THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY Prom the collection of James Collins, Drumcondra, Ireland. Purchased, 1918 . V • 032 T-54-tK 3ETlV>rr TP 2?CIJII 1 > (' r ! i p ^ In presenting to the Public a New Edition of the Million of Facts, the Publishers can only add to the Author’s Preface, the assurance that it has been carefully revised to the present time, without in any degree interfering with the original work, which, in the many years that have elapsed since the Author’s death, has in no way been superseded either in price, compass, or merit. To keep pace, however, with the march of science and the progress of discovery, it has been found necessary to add a further 128 columns to the volume, in the form of a Supplement, which will be found to contain most of the new fads worth commemorating. Odober , 1872. a Now ready , 'price 8s. 6tZ. Volume 1. — A to G. Vol. II., 8s. Gd. — H to Z— ready in December. BEETON’S SCIENCE, ART, AND LITE- RATURE : a Dictionary of Universal Information : comprising a complete Summary of the Moral, Mathematical, Physical, and Natural Sciences, &c. Demy 8 vo, half roan, price 155. DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL INFOR- MATION. A to Z, comprising Geography, Bio- graphy, History, Mythology, Biblical Knowledge, Chronology, with the pronunciation of every Proper Name. Complete in One Volume , Cloth gilt , 7s. Gd . ; half calf, 10s. 6d. BEETON’S DICTIONARY OF NATURAL HISTORY. A Popular and Scientific Account of Animated Creation. With the pronunciation of the name of every animal. (Illustrated.) Complete in One Volume, cloth gilt , 7s. Gd. ; half calf , 10s. Gd. BEETON’S DICTIONARY OF BIO- GRAPHY. Being the Lives of Eminent Persons of All Times, with the pronunciation of every Name. Illustrated by Portraits. Complete in One Volume, cloth gilt , 7s. Gd. ; half calf , 10s. Gd. BEETON’S DICTIONARY OF GEO- GRAPHY. A Universal Gazetteer. Illustrated by Maps — ancient, modern, and biblical. With several hundred engravings of the Capital Cities of the World, English County Towns, &c. Just published , half bound, price Gs. TREASURY OF NATURAL SCIENCE. From the German of Professor Schoedler, with numerous additions by Henry Medlock, F.C.S. Fourth Edition, with copious Index, and upwards of 500 Engravings. LONDON : WARD, LOCK, & TYLER, WARWICK HOUSE, PATERNOSTER ROW. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/millionoffactsofOOphil hoe’s printing machine, ten-feeder. A MILLION OF FACTS OF Correct gats atrtr elemental Infmmtwn urarernrag % Cntire Circle of the Sciences, AND ON ALL SUBJECTS OF SPECULATION AND PRACTICE, By SIR RICHARD PHILLIPS. CAREFULLY REVISED AND IMPROVED, AND BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT YEAR. THE ARCHIMEDEAN SCREW. LONDON: WARD, LOCK, & TYLER, WARWICK HOUSE, PATERNOSTER ROW. PREFACE in YV\ — TO THE STEREOTYPED EDITION. ^ Another and another edition of this Volume is called for, and one edition is scarcely published, before the Editor finds himself in requi- sition to prepare a new one. The result is highly advantageous to purchasers, since current corrections confer on the work the utility of a Calendar of Science and Knowledge ; a feature which could not have been anticipated when the work was planned. Five very large Editions, in seven years, of a volume of its size and price, and an increasing, rather than slackened demand, are stimulants to the Author’s attention, which he flatters himself will be visible in every page of the present Stereotyped Edition. The great success of the Work, and the burst of applause which followed its publication, have encouraged him to bestow unremitting labour in conferring every practical perfection on this Edition. New Chapters have been added, others have been re-composed, and every column, almost every paragraph, has undergone revision. At the same time, a faultless work, embracing so extensive a range of sub- jects, amidst so many conflicting authorities, cannot be expected; while no labour to reconcile contradictions, and no care to exclude mistakes in typography, have been spared in a work which has no likeness in quantity, compression, and variety. If the First Edition might be honestly called A Million of Facts, this might now, with, strict propriety, be called AMillion and aHALF; for the additions have been immense, while repetitions have been avoided, and a more perspicacious display of the matter, and a more analogous juxtaposition of the subjects have, in general, been effected. Such a work, from its nature, can however be only an approxima- tion towards perfection ; since facts, or results, are so numerous, that even a Billion, if desirable, would not include all. The utmost, therefore, that can be expected, is a selection of the more important and interesting to serve as Data in reasoning, action, or contem- plation. It may, however, be necessary for the Author to guard himself against a mistaken notion, that this Volume is a servile collection of *■1 , ^ IV PREFACE. scraps and common- places. Every erudite reader will correct this mistake, and perceive that the Author speaks for himself in every column, and almost in every paragraph. Little, in fact, has been taken on trust on any subject ; and the harmonizing of discordances and discrepancies has been a labour far exceeding belief. The variety of subjects, and the complication of details relative to some of them, unavoidably expose the work to criticism from those who have devoted their lives to single subjects, and the work may sometimes be found in error, when judged by such accurate critics ; yet, it may be hoped, that in most cases it will appear that the Author has seized on the prominent points, and has given place to tables, figures, quantities, ratios, and constants, whose exhibition, in this form, will at least be found convenient. By students in general, and literary men in every pursuit, — by persons residing at a distance from large libraries, — by those who wish to avoid the labour of research and comparison, — by practical men, — by politicians, — and even by the readers of newspapers and journals, — by residents in distant climes, and by travellers, to whom large books are an incumbrance, — by loungers at watering-places, and by summer-residents at country-seats, the volume will, he trusts, be deemed a valuable acquisition. In a word, he conceives that, even in the largest libraries, in colleges, schools, and universities, regarded only as a portable index of ready reference, it will extort approbation. In this form, he has been enabled to present to the world above a hundred thousand facts, at the low price of one shilling, or about nine thousand for a penny. Much has been vaunted about cheap publications, and penny magazines have been the wonder of the day; yet, in comparison, the present is the most memorable example, for nothing else in literature or in printing can compete with 9000 facts FOR A PENNY. Facts, too, have special value : they are the data of all just rea- soning, and the primary elements of all real knowledge. The wisest man is he who possesses the greatest store of Facts within the com- mand of his understanding. A book, therefore, which assembles Facts from all their scattered sources, may be considered as a useful and important auxiliary to Wisdom. It lays claim to be the com- panion of all who earnestly seek truth at the fountain-head; of all who think for themselves, or would be thought to do so ; and of all who desire to correct errors in themselves or in others. PREFACE. V rhe Author, in applying to current knowledge the test of Facts, and often in examining previous determinations, and the connection of premises with generally-admitted conclusions, has unambitiously detected many errors in received systems. He might have consulted his ease, by yielding to admitted authorities and existing predilec- tions ; but his respect for truth, and for his readers, and a just regard of his own reputation, have forced him to impeach some doctrines that are at variance with fact and right reason. In not servilely compromising the truth, he is persuaded he shall obtain the suffrages of most of his readers, and time will, doubtless, remove the tena- cious prejudices of others. The life of Galileo is a warning to Authors who prefer what is true to what is agreeable ; but the moral courage of Fontenelle is not to be admired for declaring that "if his hand were full of truths he would not open it It may be both wise and prudent not “ to run a tilt” at all the cherished errors of the world ; but no man ought to write and publish that which he knows to be not true, nor falsify evidence to please any fac- tion in science or politics. The Author is unclaimed and unclubbed , and by him truth has not been qualified to please a party, nor modified by any sinister influence. He has endeavoured to make his book as like the Elements of Euclid as its peculiar nature would permit, and as is consistent with good taste in its composition. His object has been, with singleness of purpose, to exhibit, truly , all those features of study and inquiry, which distinguish an enlightened epoch of an intellectual nation ; and it has been his ambition, not only to make a true reflection of the pursuits of such a people, but to become, also, the harbinger of further improvements. In the march of intellect which charac- terizes the age, it behoved the Author of such a volume to be in advance, rather than in the rear. His advocacy, when it is dis- played, will, he is persuaded, be always found to be on the side of human happiness, general benevolence, and scientific truth. He was aware, also, that a Million of Facts would be like a million of bricks in the kiln of the maker, if some interest were not conferred on them, by cementing and arranging them with the sentiment that belongs to approved architecture. His pretensions for such a task are a prolonged and uninterrupted intercourse with books and men of letters. He has, for forty-nine VI PREFACE. years, been occupied as the literary conductor of various public jour- nals of reputation ; he has superintended the press in the printing of many hundred books, in every branch of human pursuit ; and be has been intimately associated with men, celebrated for their attain- ments in each of them. It will be found, when the same data appear to be repeated, that it is in some new combination, and that the repetition has been male for greater precision. Authorities are not often named, because there is not room for literal quotation, and the facts are generally applied in original rela- tions. In general, too, every fact is verified by those combinations, while, in nine cases out of ten, the Editor has renewed calculations and corrected erroneous results, which for a century have been copied without examination. The erudite alone can do justice to much labour, which does not appear on the face of many paragraphs. Many writers enjoy renown for single determinations, while, at least ten thousand, in this volume, are inserted by the Author, without ostentation. As all parts are expressed in decimal fractions, or in 10th, 100th, 1000th, &c. parts, the reader should understand that the frac- tion follows a full point ; that the first figure after the point is lOths, as *5 or 7 , that is, 5-tenths, or 7-tenths. The second figure is hundredths, as *03 or *05 is 3-hundredths or 5-hundredths, while *75 is 75-hundredths, and '25 is 25-hundredths. The entire practice of decimals may, however, be learnt in two hours, by means of a little shilling-book, “ blair’s first lines.” A rational theory of the atomic mechanism of Gassification, ano- ther of Heat, a third of the cause of all Electrical Phenomena, a fourth of the true cause of Weight and Central Force ; the recognition of the Claims of the Geologists to a great age of the world ; a Chapter on Railroads, and five or six others, render this work different from mere compilations from Cyclopsedias of the last age, and bring down all the details of Science to the improved state of knowledge at the commencement of the year 1840. Without great care and Herculean labour on these points, the work would have been unworthy of consultation, and of the ambition of the Editor. London , December, 1839. ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX, Serving the Purposes of A finder in an Astronomical Telescope , in relation to the Contents and the Alphabetical Index at the JEnd of the Volume. A finder has hitherto been a Desideratum in this Volume , since a Million of Facts, like a Million of Stars , require distinct Vision to discriminate Standard Points amid the blaze of the Galaxy. I. ENGLISH MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. Col. The Civil Law 1 Various Denominations and Generic Weights ib. The Grain ib. II. FRENCH MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. The Metre 3 The Gramme . . ib. The Are ib. The Stere ib. The Litre ib. Their Subdivisions and Multiples .. ib. The Pendulum .. .. .. .. 5 III. MEASURES OF CAPACITIES. Gallons .. 6 Grains ib. Relations ib. Imperial Bushel ib. Guaging 7 Provincial Measures ib. Weights of Grain ib. Thames Water ib. Foreign Liquid Measures of all Coun- tries .. .. .. .. .. ib. Foreign Dry Measures .. ... .. ib. Fluid Apothecaries’ Measures . . . . ib. IV. WEIGHTS, OR CENTRAL FORCE. Motions of the Earth, and their Revolu- tions into Weight 9 Troy , Avoirdupois , and Apothecaries' Weights ib. Grains in each Local Weights .. .. ib. Foreign Weights 11 Relations ib. Oriental Weights ib. V. MEASURES OF LENGTH. Different Standards 14 Foreign Yards and Feet ib. Miles and Leagues of all Countries .. 15 Acres and their Relations . . . . 16 VI. ENGLISH AND FRENCH SYSTEMS, Contrasted in a Table 18 VII. MONEY AND COINAGE. Col. Currency ... 20 Debasement of Currency .. 21 Alloy .. .. ib. British Coinage ; Silver, Copper, Gold ib. Royal Mint .. .. .. .. ib. Carat Grains 22 Weights of English Coins .. .. ib. Relations of Silver to Gold .. .. 25 Titre of Gold, and proportion of Silver in Coins of various Countries . . ib. Sterling Value of Gold and Silver Coins 23 Value of Coins in American Dollars, and relative Value 26 Foreign Money and Accounts . . . . 27 Irish Money . . . . . . . . ib. Goldsmiths’ Company’s Mark .. .. 28 Power of Coinage in the Sovereign . . ib. Ancient Coins 29 VIII. MEASURES OF TIME AND CHRONOLOGY. Time identical with Motion .. ..30 Measures of Time ib. Cycles, Epochs 31 Chronology ib. Relation of Eras ib. Pendulum 32 Day ib. Mean apparent Time ib. Equation Table 33 Tropical, Sidereal, & Anomalistic Years 34 Leap-year .. .. ib. Perpetual Almanac, to ascertain the Day of the Week for any Day of the Month in the 19th Century .. .. 35 Dominical Letter ib. Golden Number .. .. .. .. ib. Cycle of the Sun 37 Epact ib. Festivals * .. .. ib. Hindoo Chronology 40 IX. HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY. Roman Years, A. U. C 42 Olympiads ib. Beginning of the Globe ib. Hindoo, Chinese, Mexican, Armenian, Chaldean, Julian, and Christian Eras ib. Bible Epochs 43 ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. viii Col. Discrepancies of Josephus , the Vulgate , Parian , Sfc. stated 45 Age of Cronus , Taautus, $c. determined 47 Chronological Table 48 Heroic Ages , Ancient and Modern . . ib. Discoveries, and Epochs of Knowledge 54 Plagues in London 56 X. MATHEMATICS. Signs 56 Decimal Notation 57 Roman Notation ib. Differential Calculus ib. Fluxions ib. Geometry connected with Mechanics . . ib. Mathematical Analysis 58 Prime Numbers ib. Tables of Decimals 59 Tables of Logarithms 60 Tables of Powers ib. Proportion 62 Geometry 63 Table of Sines and Cosines .. . . ib. Circle ib. Conic Sections .. .. ib. Series, Arithmetical and Geometrical 64 Falling Bodies 65 Projectiles ib. Areas ib. Solids 66 Guaging ib. Measurement of Timber . . . . ib. Levelling 67 Convexity of the Earth ib. Horizon 68 Vernier ib. Chain-rule ib. Changes and Combinations . . . . ib. Chances ..70 Angular Measure 71 XL SPECIFIC GRAVITY, or STATICS. Weight, a Phenomenon of Motion .. 71 Mean Velocity of the Earth .. .. 72 Space 73 Matter ; Concrete, Liquid, and Gaseous ib. Power is Matter in motion .. .. ib. Atoms .. .. ib. Density 74 Cohesion ib. Force, or Momentum ib. Action and Re-action 77 Elasticity ib. Pressure ib. Pressure of Fluids ib. Water, at different Temperatures .. 7S Table of Specific Weights of Gases, Va- pours, Liquids, and Solids .. .. 79 Proportions of Weight and Solidity in various Substances 81 Falling Bodies .. ib. XII. MECHANICS & MACHINERY. Mechanical Contrivances, for conveying the Power of a Machine to the Work 8S Algebraic Formulae of Forces .. .. 84 Moving Powers 85 Mecnanical Powers ; Lever, Wheel and Axle, Pulley, Inclined Plane, Screw, Wedge ib. Lists of American $ English Machines 85 Androides, &c 86 Cotton-spinning Machinery . . . . ib. Spinning-jenny ib. Arkwright’s Machines ib. Crompton’s Mule ib. Steam-engine 87 Sseam Navigation ib. Motion the Source of Steam .. ..88 Horse Power 89 Mines 90 Weaving ib. Human Strength 91 Cotton 92 Number of Factories and Hands .. ib. Woollen ib. Number of Factories and Hands .. ib. Hemp and Flax 93 Number of Factories and Hands .. ib. Silk .. a. a. . . .a a. it. Number of Factories and Hands .. ib. Total Strength employed in Fibrous Manufactories ib. Lace-weaving Machines 94 Origin and History of the Cotton Manu- factory .. ib. Power-loom 95 Arguments for and against the Use of Machinery 96 Water-mills 97 Wind-mills ib. Velocity of the Wind ib. Pumps ib. Blowing Machines ib. Friction 98 Clocks 99 Chronometers ib. Watches ib. Pendulum ib. Life-boat 101 Life-buoy ib. Anchors ib. Block-machine .. .. .. . . 102 Printing-machine ib. Patents 103 Iron- works ib. Telegraphs ib. XIII. ANIMATED NATURE. Number of Species 104 Climate varies Species 105 Kay, the first systematic Zoologist . . ib. Linnaeus ib. Cuvier ib. Animal Organization ib. Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles, Serpents, Fishes, Zoophytes, &c. .. .. 106 Order, Class, Genus, Species .. ..107 Structure of Animals 108 Bones, Tendons, &c ib. Cellular Tissue 109 Procreative Powers ib. Reproduction of Insects >. ..110 The Skin, Hair ib. Relative Proportions of the Body and Brain Ill Hybrids ib. Secretions 11 Instincts 115 Organic Remains . . .. .. 117 IX ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Animal Life 117 Germs of Animal and Vegetable Life. . ib. Zoological Gardens .. .. ..119 Creation in Paradise 120 Noah ib. Period of Gestation . . . . . . ib. Dr. Grant’s new Classification of the Animal Kingdom 121 XIV. OF MAN. Species of Men; White, Tawney, Cop- per-coloured, Black 124 Caucasian, Mongolian, Negro, American ib. Colour, Hair, Temperaments . . . . ib. Food ib. Number ib. Varieties ; probably of different origin ib. Extinct Races ib. Number of Ancestors and Descendants at various periods 125 Castes .. . . .. •• .. 12/ Intellect .. ib. Facial Angle .. .. „ 9 .. ib. Hereditary Peculiarities . . ib. Weight and Stature .. r « ..130 Giants . . ib. Dwarfs ib. Complexion and Hair . . . . , . ib. Voice .. ,. 131 Language . . . . . . . . . . ib. Vital Parts of Man ib. Bones of the Head and Body, Teeth .. 132 Secretions .. ..ib. Muscles 134 Circulatory System ib. Circulation of the Blood . . . . 135 Harvey’s Hypothesis 136 Vivification of the Blood .. .. ib. Respiration .. .. .. ib. Digestion, Experiments on .. .. 13S The Brain and Nerves 139 Phrenology .. 140 Life ib. Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Medulla Oblon- gata, Spinal-Marrow 142 Variety of Nerves, different Powers .. 143 Senses 144 Sleep . ib. Longevity of Man 145 Mean of Life ib. Generation ib. Ancient Legends about Longevity . . ib. Proportion of Males and Females .. 146 Diseases and Medicine 147 Classification of Diseases and Remedies ib. Epidemics .148 Progress of Surgery and Medicine . . 149 Small-pox « ib. Vaccination .. .. .. .. ib. Diet 150 Poisons .. . ... 152 Miscellaneous Facts in the Anatomy and Physiology of Man 153 Deaf and Dumb ib. XV. MAMMALIA. Description of the Class . . . . 158 Number of Mammiferous Animals .. 160 Table of Dimensions ib. European Mammalia ib. British Mammalia 160 French ib, Italian ib. Spanish ib Norwegian ib. Swiss ib. Asiatic Mammalia • 161 India ib New Holland ib. Kangaroo ib. African Mammalia ib. Ferocious and Noxious Animals .. ib. American Mammalia .. .. .. ib. Extinct Mammoth ib. Simiae considered, by Lepon, the con- necting-link between Man and other animals 163 Monkey ib. Ourang-outang ib. Angola-ourang ... ib. Ape ib. Baboons ib. Different Species live in Colonies .. ib. Ourang, Pongo, and Chimpanzee, near- est approach to man in external form ib. Mastedon, or Mammoth .. ..164 Elephant ib. Rhinoceros ib. Hippopotamus ib. Behemoth of the Jews ib. Genus Felis ib. Order Face, or Carnivora . . . . ib. Bear, Lion, Tiger, Hyena, &c. .. ib. Camel, Dromedary 165 Horse . . 166 Horse-races ib. Ass ib Mule and Hinny ib. Lama ib. Ox ib. Bison ib. Bull- fights ib. Weight of Cattle 167 Sheep ib. Beavers, their sagacity and forethought ib. Dog 168 Cat ib. Travelling in Dog-sleighs and Dog-trains ib. Fox .. .. ib. Wolf ib. Goat 169 Deer ib. Wild-boar ib. Hedge-hog ib. Guinea-pig .. ib. Squirrel ib. Hare ib. Rabbit ib. Ant-eater ib. Mole ib. Sloth 170 Badger .. .. .. .. .. ib. Aard-Vark .. ib. Lemming .. .. ib. Glutton . . ib. Porcupine ib. Ichneumon 171 Weasel ib. Armadillo ib. Rat .. .. ib K ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Zorilla .. . 171 Marmot .. *. ib. Bat ib. Cetaceous Animals not ranked as Fishes ib. The Balsenae, or Common Whales .. 1/2 Dimensions of a Whale shewn at Cha- ring- Cross ib. Seals 173 Sea-otter .. .. ib. Quadrupeds and beasts of prey nocturnal ib. Duflfenbach ingrafts the feathers, &c. of various species with others .. .. ib. Average Length of Life of certain species ib. Mr. Cross’s Opinion of the Length of Life of various Beasts of Prey .. ib. London Zoological Society formed .. ib. Their stock of Animals, Birds, &c. .. ib. Birds, Fishes, &c. in Surrey Zoological Gardens .. .. .. .. -74 Age of Eagles ib. Bees ib. Frogs and Toads embedded in Coal at a great depth ib. Expence of Menageries .. .. ib. XVII. OF BIRDS. (AVES.) Orders of Linnaeus 175 Number of Species .. .. .. ib. Museum at Berlin . . . . . . ib. Vertebrae ib. Muscles ib. Respiration ib. Song of Birds ib. Original ideas of the first composers derived from them ib. Eggs 176 Migratory Birds ib. Migration of Swallows, at Gosport, for Ten Years ib. Spring in Norfolk ib. Size of Birds 177 Rooks ib. Falco Genus .. .. .. .. ib. Swallows .. ..178 Owls ib. Pigeons - . . . ib. Grosbeak ib. Baya ib. Ostrich ib. Petrils ib. Black Swans ib. Penguin ib. Woodpecker, &c. ib Artificial Incubation 179 Flocks of Pigeons ib. Bittern ib. Humming-bird .. .. .. .. ib. Mocking-bird ib. Chat ISO Fly-catcher . . ib. Crested Titmouse ib. Blue-bird ib. XVIII. FISHES, (PISCES.) Orders of Linnaeus 180 Cuvier ib. Respiration of Fishes 181 Branchial Apparatus .. .. .. ib. Gills ib. 4ir-bladder .. .. .. ib. C«1 Brain .18. Vertebrae ib. Ribs .. .. .. .. . . ib. Radii ib. Age of Fish 182 Food .. .. ... .. .. ib. Migration .. .. .. .. ib. Flat-fish 183 Cod-fish ib. Mackarel ib. Herrings .. .. .. .. . . ilx Pilchards ib. Haddock ib. Gold and Silver Fish ib. Dolphins ib. Inhabitants of large Seas .. .. ib. Sharks, &c. ib. Salmon, &c. . . ib. Sea-unicorn .. ib. Flying-fish ib. Medusa ib. Jaculator, &c ib. Frozen-fish ib. XIX. TEST ACE A & SHELLS. Genera and Species 184 Mollusca ib. Arrangement of Shells, Aristotle, Lin- naeus, Latreille ib. Crustacea ib. Nautili ib. Cyprae ib. Haliotus Gigantea .. .. .. ib. Tridacna Gigas, the largest of Testacea ib. Snails eaten at Rome .. .. ..185 Shower of Crabs . . . . . . „ . ib. Cuttle-fish 186 Pearl-fishery ib. Oyster ib. Tortoise, great Age of ib. Turtle .. .. ib. Migration of Land. Crabs .. .. ib. Nautilus, &c ib. XX. REPTILES, or AMPHIBIA. Species .. .. ib. Cold Blood of Amphibia .. .. 187 Reptiles and Serpents .. .. .. ib. Genera .. .. .. .. ib. Reptiles become torpid under 40° .. ib. Scorpions .. ib. Crocodiles ib. Frogs ib. Toads ib. Dr. Buck! and' s Experiments on Toads enclosed in limestone , apple-trees , and plaister of Paris .. .. . . 