
 
 827 
 
 841 
 
 38 
 
 662 
 
 716 
 
 55 
 
 508 
 
 585 
 
 72 
 
 253 
 
 '377 
 
 89 
 
 17 
 
 64 
 
 5 
 
 927 
 
 935 
 
 22 
 
 816 
 
 834 
 
 39 
 
 653 
 
 708 
 
 56 
 
 495 
 
 576 
 
 73 
 
 235 
 
 358 
 
 90 
 
 11 
 
 52 
 
 6 
 
 919 
 
 926 
 
 23 
 
 804 
 
 827 
 
 40 
 
 644 
 
 700 
 
 57 
 
 482 
 
 568 
 
 74 
 
 218 
 
 339 
 
 91 
 
 7 
 
 41 
 
 7 
 
 912 
 
 919 
 
 24 
 
 79-3 
 
 820 
 
 41 
 
 636 
 
 693 
 
 58 
 
 468 
 
 559 
 
 75 
 
 202 
 
 319 
 
 92 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 906 
 
 913 
 
 25 
 
 782 
 
 813 
 
 42 
 
 627 
 
 685 
 
 59 
 
 454 
 
 549 
 
 76 
 
 185 
 
 298 
 
 93 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 901 
 
 908 
 
 26 
 
 771 
 
 805 
 
 43 
 
 619 
 
 677 
 
 60 
 
 440 
 
 539 
 
 77 
 
 171 
 
 277 
 
 94 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 896 
 
 903 
 
 27 
 
 761 
 
 798 
 
 44 
 
 610 
 
 669 
 
 61 
 
 426 
 
 529 
 
 78 
 
 156 
 
 255 
 
 95 
 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 891 
 
 899 
 
 28 
 
 751 
 
 791 
 
 45 
 
 602 
 
 661 
 
 62 
 
 413 
 
 519 
 
 79 
 
 141 
 
 233 
 
 96 
 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 886 
 
 895 
 
 29 
 
 742 
 
 784 
 
 46 
 
 594 
 
 654 
 
 63 
 
 399 
 
 508 
 
 80 
 
 125 
 
 210 
 
 97 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 881 
 
 892 
 
 30 
 
 732 
 
 777 
 
 47 
 
 586 
 
 646 
 
 64 
 
 385 
 
 496 
 
 81 
 
 110 
 
 189 
 
 98 
 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 876 
 
 • 887 
 
 31 
 
 723 
 
 770 
 
 48 
 
 578 
 
 638 
 
 65 
 
 370 
 
 484 
 
 82 
 
 95 
 
 168 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 872 
 
 883 
 
 32 
 
 714 
 
 763 
 
 49 
 
 570 
 
 631 
 
 66 
 
 355 
 
 471 
 
 83 
 
 81 
 
 149 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 866 
 
 876 
 
 33 
 
 705 
 
 755 
 
 50 
 
 561 
 
 623 
 
 67 
 
 339 
 
 457 
 
 84 
 
 68 
 
 132 
 
 
 
 
 VII. Table showing the Expectation op Life at every Age, according to the Observations made at 
 
 Northampton. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect. 
 
 0 
 
 25-18 
 
 17 
 
 35-20 
 
 33 
 
 26-72 
 
 49 
 
 J 8 -49 
 
 65 
 
 10-88 
 
 81 
 
 4-41 
 
 1 
 
 32-74 
 
 18 
 
 34-58 
 
 34 
 
 26-20 
 
 50 
 
 17-99 
 
 66 
 
 10-42 
 
 82 
 
 4-09 
 
 2 
 
 37-79 
 
 19 
 
 33-99 
 
 35 
 
 25-68 
 
 51 
 
 17-50 
 
 67 
 
 9-96 
 
 83 
 
 3-80 
 
 3 
 
 39-55 
 
 20 
 
 33-43 
 
 36 
 
 2516 
 
 52 
 
 17-02 
 
 68 
 
 9-50 
 
 84 
 
 3-.58 
 
 4 
 
 40-58 
 
 21 
 
 32-90 
 
 37 
 
 24-64 
 
 53 
 
 16-54 
 
 69 
 
 9-05 
 
 85 
 
 3-37 
 
 
 40-84 
 
 22 
 
 32-39 
 
 38 
 
 2412 
 
 54 
 
 16-06 
 
 70 
 
 8-60 
 
 86 
 
 3-19 
 
 I 
 
 41 -O? 
 
 23 
 
 31-88 
 
 39 
 
 23-60 
 
 55 
 
 1.5-58 
 
 71 
 
 8-17 
 
 87 
 
 3-01 
 
 7 
 
 41-03 
 
 24 
 
 31 -.36 
 
 40 
 
 23-08 
 
 56 
 
 15-10 
 
 72 
 
 7-74 
 
 88 
 
 2-86 
 
 8 
 
 4()-79 
 
 25 
 
 30-83 
 
 41 
 
 22-56 
 
 57 
 
 14-63 
 
 73 
 
 7-33 
 
 89 
 
 2-66 
 
 9 
 
 40-.36 
 
 26 
 
 30-33 
 
 42 
 
 22-04 
 
 58 
 
 14-15 
 
 74 
 
 6-92 
 
 90 
 
 2-41 
 
 10 
 
 39-78 
 
 27 
 
 29-82 
 
 43 
 
 21 -.54 
 
 59 
 
 13-68 
 
 75 
 
 6.54 
 
 91 
 
 2-09 
 
 11 
 
 39-14 
 
 28 
 
 29 ■30 
 
 44 
 
 21 03 
 
 60 
 
 13-21 
 
 76 
 
 618 
 
 92 
 
 1-75 
 
 12 
 
 38-49 
 
 29 
 
 28-79 
 
 45 
 
 20-52 
 
 61 
 
 12-75 
 
 77 
 
 5-83 
 
 93 
 
 1-37 
 
 13 
 
 37-83 
 
 30 
 
 28-27 
 
 46 
 
 20-02 
 
 62 
 
 12-28 
 
 78 
 
 5-48 
 
 94 
 
 1-05 
 
 14 
 
 37-17 
 
 31 
 
 27-76 
 
 47 
 
 19-51 
 
 63 
 
 11-81 
 
 79 
 
 .5-11 
 
 95 
 
 0-75 
 
 15 
 
 36 51 
 
 
 27-24 
 
 48 
 
 1900 
 
 (v4 
 
 11-35 
 
 80 
 
 4-75 
 
 96 
 
 0-50 
 
 16 
 
 35-85 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 72' 
 
 VIII. Table showing the Expectation' of Life at every Age, according to the Observations made at 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect. 
 ' 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Expect. 
 
 0 
 
 38'72 
 
 18 
 
 42-87 
 
 36 
 
 30-32 
 
 53 
 
 18-97 
 
 70 
 
 ,- 
 
 9-li) 
 
 87 
 
 371 
 
 1 
 
 44'68 
 
 19 
 
 42-17 
 
 37 
 
 29 61 
 
 54 
 
 18-28 
 
 71 
 
 8 60 
 
 88 
 
 3-59 
 
 2 
 
 47 
 
 20 
 
 4146 
 
 38 
 
 28-96 
 
 55 
 
 17-58 
 
 72 
 
 816 
 
 89 
 
 3-47 
 
 
 49 "82 
 
 21 
 
 40-75 
 
 39 
 
 28*28 
 
 56 
 
 16-89 
 
 73 
 
 772 
 
 90 
 
 3*28 
 
 4 
 
 50"76 
 
 22 
 
 40-04 
 
 40 
 
 27 -61 
 
 57 
 
 16-21 
 
 74 
 
 7-33 
 
 91 
 
 3-26 
 
 5 
 
 5V25 
 
 23 
 
 39-31 
 
 41 
 
 26 97 
 
 58 
 
 15-55 
 
 75 
 
 7-01 
 
 92 
 
 3-37 
 
 6 
 
 5117 
 
 24 
 
 38-59 
 
 42 
 
 26-34 
 
 59 
 
 14-92 
 
 76 
 
 6 69 
 
 93 
 
 3-48 
 
 7 
 
 50-80 
 
 25 
 
 37-8ti 
 
 43 
 
 25-71 
 
 60 
 
 14-34 
 
 77 
 
 640 
 
 94 
 
 3-53 
 
 8 
 
 50-24 
 
 26 
 
 37-14 
 
 41 
 
 25 09 
 
 61 
 
 13-82 
 
 78 
 
 6-12 
 
 95 
 
 3-53 
 
 9 
 
 49-57 
 
 27 
 
 36-41 
 
 45 
 
 24-46 
 
 62 
 
 13-31 
 
 79 
 
 5-80 
 
 96 
 
 3-46 
 
 10 
 
 48-82 
 
 28 
 
 35-69 
 
 46 
 
 23-82 
 
 63 
 
 12-81 
 
 80 
 
 5-51 
 
 in 
 
 3-28 
 
 U 
 
 48-04 
 
 29 
 
 35-00 
 
 47 
 
 2J-17 
 
 (i4 
 
 12;iO 
 
 81 
 
 5-21 
 
 98 
 
 3-07 
 
 12 
 
 47-27 
 
 30 
 
 34-34 
 
 48 
 
 22-.'30 
 
 65 
 
 11-79 
 
 82 
 
 4-93 
 
 99 
 
 277 
 
 13 
 
 46-51 
 
 31 
 
 33-68 
 
 49 
 
 21-81 
 
 66 
 
 11-27 
 
 83 
 
 4-65 
 
 100 
 
 2-28 
 
 14 
 
 45-75 
 
 32 
 
 33-03 
 
 50 
 
 21-11 
 
 67 
 
 10-75 
 
 84 
 
 4-39 
 
 101 
 
 179 
 
 15 
 
 45-00 
 
 33 
 
 32-36 
 
 51 
 
 20-39 
 
 68 
 
 10-23 
 
 85 
 
 4-12 
 
 102 
 
 1-30 
 
 16 
 
 44-27 
 
 34 
 
 31-68 
 
 52 
 
 19-68 
 
 69 
 
 9-70 
 
 86 
 
 3-90 
 
 103 
 
 0-83 
 
 17 
 
 43-57 
 
 35 
 
 31 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IX. lable giving a Comparative View of the Results of the undermentioned Tables of Mortality, in 
 Relation to the following Particulars. 
 
 By 
 Dr. Price's 
 
 Table, 
 founded on 
 the Register 
 of Births and 
 Burials at 
 Northamp- 
 ton. 
 
 Of 100,000 persons aged^ 
 25, there would be aiive > 
 at the age of 65 - -J 
 
 Of 100,000 persons aged^ 
 65, there would be alive > 
 at the age of SO - -J 
 
 Expectation of life at the 1 
 age of 25 - years J 
 
 Expectation of life at the? 
 age of 65 - years 3 
 
 Value of an annuity on^ 
 a life aged 25, interest > 
 being at 4 per cent. -J 
 
 Value of an annuity on^ 
 a life aged 65, interest > 
 being at 4 per cent. -J 
 
 Value of a deferred an. 
 nuity commencing 
 65, to a life now aged 25 
 interest at 4 per cent 
 
 in-T 
 atf 
 
 25, f 
 ;. -J 
 
 the First 
 Swedish 
 Tables, as 
 published by 
 Dr. Price; 
 for both 
 Sexes. 
 
 34,286 
 
 28,738 
 30-85 
 10-88 
 15-438 
 
 £ 7761 
 £ 0-55424 
 
 By 
 Mr. De- 
 
 parcieux's 
 Tal)le, 
 founded 
 on the 
 Mortality in 
 the French 
 Tontines, 
 prior to 
 1745. 
 
 43,137 
 23,704 
 
 34-58 
 10-10 
 
 £ 16-839 
 £ 7-328 
 
 £ 0-65842 
 
 51,033 
 
 29,837. 
 
 37-17 
 11-25 
 
 £ 17-420 
 
 £ 8 -039 
 
 £ 0-85452 
 
 By 
 
 Mr. Milne's 
 
 Table, 
 
 founded 
 
 on the 
 Mortality 
 observed at 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 51,335 
 
 31,577 
 37-86 
 11-79 
 17-645 
 
 .^•8-307 
 £ 0-88823 
 
 By 
 
 Mr. Griffith 
 
 Davies's 
 Table, 
 founded on 
 the Expe- 
 rience ot the 
 EquhWible 
 Life Insur- 
 ance Office. 
 
 49,330 
 
 37,267 
 
 37-45 
 12-35 
 
 £ 17-494 
 
 ^8-635 
 
 £ 0-88723 
 
 By Mr. Finlaison's 
 Table, founded on the 
 Experience of the Govern- 
 ment Life Annuities. 
 
 According 1 According 
 to his First to his Second] 
 Investiga- I Investiga- 
 tion, as men- tion, as men- 
 tioned in his tioned in 
 Evidence his Evidence 
 in 1.S25. in 1827. 
 
 53,470 
 
 38,655 
 
 38-35 
 12-81 
 
 .£•17-534 
 
 £ 8-896 
 
 £ 0-99078 
 
 53,950 
 
 37,355 
 38-52 
 12-50 
 
 ;£ri7-634 
 
 ^8751 
 
 £ 0-98334 
 
 Note. — In all the Tables above mentioned, it is to be observed that the mortality is deduced from an 
 equal, or nearly equal, number of each sex ; with the single exception of Mr. Davies's Table, founded on 
 the experience of the Equitable, in which office, from the practical objects of life insurance, it is 
 evident the male sex must have composed the vast majority of lives subjected to mortality. But as it is 
 agreed on all hands that the duration of life among females exceeds that of males, it follows that the 
 results of Mr. Davies's Table fall materially short of what they would have been, if the facts on which he 
 has reasoned had comprehended an equal number of each sex. The Tables have not, in all cases, been 
 computed at ^ per cent., the rate allowed by government. 
 
 S A 4 
 
728 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 X. Table showing the Value op an Annuity on a Single Life, according to the Northampton Table 
 
 of Mortality. 
 
 Age. 
 
 3 per Cent. 
 
 4 per Cent. 
 
 5 per Cent. 
 
 Age. 
 
 3 per Cent. 
 
 4 per Cent. 
 
 5 per Cent. 
 
 Age. 
 
 3 per Cent. 
 
 4 per Cent. 
 
 5 per Cent*| 
 
 1 
 
 16-021 
 
 13 465 
 
 11-563 
 
 33 
 
 16-343 
 
 14-347 
 
 12740 
 
 65 
 
 8-304 
 
 7761 
 7-488 
 
 7-276 
 7-034 
 
 2 
 
 18 599 
 
 15-633 
 
 13-420 
 
 34 
 
 16-142 
 
 14-195 
 
 12-623 
 
 66 
 
 7-994 
 
 3 
 
 19-575 
 
 16-462 
 
 14-135 
 
 35 
 
 15-938 
 
 14-039 
 
 12-502 
 
 67 
 
 7-682 
 
 7-211 
 
 6787 
 
 4 
 
 20-210 
 
 17-010 
 
 14-613 
 
 36 
 
 15-729 
 
 13-880 
 
 12-377 
 
 68 
 
 7-367 
 
 6-930 
 
 6-536 
 
 5 
 
 20-473 
 
 17-248 
 
 14-827 
 
 37 
 
 15-515 
 
 13716 
 
 12-249 
 
 69 
 
 7-051 
 
 6-647 
 
 6-281 
 
 6 
 
 20-727 
 
 17-482 
 
 15041 
 
 38 
 
 15-298 
 
 13-548 
 
 12-116 
 
 70 
 
 6734 
 
 6-361 
 
 6-023 
 
 7 
 
 20-853 
 
 17-611 
 
 15-166 
 
 39 
 
 15-075 
 
 13-375 
 
 11-979 
 
 71 
 
 6-418 
 
 6 075 
 
 5764 
 
 8 
 
 20-885 
 
 17-662 
 
 15 226 
 
 40 
 
 14-848 
 
 13-197 
 
 11-837 
 
 72 
 
 6-103 
 
 5-790 
 
 5-504 
 
 9 
 
 20-812 
 
 17-625 
 
 15-210 
 
 41 
 
 14-620 
 
 13-018 
 
 11-695 
 
 73 
 
 5794 
 
 5-507 
 
 5-245 
 
 10 
 
 20-663 
 
 17-523 
 
 15139 
 
 42 
 
 14-391 
 
 12-838 
 
 11-551 
 
 74 
 
 5-491 
 
 5-230 
 
 4-990 
 
 11 
 
 20-480 
 
 17-393 
 
 15043 
 
 43 
 
 14-162 
 
 12-657 
 
 11-407 
 
 75 
 
 5-199 
 
 4-962 
 
 4-744 
 
 12 
 
 20-283 
 
 17-251 
 
 14-937 
 
 44 
 
 13-929 
 
 12-472 
 
 11-258 
 
 76 
 
 4-925 
 
 4710 
 
 4-511 
 
 13 
 
 20-081 
 
 17-103 
 
 14-826 
 
 45 
 
 13-692 
 
 12-283 
 
 11-105 
 
 77 
 
 4-652 
 
 4-457 
 
 4-277 
 
 14 
 
 19-872 
 
 16 950 
 
 14-710 
 
 46 
 
 13-450- 
 
 12-089 
 
 10-947 
 
 78 
 
 4-372 
 
 4-197 
 
 4-035 
 
 15 
 
 19-657 
 
 16-791 
 
 14-588 
 
 47 
 
 13-203 
 
 11-890 
 
 10-784 
 
 79 
 
 4-077 
 
 3-921 
 
 3-776 
 
 16 
 
 19-435 
 
 16-625 
 
 14-460 
 
 48 
 
 12-951 
 
 11-685 
 
 10-616 
 
 80 
 
 3718 
 
 3-643 
 
 3-515 
 
 17 
 
 19-2-18 
 
 16-462 
 
 14-334 
 
 49 
 
 12-693 
 
 11-475 
 
 10-443 
 
 81 
 
 3-499 
 
 3-377 
 
 3-263 
 
 18 
 
 19-013 
 
 16-309 
 
 14-217 
 
 50 
 
 12-436 
 
 11-264 
 
 10-269 
 
 82 
 
 3-229 
 
 3-122 
 
 3-020 
 
 19 
 
 18-820 
 
 16-167 
 
 14-108 
 
 51 
 
 12-183 
 
 11-057 
 
 10-097 
 
 83 
 
 2-982 
 
 2-887 
 
 2-797 
 
 20 
 
 18-638 
 
 16-033 
 
 14-007 
 
 52 
 
 11-930 
 
 10-849 
 
 9-925 
 
 84 
 
 2-793 
 
 2708 
 
 2-627 
 
 21 
 
 18-470 
 
 15-912 
 
 13-917 
 
 53 
 
 11-674 
 
 10-6.37 
 
 9-478 
 
 85 
 
 2-620 
 
 2-543 
 
 2-471 
 
 22 
 
 18311 
 
 15-797 
 
 13*833 
 
 54 
 
 11 414 
 
 10-421 
 
 9 567 
 
 86 
 
 2 461 
 
 2-393 
 
 2-328 
 
 23 
 
 18-148 
 
 15 680 
 
 13746 
 
 55 
 
 11-150 
 
 10-201 
 
 9-382 
 
 87 
 
 2-312 
 
 2-251 
 
 2-193 
 
 24 
 
 17-983 
 
 15-560 
 
 13-658 
 
 56 
 
 10-882 
 
 9-977 
 
 9193 
 
 88 
 
 2-185 
 
 2-131 
 
 2-080 
 
 27 
 
 17-814 
 
 15-438 
 
 13-567 
 
 57 
 
 10-611 
 
 • 9-749 
 
 8-999 
 
 89 
 
 2-015 
 
 1-967 
 
 1-924 
 
 26 
 
 17-642 
 
 15S12 
 
 13-473 
 
 58 
 
 10-337 
 
 9-516 
 
 8-801 
 
 90 
 
 1794 
 
 1-758 
 
 1723 
 
 27 
 28 
 
 17-467 
 
 15-184 
 
 13-377 
 
 59 
 
 10-058 
 
 9-280 
 
 8-599 
 
 91 
 
 1-501 
 
 1-474 
 
 1-447 
 
 17-289 
 
 15-053 
 
 13-278 
 
 60 
 
 9-777 
 
 9-039 
 
 8-392 
 
 92 
 
 1-190 
 
 1-171 
 
 1-153 
 
 29 
 
 17-107 
 
 14-918 
 
 13-177 
 
 61 
 
 9-493 
 
 8795 
 
 8-181 
 
 93 
 
 0-839 
 
 0-827 
 
 0-816 
 
 30 
 
 16-922 
 
 14-781 
 
 13-072 
 
 62 
 
 9-205 
 
 8-547 
 
 7-966 
 
 94 
 
 0-536 
 
 0-530 
 
 0-524 
 
 31 
 
 16-732 
 
 14-639 
 
 12-965 
 
 63 
 
 8-910 
 
 8-291 
 
 7-742 
 
 95 
 
 0-242 
 
 0-240 
 
 0-238 
 
 32 
 
 16-540 
 
 14-495 
 
 12-854 
 
 64 
 
 8-611 
 
 8-030 
 
 7-514 
 
 96 
 
 0-000 
 
 0-000 
 
 0-000 
 
 XL Table sho-wing the Value of an Annuity on a Single Life, according to the Carlisle Table 01 
 
 Mortality. 
 
 20- 085 
 
 21- 501 
 
 22- 683 
 
 23- 285 
 23-693 
 23-846 
 23-867 
 23-801 
 23-677 
 23-512 
 23-327 
 23-143 
 22-957 
 22769 
 22-582 
 22-404 
 22-232 
 22-058 
 21-879 
 21-694 
 21-504 
 21-304 
 21-098 
 20-885 
 20-665 
 20-442 
 20-212 
 19-981 
 19761 
 19-556 
 19-348 
 19-134 
 18-910 
 18-675 
 18-433 
 
 16- 556 
 
 17- 728 
 18717 
 19-233 
 19-592 
 19-747 
 19-790 
 19-766 
 19-693 
 19-585 
 19-460 
 19-336 
 19-210 
 19-082 
 
 18- 956 
 18-837 
 18723 
 18-608 
 18-488 
 18-363 
 18-233 
 18-095 
 17-951 
 17-801 
 17-645 
 17 -486 
 17 -.320 
 17-154 
 16-997 
 16-8.'52 
 16-705 
 16-552 
 16-390 
 16-219 
 16 041 
 
 13- 995 
 
 14- 983' 
 
 15- 824 
 
 16- 271 
 16-590 
 16735 
 16-790 
 16786 
 16742 
 16-669 
 16-581 
 16-494 
 16-406 
 16-316 
 16-227 
 16-144 
 16-066 
 15-987 
 15-904 
 15-817 
 15-726 
 15-628 
 15-525 
 15-417 
 15-303 
 15-187 
 15-065 
 14-942 
 14-827 
 14723 
 14-617 
 U-506 
 14-387 
 14-260 
 14127 
 
 Age. 
 
 3 per Cent. 
 
 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 
 
 Age. 
 
 3 per Cent. 
 
 4 per Cent. 
 
 5 per Cent. 
 
 36 
 
 18-183 
 
 15-856 
 
 13-987 
 
 70 
 
 7-123 
 
 6709 
 
 6-336 
 
 37 
 
 17-928 
 
 15-666 
 
 13-843 
 
 71 
 
 6-737 
 
 6-358 
 
 6-015 
 
 38 
 
 17-669 
 
 15-471 
 
 13-695 
 
 72 
 
 6-373 
 
 6-026 
 
 5711 
 
 39 
 
 17-405 
 
 15-272 
 
 13-542 
 
 73 
 
 6-044 
 
 5725 
 
 5-435 
 
 40 
 
 17-143 
 
 15-074 
 
 13-390 
 
 74 
 
 5-752 
 
 5-458 
 
 5-190 
 
 41 
 
 16-890 
 
 14-883 
 
 13-245 
 
 75 
 
 5-512 
 
 5-239 
 
 4-989 
 
 42 
 
 16-640 
 
 14-694 
 
 13-101 
 
 76 
 
 5-277 
 
 5-024 
 
 4-792 
 
 43 
 
 16-389 
 
 14-505 
 
 12-957 
 
 77 
 
 5-059 
 
 4-825 
 
 4-609 
 
 44 
 
 16-130 
 
 14-S08 
 
 12-806 
 
 78- 
 
 4-838 
 
 4-622 
 
 4-422 
 
 45 
 
 15-863 
 
 14-104 
 
 12-648 
 
 79 
 
 4-592 
 
 4-394 
 
 4-210 
 
 46 
 
 15-585 
 
 13-889 
 
 12-480 
 
 80 
 
 4-365 
 
 4-183 
 
 4-015 
 
 47 
 
 15-294 
 
 13-662 
 
 12-301 
 
 81 
 
 4-119 
 
 3-953 
 
 3799 
 
 48 
 
 14-986 
 
 13-419 
 
 12-107 
 
 82 
 
 3-898 
 
 3746 
 
 3-606 
 
 49 
 
 14-554 
 
 13-153 
 
 11-892 
 
 83 
 
 3-672 
 
 3-534 
 
 3-406 
 
 50 
 
 14-303 
 
 12-869 
 
 11-660 
 
 84 
 
 3-454 
 
 3-329 
 
 3-211 
 
 51 
 
 13-S32 
 
 12-566 
 
 11-410 
 
 85 
 
 3-229 
 
 3-115 
 
 3-009 
 
 52 
 
 13-558 
 
 12-258 
 
 ll-UA 
 
 86 
 
 3-033 
 
 2-928 
 
 2-830 
 
 53 
 
 13-180 
 
 11-945 
 
 10-892 
 
 87 
 
 2-873 
 
 2776 
 
 2-685 
 
 54 
 
 12798 
 
 11-627 
 
 10-624 
 
 88 
 
 2776 
 
 2-683 
 
 2-597 
 
 55 
 
 12-408 
 
 n-300 
 
 10-347 
 
 89 
 
 2-665 
 
 2-577 
 
 2-495 
 
 56 
 
 12-014 
 
 10-966 
 
 10-063 
 
 90 
 
 2-499 
 
 2-416 
 
 2-339 
 
 57 
 
 11-614 
 
 10-625 
 
 9771 
 
 91 
 
 2-481 
 
 2-398 
 
 2-321 
 
 58 
 
 11-218 
 
 10-286 
 
 9-478 
 
 92 
 
 2-577 
 
 2-492 
 
 2-412 
 
 59 
 
 10-841 
 
 9-963 
 
 9-199 
 
 93 
 
 2-687 
 
 2-600 
 
 2-518 
 
 60 
 
 10-491 
 
 9-663 
 
 8-940 
 
 94 
 
 2-736 
 
 2-650 
 
 2-569 
 
 61 
 
 10-180 
 
 9-398 
 
 8712 
 
 95 
 
 2-757 
 
 2-674 
 
 2-596 
 
 62 
 
 9-875 
 
 9-137 
 
 8-487 
 
 96 
 
 2-704 
 
 2-628 
 
 2-555 
 
 63 
 
 9-567 
 
 8-872 
 
 8-258 
 
 97 
 
 2-559 
 
 2-492 
 
 2-428 
 
 64 
 
 9-246 
 
 8-593 
 
 8-016 
 
 98 
 
 2-388 
 
 2-332 
 
 2-278 
 
 65 
 
 8-917 
 
 8-307 
 
 7-765 
 
 99 
 
 2-131 
 
 2-067 
 
 2-045 
 
 66 
 
 8-578 
 
 8-010 
 
 7-503 
 
 100 
 
 1-683 
 
 1-653 
 
 1-624 
 
 67 
 
 8-228 
 
 7700 
 
 7-227 
 
 101 
 
 1-228 
 
 1-210 
 
 1-192 
 
 68, 
 
 7-869 
 
 7-380 
 
 6-941 
 
 102 
 
 0-771 
 
 0-762 
 
 0-753 
 
 69 
 
 7-499 
 
 7-049 
 
 6-643 
 
 103 
 
 0-324 
 
 0-321 
 
 0-317 
 
INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 729 
 
 XIL Table showing the Value of an Annuity on the joint Con riNnANCK of Two Lives or EyuAL 
 Ages, according to the Northampton Table of Mortality. 
 
 1 Ases. 
 
 3 per 
 Cent. 
 
 4 per 
 Cent. 
 
 5 per 
 Cent. 
 
 ■Ages. 
 
 3 per 
 Cent. 
 
 4 \>CT 
 
 Cent. 
 
 5 per 
 Cent. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 3 per 
 Cent. 
 
 4 per 
 Cent. 
 
 .5 per 
 Cent. 
 
 1 & 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 9-490 
 
 8-252 
 
 7-287 
 
 33 & 33 
 
 12-079 
 
 - 
 
 10-902 
 
 9'919 
 
 65 
 
 & 
 
 65 
 
 5 -471 
 
 5-201 
 
 ■" — 
 
 4-960 
 
 2 — 
 
 o 
 
 12-789 
 
 1 1-107 
 
 9-793 
 
 34 — 34 
 
 11-902 
 
 10-759 
 
 9-801 
 
 66 
 
 — 
 
 66 
 
 5-231 
 
 4-982 
 
 4-759 
 
 3 — 
 
 3 
 
 14191 
 
 12-325 
 
 10-862 
 
 35 — 35 
 
 11-722 
 
 10-612 
 
 9 -680 
 
 67 
 
 — 
 
 67 
 
 4 989 
 
 4-7(X) 
 
 4-555 
 
 4 — 
 
 4 
 
 15-181 
 
 13-185 
 
 11-621 
 
 36 — 36 
 
 11-539 
 
 ]0"4<)2 
 
 9-555 
 
 68 
 
 — 
 
 68 
 
 4-747 
 
 4 537 
 
 4 -34s 
 
 5 — 
 
 5 
 
 15638 
 
 13-591 
 
 1 1 -984 
 
 37 — 37 
 
 1 1-351 
 
 10-307 
 
 9-427 
 
 69 
 
 — 
 
 69 
 
 4-504 
 
 4-312 
 
 4140 
 
 6 — 
 
 6 
 
 16099 
 
 14-005 
 
 12-358 
 
 38 — 38 
 
 11 -160 
 
 10-149 
 
 9 294 
 
 70 
 
 — 
 
 70 
 
 4 -261 
 
 4 -087 
 
 3-930 
 
 7^ 
 
 7 
 
 16 375 
 
 14-224 
 
 12-596 
 
 39 — 39 
 
 10-9f)4 
 
 9-986 
 
 9-158 
 
 71 
 
 — 
 
 71 
 
 4 020 
 
 3-8Ci2 
 
 3-719 
 
 8 — 
 
 8 
 
 16510 
 
 14-399 
 
 12-731 
 
 40 — 40 
 
 10-764 
 
 9-8i^0 
 
 9-OI6 
 
 72 
 
 — 
 
 72 
 
 3 -781 
 
 3-639 
 
 3-510 
 
 9 — 
 
 9 
 
 16483 
 
 14-396 
 
 12-744 
 
 41 — 41 
 
 10-;")(i5 
 
 9-654 
 
 8-87(i 
 
 73 
 
 — 
 
 73 
 
 3*548 
 
 3-421 
 
 3-304 
 
 lo- 
 
 10 
 
 16339 
 
 14-277 
 
 12-669 
 
 42 — 42 
 
 10-369 
 
 9-491 
 
 8 -737 
 
 74 
 
 — 
 
 74 
 
 3-324 
 
 3211 
 
 3-105 
 
 ll— 
 
 11 
 
 16-142 
 
 14-133 
 
 12-546 
 
 43 — 43 
 
 10-175 
 
 9-326 
 
 8-599 
 
 75 
 
 — 
 
 75 
 
 3114 
 
 3-015 
 
 2-917 
 
 12 — 
 
 12 
 
 15 926 
 
 13966 
 
 12-411 
 
 44 — 44 
 
 9-977 
 
 9-I6I 
 
 8-457 
 
 76 
 
 — 
 
 76 
 
 2926 
 
 2-833 
 
 2*750 
 
 13 — 
 
 13 
 
 15-702 
 
 13 789 
 
 12-2ii8 
 
 45 — 45 
 
 9-776 
 
 8 990 
 
 8-312 
 
 77 
 
 — 
 
 77 
 
 2-741 
 
 2-656 
 
 2-583 
 
 14- 
 
 14 
 
 15470 
 
 13-604 
 
 12-118 
 
 46 — 46 
 
 9-571 
 
 8-815 
 
 8-162 . 
 
 78 
 
 — 
 
 78 
 
 2-550 
 
 2-470 
 
 2-410 
 
 1 15 — 
 
 15 
 
 15-229 
 
 13411 
 
 II-96O 
 
 47 — 47 
 
 9-362 
 
 8-637 
 
 8-008 
 
 79 
 
 — 
 
 79 
 
 2-338 
 
 2-271 
 
 2-217 
 
 ! 16- 
 
 16 
 
 14-979 
 
 13-212 
 
 ir793 
 
 48 — 48 
 
 9-149 
 
 8-453 
 
 7 849 
 
 80 
 
 — 
 
 80 
 
 2-122 
 
 2-068 
 
 2-018 
 
 1 17- 
 
 17 
 
 14-737 
 
 13-019 
 
 1 1 -630 
 
 49 — 49 
 
 8-9.5O 
 
 8-266 
 
 7-686 
 
 81 
 
 — 
 
 81 
 
 1917 
 
 1-809 
 
 1-827 
 
 1 18 — 
 
 18 
 
 14-516 
 
 12-841 
 
 11-483 
 
 50 — 50 
 
 8-714 
 
 8-080 
 
 7-522 
 
 82 
 
 — 
 
 82 
 
 r719 
 
 1681 
 
 l-64>2 
 
 1 1Q 
 
 19 
 
 14316 
 
 12-679 
 
 11-351 
 
 51 — 51 
 
 8-507 
 
 7-900 
 
 7-366 
 
 83 
 
 
 83 
 
 r538 
 
 1-510 
 
 1-472 
 
 20 — 
 
 20. 
 
 14'133 
 
 12-535 
 
 11 -232 
 
 52 — 52 
 
 8-304 
 
 7-723 
 
 7-213 
 
 84 
 
 
 84 
 
 1-416 
 
 1-387 
 
 1-357 
 
 21- 
 
 21 
 
 13974 
 
 12-409 
 
 irisi 
 
 53 — 53 
 
 8-098 
 
 7-544 
 
 7 '056 
 
 85 
 
 
 85 
 
 1-309 
 
 1-339 
 
 1-256 
 
 22 — 
 
 22 
 
 13-830 
 
 12-293 
 
 11-042 
 
 54 — 54 
 
 7-891 
 
 7-362 
 
 6-897 
 
 86 
 
 
 86 
 
 1-218 
 
 1195 
 
 1-171 
 
 1 23 — 
 
 23 
 
 13-683 
 
 12-179 
 
 10-951 
 
 55 — 55 
 
 7-681 
 
 7-179 
 
 6-735 
 
 87 
 
 
 87 
 
 1-141 
 
 1-124 
 
 1-098 
 
 24 — 
 
 24 
 
 13-534 
 
 12-062 
 
 10-858 
 
 56 — 56 
 
 7-470 
 
 6-993 
 
 6-571 
 
 88 
 
 
 88 
 
 1-103 
 
 l-05t) 
 
 1-063 
 
 25 — 
 
 25 
 
 13-383 
 
 11-944 
 
 10-764 
 
 57 — 57 
 
 7-256 
 
 6-805 
 
 6-404 
 
 89 
 
 
 89 
 
 1-036 
 
 1-015 
 
 1-001 
 
 26 — 
 
 26 
 
 13-230 
 
 11-822 
 
 10-667 
 
 58 — 58 
 
 7-041 
 
 6-614 
 
 6-234 
 
 90 
 
 
 90 
 
 0-938 
 
 0-922 
 
 0-909 
 
 27 — 
 
 27 
 
 13074 
 
 11-699 
 
 10-567 
 
 59—59 
 
 6-826 
 
 6-421 
 
 6-062 
 
 91 
 
 
 91 
 
 0-769 
 
 0-756 
 
 0-748 
 
 28 — 
 
 28 
 
 12-915 
 
 11-573 
 
 10-466 
 
 60 — 60 
 
 6-606 
 
 6-226 
 
 5-888 
 
 92 
 
 
 92 
 
 0-591 
 
 0-583 
 
 0-576 
 
 29 — 
 
 29 
 
 12-754 
 
 11-445 
 
 10-362 
 
 61—61 
 
 6-386 
 
 6-030 
 
 5-712 
 
 93 
 
 
 93 
 
 0-369 
 
 0-365 
 
 0-361 
 
 30 — 
 
 30 
 
 12-589 
 
 11-313 
 
 10-255 
 
 62 — 62 
 
 6-166 
 
 5-831 
 
 5 533 
 
 94 
 
 
 94 
 
 0-203 
 
 0-201 
 
 0-199 
 
 31 — 
 
 31 
 
 12-422 
 
 11-179 
 
 10-146 
 
 63 — 63 
 
 5-938 
 
 5-626 
 
 5-347 
 
 95 
 
 
 95 
 
 0-060 
 
 0-oeo 
 
 0-059 
 
 32 — 
 
 32 
 
 12-252 
 
 11-042 
 
 10-034 
 
 64 — 64 
 
 5-709 
 
 5-417 
 
 5-158 
 
 96 
 
 
 96 
 
 0-000 
 
 0-000 
 
 0-000 
 
 KlIL Table showing the Value of an Annuity on the joint Continuance of Two Lives of equai 
 Ages, according to the Carlisle Table of Mortality. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 3 per 
 Cent. 
 