1 SB Dr. Townsend's Experiments on Frogs and Toads ib. Serpents 189 Boa Constrictor ib. Rattle-snake ib. Coluber, &c. ib. English Reptiles ib. Snake harmless, Adder or Viper venom- ous .. ib. Serpents regarded with veneration .. ib. Worms .. . . 190 A Sea-worm 60 feet long .. .. ib. A Sea-snake 55 feet long .. .. ib. analytical, or prospective index. xi XXI. INSECTS. Swammerdam’s Classification, 1669 .. Ray’s Work on Insects, 1712 .. Valasnieri, 1/30 Number of Species .. -• •• Species peculiar to different Countries Modern Entomology Drury’s Museum in 1780 Donovan - P. Martin Francilec Jones Leach . . - • E rror _ m m m m m • • • • 03 Caterpillar or Larva Chrysalis or Nympha Butterfly Organization Respiration Organs of Sense Sex Galvanic Animalcules Bees .. Rose, cutter Upholsterer Wood-piercer Mason-bee Humble-bee *■ Wasp Honey-bee Queen-bee Males Working Organization Size * Number of Cells Destruction of Bees for the Honey Nutt’s Hives Swarms Ants, their Sagacity The White Ant Ants in Tropical Countries, numerous, and of a large size Wars of Ants Mites and Parasites Fleas Dragon-fly Arachnides or Spiders Organization Webs .. Each Thread a Union of 4000 .. Gossamer Asiatic Grasshopper, or Locust Destruction of Grass and Vegetation .. Ichneumon-fly House-fly Col. 190 ib. ib. 191 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 192 193 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 194 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. Fecundity Aphis Ephemera Centipedes Dragon-fly Gad-fly Lantern- fly Fire-fly Beetle Gall-fly Furia Infernalis Meggar Chafers ib. ib. ib. ib. 195 ib. ib. ib. ib. 196 ib. ib. 197 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 198 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 199 ib. ib. ib, ib. Musical Grasshoppers .. .. ..199 Moth ib. Moths, Spiders, and Beetles, counterfeit death when in danger .. .. ib. The Mantis ib. Cochineal ib. Beauty of the Wings of Insects.. .. ib. Eyes of Insects ib. Duration of Life ib. Light of Glow-worms ib. The May-fly 200 Ant-lion ib. Sexton-beetle ib. XXII. ZOOPHYTES & INFUSORIA. Recent discovery of Zoophytes and In- fusoria 200 Animal Anemones or Actinae .. .. ib. Coral Zoophytes ib. Radiata . . . . . . . . . . ib. Medusa ib. Corallines 201 Polypes ib. Sponges ib. Microscopic Animalculae .. .. ib. Infusoria ib. Organization ib. Produced by mixture of various sub- stances in fluids ib. Eels in vinegar and paste . . . . 202 Volvox globator .. .. .. .. ib. Power of resurrection ib. Luminous animalculae 203 Hydro-oxygen Microscope . . . . 204 XXIII. VEGETATION, OR BOTANY. Vegetation 204 Vegetable substances ib. Number of species and genera of the Flora, according to the estimates of Brogniart, Linnaeus, Stendel, De Can- dolle, and Keferstein 205 Ancient .. .. ib. British ib. The Linncean , or Sexual System .. ib. Classes ib. Orders ib. The Sexual System understood in the East from Antiquity ib* Systems of Van Royen, Gleiditch, and Haller ib. System of Jussieu , or Natural System ib. Cotyledons 206 Cellular tissne 207 Woody fibre .. .. .. ib. Spiral vessels ib. Ducts ib. Generic name ib, Marks used by Botanists . . . . ib. Animal and Vegetable Life and Organi- zation ib. Fucoids, Lichens, Mosses, &c., the first germs of vegetation 209 Growth, &c. ib. Chemistry of Vegetation . . . . ib. Laws of Vegetable Substances, by Gay Lussac and Thenard 209 Composition of Vegetables .. .. ib. Colours 210 Light . . ib. XU ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Leaves .. 211 flowers .. .. .. .. .. ib. Water ib. Deterioration of Soils ib. Fecundity of Plants 212 Seeds and Germs ib. Product of Seeds 214 Time of Germination of Seeds .. .. ib. Revivification of Seeds ib. Fruit ib. Scent of Flowers ib. Geography of Plants ib. Every district has its ow n Flora . . ib. De Candolle’s Botanical regions . . ib. Locality of Species ib. Humboldt ib. Mirbel .. 215 Linnaeus . . . . ib. Miscellaneous Facts ib. Temperature 218 Marine Botanical Districts . . . . 220 Peculiar Vegetable Productions . . ib. Arrow-root ib. Aloes ib. Arum capanulatum 221 Araucaria ib. Bamboo . . . . . . . . ib. Banana ib. Cocoa- tree ib. Cocoa, Chocolate ib. Chinchona ib. Indigo -• ib. Cotton-plant ib. Coffee-tree.. .. 223 Cinnamon-tree ib. Cow-tree ib. Clove-tree ib. Cork ib. Date 224 Himalaya Cedar ib. New Zealand Flax ib. Heaths ib. Lotus . - ib. Lichen ib. Mahogany-tree ib. Morus ib. Myrica Pennsylvanica . . - . . . ib. Tallow-tree ib. Dry-rot ib. Nutmeg-tree ib. Onions 225 Spagnum palustre ib. Pine ib. Palms ib. Pimento ib. Pitcher-plant ib. Species of Rosier ib. Sugar-cane ib. Vegetable-butter 227 Strawberry-tree . . - - - - - . ib. Tcha, or Tea- tree ib. Green teas ib. Black teas ib. Mode of Cultivation, Time of Gather- ing, Curing ib. First Introductfon to Europe, in 1660 228 Assam Tea ib. Talipot 229 Teasel ib. Tobacco ib. Upas-tree . x2i Fungi ib. Size and Age of Trees ib. The Wallace Oak, &c ib. Yews 23' Limes ib Elms ib. Pines ib. Mahogany ib. Thistles ib. Rhododendron ib. Raffiesia ib. Vine at Hampton Court .. .. ib. Gum-tree in Van Diemen’s Land .. 231 South American trees .. .. .. ib. The Damary Oak ib. Chesnut-trees on Etna, and at Tamworth ib. Yew-trees at Fountain’s Abbey .. ib. Ivy’s, &c ib. Walnut-tree from Lake Erie .. .. 232 Apple-tree at Woolstrope .. .. ib. Cedars of Lebanon ib. Terebinth-trees, &c. ib. Progression of Plants ib. Indigenous Fruits of Britain .. .. ib. Introduction of Vegetables from Hol- land and the Netherlands in the reign of Henry VIII. il\ Introduction of Exotics ib. Sugar cane .. 233 Fig, Vine, Olive, r„sd Pomegranate .. ib. Date of Introduction to Europe of vari- ous Trees ib. Roses ib. The Potato ib. Turnips ib. Larch ib. Walnut ib. Peach ib. Coffee ib. Rye and Wheat ib. Botanical Memoranda .. .. .. 231 Order in which English Plants flower in Spring 235 Comparative Weight of Produce of va- rious Vegetables, on an Acre .. 236 Metals absorbed by Plants . . . . 237 Turf in Marshes ib Planting of Hops forbidden by Henry VI., and the use of “ Hops and Sul- phur,” by Henry VIII 238 Apples ripen in order ib. Horticultural and Botanical Gardens .. 239 The Jardin des Plantes .. .. ib. Papyrifera 24C Mistletoe reverenced by the Druids .. ib Grapes in England ib. Fairy Rings ib. Slide of Alpnach ib. Hot-houses .. .. .. ib. Poisonous Plants 241 Dutch Gardens and Flower Trade .. ib. The Bitter Principle 242 Various Vegetable Productions .. ib. Tabic of Longevity of Plants .. 245 XXIV. THE MINERAL KINGDOM, Crust of the Earth 24* Fossil Remains, the Subject of Geology ib. Mineralogy .. .. .. ... ib ANALYTICAL, CR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. xiii Col. Bucklaml’s Order of the Strata .. 24 G Werner’s Arrangement of the Primitive Rocks ih. Chemical Classification oj Mohs .. 247 Crystals and Metallic Ores , the Pro- ducts of Electrical Action mm .. 248 Pocky Substances , in general , the Re- sult of Centrifugal Force of Mobile Waters in Perihelion .. .. ib. Primitive Pocks ib. Quartz 249 Felspar ib. Mica .. .. .. -• - . ib. Granite ib. External Structure of Rocks .. .. ib. Elementary Components of Rocks, Silex, Lime , Magnesia , with Oxide of Iron, Carbon, and Sulphur .. -- ib. Internal Structure of Rocks displayed by fracture . ..251 Lustre of Minerals ib. Qualities ib. Earthy, Saline, Inflammable, and Me- tallic Mineral Productions .. .. ib. Transition Rocks 252 Siennite ib. Porphyry ib. Curved Gneiss ib. Serpentine ib. Magnesian Lime-stone ib. Hornblende ib. Augite ib. Schistose . . . . ib. Mica-slate .. .. .. - - ib. Fossils of Primary and Transition Rocks ib. Secondary Rocks . . . . • • ib. Pebbles ib. Limestone ib. Lime, &c. ib. Pudding-stone 253 Stalactites ib. Stalagmites . . . . - - . . ib. Calcareous Spar ib. Iceland Spar ib. Alabaster .. .. .. .. ib. Emery ib. Barium ib. Borax ib. Fuller’s Earth ib. Amber ib. Tabasheer ib. Tabriz Marble ib. Lime produced by Zoophites .. .. ib. Paving-stones 254 Alkalies 255 Earthy Minerals .. ib. Ores ib. Asphaltum ib. Naphtha ib. Bitumen .. .. ib. Petroleum Wells ib. Coals ib. Coal-mines .. .. .. .. ib. Estimated Consumption of Coals .. 257 Period of the Granitic Formation, as deduced from the Coal Formations ib. Salt 25S Rock-salt ib. Salt-springs ib. Salt-mines .. .. .. .. ib. Sea- water .. neo Salt-beds " I. ib Crystals and Precious Stones . . \ \ 259 Crystallization V. ib Fundamental Atoms .. .. H ib! Solution * ^ T ib* Hauy’s Theory of Crystallization II ib! Forms of Crystals of various substances 260 Goniometers Precious Stones .. .. II II 261 Hardness 1 1 ib. Diamond, &c I II ib! Diamond Mines .. .. II II ib! Large Diamonds ib* Metals II 261 Generated by long- continued Galvanic Action between Mixed Rocks .. ib. Aura .. .. .. ib. Age of Metals II ib! Density \ m II ib. Ores and Compounds I ib! Metallic Veins, &c. I ib! Mineral Veins of Cornwall .. .. ib. Ores 263 Veins in Granite and Limestone .. ib. Faults or Dykes, and Veins .. ..264 Smelting Platina I II ib! Gold .. .. .. jb. Silver II ib! Mercury II ib! Corper II I! ib! Iron ib. JLeaa .. .. _ „ mm ib. Zinc . . II ib! Gold Mines, &c. of the Cordilleras, Chili, Potosi, Guantajaya, Peru, &c. . . ib. Immense accumulation of the Precious Metals and Stones in India .. .. ib. Produce of various Mines . . . . 267 Bullion ib. Divisibility of Gold 268 Gilding ib. Gold-leaf ib. Silver-leaf lib! Cornish Mines, Tin and Copper . . 269 Produce ib. Mode of working the Mines .. .. ib. Price of Labour 270 The Dynamic Unit ib. Copper and Lead- mines .. .. 271 Copper, Tin, and Zinc Wire . . . . ib. Galena ib. Manganese .. ib. Selenium .. .. ib. Cadmium .. .. ib. Wodanium ib. Alloys ib. Iron 272 Antiquity of Iron ib. Ores ib. Cast-Iron ib. Pig-Iron ib! Bar-Iron ib. Steel 273 Steel Manufactories at Sheffield .. ib. Iron Furnaces ib. Produce of British Iron-mines .. .. ib. Exports .. ib. XIV ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Magnetic Pyrites Loadstone Plumbago Oxides Amalgams Alloys Deaths by Explosions in Mines XXV. GEOLOGY. Geology the History of the Earth, as deduced from its own Natural Records Geology a new study General attention first drawn to the sub- ject by Smith, of Bath The Author's Theory Progress of correct opinions relative to Geology Leonardo da Vinci Steno Werner . . . . Hutton Lamarck Deluc Cuvier Brogniart Parkinson Webster Mantell Lyall, &c Opinions of the Greek Schools as to the Antiquity of the Earth Granitic Groupe Unstratified and Stratified Rocks Inclination and Declination of Forma- tions Causes Foundation of Traditions respecting the Flood Fossils Repeated Submersions of the Land Fossils of extinct Genera Ancient Formations once the Surface of the Earth Destruction of Organic Life, and subse- quent appearance of new Genera Granite, &c. below the Limestone, con- tain no Organic Remains First appearance of Fossils in the early Slate formations Formation of Soils Residence of Man, many times alter- nately dry land and sea Primitive Transition, Alluvial or Se- condary, and Tertiary Strata . . Fossils of the various formations Lyall’s subdivision of the Tertiary Epoch into five Periods : — the recent, or Age of Man; the newer Pliocene ; the older Pliocene ; the Miocene ; and the Eocene Buckland’s Arrangement .. .. Small extent of Geological Research .. Conglomerates Agates Pebbles Chalk-fossils Flint Sandstone .. . . Chalk shewn by the Microscope to be composed of Marine Insects . . Col. 274 ib. ib. 2/5 ib. ib. ib. 2/6 ib. ib. ib. 2 77 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 2/8 ib. ib. 279 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 280 ib. ib. 281 ib. 282 284 285 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 28/ Coal Measures 287 Mr. W. Phillips’ general conclusions on Geology 288 Geography and Localities . . . . ib. An immense Chain of Mountains the nucleus of the Old Continent .. 289 Chain of Mountains in America .. ib. New Holland ib. Deserts of Africa and Arabia . . . . 290 Asia ib. Table-land .. ib. Polar Regions ib. Mount Balca ib. Caves 291 Sterile parts of Great Britain ; manu- facturing ; agricultural .. .. ib. Bones of Elephants , Hippopotami , §c. ; Teeth of Sharks and Fishes, found in every part of England . . .. ib. Fossils of Sussex indicate a higher Tem- perature than that of any part of Eu- rope at the present time . . . . 292 Age of Reptiles ib. Tilgate Strata ib. Localities . . . . ib. Salisbury Plain 293 Norfolk Fossils .. .. .. .. ib. Coal-measures ib. Granite ib. Wales ib. Cheddar Cave 294 Tunbridge- Wells ib. Lizards at Stonesfiell ib. Scotland ib. Bogs 295 Basalt 296 Giant’s Causeway .. .. .. ib. Cave of Stafla ib. Volcanic Rocks 297 Fossil Vegetables 298 Petrifactions ib. Number of Fossil Species ,. .. ib. Perihelion Periods .. .. .. ib. Brogniart’s Geological Flora .. .. 299 Cryptogamous, Monocotyledous, and Dicotyledous Plants ib. Fossils shew three series of Creations .. ib. Fossils in Coal . . 300 Submerged Forests ib. Forests of standing Trees, in Stone, in Yorkshire ib. Fossil Forest under the Banks of the Tiber ib. Wood in Languedoc partly converted to jet, &c ib. Tree 60 ft. high, in white Sandstone, &c. 301 Fossil Zoophytes , fyc 302 Germs of Animation in Strata , first found in the Limestone formations . . ib. Coral formations in the Pacific, &c. . . 303 Coral Reefs evidence of great antiquity of the Earth ib. Polypes 304 Ammonites ib. Tribolites, &c ib. Fossil Shells and Fishes . . . . ib. M. De Basterot’s estimate of the num- ber of Genera and Species of Fossil Shells itx Deshaves* Collection of Shells . . . . ib. XV ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Microscopic Shells 304 Shells found 14,900 feet above the Sea 305 Uni- valves and Bi-valves .. .. ib. Sussex Marble ib. Ammonites, &c. became extinct in the age of Chalk 306 Fish ib. Only Placoids and Gunoids found before the age of Magnesian Limestone .. ib. Placoids then became extinct in Gunoids in Chalk formation ; Ctenoids and Cycloids appeared in and after the Chalk ib. Agassiz on Fossil Fish . . . . . . ib. His opinion that the Fish of the Carbo. niferous, Lias, Oolite, and Chalk pe- riods were destroyed suddenly . . ib. Fossil Quadrupeds 307 Elephants, Mammoths, &c. found in the Fossil State, in Europe, America, Si- beria, &c. . . ib. The Fossil Elephant a different Species from the Modern Animal .. .. ib. Lizards 24 feet long ib. Gigantic Fossils of Extinct Animals . . ib. The Mastodon, 18 feet long .. .. ib. Mammoth , 14 feet ib. Dinotherium .. .. .. ib. Megatherium, 12 feet .. .. .. ib. Ichthyosaurus , 30 feet 30S Flesiosaurus , with 33 Vertebrae more than the Swan ib. Mososaurus , 25 feet long, and 133 Ver- tebrae . . ib. Megalosaurus , 50 feet long . . . . ib. Iguanadon, 70 feet .. .. .. ib. Gigantic Bones of an Animal , 130 feet long .. ib. Fossil Bones in Caves 309 Foot Impressions of Birds and Horses, found in Gypsum and Sandstone .. 310 Fossil Gigantic Lama found in Patagonia ib. Skull of the Tivatherum .. ..311 Uplifting of Strata ». .. .. ib. XXVI. HYDROLOGY. Surface of the Globe composed of Wa- ter and Land, in the proportion of three to one 313 Chemical Constitution of Water .. ib. Water the Universal Perculator and Solvent, and the Universal Fertilizer ib. Estimated Extent of Sea and Land . . ib. Liquids press equally in all Directions ib. Pressure distinct from Weight , being in proportion to the Distance from' the Upper Surface of the Fluid, without regard to Quantity ib. Mobility of the Waters prevents Vibra- tion of the Earth 314 Temperature of the Sea ib. Colour ib. Depth ib. Component parts of Sea-water . . . . ib. Specific Gravity ib. Luminosity ib. Freezing Point of Sea and Fresh-water ib. Oceans, Seas, and Lakes .. .. 315 Difference of Levels ib. Red Sea and Mediterranean . . . . ib. Col. Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific .. ..315 Currents 316 List of the Chief Rivers of the World , and their Lenyth 317 Mud and Solid Matter in the Water of Rivers .. ..319 Formation of Deltas ib. The Nile, &c. ib. Floods ib. Fresh- water Lakes in North America ib. Falls of Niagara 320 River St. Lawrence ib. Lake Baikal ib. Lake Titica ib. The Dead Sea ib. Springs 321 St. Winifred’s Well ib. Mineral Springs ib. Hot Springs 322 Springs of Nitrogen Gas and Sulphuric Acid in the United States .. .. ib. Petroleum Spring .. .. .. ib. Calcareous Springs ib. The Geysers ib. Changes caused by the Earth's Motion , and the Varied Direction of the Forces , at distant Regular Epochs . . ib. An increase of Projectile Force requir- ed in Perihelion .. .. .. ib. Conferred by Water ib. The Motion of Water a sufficient Gene- ral Cause of all Geological Pheno- mena ib. The Secondary and Tertiary Strata, formed by the successive Progression of the Perihelion 323 Noah's Flood .. ib. Geographical Changes in England .. 325 The Tides ib. High and Low-water ib Flood and Ebb-tides ib. Attraction an Absurdity .. .. 327 Tides caused by the Oscillations of the System of the Earth and Moon , through the Centre of their relative Motion round the Sun . . . . ib. Variations depend on the Curve de- scribed by the Earth, in regard to the F ulcrum Orbit of the Sun and Moon 328 Taking Spring-tides as the Radius of the Moon’s Orbit, the Tides vary as the Sine of the Deflection .. .. ib. Limit of Tides about 40 miles . . . . ib. Whewell on the Tides of the British Coast 329 High-water at 3(P to the East of the Moon ib. Tides at the London- docks and at Lon- don bridge ib Tide-tables 33i Volcanoes and Earthquakes . . . . 333 Effects of Internal Heat and Combustion 334 Earthquakes not the Cause of the Ine- qualities of the Earth's Surface .. 335 Volcanic Action depends on Chemical Operations ib. Oxydation of the Bases of Alkal'es and Earths ib. Products of Volcanoes ib. Number of Volcanoes recorded .. S\i ANALYTICAL, OK PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Lava 335 Stones projected from Volcanoes .. ib. Destruction of Catania, Pompeii, and Herculaneum .. .. .. .. ib. Mount Hecla 336 Jorillo 33/ Sandwich Islands ib. Peru ib. The Andes ib. Syria ib. Lisbon, &c. ib. Burning Cliffs at Weymouth .. ..339 Mountains .. .. .. 340 Mountains not Upheavings .. . . ib. Table of Height of Mountains .. .. 341 Highest Mountain, 25,400 feet .. .. 342 Line of Perpetual Snow ib. Himalayas 343 Height of Mountains in America . . 344 European Mountains .. ... .. ib. The Alps ib. Pyrenees ib. Spanish Mountains ib. The Jura ib. Grecian Mountains 345 The Appennines ib. Chimborazo 346 Quito ib. Peak of Teneriffe ib. Fissures in the Andes ib. Caucasus ib. Mont Blanc ib. Carmel ib. Sinai .. .. ib. Ararat . . . . ib. Hartz Mountains ib. Spectre of the Brocken ib. British Mountains ib. Malvern Hills ib. The Highlands, &c ib. XXVII. GEOGRAPHY. The Earth subject to Periodical and Gradual Changes 31/ Superficial Extent of the Globe . . ib. Sea and Land ib. Measurements of a Degree . . . . ib. Mean Measurement .. .. . . ib. Length of the Meridian 348 Diameter ib. Radius, Polar and Equatorial . . . . ib. Marine League ib. Obliquity of the Earth’s Axis .. .. ib. Cause of its Diminution ib. The Sun’s Declination ib. Sidereal and Mean Solar Rays .. .. 349 Zones . . ib. Solstitial and Equinoctial Points . . ib. Tropical Year ib. Mean Year. -ib. Daily Motion of the Earth, in Perihe- lion and Aphelion ib. Semi-diameter and Mean Distance of the Sun lb. Length of the Day, in London, through- out the Year ib. Pendulum 350 Weight and Causes ib. Latitude and Longitude ib. Longitude and Time ib. Longitude by the Moon, and Nautical Almanack .. 350 Modes of finding the Latitude . . 351 Navigation ib. Different Length of the Earth’s Radius ib. Cause of the Earth's Rotation . . . . 352 Proof by Calculation .. .. .. ib. Satellites do not rotate .. .. ib. Eratosthenes the Father of Geography ib. First Map 353 Geography stationary under the Ro- mans ib. Ptolemy first drew the Lines of Latitude and Longitude in a curved form .. ib. Geography of the Jews .. .. ib. The first Voyages of Discovery .. ib. The Truth proscribed ib. Bruno, Galileo, and the Author .. ib. Epochs of Geographical Discovery .. ib. Polar Seas explored 354 Greenland ib. Siberia ib. Hudson’s Bay ib. Cooke’s Inlet ib. Behring’s Straits ib. South Polar Seas ib. New Holland .. .. .. .. ib. South Sea Islands ib. Van Diemen’s Land ib. New Zealand ib. Cooke determined the Non-existence of an Austral Continent . . . . ib. Travelling become a Science .. .. ib. Relative Extent of Europe, Africa, Continental Asia, New Holland, &c.. South America, and North America ib. Number of Inhabitants .. .. ib. Correspondence of the Latitude of dif- ferent Places ib. Mode of calculating the Distances of Places on the Globe, the Latitude and Longitude being given . . . . 356 Population and Capitals of America .. ib. Fallacy of the Population Theories . . ib. Tables of the Population and Extent of Natives 357 Corrected Tables of Modern Determi- nations of Latitude and Longitude 359 Length of Degrees of Latitude and Longitude 363 XXVIII. ASTRONOMY. Vastness and Splendour of the Universe 365 Immensity of the Magnitude embraced by the Human Eye ib. Distance of Shoals of Stars inconceiv- able .. . . .. .. .. ib. The Aspect of the Heavens commanded Attention in every Age .. .. ib. Instrument of Superstition . . . . ib. Astrology the Religion of early Nations, and the Priest, Astrologer, and States- man united ib. Astrology cultivated up to a Recent Period in England ib. Still prevalent in Asia and Africa .. ib. Moore’s Almanac ib. The Zodiac and Horoscope .. ..366 Astrology, however, led to the Perfec- tion of Astronomy .. ». •• ib ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Motions of the Planets, Ac., correctly ascertained 4000 or 5000 years ago 366 Accuracy of Astronomical Prediction does not arise from Modern Theory ib. Astrology and Astronomy took their Rise in the East ib. Pythagoras ib. Ptolemy 367 Copernicus ib. Copernican Theory still prevalent, al- though shaken by Sir W. Herschel’s Discovery of the Sun’s Motion towards the Constellation Hercules . . . . ib. Astronomy cultivated in Persia, 3209 B. C. ib. ib. ib. ib. Very accurate Agreement of the Indian Tables of High Antiquity with the best Modern Deductions Temple of Belus, the first recorded Observatory Astronomical Knowledge of the earliest Hindoos, of the Chinese, the Egyp- tians, Chaldeans, Phoenicians, Greeks, &c. Obliquity of the Ecliptic measured by Pytheas, 330 B. C., and Eratosthenes, 276 B. C 368 Measurement of Two Degrees of the Meridian by the Caliph al Mamoun ib. Chinese Astronomy . . . . . . ib. Astronomy a Science of Observation .. 369 Ephemerides published 300 years ago ib. Copy of the Original Work of Coperni- cus on the Solar System, in the British Museum ib. Astronomers of the 17th Century .. ib. Newton’s Theory of Universal Gravita- tion, the Result of his Speculations on the Cause of the Fall of an Apple, in 1665 ib. Observatories and Astronomical Instru- ments 370 The Planets , or Solar System . . . . ib. Comparison of Jupiter and his Satellites with the Solar System .. .. ib. Circular Motion a necessary Result of equal Action and Re-action in con- trary Directions 371 Attraction and Projectile Force the Invention of a Superstitious Age . . ib. Space transparent and homogeneous, and a material Conductor of Motion between distant Bodies .. .. ib. Action in one Direction of Motion , and Re-action in a contrary Direction, the One Universal Law of Nature 372 Motion, the Order and Phenomena of Nature .. .. ib. Motion in large and small Orbits .. ib. Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel ib. Angle of the Earth’s Diameter at the Sun and Planets 3/3 Angle of the Planets at the Earth . . ib. Comparative Bulks at the Sun and Planets ib. Sidereal Periods and daily Velocities of the Planets 374 Central and Tangent Forces of the Planets . ib. xvft Col. 57 * ib. 375 ib. ib Earth’s Distance from the Sun .. Inclination of the Orbits of the Planets to the Plane of the Ecliptic .. Axis’ Rotation of the Sun and Planets Motion of the Nodes and Line of Apsides Eccentricity •• Table of the relative Distances, Squares and Inverse Squares of the Distances, of the Planets ib, Rough Representation of the Solar Sys- tem, with regard to Size and Distance ib. Satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Hers- chel 376 Saturn’s Rings .. .. .. .. ib. Eclipses of Jupiter’s Moons .. .. ib. Venus as a Morning and Evening Star 3 77 Spots ib. Transits, &c. ib. Herschel discovered in 1781 .. .. ib. Time of Revolution of the Satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel .. 