 4 per 
 Cent. 
 
 5 per 
 Cent. 
 
 Ages 
 
 
 3 per 
 Cent. 
 
 4 per 
 Cent. 
 
 5 per 
 Cent. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 3 per 
 Cent. 
 
 4 per 
 Cent. 
 
 5 per 
 Cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1& 
 
 1 
 
 14-079 
 
 11-924 
 
 10-299 
 
 36 & 36 
 
 14-477 
 
 12-919 
 
 11-627 
 
 70 & 
 
 70 
 
 4-556 
 
 4-367 
 
 4-191 
 
 2 — 
 
 2 
 
 16-155 
 
 13-671 
 
 11-793 
 
 37 — 
 
 37 
 
 14-231 
 
 12-724 
 
 11-470 
 
 71 — 
 
 71 
 
 4-217 
 
 4 050 
 
 3-S93 
 
 3 — 
 
 3 
 
 18-030 
 
 15-260 
 
 13-162 
 
 38 — 
 
 58 
 
 13-981 
 
 12-525 
 
 11-309 
 
 72 — 
 
 72 
 
 3-904 
 3-631 
 
 3-755 
 
 3-615 
 
 4 — 
 
 4 
 
 19 065 
 
 16-147 
 
 13 932 
 
 39 — 
 
 39 
 
 13-727 
 
 12-322 
 
 11-144 
 
 73 — 
 
 73 
 
 3-497 
 
 3-371 
 
 5 — 
 
 5 
 
 19-815 
 
 16-801 
 
 14-507 
 
 40 — 
 
 40 
 
 13-481 
 
 12-125 
 
 10-984 
 
 74 — 
 
 74 
 
 3 400 
 
 3-279 
 
 316,5 
 
 6 — 
 
 6 
 
 20-156 
 
 17-112 
 
 14789 
 
 41 — 
 
 41 
 
 13-254 
 
 11-945 
 
 10-839 
 
 75 — 
 
 75 
 
 3-231 
 
 3-119 
 
 3-015 
 
 7 — 
 
 7 
 
 20-280 
 
 17-242 
 
 14-917 
 
 42 — 
 
 42 
 
 13 036 
 
 11-772 
 
 10-701 
 
 76 — 
 
 76 
 
 3-068 
 
 2-966 
 
 2-870 
 
 8 — 
 
 8 
 
 20-261 
 
 17-251 
 
 14-942 
 
 43 — 
 
 43 
 
 12-822 
 
 11-602 
 
 10-566 
 
 77 — 
 
 77 
 
 2-927 
 
 2-833 
 
 2744 
 
 9 — 
 
 9 
 
 20-146 
 
 17-179 
 
 14-898 
 
 44 — 
 
 44 
 
 12-600 
 
 11426 
 
 10-425 
 
 78 — 
 
 78 
 
 2-784 
 
 2-698 
 
 2-617 
 
 lo- 
 
 10 
 
 19-963 
 
 17049 
 
 14-803 
 
 45 — 
 
 45 
 
 12-371 
 
 11-243 
 
 10-278 
 
 79 — 
 
 79 
 
 2-610 
 
 2-533 
 
 2-460 
 
 ll— 
 
 11 
 
 19-748 
 
 16-891 
 
 14-684 
 
 46 — 
 
 46 
 
 12-128 
 
 11-047 
 
 10-119 
 
 80 — 
 
 80 
 
 2 459 
 
 2-390 
 
 2-324 
 
 12 — 
 
 12 
 
 19-538 
 
 16737 
 
 14-568 
 
 47 — 
 
 47 
 
 11-870 
 
 10-837 
 
 9-947 
 
 81 — 
 
 81 
 
 2-283 
 
 2-222 
 
 2-163 
 
 13 — 
 
 13 
 
 19-327 
 
 16-582 
 
 14-450 
 
 48 — 
 
 48 
 
 11-591 
 
 10-607 
 
 9756 
 
 82 — 
 
 82 
 
 2-135 
 
 2 079 
 
 2-027 
 
 14 — 
 
 14 
 
 19-115 
 
 16-425 
 
 14-331 
 
 49 — 
 
 49 
 
 11-279 
 
 10-345 
 
 9-535 
 
 ■83 — 
 
 83 
 
 1-978 
 
 1-929 
 
 1-882 
 
 15 — 
 
 15 
 
 18-908 
 
 16-272 
 
 14-215 
 
 50 — 
 
 50 
 
 10-942 
 
 10-059 
 
 9-291 
 
 84 — 
 
 84 
 
 1-82.5 
 
 1782 
 
 1741 
 
 16 — 
 
 16 
 
 18719 
 
 16-134 
 
 14-112 
 
 51 — 
 
 51 
 
 10-579 
 
 9-748 
 
 9023 
 
 85 — 
 
 85 
 
 1-657 
 
 1-619 
 
 1-583 
 
 17 — 
 
 17 
 
 18-542 
 
 16-007 
 
 14-018 
 
 52 — 
 
 52 
 
 10-215 
 
 9-434 
 
 8-751 
 
 86 — 
 
 86 
 
 1-509 
 
 1-476 
 
 1-444 
 
 18 — 
 
 18 
 
 18-365 
 
 15-880 
 
 13 925 
 
 53 — 
 
 53 
 
 9-849 
 
 9-117 
 
 8-474 
 
 87 — 
 
 87 
 
 1-389 
 
 1-359 
 
 1-331 
 
 19 — 
 
 19 
 
 18-182 
 
 15748 
 
 13-827 
 
 54 — 
 
 54 
 
 9-480 
 
 8796 
 
 8-192 
 
 88 — 
 
 88 
 
 1-328 
 
 1-301 
 
 1-275 
 
 20 — 
 
 20 
 
 17-993 
 
 15-610 
 
 13-724 
 
 55 — 
 
 55 
 
 9-103 
 
 8-465 
 
 7-900 
 
 89 — 
 
 89 
 
 1-248 
 
 1-223 
 
 1-199 
 
 21 — 
 
 21 
 
 17-797 
 
 15-466 
 
 13-616 
 
 56 — 
 
 56 
 
 8-721 
 
 8-128 
 
 7-600 
 
 90 — 
 
 90 
 
 1-088 
 
 1066 
 
 1-045 
 
 22 — 
 
 22 
 
 17-588 
 
 15-310 
 
 13-497 
 
 57 — 
 
 57 
 
 8-334 
 
 7783 
 
 7-293 
 
 91- 
 
 91 
 
 1-050 
 
 1-028 
 
 1-007 
 
 2.3 — 
 
 23 
 
 n-m 
 
 15-148 
 
 13-372 
 
 58- 
 
 58 
 
 7-954 
 
 7-444 
 
 6-988 
 
 92 — 
 
 92 
 
 1-120 
 
 1-C96 
 
 1-073 
 
 24 — 
 
 24 
 
 17-148 
 
 14-978 
 
 13-240 
 
 59 — 
 
 59 
 
 7-605 
 
 7-131 
 
 6705 
 
 93 — 
 
 93 
 
 1-226 
 
 1-199 
 
 1-173 
 
 2.5 — 
 
 25 
 
 16-916 
 
 14-800 
 
 13-101 
 
 60 — 
 
 60 
 
 7-295 
 
 6-854 
 
 6 456 
 
 94 — 
 
 94 
 
 1-302 
 
 1-273 
 
 1-245 
 
 26 — 
 
 26 
 
 16-681 
 
 14-620 
 
 12-960 
 
 61 — 
 
 61 
 
 7-044 
 
 6-630 
 
 6-257 
 
 95 — 
 
 95 
 
 1-383 
 
 1-353 
 
 1-323 
 
 27 — 
 
 27 
 
 16-437 
 
 14-431 
 
 12-811 
 
 62 — 
 
 62 
 
 6-804 
 
 6-417 
 
 6-067 
 
 96 — 
 
 96 
 
 1-424 
 
 1-394 
 
 1-364 
 
 28 — 
 
 28 
 
 16-196 
 
 14-244 
 
 12663 
 
 63 — 
 
 63 
 
 6-563 
 
 6-202 
 
 5-875 
 
 97 — 
 
 97 
 
 1-395 
 
 1-366 
 
 1-339 
 
 i 29 — 
 
 29 
 
 15-976 
 
 14075 
 
 12-530 
 
 64 — 
 
 64 
 
 6-308 
 
 5 974 
 
 5-669 
 
 98 — 
 
 9S 
 
 1-375 
 
 1-349 
 
 1-323 
 
 30- 
 
 30 
 
 15-784 
 
 13-930 
 
 12-419 
 
 65 — 
 
 65 
 
 6-047 
 
 5-738 
 
 5-456 
 
 99 — 
 
 99 
 
 1-294 
 
 1-272 
 
 1-251 
 
 1 31- 
 
 31 
 
 15-591 
 
 13-784 
 
 12-308 
 
 66 — 
 
 66 
 
 5774 
 
 5-490 
 
 5-230 
 
 100 — 
 
 100 
 
 0-991 
 
 0-976 
 
 0-962 
 
 32 — 
 
 32 
 
 15-392 
 
 13-632 
 
 12-191 
 
 67- 
 
 67 
 
 5-486 
 
 5-3.28 
 
 4-990 
 
 101 — 
 
 101 
 
 0 687 
 
 0-679 
 
 0-670 
 
 33 — 
 
 33 
 
 15-180 
 
 13-469 
 
 12-064 
 
 68 — 
 
 68 
 
 5-188 
 
 4954 
 
 4737 
 
 102 — 
 
 102 
 
 0387 
 
 0-383 
 
 0-379 
 
 34 — 
 
 34 
 
 14-954 
 
 13-294 
 
 11-926 
 
 i 69 — 
 
 
 4-877 
 
 4-666 
 
 4-471 
 
 103 — 
 
 106 
 
 0-108 
 
 0-107 
 
 0-106 
 
 35 — 
 
 35 
 
 14720 
 
 13111 
 
 11-780 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
730 
 
 INTEREST ANT) ANNUITIES. 
 
 XIV. Table showing the Value of an Annuity on the Joint Continuance of Two Lives, when the Diffeu- 
 ENCB OF Age is Five Years, according to the Northampton Table of Mortality, 
 
 Ages. 
 
 3 er 
 Cent. 
 
 4 er 
 Cent! 
 
 5 er 
 Cent. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 3 ler 
 Cent! 
 
 4 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cmt. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 3 per 
 Cent. 
 
 4 per 
 Cent. 
 
 5 per 
 Cent. 
 
 < X Of 
 
 Q 
 
 12-346 
 
 10-741 
 
 9-479 
 
 32 
 
 & 37 
 
 11-775 
 
 10-659 
 
 9-716 
 
 62 & 
 
 67 
 
 5-503 
 
 5-285 
 
 
 1 2 
 
 J 
 
 14-461 
 
 12-581 
 
 11-100 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 11-591 
 
 10-508 
 
 9-591 
 
 63 — 
 
 68 
 
 5-265 
 
 5-017 
 
 4-786 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 15-300 
 
 13-319 
 
 11-755 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 11-404 
 
 10-354 
 
 9 46 J 
 
 64 — 
 
 69 
 
 5-025 
 
 4-798 
 
 4-585 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 15-809 
 
 13-775 
 
 12-165 
 
 35 
 
 4Q 
 
 11-213- 
 
 10-196 
 
 9331 
 
 65 — 
 
 70 
 
 4782 
 
 4-573 
 
 4-378 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15-974 
 
 13-933 
 
 12-315 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 11-021 
 
 10-037 
 
 9 198 
 
 66 — 
 
 71 
 
 4-540 
 
 4-349 
 
 4-169 
 
 g 
 
 21 
 
 16-110 
 
 14-068 
 
 12-447 
 
 37 
 
 42 
 
 10-828 
 
 9-877 
 
 9-062 
 
 67 — 
 
 72 
 
 4-298 
 
 4-124 
 
 3-96O 
 
 J 
 
 12 
 
 16137 
 
 14111 
 
 12-498 
 
 38 
 
 42 
 
 10-634 
 
 9-716 
 
 8-927 
 
 68 — 
 
 73 
 
 4-059 
 
 3-901 
 
 3-752 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 16-089 
 
 14-089 
 
 12-492 
 
 39 
 
 44 
 
 10 437 
 
 9-550 
 
 8787 
 
 69 — 
 
 74 
 
 3-825 
 
 3 683 
 
 3-347 
 
 g 
 
 14 
 
 15-957 
 
 13 992 
 
 12-421 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 10-235 
 
 9-381 
 
 8-643 
 
 70 — 
 
 75 
 
 3-599 
 
 3-471 
 
 3-347 
 
 
 15 
 
 15-762 
 
 13-841 
 
 12-302 
 
 42 
 
 4g 
 
 10-033 
 
 9-210 
 
 8 -497 
 
 71 — 
 
 76 
 
 3-386 
 
 3-270 
 
 3259 
 
 ll — 
 
 16 
 
 15-538 
 
 13-664 
 
 12158 
 
 42 
 
 47 
 
 9-829 
 
 9-037 
 
 8-350 
 
 72 — 
 
 77 
 
 3-175 
 
 3-070 
 
 2-971 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 15-308 
 
 13-480 
 
 12-009 
 
 43 
 
 48 
 
 9-623 
 
 8-862 
 
 8-200 
 
 40 — 
 
 /8 
 
 2-963 
 
 2-869 
 
 2-780- 
 
 1Q 
 
 I'i — 
 
 18 
 
 15086 
 
 13-303 
 
 11-864 
 
 44 
 
 4g 
 
 9414 
 
 8 683 
 
 8-046 
 
 74 — 
 
 79 
 
 2-743 
 
 2-659 
 
 2-580 
 
 1 24 
 
 29 
 
 14-870 
 
 13-130 
 
 11-723 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 9-204 
 
 8-503 
 
 7-891 
 
 40 
 
 80 
 
 2-526 
 
 2-448 
 
 2-381 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 14-660 
 
 12-961 
 
 11-585 
 
 46 
 
 52 
 
 8-997 
 
 8-326 
 
 7-737 
 
 76 — 
 
 81 
 
 2-325 
 
 2-258 
 
 2-195 
 
 2g 
 
 21 
 
 14-457 
 
 12-799 
 
 11-452 
 
 47 
 
 52 
 
 8-790 
 
 8147 
 
 7-582 
 
 77 — 
 
 82 
 
 2-131 
 
 2-077 
 
 2-013 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 14265 
 
 12-646 
 
 11-327 
 
 48 
 
 53 
 
 8-579 
 
 7-965 
 
 7-424 
 
 10 
 
 83 
 
 1-947 
 
 1-899 
 
 1-838 
 
 28 
 
 23 
 
 14-082 
 
 12-500 
 
 11-209 
 
 49 
 
 54 
 
 8-366 
 
 7-780 
 
 7-262 
 
 79 — 
 
 84 
 
 1-792 
 
 1 751 
 
 1-750 
 
 19 — 
 
 24 
 
 13-908 
 
 12-361 
 
 11-096 
 
 50 
 
 — 55 
 
 8-151 
 
 7 593 
 
 7-098 
 
 80 — 
 
 85 
 
 1-645 
 
 1-608 
 
 1-573 
 
 20 — 
 
 25 
 
 13-741 
 
 12-229 
 
 10-989 
 
 51 
 
 — 56 
 
 7-910 
 
 ■ 7-409 
 
 6-936 
 
 81 — 
 
 86 
 
 1-510 
 
 1-478 
 
 1-447 
 
 21 — 
 
 26 
 
 13-584 
 
 12-105 
 
 10-890 
 
 52 
 
 — 57 
 
 7-730 
 
 7-225 
 
 6-774 
 
 82 — 
 
 87 
 
 1-385 
 
 1-356 
 
 1-329 
 
 22 — 
 
 27 
 
 13-4:33 
 
 11-987 
 
 10-796 
 
 53 
 
 — 58 
 
 7-518 
 
 7-039 
 
 6-609 
 
 83 — 
 
 88 
 
 1-284 
 
 1-259 
 
 1-235 
 
 23- 
 
 28 
 
 13-280 
 
 11-866 
 
 10-699 
 
 54 
 
 — 59 
 
 7-304 
 
 6-850 
 
 6-442 
 
 84 — 
 
 89 
 
 1-187 
 
 1 11 t 
 
 1-145 
 
 24 — 
 
 29 
 
 13-124 
 
 11-743 
 
 10-600 
 
 55 
 
 — 60 
 
 7-088 
 
 6-659 
 
 6272 
 
 85 — 
 
 90 
 
 1-074 
 
 1-054 
 
 1-038 
 
 25 — 
 
 30 
 
 12-966 
 
 11-618 
 
 10-499 
 
 56 
 
 — 61 
 
 6-870 
 
 6-465 
 
 6100 
 
 86 — 
 
 91 
 
 0-921 
 
 0-902 
 
 0-892 
 
 2fi — 
 
 31 
 
 12-805 
 
 11-489 
 
 10-396 
 
 57 
 
 — 62 
 
 6-651 
 
 6 270 
 
 5-925 
 
 87 — 
 
 92 
 
 0-755 
 
 0-738 
 
 0-734 
 
 27 — 
 
 32 
 
 12-641 
 
 11-359 
 
 10-289 
 
 58 
 
 — 63 
 
 6-427 
 
 6-070 
 
 5-744 
 
 88 — 
 
 93 
 
 0-561 
 
 0-554 
 
 0-547 
 
 28 — 
 
 33 
 
 12-474 
 
 11-225 
 
 10-181 
 
 59 
 
 — 64 
 
 6-201 
 
 5-867 
 
 5-561 
 
 89 — 
 
 94 
 
 0-377 
 
 0-373 
 
 0-369 
 
 29 — 
 
 34 
 
 12-304 
 
 11-088 , 
 
 10-069 
 
 60 
 
 -65 
 
 5-970 
 
 5-658 
 
 5-372 
 
 90 — 
 
 95 
 
 0-179 
 
 0-177 
 
 0-175 
 
 SO — 
 
 35 
 
 12-131 
 
 10948 
 
 9 954 
 
 61 
 
 -66 
 
 5-737 
 
 5-447 
 
 5-180 
 
 91 — 
 
 96 
 
 0-000 
 
 0-000 
 
 0-000 
 
 31 — 
 
 36 1 
 
 11-955 
 
 10-805 
 
 9-837 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XV. Table showing the Value of an Annuity on the Joint Continuance of Two Lives, when the Dif 
 FERENCE OF Age IS FivE Years, according to the Carlisle Table of Mortality. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 1 
 
 3 per 
 Cent. 
 