378 Elements of an Orbit ib. 'I he Progressive Force of the Sun through Space, and the Deflection of the Planets into Orbits by the Sun’s Rotation acting on the Medium of Space, generate a Diagonal which still attaches each Planet to the Sun . . in. The Sun constantly in the exact Centre of the Solar System 3/9 The Planets vary their Distances from the Sun ib. Move not in regular Curves, but wavy Lines ib. Irregularities in Planetary Motion cor- rect themselves ib. Planetary Orbits ib. The Existence of a Gaseous Medium , in Space , renders the Gratuitous Hypo- thesis of Gravity unnecessary . . 380 Theorists have supposed Change, in the Density of the Planets, to accommodate the Hypothetical Law of Gravitation to the Phenomena of the Planets .. Such Supposition at variance with Che- mistry .. .... .. .. ib. Remarks on Time and Eternity .. 381 Elliptical Orbits the Consequences of Inclinations of their Planes to the Mean Plane of Solar Motion Difference between the Schoolmen and the Editor, whether Action and Re- action , producing Circular Motion , are purely Mechanical , or the Effects of a Gratuitous Principle Rotation a Consequence of Irregularity in Shape or Density Attraction and Gravitation Motion the Result of a Force applied to the Side opposite to that in which the Motion takes place .. .. . . ib Attraction supposes the Motion to take place on the same Side as the Force is applied, and is therefore absurd Repulsion supposes a Moving Body to communicate Force in a Direction opposite to its own Motion, and is, consequently, also absurd Matter always the Conductor of Motion 383 The Stars .. .. .« .. iU b 3 ib. ib ib. ib. 382 ib. ib. XVlll ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Infinity of Space .. .. .. 384 Space filled with Clusters of Stars .. ib. Velocity of Light ib. Catalogues of Stars by Hipparchus, 128 B. C., Flamstead, Bode, and Lalande ib. Herschel computed 50,000 in nearly six square Degrees of the Milky Way .. ib. Constellations ib. List of Stars of the first Magnitude .. ib. British Catalogue 385 Number of recorded Stars in the Signs of the Zodiac ib. Adjustment of the Zodiac by Aristarchus ib. The Pleiades ib. Coma Berenice ib. Sir W. Herschel’s Observations on Ne. bulse and the Milky Way .. .. ib. Immense Number of the Stars in the Milky Way ib. The North Polar Star 386 The Great Bear ib. Cassiopeia ib. The Little Bear ib. Arcturus .. .. ib. Lyra and Capella ib. The Dragon ib. Orion .. ib. Aldebaran .. .. .. ib. Procyon ib. Castor and Pollux ib. The Lion ib. Cancer .. .. .. .. . . ib. The Ram ib. Perseus ib. The Swan ib. Pegasus .. «-ib. Andromeda ib. Crater ib. Lyra ib. Corona Borealis . . . . . . . . ib. Aquila ib. Scorpio .. .. ib. Libra ib. Sagittarius, &c. ib. Places of Forty Principal Stars, by Brinkley . . . . . . • - 390 Catalogues of Double Stars, by Sir W. Herschel, South, J. Herschel, Dorpat, Struve, Dunlop, &c 392 Systems of Stars ib. Moving Stars ib. Sir John Herschel’s Observations at the Cape of Good Hope ib. Periodical and Coloured Stars . . . . 393 Observations of the Stars prove the Existence of a Solar Orbit . . .. ib, Distance of the Stars 394 Parallax of Sixty-one Cygni , according to Arago and Mathieu . . . . ib. Comets 395 Comets enter the Solar System at High Declinations ib. Luminous Projection, or tail .. ..395 Large Atmospheres ib. Nucleus ib. Orbits 396 Telescopic Stars seen through their Nuclei ib. Encke’s Comet ib. Biela’s ib. Halley’s ib. Cot. Comets of 1811, 1680, 1 7I4-, &c. .. 396 Newton’s Opinion ot Comets .. .. ib. His Character 397 Fall of Bodies and Weight . . .. ib* Vulgar and Incorrect Opinions of the Phenomena ib . Sir R. Phillips s Opinion, broached in 1805, that the Fall of Bodies towards the Centre was a Consequence of the Two Motions of the Earth . . .. ib. Opposed by Writers and Teachers -. ib. Want of Precision in the Data of the Problem 398 Theory of the Problem . . . . . . ib. Fall in a Second, deduced from the Earth’s rotative and orbit Velocities, to be 16*084 feet in a second, by cal- culation 399 Distance of the Sun by Motion . . 400 The Sun’s Parallax determined by the above data at 8'/ 75234 .. .. 401 Parallax and Fall of a Body in a second, according to different Observers .. ib. Lengths of the Pendulum .. .. ib. Distance of the Sun ib. Kepler’s Law .. ib. The Sun 404 Its Bulk 405 Heat ib. Light ib. Spots on the Sun 406 The Sun’s Diameter ib. Angular Velocity ib. Motion of the Sun on its Axis, and in its Orbit 407 General Motion of the System .. . . ib. Right Ascension and Declination . . ib. Eclipses 408 The Moon . . . . . . . . ib. Tradition of the Egyptians, that the Earth was once unattended by a Satellite ib. Maps of the Moon ib. Bailey and others, in 1836, imagined they saw an Atmosphere of the Moor 409 Moon’s Distance ib. Moon’s Parallax . . . . . . . . ib. Mean Motion ib. Sidereal and synodical Lunations .. ib. Mean Eccentricity ib. Inclination ib. Perigee and Apogee ib. Cycle of 19 Years ib Earth and Moon move in reciprocal Orbits .. •• •• .. .. 410 The sub-duplicate Law not applicable ib. False Theory of the Tides, by La Place ib. Eclipses •• 412 Harvest Moon, Ac. 412 The Equinoxes and Apsides . . ..413 Equinoctial, sidereal, and anomalystic Years .. .. .. .. .. ib. The Earth rotates on its Axis once a year, while revolving round the Sun ib. This produces the Precession of the Equinoxes .. .. .. .. ib The Earth’s Orbit considered in relation to the central Sun and the external Stars ib. Nodes, Apsides, &c 415 Corollaries •• 415 ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. xix XXIX. CHEMISTRY. Col. Chemistry the Science of Atoms, and their Combination and Decomposition 4 1 7 The Action of Atoms a consequence of the great Motions of the Earth . . ib. Chemistry received its modern Charac- ter from Beecher and Stahl . . . . ib. Subsequent Discoveries .. .. ib. The new Nomenclature of Lavoisier appeared in 1/84 .. .. .. ib. Explanation of the Nomenclature .. ib. Description of a Laboratory .. ..418 Discovery of the Doctrine of Chemical Combination in definite proportions, in 1777 ib. Adopted by Dalton in 1804 .. .. ib. Atomic Theory .. .. .. .. ib. Gaseous Bodies unite in Volumes . . ib. Correspondence of Chemical Composi- tion with Arithmetic 419 Equivalent Numbers .. .. . . ib. Different Substances taken as Standards 420 Tables of the equivalent Numbers of elementary Substances, and a few of their principal compounds. Hydrogen being taken as the Standard at unity 421 Water composed of Oxygen and Hy- drogen ib. Oxygenated Water 422 Vapour ib. Distilled Water ib. Boiling ib. Freezing .. .. ib. Compression, &c. .. «. .. ib. Atmospheric Air .. .. .. ib. Coal-Gas 423 Olefiant-Gas .. ib. Carbonic Acid .. .. .. ib. Ammonia ib. Compositions of Oxides, Chlorides, Ni- trates, Sulphates, Carbonates, Phos- phates, Sulphurets ib. Division of Substances into Electro po- sitive and Electro- negative, agreeing with the Acid and Alkaline of the last Generation 424 Oxygen, the Supporter of Vitality and Fire, discovered by Priestley, in 1774 ib. Mode of procuring Oxygen-gas .. ib. Hydrogen, the Phlogiston of Priestley and others, so named from its being the chief Constituent of Water .. ib. The Cause of Flame ib. Mode of obtaining Hydrogen- Gas .. 425 Compounds of Hydrogen .. .. ib. Nitrogen or Azote ib. Charcoal or Carbon 426 The Diamond ib. Carbonic Acid Gas ib. Carburetted Hydrogen ib. Choke-Damp ib. Silica 427 Sulphur and its Compounds .. .. ib. Phosphorus ib. Phosphoric Acid ib. Quick Light ib. Chlorine or Oxy-muriatic Acid .. ib. Muriatic Acid ib. Common Sale, or Chloride of Sodium 428 Chlorine Gas .. .. r .. .. ib. Chloride of Lime, or Bleachlng-Powder 428 Its disinfecting Powers ib. Iodine .. |b. Bromine, &c. .. ib. Colour of various Gases .. .. ib. Inflammable Gases 429 Supporters of Flame ib. Taste of Gas ib. Effect upon Colours .. .. .. ib Table of Specific Gravity and Weight of Gases .. ib. Liquefaction of Gases by pressure .. 430 Acids , the Mineral, Metallic, Vegetable, and Animal 431 'Poisons and their Antidotes . . .. 432 Nitric Acid, or Aqua fortis .. .. 433 Sulphuric Acid, or Vitriol .. .. ib Acetic, Oxalic, Tartaric, Citric, and Gallic Acids ib. Alkalies .. ib. Ammonia, Potash, Soda .. .. 434 Potassium ib. Lime ib. Gypsum, or Sulphate of Lime .. .. ib. Calcium . . . . . . . . . . ib. Sulphurets and Phosphurets of Calcium ib. Chloride of Lime, or Bleaching-powder ib. Crystals of Carbonate of Lime .. ib. Magnesia 435 Salts •• .. ib. Composed of an Acid and Metallic Oxide ib. Aqua Regia 436 Alcohol ib. Ether ib. Sugar . . .. ib. Starch .. ib. Olive-Oil ib. Wax ib. Rosin ib. Copal ib. Wood .. .. .. .. . . ib. Tannin ib. Indigo ib. Wool ib. Silk, &c ib. Analysis of Wheat and Barley, &c. .. ib. Alcohol .. .. . 437 Brande’s Analyses of the Quantity of Alcohol iu Liquors, Ale, &c. . . ib. Combustion of Alcohol ib Product of the Combustion . . .. ib. Milk, Cream, Butter, Cheese .. ..438 Eggs ib. Blood, &c. ib. Gunpowder ib. English and French Modes of preparing it ib. Glass 439 Albumen .. .. ib. Mucilage .. .. ib. Arabin .. .. ib. Indigo .. .. ib. Porcelain Earths .in Constituents of the Brain .. ..440 Bone .. ... ib. Oil and Fat ... ib. Oils, Animal and Vegetable .. .. ib. Perspiration ib. Urine .. .. ib Bile, &c ib. XX ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Attraction and Repulsion, as false in Chemistry, as they are in General Physics Cohesion Affinity Chemical Combinations Pores Atomic Motion Solution of Solids Combustion Heat and Light . . Alchemy practised and patronized by the Clergy and Royalty Dyeing Mordaunts Detonating Oil Light Matches Concentrated Alkalies Proximate Principles Alphabetical Arrangement of Sub- stances, Facts, 8fc. Acids Alkalies Alum Amalgam Ammoniacal Gas Animal Fluids Argol Arnotta Arrack Alloys Antimony .. Artificial Teeth Palloons Baldwin’s Phosphorus Bell-metal .. Blende Bleaching .. Bones .. .. Beer .. Blood Bitumens .. Bronzing .. Bromine . . Butter Camphor Carmine Carbonates of Soda and Potash Caoutchouc Ceruse Chalk Chlorides of Sodium and Lime Chocolate .. Corrosive Sublimate Cider Oxide of Copper Cream of Tartar Cinnabar Decrepitation Disinfection .. Drops .. .. Eau de Vie Enamel Eudiometer Explosion Extracts Flints Fluoric Acid Flame Fulminating Powder Col. 441 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 442 ib. 444 ib. ib. ib. ib. 445 ib 446 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 447 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 4 48 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 449 ib. ib. Rose’s Fusible Metal .. .. Fermentation — Vinous, Acetous, Putrefactive . . .. Fluxes Foil Gallic Acid Gases Gastric Juice Gin Glauber’s Salt Glass Glue Gunpowder Gun-metal Hats, Black Hauy’s Atomic Theory .. Hungary Water Hydrogen Hydruret of Phosphorus Indigo Iron Isinglass Jade Lamp-black Lead Leather Life Light „ Lime Liquidity Liqueurs „ Litmus Lunar Caustic Lycopodium Madder Magnesia Manganese Manure „„ Marble Mercury Metal Milk Minimum Mirrors .. Morocco Mosaic Gold Muffle Nails Naphtha Narcotic Principle Nitrogen Nitric Ether Nitrous Oxide Nitrous Acid Nitric Oxide Gas Oils Opium Opodeldoc Pakfong .. . Parchment .. Parsnips Pearlash .. Pearls .. .. Peruvian Bark .. , . Petroleum .. Pewter Phosphoretted Hydrogen Pinchbeck Platina Plant and Cot. 449 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib» ib. ib. 450 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. i& ib. ib. 451 ib. ib. ib. ib. ibv ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 452 ib. ib ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 453 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 454 ib. ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col Potato .. 454 Preservatives .. .. _« . . ib. Prussiate of Potash .. .. .. ib. Putrefactien ib. Ratafia ib. Realgar ib. Rennet .. .. .. .. .. ib. Respiration .. . . .. .. ib. Rochelle Salt ib. Sal Ammoniac . . .. .. .. ib. Saliva 455 Saltpetre .. .. ib. Sassafras ib. Seeds .. .. ib. Shagreen .. . . ib. Shamoy Leather ib. Shells ib. Soap .. . . .. .. .. ib. Soda-water ib. Soil ib. Spontaneous Combustion .. .. ib. Spruce-beer 456 Starch .. .. .. .. .. ib. Sugar ib. Sulphur .. .. .. .. .. ib. Sulphates .. .. .. ib. Super-acetate of Lead .. .. ib. Tar .. .. . . .. .. ib. Tartar . . . . ib. Tannin .. 457 Tin-plates •• ib. Turpentine .. ib. Varnish .. ib. Vinegar .. .. .. .. .. ib. Vitriol ib. Volcanoes .. .. .. . . ib. Zinc .. .. .. .. .. ib. Speculations on Oxygen, as connected with Motion ib. XXX. HEAT. Heat an Effect of Atomic Motion .. 458 The Sources of Atomic Motion are the great Motions of the Earth and Solar Heat ib. The Solid, Fluid, and Gaseous States of Matter, connected immediately with Degrees of Heat .. .. .. 459 Knowledge of Heat, its Causes and Ac- cidents essential to Chemistry . . ib. Cold the Absence of Heat .. ib. Dr. Black’s Hypothesis of Latent Heat ib. Expansion and Contraction . . . . ib. Heat neither Created nor Lost j but, only Transferred ib. Various Modes of producing Heat and Fire 460 Percussion and Friction .. .. ib. Count Rumford’s Experiment .. ib. Vapour produced by Percussion ib. The French Analysts, La Place, Fourier, and Poissin, on Heat . . . . ib. Conductors of Heat 461 Proofs that Heat is merely Motion . . ib. Animal Heat 462 Combustion , the Destruction of a Body by the union oLits Hydrogen with Oxygen ib. Flame ib. Oxygen the .Supper ter of Combustion ib. xxi Col. Consumption of Metals adds to their Weight 462 Fable of Prometheus 463 Newton’s Opinion of Flame .. .. ib. Argand’s Lamp . . . . .. ib. Kelby’s Gas-burner .. .. .. ib. Use of Heated Air for blasting in Iron Works ib. Lamps .. .. .. .. ib. Candles .. .. .. .. .. ib. Safety-lamp . . ib. Argand-lamp .. .. .. .. ib. Heating Power of Combustibles .. ib. Strength of Gas-light ib. Mollet’s Condenser 464 Intensity of Heat ib. Thermometer .. .. .. .. ib. Farenheit’s, the Centigrade, & Reaumur’s ib, Comparison of Farenheit’s Thermometer with the Centigrade .. .. ib. Thermomultiplier .. .. .. 465 Mean Temperature of Man and other Animals .. .. .. .. ib. Boiling-point of various Liquids .. ib. Wedgwood’s Pyrometer .. .. ib. Boiling-point of Mercury, and Melting- point of other Metals, on various Scales . . . . . . . . . . ib. Temperature of Baths 466 Rate of Decrease of Temperature on Mountains .. .. .. .. ib. Blow-pipes .. 467 Oxy-hydrogen Blow-pipes .. .. ib. Expansion and Contraction . . . . ib. Dilatation of Solids ib. Tables of Expansion, by Daniell and La Place ib. Roy’s Experiments ib. Expansion of Granite, Porphyritic Fel- spar, Clay-slate, Green-stone, Steel, Zinc, Lead, Mercury, Air, Gases, Liquids 468 Expansion of the Pendulum .. .. 469 Density of Water ib. Beaume’s Hydrometer .. .. ib. Steam . . ib. Compression of Water .. .. .. ib. Conducting Powers of Bodies . . ib. Table of Conducting Powers of Me- tals, &c. 470 Radiation of Heat ib. Specific Heat .. .. .. . . 4/1 Freezing Mixtures .. .. .. 472 Freezing and Crystallization .. ib. Crystallization of Alum, Seleniate of Zinc, Sulphate of Soda, Water .. 473 Freezing by Removal of Atmospheric Pressure 474 Electrical Crystallization .. ib. Modes of procuring Ice .. .. 475 Heat as a Machine Power .. .. ib. Steam-engine 476 Watt’s Improvement of the Steam- engine .. .. .. .. ib. Elastic Power of Steam, as determined by a Committee of the French Aca- demy .. . . ib Gas .. .. .. .. ib. Heating by Hot-water Pipes .. .. 477 Silvester’s Apparatus .. .. 478 ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. siii Col. Power of Men and Animals to endure Heat .. .. 478 Delaroche, Berger, Blagden, Chabert ib. * fount Rumford’s Legacy to Persons ? communicating any Discovery on , Heat and Light ib. Loss of Meat in Cooking .. .. ib. Continual Fires .. .. .. 479 Hard Water .. .. .. .. ib. XXXI. ELECTRICITY, GALVANISM, &c. Electricity 4/9 Electrical Phenomena of Rubbed Am- ber, known to Theophrastus . . ib. Knowledge of Electrical Appearances, known to Gilbert, in 1600, and to others . . . . . . . . . . ib. Absurd Theories regarding Electricity 480 The Oxy-hydrogen Blow-pipe .. ib. Electricity, simultaneous Action and Re-action of Oxygen and Hydrogen ib. Electricity only understood by seeing a Machine in the dark .. .. 481 Light and Heat, a consequence of the Union of Hydrogen and Oxygen 482 Galvanism considered to be the same as Electricity 483 Focal Point .. .. .. 484 The Electrical Fluid , so called, an Ef- fect of the Separation and Re. union of Oxygen and Hydrogen. — This doc- trine in accordance with that of Davy 485 False Theories relative to Attraction and Repulsion ib. Mystification with regard to the terms Caloric, Electrical Fluid .. .. ib. Electric Spark . „ 486 Electrics and Conductors .. .. ib. Light and Heat of Electricity .. ib. All Combustion Electrical . . . . 487 Colour of Sparks ib. Destruction of Electrical Excitements ib. Conducting Power of the Atmosphere ib. Electrical Points ib. Brushes ib. Stars ib. Inductive Energy ib. Mt chine Electricity 489 Excitement .. .. .. . . ib. Positive and Negative Electricity . . ib. The Effect depends not on the Sub- stance, but on the Surface and Shape of Conductors .. .. .. .. ib. Peroxide of Lead, the best Non-electric ib. Machine, Voltaic, and Magnetic Elec- tricity 490 Experiments at the Royal Institution of London, and the Institute of France ib. M. Poullet’s Researches on the re-acting Power of Metals to Electricity . . 491 Foerstemann’s Table of the Re-action of Fluids as to Voltaic Electricity .. ib. Volta’s Lamp 492 Effects of the Electric Current on Metals, &c ib. Electrical or Galvanic Combinations , the Principle of Vitality and Energy ib. Danger of Closed Windows during Lightning ib. Read’s Experiments on the Atmosphere 493 Torpedo 493 Electrical Eel ib. Various Methods of Exciting Electricity 494 Discovery of the Identity of Electricity and Lightning, by Buffon, Dalibard, Franklin, and Romas .. .. ib. Thunder Storms ib Oxydation of Metals by Electricity .. 495 Production of Water by passing the Electric Spark through Hydrogen and Oxygen ib. Production of Acids by Electricity . . ib. Eggs hatched by Electricity, and Rain- water filled with Insects .. .. 496 Watson’s Experiments .. .. ib. Lightning Conductors ib. Electrical Phenomena accompanying Congelation .. .. .. .. ib. Doctrine of Sir H. Davy, that Electrical Attraction and Repulsion was identi- cal with Chemical Affinity .. .. ib Faraday’s Theory 497 But at variance with Electrical Pheno- mena . . . . . . . . . . ib. Primary Idea of Attraction and Repul- sion absurd ib Galvanism .. 498 Faraday’s Conclusion in 1838, similar to those of the Author in 1/88 .. ib. Explanation of Voltaic Excitement . . 499 Negative and Positive Wires , . 500 Force of a Battery, in proportion to the number of Plates, the Quantity to the Size of the Plates ib. Absorption of Oxygen by Galvanic Apparatus .. ib. Power of Metals in forming a Galvanic Circle fb. Different Acids vary the Power .. 5CI Proof that Galvanic and Electrical Transmission is on the Surface, and not in the Substance of the Conductor ih. Galvanism continues in its Action, Electrical Discharges instantaneous ib. Different Fluids for Galvanic excitement 502 Intense Light produced by a powerful Battery acting on Charcoal . . ib. Power of Decomposition .. .. ib. Heat from the Galvanic Battery .. ib. Metals fused by it .. .. .. ib. Decomposition of Water, Neutral Sails, and Metallic Solutions . . . 503 Effects of Galvanism on a Dead Animal ib. Experiments of Linari, Nicholson, Car- lisle, Cruikshank, Wheatstone, Botts, Artinori, and Binks .. .. 50i Experiments of Crosse . . . . ib. Animals produced by Galvanic Action on Oxide of Iron and Silicate of Potass ib. Quartz Crystals produced by Slow Vol- taic Action , proving the Editor’s Theory that Metallic Ores are Elec- trical Products 605 Schoenbein’s Experiments .. .. ib. Hatchelte’s Dry Pile it* Zamboni’s Discs of Gilt Paper, and Layers of Powdered Manganese .. ib. Biot •* ib De Luc’s Electrical Column Hare’s Calorimeter Daniell and Mullins’ Modification of a Battery Dr. Philip on the Vital Powers The Nervous imitated by Voltaic Elec- tricity Terrestrial Currents of Electricity XXXII. MAGNETISM. Magnetic Phenomena Causes assigned Suggestion of the A uthor that the Phe- nomena are Effects of the Earth's Motions The Effect as the Surface, not as the Substance Mr. T. S. Davies's History of the Com- pass The Compass known to the Chinese 2604 years B. C., and to the Arabs ; and introduced into Europe at the time of the Crusades ib. Influence of Galvanic Wire on the Mag. netic Needle, discovered in 1813, by CErsted ib. Experiments of Ampere, Arago, Davy, Faraday, &c 509 Magnetism and Galvanism proved by Faraday to be identical .. .. ib. Mode of producing Magnetic Electricity 510 Galvanometer ib. Lifting Power of Magnets .. ..511 Knight’s Compound Magnet .. .. ib. The Magnetic Force increases from the Equator to the Poles ib. Revolving Plates ib. Relative Magnetic Power of Iron and Steel ib. Natural and Artificial Magnets .. 512 Effect of Heat on Magnets .. .. ib. Electro Magnets 513 Barlow’s Magnetic Compensations .. 514 Poles of Magnets .. .. .. ib. The Variation and Dip of the Needle affected by the Aurora Borealis ..515 Theories on Electricity .. .. 516 Variation of the Needle .. .. 517 Diminished, and nearly destroyed, at certain Depths in the Ground . . ib. Barlow’s Rule for the Variation .. 518 Double Magnetic Terrestrial Poles . . ib. Dip and Variation at various places .. 519 Table of Variation at various places in the i 9th century 520 Variations at London, Paris, and the Cape, at different periods .. .. 522 Professor Lloyd’s Magnetical Survey of Ireland .. .. .. ib. Magnetism the Action of Electrified Bodies .. .. .. .. .. 523 All Electrical Phenomena result from Restoration ib. XXXIII. METEOROLOGY, AND ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA. Meteorology defined 523 A consequence of a Globe of mixed Materials having an Orbit and an Axis Movement .. .. ib. xxill Col Weight and Heat the two great Princi- ples in operation 52* The Weight of the Atmosphere mea- sured by the Barometer ; Heat by the Thermometer .. .. . . ib. Hydrometer, Pluviometer, Anemome- ter, Electrometer, &c. .. .. ib. Composition of Atmospheric Air .. ib. Weight .. .. ' .. .. «. ib. Expansion .. 525 Table of the Density of the Air .. ib. Extent of the Atmosphere not yet determined ib. Atmospheric Pressure ib. Compression ib. Chemists differ as to the Fundamental Ratios of the Gases, Air, and Water 526 The Author’s Endeavour to reconcile the Discrepancies ib. Vapour in the Atmosphere .. . . ib. Resistance of the Air as the Square of the Velocity ib. Capillary Attraction, so called, mere Aerial Pressure 527 Consumption of Oxygen by Man .. ib. Atmospheric Refraction according to De Lambre, Biot, and Arago .. ib. Ivory’s Table of Refractions .. .. ib. Effects of a Vacuum produced by the Air-pump .. 528 The Barometer . . ib. Discovery of Torricelli .. .. ib. Variations of the Barometer .. ..529 Mean Height of the Mercury at the Level of the Sea ib. Law of the Variation ib. Friction the Cause of the Convexity of the Mercury in rising, and the Con- cavity in falling ib. Effect of the Weight of the Atmosphere ib. Variations of the Barometer depend upon the varied Elasticity of the Air 530 Weight of a Column of the Atmosphere ib. Water-barometer at the Royal Society ib. Rule for calculating the Height of Mountains by means of the Baro- meter and Thermometer .. .. ib. Table of Heights, in feet, for given ba- rometrical Indications .. .. 