 4 per 
 Cent. 
 
 5 per 
 Cent. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 3 per 
 Cent. 
 
 4 per 
 Cent. 
 
 5 per 
 Cent. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 3 per 
 Cent. 
 
 4 per 
 Cent. 
 
 5 per 
 Cent. 
 
 1 & 
 
 6 
 
 16-828 
 
 14-269 
 
 12-331 
 
 34 & 39 
 
 14-290 
 
 12-773 
 
 11-508 
 
 67 & 
 
 72 
 
 4-580 
 
 4-386 
 
 4-207 
 
 2 — 
 
 7 
 
 18-087 
 
 15-341 
 
 13-258 
 
 35 — 40 
 
 14-048 
 
 12-581 
 
 11-354 
 
 68 — 
 
 73 
 
 4-297 
 
 4-123 
 
 3-961 
 
 3 — 
 
 8 
 
 19-100 
 
 16-214 
 
 14-019 
 
 36 — 41 
 
 13-812 
 
 12-394 
 
 11-204 
 
 69 — 
 
 74 
 
 4 035* 
 
 4-878 
 
 3-731 
 
 4 — 
 
 9 
 
 19-584 
 
 16-644 
 
 14-402 
 
 37 — 42 
 
 13-579 
 
 12-209 
 
 11-056 
 
 70- 
 
 75 
 
 3-804 
 
 3-661 
 
 3-528 
 
 5 — 
 
 10 
 
 19-874 
 
 16-913 
 
 14-649 
 
 38 — 43 
 
 13-346 
 
 12-024 
 
 10-907 
 
 71 — 
 
 76 
 
 3-568 
 
 3-439 
 
 3-319 
 
 6 — 
 
 11 
 
 19-935 
 
 16-989 
 
 14-731 
 
 39 — 44 
 
 13-107 
 
 11-833 
 
 10-753 
 
 72- 
 
 77 
 
 3-353 
 
 3-237 
 
 3-127 
 
 7 — 
 
 12 
 
 19-889 
 
 16-975 
 
 14736 
 
 40 — 45 
 
 12-868 
 
 11-641 
 
 10-598 
 
 73 — 
 
 78 
 
 3-152 
 
 3-047 
 
 2-948 
 
 8 — 
 
 13 
 
 19-771 
 
 16-900 
 
 14-689 
 
 41 —46 
 
 12-630 
 
 11-450 
 
 10-444 
 
 74 — 
 
 79 
 
 2-952 
 
 2-857 
 
 2767 
 
 9 — 
 
 14 
 
 19-606 
 
 16-785 
 
 14-606 
 
 42 — 47 
 
 12-389 
 
 11-256 
 
 10-287 
 
 75 — 
 
 80 
 
 2-790 . 
 
 2-704 
 
 2-623 
 
 iO — 
 
 15 
 
 19-410 
 
 16-643 
 
 14-500 
 
 43 — 48 
 
 12-139 
 
 11-053 
 
 10-121 
 
 76 — 
 
 81 
 
 2-618 
 
 2-540 
 
 2-467 
 
 . 11 — 
 
 16 
 
 19-208 
 
 16-495 
 
 14-389 
 
 44 — 49 
 
 11-868 
 
 10-830 
 
 9-937 
 
 77 — 
 
 82 
 
 2 471 
 
 2-400 
 
 2-353 
 
 12 — 
 
 17 
 
 19014 
 
 16-354 
 
 14-284 
 
 45 — 50 
 
 11-580 
 
 10-591 
 
 9-737 
 
 78 — 
 
 83 
 
 2-318 
 
 2-255 
 
 2-194 
 
 13- 
 
 18 
 
 •18-820 
 
 16-213 
 
 14-178 
 
 46 — 51 
 
 11-271 
 
 10-332 
 
 9 -51 9 
 
 79 — 
 
 84 
 
 2-155 
 
 2-099 
 
 2-045 
 
 14 — 
 
 19 
 
 18-622 
 
 16-068 
 
 14-069 
 
 47 — 52 
 
 10-955 
 
 10-065 
 
 9-292 
 
 80 — 
 
 85 
 
 1-993 
 
 1-943 
 
 1-895 
 
 15 — 
 
 20 
 
 18-423 
 
 15-922 
 
 13-959 
 
 48 — 53 
 
 10-628 
 
 9-787 
 
 9 054 
 
 81 — 
 
 86 
 
 1-834 
 
 1-790 
 
 1-747 
 
 16 — 
 
 21 
 
 18-230 
 
 15-781 
 
 13-853 
 
 49 — 54 
 
 10-284 
 
 9-492 
 
 8-799 
 
 82 — 
 
 87 
 
 1-704 
 
 1-664 
 
 1-626 1 
 
 17 — 
 
 22 
 
 18-036 
 
 15 639 
 
 13-746 
 
 50 — 55 
 
 9-924 
 
 9-181 
 
 8-528 
 
 83 — 
 
 88 
 
 1-606 
 
 1-569 
 
 1-535 ! 
 
 18 — 
 
 23 
 
 17-838 
 
 15-493 
 
 13-636 
 
 51—56 
 
 9-550 
 
 8-855 
 
 8-242 
 
 84 — 
 
 89 
 
 1-496 
 
 1-464 
 
 1-433 
 
 19 — 
 
 24 
 
 17-633 
 
 15-341 
 
 13-520 
 
 52 — 57 
 
 9172 
 
 8-524 
 
 7-950 
 
 85 — 
 
 90 
 
 1-835 
 
 1-307 
 
 1-279 1 
 
 20 — 
 
 25 
 
 17-421 
 
 15-182 
 
 13-398 
 
 53 — 58 
 
 8797 
 
 8-194 
 
 7-657 
 
 86 — 
 
 91 
 
 1-255 
 
 1-229 
 
 1-203 1 
 
 21 — 
 
 26 
 
 17-204 
 
 15-019 
 
 13-272 
 
 54 — 59 
 
 8-439 
 
 7-876 
 
 7-375 
 
 87 — 
 
 92 
 
 1-245 
 
 1-218 
 
 1-192 ! 
 
 22 — 
 
 27 
 
 16-977 
 
 14-846 
 
 13-137 
 
 55 — 60 
 
 8-098 
 
 7-574 
 
 7-106 
 
 88 — 
 
 93 
 
 1-272 
 
 1-245 
 
 1-219 i 
 
 23 — 
 
 28 
 
 16747 
 
 14-670 
 
 13-000 
 
 56 — 61 
 
 7788 
 
 7-299 
 
 6-860 
 
 89 — 
 
 94 
 
 1-266 
 
 1-240 
 
 1-214 j 
 
 24 — 
 
 29 
 
 16-524 
 
 14-500 
 
 12-867 
 
 57 — 62 
 
 •7-480 
 
 7-025 
 
 6-615 
 
 90 — 
 
 95 
 
 1-217 
 
 1191 
 
 1-167 1 
 
 25 — 
 
 30 
 
 16-311 
 
 14-339 
 
 12742 
 
 58 — 63 
 
 7-175 
 
 6-752 
 
 6-370 
 
 91 — 
 
 96 
 
 1-210 
 
 1-185 
 
 1-161 
 
 26- 
 
 31 
 
 16-097 
 
 14-176 
 
 12-615 
 
 .59 — 64 
 
 6-875 
 
 6-482 
 
 6-127 
 
 92 — 
 
 97 
 
 1-230 
 
 1-205 
 
 1-181 
 
 27 — 
 
 32 
 
 15-875 
 
 14-006 
 
 12-482 
 
 60 — 65 
 
 6-589 
 
 6-225 
 
 5-89 
 
 93 — 
 
 98 
 
 1-262 
 
 1-238 
 
 1-215 
 
 28- 
 
 33 
 
 15-648 
 
 13-830 
 
 12-344 
 
 61 — 66 
 
 6-323 
 
 5 986 
 
 5-678 
 
 94 — 
 
 99 
 
 1-234 
 
 1-212 
 
 1-191 
 
 29 — 
 
 34 
 
 15-424 
 
 13-657 
 
 12-206 
 
 62 — 67 
 
 6-054 
 
 5-743 
 
 5-458 
 
 95 — 
 
 100 
 
 1-072 
 
 1-055 
 
 l-0.'38 
 
 30 — 
 
 35 
 
 15-209 
 
 13-491 
 
 12-078 
 
 63 — 68 
 
 5 779 
 
 5-493 
 
 5-230 
 
 96 — 
 
 101 
 
 0-851 
 
 0-839 
 
 0-828 
 
 31 — 
 
 36 
 
 14-989 
 
 13 321 
 
 11-944 
 
 64 — 69 
 
 5-490 
 
 5-229 
 
 4-988 
 
 97 — 
 
 102 
 
 0-568 
 
 0-562 
 
 0-555 
 
 32 — 
 
 37 
 
 14764 
 
 13-146 
 
 11-806 
 
 65 — 70 
 
 5-193 
 
 4-956 
 
 4737 
 
 98 — 
 
 103 
 
 0-254 
 
 0-2.^2 
 
 0-249 
 
 33 — 
 
 38 
 
 14-531 
 
 12-964 
 
 11-661 
 
 66 — 71 
 
 4-882 
 
 4-667 
 
 4-469 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Northampton Table (Na VII.), by under-rating the duration of life, was a very advantageous 
 guide for the insurance offices to go by in insuring lives; but to whatever extent it miglit be beneficial 
 to them in this respect, it became equally injurious when they adoi)ted it as a guide in selling annuities. 
 And yet, singular as it may seem, some of the insurance offices granted annuities on the same terms that 
 they insured lives ; not perceiving that, if they gained by the latter transaction, they must obviously lose 
 by the former. Government al.so continued for a lengthened period to sell annuities according to the 
 Northampton Tables, and without making any distinction between male and female lives ! A glance at 
 the Tables of M. Dei>arcicux ought to have satisfied them that they were proceeding on entirely false 
 principles. But, in despite even of the admonitions of some of the most skilful mathematicians, this 
 system was persevered in till within these few years ! We understand that the loss thence arising to the 
 public may be moderately estimated at 2,000,000/. sterling. Nor will this appear a largo sum to those who 
 recollect that, supposing interest to be 4 per cent., there is a diff'orencc of no less than 91/. Is. in the value 
 of an annuity of 50A for life, to a person aged 45, between the Northampton and Carlisle Tables. 
 
INVOICE. — IONIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 731 
 
 INVOICE, an account of goods or merchandise sent by merchants to Ihcir cor- 
 respondents at home or abroad, in whicli the peculiar marks of each package, with other 
 particulars, arc set forth. — (Sec example, ante, p. 149.) 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS, the name given to tlie islands of Corfu, Paxo, Santa Maura, 
 Ithaca, Cephalonia, Zante, Cerigo, and their dependent islets. With the exception of 
 Cerigo, which lies opposite to the south-eastern extremity of the Morea, the rest lie pretty 
 contiguous, along the western coasts of Epirus and Greece ; the most northerly point of 
 Corfu being in lat. 39° 48' 15" N., and the most southerly point of Zante (Cape Kieri, 
 on which there is a light-house) being in lat. 37° 38' 35 ' N. Kapsali, the port of 
 Cerigo, is in lat. 36° 7' 30" N., Ion. 23^" E. 
 
 The area and present population of the different islands may be estimated as 
 follows : — 
 
 Islands. 
 
 Area in Square Miles, 
 15 to a Degree. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Corfu - - 
 
 Cephalonia . . - 
 Zante ... . . 
 
 Santa Maura - . - - 
 Ithaca and Calamos - - - . 
 Cerigo and Cerigotto ' • » - » 
 Paxo and Antipaxo - - . > 
 
 Totals 
 
 10-76 
 16-20 
 5-60 
 5-25 
 
 3- 32 
 
 4- 50 
 1-90 
 
 59,839 
 56,589 
 35,422 
 18,108 
 9,387 
 8,550 
 4,953 
 
 47-12* 
 
 192,848 
 
 Soil and Climate. — These are very various — Zante is the most fruitful. It consists principally of an 
 extensive plain, occupied by plantations of currants, and having an air of luxuriant fertility and richness. 
 Its climate is comparatively equal and fine, but it is very subject to earthquakes. Corfu and Cephalonia 
 are more rugged and less fruitful than Zante ; and the former from its vicinity to the snowy mountains of 
 Epirus, and the latter from the Black Mountain (the Mount ^Enos of antiquity) in its interior, are exposed 
 in winter to greatand sudden variations of temperature. In Januiiry, 1833, the cold was more rigorous than 
 usual, the frost damaging to a great extent the oranges and vines of these islands and those of Santa 
 Maura. The latter is, in the hot season, exceedingly unhealthy, — a consequence of the vapours arising 
 from the marshes, and the shallow seas to the N.E. Cerigo is rocky and sterile ; it is subject to continued 
 gales, and the currents seldom permit its waters to remain unruffled. 
 
 History, Government, S(c. — These islands have undergone many vicissitudes. Corfu, the ancient Cor- 
 cyra, was famous in antiquity for its naval power, and for the contest between it and its mother state Corinth, 
 which eventually terminated in the Peloponnesian war. Ithaca, the kingdom of Ulysses ; Cephalonia, 
 sometimes called Dulichium, from the name; of one of its cities; Zante, or Zacyntlius; Santa Maura, 
 known to the ancients by the names of Leucas or Leucadia, celebrated for its promontory, surmounted 
 by a temple of Apollo, whence Sappho precipitated herself into the ocean ; and Cerigo, or Cythera, the 
 birth-place of Helen, and sacred to Venus ; — have all acquired an immortality of renown. But, on com. 
 paring their present with their former state, we may well exclaim, — 
 
 Heu quantum hcsc Niobe, Niobe distabat ah ilia ! — 
 
 After innumerable revolutions, they fell, about 350 years ago, under the dominion of Venice. Since the 
 downfall of that republic, they have had several protectors, or rather masters, being successively under 
 the dominion of the Russians, the French, and the English. By the treaty of Paris, in 1815, they were 
 formed into a sort of semi-independent state. They enjoy an internal government of their own, under 
 the protection of Great Britain ; a Lord High Commissioner, appointed by the king of England, having 
 charge of the foreign relations, and of the internal, maritime, and sanitary police. His Majesty's com- 
 mander-in-chief has the custody of the fortresses, and the disposal of the forces. It is stipulated in the 
 treaty of Paris, that the islands may be called upon for the pay and subsistence of 3,000 men, as well as for 
 the repair of their fortresses occupied by the British troops. The executive government is vested in a 
 president nominated by the commissioner, and a senate of 5 members (1 for each of the larger islands of 
 Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, and Santa Maura, and 1 representing collectively the smaller ones of Ithaca, 
 Cerigo, and Paxo, by each of which he is elected in rotation). The senators are elected at the com- 
 mencement of every quinquennial parliament (subject to a negative from the commissioner) from a 
 legislative chamber of 40 members, themselves elected by the constituencies of the difierent islands, 
 for 5 years. The senate and legislative assembly, together with the commissioner, are thus the supreme 
 authority : they are, when united, termed the Parliament, and, as such, pass, amend, and repeal laws, in 
 the mode prescribed by the constitution of 1817. Besides the general government, there is in each island 
 a local administration, composed of a regent, named by the senate, and from 2 to 5 municipal officers elected 
 by their fellow citizens. 
 
 The State of Society, in these islands, is far from being good, and was formerlv.he most depraved ima- 
 ginable. The people, when they were placed under the regis of England, were at once lazy, ignorant, 
 superstitious, cowardly, and bloodthirsty. Their vices may, we believe, be, in a great degree, ascribed to 
 the government and religion established amongst them. The latter consisted of little more than a series 
 of fasts and puerile observances; while the former was both weak and corrupt. The Venetians appointed 
 to situations of power and emolument belonged mostly to noble but decayed f:imilies, and looked upon 
 their offices merely as means by which they might repair their shattered fortunes. Hence the grossest 
 corruption pervaded every department. There was no crime for which impunity might not be purchased. 
 Justice, in fact, was openly bought and sold ; and suits were decided, not according to the principles of 
 law or equity, but by the irresistible influence of faction or of gold. In consequence, the islands became 
 a prey to all the vices that afflict and degrade a corrupt and semi-barbarous society. Sandys, one of the 
 best English travellers who ever visited the Levant, having touched at Zante in 1610, expresses himself 
 with respect to the inhabitants as follows : — " In habite they imitate the Italians, but transcend them in 
 their revenges, and infinitely less civil. They will threaten to kill a merchant that will not buy their 
 commodities ; and make more conscience to breake a last than commit a murther. He is weary of his life 
 that hath a difference with any of them, and will walke abroad after daylight But cowardice is joined 
 with their crueltie, who dare doe nothing but sodainly upon advantage ; and are ever privately armed. 
 They are encouraged to villainies by the remissnesseof their laws. The labourers do go into the fields with 
 swords and partizans, as if in an enemie's countrey ; bringing home their oils and wines in hogskins, the 
 inside turned out."— (p. 7. ed. 1637.) 
 