531 Table of Mean Height of Weather Instruments, in London, for every month ib. The Thermometer 532 Invention of the Thermometer by San- torius and Drebel .. .. .. ib. Reaumur’s, Fahrenheit’s, and the Cen- trigade Thermometers .. .. ib. Freezing and Boiling Points of each .. ib. Mean Annual Temperature and Freez- ing Height in different Latitudes .. ib. Coldest and Warmest Hours of the Day 533 Heat diminishes on Elevations .. ib. Cold and Heat depend on Vicinage of Seas .. .. .. .. .. ib. Rules for obtaining the Mean Tempe- rature oj the Year for any Latitude , and at different Altitudes of the Sun ib. Stratum of Mean Heat at certain Depths .. 534 Mean Isothermal Lines .. .. ib. ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col .. 505 506 ib. ib. ib. ib. 507 ib. ib. 508 ib. XXIV ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Constant Snow Mean Annual Temperature at London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Mean Temperature of the Four Seasons in England, Scotland, and Ireland . . Table of Mean Temperature and Rain for every Month, near London Various Temperature Averages Hottest and Coldest Days in various Localities in the United Kingdom .. Tables of Mean Heat in the Principal Towns of the World Various Observations on Heat and Wea. ther in the United States, Gallipagos, Australia, Greece, Persia, Russia, South America, &c. .. Difference of Temperature in the North, ern and Southern Hemispheres, and in the Old and New Continents,, at equal Latitudes .. Mercury freezes in High Latitudes .. Rapidity of Vegetation, &c. in the Arctic Regions Severe Frosts in England Temperature of Mines .. Internal Heat of the Globe Hot Springs Temperature of Oceans, Seas, and Lakes. at various Depths Rivers and Seas frozen A Great Snow, which lasted Three Months Pluviometer and Rain .. Bulk and Specific Gravity of Water Rain Size of Drops Velocity of Falling Rain Guages Crossley’s Rain Guage Heighth of Humidity Fluids in the Atmosphere Evaporation Clouds .. Seven Classes of Clouds, the Cirrus , Cu. mulus , Stratus , Cirro-cumulus , Cirro- stratus, Cumulo-stratus , Nimbus . . Clouds and Fogs Heiglith of Clouds and Atmospheric Phenomena Cause of Rain Dew Hoar-frost Crystals of Snow Hail-stones Hail produced by the Electrical Action of Two Clouds in opposite States of Electricity .. Average Fall of Rain in various places Rainy Season between the Tropics Rain, within the Tropics, falls in Tor. rents . . On drying up, the Atmosphere rendered unwholesome .. Excessive Fertility in Egypt from the Flood of the Nile The Natives disbelieve the falling of Waters from above Cause of the Preservation of Monuments in Egypt Fog for Six Months in Peru Col. 535 ib. ib. . ib. 36 538 ib. ib. 539 ib. 540 ib. ib. 541 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 542 ib. ib. 543 ib. 544 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. lb. 545 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. Col. Rain seldom falls there .. .. 545 Average Fall of Rain in various places ib. State of the Seasons for 41 years .. 540 What is deemed a Wet or a Dry Season ib. The Probabilities, at the Beginning of any year, of Wet, Dry, or Variable Seasons . . . . . . .. ib. Probabilities of Wet, Dry, or Variable Seasons, on assumed data .. .. 547 Winds .. .. . . . . . . ib. Average Direction of Winds in England ib. Winds caused by a Rarefaction and Ascent of Air in the Tropics .. 548 Colonel Reed’s and Mr. Espy’s Theories of Hurricanes .. .. .. .. ib. West India Hurricanes .. . . ib. Monsoons, or Trade-winds .. .. 549 The Samiel ib. The Sirocco .. .. .. .. ib. Velocity of the Wind, per hour, from Gentle Wind to Great Hurricane ib. WTnd-mills .. 550 Deleterious Air .. .. .. .. ib. Java, Fahlan, Carniola, Campania .. ib. Resistance of the Air .. .. .. ib. Trade Winds «55l Regularity of the Wind in Hot Climates 552 Miscellaneous Phenomena .. .. 553 Aurora Borealis ib. Luminous Bands 554 Phosphorescent Clouds . . . . ib. Luminous Arch .. .. .. ib. The Ignis Fatuus ib. Water-spout .. .. .. ib. Capillary Action misunderstood . . ib. Experiments of Cavendish .. .. 555 Intercepted Pressure ib. Lunar Influence on the Weather .. 556 Experiments at Viviers .. .. ib. Assumption of a Recurrence of Wea- ther in 19 Years, on which Predictions are founded, proved to be erroneous 557 Balloons . . ib, Montgolfier’s Ascent by means of Rare- fied Air 558 Roberts and Charles’s Ascent in a Bal- loon inflated by Hydrogen Gas .. ib. Garnerin’s Descent in a Parachute .. ib. Gay Lussac’s Ascent . . . . . . ib. Extraordinary Velocity of Balloons .. ib. The Great Vauxhall Balloon .. .. 559 Pocock's Application of Kites to Tra- velling .. .. .. .. ib. Meteors and Aerolites .. .. ib. Meteoric Stones 560 Meteors .. .. .. .. ib. Aerolites ib. Fire-balls and Shooting Meteors .. 561 Various Particulars relative to Meteors ib. Theory of Berzelius on Meteoric Stones 562 Opinion of the Author .. .. ib. Great Obscurity relative tc Meteorolo- gical Phenomena .. .. ib. xxxrv. LIGHT, AND ITS PHENOMENA. Structure of the Eye .. 563 Use of the Eye learned in Infancy ib. Optics .. .. ib ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Newton’s Theory of Light, a fallacy . . 563 Huygen’s Theory of Light, consisting of the Undulations of a Fluid .. ib. Light arises from Combination of Gases, generally originating in Heat .. 564 Experimentum crucis . . . . 565 The Sun’s Light .. .. .. ib. Theory of Undulations .. .. 566 Effect of two Rays of the same Colour falling on the same Spot . . . . ib. Young’s Law ib. Breadth of Waves of Light, according to Fraunhofer and Herschel . . 56/ Inference that Light is the Excitement of a Medium of Atoms, not the Pro- jection of Travelling Atoms . . ib. Other Theorie.s ib. Velocity of Light 568 Reflection and Refraction . . . . ib. Action of the Local Atmosphere at the First Surface, the Cause of the De- composition of Light into Colours ib. The most difficult Problem connected with Light, is it’s Power of penetra- ting Solid Bodies 569 Refraction . . . . - . . . ib. Reflection from various Substances at different Angles ib. Rainbows .. .. .. .. 5/0 Refraction, a Variety of Reflection, proved by Doubly -refracting Crystals ib. Table of the Angle of Refraction for Different Substances .. ..5/1 Atmospheric Refractions of the Hea- venly Bodies ib. The Prism .572 Newton’s Prism ib. Prismatic Colours, according to the Ex- periments of Newtou, Fraunhofer, and Wollaston ib. The Colours vary with the Medium and the Size of the Aperture .. .. ib. Results of numerous Experiments with the Prism 5/4 Inflection of Light 575 Polarization of Light 57 6 The Extra Rays ib. Cause of Polarization ib. The Double Rainbow . . . . . . 5/7 Polarization developes no new Property of Light 578 Polarizing Angles of Incidence, in va- rious Substances 5/9 Colour, attenuated Light .. .. ib. Newton’s Experiments .. .. 580 Brewster’s and Barton’s Experiments ib. Delaval’s Conclusions .. ..581 Transformations of Colours .. ib. Accidental Colour ib. Chemical Powers of Light .. .. 582 Power of Light to darken Muriate of Silver ib. Invention of M. Daguerre, for fixing the Images produced by the Camera Obscura ib. Colours in Shop-windows . . . . ib. Colours of Plants 583 Colour of Metallic Oxides deepen by Exposure to the Sun .. .. ib. Sun-flowers, &c. .. .. ib. X\\ I Col Light promotes Mixture and Fxplosion 583 Coloured Flames .. .. .. ib. Comparative Heating Powers of the various coloured Rays .. . ib. Effect of Light on Crystallization . . 584 Wollaston’s Prismatic Proportions .. ib. The Eye . . ib. Dimensions, &c. of the Human Eye ib. Duration of the Impression of Lumi- nous Rays on the Eye .. 585 Angles of Observation . .. ib. Ideas of Chesselden, a Blind Youth, who obtained his Sight when 13 years old ib. Blindness .. .. .. .. ib. Eyes of Fishes and Birds .. 586 Oxy-oil Lamp of Gurney .. .. ib. Visual Phenomena ib. Twilight ib. Proportion of the Sun’s Rays which reach the Earth at different angles ib. The Inner Rainbow 587 Supernumerary Bows .. .. ib. Halos and Parhelia ib. Phenomena of unequal Refraction .. ib. Elevated Coasts ib. Reversed Ships ib, Fata Morgana ib. Mirage, &c. . . ib. Erroneous Judgment relative to Hori- zontal Size .. 588 Optical Inst?-uments . . . . . . ib. The Principle of Magnifying Power . . ib. Dollond’s Discovery of Achromatic Lenses .. .. . . .. ib. Achromatic Telescopes .. .. ib. Barlow’s Telescope 589 Herschell’s, and the Cassigram Teles- copes . . . . . . . . ib. Night-glasses .. 590 Rules for ascertaining the Power of a Telescope ib. Burning Mirrors of Archimedes, An- theonius, Buffon, &c. .. .. 591 Concave Burning- mirrors and their Effects .. .. .. ib. Young’s Eriometer .. .. .. ib. Thaumatrope 592 Photometer .. ib. Multiply ing-glasses .. .. ib. Fundamental Principle of the Magnify - iny Power of all Curved Surfaces - . ib. Camera Lucida ib. Magic Lantern . . . . . . ib. Spectacles .. ib. Mirrors ib. The Microscope and some of the Pheno- mena exhibited by it .. .. 593 The Micrometer 595 XXXV. SOUND AND MUSIC. Sound arises from Vibrations of the Air 595 Sound and Light compared .. .. 596 Both may be produced by Gases . . ib. Every Propulsion of Air includes the Prismatic Scale ; every Vibration produces the Diatonic Scale - . ib. Both Scales chemical .. ib. Both agree in Numbers .. .. ib. Primary Colours agree with Primary Sounds ib. XXvi ANALYTICAL, OR Col. Nodal Points 5! 6 Velocity of Sound 597 Greater in Liquids and Solids, than in Air ib. Conductors of Sound 598 Echoes ib. Chladni on Vibrations .. .. .. 599 Sounding-boards .. .. .. 600 Generation of Nodal Points in Wind Instruments ib. Sympathetic Sounds ib. Beats ib. Discords ib. Compass of the Human Ear, Nine Octaves ib. Sense of Hearing ib. Formation of Musical Notes in the Human Voice ib. High and Low Notes 601 Speaking Machine of M. Kempelon .. ib. Vowel Tubes of Willis .. .. ib. Lengths of String and Vibrations, per Second, for Eight Octaves .. .. ib. Farey’s Calculations for One Octave 602 Musical Glasses .. ib. Invention of Harmonic Strings by Py. thagoras ib. Chinese Music ib. Ancient Music all in the Minor key .. 603 The Gamut ib. Harmony .. .. .. . . ib. The Breve and its Subdivisions .. ib. Eminent Composers : Handel, Jomelli, Cimarosa, Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, Rossini, Spohr, Correlli, &c. ..604 Paganini ib. Church Music ib. Chanting ib. Metrical Psalmody, &c. .. .. 605 Madrigals and Catches .. .. ib. Scotch Music omits the 4th and 7th .. ib. Compass of different Instruments .. ib. English Music ib. Quartelts ib. Counter-point 606 Modern System of 24 Notes to the Octave .. .. .. . . ib. Common Scale ib. Vibrations of a String ib. Four Notes heard simultaneously . . ib. Unison ib. Concord .. .. .. .. .. ib. Common Chords ib. Clefs or Keys ib. Treble, Bass, Tenor, Counter-tenor, and Soprano .. ib. Tuning ..607 Thirds .. ib. Fifths . . - . . . . . . ib. Tone Major, Tone Minor, and Semi- tone .. .. ib. The Tonic, Dominant, and Sub- Domi- nant Chords ib. Enharmonic System ib. Thorough Bass ib. Melody ib. Harmony ib. Modulation .. ib. Cadence ib. Character of the different Keys 608 PROSPECTIVE INDEX. cui, Pitch of Animal Sounds 608 Singing ib. Falsetto .. ib. Tone ib. Bells 609 Large Bells .. ib. Tones ib. Bell metal .. ik Musical Bells ib. Peals ib. Bell-ringing ib. Church-bells ib. Church-organs ib. Pianoforte 610 Trombone ib. Trumpet ib. Compass of the Harp and other Instru- ments .. .. ib. The Violin ib. Musical Boxes 611 The Symphonion, &c ib. The Lyre, & other Ancient Instruments ib. The Bag-pipe ib. Emasculation for Soprano Voices .. ib. Commemoration of Handel, in 1784 and 1834 612 Number of Instrumental and Vocal Performers on each occasion . . ib. Orchestras ib. XXXVI. PHILOLOGY. Number of Languages and Dialects .. 612 Transitions of Languages .. .. ib. Origin of Dialects 610 Primitive Sounds ib. Number of Words in various Languages ib. Vowels and Consonants ib. Commencement of Writing .. .. ib. Number of Letters in various Languages 614 Great Antiquity of Writing according to Josephus .. .. .. .. ib. Paper, Manuscripts, and Codices .. ib. Sanscrit, the basis of Hindoo Learning, Chaldee, Hebrew, &c. .. .. ib. Cadmus’ Alphabet ib. Oriental and Greek Alphabets, and their Derivatives 615 Northern Alphabets ib. Chinese and Egyptian Writing, and Penmanship ib. Champollion and Young on the Decy- phering of the Egyptian Hieroglyphics ib. The Zend „. ib. Arrow-headed Characters .. .. 616 Hieroglyphics ib. Chinese Language ib. Welsh Language.. .. .. .. 617 Ancient Language of Asia Minor . . ib. The Coptic 619 The Ethiopic ib. The Etruscan ib. The Gothic •• .. .. •• ib. The Greek ib. The Malay .. ib. Low Deutsch and High German .. ib. Saxon, so called .. .. .. .. ib. Cherokee Language and Alphabet .,619 Latin «. «. .. ib. Italian .. .. .. .. • . ib. American Languages ih. English Johnson Sheridan, &c. The first Writers . Taautus Sanchoniatho Moses Antiquity of Chinese Histories .. Irish Chronicles . . Horne Tooke on English Coryunctions Arabic Language of the Koran Phonetic Alphabet Correspondence of Words in various Languages Latin Construction Diffusion of the English Language English and American Dialects Rapidity of Speaking Arameau Language Language of Christ Various Directions in Reading in diffe- rent Languages Peculiarities of various Languages .. ib. Mexican Dialects 624 XXXVII. THE FINE ARTS. The Egyptians excelled in Graphic De- lineations and Colouring .. .. 624 Ancient Greek Painters and Sculptors ib. Buonarotti 625 Great Painters ib. Venetian, Bolognese, Flemish, French, English, Spanish, and Dutch Artists ib. The British School ib. The Italian School ib. Michael Angelo .. .. .. 626 Napoleon’s Assemblage of Master-pieces of Painting and Sculpture .. .. ib. British School of Art ib. First Greek Painters ib. Painting in Caustic, Water-colours, and Oils ib. Lost Arts of Engraving on Crystal Stones and Granite, and Painting on Glass ib. Poussin ib. His Definition of Painting . . . . 627 Great Antiquity of Sculpture proved by the Egyptian, Hindoo, and Chinese Temples .. ib. Daedalus, the first Greek Sculptor . . ib. Revival of Sculpture in Italy .. .. ib. Landscape Painting .. .. .. ib. Perspective ib. Decorated Tombs 628 Oldest modern Painting of Madonna and Child ib. Cartoons .. ib. Salvator .. .. .. .. .• ib. Raffaelle ib. Correggio ib. Elgin Marbles ib. The Portland Vase ib. Multiplication of favourite Designs of Artists ib. Proportions of the Human Figure in the ancient Statues .. .. .. 629 The Memnonium .. .. .. ib. Giorgione ib. Albert Dure/* ib. xxvii Col Teniers 629 Painting in Oil, Fresco, and Encaustic ib. Varnish ib. Panorama ib. The Apollo Belvidere and the Apollo Musagetes ib. Great Number of Pieces of ancient Sculpture at Rome .. .. .. ib. Hogarth ib. Miss Linwood’s Worsted Pictures .. 630 Works of Canova in England .. ib. Michael Angelo .. ib. Sculptors of various Nations .. .. ib. Greek Vases ib. Destruction of Pictures by the Long Parliament ib. Royal Portraits ib. Drawing, a Branch of Popular Educa- tion in France 631 Invention of Engraving ib. Steel Engraving ib. Etching ib. Le Blon’s Printing in Oil-colours .. ib. Royal Academies 632 British Institution ib. Academies of Arts .. .. .. ib. Sir Joshua Reynolds ib. Prices given for various Works of Art ib. XXXVIII. LITERATURE. Literature arises from Composition in Prose and Verse . 633 First Writers of Greece and other Na- tions ib. Homer ib. Solon .. .. 634 Thales ib. Early Chinese Literature .. .. ib. Knowledge now in its Infancy .. .. ib. Books .. .. ib. Papyrus and Parchment Volumes .. ib. Greek MSS. found at Herculaneum . . ib. High Price of ancient Books .. ..635 Copying ib. Destruction of ancient Literature in the Alexandrian and Basilican Libraries, and at Constantinople ib. Calligraphy 636 Literat ure and Science derived from the Arabians and Saracens . . . . ib. Characteristics of various English Wri- ters ib. Poetry the regulated Effervescence of the Brain ib. Bards 637 Prophets .. .. .. .. .. ib. Estimate of Sir Walter Scott's Novels ib. Lord Byron ib. Translations of the Arabian Nights de- fective .. .. ib« The Edda ib. Phrenology not a modern Science . . 63S Lope de Vega ib. Contemporaries of Chaucer .. .. ib. Paucity of original Ideas in Books .. ib. Royal English Authors ib. Akenside's Analysis of the Merits of great Poets 639 Poets of Eminence since Akenside .. 641 I Pope’s and Dryden’s Translations .. ib, ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. .. 619 .. ib. .. ib. 620 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 621 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 623 ib. xxviii ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Italian Poets — Ariosto, Tasso, &c. .. 611 French Poets ib. Turkish Poetry ib. Babbage on the Decline of Science . . 612 Light Reading ib. Royal Societies, &c ib. American Literature ib. Rooks advertized in England only .. G43 Exportation of Books to Colonics .. ib. Profits of Novel-writers ib. Fame of Authors ephemeral, owing to their Choice of Subjects .. .. ib. Neglect of Literary Men .. G44 Reviews — False Criticism .. .. ib. The Shah Nameh 645 Greek Anthology ib. Almanacs .. .. .. .. G4G Large Sale of Moore’s Almanac a Proof of the Prevalence of Superstition .. ib. Blue Stockings ib. The Spectator, Taller, &c ib. Cyclopaedias G47 Ana ib. Scotch Editors .. .. .. .. ib. The Laws of Menu ib. Logic G48 Aristotle and the Greeks .. .. ib. Arabic Philosophers .. .. . . ib. Scott's Wavcrlcy ib. Junius .. .. .. .. .. ib. Medicine .. . . .. .. ib. Antiquity of Medicine and Surgery 649 Astrology .. .. .. .. .. ib. Metaphysics .. .. .. .. ib. Progress of Medical Science .. .. G50 Copyrights ib. XXXIX. PRINTING. Sketch of the Results of the Discovery of Printing G51 Printing produced the Reformation .. ib. Printing practised by the Chinese .. ib. Claims of Guttenburgh and Roster to be considered the Inventors .. ib. First Printed Books ib. Printing from Moveable Types .. ib. Printing interdicted by the Popes . . G52 The Million of Facts an Example of the Effects of Printing . . .. ib. Caxton, the first English Printer .. ib. First Types cast, in England, by Caslon, in 1/20 .. .. ib. Printing-machine ib. Stereotype Printing .. .. .. ib. English Alphabet 653 Proportion of Letters in a Fount .. ib. Number of Copies in an Edition, and Cost of Printing in various Countries ib. Disadvantages attending the Art of Printing . . . . . . . . G54 Varieties of Readers ib. System of Payment to Compositors and Pressmen .. .. .. .. 655 Chinese Printing .. .. .. .. ib. Various-sized Types ib. XL. PUBLIC SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. Academies and Associations in Italy, France, and England GjO Their Effect is to spread Knowledge, but to subdue Original Thinking to existing Authority .. .. .. 656 Great Discoveries always made by In- dividuals, and generally opposed by Associations .. ib. List of London Societies .. .. ib. List of the principal Literary Societies in the United Kingdom, with the Fees paid on Admission .. .. .. 657 Principal Public Libraries, with the Number of Books, Manuscripts, and Prints, in each .. .. .. .. ib. Libraries in Towns .. .. .. ib. Book Societies .. .. .. .. 658 Itinerating Libraries ib. The British Association .. .. ib. Useful Knowledge Society suggested , by the Author , to Dr. Bnhbcck .. .. ib. The British Museum ib. Its Libraries, &c 659 The Vatican, Laurontinian, Ambrosian, and St. Mark Libraries .. .. ib. The Bibliothequc Koyalc .. .. ib. The Imperial, Vienna, Escurial, Stut- gard, and Copenhagen Libraries .. 660 Various British Libraries .. .. ib; Scientific Association at Calcutta .. ib. Publishing Statistics .. .. .. G61 English Magazine Days .. .. ib. Number of Books published in various Places 662 XL I. JOURNALS, NEWSPAPERS, &c. Modes of distributing Newspapers and Journals, in England and on the Con- tinent 662 Number of British Newspapers, from 1/12 to 1840 663 Newspapers in the United States .. ib. Magazines .. .. ib. London Morning Papers .. .. ib. Sunday Papers .. .. .. .. ib. The London Gazette ib. Paris Papers .. .. .. .. ib. German Papers .. .. .. .. 664 Censorship of the Press .. .. .. ib. Periodical Criticism .. .. .. ib. Newspapers in the State of New York, m 1831 665 in the City of New York, in 1831 ' .. .. .. ib. Subscribers to the Paris Journals, in June, 1837 .. . . .. .. ib. Newspapers, &c. at Hamburgh .. ib. Balbi’s Estimation of the Number of Newspapers and Journals of all Na- tions, in 1832 .. .. .. .. ib. Expedition in Printing ib. Newspaper Advertisements, in 1830 and 1838 666 Increase of Newspapers with the Penny Stamp ib. Powers and Influence of Printing .. ib. Perfection of Printing ib. Stereotype Printing described .. .. ib. Printing by Steam ib. Printing-machines described .. ^ -- ib. Expedition in printing the Times News- paper ib. ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. XXLT Col. Stereotype Printing introduced by Earl Stanhope 666 Much improved by Mr. A. Wilson, at an Outlay of about 40,000£ .. .. ib. List of Literary Periodicals , with their Prices 667 Average Sale of 80 London Papers , from Parliamentary Returns .. 669 Same of 217 English Provincial Papers 6/1 Same of 62 Scotch Papers . . . . 6/4 Same of 10 Welsh Papers .. .. 6/5 Same of 16 Dublin Papers .. .. ib. Same of 54 Irish Country Papers .. 676 Turkish Newspaper 677 Armenian Newspaper ib. Periodicals in the East Indies . . . . ib. XLII. THE DRAMA, Origin of the Drama 677 Religious Mysteries ib. Causes of Inj ury to our National Theatre ib. The French Theatre 6/8 Sacred Dramas ib. Moralities .. ib. Historical Dramas ib. Dramatic Writers ib. Shakspeare .. .. .. .. ib. London Theatres in 1589 .. .. ib. Provincial Theatres 6/9 Expenses and Receipts of the Opera .. 6S0 Loss of the Lessee, &c. .. .. ib. London Theatres in 1840 .. .. ib. Continental Theatricals 681 American Theatricals . . . . . . ib. Dramatic Chronology ib. The O. P. Riots 682 XLIII. EDUCATION. Definition of Education 682 Universities .. .. .. .. 683 Obsolete and Useless Studies obtained in them ib. Universities in need of Reformation .. ib. Commencement of Universities .. ib. Present Number in various Countries ib. Universities favour Authority rather than Originality 684 Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin ib. Colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, and Dates of their Foundations . . . . 685 Scotch Universities ib. Degrees granted by the Scottish Univer- sities ; .. .. 686 University of Dublin .. .. .. ib. Maynooth College ib. Revenues of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin ib. Number of Members, Livings, Fellow- ships, &c. 687 Degrees, Honours, &c ib. Winchester School ib. Christ’s Hospital, London .. .. ib. University of Durham ib. Foundation Schools ib. Colonial Colleges 688 Total Number of Persons educated in England and Wales ib. Methods of acquiring Knowledge .. 689 Rote .. ib Col Reading (jy'9 Interrogative System . . . . . . ib Systems of Pestalozzi, Bell, and Lan- caster .. ib. Want of Patronage to Teachers .. 690 The Sword preferred by the Govern- ment to the Schoolmaster .. .. ib. Abb6 Bossut’s Mode of teaching Lan- guages .. .. ib. Gresham College ib. Other endowed Colleges . . .. .. ib. London University and King’s College 691 Foreign Universities ib. German ib. Austrian 692 Russian .. .. ib. Swedish . . . . ib. Italian ib. French .. .. .. .. ib. French System of Public Instruction .. 693 Prussia and Saxony ib. Education compulsory, and without Priests .. .. .. .. .. ib. Similar Systems in Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Bohemia .. .. ib. National Education in the United States 694 Misapplication of Endowments .. ib. Experimental Proof of the Superiority of the Interrogative System .. .. ib. Reason of the Establishment of Gram- mar-schools, and for the University Exercises being in Latin . . . . 695 Connection of Ignorance and Crime, first shewn by the Editor . . . . ib. XLIV. ARCHEOLOGY AND ARCHITECTURE. Grottoes, Caves, and Cabins, first Habi- tations of Man . . . . , . 695 Towns originally Fortresses . . . . ib. Balkh, and other Cities of great Anti- quity 696 The Cyclopean Style ib. Colossal Bas-reliefs ib. Egyptian Architecture an Improvement on the Cyclopean . . . . . . ib. Its Massive Grandeur ib. Egyptian Column suggested by the Lotus-stalk 697 Denon’s Plan of the great Temples .. ib. Colossal Figures and Stones .. ib. Tombs of Thebes ib. The Pyramids 698 Royal Labyrinth of Egypt . . . . ib. The Lake Mceris ib. The Oases of Thebes .. .. .. ib. The Portico of Hermopolis .. . . ib. The Temple of Ypsambul .. .. ib. Cleopatra’s Needle 699 Pompey’s Pillar .. ib. Tower of Babel, or Birs Nimrod .. ib. Babylon ib. Balbec 700 Wall of China 701 Porcelain Pagoda . . . . . . it* Vast Structures of the East illustrate Oriental Despotism and Slavery .. 70S Excavations ib. Solomon’s Temple ihw Temple of Mecca .. ... .. ib. Xxx ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Temple of Diana at Ephesus .. .. 702 Orders of Architecture . . . . 703 Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Com- posite, Gothic, Oriental, Egyptian, and Chinese . . . . . . . . ib. The Acropolis at Athens .. .. ib. Temple of Jupiter Olympus .. .. ib. Arches 704 Illusion of the Senses produced by Ar- chitectural Structures, taken Advan- tage of by Priestcraft . . . . 705 Baths ib. Aqueducts .. ib. Amphitheatres 706 Gladiators ib. Roofs of Houses ib. Houses at Pompeii 70 7 Forums ib. Basilicae, &c. ib. The Alhambra ib. Sea-wall at Brighton ib. Chimneys ib. Elevation of Modern Buildings .. 708 Heighth of the Great Pyramid com- pared with that of Buildings and Mountains .. .. .. . . ib. Cromlechs . . . . . . . . ib. Barrows .. ib. Kit’s-coty-house ib. Silbury-hill ib. Stonehenge 709 Abury, & c. ib. Adrian’s Wall ib. Architecture of the Ancient Britons .. ib. Gothic 710 York Minster ib. Canterbury Cathedral .. .. .. ib. Wal brook Church ib. Ruins in North America prove Revolu- tions, of which we have no account ib. Napoleon’s Roads 711 XLV. MODERN CAPITALS OF NATIONS. Promenades of European Capitals .. 711 Amsterdam. Streets, Canals, Bridges, Harbour, Trade 712 The Stadthouse ib. Ashantee. Magnificence of the Palace .. .. ib. Luxuriance of the Soil . . . . ib. Barvar-Massin ib. Berlin. The Brandenburg Gate .. .. 712 Rows of Lime-trees ib. Place de Gendarmes ib. Trade 713 University .. .. .. .. ib. Academies of Science ib. Botanic Garden ib. Bejapour. Mosques and Temples .. ..713 Forts .. ib. Berne. Public Buildings and Terraces com- manding Views of the Alps . . ib. Library ib. CoL Bokhara. Population 713 Mosques and Colleges .. 714 Great Seat of Mahometan Learning ib. Bombay. Population .. .. , . mm 714 Great Emporium of Western India .. ib. Literary Society ib. Brussels. The Alice Vert4 714 Market-place and Park . . . . ib. Academy of Painting ib. Buenos Ayres. Houses fortified 7< l 5 Cathedral * ib. Fortress „„ .. .. .. .. ib. Population ib. Grand Cairo. The Nile 715 Streets ib. Houses . . . . ib. Gates .. ib. Mosques ib. Baths .. ib. Tombs ib. Extent and Population .. .. ib. Police ib. Amusements 716 Improvisatori ib. Citadel .. ib. Palace of Saladin ib. Calcutta. Fort 716 Population ib. Villas ib. College ib. Barrackpore ib. Christiana. Population 716 Bay ib. Trade ib. Buildings 717 University . .. ib. Constantinople. Importance of the Site .. .. 717 Population .. ib. Magnificence of the City from a Dis- tance, vanishes on a nearer inspection ib. Houses of Wood ib. Conflagrations .. .. .. ib. Mosque of St. Sophia .. -.718 Minarets .. .. .. --ib. The Seraglio .. .. .. ib. Entrances ib. Strait of Constantinople, or Bosphorus ib. Ancient Reliques ib. Copenhagen. Extent of the City 718 Houses' •• .. .. . .. ib. Statue of Frederick V. . . . . ib. Palaces ib. Cathedral .. .. ib. * Frue Kirke ib. Scientific Collections .719 ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Libraries 719 Pictures .. .. .. .. ib. Arsenal ib. Mint .. ib. Der’ayah ib. Dresden. Romantic Situation 719 Streets and Buildings .. .. .. ib. Palace ib. Bridge -• .. ib. Libraries .. ib. Scientific Collections, &c. . . . . ib. Dublin. Grandeur of the Public Buildings .. 719 Squares ib. Cathedral of St. Patrick 720 St. George’s Church ib. Roman Catholic Metropolitan Cha- pel, &c. ib. The Castle ib. Royal Exchange ib. Courts of Law ib. Custom-House ib. Post-Office, &c. ib. Incorporated Society for Charter Schools ib. Kildare-street Society ib. Trinity College 721 Institutions of Science and Art .. ib. Edinburgh. Old Town .. 721 New Town .. .. .. .. ib. Castle ib. Palace of Holyrood -- .. .. ib. University .. .. a » -• ib. Florence. Cathedral .. .. .. *• 722 Gallery of Sculpture and Painting .. ib. Jeddo. The Palace 722 Extent of the City, and Mode of Building .. ib. Jerusalem. Sterility of the Site and Neighbourhood 722 Religious Contests for Credulity as to the Sites of Events mentioned in the Old and New Testaments ..723 Extent of the City ib. Its Four Hills ib. Valleys .. ib. Desolation of the Place, as described by Chateaubriand ib. Church of the Sepulchre and Mosque of Omar ib. Supposed Sites of the Crucifixion and Resurrection 724 The Locality disputed .. .. ib. Omar’s Mosque, the most splendid Edi- fice in the City ib. De la Martine’s Description of the Environs of Jerusalem .. .. ib. Damascus ib. Ruins of Palmyra, or Tadmor . . ib. Lima. The Cathedral 725 Public Buildings 726 XXXI Col. Extent 726 Population ib. Lisbon. Magnificence of the Approach .. 726 Buildings, Gardens, and Groves .. ib. Harbour ib. Illusion dispelled on entering the City ib. Dirt and Filth ib. Churches and Convents numerous, but destitute of Architectural Beauty .. ib. Squares ib. Earthquake of 1755 ib. Aqueduct 72 7 London. Vast Extent of the City .. .. 72 7 Lines of Streets .. .. .. ib. Style of Building ib. Public Buildings St. Paul’s Cathe-. dral, Westminster Abbey, Houses of Parliament, Buckingham Palace, &c. ib. Increase of Out-Parishes in 20 Years ib. Assessments and Rentals .. .. 728 Population of London and the Continu- ous Parishes ib. Pigot’s Directory . . . . . . ib. Classification of Public Establishments, Trades, and Professions .. .,729 Churches, Chapels, and Religions of London .. .. .. .. ib. Consumption of Food 730 Principal Streets ib. The City ib. The Lord Mayor ib. Livery .. ib. Revenues ib. King’s College ib. London University .. .. . . ib. Institutions connected with Literature, Science, Charities, &c. .. 731 Sheriff’s Fund ib. Hospitals ib. OCUUUlo mm mm mm m » ■ ■ iU« Bridges of London and their Dimen- sions ib. The Docks ib. Annual Consumption of Flour, Meat, Wine, Spirits, &c 732 Roads and Pavements .. .. ib. Gas Lights ib. Coaches 733 Soil and Substratum ib. Water ib. Tide Level ib. Elevations . . ib. Consumption of Coals - - . . ib. Fires .. .. ib. Contagious Diseases ib. Madras. Buildings 734 Fort St. George ib. The Black Town ib* Madrid. Buildings 734 Streets, Alcala .. ib. The Prado .. ib. Public Fountains ea aa .. ib, X\X1L ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Co!. Gates .. .. 734 The Palace ib. Mecca. Population 735 Buildings .. .. .. ., ib. Temple ib. Pilgrims ib. Mexico. Situation in a Valley, formerly a Lake 735 Population .. 736 Architecture, Palace, Cathedral, Con- vents .. ib. Volcanoes .. .. . .. ib. Markets .. .. ib. Floating Gardens ib. Milan. Edifices, fne Duomo, Amphitheatre 737 Library, Paintings, &c. .. .. ib. Morocco Arabian Architecture 73 7 Palace ib. Gardens .. ib. Aqueducts .. .. _ .. ib. Moscow. Ancient Moscow The Great Fire .. The Modern City Temple Munich. Buildings 738 Cathedral of Notre Dame .. .. ib. Church of St. Michael ib. The Palace ib. Nankin. Manufactures 738 Books ib. Porcelain Tower ib. Naples. The Bay 739 Architecture ib. Vesuvius ib. External and Internal Picture of Naples ib. Literature and Libraries .. .. ib. Works of Art .. ib. Music ib. Public Institutions ib. New York. Site 740 Harbour ib. Great Commercial Emporium .. ib. Streets .. .. .. .. .. ib. City Hall ib. Benevolent Institutions . . . . ib. State Prison and Penitentiary . . ib. Colleges, Libraries ib. Society ib. Paris. Paris second only to London .. ..740 Population ib. Gaiety of Aspect ib. Streets ib. Palaces, the Louvre, the Tuileries, Luxembourg, Palais Bourbon, Palais Iioyal 741 738 ib. ib. Cut. Paintings and Sculpture .. .. 741 Churches .. .. .. .. .. ib. Cathedral of Notre Dame, &c. .. ib. Public Walks, the Boulevards, Tuile- ries, Champs Elysees, &c ib. Hospitals .. .. .. .. ib. Manufactures .. 742 Consumption of Provisions .. .. ib. Palace of Versailles ib. Pekin. Extent and Population .. ..742 Buildings .. .. . .. .. ib. Streets .. .. ib. Petersburg. Founded by Peter I Regularity of the Buildings Inundations .. .. ' Architecture Palaces Public Buildings j Cathedral, &c Bridges Philadelphia. Regularity of the Plan . . . . ib. Literary Establishments, Libraries, Fine Arts ib. Penitentiary System ib. Banks 745 Rome. The Capital of the World of Arts .. 745 Extent ib. Grandeur of the Edifices .. .. ib. Churches . . ib. St. Peter’s, St. John’s, Santa Maria Maggiore, &c. . . ib. Palaces .. .. .. .. ib. The Vatican ib. Monte Cavallo, the Residence of the Popes, &c. .. ib. Private Palaces .. .. .. ib. Libraries .. ib. Ancient Monuments .. ^ .. 746 Stockholm. Style of Building 746 The Royal Palace ib. Stutgard. Buildings . .. ... .. .. 747 Palace .. .. ib. Library ib. Teheran. Extent 747 The Ark, combining Palace and Citadel ib. Ruins of Rhaig ib. Vienna. Original City 747 Present Extent ib. Architecture ib. Mansions of the Nobles .. .. ib. Palaces ib. Cathedral ib. No Literary or Scientific Institution, but extensive Collections of Books, Paint- ings, Natural History, &c 748 Censorship of the Press .. .. iU .. 743 .. ib. .. ib. .. ib. .. ib. .. ib. .. ib. .. 744 ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Co!. | Washington. Seat of the United States’ Government 743 Regularity of the Place .. .. ib. ’ Public Buildings .. .. .. ib. The Capitol and President’s House . . ib. XLVI. POPULATION, INDUSTRY, & POOR. Population of the United Kingdom in 1831-3 749 Population of Ireland, Number of Ca- tholics, Presbyterians, &c. in 1834 ib. Fallacy of the Theories of Political Economists ib. Families, Occupations. &c 750 Domesday-Book shows a doubling of the Population in 300 years . . . . ib. Population of Europe, per square mile ib. England in time of Alfred 751 Poll-tax in 1377 ib. Mortality and Longevity . . .. ib Mortality in different Countries .. ib. Births, Marriages, and Deaths, in Eng- land ib. Proportion of Males and Females living at various Ages 752 Diseases .. .. ib. Plagues and Contagious Diseases .. ib. Proportion of Births to Marriages 753 Greater Longevity of Married than Un- married Persons 754 Expectation of Life .. .. .. 755 Principles of Population .. .. ib. Length of a Generation .. .. 756 Proportion of Marriages .. .. ib. Number of Marriages, Baptisms, and Burials, in England and Wales, from 1S00 to 1831 ib. Average Number of Children per Mar- riage 75 7 Number of Ancestors at various periods ib. Mean Term of Life .. .. .. ib. Bulk of Contemporary Population .. 758 Will the Present System of Animal Eco- nomy endure as long as the Globe, and its Solar Re-actions ? . . . . ib. Foreign Population Statistics .. .. ib. Comparative Length and Weight of both Sexes from Birth to Death 760 Ratio of Diseases in the London Hos- pitals ib. Comparative Longevity of Medical Men, Theologian, &c. .» .. .. ib. Statistics of Benefit Societies .. .. 761 Industry and Employments .. . . 762 Proportions of the Population in various Employments .. ib. Hereditary Aristocracy .. 763 Gentlemen, Stockholders, &c. .. ib. Paupers, Soldiers, &e. .. .. ib. Proportion of cultivated Land to the Population .. 764 Manufactures .. ib. Employment in Factories .. ib. Wages Table of the Numbers of Manufactu- rers, Farms, and Trades and Handi- crafts, in each County . . . . 765 Number of Persons employed in the Principal Occupation in Great Britain 766 xxxiil I Col. i Suffering in Factories .. .. 767 Immigration of Irish Labourers .. ib. Strikes .. .. ib. British Monopoly of Manufactures . . 768 Hindoo Colton Manufactures .. ib. Classification of Tradesmen in Russia and China .. ; ib Degradation of Women in Asia and Africa ib. Poor and Poverty .. . . . . 769 Object of Society ib. Transportation . . . . . . . . ib. Crime and Poverty simultaneous and identical ..ib. Ratio of Pauperism to Population .. 776 The Mosaic Provision for the Poor .. ib. Gleaning .. .. .. .. ib. Each Trade might provide for its own Aged and Infirm ib. Greenwich Hospital ib. Beggars .. .. .. .. ib. Emigrants .. .. .. .. ib. Lowness of Wages 771 Pawhbroking . . .. .. .. ib. Fallacy of the New Poor Law Returns of alleged Savings .. .. .. ib. Poors’- rate Returns, and Prices of Wheat .. .. . . .. 7/2 The New Poor Law .. .. . . ib. Reports of Commissioners should be regarded as Pleadings for the Conti- nuation of Salaries .. .. .. 773 Savings’ Banks ib. Legislation for the Poor has only varied the Relations of Poverty and Industry ib. Wealth and Poverty ib. Pauper Colonies 774 XLVII. NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. Sketch of the Subject 774 Earliest Traders ib. The Phoenicians .. .. .. ib. Change effected by Steam .. .. 775 Compensation to the Sufferers by the Change 776 The First Steam-Vessel constructed by Fulton, and used on the Hudson, in 1806 ib. Failure of Sir R. Phillips in his Endea- vours to form a Company, to repeat the Experiment on the Thames .. ib. First Steam Voyage to Margate, by Sir R. Phillips and his Friends . . ib. Vessels woiked by Paddles, set in ope- ration by Oxen, known to the Ancients ib. First Application of Steam, in 1736 .. ib. Improvements in Internal Intercourse 777 Turnpike- Roads .. .. .. ib. M‘Adam ib. Draught on Inclined Planes .. ..778 Resistance ib. Coaches, &c. .. ib Canals 779 Sailing Vessels 780 Tables of the Number and Tonnage of British Vessels .. .. .. ib. Exports and Imports ib. Vessels registered in 1835 .. .. 781 Coal Trade .. .. .. .. ib C XXXiV ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Coasting-Vessels 781 Wrecks ib. British Docks ib. Table of Vessels entered at various Ports, English and Foreign .. 782 Irish Trade, &c. 783 Light- Houses ib. Drummond Light ib. Gaudin’s Invention ib. Foreign Shipping 784 Freights ib. Steam Navigation ib. The Great Western 785 The Sirius ib. The British Queen ib. Consumption of Fuel .. .. .. 786 Iron Steamers 787 The Rainbow ib. The Steam Frigate Gorgon . . . . ib. Comparison of the British Queen, Li- verpool, and Great Western .. ib. British Railivays and their Cost . - 788 First Locomotive Engine made, in 1810, by Trevethick 790 First Iron Railway 791 Expense per mile .. .. .. ib. London and Birmingham Railway .. ib. Wooden Rails in use in America .. ib. Tunnels ib. Manchester and Liverpool Railway .. 792 Great Western ib. Southampton, &c. .. .. .. ib. Fares ib. Velocity .. 793 Greenwich Railway .. .. ib. Foreign Railways ib. Railway Postage 794 Uniform Benny Postage . . . . ib. Post-Office Statistics ib. Suspension Bridges 795 The Quito Causeway ib. Principles of Power . . - . . . ib. Origin of Steam-Engines .. .. 796 The Spinning Jenny, Horse, Mule .. ib. The Turbine ib Power and Cost of Engines .. .. 797 Speed of a Steam-Vessel .. .. ib. The Archimedes ib. Horse-power .. 798 Adhesion of Sliding-bars .. .. ib. Friction ib. Power of Locomotive Engines . . 799 Advantage of Railways for Light Goods, &c. ib. XLVIII. COMMERCE. Foreign Trade, when beneficial . . 799 Wealth ib. Balances 800 Commercial Companies .. .. ib. Individual Enterprise ib. Boards of Trade 801 Numbers of British Vessels and of Bri- tish Consuls in various Nations .. ib. Official Value ib. Table of the Rates of Quantity and De- clared Value, from 1798 to 1838 .. ib. Value of Imports and Exports of the United Kingdom, for 1837-8-9 .. 802 Imports into Great Britain, in 1838 ... ib. Colonial Merchandize exported in 1838 804 Produce and Manufactures of the United King-dom, exporte 1 from Ire- land to Foreign Parts .. .. 804 Exports from Ireland in 1836-7-8 .. ib. Home Consumption of Foreign and Colonial Merchandize, in 1838 9 .. 805 Receipts from the Customs in 1838 .. 807 Total Amount of Duties .. .. 808 'Irish Inward Duties .. .. ib. The Prusso-Bavarian League .. .. ib. Imports from 1782 to 1838 .. .. 810 Imports and Exports in various Periods, from 1793 to 1837 ib. Market Prices of Imports from 1782 to 1836 ib. Vessels employed in the Coasting Trade 811 Vessels employed in the Foreign Trade 813 Probability of Decrease of the English Market ib. Russia ib. United States ib. Fair of Niznei Novogorod .. .. ib. Comparative Commerce of different Nations .. .. .. ib. Trading and Commercial Policy of the Pacha of Egypt . . . . . . ib. Negro Slavery abolished by him .. 815 Domestic Slavery ib Egyptian Railways and Canals . ib. Cairo .. ib. Cape of Good Hope .. .. .. ib. Trade by Caravans in Central Asia and Africa ib. Oases .. 816 The Banda Islands ib. Ceylon ib. Eastern Trade ib. Restricted Commerce of the Japanese 817 Importations of Cotton Sugar, Tea, and Coffee ib. The Opium Trade ib. Consumption of Spirits and Wine .. 818 Grain . „ .. ib. Price of Wheat, per Quarter, from 1646 to 1839 819 Forests ib. The Commissariat ib. Agricultural Exports from Ireland .. ib. Negro Slavery .. . . , . . . 820 The Whale-Fishery .. .. ib. XLIX. MANUFACTURES. Sketch of the Progress of Manufactures 820 Chinese Manufactures .. .. .. ib. Effect of Machinery on English Work- people 821 Spinning and Weaving constitute our Manufacturing System . . . . ib. White and Infant Slavery .. .. ib. Conventions to raise Wages . . . . ib. Termination of British Monopoly .. 822 Staples or Marts ib. Flairs ib. Manufacturing Districts .. .. ib. Persons employed in Manufactures .. 823 Epochs of Profit in Manufactures .. ib. Manufacturing Imports .. .. ib. National Staples ib. XXXV ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Exports of Produce and Manufactures, in 1838 823 Introduction of Machine-spinning .. 824 Foreign Competition and its Effects .. 825 Iron Works ib. Mines .. .. .. .. .. ib. Mineral Produce of Great Britain .. 825 Comparison of Exports of 1837 and 1838 ib. Birmingham 827 Sheffield ib. Pins and Needles 828 Watch-springs .. .. .. .. ib. Cotton Statistics .. .. .. ..ib. Hand and Power Looms .. .. 830 Wages .. ib. Extraordinary Progress of the Cotton Manufacture .. .. .. .. 831 Bobbin.net or Lace 832 Imitation of Hindoo Manufactures .. ib. Low Rate of Wages to Females .. 833 Wool, English and Foreign . . . . ib Imports and Exports .. .. .. ib. Carpets ib. Broad-cloth ib. Cashmere Shawls, &c ib. Silk 835 Exports and Imports .. .. .. ib. Consumption in China .. . . ib. Silk-worms 836 Linen .. .. .. .. .. ib. Value of Linen Fabrics in 1838 .. ib. Irish Linens ib Flax 837 Exports and Imports .. .. ,. ib. Hosiery .. .. ib. Stocking-frames .. .. .. .. ib. Glass .. .. 838 Pottery ib. Wedgwood .. .. .. .. ib. Porcelaiu ib. Jewellery ib. Paper 839 Soap ib. Whale-oil ib. Hides and Skins . . . . . . . . ib. Sugar . . . . . . . . . . ib. Exports and Imports ib. Chemical Analysis 840 Brewing .. ib. Consumption of Malt and Hops .. ib. The Malt, tax ib. Cost of brewing London Porter .. ib. Adulteration of Malt Liquor .. .. 841 Malting ib. Hop Duty ib. Consumption of Spirits .. .. ib. Cyder and Berry .. .. ib. Grain , &c. .. .. .. .. 842 Price of Wheat and Land in the time of James I., Charles 1 1. , and James II. ib. Price of Wheat from 1400 ... .. ib. Bounty on Exportation .. .. ib. Highest and Lowest Annual Averages of Wheat ib. Result of the Corn Laws .. .. ib. Baking .. .. 813 Produce of a Quarter of Wheat .. ib. Brices of the Quartern Loaf .. .. ib. Average Annual Consumption of each Individual .. .. .. 844 Ingredients of which Bread may be made 844 Foreign Wheat Trade ib. A rts of Europe and China . . . . ib. Important Inventions of the Chinese, claimed by Europeans .. .. ib. Wine - - 845 Use of Pernicious Drugs -- -- ib. Alarm of Manufacturers at the Export of Yarns, &c. in 1839 -- -. 846 Foreign Competition with English Ma- nufactures -- -- -- --ib. Increase of Manufacturers - - - - 847 Producing Power of France and the United Kingdom compared -- ib. L. FRANCE. Situation and Extent of France . . 848 Number of Houses and Manufacturers, Proprietors and Farms .. .. ib. Population 849 Expenditure of the Public Funds .. ib. Duration of Life ib. List of the Principal Towns and their Population 850 Bank of France ib. Currency .. ib. Revenue of the Kingdom .. .. 851 Average Expenses ib. Public Debt ib. W ine ib. Beet-root ib. Manufacture of Sugar .. ib. Coals and Mineral Productions .. ib. Woollen Manufactures, &c 852 Silk ib. Grain ib. Commercial Shipping .. .. .. ib. Colonies ib. Harbours .. .. .. .. ib. Imports and Exports •. . . - 853 Navy and Army -- -- - - ib. Canals and Roads - - - - - - ib. Railroads -- -- -- --ib. Companies for Insurance, &c. .. ib. Literary and Scientific Character .. ib. Education .. 854 Parliament .. .. .. ib. Repeal of the Law of Brimogeniture ib. Brovision for the Boor .. .. ib. Crime 855 Theatres, &c. ib. List of Distances from Paris to the Capitals of Europe ib. Average Expenditure of each Inhabi- tant of Baris 856 Forests ib. Exportation of Eggs .. .. 857 Napoleon „• ib. LI. AMERICA. A priori Reasonings .. .. .. 857 Discovery of America .. .. 853 North America, Middle America, South America .. ib. The West Indies ib. Extent of America ib. United States 85S Climate .. .. .. .. ib. XXXV 1 ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Salaries of the President, Vice-Presi- dent, and Members of the Cabinet 859 Senate and House of Representatives ib. Payment of Members .. .. .. ib. Elections .. .. .. .. ib. Salaries of Judges, Ambassadors, and Governors of States ib. Quadrupeds of North America .. 850 Population .. .. .. .. ib. Emigration from Europe .. .. 861 The Aborigines ... .. .. ib. United States’ Bank ib. Population of Mexico, Guatimala, Co- lumbia, Peru, Chili, and La Plata ib. Crime in the United States .. .. ib. Navy, Army, and Militia .. .. 862 American Indians ib. Cotton .. . . ib. Exports 863 Public Lands - - ib. General Exports and Imports .. ib. Price of Provisions - - - - - - 865 Shipping -- -- -- -- ib. Tonnage - - - - - - - - - - ib. Use of Tobacco - - - - - - ib. New York the Emporium of the Western World - . - --ib. Paraguay -- --ib. Pittsburg 866 Manufactures in Massachusetts -- ib. Cotton and other Manufactures of the United States -- -- --ib. Wa^es -- -- - _ --ib. Valley of the Mississippi -- -- 86/ Ohio -- -- -- ib. State of New York 868 Its Extent, Cities, Climate, Manufac- tures, Railroads, Colleges and Schools, Congregations, Finances, Poor, &c. ib. The Alleganies -- ib. Missouri -- ... -- -- - - 869 Illinois -- -- -- -- --ib. The Saratoga Springs -- -- - - ib. Washington -- -- -- --ib. Gulf of Mexico -- - ib. Isthmus of Panama ib. Republic of Mexico - - - - - - ib. Rio Janeiro -- - ib. Behring’s Straits - ib. Brazil 8/0 Columbia -- - ib. Newfoundland -- -- -- --ib. Bolivia -- -- -- -- -- 871 Rio de la Plata -- ib. Texas -- -- -- - - --ib. Republic of Chili -- -- -- ib. Peru -- -- -- 8/2 Indian Antiquities -- -- -- ib. Revenue and Expenditure of the United States -- -- -- -- --ib. Balance in hand! -- -- -- ib. Banks - - -. .. -. -- 8/3 Coinage -- -- -- -- --ib. Mines of Mexico and South America ib. Post-office Revenue of the United States ib. Internal Communication -- --8/4 Indian Population -- -- -- ib. Purchase of their Land and Removal of the Tribes -- -- -- --ib. The Esquimaux -- ib. Col Education in the United States - - 871 Religious Divisions - - - - - - ib. LII. MONETARY AND FISCAL. Finances of the United Kingdom, for the Year ended 5th January, 1839 875 Expense of collecting the Revenue .. 876 Excise Duties for the same Year -- ib Salaries to Excise-Officers -- -- ib. Distillation - -ib. Stamps and Taxes -- -- -» 877 Post-Office Revenue -- -- -- 878 Funded Debt 879 Salaries, Pensions, and Sinecure Allow- ances -- 880 Expense of the Army and Navy -- 881 Public Works -- -- -- --ib. Civil Departments -- -- -- ib. Law and Justice -- -- -- ib. Colonial and Consular Services -- ib. Chanties -- -- -- --ib. Education, Science, and Art -- -- ib. Special and Temporary Objects -. 