 • This is equal to 1001-3 Englirh square miles of 69-15 to the degree. 
 
732 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 If the Zantiotes did hot deteriorate during the next 2 centuries, which, indeed, was hardly pos- 
 sible, they certainly did not improve. Dr. Holland, by whom they were visited in 1812, fells us that 
 he heard, " on sure authority, that the number of assassinations in Zante has been more than 1 for 
 each day of the year, though the population was only WfiOO I {Travels in the Ionian Isles, &c. 4to ed. 
 p. 23.) 
 
 Matters were, if not quite so bad, very little better in the other islands. In Cephalonia, the inhabitants 
 were divided into factions, entertaining the most implacable animosities, and waging a war of extermination 
 against each other. A little vigour on the part of their rulers would have served to suppress their mur- 
 derous contestR But this was not an object they wished to attain : on the contrary, their selfish and 
 crooked policy made them seek to strengthen their own, power by fomenting the dissensions that prevailed 
 amongst their subjects. — {Bellin, Descriptmi du Golfe de Venise, p. 165.) Considering the state of so- 
 ciety at home, we need not wonder that the Cephalonians, who were distinguished among the islanders for 
 activity and enterprise, were much addicted to emigration. The Venetians attempted to check its pre- 
 valence; but, as they neglected the only means by which it could be prevented, — the establishment of 
 security and good order at home, — their efforts were wholly unsuccessful. 
 
 The islanders did not, however, satisfy themselves with attempting to stab and prey upon each other. 
 They were much addicted to piracy, particularly the inhabitants of Santa Maura and Cerigo ; and it has 
 been alleged that the Venetian government participated in the profits of this public robbery, which, at all 
 events, they took little pains to suppress. 
 
 A long series of years will be required to eradicate vices so deeply rooted, and to effect that thorough 
 change in the habits and morals of the people that is so indispensable. The power and influence of the 
 British government has already, however, had a very decided effect : assassination has become com. 
 paratively unknown ; pirac> has been suppressed ; and a spirit of industry, sincerity, and fair dealing is 
 beginning to manifest itself. The present generation of nobles possess a superior degree of information, 
 and a knowledge of the true interests of their country, which, if not all that could be wished, was, at 
 least, unknown to their fathers. It is not easy to exaggerate the difficulties with which Sir Thomas 
 Maitland had to struggle during the first years of the British government. He was opposed by every 
 means that feudal rancour, corruption, and duplicity could throw in his way. Those accustomed to the 
 treachery, shuffling, and jobbing of the Venetian and Russo-Turkish governments, and the intrigues of 
 the French, could neither appreciate nor understand the plain, straightforward course natural to British 
 officers. These difficulties have, however, materially diminished ; and it is to bo hoped that the influence 
 of our example, and of that education now pretty generally diffused, will gradually accomplish the re- 
 generation of the islanders. 
 
 Manufactures, <^c.— These islands possess few manufactures properly so termed. The wives of the villaTii, 
 or peasants, spin and weave a coarse kind of woollen cloth, sufficient in great part for the use of their fa- 
 mines. A little soap is made at Corfu and Zante. The latter manufactures a considerable quantity of 
 silk gros-de-Naples and handkerchiefs; the art of dyeing is, however, too httle studied, and the esta- 
 blishments are on too small a scale. The peasantry, in general, are lazy, vain, delighting in display, and 
 very superstitious. Those of Zante and Cephalonia are more industrious than the Corfiotcs ; in the first, 
 particularly, their superior condition is probably to be ascribed, in part at least, to the nobles residing 
 more on their estates in the country, and contributing, by their example, to stimulate industry. In Corfu, 
 the taste for the city life, which prevailed in the time of the Venetian government, still operates to a great 
 degree. The Corfiote proprietor resides but little in his villa; his land is neglected, while he continues 
 in the practice of his forefathers, who preferred watching opportunities at the seat of a corrupt govern, 
 ment, to improving their fortunes by the more legitimate means of honourable exertion and attention to 
 their patrimony. In this respect, however, a material change for the better has taken place during the 
 last 20 years. 
 
 Imports of Grain, S(C. — Great part of the land is held under short tenures, on the metayer system, the 
 tenant paying half the produce to the landlord. Owing to.the nature of the soil, and the superior attention 
 given to the culture of olives and currants, the staple products of the islands, most part of the grain 
 and cattle required for their consumption is imported. The hard wheat of Odessa is preferred, and about 
 800,000 dollars may be annually sent to the Black Sea in payment. The imports of wheat in 1826 wer- 
 178,288 moggi, or about 891,440 bushels. The parliament, in March, ISSS, repealed the duties on the in. 
 troduction of corn ; and the grain monopoly of Corfu, which had been established in favour of govern- 
 ment, in order to provide against the possibility of a general or partial scarcity, was then also suffered to 
 expire. These 2 sources of revenue, while they existed, did not probably produce less than 20,000/. 
 annually. 
 
 Cattle. — They are similarly dependent upon Greece and Turkey for supplies of butcher's meat ; a small 
 number only of sheep and goats being bred in the islands. Oxen, whether for agriculture or the slaughter- 
 house, are brought from Turkey, to the annual amount of more than 90,000 dollars. The beef eaten by 
 the troops is 6 weeks or 2 months walking down from the Danube, and the provinces that skirt it, to the 
 shores of Epirus, where they remain in pasture until fit for the table. 
 
 Exports. — The staple exports from these islands are oil, currants, valonia, wine, soap, and salt. The 
 first is produced in great abundance in Corfu and Paxo, and in a less quantity in Zante, Santa Maura, and 
 Cephalonia. Corfu has, in fact, the appearance of a continuous olive wood ; a consequence, partly, of 
 the extraordinary encouragement formerly given to the culture of the plant by the Venetians. Although 
 there is a harvest every year, the great crop ijs properly biennial ; the tree generally reposing for a year after 
 its effort. (In France and Piedmont the period of inactivity is of 2 and 3 years.) During 5 or 6 months, 
 from October till April, the country, particularly in Corfu, presents an animated appearance, persons of 
 all ages being busily employed in picking up the fruit. It is calculated that the islands produce, one year 
 with another, about 95,000 barrels, of 18 gallons each, and that of this quantity 80,0(X) are exported, prin- 
 cipally to Trieste. The average price may be about \l. lis. per barrel. Under the old Venetian system, 
 the oil could only be carried to Trieste. An ad valorem duty of 191 per cent., payable on the export, pro- 
 duces upon an average 28,000/. annually. The quality might be much improved by a little more care in 
 the manufacture, the trees being generally finer than in any other country. 
 
 Currants, originally introduced from the Morea, are grown in the isles of Zante, Cephalonia, and Ithaca, 
 but principally in the first. The plant is a vine of small size and delicate nature, the cultivation 'of which 
 re(juires much care. Six or 7 years elapse af^er a plantation has been niade, before it yields a crop. In the 
 beginning of October, the earth about the roots of the plant is loosened, and gathered up in small heaps, 
 away from the vine, which is pruned in March ; after which the ground is again laid down smooth arouna 
 the plant, which grows low, and is supi)orted by sticks. The crops are liable to injury in spring from the 
 blight called the " brina," and rainy weather at the harvest season produces great mischief. The cur- 
 rants are gathered towards Sep;embcr, and, after being carel\illy picked, are thrown singly upon a stone 
 floor, exposed to the sun in the open air. The drying process may occupy a fortnight or longer, if the 
 weather be not favourable. A heavy shower or thunderstorm (no unfrequent occurrence at that season) 
 not only interrupts it, but sometimes causes fermentation. The fruit is then only fit to be given to animals. 
 Should it escape these risks, it is deposited in magazines called " scranlie," until a ])urchaser casts up. The 
 " sffragltcnie," or warehouse keeper, delivers to the depositor a paper acknowledging the receipt of the 
 quantity delivered, which passes currently in exchange fVoin hand to hand till the time of export. Under 
 the old Venetian government, the liberty of traffic in this produce was exceedingly restricted. In Zante,'.') 
 persons chosen out of the council of nobles assembled in presence of the provcditorc, regulated what should 
 BC the price ; and those who wished to purchase were under the necessity of declaring to the govern. 
 
IONIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 733 
 
 ment the quantity they desired. This system was called the " collcgcttoy * The export duties consisted 
 of an original duty of 9 per cent, ad valorem; a dazw Jisso, or fixed duty of about 4a-. 4</. j)cr cwt. ; and 
 afterwards of a novi'ssm/o, or most recent duty, of iis. 'Zd. per cwt. This latter was remitted in favour of 
 vessels bringing salt fish, &c. from the northern ports (chiefly Knplish, Danes, and Dutch) ; it was atier- 
 wards relaxed in favour of Russian vessels from Odessa, and abandoned altogether as vexatious and un- 
 productive. The provcditore received in addition 2 per cent, and each of his 2 Venetian councillors 1 per 
 cent; so that the fruit, the original cost of which was about 9*. tlie cwt., stood the exporter in little less than 
 18*. or 19s. Even under British protection, the fruit, which some years before had fetched as much &&PA)is. 
 and 32s. the cwt., but had declined in 1832 to 8s. the cwt., was burdened with the dazio Jisso of 4*. 4rf., and 
 a duty of 6 per cent, ad valorem, being equivalent together, at that price, to an ad valorem duty of nearly 
 GO per cent. ! In the mean time the Hritish parliament had, in 1829, raised the import duties i)ayal)le in 
 England to the enormous amoimt of 44s. 4fl?. the cwt., which, at the same low price, made an ad valorem 
 duty of 500 per cent. ! '1 he t;onsequence was rapidly visible ; a decline took i)lace in the culture of the plant, 
 as well as in the circumstances and in the affections of the proprietors, whose staple export and means of 
 existence were almost annihilated. As the prices fell, and the distress became greater, the necessitous 
 grower was obliged to borrow money at ruinous interest from foreign merchants, or from the Jews, who 
 were, consequently, able to dictate the price at which they would take his produce. A legislative enact- 
 ment, on a scale commensurate with the ditiiculties which it had to grapple with, was, after much de. 
 liberation, matured and adopted by the 4th parliament in its session of 1833. Uy it the whole of the duties 
 upon currants were commuted for an ad valorem tax of 19i per cent., being the same as that laid upon 
 oil. The same act increased, in a small degree, the duties previously paid on the importation of coffee, 
 tea, and sugar, and upon foreign wines, silks, and gloves, — articles which, being chiefly consumed by the 
 affluent, were more appropriately subjected to an increase of duty, to supply in part 'the serious defalc- 
 ation of revenue naturally consequent to the reduction of the currant duty. The duties thus increased 
 upon objects of luxury may now amount to from 20 to 25 per cent, which is far from exorbitant. The 
 good effiscts of this enactment were manifested by an almost instantaneous rise in the price of the fruit 
 which had remained on hand of the crop of 1832. It is calculated that the average quantity of currants 
 produced during the 4 years ending with 1832, has been 19,r)86,800 lbs. a year ; the export has been 
 17,885,300 lbs. It appears from the accounts laid before the finance committee, that, in 1826, there were 
 exported from the islands 170,974 lbs. of valonia; 32,063 casks of wine; and 723,646 lbs. of soap. 
 
 Tannage Duty. — The late act of parliament abolished the tonnage duty of Is. Irf. per ton payable by 
 every ship sailing under Ionian colours, which, together with the heavy fees demanded by the British 
 consuls in the Levant, had driven most of the Cephalonite vessels to seek for protection under the flag 
 of Russia. 
 
 Loan Banks. — Another act, intended to alleviate the distress experienced by the growers who had been 
 the victims of usury in consequence of their pecuniary difficulties, provided for the establishment of loan 
 banks with capitals (in the larger isles of 20,000Z. each, and in the smaller ones in proportion), for lending 
 money at 6 per cent to the agricultural interest, on agricultural security, and thus employing the surplus 
 which might otherwise lie idle in the treasury. These measures, it is presumed, will go far towards 
 bettering the condition of the islands; and the anticipated reduction of the oppressive import duty upon 
 currants in this country will do more. — (See Currants.) 
 
 Salt may be obtained in considerable quantities in Corfu, Zante, and Santa Maura, for exportation : 
 the latter island alone produced it until the late act of parliament, which provided that government should 
 let the salt pans in all the islands to those bidders who should offer, by sealed tenders, to supply it at the 
 lowest rate to the consumer, paying at the same time the highest price to government. No export duty 
 is charged upon it 
 
 It is apparent from these statements, that heavy duties are levied upon the exportation of the staple pro- 
 ducts of the islands, — an objectionable system, and one which, if it is to be excused at all, can only be so by 
 the peculiar circumstances under which they are placed. There is no land tax or impost on property in the 
 Ionian Islands, such as exists in many other rude countries ; and, supposing it were desirable to introduce 
 such a tax, the complicated state of property in them, the feudal tenures under which it is held, and the 
 variety of usages with respect to it, oppose all but invincible obstacles to its imposition on fair and equal 
 principles. At the same time, too, a large amount of revenue is required to meet the expenses of the 
 general and local governments, to maintain an efficient police, and to prevent smuggling and piracy. 
 However, we cannot help thinking that some very material retrenchments might be made from the ex- 
 penditure ; and it is to this source, more, perhaps, than to any other, that the inhabitants must look 
 for any real or effectual relief from their burdens. 
 
 Revenue and Expenditure. — In 1830, the revenue and expenditure were as follows : — 
 
 Customs . . . . 
 
 Transit duty - . • - 
 
 Export { - . • . : 
 
 Wines and spirits 
 
 Tobacco - . - 
 
 Cattle .... 
 Corn, in commutation of tithes 
 Salines (salt pans) - - - 
 
 Public lands and houses 
 Tonnage duties - • 
 Port duties . - - 
 
 Sanity, post office, police, judicial tarifT, 
 
 surplus received - - 
 Valonia and gunpowder monopolies, and 
 
 municipal balances 
 
 Total income 
 
 L. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 30,0.'57 
 
 14 
 
 
 845 
 
 9 
 
 
 35,048 
 
 7 
 
 
 28.407 
 
 10 
 
 
 5,767 
 
 15 
 
 
 5,600 
 
 16 
 
 
 2,939 
 
 0 
 
 
 13,3.i8 
 
 10 
 
 % 
 
 3,767 
 
 0 
 
 
 7,587 
 
 6 
 
 f 
 
 860 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 2,432 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 8,169 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 9,145 
 
 7 
 
 63 
 
 163,948 3 (H 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 General and local governments, salaries 
 
 Public quarters (hire) 
 
 Education 
 
 General and local contingencies, hos- 
 pital, &c. ... 
 
 Collection of revenue 
 
 Flotilla - . . . 
 
 Public works, fortresses 
 
 Staff pay and contingencies 
 
 Inspectors of Ionian militia 
 
 iMounted orderlies - . . 
 
 Half-pay (Ionian officers) 
 
 Barrack stores, papers of officers, cou- 
 riers, &c. - - 
 
 Engineer department 
 
 L. 
 
 
 ./. 
 
 56,831 
 
 2 
 
 
 10,119 
 
 15 
 
 l\ 
 
 6,6G6 
 
 11 
 
 Ok 
 
 8,369 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 11,169 
 
 0 
 
 
 8,698 
 
 2 
 
 8.t 
 
 35,481 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 11,600 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 ' 2,629 
 
 15 
 
 410 
 
 4 
 
 4>. 
 
 935 
 
 12 
 
 
 2,504 
 
 12 
 
 
 2,478 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 Total erpenditure - 157,954 
 
 8i 
 
 The Ionian republic affords, perhaps, the only example of a state expending nearly a Jonrtli part of its 
 revenue on public works and fortresses. Without, however, questioning the importance of the objects for 
 which so heavy an expense has been incurred, we are inclined to think that the industry and prosperity 
 of the islands would be far more likely to be advanced by the eflectual reduction of the duties on the ex- 
 portation of oil and currants than by any, even the most judicious outlay of the revenue derived from 
 them. 
 
 The tovrn is but indifferently built. Population about 17,000, 
 exclusive of the military. The fortifications are very strong, 
 both towards the sea and the land. The canal has deep water 
 throughout ; its navigation, which is a little difficult, has been 
 much facilitated by the erection of a light-house on the rock 
 of Tignoso in the northern entrance, where the chamiel is less 
 than a mile in width ; and by the mooring of a floating light oSF 
 
 PmU. — The principal ports in the Ionian republic are Corfii 
 and Zante in the islands of the same name, and .Argostoli in 
 Cephalonia. The city and port of Corfu lie on the east side 
 of the island, on the canal or channel between it and the op- 
 posite continent, which is here about 5 miles wide. The cita- 
 del, which projects into the sea. is furnished with a light-house, 
 240feet high ; the l«ter being in lat. 39" 37' N., Ion. 1 9" 56' E. 
 
 * A bill for reviving this mstitution, brought in by a Zantiote member, passed the legislative assembly 
 in May, 1833 ; but the senate threw it out, trusting that the enactments mentioned in this article would 
 suffice to relieve the grower from the usurious oppression of the currant speculator. 
 
7345 
 
 IPECACUANHA. — IRON. 
 
 Point Leschlmo, in the southern entrance. Ships anchor be- 
 tween the small but well fortified island of Vido and the city, 
 in from 12 to 17 fathoms water. 
 