882 National Debt - - ib. The Customs of 1837 and 1838, com- pared - -- - - 883 Income and Expenditure from 1836 to 1839 ib. The Unfunded Debt -- -- -- ib. Taxes, a Portion of Incomes -- -- ib. Ratio of Tolerable , Burthensorne , Op- pressive, and Revolutionary Taxes ib. Taxation and Currency -- --884 Taxes fall on Profits ib. Seventy -two Millions a Year, raised by the British Government, from 1793 to 1826 ! ib. Taxes in 1833, Ten Thousand Times as much as the Taxes in the Reign of Henvy V. -835 Taxes paid by Labour - - - - ib. Taxation for the last Half-Century -- ib. Revenues of European Nations com- pared -- -- -- -- 886 Excess of Imports over Exports , in 1838 ib, Bills of Exchange - - - - - - ib. Value of Bequeathable Property, de- duced from the Probate Duty - - ib. Carriages, Horses, &c. - - - - 887 Salaries of Ministers and Ambassadors ib. Commissioners of Charities - - - - 888 Pension List -- -- -- --ib. Civil List - --ib. Expenses of Royally - - - - - - ib. Coronations -- -- -- --ib. Crown Revenues - - - - - - ib. Interest - - -- -- --ib. Taper Money - - 889 Capital -- -- -- -- -- ib. Credit - 890 Present Curreucy, and that at the Re- volution compared - ib. Number of Recipients of the Interest of the National Debt, and the Amounts received -- -- -- - - S91 Savings’ Banks -- -- -- --ib. Average Price of Stock from 1787 to 1824 ib.. Progress of the Debt - - - - - - 892 Exchequer-Bills -- -- -- - - ib. Commencement of Country Banks -- ib. ANALYTICAL, OR PROS1 ECTIYE INDEX. Joint Stock Companies . . Col. . . 893 Consumption of London .. Scotch Banks Vegetable Diet Bank of Ireland .. French and English Diet Origin of Banks . . Lara's Mississippi Scheme , . . ib. Weight of Grain, &c. and the Succession of Crops South Sea Bubble ..894 Average Price of Wheat, in each Cen Canal and Company Mania .. .. ib. The Panic ib. Currency .. .. .. .. .. 895 Coinage . . . . . . . . . . ib. Wages and Prices in 1360, .'fee. and 1836 898 Value of Annuities and Leases .. ib. Government Tables .. .. .. ib. Exchanges.. 897 Usance .. .. .. .. .. ib. Par of Exchange .. .. .. .. ib. Accumulations at Compound Interest 898 Sinking-Fund . . . .. .. ib. Interest of Consols at various Prices . ib. Bank of England the Government Bank ib. Paper Currency 899 The Dead Weight ib. Circulation and Deposits of the Bank, from 1778 to 1827 900 Circulation from 1834 to 1837 .. . . ib. Notes circulated in England and Wales, by Private and Joint Stock Banks .. ib. Money the Cause of three-fourths of Crime 901 Large Capital ib. Limit of Circulation and Display .. ib. Political Economy the Source of fright- ful Evils Foreign Monetary Statistics . . Usury Interests should be less than the Profits Pawnbrokers .. .. .. Variations of the Funds .. Comparative Purity of the Coin of diffe- rent Countries ib, Value of Gold and Silver, in 1813 and 1834 Debts of Individuals and Companies at the Panic First Treatise on Political Economy .. Smith’s Wealth of Nations , &c. Fallacy of the Theories of Political Economists Peculiar Condition of the English Mo- netary System .. 902 ib. 903 ib. ib. 904 905 ib. 906 ib. ib. ib. LIII. LAND AND AGRICULTURE. Extent of Surface of England, according to the Trigonometrical Survey, and the Parish Returns 907 Length of a Degree of Longitude in England ib. Extent of cultivated, uncultivated, and useless Land, in- England and Ireland ib. Annual Produce .. .. .. . . ib. Rental of the Kingdom 908 Proportion of Rent to Produce at diffe- rent Periods ib. Writers on Agricultural Improvement 909 Produce of Land, in Cultivation and in Pasturage .. ib. Nutritive Matter in various Grasses .. 910 Produce per Acre of Human Food .. ib. Average Consumption of the British Population .. ib. XXXV1J Col. 91(1 911 912 ib. ib. tury, from the 13th Price of Wheat . . ■ . . Size of Farms ; and Emigration Extent of Capital required in Farming Number of Cattle, Sheep, and Horses, in England Soils .. Manures and Composts Subsoils Rental of Land Price of Provisions .. .. .. The Corn Laws Spade-husbandry and Ploughing Origin of the Laws of Landed Property The Fens .. Inclosure Bills Expenses of Farming House-rent Building Butter and Cheese Price of Flour in London, and on the Continent .. .. .. Spanish Agriculture, &c. .. .. Egypt and the Nile Scottish Agriculture Irish Provisions, &c Irish Labourers . . LIV. COLONIES. British Colonies .. Principle of Colonization Government of English Colonies Patronage . . Lower and Upper Canada Jamaica New South Wales Salaries of Governors India East India Company Population of British India Revenues Conquered Dynasties Native Army of Sepoys Epochs of British Dominion in India . . Government of the East India Company Weight and Inequality of Taxation . . Religion and Sects Hiudoostan Vocabulary .. Colleges and Scientific Institutions of the East Indies Table of the Population , Produce , Ex- ports, and Imports of the British West Indies .. Canadian Exports Abolition of Slavery in the British co- lonies Guayana .. New South Wales Convict Labour Extent of cultivated and uncultivated Land in the British W. Ind. Colonies French Colonies .. Population of various Colonies Cost of our Transatlantic Colonies ib. 913 ib. 914 915 916 917 918 919 ib. 920 921 ib. ib. ib. 922 ib. ib. ib. 923 ib. ib. 924 ib. ib. 925 ib. 926 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 92 7 ib. ib. ib. 928 ib. ib 929 ib. ib. 930 931 ib. ib. ib. ib. 932 ib 933 ib. XXAviil ANALYTICAL, OR L.V. BRITISH CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. Col. Progress of the Constitution .. .. 933 Law . . . . ib. Government generally founded on usurped Power .. .. . . ib. 'Hereditary Governors 934 Statute. Law ib. Common- Law ib. Equity ib. Justinian Code .. .. .. .. ib. Government of England, Legislative and Executive 935 Free Parts of the Constitution .. .. ib. The Constitution one of Property and Money ib. Royal titles ib. Household of the Sovereign of England 936 Royal Establishments .. .. .. ib. Privy Councillors and their Emoluments ib. Law Officers of the Crown .. .. ib. Executive Government 937 The Administration or Cabinet . . ib. Their Salaries ib. Treasury 93S Admiralty .. .. .. .. ib. War-office ... ib. Navy- office, &c. .. .. .. . . ib. The longest Administration since the Accession of George III ib. Peerage and Rank . . . . . . ib. Herald’s College .. .. .. .. ib. House of Lords ib. Creation of Peers . . . . . . ib. Irish Peers .. .. .. .. ib. Business of the House of Peers .. ib. Court of Appeal 939 Baronets ib. Orders of. Knighthood ib. House of Commons .. .. .. ib. Earliest Parliamentary Records .. 940 Constitution of the House .. .. ib. The Speaker ib. Reform Act ib. Duration of Parliament ib. The Septennial Act ib. Longest Sessions ib. Constitution of the House of Commons, under the Reform Act .. .. 941 Number of Electors ib. — Parliaments in each Reign 942 Adjournment, Prorogation, and Disso- lution of Parliament .. .. .. ib. Mode of conducting a Bill through Par- liament ib. The Chiltern Hundreds . . . . ib. Saxon Parliaments .. . . .. 943 £50 Tenantry’s and Freemen’s Votes . . ib. Expenses of the Registration of Electors ib. Law-Books and Authorities .. . . ib. Statistical Surveys of England .. .. 944 Domesday-Book ib. Magna Chart a 945 The Language of Charters and Records ib. Indexes, Digests, and Abridgments of Law ib. Statutes at Large 946 American Digest of the Laws .. ... ib. Acts of Union .. ib. Habeas Corpus ib. PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Proportion of Acquittals to Commit- ments .. .. 946 Major Cartwright, the Reformer . . 947 Chartist Petition .. .. ... ib. Law and Lawyers .. .. . . ib. The Temple . . .. .. .. ib. Court of Chancery .. .. ib. The Judges, and Courts of Law .. 948 Juries .. .. .. .. .. ib. Sheriff’s Court ib. Law-courts of Scotland .. .. ib. Torture in England ib. Ancient Local Courts for the Trial of Civil Causes 949 Circuits of the Judges ib. Terms ib. Criminal Law 950 Apprehension, Committal, Trial, and Sentence .. .. .. .. ib. Insane Prisoners .. .. .. .. ib. Crime in 1837 ib Proportion of Commitments and Con- victions .. .. . . .. .. ib. Capital Punishments ib. Various Statistics of Crime .. .. 951 Causes of Crime ib. Convicts in New South Wales and the Penitentiary ib. Juvenile Convicts at Parkhurst 952 The G allies ib. Topographical ib. Number of Counties and Parishes in the United Kingdom ib. Distances of Towns from London . . ib. Hundreds, &c. .. 953 Comparative Extent of England and other Nations .. .. .. .. ib. Abolition of Imprisonment for Debt on the first Process ib. Corporate Towns ; their Government, Income, and Expenditure .. .. ib. Criminal Jurisprudence in Germany .. 954 Law of Primogeniture ib. The Posse Comitaius . . . . . . ib. London Police .. .. .. ib. English Champions of Civil Liberty . . 955 Best Histories of England .. .. 955 Forms of Government of the States of Europe ib. LVI. NAVAL AND MILITARY. Roman Army . . 957 Greek Phalanx ib. No Standing-Armies, in time of Peace, with the Greeks or Romans .. .. ib. Battering-rams .. ib. The Balista ib. The Catapulla .. .. .. .. ib. Ancient Armour 958 The English Long-bow .. .. •• ib. English Regiments ib. British Garrisons 959 Corps of Engineers and Royal Artillery ib. Price of Commissions .. .. .. ib. The Ordnance .. ib. Cannon .. .. 960 Mortars ib. Shells .. .. .. . . . . ib. Rifle- barrels ib. Perkins’ Steam-artillery .. .. ib. ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Armies of different Nat ions in 1838 .. 960 The British Army in 1839 .. .. 9 > 1 Naval and Military Statistics .. .. ib. Militia 932 Gunpowder Dep&ts .. . . ib. Floating-batteries used at Gibraltar .. ib. War and Glory ! 963 Expense of War ib. Victory 964 Battle of Waterloo .. .. .. ib. Chelsea and Greenwich Hospitals .. ib. Pensions for Wounds ib. Progress of the English Navy from the Time of Henry VIII 965 Steam-frigates 966 Navies of different Nations .. .. ib. Demand of Timber for the Navy . . ib. Impressment ib. Enlisting .. 967 Smart Money .. „ ib. Naval Signals ib. Durations of Ships ib. English Navy Dock-yards . . . . ib. LVII. THE ANCIENT MYTHOLOGY. Absurdity of the Ancient Mythology .. 967 The Types of Gods and Goddesses were real Personages .. .. ib. Basis of the System probably laid by Taautus, in conferring the Sacerdotal Character on Cronus and his Family 968 The Naming of Planets after the same Personages probably an Auxiliary .. ib. Consequent Growth of the Greek My- thology ib. Earliest Records ib. Mythology and the Priesthood .. .. ib. Hieroglyphics . . ib. Modern Theorists ib. The Gods were Inventors, and Benefac- tors of Society, consecrated after Death 969 Taautus reduced the Whole to a State- Religion .. .. ib Jupiter ib. Abdication of Cronus, and its Conse- quences ..ib. The Titans, or Aletse 970 The Titan War ib. Belus and Babylon .. .. .. ib Astrology .. . . ib. Family of Cronus 971 Gods and Goddesses .. .. .. 972 Dr. Young on Hieroglyphics .. .. 973 Temple of Neith ib. Transformations of Greek Mythology .. 974 LVII I. ANCIENT HISTORY. Monuments of Stone the earliest Records 9/5 Hieroglyphics — Written Language .. ib. Taautus .. .. ib. Euclid ib. Originality 9, '6 Nationality inimical to the Perfection of General History ib. Destruction ot Records by War, &c. . . ib. Geology explains what Fables mysiify ib. Geographical Ignorance of the Ancients 977 Ancient History mystified 1 y the Greeks and Romans ib. xxxU c.»t Egyptian Kings 9 77 Old Egyptian Chronicle 978 Chronology and Facts of the ancient Writers ib. Geology supports the Claims to Anti- quity of the Chinese, Japanese, Hin- doos, and Chaldeans ib. The “ beginning ” of Moses . . . . ib. Obliquity of the Ecliptic, as connected with Chronology 979 The Editor’s Theory in relation to the Deluge ib. Traditions of a Deluge universal .. ib. The Tablet of Abydos .. .. .. 980 Concurrence of IVIanetho, Josephus, the Parian Chronicle, and the Hierogly.. phics .. .. .. .. ib. Length of the Egyptian Year .. .. ib. Aquarius began the Year when the Zo- diac was invented .. .. .. ib. Hindoo and Chinese Claims to Antiquity 981 The first Western Empire .. .. 982 The Phoenicians .. .. .. .. ib. Sanchoniatho and Moses . . . . ib. Ancient Historians ; Eusebius, Philo of Byblos, Manetho, Porphyry. Julius Africanus, G. Syncellus, Sanchoniatho 983 Invention & Progress of the useful Arts ib. Circumcision practised by the Egyptians and Asiatics .. .. .. .. 985 Ruin of Phoenicia .. .. .. ib. Jewish History 986 Abraham .. .. ib. The Jews said, by Diodorus, to have been originally Egyptians, driven away from their Country, owing to their being diseased ib. Jewish Scriptures . . .. .. .. ib. Ezra ib. Jewish Chronology 987 Discordance between Josephus and the Exodus .. .. 988 Jewish Governors in Egypt .. .. ib. Moses ib. Passage of the Red Sea ib. Egyptian History .. .. . . 989 Egypt a Colony from Ethiopia .. .. ib. Ancient Cities .. .. .. .. ib. Early Civilization of Ethiopia .. .. ib. Pyramids and Hieroglyphics .. .. ib. Researches of B.elzoni ib. The Sphynx .. .. .. .. ib. Colossal Antiquities of Thebes . . . . 990 Pharoah i,b. Zodiac of Dendera .. .. .. ib. Astronomical Emblems ib. Theory of Hieroglyphics .. . . ib. Decline of Egypt .. .. a . .. 991 Asiatic History .. .. .. .. ib. The Assyrian Empire .. e .» . . ib. Chaldean Dynasties ■. .. .. ib. The Flood 992 Tower of Belus .. 993 Babylon .. .. .. .. .. ib. Persians and Medes 994 Persian Historians and Writers .. ib. The Zendavesta 995 The Lombards .. ib. The Sclavonic Tribe .. .. .. ib. Scandinavia. ib* xl ANALYTIC AT, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. C< 1. Spain 996 Arabic History .. .. .. .. ib. Foundation of the Mogul Empire by Mahmud ib. The Persian Empire .. .. . . ib. Chinese History 997 Carthage — Cyrene ib. Russia ib. France .. .. .. .. ..ib Historical Notes and Abstracts .. 998 Table of Comparative Chronology of British, French , and German Mo - narchs, from 800 to 1S37 .. .. 999 LVIII. BIOGRAPHY. Original Minds 8f fundamental Dates 1003 Aaron ib. Abbas .. .. .. .. .. ib. Abderama ib. Abdul Wahab ib. Abelard .. .. .. .. ib Abubeker 1004 Abulfeda ib. Achilles ib. Adanson .. . . . . .. ib. Addison ib. Adelung .. .. .. . . „. ib. Adrian IV. .. .. .. .. ib. iEsop 1005 JEschylus ib. Agamemnon ib. Agis ib. Agrippa . . .. .. .. ib. Agrippina ib. Aguesi .. .. .. .. .. ib. Aiken .. .. .. .. .. ib. Akbah ib. Akenside .. . . .. .. ib. Alaric ib. Albertus Magnus ib. Alcibiades .. -- .. .. ib. Alcuin .. .. .. .. -. ib. Alexanders, The ib. Alexander the Great .. . . .. 1006 Alexander, Emperor of Russia .. ib. Alexander VI., Pope ib. Alfieri .. ib. Alfred .. jr ib. Ali ib. Almamon ib. Alorus . ib. Alphonsus .. 1007 Alva ib. Ambrose .. ib. Ambrosius .. -- «. .. ib. Amenophis .. ib. Ammon ib. Amphictyon -- •• •• -* ib. Amru -- ib. Amurath I. - •• ib. Anacreon ib. Anacharsis .. -• *• ib. Anaxagoras •• «.• •• ib. Anaximander .. . . ■» •• ib. Anaximenes 1008 Anello .. .. ib. Anthony .. ib. Antigonus ib. Antiochus ib. Antoninus .. .. •• •• ib. ill Apellioo ,008 Apelles ib. Apicius .. . . ib. Apollonius .. . . .. .. ib. Aquinas .. ib. Aratus 1009 Archimedes .. .. .. .. ib. Aretino, Inventor of the present Musi- cal Notation ib. Ariosto ib. Aristides .. .. .. .. .. ib. Aristophanes .. .. .. .. ib. Aristarchus .. .. .. .. ib. Aristotle, Founder of the School of the Peripatetics ib. — First Principle of Motion . „ . . ib. — Five Rules of Conception . . .. ib. Arius 1010 Arkwright ib. Arminius .. .. .. ib. Arne ib. Arrian .. .. .. .. . . ib. Artaxerxes . . . . .. .. ib. Arthur, — the Round-Table .■ .. ib. Athenaeus .. .. _ ib. Ataliba 1011 A thanasius ib. Attila .. ib. Augustus .. .. .. .. ib. Augustine ib. Aurengzebe ib. Austin . . .. „ . .. .. ib. Avicenna. ib. Averroes .. .. .. .. .. ib. Bacon ib. — Fined and banished for taking Bribes ib. — His Superstition ib. — Inductive Philosophy . . . . ib. Roger Bacon .. 1012 Badly ib. Bajazet ib. Barton .. .. .. .. ib. Barbarossa .. .. .. .. ib. Bayle ib. Bayard 1013 Beaufort .. .. .. .. .. ib. Beaton .. .. .. .. .. ib. Becket ib. Beccaria .. . . ib. Bede .. ib. Bedford .. ib. Beethoven .. ib. Behmen .. .. .. .. .. ib. Belisarius ib. Belsham .. .. .. .. .. ib. Benedict ib. Berenice il\ Bergman ibv Berkeley — Ideality of Matter l .. ib, Berosus .. .. .. .. .. ib. Berthollet 1014 Berwick ib. Bernard .. .. .. .. .. ib. Berthold, Inventor of Gunpowder .. ih. Bernouilli .. .. .. .. ib. Bickerstaff ib, Bichat .. ib, Bilderdijk .. .. .. .. ib. Billaud ih. ANALYTICAL, Black •• Blackstone Blake, Admiral .. Boadicea . . .. .. .. Boccacio Bode Bodley Boerhaave . „ .» Boethius Boileau .. Boleslaus Bolingbroke Bolivar .. Bonilace Bossuet Boscovish .. . . Boyle, Founder of the Royal Society Bramah .. Bradshaw Tycho Brahe Brennus & Belinus Breughels Briggs Brissot Brooke Browne .. Bruce, Robert Bruce, the African Traveller -- Bruno Brutus Bryant Buchanan Buckhold Buff on Bullen . Bunyan .. Buonarotti Burke , Edmund Burns Burnets .. Butler, Author of Hudibras .. Buxton Buxtorf Byron , Lord Cabot Cadmus .. Cadwalader Ccesar , Julius . . Calvin, a religious Persecutor Camden Camoens Camillus . . Canova Canning .. Caraccis .. .. Carolan . . Caradawg.. .. Carnot Cartwright Cardan Cassinis « Cassius .. .. , . Castlereagh . . .* Caswallawn .. .. Castor Caxton Catherine de Medicis .. Cato .. Catherine OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. xli C ol. 1014 ib. ib. ib. 1015 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1016 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1017 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 101S ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1019 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1020 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1021 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. Col Cavendish, the Chemist .. .. 1022 Cecil ib Celsus ih Cervantes . ib Champollion . . .. .. .. ib Charles V. .. .. .. ib Charlemagne .. .. .. .. ib, Charles Martel .. ; lb. Charles XII ib. Chaucer .. .. .. .. ib. Chatterton .. .. . . .. ib Chiron .. «. 1023 Cbillingworth ib. Christina .. .. .. .. .. ib. Chrysostom .. .. .. .. ib Chubb .. .. .. .. .. ib. Churchill , . .. ib, Cibber .. .. ib. Cicero . . .. .. .. . . ib Cincinnatus .. .. .. .. ib. Clarke .. .. . . .. .. ib. Claude .. .. .. .. .. ib. Clarendon ib. Cleopatra .. .. .. ib. Clive 1024 Clovis ib. Coke .. . . ib. Columbus .. .. .. .. ib. Collins .. ib. Colbert ib. Confucius, his Philosophy and Religion ib. Condorcet 1025 Conde .. .. lb. Congreve ib. Constantine the Great . . . . . . ib. Cook, Captain %. . , . . . . ib. Cooper .. .. . . . . ib. Copernicus .. 1023 Corregio .. .. .. .. .. ib. Cortes .. .. .. .. .. ib. Corelli ib. Coriolanus .. . . .. .. ib. Coster .. .. .. .. ib. Corneille ib. Coulomb .. . . .. .. .. ib. Cowper . . .. .. .. .. ib. Cranmer .. .. .. .. ib. Crebillon 1027 Crichton ib. Croesus .. . . . . -- .. ib. Oliver Cromwell , Protector of England ib Ctesebius 1028 Cuddworth .. .. .. .. ib. Cuvier .. . . . . .. .. ib. Cyrus .. .. .. .. .. ib. Cyril ib. D’Alembert ib. Dante .. .. ib. Danton .. .. .. .. .. ib. Darwin . . .. . . _ . *. ib. David ib. Davy , Sir Humphrey ib. Dee 102S Defoe ib. Delambre ib. Delille .. .. .. .. .. ib. Democritus .. ib. Demosthenes .. .a .. .. ih. Descartes .. ih xlii ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Re Witt Diderot .. Dido Diodorus Diogenes Daedalus Dominichino Douw Drake Dryden “ Ducis Eorissa, an Arabian Geographer Edwards (Kings of England) Edward the Confessor Egbert • . Eichhorn Elisha .. .. Elijah Elizabeth, Queen Emerson Empedocles Epaminondas Epictetus Epicurus Erasmus Erskine - Euclid Eugene Euler Eusebius Evelyn Eyck Co'. 1029 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1030 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1031 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. Col. Garrick 1035 Gassendi .. .. .. .. , . ib. Gaudon ib. Gay ib. Genghis Khan ib. George (St.), Patron. saint of England 1036 Gibbon .. „ ib. Gifford ib. Gilbert ib. Glanvil ib. Glauber .. ... ib. Glendower .. ib. Glover ib. Godfrey .. .. . . . . .. ib. Godolphin ... .. «. .. ib. Godwin .. .. ... .. .. ib. Goldsmith V, .. .. ib. Gordon .. .. •- .. .. ib. Gracchi, The .. .. .. ib. Grammont .. .. .. 1037 Graves .. .. ib. Gray . . ib. Grey, Lady Jane .. .. .. ib. Graevius .. .. ib. Gronovius ib. Gregory ib. Gresham ib. Grotius .. .. ib. Guido .. ib Guillotine .. .. .. .. ib. Gustavus Vasa ib. Guy ib. Guyton Morveau ib. Fabii .. .r ib. Fairfax .. ib. Faust ib. Ferdusi ib Fenelon 1032 Ferguson .. .. .. .. . . ib. Fermat .. .. ib. Fielding ib. Fingal ib. Fisher ib. Flammel, Nicholas .. .. .. ib. Flamsteed ib. Flaxman .. ib. Fletcher ib. Fleury 1033 Fontanella ib. Fontaine ib. Font anas ib. Fontenelle .. .. .. .. ib. Foote . . ib. Forster ib. Fourcroy ib. Fox ib. Francis I. .. .. <« .. ib. Franklin .. .. ** .. ib. Frederick II ib. Froissart .. .. .. . . .. ib. Fulton .. .» ib. Galileo, the Founder of Mechanical Philosophy ib. — His Astronomy and Persecution .. ib. Galen 1035 Galvani ib. Gama ib. Gardiner ib. Hafiz . . ib. Hale ib. Halley ib. Hampton .. .. 1038 Handel ib. Hannibal ib. Hanway .. ib. Harris ib. Harrison ib. Harvey .. .. ib. Harg reave ib. Hastings .. ib. Hawkesworth ib. Haydn ib. Hayley ib. Helena ib. Helve tius ib. Henrys (Kings of England) .. .. ib. Herod 1039 Herodotus .. . „ .. . . ib. Herschel r Sir William ib. Hesiod ib. Hevelius ib. Heyne .. .. 1040 Hipparchus .. .. .. .. ib. Hiram .. .. .. . .. ib. Hobbes „. .. ib. Hogarth .. .. ib, Holcroft .« .. .. .. ib. Hollar ib. Holt .. ib. Home .. .. ib. Homer ib. Horace ib. Howard .. .. ib. Hume .. r ibc ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Hunter 1010 Huss ib. Hutton ib. Isaiah .. ib. Janson 1041 Jefferson .. ib. Jephtha .. . . .. .. . - ib. Joan of Arc ib. King John , — Magna C/iarla . . . . ib. Joost ib. Josephus 1042 Jussieus .. ib. Kant — H is Metaphysical Doctrines . . ib. Lacepede .. ib. La Grange .. ib. Lanjuinais .. ib. La Place .. ib. Le Sage ib. Leake 1043 Leibnitz ib. Leucippus ib. Livy ib. Locke ib. Louis XVI . — French Revolution .. ib. Lucretius 1044 Luther , Martin ib. Macauley ib. Machiavel ib. Macpherson >■ ib. Mahmood .. .. .. ib. Mahommed .. .. .. - • 1045 Madame de Maintenon .. .. ib. Mandeville ib. Manichaeus ib. Manley ib. Mansfield .. ib. Marat ib. Maratti ib. Marie Antoinette .. .. .. 1046 Marius ib. Marmontel ib. Mark Anthony ib. Martin ib. Marvel . ib. Mary, Queen of Scots ib. Masham i. 1047 Massena .. ib. Massillon ,, ib. Massinger .. ib. Maupertuis ib. Maurice ib. Mayow . . . ib. Mazarin * ib. Mead .. .. .. . . .. ib. Medici ib. Melancthon „ «. ib. Melmoth .. 1048 Menage •• ib. Mendelsohn ib. Menschikoff ib. Metastasio .. .. - ■ .. ib. Meyer .. .. ib. Middleton .. .. .. .. ib. Mieris .. .. ib. Millar ib. Milton, John .. ib. xliil Col. Miranda 1049 Mirabeau.. .. .. .. .. ib. Moliere .. .. ib. Monk .. ib. Montagu ib. Montaigne ib. Montecuculi ib. Montezuma .. . . .. .. ib. Moore .. .. .. .. .. ib. Moreau 1050 Morosini .. . . ib. Moses — Excellence of his Provisions for the Poor . . . . . . . . ib. Mozart .. .. * c -- ib. Murillo ... .. it .. ib. Murphy .. ib. Murat «.i «. ib. Myrddins.. .. .. .. ib. Nadir Shah ib. Napier, Inventor of Logarithms — Cal- culated by Briggs 1051 Napoleon Buonaparte ib. — His Military Successes .. .. ib. — Made First Consul .. .. .. ib. — His unparalleled Triumphs against the Confederacy of old Govern- ments ib — His Retreat from Moscow .. .. ib. — Retirement to Elba ib. — Advance to Paris .. .. .. ib. — Battle of Waterloo 1052 — Surrender to the English . . . . ib. — Death at St Helena ib. — King- making ib. Nash, Beau ib. Nayler ib. Nearchus ib. Necker .. .. ib. Nelson ib. Newton , Sir Isaac . . . . . . ib. — Theory of Light ib. — Method of Fluxions ib. — Principiae ib. Ney — Conduct of Wellington .. .. 1053 Nizam ib. Noah .. .. .. .. .. ib. North ib. Nostradamus ib. Oates ib. Ocellus ib. Oldcastle ib. Omar ib. Origen 1054 Orleans ib. Orpheus .. ib. Ossian .. ib. Ostade .. ib. Oswald .. . . ib. Osymondyas ib. Otway .. .. ib. Ovid ib. Paine — H is Political and Theological Works ib. Paisiello 1055 Paley ib. Palladio .. .. .. .. .. ib. Panckoucke ib. Xliv ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Panthera 1055 Paoli ib. Papin ib. Paracelsus ib. Parkinson .. .. .. .. ib. Parker .. ib. Parmegiano . , .. .. .. ib Parr . . . . . . . . . . ib. Parr, Thomas — Remarkable Instance of Longevity ib. Pascal 1056 Patrick (St.) ib. Paul, Father .. ib. Pennant .. .. p ib. Percival .. ib. Pericles ib. Penn — Prosecution for preaching against the Church ib. — Founder of Pennsylvania .. .. ib. Perrault .. ib. Peter the Great 1057 Petrarch ib. Petty ib. Phidias ib. Philibert ib. Philo ib. Pichegru ib. Picus 1058 Pilpay ib. Pindar ib. Pitt, William ib. Pius VI ib. Pizarro .. .. ib. Plato ib. Playfair 1059 Pliny ib. Plutarch ib. Polybius ib. Pomfret ib. Pompadour ib. Pope .. ib. Porphyry ib. Porson .. ib. Porta ib. Porteus 1060 Potter ib. Poussin ib. Pratt ib. Prevost ib. Price . . ib. Priestly — His House and Library burnt by a Church-and-King Mob .. ib. Ptolemy .. ib. Purcell ib. Pyrrho .. ib. Pyrrhus ib. Pythagoras ,.1061 Pythius «- ib. Quintilian .. ib. Rabelais ib. Racine ib. Raleigh ib. Rameau ib. Ramsay . . ib. Rapin .. .. .. .. .. ib. Raphael 1062 Raynal .. .. ib. Rayhib ib. Reaumer.. .. Rembrandt Reynolds Richard I. Richard II Richard III Richardson Richelieu.. Ridley Rienzi Ritson Rizzio Robertson Robespierre Robin Hood Robinson .. .. Rodney .. Roland .. Rooke Rosa Rousseau .. ., Rowe Rubens Rumford Russell Russell , Lord William Sabatia Sacheverel Sackville . . Sadi .. .r Saladin Sallust .. Sappho .. Saunderson Saville Saxe Scaliger .. .. Schiller Schomberg .. . . .. . . Scipio Scott, Sir Walter Selden .. Seneca Seymour .. .. Servetus — Prosecuted by Calvin and burnt to death Sevigne .. Sforza .. Shaftesbury Shakespeare Sharp Sheridan Shippen .. .. Sidney Silius Italicus Simon (St.) ' S xtus V. .. Sloane Smith , Adam Smollett .. Socinus Socrates Solon Sophocles Southcote , Johannah Sosenes Spenser Spinosa Stael .. .. .. Col. 1052 ib. ib. ib. ib. 1063 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1064 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1065 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1066 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1067 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1068 ib. ib. ib. ib. 1069 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 1070 ib. ib. ib, ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. :o;i ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Steele 1071 Stephenses, The— Division of the Lew Testament into verses .. . . ib. Sterne ib. Strabo .. .. .. .. .. ib. Strafford .. .. .. .. .. ib. Struensee .. .. .. . „ ib. Stylites . . . . ib. Suetonius ... .. .. .. ib. Swedenborg ib. Swift 1072 Sylla ib. Tacitus .. .. .. .. ib. Taliesen .. .. .. .. .. ib. Tarquin .. .. .. .. .. ib. Taylor .. ib. Tell , William ib. Teniers . . . . . . . . . . ib. Terence . . . . . . . . ib. Tertullian .. .. .. .. ib. Thales .. .. .. „ .. ib. Thomson 1073 Trajan ib. Tromp, Van ib. Turenne .. .. .. .. .. ib. Turner ib. Turpin .. .. . .. .. ib. Tusser .. .. ib. Tyndale ib. Tyrrell ib Tyrtaeus ib. Tytlers ib. Ubaldino 1074 Ulloa ib. Ulugh Bey .. .. .. .. ib. Usher ib. Ustariz .. ib. Vaillant .. ib. Vaiaze ib. Valderveldes .. ib. Valentine.. . . .. .. .. ib. Vallency .. .. ib. Valmiki .. .. .. .. .. ib. Vanbrugh .. ib. Vanderwerf .. .. .. .. ib. Vandyck .. .. ib. Vane .. .. .. .. .. ib. Van-Goyen ib. Vanini, burnt alive on a charge of atheism .. .. .. . . ib. Valnoo ... .. 1075 Varro .. .. ib. Vasari .. .* .. .. . . ib. Vat tel ib. Vauban ib. Vega ib. Velasquez ib. Vernon ib. Vespasian .. .. .. .. ib. Vespucius . . . . . . . . ib. Vida ib. Villars ib. Villiers .. .. ib. Vinci ib. Virgil « .. .. ib. Vishnoo-Sarma ib. Vitruvius ib. xlv Col. Volney 1075 Volta 1070 Voltaire ib. Vossius . . . . .. .. ib. Wainfi.ete ib. Wakefield ib. Walker .. .. .. .. .. ib. Wallace . .. ib. Waller ib Wallis ib. Walpole .. .. .. . . .. ib. Walsingham .. ib. Walton . .. ib. Warburton ib. Warton .. .. ib. Washington .. .. .. ib. Watson 1077 Watt ib. Watts ib. Weber ib. Wentworth .. .. .. .. ib. Werner .. .. .. .. .. ib. Wesley ib. West ib. Whiston .. . ib. Whitfield .. .. .. .. ib. Whittington ib. Wickliffe ib. WIeland .. .. .. .. ib. Wilkes ib. William I ib. William III 1078 William of Nassau .. .. .. ib. Wilson .. .. .. .. ib. Winckelmann .. .. .. .. ib. Wishart ib. Wittikind ib. Woden .. .. ib. Wolcot .. .. .. .. .. ib. Wolfe ib. Wolfius ib. Wolsey .. .. .. .. .. ib. Wollaston .. .. .. .. ib. Woodville 1079 Wren ib. Wykeham ib. Xenocrates ib. Xenophon .. .. .. .. ib. Xisuthrus .. ib. Youmg ib. Zeno 1080 Zenobia .. .. ib. Zeuxis .. ib. Zingis-Khan ib. Zoroaster .. ib. London disgraced by Public Statues of worthless, or very questionable cha- racters .. .. .. .. .. ib, LIX. THEOLOGICAL STATISTICS. Archbishoprics and Bishoprics of the Anglican Church 1081 Canterbury ib. York ib. London „ it> ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. xlvi Col. Durham 1081 Winchester .. .. .. .. ib. Bangor ib. Bath and Wells .. .. ib. Carlisle . ib. Chichester JU, ib. Ely ib. Exeter .. ib. Gloucester and Bristol m m ib. Hereford m ib. Lichfield ib. Lincoln ib. Llandaff ib. Norwich ib. Oxford ib. Peterborough .. ib. Ripon .. ib. Rochester ib. Salisbury ib. St. Asaph ib. St. David’s ib. Worcester . . ib. Sodor and Man ib. Collegiate Chapters 1082 Revenues of the Established Church of England and Wales .. ib. Benefices with Cure of Souls . . . . ib. Number under annual value of £50 ib. — ,£50, and under £100 m m ib. _ 100 150 .. mm ib. — 150 200 .. m m ib. - 200 300 .. m m ib. — 300 400 .. m . ib. - 400 500 .. ib. — 500 „ 600 .. . . ib. _ 600 700 .. ib. - 700 800 .. . . ib. — 800 900 .. ib. — 900 1000 .. . . _ ib. — 1000 1500 .. m m ib. — 1500 2000 .. . . ib. — 2000 and upwards . . ib. Archbishoprics and Bishoprics of the Irish Church • m mm 10S3 Armagh, Income of .. ib. Dublin .. ib. Meath .. ib. Kildare ib. Cashel, &c. ib. Cork, &c. ib. Clogher ib. Derry .. ib. Down .. ib. Dromore ib. Elphin .. ib. Limerick, &c. . . • • . . . . ib. Killaloe, &c. .. ib. Kilmore ib. Ossory, &c. ib. Tuam, &c. a. . . ib. Scottish Episcopal Church Sees ib. Bishoprics of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States ib. Colonial Bishops ib. Price of Stamp for Presentation to a Living .. ib. *- to any other Benefice .. ib. Homage-fees of Bishops on Consecra- tion 1083 — of Archbishops ib. Fees of First-fruits ib. Colleges and Public Schools .. .. ib. Endowed Grammar-schools in England and Wales .. ib. Number of Members at the University of Oxford, in 1839 ib. — of the Convocation . . . . . . ib. — at the University of Cambridge, 1 839 ib.* — of the Senate.. ib. Extent of Property applicable to Cha- ritable Purposes, on which the Com - missioners have completed their Inquiries 1084 Income for Education, and other Cha- ritable Purposes, in the County of Bedford ib. Buckingham ib. Cornwall ib. Cumberland ib. Derby ib. Devon ib. Gloucester ib. Hereford ib. Hertford mm ib. Huntingdon ib. Lancaster . . ib. Monmouth ib. Norfolk ib. Northumberland ib. Nottingham ib. Oxford ib. Rutland ib. Salop .. .. .. .. . . ib. Somerset ib. Stafford ib. Suffolk ib. Warwick ib. Westmoreland ib. Wilts .. .. ib. Worcester ib. York .. ib. Societies, and Charitable Institutions, in connexion with the Established Church ib. Date of their establishment .. .. ib. Orders in Council for fixing the future Annual Payments to be made, from certain larger Sees, towards the Augmentation of the smaller .. ib. Lichfield .. ib. Chichester 1085 Oxford ib. Hereford .. ib. Peterborough ib. Carlisle and Chester ib. Lincoln . . ib. Exeter ib. St. Asaph and Bangor .. .. ib. St. David’s ib. Llandaff .. . .. .. ib. Manchester 1086 Stamp-duty on Marriage Certificates ib. Registrar-general of Births , Deaths, and Marriages ib. Country divided into Districts ib. Number of Registrars employed , • ib. xlvii ANALYTICAL, OR PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col. Number of Registries entered . . 1086 Certified Copies deposited at the Ge- neral Registrar Office .. .. ib. Number of Births, of Males and Fe- males, registered, designating each Quarter ib. Deaths registered in the first Year .. 1087 Mr. Fmlayson’s Estimate of Deaths .. ib. — his Communication to the Registrar- general .. .. .. .. ib. Per-centage Proportion of Deaths by Small-pox ib. — by Typhus .. .. .. .. ib. — by Phthisis ib. Number of Deaths by Scarlatina .. ib. — by Hooping-cough .. .. . . ib. — by Measles ib. — by Small-pox .. .. .. .. ib. Supposed Numberof Deaths, by Small- Pox, from not being Vaccinated .. ib. Expenses of Ecclesiastical Establish- ments in the Colonies .. .. ib. Church of England .. .. .. ib. — Scotland, &c. ib. — Rome ib. Humber of Churches compared with Population ib. Chester ib. London ib. Durham ib. Lichfield ib. Winchester ib. Exeter ib. Gloucester .. ib. Bath and Wells ib. Salisbury ib. Chichester ib. Number of Subscription Societies .. ib. Income of the Church Missionary .. ib. — of the Baptist .. .. .. ib. — of the London ib. — of the Wesleyan ib. — of Others . . .. .. .. ib. — of the Christian Knowledge Society ib. — of the Propagation of the Gospel . . ib. — of the Religious Tract .. .. ib. — of the Pastoral Aid .. .. .. ib. — of the Sunday-School Union .. ib. — of the British and Foreign Bible Society .. ib. — of the Hibernian ib. — - of the Children’s Friend .. .. ib. — of the British and Foreign School ib. Number of Marriages Solemnized in Roman Catholic Chapels and Pro- testant Dissenting Places of Wor- ship , in England and Wales , from Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 1838 . . .. 1088 In Roman Catholic Chapels .. .. ib. In the following Protestant Dissenting Places of Worship : — Baptists .. .. .. .. .. ib. Ditto (General) ib. Ditto (Particular) .. .. .. ib. Ditto (Scotch) ib. Berean Universalists ib. Bible Christians ib. Cowardites ib. Independents .. .. .. .. ib. Ditto (Welch) ib. Col. Lady Huntingdon’s Connexion .. 1088 Lutheran Church .. .. .. ib. Methodists ib. Ditto (Primitive) .. .. ib. Ditto (New ConnexiQn) .. ib. D tto (Independent) ib. Ditto (Calvinistic) ib. Ditto (Episcopal) ib. New Jerusalem Church of .. .. ib. Presbyterians ib. Relief Church ib. Secession Church ib. Southcottians ib. Swedenborgians .. ib. Unitarians .. .. .. .. ib. Undefined ib. Scotland, Church of ib. Number of Children educated in Eng- land and Wales, bp Voluntary Sub- scription, exhibiting the Proportion supported by the Dissenting Interest ib. In the County of Bedford .. .. ib. — Berks .. ib. — Buckingham ib. — Cambridge,. .. .. .. ib. — Chester .. ib. — Cornwall ib. — Cumberland ib. — Derby ib. — Devon ib. — Dorset ib. — Durham ib. — Essex ib. — Gloucester ib. — Hereford ib. — Hertford ib. — Huntingdon ib. — Kent .. .. .. .. ib. — Lancaster ib. — Leicester .. ib. — Lincoln ib. — Middlesex .. .. .. .. ib. — Monmouth ib. — Norfolk ib. — Northampton ib. — Northumberland .. .. .. 1089 — Nottingham .. .. .. ib. — Oxford ib. — Rutland .. ib. — Salop r. ib. — Somerset .. .. .. .. ib. — Southampton .. .. .. ib. — Stafford .. .. .. ib. — Suffolk ib. — Surrey .. .. .. -• ib. — Sussex ib. — Warwick ib. — Westmoreland ib. — Wilts ib. — Worcester ib. — York— East Riding .. .. ib. City and Ainsty .. .. ib. North Riding .. .. ib. West Riding .. .. ib. When Benefices began 1089 The Number in England and Wales ib. Number of Chapelries not Parochial ib. — New Churches and Chapels erected under Church-building Acts .. ib. — Irish Benefices .. .. ib. Xlviii ANALYTICAL, OR 1 Col. Number of Established Churches in England .. 1089 *- Protestant Dissenters . . . . ib. — Roman Catholics ib. Church. yards first consecrated .. ib. Councils , when first began . - . . ib. Numbers professing Christian. 1 fy, by Malte-Brun, Hassel, and Balbi .. 1090 — Judaism ib. — Mahometanism ib. — Brahmanism .. .. . . .. ib. Buddhism ib. All others ib. Numbers by another Estimate ib. List of the various Religious Orders , Sects , fyc. ib. Albigenses, Date of Origin of the . . ib. Anabaptists, began .. .. .. ib. Antinionian sect .. .. .. ib. Arian sect . . ib. Armenian ib. Augustines ... ib. Capuchins «. ib. Cardinals .. .. .. .. ib. Carmelites .. 1091 Carthusians ib. Dominicans ib. Dissenters ib. Franciscans .. .. .. .. ib. Grey Friars .. ib. Hugonots ib. Hutchinsonians ib. Independents .. ib. Jesuans .. .. ... .. .. ib. Kirk of Scotland ib. Lollards.. .. ib. Lutherans .. .. .. .. ib. Methodism .. .. .. „. ib. Monks, first associated ib. Moravians ib. Protestants ib. Puritans » .. ib. Quakers .. .. .. .. .. ib. Trappists ib. Trinitarians ib. Unitarians ib. Ursulines .. .. .. .. ib. PROSPECTIVE INDEX. Col Superstitions and Impostors .. .. 1091 Inquisition in Spain.— Number of Vic- tims , , under 45 Inquisitors -general, between \\H>\ and 1808 .. .. ib. LX. RECENT MISCELLANEOUS FACTS. Fluctuation of the Cotton Trade .. 1093 Affected by Monetary Operations .. ib. Exports of Yarn in 1839 .. .. ib. — in 1838 ib. — Calicoes in 1839 ib. Trade of France in 1838 .. .. ib. Increase, in 1837, over 1836 .. .. ib. French Exports of Cottons and Wool- lens . . ib. French Exports and Imports in 1838 ib. Trade of United States .. .. ib. — of England .. ib. Surprising Fall of Meteors .. .. ib. — at Breslau ib. Shooting-stars ib. Daguerre’s Discovery .. .. . . ib. Improvements thereon . „ .. .. ib. Meeting of Annual Scientific British Association at Birmingham . . ib. Schoenbein’s Discovery of Property of Iren ib. Hawkins’ Experiments thereon .. ib. — Effects of ib. Commercial Transactions affected . . 1 094 Stoppage of United States Bank .. ib. Comparison between American Banks and English Banks .. ■ .. ib. Anthracite Coal .. ib, — its abundance in South Wales . . ib. — its qualities ib. Playfair’s Patent Furnace .. .. ib. New Postage Law ib. Various Weights of Paper .. .. ib. Ordinary Weight of Sealing-wax .. ib. Weight of Ink ib. — of Water ib. Wheatstone & Co.’s success in esta- blishing a rapid Magnetic Corres- pondendence, by the Western Rail- way, between London and Bristol ib. 2ND OF ANALYTICAL INDEX. THE MILLION, &Q THE MILLION OF FACTS. *** Persons unused to Decimal expressions , may become familiar with them in half an-hour, by consulting Blair’s First Lines of Arithmetic, sold at Is. It may , however be stated briefly, that the first figure to the right of the point is always tenths, the second figure from the point is hundredths, the third is thousandths, §c. Thus 3 5, is 3 units ■and 5 tenths j 7*24, is 7 units and 24 hundredths ; or 5 308, is 5 units and 308 thou- sandths. No arithmetical expression can be accurate without the Decimal Notation. The characters used are = for equal, 4- for addition, — for subtraction, X for mul- tiplication, -f- for division, as 8 -f- 2 = 4, or f — 4 ; 3 2 for the square of 3, and 3 3 for the cube of 3j yj or | the square-root, or or a the cube-root. THE ENGLISH SYSTEM OF MEA- SURES AND WEIGHTS. The law for regulating the Weights and Measures in Great Britain, was passed June 17, 1824. It declared the standard of measures to be the vibration of a seconds pendulum, 39*1393 inches ; the standard of weights to be 252 458 grains, (the weight of a cubic inch of distilled water, at 62° and bar. 30 ;) and the standard gallon of liquid measure to be the cube which weighs 10 pounds of water, at 62° Fahrenheit and 30 bar., which .cube is 277*274 cubic inches. Also 2218*192 cubic inches, or 80 pounds for the imperial bushel of 8 gallons. These are the bases, and a foot is 12 such inches, an avoirdupois pound 7000 such grains, and a cubic foot of 1728 cubic inches is 62*3206 pounds, or an ounce of water 1*73298 cubic inch. All divisions and names of measures to remain as before the new Act, but the quan- tities to be taken as above. Under this Act, to convert old corn mea- sures into the new ones, multiply by 0*96943, or by §5. New into old by 1*03153, or by To convert old wine measures into new, multiply by 0*83311, or by New into old by 1*20032, or by f. To convert old beer measures into new, multiply by 1*01704, or 55. New into old by 0*98324, or by When the cubic inches are given, divide for gallons by 277*274. We have fixed denominations of Lengths, Superficies, Solidities, Weights, and Times. Lengths are inches of 12 to a foot, and 36 to a yard ; 220 yards to a furlong, and 1760 yards to a mile, of which, there are 69^2 in a degree, and 360 round the Earth, or in about 24,8/0 miles. There are, also, 5280 feet, or 63,360 inches in a mile. Superfices are multiples of two dimen- sions, length and breadth, thus 12 x 12 are 144 square inches in a foot ; 9 square feet in a yard, and 4840 square yards, or 43,560 s-quare feet in an acre. Also 640 square acres in a mile. In Solidity of three dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness, we have 27 cubic feet (3 X 3 X 3) in a cubic yard; and 1/28 cubic inches in a cubic foot. Also 8*6648 cubic inches in a gill ; 34*65923 in a pint ; 69*31846 in a quart r 277*2738436 in a gal- lon; by 36 in a barrel 9981*658 ; by 8 for a bushel, or 2218*19074856 ; and this by 8 for a quarter. Weight , fall of bodies, or central force in the diagonal of the Earth’s motions, is esti- mated in grains, of which 7000 are an avoir- dupois pound, and 5760 a troy, or apotheca- ries pound. The avoirdupois is divided into 16 ounces of 437*5 grains each, and drachms of 16ths of an ounce, or 27*34375 grains, 14 pounds are a stone, 28 pounds a quarter of a hundred, and 112 a cwt. Troy pounds are 12 ounces of 480 grains, in 24 penny- weights, and 12 ounces. Apothecaries divide the troy ounce of 480 grains into 8 drachms of 60 grains, and 3 scruples of 20. (For Time, and for other details, see the follow- ing articles .) THE FRENCH SYSTEM. The French Republican Government, in 1793, adopted a Natural standard in the measure of the Earth’s meridian from the Equator to the Pole. This they found by the best determinations to be about 5130740 toises of 6 French feet, or 6 feet 4f inches English. Then dividing this into ten mil- lion parts, they obtained a standard metre of TcfoTttSSo toise ’ or in English measure of 39*370/9 inches; 3*2809 feet, or 1*093633 yard. It was a decimal division with other divi- sions by 10, and multiples by 10, in the deca- metre of a ten times the kilo (or chylo\ metre, of 1000 times, and the myrio-metre of 10,000. Then descending they had the B 3 MEASUHES AND WEIGHTS. * deci-metre as a tenth, the centi-metre 100th, and the milli-metre, or 1000th. The same Standard being also known to other nations in their conventional mea- sures, relations were thus established be- tween the same 10 millionth and other foreign measures. In our miles the prime standard is nearly 6213 875 miles, then the 10 millionth of this is 393/079 of our inches; and this, in tenths and tens, fits the French decimal scale to our measures. Then, by connecting this with a cube of water of given dimen- sions in the standard scale, they afterwards got weights and cubic measures. Thus, the kilogramme, 1000 of their grammes, weighs in English grains 15 -434 or 15-438, and in French grains 18827'15 ; so that we thereby established that their grain is to ours as 15-438 to 18-827. These divisions were also applied to Agra- rian measures in Hectares of 10,000 square metres, Ares of 100 square metres, and Centiares of 1 square metre. The Setter , old Corn measure, is 156 Hectolitre, and 1 Hectolitre is 0 - 641 Setier. To Liquids in Decalitres of 10 decimetre cubes of water. In Litres of the decimetre cube, and in Decilitres of the 10th. To Dry measures in the Kilolitre , or metre cubed, or 1000 decimetre cubes ; the Hectolitre of 100 decimetre cubes, and the Litre or Decimetre cube. For Cubic measure , the stere was the metre cubed, and the Decistere the 10th of the metre cubed. For Weights , the Kilogramme of 1000 grammes is the accurate weight of a deci- metre of water, and 2-042876 French pounds, and 2-205 English. The Quintal is 100 Kilogrammes, and the Millier 1000. Then there is the Hectogramme, Decagramme, and Decigramme all in use. Metre 39 37079 English inches. Gramme .. . . 15-438 grains. Are 1076 4414 square feet. Stere 35*3171 cubic English feet. Litre 61 028028 cubic Eng. inch. They are of course readily converted into multiples of the standards, by prefixing deca for ten times the standard; by hecto for hundreds, and by kilo for thousands, by merely changing the place of the decimal point. For measures of length in ten millionths of a quadrant for the metre, the following is the Decimal scale in our inches : — Eng. Inches. 1 Millimetre 1 Centimetre 1 Decimetre 1 Metre 1 Decametre 1 Hectometre 1 Kilometre 1 Myriometre 0 03937079 0-3937079 3-937079 39 37079 393 7079 3937 079 39370 79 3937079 We readily bring these into other English measures, by dividing the divisible by 12 for feet, 36 for yards, or 63,360 for miles. The myriometre is 6-2138 miles. The Centimetre is 75 *-jy &c. i. e. 2 54 cen- timetres nearly to the inch, and the Milli- metre being a tenth of that is 25 4 millime. tres to an inch, a number to be remembered since it is often used. A Toise is 1-94904 metre, i. e. 6 feet, 47352 inches English. A Metre is 0 513074 toise. A Pied is 0 32484 metre, and a Pouce is 0 02707 metre. For Weights we have in like manner : — Eng. Grains. 1 Milligramme .. .. 0015438- 1 Centigramme .. ... 0 1 5438 1 Decigramme .. . . 15438 1 Gramme (18-8 French) .. 15-438 1 Decagramme .. .. 15438 1 Hectogramme .. .. 15438 1 Kilogramme .. .. 15438 1 Myriogramme .. . . 154380- Then, by dividing by 27'34375 grains for drachms, by 437"5 for ounces, and 7000 for pounds, we get the corresponding English measures in other denominations. For measures of capacity the Stere is taken as 35-3171 &c. cubic feet, or 61 02803 cubic inches, and the litre is its 1000th, or the millistere, i. e. 61-02803 cubic inches taken as the standard, and making the my- riolitre, or 10,000 1 Stere. For Litres of 61-02803 cubic inches, the change of decimal points is as under : 1 Millilitre (1000th) 1 Centilitre (100th) 1 Decalitre (10th) 1 Litre (Standard) 1 Decalitre (X 10) 1 Hectolitre (X 100) 1 Kilolitre (X 1000) 1 Myriolitre (or Stere) Eng. Cub. In. 0 06102803- 06102803 6-102803 61 02803 610-2803 6102-803 61028-03 610280-3 The Stere may then be made the Stan- dard, and a similar series adopted. English measures being in cubic inches, we determine the relations by division by 277'274 cubic inches for our gallon, and its parts and multiples, i. e. by ^ = 69 31 85 for our quart ; by 36 = 9981 "858 for our barrel, i. e. a kilolitre is a litttle above 6 barrels. In bushela of 2218-193 cubic inches, there are about 275 to an Hectolitre, and 1 bushel is 36 347664 Litres. A quart is 1-13586 litre, and our gallon 4 543458 litres, or 0-454458 Decalitre, or 45 43458 Decilitres, and so on in tenths. A Litre is 0 220967 gallon, and an Hectolitre 22 0967. We might, in like manner, proceed through the Ares, the Steres, but it may be sufficient to state, that our rood is 10 1 16775 ares, our acre 0-404671 hectares, 1 Are 0-09S845 rood,. 1 hectare 2473614 acres. And that the Stere contains 61,028 cubic inches nearly, the Litre being the Millistere. 1 square Toise is 37987 square Metres ; and 1 square Metre is 0 2632 square Toise. 1 cubic Metre is 0-135064 cubic Toise, and 1 Toise cubed is 7‘4039 cubic Metres. The Arpent was 34 18 "87 square Metres, the Are being 100, and the Hectare 10,000, so that 1 Arpent w.os 0 3410 Hectare, and l MEASURES OP. CAPACITY. 6 Hectare 2 9249 Arpens. 1 French pound was 0 4895 Kilogramme. A Kilogramme is 18827 15 grains, and the ancient pound was 9216 grains. An Hectolitre of wheat weighs about 75 Kilo, grammes. 