 The port, or rather {^If, of Argostoli in Cephalonia lies on the 
 south-west side of the island. Cape Aji, forming its south- 
 western extremitj', is in lat. 38° 8' 40" N., Ion. 20" 23' 30" E. 
 Cape San Nicolo, forming the other extremity, is about 4| miles 
 from Cape A ji ; and between them, witliin about Ih mile of 
 the latter, is' the small islet of Guardiani, on which is a light- 
 nouse. From this island the gulf stretches N. J W. from 7 
 to 8 miles inland. The town of Argostoli lies on the west side 
 of a haven on the east side of the gulf formed by Point Statura. 
 The situation is low and rather unhealthy. When visited by 
 Dr. Holland, its population did not exceed 4,000. Its appear- 
 ance and police, particularly the latter, have been much im- 
 proved since its occupation by tlie English. There is deep 
 »vater and good anchorage ground in most parts of the gulf. 
 The best entrance is between Cape San Nicolo and Gucirdiani, 
 keeping rather more than a mile to the eastward of the latter, 
 on account of a reef that extends N.E. and S.W. from it nearly 
 that distance. 
 
 The port and city of Zante are situated on the eastern side 
 of the island, in lat. 37" 47' N., Ion. 20° 64' 42" E. The city, 
 the largest in the Ionian Islands, extends along the shore for 
 nearly 1^ mile, but it is no where above 300 yards in breadth, 
 except where it ascends the hill on which the citadel is erected. 
 The style of building is chiefly Italian ; and the interior of the 
 city displays every where great neatness, and even a certain 
 degree of magnificence. Population estimated by Dr. Holland 
 at from 16,000 to 18,000. It has a mole or jetty of considerable 
 utility, at the extremity of whith a light-house is erected ; and 
 a lazaretto, situated a little to the soufh-west. The harbour 
 is capacious. Ships anchor opposite the town at from 500 
 to 1,000 yards' distance, in from 12 to 15 fathoms, availing 
 themselves of the protection of the mole when the wind is 
 from the N.E. When our troops took possession of Zante, in 
 1810, the fortifications were found to be in very bad repair ; 
 but immense sums have since been expended upon their im- 
 provement and extension. 
 
 Trade with England. — This is but of very limited extent ; 
 a consequence, principally, of the enormous duty on currants. 
 During the year 1831, we imported from the Ionian Islands 
 162,303 cwt. currants, 22^ tons fustic, 251 cwt. flax, 100,242 
 gallons olive oil, 7,461 cwt. valonia, and 898 gallons wine. 
 The real or declared value of the arliclts of British produce 
 and manufacture exported to them during the same year, 
 amounted to only 50,883<. 
 
 The total value of the imports from all countries in 1831 is 
 estimated at 510,753/., and that of the exports at 248,058Z. 
 But a considerable part of the imports is not destined for the 
 consumption of the islands, but is sent thither merely as to a 
 convenient entrepot, being intended for the supply of the con- 
 tiguous provinces of Greece and Turkey. The amount of ex- 
 ports depends materially on the circumstance whether the year 
 be one in which there is, or is not, a crop of olives. 
 
 Shipping. — The entries (in tons) for 1826, the last year for 
 which we have seen any detailed statement, were as follows : — 
 
 Flags. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Flags. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ionian 
 
 169,371 
 
 Papal 
 
 11,856 
 
 Britiih - - 
 
 27,116 
 
 Sardinian 
 
 9,753 
 
 Austrian 
 
 92,541 
 
 Turkish - 
 
 5,421 
 
 Russian 
 
 3,869 
 
 Greek 
 
 7,620 
 
 French 
 
 2,908 
 
 All other - - 
 
 3,393 
 
 Neapolitan 
 
 13,179 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 347,027 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept in sterling money. Spanish 
 doubloons pass at 3*. 6d., Spanish dollars at 4*. 4d., and Ve- 
 
 netian dollars at 4*. Exchange with Enghu^d at J. per 
 dollar. 
 
 Weights. — 
 
 The pound, peso groaso, or great weight of 12oz. = 7,384 
 
 grains Troy ; 94-8 lbs. = 100 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 The pound, peso sottile, or small weight, used for precious 
 
 metals and drugs, is l-3d lighter than the foregoing ; 12 oz. 
 
 peso sottile corresponding to 8 oz. peso grosso. 
 The oke, used in the southern islands, weighs about 18,900 
 
 grains Troy, or 27/10 lbs. avoirdupois. The Levant cantar, 
 
 or quintal, should contain 44 okes. 
 The migliajo (1,000 lbs.), for currants, in Zante, is 1 per cent. 
 
 lighter tlian for other articles. 
 
 Measures of Lmgth. — 
 The Venetian foot of 12 onu^ = 13| inches English. 
 
 Passo = 5 A'enetian feet. 
 
 Braccio, for cloths, &c. = 27 3/16 inches English. 
 Do. for silks = 25 3/8 
 
 Land is measured by the misura or 1/8 of a moggio, or bacile ; 
 400 square jtassi being 1 misura, or bacile, about 3/10 of an 
 acre English. 
 
 Vineyards are measured by the zappada ; 3 zappade (a com- 
 puted day's work) being 1 misura. 
 
 Fire-wood is measured by the square passo, usually, however, 
 only 2 feet thick, this depending on the quality of the wood. 
 
 Stone is measured by the patso cube. 
 Measures of Capacity 
 
 Corn. Corfu and Paxo : Moggio of 8 misure, about 5 Win- 
 chester bushels. 
 Cephalonia : Bacile should contain SO lbs. peso grosso, best 
 quality wheat. 
 
 Zante : Bacile should contain 72 lbs. peso grosso, best qua- 
 lity wheat. 
 
 Santa Maura : Cado, of 8 crivelli, 4 = 3 mog. ; 1 cado = 3| 
 
 bushels English. 
 Ithaca : 5 Bacile = 1 moggio. 
 
 Cerigo : Child, the meaisure of Constantinople, = 1 bushel 
 English. 
 
 Wine. — Corfu and Paxo : 32 quartucci = 1 jar, and 4 javs = 
 1 barrel = 18 English wine gallons.- 
 Cephalonia and Ithaca: 2 quartucci = 1 boccale; 12 boc- 
 cali = 1 seochio ; 6 secchio = 1 barrel = 18 English 
 wine gallons. 
 
 Zante: 13 1/3 quartucci = 1 lire; 40 quartucci = 1 jar ; 
 3 jars = 1 barrel = 17 5/8 English wine gallons. 
 
 Santa Maura : 22 quartucci = 1 stamno ; 6 stamni = 1 
 barrel = 18 English wine gallons. 
 
 Cerigo : 2 agosten = 1 boccia ; 30 boccie = 1 barrel = 18 
 English wine gallons. 
 Oil — Corfu and Paxo : 4 quartucci = 1 miltro ; 6 miltri = 
 1 jar ; 4 jars = 1 barrel = 18 English wine gallons. 
 
 Cephalonia : 9 pagliazzi = 1 barrel = 18 Eng. wine galls. 
 
 Zante : 9 Ure, or 3 jars of 46 qu. each = 1 barrel = 17 5/8 
 English wine gallons. 
 
 Santa Maura : 7" stamni = 1 barrel = 18 Eng. wine galls. 
 
 Ithaca: 13 pagliazzi =1 — =18 
 
 Cerigo : 24 bozze = 1 — =14 0/5 
 
 Salt. — Centinajo, about 4,000 lbs. Venetian peso grosso. 
 Lime. — Corfu, measure of 4 English cubic feet. 
 
 In compiling this article, we have consulted, besides the 
 works referred to above, the Voyage Historique, Pittoresmte, 
 Sfc., by Saint Sauveur, — a diffuse but valuable work, 'rhe 
 account of Zante, in the last volume (tomeiii. pp. 101—278.),, 
 is particularly good. We have also looked into the Voyage en 
 Grecc of Scrofani, 3 tomes, Paris, 1^01 ; the Archives du Com~ 
 merce ; the Papers laid before the Finance Committee, (Sec. But 
 by far the most important part of the information we have been 
 able to lay before the reader has been derived from manuscript 
 notes obligingly communicated by Lord King, late secretjury to 
 the British government in these islands. 
 
 IPECACUANHA (Fr. Ipecacuanha; Ger. Amerikanische hrechwurzel ; It. Ipe^ 
 coicanna ; Port. Cipo de camaras, Ipecacuanha ; Sp. Ipecacuana, Raiz de oro), the root 
 of i\ perennial plant ( Cephaelis ipecacuanha') growing in Brazil and other parts of South 
 America. It is, from its colour, usually denominated white, grey, or ash-coloured, and 
 brown. Little of the first variety is found in the shops. The grey and brown varieties 
 are brought to this country in bales from Rio Janeiro. Both are in short, wrinkled, 
 variously bent and contorted pieces, which break with a resinous fracture. The grey is 
 about the thickness of a small quill, full of knots and deep circular fissures, that nearly 
 reach down to a white, woody, vascular cord that runs through the heart of each piece ; 
 the external part is compact, brittle, and looks smooth : the brown is smaller, more 
 wrinkled, of a blackish brown colour on the outside, and whitish within : the white is 
 woody, and has no wrinkles. The entire root is inodorous ; but the powder has a faint, 
 disagreeable odour. The taste is bitter, sub-acrid, and extremely nauseous. In choosing 
 ipecacuanha, the larger roots, which are compact and break with a resinous fracture, 
 having a whitish grey, somewhat semi-transparent, appearance in the outside of the cor- 
 tical part, with a pale straw-coloured medullary fibre, are to be preferred. When pounded, 
 ipecacuanha forms the mildest and safest emetic in the whole materia medica. Though 
 probably employed in America frorp time immemorial, it was not introduced into Europe 
 till the time of Louis XIV., when one Grenier, a French merchant, brought 150 lbs. 
 of it from Spain, with which trials were made at the Hotel Dieu. Helvetius first made 
 known its use in dysentery, for which Louis XIV. munificently rewarded him by a 
 douceur of 1,000/. sterling. — ( Thomson's Dispensatory ; Thomson^s CheiMstry.) 
 
 IRON (Dan. Jem; Du. Yzer ; Fr. Per; Ger. Eisen ; It. Ferro ; Lat. Ferrum, 
 Mars ; Pol. Zelazo ; Por. Ferro ; Rus. Scheleso ; Sp. Ilierro ; Sw. Jem ; Gr. 2i'5rjpos ; 
 Sans. Loha ; Arab. Iledeed ; Pers. Ahu7t), the most abundant and most useful of all 
 the metals. It is of a bluish white colour ; and, when polished, has n great deal of 
 
IRON. 
 
 735 
 
 brilliancy. It has a styptic taste, and emits a smell when rubbed. Its hardness exceeds 
 that of most other metals ; and it may be rendered harder than most bodies by being 
 converted into steel. Its specific gravity varies from 7-6 to 7-8. It is attracted by the 
 magnet or loadstone, and is itself the substance wliich constitutes the loadstone. But 
 when iron is perfectly pure, it retains the magnetic virtue for a very short time. It is 
 malleable in every temperature, and its malleability increases in proportion as the tem- 
 perature augments ; but it cannot be hammered out nearly as thin as gold or silver, or 
 even as copper. Its ductility is, however, more perfect ; for it may be drawn out into 
 wire as fine at least as a human hair. Its tenacity is such, that an iron wire 0*078 of an 
 inch in diameter, is capable of supporting 549*25 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. 
 
 Historical Notice. — Iron, though the most common, is the most difficult of all the metals to obtain in 
 a state lit for use ; and the discovery of the method of working it seems to have been posterior to the use 
 of gold, silver, and copper. We are wiiolly ignorant of the steps by wliich men were led to practise the 
 processes required to fuse it and render it malleable. It is certain, however, that it was prepared in 
 ancient Egypt, and some other corntries, at a very remote epoch ; but it was very little used in Greece 
 till after the Trojan war. — (See the admirable work of M. Goguet on the Origin of Laws, Arts, S[C., 
 vol. i. p. 140.) 
 
 Species of Iron. — There are many varieties ot iron, which artists distinguish by particular names ; but 
 all of them may be reduced under one or other ut the 3 following classes : cast or pig iron, wrought or soft 
 iron, and steel. 
 
 1. Cast or pig iron is the name given to this metal when first extracted from its ores. The ores from 
 which iron is usually obtained are composed of oxide of iron and clay. Ttie object of the manufacturer 
 is to reduce the oxide to the metallic state, and to separate all the clay with which it is combined. This 
 IS effected by a peculiar process ; and the iron, being exposed to a strong heat in furnaces, and melted, 
 runs out into moulds prepared for its reception, and obtains the name of cast or pig iron. 
 
 The cast iron thus obtained is distinguished by manufacturers into different varieties, from its colour 
 and other qualities. Of these the following are the most remarkable : — 
 
 a. White cast iron, which is extremely hard and brittle, and appears to be composed of a congeries of 
 small crystals. It can neither be filed, bored, nor bent, and is very apt to break when suddenly heated or 
 cooled. 
 
 b. Grey or mottled cast iron, so called from the inequality of its colour. Its texture is granulated. It 
 is much softer and less brittle than the last variety; and may be cut, bored, and turned on the lathe. 
 Cannons are made of it. 
 
 c. Black cast iron is the most unequal in its texture; the most fusible, and least cohesive, of the 
 three. 
 
 2. Wrought or soft iron is prepared from cast iron by a process termed a refinement or finery. The 
 wrought iron manufactured in Sweden is reckoned the finest in the world. 
 
 3. Steel consists of pieces of wrought iron hardened by a peculiar process. The Swedish iron imported 
 into this country is mostly used in the manufacture of steel. — (See Steel.) — {Thomson's Chemistry.) 
 
 Uses of Iron. — To enumerate the various uses of iron would require a lengthened dissertation. No' one, 
 who reflects for a moment on the subject, can doubt that its discovery and employment in the shape of 
 tools and engines has been of the utmost importance to man ; and has done more, perhaps, than any thing 
 else, to accelerate his advance in the career of improvement. Mr. Locke has the following striking ob- 
 servations on this subject : — " Of what consequence tlie discovery of one natural body, and its proper- 
 ties, may be to human life, the whole great continent of America is a convincing instance; whose igno- 
 rance in useful arts, and want of the greatest part of the conveniences of life, in a country that abounded 
 with all sorts of natural plenty, I think may be attributed to their ignorance of what was to be found 
 in a very ordinary, despicable stone — I mean the mineral of iron. And whatever we tliink of our parts 
 or improvements in this part of the world, where knowledge and plenty seem to vie with each other ; 
 yet, to any one that will seriously reflect upon it, I sujjpose it will appear past doubt, that, were the use 
 of iron lost among us, we should in a few ages be unavoidably reduced to the wants and ignorance of the 
 ancient savag^ Americans, whose natural endowments and provisions came no way short of those of the 
 most flourishing and polite nations ; so that he who first made use of that one contemptible mineral, may 
 be truly styled the father of arts and author of plenty." — {Essay on the Understanding, book iv. c. 12.) 
 
 Manufacture of Iron in Great Britain. — Iron mines have been wrought in this country from a very 
 early period. Those of the Forest of Dean, in Gloucestershire, are known to have existed in the year 
 1066. In consequence of the great consumption of timber which they occasioned, they were restrained by 
 act of parliament in 1581. Soon after this, Edward Lord Dudley invented the process'of smelting iron ore 
 with pit-coal instead of wood fuel; and it is impossible, perhaps, to point out an instance of another in- 
 vention that has proved more advantageous. The patent which his Lordship had obtained in 1619, was 
 exempted from the operation of the act of 1623 y-\ Jac. 1. c. 23.), setting aside monopolies : but though in 
 its consequences it has proved of immense value to the country, the works of the inventor were destroyed 
 by an ignorant rabble, and he was well nigh ruined by his efforts to introduce and perfect his process ; nor 
 was it till about a century after, that it was brought into general use In the early part of last century, 
 well-founded complaints were repeatedly made of the waste and destruction of woods caused by the 
 smelting of iron ; and the dearth and scarcity of fuel that was thus occasioned, led, about 1740, to the 
 general adoption of Lord Dudley's process for using pit-coal, which was found to be in every respect 
 superior to that previously in use. — {Report of Com7nittee of the House of Commojis on Patents, p. 168. 
 &c.) From this period, the progress of the manufacture has exceeded the most sangunie expectations. 
 In 1740, the quantity of pig iron manufactured in England and W^ales amounted to about 17,000 tons, 
 produced by 59 furnaces. The quantities manufactured at the undermentioned epochs, in Great Britain, 
 have been as follows : — 
 
 1750 - 22,000 tons. 11806 - Si50,000 tons, produced by 169 furnaces. 
 
 1788 . - 68,000 — produced by 85 furnaces. 1820 - - 400,000 — unknown. 
 
 1796 - 125,000 — — 121 — I (See next page.) 
 
 The extraordinary increase that has taken place in the production of iron since 1823, is principally to 
 ascribed to the high prices of 1824, 1825, and 1826, when pig iron met with a ready sale at from 9/."to isl- 
 and 13/. a ton. But, in consequence partly of the failure oi postponement of most of the projects as to 
 rail-roads, &c , that were then on foot, and partly of the vast additional supplies which the extension of 
 the manufacture threw on the market, the iwice fell in 1828 to from 51. to 71. a ton : and continued gra. 
 dually to decline, till in 1832 it was only worth 4/. 15^. So heavy a fall had the effect of introducing the 
 severest economy into every department of the manufacture. In despite, however, of all the saving 
 that could be effected in this way, many of the manufacturers were involvctl in much distress, and the 
 production of iron is believed to have been considerably diminished. This, coupled with the increasing 
 demand for iron, naturally led to a reaction. Prices began to rise early in 1833 ; and the advance has 
 been such, that at present (January, 1834), pig iron fetches 6L a ton, and the manufacture is in a state of 
 great activity. 
 
736 
 
 IRON. 
 
 The following statements as to the number of furnaces and the quantity of iron produced in the different 
 districts where the manufacture is carried on, in 1823, 1825, 1828, and 1830, appeared originally in the 
 Bh-ynin'rham Journal. — We have been assured that their accuracy may be depended upon. 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Number of Furnaces. 
 
 Tons of Iron produced. 
 
 1823. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1830. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 In Blast. 
 
 scT 
 
 SO 
 36 
 22 
 17 
 14 
 8 
 
 {: : 
 
 2 
 
 Out. 
 
 27 
 27 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 ,5 
 6 
 
 1= 
 
 Total. 
 
 In Blast. 
 
 Out. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1823. 
 
 1825. 1 1828. 
 
 1830. 
 
 South Wales - • - 
 Staffordshire 
 
 Shropshire - - - 
 Yorkshire 
 
 Scotland • - 
 Derbyshire - - - 
 North Wales 
 Forest of Dean 
 
 Various • - - 
 Ireland . . - 
 
 Total 
 
 72 
 84 
 38 
 
 22 
 13 
 
 1^20 
 
 109 
 108 
 49 
 34 
 2,'j 
 19 
 
 100 
 120 
 48 
 34 
 25 
 IS 
 19 
 
 89 
 95 
 31 
 17 
 18 
 14 
 12 
 1 
 
 25; 123 
 17 48 
 171 27 
 8 27 
 4! IS 
 
 182,323 
 133,590 
 73,418 
 27,311 
 24,500 
 14,038 
 12,000 
 
 2,379 
 
 230,412 
 182,156 
 89,596 
 39,104 
 33,540 
 22,672 
 17,736 
 
 3,000 
 
 279,512 
 219,492 
 81,224 
 32,968 
 37,700 
 22,360 
 25,768 
 2,600 
 1,560 
 
 277,643 
 212,604 
 • 73,418 
 27,926 
 37,500 
 17,999 
 23,000 
 
 5,327 
 
 277 
 
 374 1 2.59 
 
 103 
 
 367 
 
 278 
 
 90 576 
 
 469,561 
 
 618,236,703,184 
 
 678,417 
 
 About 3-lOths of the total quantity of iron produced are used as cast iron, being consumed prin- 
 cipally in Great Britain and Ireland ; the exports, not exceeding 12,000 tons, go chiefly to the United 
 States and British North America. The other 7-lOths are converted into wrought iron, being formed 
 into bars, bolts, rods, &c. The exports of the different sorts of iron amount at present to about 145 000 
 tons, which, at 8/. lOs. a ton, would be worth 1,232,500/. ' 
 
 The increase of the iron manufacture has not only led to its exportation in very large quantities, but 
 has reduced our imports of foreign iron for home consumption from about 34,000 tons, which'they 
 amounted to at an average of the 5 years ending with 1805, to about 18,000 or 20,000 tons, consisting 
 principallv of Swedish iron, which is subsequently manufactured into steel. The following is 
 
 An Account ot the British Iron (including unwrought Steel) exported from Great Britain in the Year 1835.— 
 Quarters of a Hundred Weight and Pounds are omittedin the printing of this Table, but they are 
 taken into account in the summing up. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wrought, 
 
 viz. 
 
 Of all 
 
 Un- 
 wrought 
 Steel. 
 
 Countries to which ex- 
 ported. 
 
 Bar Iron. 
 
 Bolt and 
 Rod Iron. 
 
 Pig Iron. 
 
 Cast Iron. 
 
 Iron 
 Wire. 
 
 Anchors 
 and 
 
 Hoop 
 
 
 Nails. 
 
 other 
 Sorts (ex- 
 cept Ord- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grapnels. 
 
 
 
 nance) 
 
 
 
 Tons. cTvt. 
 
 Tons. crvt. 
 
 Tons. crvt. 
 
 Tons. crvt. 
 
 Tns.ct. 
 
 Tons. crvt. 
 
 Tons, crvt. 
 
 Tns. crvt. 
 
 Tons. crvt. 
 
 Tns. crvt. 
 
 Russia - - - 
 
 71 
 
 12 
 
 53 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 6 6 
 
 3 3 
 
 60 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 10 10 
 
 23 5 
 
 46 9 
 
 Sweden - - 
 
 25 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 53 9 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 1 11 
 
 15 8 
 
 2 6 
 
 Norway . . . - 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 36 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 2 11 
 
 0 3 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 
 16 
 
 0 8 
 
 55 19 
 
 3 14 
 
 Denmark . . - 
 
 1,270 
 
 19 
 
 294 
 
 6 
 
 921 
 
 10 
 
 10 12 
 
 1 10 
 
 47 
 
 2 
 
 361 
 
 1 
 
 0 19 
 
 301 15 
 
 1 1 
 
 Prussia . ^ . 
 
 168 
 
 15 
 
 284 
 
 6 
 
 170 
 
 6 
 
 5 15 
 
 
 
 
 159 
 
 17 
 
 1 16 
 
 
 3 3 
 
 Germany - - 
 Holland - - - 
 
 5,223 
 
 5 
 
 1,815 
 
 
 814 
 
 4 
 
 131 17 
 
 172* 11 
 
 48 
 
 " 6 
 
 1,255 
 
 2 
 
 101 14 
 
 1,056 4 
 
 91 12 
 
 5,317 
 
 1 
 
 808 
 
 2 
 
 2,982 
 
 15 
 
 738 15 
 
 76 14 
 
 186 
 
 17 
 
 3,258 
 
 15 
 
 7 13 
 
 1,996 4 
 
 117 9 
 
 Belgium - - - - 
 France - . - - 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 38 
 
 0 
 
 1,897 
 
 10 
 
 28 13 
 
 105 0 
 
 29 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 0 2 
 
 68 15 
 
 101 19 
 
 2,178 
 
 17 
 
 210 
 
 6 
 
 10,324 
 
 
 IS7 6 
 
 
 261 
 
 14 
 
 545 
 
 9 
 
 1 6 
 
 856 7 
 
 259 6 
 
 Portugal, Azores, &c. - 
 Spain, and the Canaries - 
 
 3,724 
 
 13 
 
 1,527 
 
 17 
 
 92 
 
 0 
 
 214 5 
 
 
 108 
 
 2 
 
 1,351 
 
 14 
 
 123 1 
 
 - 333 1 
 
 3 7 
 
 139 
 
 13 
 
 111 
 
 
 145 
 
 0 
 
 59 18 
 
 19 15 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 1,308 
 
 14 
 
 20 0 
 
 196 17 
 
 8 12 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italy . . - - 
 Malta 
 
 527 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 9 3 
 
 4 15 
 
 55 
 
 17 
 
 289 
 
 3 
 
 10 17 
 
 149 17 
 
 1 13 
 
 7,962 
 
 5 
 
 1,985 
 
 3 
 
 'eio' 
 
 0 
 
 118 7 
 
 28 18 
 
 83 
 
 19 
 
 821 
 
 6 
 
 0 3 
 
 948 17 
 
 11 10 
 
 268 
 
 7 
 
 71 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 0 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 3 
 
 26 12 
 
 36 10 
 
 
 The Ionian Islands • 
 
 306 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 5 2 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 5 
 
 10 1 
 
 39 12 
 
 
 Turkey and Cont. Greece 
 
 6,072 
 
 3 
 
 1,586 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 64 9 
 
 21 1 
 
 111 
 
 7 
 
 120 
 
 18 
 
 300 9 
 
 453 13 
 
 2 13 
 
 Morea and Greek islands 
 
 601 
 
 11 
 
 49 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 26 
 505 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 26 0 
 
 8 8 
 
 0 3 
 
 Asia - - 
 
 17,306 
 
 14 
 
 3,032 
 
 19 
 
 "816 
 
 10 
 
 
 8*16 
 
 10 
 
 1,133 
 
 5 
 
 571 13 
 
 3,212 0 
 
 105 11 
 
 Africa .... 
 
 3,046 
 
 7 
 
 131 
 
 10 
 
 420 
 
 0 
 
 1,928 4 
 
 1 14 
 
 147 
 
 9 
 
 298 
 
 2 
 
 139 1 
 
 1,137 19 
 
 2 8 
 
 British colonies, N. Amer. 
 
 4,789 
 
 18 
 
 322 
 
 0 
 
 607 
 
 2 
 
 1,422 17 
 
 9 19 
 
 209 
 
 19 
 
 554 
 
 7 
 
 1,107 5 
 
 1,959 7 
 
 118 1 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 811 
 
 15 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 81 
 
 0 
 
 1,251 17 
 
 1 1 
 
 36 
 
 18 
 
 925 
 
 6 
 
 1,130 16 
 
 1,911 15 
 
 4 8 
 
 Foreign West Indies 
 
 1,132 
 
 0 
 
 101 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 756 19 
 
 1 17 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 291 
 
 13 
 
 400 10 
 
 373 8 
 
 4 14 
 
 United States of America 
 
 29,124 
 
 3 
 
 386 
 
 4 
 
 12,687 
 
 0 
 
 3,386 17 
 
 62 13 
 
 68 
 
 6 
 
 333 
 
 19 
 
 339 11 
 
 3,534 14 
 
 1,886 6 
 
 Brazil - - - - 
 Mexico and S.America - 
 
 2,047 
 
 3 
 
 195 
 
 2 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
 851 12 
 
 0 5 
 
 194 
 
 10 
 
 621 
 
 11 
 
 616 17 
 
 784 7 
 
 17 16 
 
 1,SG0 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 410 IS 
 
 0 15 
 
 4 
 
 
 100 
 
 18 
 
 160 6 
 
 348 3 
 
 8 6 
 
 Guernsey, Jersey, &c. - 
 
 374 
 
 16 
 
 93 
 
 9 
 
 383 
 
 19 
 
 397 11 
 
 0 10 
 
 98 
 
 1 
 
 51 
 
 
 70 7 
 
 337 19 
 
 7 5 
 
 Total - - 
 
 94,383 16 
 
 13,331 
 
 2 
 
 33,073 
 
 2 
 
 1 2,604 i 
 
 540 17 
 
 2,316 
 
 19 
 
 15,!157 
 
 01 
 
 ."'.179 19 
 
 20,182 19 
 
 2,810 2 
 
 Prices of Hardvjarr. —We noticed, under the article Hardware (which see), the extraordinary fall 
 which has taken place in the price of that description of goods since the peace. Since that article was 
 printed we have obtained from Mr. William Weston, accountant, Birmingham, the following Table of 
 the prices of hardware articles, on which, we believe, every reliance may be placed. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 
 1818. 
 
 
 1824. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1834. 
 
 
 Per 
 
 L. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 L. 
 
 s. 
 
 rf. 
 
 L. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Anvils 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 Awls, polished 
 
 . gross 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Bed screws, 6 inch 
 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 Bolts for doors, do. 
 
 . dozen 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Braces for carjjenters, 12 bits 
 Bits, tinned, fiir bridles 
 
 set 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 . dozen 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Buttons for coats 
 
 . gross 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 for waistcoats 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 Currycombs, 6 barred 
 
 . dozen 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Candlesticks, brass, 6 inch 
 
 pair 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Commode knobs, brass, 2 inch 
 
 - dozen 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Frving pans - - 
 Hinges, cast butts, 6 inch 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 - dozen 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 I' 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 I' 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Shoe hammers 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 Latches for doors, bright thumbs . 
 Locks for doors, iron rims, 6 inch 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 for guns, single rollers 
 
 each 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 Plated stirrups - - - 
 
 pair 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 Sad irons and other castings 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Shove) and tongs, fire-irons - 
 
 pair 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 Tinned table spoons 
 
 - gross 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 Trace chains - - - 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 Vices for blacksmiths 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 .Japanned tea trays, 30 inch 
 
 e.ich 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 f) 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Iron wire. No. 6. - 
 
 - bundle 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 a 
 
 6 
 
 ilr«88 wire 
 
 lb. 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
IRON- WOOD. — IVORY. 
 
 737 
 
 In 1767, the iron exported from Great Britain amounted to only 11,000 tons. At an average of the 3 
 years ending witii 1806, the exports amounted to 28,000 tons ; being Ic^ than ajifth part of their amount 
 in 1832. 
 
 Supposing the total quantity of pig iron produced in Great Britain in 1833 to have amounted to 670,000 
 tons, and to have been worth at an average 11. a ton, its total value will have been 4,f,!K),WJ0/. ; and the 
 additional labour expended in fonning the pig iron into bar iron, that is, into bars, bolts, rods, &c., may 
 probably have added about 1,250,000^. more to its value ; making it wortli in all about 5,940,000/. 
 
 IRON-WOOD (Ger. Eisenholz ; Du. Yserhout ; Fr. Bois defer ; It. Legno di ferro ; 
 Sp. Palo hierro ; Lat. Sideroxylon, Lignum ferreum), a species of w^ood of a reddisli cast, 
 so called on account of its corroding as that metal does, and its being remarkably hard 
 and ponderous, — even more so than ebony. The tree which produces it grows prin- 
 cipally in the West India islands, and is likewise very common in South America, and 
 in some parts of Asia, especially about Siam. 
 
 ISINGLASS (Ger. Hausenhlase, Haushlase ; Fr. Colle de poisson, Carloch ; It. Cola 
 di pesce ; Rus. Klei riihiii, Karluk), one of the purest and finest of the animal glues. It 
 is a product, the preparation of which is almost peculiar to Russia. It is made of the 
 air-bladders and sounds of diflferent kinds of fish which are found in the large rivers that 
 fall into the North Sea and the Caspian. That prepared from the sturgeon is generally 
 esteemed the best ; next to that the beluga ; but isinglass is also prepared from sterlets, 
 shad, and barbel, though not so good. The best is usually rolled in little ringlets ; the 
 second sort is laid together like the leaves of a book ; and the common sort is dried 
 without any care. When fine, it is of a white colour, semi-transparent, and dry. It 
 dissolves readily in boiling water, and is used extensively in cookery. It is ako used for 
 stiffening silk, making sticking plaster, &c. The imports, in 1831 and 1832, amounted, 
 at an average, to 1,984|^ cwt. a year. The price varies at present (January, 1834) 
 from 5s. to 14s. 6d. per lb. — (See Thomsoyi's Chemistry ; and Tooke's View of Ritssia, 
 2d ed. vol. iii. p. 343. ) 
 
 ISLE OF MAN. See Man,Jsle of. 
 
 JUICE OF LEMONS, LIMES, or ORANGES. The 9th section of the act 
 6 Geo. 4. c. 111. is as follows: — " For ascertaining the degrees of specific gravity or 
 strength, according to which the duty on the juice of lemons, limes, and oranges shall 
 be paid, it is enacted, that the degrees of such specific gravity or strength shall be ascer- 
 tained by a glass citrometer, which shall be graduated in degrees in such manner, that 
 distilled water being assumed as unity at the temperature of 60° by Fahrenheit's ther- 
 mometer, every degree of the scale of such citrometer shall be denoted by a variation 
 of -jg^ parts of the specific gravity of such water." 
 
 JUNIPER BERRIES. See Berries. 
 
 IVORY, the name given to the teeth or tusks of the elephant, and of the walrus or 
 sea-horse. Each male elephant come to maturity has 2 tusks. These are hollow at the 
 root, tapering, and of various sizes, depending principally on the age of the animal. 
 Colour externally yellowish, brownish, and sometimes dark, internally white. The best 
 are large, straight, and light-coloured, without flaws ; not very hollow in the stump, but 
 solid and thick. The most esteemed come from Africa, being of a closer texture, and 
 less liable to turn yellow, than those from the East Indies. 
 The trade in London thus divide them : — 
 
 First sort, weighing 70 lbs. or upwards ; second sort, weighing 56 lbs. to 60 lbs. ; third sort, weighing 38 lbs 
 to 56 lbs. ; fourth sort, weighing 28 lbs. to 37 lbs. ; fifth sort, weighing 18 lbs. to 27 lbs. 
 
 All under 18 lbs. are called scriveUocs, and are of the least value. In purchasing elephants' teeth, those 
 that are very crooked, hollow, and broken at the ends, or cracked and decayed in the inside, should be 
 rejected ; and care taken that lead or any other substance has not been poured into the hollow. The 
 freight is rated at 16 cwt. to the ton. — {Milbur7i's Orient. Com.) 
 
 Supply of Ivory. — The imports of elephants' teeth, in 1831 and 1832, were, at an 
 average, 4,130 cwt., of which 2,950 cwt. were retained for consumption. The medium 
 weight of a tusk may be taken at about 60 lbs. ; so that the yearly imports of 1831 and 
 1832 may be taken at 7,709 tusks; a fact which supposes the destruction of at least 
 3,854 male elephants ! But, supposing the tusks could only be obtained by killin"- the 
 animal, the destruction would really be a good deal greater, and would most probablv, 
 indeed, amount to 4,500 or 5,000 elephants. Occasionally, however, tusks are acci- 
 dentally broken, one lost in this way being replaced by a new one ; and a good many 
 are, also, obtained from elephants that have died in the natural way. Still it is sufHcieiitlv 
 obvious, that the supply from the sources now alluded to cannot be very laro-e ; and if to 
 the quantity of ivory required for Great Britain, we add that required for the other 
 countries of Europe, America, and Asia, the slaughter of elephants must, after every 
 reasonable deduction is made, appear immense ; and it may well excite surprise, that 
 the breed of this noble animal has not been more diminished. The western and eastern 
 coasts of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, India, and the countries to the east- 
 ward of the Straits of Malacca, are the great marts whence supplies of ivory are de- 
 rived. The imports from Western Africa into Great Britain, in 1831, amounted to 
 2,575 cwt. ; the Cape only furnished 1 98 cwt. The imports during the same year from 
 India, Ceylon and other Eastern countries, were 2,173 cwt. — {Varl. Paper. No. 550. 
 
738 
 
 KELP. 
 
 Sess. 1833.) The Chinese market is principally supplied with ivory from Malacca, Siam, 
 and Sumatra. • 
 
 The chief consumption of ivory in England is in the manufacture of handles for 
 knives ; but it is also extensively used in the manufacture of musical and mathematical 
 instruments, chess-men, billiard-balls, plates for miniatures, toys, &c. Ivory articles 
 are said to be manufactured to a greater extent, and with better success, at Dieppe, than 
 in any other place in Europe. But the preparation of this beautiful material is much 
 better understood by the Chinese than by any other people. No European artist has 
 hitherto succeeded in cutting concentric balls after the manner of the Chinese : and their 
 boxes, chess-men, and other ivory articles, are all far superior to any that are to be met 
 with any where else. 
 
 Historical Notice. — It is a curious fact, that the people of all Asiatic countries in 
 which the elephant is found, have always had the art of taming the animal and applying 
 it to useful purposes, but that no such art has ever been possessed by any native African 
 nation. Is this owing to any difference between the Asiatic and African elephants, or 
 to the inferior sagacity of the African people ? We incline to think that the latter is 
 the true hypothesis. Alexander the Great is believed to have been the first European 
 who employed elephants in war. It appears pretty certain, that the elephants made use 
 of by the Carthaginians were mostly, if not wholly, brought from India ; and that they 
 were managed by Indian leaders. Some of the latter were captm^ed by the Romans, in 
 the great victory gained by Metellus over Asdrubal. — (See, on this curious subject, two 
 very learned and valuable notes in the Ancient Universal History, 8vo ed. vol. xvii. p. 529. 
 and p. 549. Buffon's Article on the Elephant is a splendid piece of composition.) 
 
 The price per cwt., duty (1/. per cwt.) included, of elephants' teeth in the London market, in December, 
 
 1833, was — 
 
 £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 l6t, 79 to 90 lbs. - - 29 0 0 to 31 0 0 5th, 18 to 27 lbs. - - 18 0 0 to 21 0 0 
 
 2d, 56 — 60 — - . 25 0 0 — 23 0 0 Scrivelloes - - 1* 0 0 — 35 0 0 
 
 3d, 38 — 55 — - . 23 0 0 — 26 0 0 Sea horse teeth - 000—500 
 
 4th, 28 — 37— • - . 20 0 0 — 24 0 0 
 
 K. 
 
 KELP. A substance composed of different materials, of which the fossil or mineral 
 alkali, or, as it is commonly termed, soda, is the chief This ingredient renders it useful 
 in the composition of soap, in the manufacture of alum, and in the formation of crown 
 and bottle glass. It is formed of marine plants ; which, being cut from the rocks with 
 a hook, are collected and dried on the beach to a certain extent ; they are afterwards 
 put into kilns prepared for the purpose, the heat of which is sufficient to bring the 
 plants into a state of semifusion. They are then strongly stirred with iron rakes ; and 
 when cool, condense into a dark blue or whitish mass, very hard and solid. Plants 
 about 3 years old yield the largest quantity of kelp. The best kelp has an acrid caustic 
 taste, a sulphurous odour, is compact, and of a dark blue greenish colour. It yields 
 about 5 per cent, of its weight of soda. — (^Barry's Orkney's Islands, p. 377. ; Thomson's 
 Dispensatory. ) 
 
 The manufacture of kelp is, or rather was, principally carried on in the Western Islands, and on the 
 western shores of Scotland, where it was introduced from Ireland, about the middle of last century. 
 Towards the end of the late war, the kelp shores of the island of North Uist let for 7,00W. a year. It has 
 been calculated that the quantity of kelp annually manufactured in the Hebrides only, exclusive of the 
 mainland and of the Orkney and Shetland isles, amounted, at the period referred to, to about 6,000 tons 
 a year • and that the total quantity made in Scotland and its adjacent isles amounted to about 20,000 tons. 
 At soine periods during the war, it sold for 20A a ton ; but at an average of the 23 years ending with 1822, 
 the price was 10/. 9.v. Id. — (Art. Scotland, Edinburgh Encyclop<Edia.) 
 
 Unluckily however, the foundations on which this manufacture rested were altogether factitious. Its 
 existence de'pendcd on the maintenance of the high duties on barilla and salt. Inasmuch, however, as 
 kelp could not be substituted, without undergoing a very expensive process, for barilla, in a great many 
 departments of industry in which the use of mineral alkali is indispensable, it became necessary materially 
 to reduce the high duty laid on barilla during the war. The ruin of the kelp manufacture has been 
 ascribed to this reduction ; but though barilla had been altogether excluded from our markets, which 
 could not have been done without great injury to many most important manufactures, the result would 
 have been perfectly the same, in so far as kelp is concerned, unless the high duty on salt had also been 
 maintained It was the repeal of the latter that gave the kelp manufacture i\\Q coup de grace. The 
 purification of kelp so as to render it fit for soap-making, is a much more troublesome and expensive 
 process than the decomposition of salt; and the greatest quantity of alkali used, is now obtained by the 
 latter method. Had the duty on salt not been repealed, kelp might still have been manufactured.^notwith. 
 standing the reduction of duty on barilla. , ^ , • ^ » r nr^, . 
 
 The manufacture is now almost extinct. Shores that formerly yielded the proprietors a rent of 200/. to 
 000/ a year are now worth nothing. The price of keli) since 1822 has not been, at an average, above 4/. 
 a tot) ; and'the article will, most probably, soon cease to be nroduced , . , 
 
 This result though injurious to the proprietors of kelp shores, and productive of temporary distress to 
 the labourers employed in the manufacture, is not to be regretted. It could not have been obviated, with- 
 out keeping up the price of some of the most important necessaries of life at a forced and unnatural 
 elevation The high price of kelp was occasioned by the exigencies of the late war, which, besides 
 obstructing^ the supply of barilla, forced government to lay high duties on it and on salt. The proprietors 
 hud not the vestige of a groun 1 for considering that such a state of things would be permanent ; they 
 
KENTLEDGE. — KONIGSBEIIG. 
 
 739 
 
 did right in profiting by it while it lasted; but they could not expect that government was to «ubjcct the 
 country, during peice, to some of the severest privations occasioned by the war, merely that Vuy might 
 continue to enjoy an accidental advantage. 
 
 KENTLEDGE, the name sometimes given to the iron pigs cast in a particular form 
 for ballasting ships, and employed for that purpose. 
 
 KEIIMES (Ger. Scharlachbeeren ; Du. Grein, Scharlakenhessen ; It. Grana, Chermes, 
 Cremese, Cocchi ; Sp. Grana Kermes, Grana de l(Pcoscoja), an insect (Coccus ilicis Lin.) 
 of the same species as the true Mexican cochineal, found upon the quercus ilex, a species 
 of oak growing in Spain, France, the Levant, &c. Before the discovery of America, 
 kermes was the most esteemed drug for dyeing scarlet, and had been used for that pur- 
 pose from a very remote period. Beckmann inclines to think that it was employed by 
 the Phoenicians, and that it excelled even the famous Tyrian purple. — ( Hist, of Invent. 
 vol. ii. p. 197. Eng. ed.) From the name of coccum or coccus, cloth dyed with kermes 
 ■was called coccinum, and persons wearing this cloth were said by the Romans to be 
 coccinati. — (Mar^. lib. i. epig. 97. lin. 6.) It is singular, however, notwithstanding 
 its extensive use in antiquity, that the ancients had the most incorrect notions with 
 respect to the nature of kermes ; many of them supposing that it was the grains (grana) 
 or fruit of the ilex. This was Pliny's opinion : others after him considered it in^ the 
 same light, or as an excrescence formed by the puncture of a particular kind of fly, like 
 the gall nut. It was not till the early part of last century that it was finally and 
 satisfactorily established that the kermes is really nothing but an insect, assuming the 
 appearance of a berry in the process of drying. The term kermes is of Persian origin. 
 The Arabians had been acquainted with this production from the earliest periods in 
 Africa ; and having found it in Spain, they cultivated it extensively as an article of 
 commerce, as well as a dye drug for their own use. But since the introduction of 
 cochineal, it has become an object of comparatively trifling importance. It is still, 
 however, prepared in some parts of Spain. Cloths dyed with kermes are of a deep red 
 colour ; and though much inferior in brilliancy to the scarlet cloths dyed with real 
 Mexican cochineal, they retain the colour better, and are less liable to stain. The old 
 tapestries of Brussels, and other places in Flanders, which have scarcely lost any thing 
 of their original vivacity, though 200 years old, were all dyed with kermes. The history 
 of this production has been treated with great learning by Beckmann (Hist, of Invent. 
 vol. i. pp. 171 — 191. 1st ed. trans.) ; and by Dr. Bancroft (Permanent Colours, vol. i. 
 pp. 393—409.) 
 
 KINO (Fr. Gomme de Kino ; Ge. Kinoharz ; It. China), a gum, the produce of trees 
 that grow in the East and West Indies, Africa, Botany Bay, &c. The kino now found 
 in the shops is said by Dr. A. T. Thomson to come from India, and to be the produce 
 of the nauclea gamhir. The branches and twigs are bruised and boiled in water. The 
 decoction is then evaporated until it acquires the consistence of an extract, which is kino. 
 It is imported in chests containing from 1 to 2 cwt. ; and on the inside of the lid of each 
 chest is a paper, inscribed with the name of John Brown, the month and year of its im- 
 portation, and stating that it is the produce of Amboyna. It is inodorous, very rough, 
 and slightly bitter when first taken into the mouth : but it afterwards impresses a degree 
 of sweetness on the palate. It is in small, uniform, deep brown, shining, brittle frag- 
 ments, which appear like portions of a dried extract broken down ; being perfectly uni- 
 form in their appearance. It is easily pulverised, aflTording a powder of a lighter brown 
 colour than the fragments. But it may be doubted whether the inspissated juice of the 
 nauclea gamhir ought to be considered as kino. Dr. Ainslie says that Botany Bay kino 
 is the only kind he had seen in an Indian bazaar. The tree which yields it grows to a 
 great height : it flows from incisions made into the wood of the trunk. — ( Thomson's 
 Dispensatory ; Ainslie' s Materia Indica.) 
 
 KNIVES (Ger. Messer; Du. Messen ; ¥x. Couteaux ; It. Coltelli ; S^p. Cuchillos ; 
 Rus. Noshi) well known utensils made of iron and steel, and employed to cut with : 
 they are principally manufactured in London and SheflSeld. Knives ai-e made for a 
 variety of purposes, as their different denominations imply ; such as table knives, pen- 
 knives, oyster knives, pruning knives, &c. Although England at present excels every 
 part of the world in the manufacture of knives, as in most branches of cutlery, the 
 finer kinds were imported until the reign of Elizabeth. It is stated by Mr. Macpherson 
 (Annals of Com. Anno 1563), that knives were not made for use in England till 1563 ; 
 but there can be no doubt that this is an error. They had been made, though probably 
 of a rude and clumsy pattern, for centuries before, in the district called Hallamshire, of 
 which SheflSeld is the centre ; and the cutlers of London were formed into a corporation 
 in 1417. — (Manufactures in Metal, vol. ii. c. i. in Lardner^s Cyclopcedia.) 
 
 KONIGSBERG, the capital of East Prussia, in lat. 54^ 42" 11' N., Ion. 20° 29' 1 5" E. 
 Population 68,000. 
 
 Port, 8fc. — Konigsberg is situated on the Prcgel, which flows into the FrischeHaff, or Fresh Bay, _a 
 large lake having from 10 to W feet water. The bar at the mouth of the Pregel has only from 5 to (i feet 
 water, so that none but flat-bottomed boats can ascend to the city. Pillau, in lat. 54° S3' 39 N., loa 
 
 3 B 2 
 
740 
 
 KONIGSBERG. 
 
 190 52' 30" E., on the north side of the entrance from the Baltic to the Frische HafT. is properly the port 
 of Konigsberg. Within these few years, a light-house has been erected on a rising ground, a little to the 
 south of Pillau, the lantern of which is elevated 103 feet above the level of the sea. The light is fixed 
 and brilliant. The entrance to the harbour is marked by buoys; those on the larboard side being 
 surmounted by small flags. A Gothic building, 120 feet above the level of the sea, has been erected to 
 serve tor a land-mark ; at a distance it looks like a three-masted ship under sail There is usually from 
 15 to 16 feet water between the buoys on entering the harbour j but particular winds occasion material 
 difFerences in this respect. > 
 
 Trade of Konigsherg. — Being situated on a navigable river of considerable in>- 
 portance, Konigsberg has a large command of internal navigation, and is the principal 
 emporium of a large extent of country. Wheat, rye, and other species of grain, are the 
 chief articles of export. The wheat is somewhat similar to that of Dantzic, but of 
 inferior quality, being larger in the berry, and thicker skinned. The rye is thin, and 
 also the barley, with few exceptions, and light. Peas are of a remarkably large quality. 
 Oats are common feed, with a slight admixture of tares ; but as these last answer in 
 some degree the purpose of beans, the value of the oats is rather enhanced than other- 
 wise by the circumstance. More tares are shipped here than from any other port in the 
 Baltic. , The prices of all sorts of grain are usually lower at Konigsberg than at the 
 neighbouring Prussian ports. Hemp, flax, linseed, yarn, and bristles, are largely ex- 
 ported ; with smaller quantities of wool, ashes, feathers, wax, hides and skins, &c. The 
 bristles are the best in the Baltic. Timber, deals, and staves, are as good as at Memel, 
 but are rather scarce. The imports are coffee, sugar, cotton stuffs and yarn, hardware, 
 dye woods, spices, tobacco, coals, rum, &c. Salt is a government monopoly j any person 
 being allowed to import it, but he must either sell it to government at a price fixed by 
 them, or export it again. 
 
 Money, Weights, and Measures, same as at Dantzic ^ which see. 
 
 Account of the Exports of the different Species of Grain from Konigsberg during each of the Fourteen 
 
 Years ending with 1831. 
 
 Wheat - ■ 
 Rye 
 Barley 
 Oats 
 Peas 
 Beans 
 Tare* - 
 Linseed, hempj 
 and rapeseed 
 Malt 
 
 Total 
 
 1818. 
 
 Lasts. 
 3,129 
 8,4<29 
 4,425 
 3,859 
 2,953 
 
 1819. 
 
 Lasts. 
 
 7,360 
 2,952 
 1,513 
 1,991 
 136 
 439 
 
 2,497 
 
 18,148 
 
 1820. 1821. 1822. 1823. 1824. 1825. 1826. 1827 
 
 Lasts. 
 2,861 
 6,769 
 818 
 5,565 
 1,210 
 41 
 
 Lasts. Lasts. 
 1,559 591 
 459 100 
 292 
 
 aoo 
 
 7,612 
 
 Lasts. 
 
 428 
 1,030 
 
 320 1,257 
 
 1,711 3,0 
 
 298 
 1,566 
 412 
 
 Lasts. 
 816 
 657 
 
 1,531 
 593 
 712 
 
 716 
 
 Lasts. 
 
 1,483 
 692 
 901 
 
 5,321 
 863 
 
 Lasts. 
 3,754 
 7,228 
 2,322 
 8,480 
 503 
 56 
 318 
 
 2,884 
 
 1828. 
 
 Lasts. 
 9,543 
 
 12,920 
 1,M6 
 1,368 
 919 
 
 607 
 
 829. 1830. 1831 
 
 Lasts. 
 7,698 
 8,154 
 2,272 
 3,660 
 422 
 
 Lasts . 
 
 7,50/ 
 25,420 
 1,687 
 8,3)0 
 2,360 
 r 99 
 L 141 
 
 Lasts 
 7,565 
 16,900 
 98S 
 4,092 
 1,506 
 134 
 326 
 
 1,884 
 
 843153,395 
 
 Exclusive of corn, the quantities of the principal articles exported from Konigsberg m 1830 and 1831 
 ere — 
 
 were 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Ashes 
 
 Bristles 
 
 Feathers 
 
 Flax and flax codilla 
 Hemp and hemp codilla 
 
 - lbs. 
 - stone 
 
 82,170 
 167,997 
 13,860 
 75,230 
 60,276 
 
 107.811 
 15,411 
 35,900 
 9,473 
 
 Hides and skins 
 Linseed cakes 
 Wax 
 Wool 
 
 Yarn, Lith. and Erml. 
 
 - lbs. 
 - stone 
 
 - lbs. 
 
 bundles 
 
 53,707 
 31,955 
 ' 8,000 
 
 17,523 
 31,830 
 23,760 
 118,668 
 9,000 
 
 Arrivals in 1831. — In 1831, there entered the port of Konigsberg (Pillau) 704 ships, of the burden of 
 43,928 tons. In 1832, 43 British ships, of the burden of 3,592 tons, cleared out. 
 
 Prices free on board of the principal Articles of Export from Konigsberg, 1st of June, 1832. 
 
 Wheat, old, mixed 
 hiffh mixed 
 old, inferior kind 
 new, best mixed 
 
 high mixed 
 new inferior red, rr 
 and best red 
 Rye, old and new 
 Barley, large 
 
 small 
 Oats 
 
 Peas, white, new 
 
 grey 
 Beans 
 Tares 
 
 Llngeed, crushing 
 sowing 
 
 Prime Cost 
 in Prussian 
 Currency. 
 
 450 
 
 500 
 
 380 _ 430 
 2-)0 _ 260 
 190 — 200 
 176 _ 185 
 110 _ 130 
 240 — 270 
 240 _ 270 
 210 _ 2.30 
 150 _ 170 
 Per barrel. 
 13i_ U 
 19 — 21 
 
 Free on board 
 in Sterling Money. 
 
 L. s. d. L. t. d. 
 
 Per quarter. 
 
 2 3 8 - 2 8 4 
 
 1 16 10 _ 2 1 3 
 12 9 — 158 
 0 19 0 — 0 19 6 
 
 0 17 2 — 0 18 6 
 6 — 0 13 4 
 8 — 167 
 8-167 
 
 1 0 10 — 1 2 9 
 
 0 15 3 — 0 17 2 
 
 Per liarrel. 
 
 1 11 6 — 1 12 10 
 10 0-120 
 
 0 11 
 
 1 3 
 1 3 
 
 Hemp, clean 
 
 cut 
 
 Lagen 
 Flax, Druana, crown. 
 No. 1. 
 
 Podolia, crown. No. 1. 
 
 Ashes, calcined crown 
 
 Yam, Lith. 12-20 lbs. 
 20-40 lbs. 
 40—60 lbs. 
 
 Prime Cost 
 in Prussian 
 Currency. 
 
 Sil. gr. 
 Perst.of35lb. 
 
 11* 
 lO.J to 
 
 lU 
 111 
 
 Per 3301b: 
 70 
 
 Per/6. 
 65gr.-72gr. 
 
 Per bundle. 
 
 6 
 
 L. ». d. L. s. ii\ 
 
 Per ion. 
 39 5 0 I 
 
 35 18 0 to 37 10 0, 
 32 11 0 — 34 6 0 
 
 36 2 0 - 39 f 
 
 Free on board 
 in SterUng Money, 
 
 Per bundle, 
 0 6 8 
 0 6 3 
 
 0 6 9 — 0 6 10 
 
 The above prices in sterling money, free on Ijoard, are calculated at the exdiange of 205 s, gr., and at 
 the proportion of lOJ Imp. qrs. per last