100 Grammes are 18827 grains, and a Decigramme is 1 *88 grain. A Kilo- gramme is 2 0429 old French pounds. The French have 2 perches of 18 French feet, and 22 ; and 2 arpens of 48,400 square feet, and 32,400 square feet. 28 inches of the English barometer is 711 - 19 millimetres French; 29, is 736*59; and 30, is 76T99. To reduce metres into out* yards, multiply by 1*09364 yards ; and yards into metres by 091431 8. To convert grammes into grains, multiply 15*438 ; or, grains into grammes by 0 064793. To convert kilograjnmes into pounds avoirdupois, multiply by 2 20486 ; or pounds into kilogrammes by 0*45354. To convert litres into cubic inches, multi- ply by 62 028028. The contrary by 0 01639. To convert hectolitres into imperial bush- els, multiply by 2*7513. Contrary 0*36347. To convert hectares into acres, multiply by 2*473614. Acres into hectares by 0*40467. For kilometres into miles, by 0*62138. For miles into kilometres, by 1*6102. For Lieues de Post into miles, multiply by 2*4222; and for miles into Lieues by 0*4128. The French, also, often use a decimal divi- sion of time. A day is 10 hours, each 2 common hours and 24 minutes ; an hour is 100 minutes, each 1* minute 26*4 seconds of the new division, &c. &c. Angles are also divided decimally. Thus 100 minutes is a degree, each 32 ,/ *4 sexage- simal seconds. A degree is 54 minutes, and a quadrant is 100 degrees. So also a minute is F-85^ centesimal* and a degree l^TlMl^Tl centesimal. Their meridional degree (less than the equatorial) is 69 0429. Their centesimal degree 62 13837. The myriametre is the 10th of a decimal degree. In retail business the French adopt the old names in quantities according with the new measures. Thus they have the toise usuelle of 2 metres, the pied usuelle of one- sixth, &c. &c. The Netherlander use the French stand- ards under other names. The gramme as the Wigtye, the Metre as the File, the Litre as the Kop, dry, and the Kan, liquid ; other nations also adopt them. As the French metre is 39*37079 inches, and our pendulum 39*1393 inches, it has been regretted that the two were not combined, or that the equatorial pendulum 39*015 was not adopted as the standard of all nations. The French is, undoubtedly, the most uni- versal natural standard, since pendulums vary from 39*015 to 39*21765, owing to the shortening of the sines of the spheroid. Our yard, or Henry the Third’s arm, of 36 inches, and our barley-corns of 3 to an inch, are vague and merely conventional. Russia has had its commission of weights and measures, and they determine a cubic inch of water at 62, to be 368*261 doli, the coined pound being 25*019 English cubic inches. The Stoof, of 3 pounds, 75*0568 cubic inches, the Wedro, 30 pounds; the Garnez, 8 pounds; the Tschetwert, 512 pounds. The Archin 24 inches, and the Saschen 84 inches. The English gallon is 0*33777 the Russian Wedro. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. Capacity is length, breadth, and thick- ness, estimated by known measures. There are 12 X 12 X12 = 1728 cubic inches in a cubic foot ; and 3 X 3 X 3 = 27 cubic feet in a cubic yard. Till the Act of 1824, we had three several gallons: the wine , of 231 cubic inches, holding 8 lbs. 5 oz. 6| drs. of pure water — . the corn , of 268*8, holding 9 lbs. 10 oz. If drs. — and the ale , of 282, holding 10 lbs. 2 o»z. Ilf drs — but now, instead of these, we have one standard Imperial gallon, of 10 lbs. of pure water and 277*274 cubic inches. In grains of pure water, the old wine gallon weighed 58380 grs. ; the corn gallon 67423 ; the ale gallon 71189; but the new Imperial Standard general gallon weighs 70000 grains ; or contains 1 0 lbs. avoirdu- pois of distilled water, weighed in air, at 62°, with the barometer at 30 inches. It is to the cubic foot of 1728 inches, as 1 to 6*2321, so that a cubic foot contains 62*321 lbs. of water, or 997*137 oz., usually taken as 1000 oz. The cube-root of 277‘274 is 6*5208 inches ; hence, a vessel of that length, breadth, and depth is an imperial gallon. Close approximations may be made, by considering every 6 gallons of wine as 5 of imperial. Every 59 gallons of ale as 60 imperial. And every 32 corn bushels as 31 imperial bushels. Size of vessels : — Bushel 8 in. dept, 18*8125 in. diam. Half Dushel 6*375 „ 14*875 Peck 5*0625 „ 11*8125 „ Gallon .... 4 „ 9*375 Half gallon 3*1875 „ 74375 „ Quart 2 05 „ 5*9375 „ The old Winchester bushel was 184 inches diameter, and 8 inches deep, containing 2150*42 cubic inches. 5 oz. of water, are 1 gill, or 8 664 c. in. 4 gills 1 pint, „ 34*659 — 2 pints 1 quart ,, 69*318 — 4 quarts 1 gall. „ 277'274 — o gallons 1 peck „ 554*548 — 4 pecks or 8 galls. 1 bush. ,, 2218*192 — o bushels 1 quar. ,,17745*536 — 5 quarters 1 load ,, 88727'680 — The Imperial Bushel is equal to a cube 13*04172 inches each way, and a Winchester Bushel to a cube of 12*9078 inches. The old standard bushel, at Guildhall, contained 2145*6 cubic inches of water weighing 1131 oz. 14 dwts. A tun is 2 pipes, 4 hogsheads, 3 pun. cheons, 8 barrels, or 252 gallons. 7 A barrel of 36 Imp. gallons is 9981 864 cubic inches, and a firkin of 9 Imp. gallons 2495 466 cubic inches. Coals are sold by the ton, of 2240 lbs., in ten sacks. The chaldron was 28 cwt. Ankers, runlets, tierces, &c. are irregular, and require to be guaged. To find the contents of a cask in imperial gallons, guage the bung diameter, and mul. tiply its square by 2. To the product add the square of the head diameter, and multi- ply these by the inside length. Then divide the last product by 1059, or more accurately by 1058 7 for Imp. gallons. A Scotch pint is 105 cubic inches. A wheat firlot 2l£ Scotch pints. The Scotch quart is 206 8 cubic inches. A Scotch boll is an English sack. The Scotch pint is 55 oz. troy of Leith water. The Imp. fluid oz. is 437*5 grains, and 1*7329625 cubic inches. The old fluid oz. was 455?3 grains. The 20th of an Imp. pint the 16th of a wine pint. A table spoonful is about half a fluid ounce, or four drachms ; a tea spoonful one fluid drachm j a dessert spoonful two fluid drachms. A tea cupful is three to four fluid ounces, and a wine-glass one and a-half fluid ounce. A last is a commercial measure, of 12 barrels of soap, ashes, herrings, &c. ; 10 quarters of corn, or two cart loads ; 24 bar- rels of gunpowder ; 12 sacks of wool ; of salt 18 barrels, and a hundred of salt is 126 barrels. A barrel of soap is 256 lbs. and of her- rings 32 lbs. A load of earth is a cubic yard. A cord of wood is 128 cubic feet. A ton of a ship is 42 cubic feet, or 3*476 feet each way. A tub of butter is 84 lbs., a firkin 56. A bushel of wheat is about 60 lbs., rye 53, barley 47, oats 88, peas 64, beans 63, clover-seed 68, rape 48 lbs., flour 56 lbs. 24 cubic feet of sand, 1 8 of earth, or 17 of clay are a ton. A yard of solid earth is 27 bushels, or a load. A soldier’s canteen is three pints. 7 lbs. avoirdupois is a gallon of flour. 19 cubic inches of distilled water, at 50°, weigh 10 oz. troy. The difference between 62^ and 39° Fah- renheit, in a gallon of 277*274 inches, is one- third of a cubic inch. The Committee on whose report the Act of 1824 was passed, stated that the specific gravity of Thames water to distilled and rain water, is 1 0006 to 1, being l-6th of a cubic inch in a gallon. That the tempera- tures of 62 and 39 vary the bulk of a gal- lon of water §rd of a cubic inch. And that a cubic inch in a vacuum weighs 252 722, i. e. 264 more than in air. They also deter- mined the specific gravity of water to be 1 at 620; 0 99913 at 70^; and 100113 at 400, 39°, and 38° Fahrenheit. A pipe of Port is 115 Imp. gallons. — — Lisbon 116| 8 A pipe of Madeira .... 91| Imp. gallons • Sherry, &c. ..100 A butt of Mountain . . 108| The hogshead of Claret 5T61 An aum of Hock 30 Teneriffe ..100 Cape 16| Hogshead of Molasses 83| Tun of Vegetable Oil.. 196f An anker of Brandy .. 8£ Imp. Gall& The Amsterdam Wine Stekan, is 4 27 —Brandy .. 4129 Antwerp Stoop 0 648 Barcelona Carga 27'236 Bourdeaux Barreque 51*61 Burgundy Quartout 22*631 Champagne Ditto 19*821 Cognac Velte 1*608 Danish Anker 8*226 Dantzic Ohm , . 32*971 Dutch Aum... 34*000 Gallipoli Oil Salma 14*231 Hamburgh Ohm 31*867 Irish Gallon 0*785 Leghorn Barile, Wine 10, Oil .. 7*357 Lisbon Almude 3*641 Marseilles Millerole 14*154 Messina Wine Salma 19*226 Oil 2 575 Nantes Wine Barreque 52*816 Naples Oil Salma 35*647 Oporto Almude 5*608 Prussian Eimer 15*118 Rome Wine or Oil 12*75 Rotterdam Ohm 33*318 Spain Wine Arroba 3*538 Carga 30*000 Vienna Eimer 12 449 Zante Barile 14*682 Foreign Fry Measures , in Bushels : — The Alexandrian Rebebe, is .... 4*322 Amsterdam Mudde 3*06 Basil Sack 3*554 Bergen Toende 3*826 Berlin Scheffel .... .... 1*438 Bern Mutt 4 625 Bologna Corba 2*03 Bourdeaux Boiseau 2*11 Bremen Scheffel .... .... T955 Cadiz Fanega 1 *55 Cairo Ardeb .... .... 3* Canada Minot 1 *054 Canary Fanega 1 *77 Cologne Malter 4*459 Constantinople Killow .... 0*912 Danish Toende 3*9472 Embden Tonne .... «... 5*272 Florence Stajo * 0*669 Geneva Coupe 2*135 Genoa Mina 3*426 Hague Sack 2*946 Hamburgh Scheffel .... 2*899 Last 1 1 *2 quarter* Leghorn Sacco 1*999 Malta Salma 7 909 Munich Scheffel 9*9/6 Nantes Setier 3 939 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. u WEIGHTS. Naples Tomolo . . Netherlands Mudden Prussian Scheffel . Persian Artaba . , • . Portuguese Moyo Riga Loop » , ? • Roman Rubbio .... Russian Chetwert * , . . Scotch Wheat Firf >; Barley Do, Spanish Quarterly .... Sicilian Salma .... Swedish Tunna .... Trieste Stajo .... Tuscan Stajo .... Vienna Metzen .... Zante Misura .... ,... 1407 2/51 .... 1 5594 .... L809 .. 23*03 .... 1 - 8/8 .... 81 .... 5-77 ... 0 991 .... 1444 .... 19416 7611 4030 .... 2272 .... 0691 .... 1691 .... 0 579 A Roman quadra ntal was a cube contain- ing 80 lbs. of water, or 48 sextaries and 8 congii. A gower was 7 pints. The Ephah was 1 747 7 cubic inches, nearly an English cubic foot. • The Jewish omer or corus was 75 625 gal- lons liquid ; and 32-125 pecks dry. By measure, the gallon is 8 pints, 128 fluid ounces, 1024 fluid drachms, or 61,440 minims. The minim (marked TR,) is the GOth of the fluid drachm (f. 3,) and 8 fluid drachms are a fluid ounce (f. 3,) and 20 fluid ounces are an Imperial pint. WEIGHTS. Weight of bodies is their force of motion towards the centre of a Planetary sphere, which itself has an orbit motion, common to all its parts ; and, also, a rotatory motion in all parts distant from the centre. The two forces produce, as usual, a diagonal increase of velocity, directed on every side to the common centre, and this is weight, or the sublime mechanical means of aggregation in a loose planetary mass. The reaction of two opposite sides quadruples the rotatory in- verse, or centrifugal force, and the effect (as taken in round numbers) in a second, is di- rectly as the orbit of velocity 97,895 feet, and inversely as four times the rotative velocity, 6088 feet, that is 16-0841 feet; or. if we take the deflection perpendicularly 969 feet, as a radius of motion all round, and multiply by 6-283 for the circle, we also get 6088 as the inverse force. In parallels ef latitude, the diminished velocity of rotation, in cosines, is compen- sated by the sines, and the' squares of the cosines' and sines are everywhere equal to the square of the radius. Owing, however, to sines in an oblate spheroid being too little, the inverse force of rotation diminishes from the Equator to the Poles, and the quotient or fall is greater. Time of falling, .also, increases the weight or force, because the motions generate areas which are to each other as the squares of their uniform times. A body which at the Equator weighs 100, at Paris (latitude 49.) weighs 100 3088. At London (5131,) 100 3338; and at lat. 70, 100 4812. A pendulum at the Equator is !0 39 0083; at 45^, 39-1135; at Paris it ia 39-1287; at London 39 1393, and at 7 9% 39 196, and computed at the Pole to be 39-2208 ; so that 180 lbs. at the Equator would be 181 at the Pole. The English standard of weights is the cubic inch of distilled water, weighing 252-458 grains in air, and 252722 in vacuum. The troy lb. is 5760 grains, or 22 8157 inches of pure water. The avoirdupois lb. is 7000 grains, or 277274 inches. 10 avoirdupois lbs., or 277-274 cubic inches of water, are the im- perial gallon; and 1215 lbs. troy are the same gallon. One troy lb. is 0 822857 avoirdupois lbs. One avoirdupois lb. is 1 -215278 troy. The lb. avoirdupois is 453 25 French grammes, and the lb. troy is 372 96 French grammes. The lb. avoirdupois is 0 453544, the French kilogramme, 0 936374 the Hamburgh lb., and LI 08926 the Russian lb. The lb. troy is 0 373202 kilogramme; and 0770502 the Hamburgh lb. In Avoirdupois Weight, 16 drs. make an oz. ; 256 a lb. ; 16 oz. a lb. ; 112 lbs. a cwt. ; and 20 cwt., or 2240 lbs., a U... In Troy Weight, 24 grains make a pennyweight, (meaning grains of wheat) 480 an oz., or 20 dwt. an oz. and 12 oz. a lb. One lb. troy, or Apothecary, is 13 oz. 72 5 grains avoirdupois. One lb. avoirdupois is 1 lb. 2 oz. 4 dr. 2 scr. apothecary; or 1 lb. 2 oz. 10 penny- weights, and 1 6 grains troy. The apothecary’s and troy ounce is equal to 1 oz. and 42 5 grs. avoirdupois. A drachm is 27*475 grs., an oz. 437 "5. 175 lbs. troy, are equal to 144 lbs. avoir- dupois, and 14 lbs. avoirdupois are 80 grains above 17 troy. 80 oz. avoirdupois are 73 oz. troy. In Apothecaries’ Weight, 20 grains make a scruple, 60 a drachm ; and then, as in troy weight, 480 make an oz. and 5760 a lb. There are 12 oz. to the lb., 8 drachms tc an oz., 3 scruples to a drachm, and 20 grains to a scruple. The avoirdupois lb. of 7000 grains is divi- ded into 16 X 16 = 256 parts or drachms, each 27o4 grains. The apothecaries lb. of 5760 grains into 12 X 8 X 3 = 288 parts, or scruples, each 20 grains. And the troy lb. of 5760 grains into 240 parts or penny- weights, each 24 grains. • Apothecary Avoirdupois. Weight. oz. qr. grains. 3ix .. .. = 9 3 54 375 3vj, or lbss .. = 6 2 36-250 3iij - . - - = 3 1 18125 3ij .... z=. 2 0 85 000 l'i .... =2 l 0 42-500 3iv, or 3ss .. = 2 2L250 3U -- -- = 1 10-625 Taking the avoirdupois lb. at 7000 grains, or as 1 ; the ounce is 437 5 grains, or 0 0625 ; and the drachm 27 "34 grains, or 0 0039. And the troy or apothecaries of 5760 grains, or 1 ; then the ounce is 480 WEIGHTS, 12 11 grains, or 0 08333 ; the drachm 60 grains or 0 0104; the scruple 20 grains, or 0 0035; the minim 1 grain, or 0 0001735. A drop is taken to be a grain. In diamonds, &c. we have the 20th of a grain, called a mite, of which there are 115,200 in a pound troy. For scientific purposes the grain only is used ; and sets of weights are constructed in decimal progression from 10,000 grains downwards to 100th of a grain. Henry III. directed that an ounce should be 640 dry grains of wheat; 12 ounces a pound ; 8 pounds a gallon of wine ; and 8 gallons a London bushel. A bale of Egyptian cotton is 90 lbs., of Brazil 160, of Georgian and Sea Islands 280, Orleans 300, East India 300, West India 350 to 400. A seam of glass is 120 pounds. A sack of wool is 22 stone of 14 lbs. or 308 lbs. In Scotland, it is 24 of 16 lbs. A pack of wool is 240 lbs. A tod of wool is 2 stone of 14 lbs. each. 12 sacks is a last, 4368 lbs. or 39 cwt. 56 or 60 lbs. is a truss of hay, old or new, and 40 lbs. a truss of straw ; 36 trusses a load. A fodder of lead is 19£ cwt. in London, and 21 cwt. in the North. A bushel of rock-salt is 65 lbs., of crushed salt 56 lbs., and Foreign salt 84 lbs. A man’s load is 5 bushels, a market load 40, or 5 quarters. A keel of 8 Newcastle chaldrons is 15£ London chaldrons. A tierce of beef, in Ireland, is 304 lbs., and of pork 320 lbs. A legal stone is 14 lbs., or the 8th of an cwt. in England, and 16 lbs. in Holland. Forty cubic feet of rough timber is a load, and 50 of hewn. A load of 1-inch plank is 600 feet. The chief weights of other countries are in grains as under : — Amsterdam, pound . . 7625 Berlin, ditto . . 7231 Bern, ditto . . 8060 Cairo, rottolo 6650 China, catty . . 9333 kin 5802 Cologne, pound .. . . 7216 Constantinople, oke . . 19830 pound . . 7578 Copenhagen, ditto . . 77 20 Dutch, troy pound . . 7620 Florence, libra . . 5240 France, livre 7555 kilogramme . . 15434 livre, usuelle . . 7717 Hamburgh, pound 7476 Irish, pound 7774 Japan, catty . . 9100 Leipsic, pound 7206 Lyons, poids de soie . . 7087-5 Malta, rottolo . . 12216 Marseilles, pound . . 6296 Mecca, rottolo . . 7144 Morocco, pound . . 8330 Naples, piccolo . . 7420 Ormus, seer . . 4675 Persia, clierray . . .. S8771 Poland, pound .. Portugal, arratel „ . .. 7083 Revel, pound Rome, libra . . 5234 Russia, pound .. 6318 Scotch, trone pound • - .. 9600 Smyrna, pound . . . . 6944 Sweden, commercial m m . . 6563 Ditto, mining .. » • .. 5801 Trieste, pound . . 8639 Tripoli, rottolo .. . . 7840 Vienna, pound .. 8645 Variously divisible in different nations. In decimals of the English upois : — pound avoir- Barcelona, pound .. 0-901775 Basle, pound .. 1 079291 Berlin, pound .. .. 1 031236 Bremen, pound . . • • .. 1 099121 Cadiz, occa .. 1016192 Cologne, mark . . „ m .. 0 526299 Danish, pound . . . . .. 1-100945 Florence, pound . „ . . 0*748582 Frankfort — 11 14 138 .. 1 031609 Genoa (silk) libbra .. 0756394 Hamburgh, pound .. 1 067949 Lisbon, libbra .. 1011954 Milan, libbra . . 1 660733 Naples, libbra . . * . .. 0-707759 Polish, stone . . .. 28 631801 Rome, lira . . . . 0*747947 Russia, pound .. 0 901773 pud .. 36 070933 Swedish, pound .. 0 93384 Turkish, rottel . . .. T406374 — can tar 165 014636 V enice, libbra . . .. 1051713 The Quintal, in America, is 100 lbs., in France, 220 486. In Spain, 10T5, or 104 lbs. i. e. 4 arrobas. Italy, 1 00. In Turkey, 124 5. In England, when used, 120 lbs., called the long hundred. The Schippondt of the northern nations is, in Sweden, for copper 320 lbs. of 9211 grains, and for provisions 400 such lbs. At Riga 400 lbs. of 6149 grains. At Hamburgh 300 lbs. of 7315 grains. 100 lbs. English, are equal to 112§ lbs. of Russia, 93 lbs. 5 oz. at Hamburgh, 132 lbs. lloz. at Leghorn, and 104 lbs. 13 oz. in Portugal, 91 lbs. 8 oz. at Amsterdam, 152 lbs. at Venice, 154 lbs. 10 oz. at Naples, and 97 lbs. at Cadiz. A tale, in China, is 579 8 grains, about l-12th of a lb. A catty is 16 tale, and 100 catties are 1 pecul, 133^ lbs. The Chinese sell all goods and liquids by weight. In India the weights are the paddy or the grains of rough rice, each of which is equal to about 2-5ths of a grain ; the gulivindum weight, or that of a jumble bead, equal to about 1 grain 5-16ths ; the retti weight, equal to about 2 grains 3-16ths. The gold fanam weight equal to 8 grains; and the star pagoda to about 84 grains. The Bengal maund is 74 lbs. 10 oz. lOg drachms ; the seer 1 lb. 13 oz. 13*866 drachms ; the chattock 1 oz. 13366 drachms. The Bazar maund is 82 lbs. 2 oz. The Mysore cutcha seer is 9 oz. 1 1 4 drachms. 13 MEASURES A miscal, at Bassora, is 72 grains. The • maund is 90 lbs. 4 oz. The oka is 475 oz. avoirdupois. In Greece, a drachma was 1 07 grains. A minx 1 lb. 1^ oz. A talent 07 lbs. / oz. 5 dwt. The Roman weights were the as, equal •to 12 oz., and the uncia, 1 oz. MEASURES OF LENGTHS. Measures in length are the distance of one object from another in some agreed standard. The pendulum which vibrates seconds • 39-1393 inches at London, has been a pro- posed new standard for British measures. One mile of 1760 yards, would be equal to 161 8 833 such pendulums. An inch is 0*02555 of the pendulum. The smallest measures are the hair’s breadth, of which 48 are an inch. Four barley-corns laid breadth-ways , are 3-4ths of an inch, called a digit ; and 3 barley-corns length-ways are an inch. A barley-corn decimally is 0-1875 of an inch ; and lengthways 0 333. The inch is also divided into 12 lines; and by workmen into 8ths. The French divide their inch into 12 lines, but as their inch is longer than the English, • as T066475 to 1, so their line is to the Eng- lish as 12 to 11 26. In decimal divisions the 8th of an inch is ■0 125; an inch is the 0 0833 of a foot ; afoot the 0 333 of a yard. Our line is 0 0833 of an inch. An inch is 2 539954 French centi- metres, &e. A nail, used in cloth measure, is 2£ inches/ or the 16th of a yard. A hand, in horse measure, is 4 inches. A palm is 3 inches, and a span is 9 inches. A Pole is 5| yards, or 16£ feet; and 40 poles, or 220 yards, are a furlong , or the • eighth of a mile. 320 poles, or 1760 yards, a mile. The fathom, 6 feet, is derived from the heighth of a full-grown man. The gyrd, girth, or yard, is 3 feet, the cubit or arm 18 inches, the foot 12 inches, and the span ‘9 inches. The hands’ breadth 4 inches, the • thumbs’ breadth 1 inch. The cubit, taken from the elbow to the wrist, was 13 inches ; but the Greeks, Jews, &c. took it to the end of the middle finger, 18 or 19 inches. A geometrical pace is 4 feet and 4 8 inches, but in common use it varies. Six paces, in France, are equal to 5 toises. The French toise was 6-395 English feet. The mile was 1000 toises, and the lieue 2000. The foot is universal, and varies from 11 to 14 inches. In general, it is a fraction be- tween 11 and 12 inches. The Rhinland, adopted throughout Germany, is 12 35 inches English. The palmo is much used in Italy, and is between 8 and 10 inches. Our yard of 36 inches has no counterpart !n continental measures, except the Vara of Valencia 36 62, and the Persian Guerze 37 21 zud Arish 38-27. OF LENGTH. 14 We have had five standard yards, varying from 35 99934 to 36 00249 inches. In Decimals of a Yard : — Barcelona, vara .. .. 0 864697 Berne, ell 0 59332.5 Brabant, ell .. .« .. 0 767025 Bremen, ell 0 63255? Castile, vara .. .. 0 9273V Danish, aln 0 686456 Dresden, ell 0-619564 Frankfort, ell 0-598523 French, aune 1-312359 metre 1-087016 Genevese, ell 1 -250788 Genoa, palma 0 273222 Hamburgh, ell 0 62663 Lisbon, vara 1 195275 Neapolitan, canna .. .. 2 306865 Polish, ell 0 629932 Roman, canna 2-188961 Russian, arschin .. .. 0778107 Swedish, ell 0 649327 Venetian, braccio .. .. 0 698175 In Decimals of a Foot : — Barcelona, canna .. 5188184 Bolognese, foot . . . . 1 -244773 Danish, foot 1 029677 Frankfort, foot .. .. 0 933743 French, pied 1*065765 Genevese, foot 1 600868 Hamburgh, foot .. .. 0 939945 Lisbon, foot 0717165 Neapolitan, palmo .. .. 0 864943 Polish, stopa 1*169381 Spanish, pies 0-927362 Swedish, foot 0-973894 Swiss, foot 0-984351 Rheinland 1 029721 Russian, foot 0 9921 55 The Jacktam of Guinea is 4 yards. The Covid of China is but 14*62 inches, and at Bombay 18 inches. The Guz, in Asia, varies from 19 inches at Mocha to 387, at Gambroon, probably halved, or dou- bled. The Japanese Inc is 74-9 inches. The Amsterdam foot is *927 English. The candi of India is 2 feet 1 inch. The Roman braccio is 4 palms. The canna 8 palms, or 24 inches. The Levant pig is 2 feet 4 inches. The Calcutta cubit is 17'6 inches; the Turkish cubit 26-33 ; and the Smyrna 27. The two Egyptian and Hebrew cubits were natural, 17 71, and royal, 20*66. In Siam, the ken is 36 inches nearly, and is divided into 2 socks. These into 2 keubs, and each keub into 12 nions, at | of an inch. The Jaghire is 10 46 English inches. A statute mile is 1760 yards, or 5280 feet, or 63360 inches. An Irish mile is 2240 yards, or 1*2727 English. A Scotch mile is 1984 yards, or 80 are equal to 91 English. 11 Irish miles are 14 English, the perch being 7 yards in Ireland, instead of 5£, as in England. In yards, a degree is 121593 3; hence, there are 69 0805 English miles, or 69 l-12th miles to a degree, (not 69£). A 60 th, or a minute, is 1*15134 mile. MEASURES OF LENGTH. A nautical mile, the 60th of a degree, is 2026-5 yards; a marine league, or 20 to a degree, is 6079 '5 yards. The log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way measured by a half-mi- nute sand-glass, which bears nearly the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile. Leagues and miles of most nations are fractions of a degree ; as the 15th of 8106 yards, the 20th of 6080, the 25th of 4864, the 30th of 4053, or the 60ch of 2026 5. The Arabian mile is 2143 yards. The Roman . . 1628 or 2025 The Werst .. 1167 or 1337 The Tuscan .. 1808 The Turkish .. 1826 Our league, or 3 times our geographical mile of 60 to a degree, or 2025 yards, is 6075 yards, approaching continental measures. The Brabant league is .. .. 6096 The Danish and Hamburgh league 8244 The German league .. .. 8101 The long German ditto .. .. 10126 The short ditto 6859 The Portuguese league is . . . . 6760 The Spanish 7416 The Swedish 11700 All of them parts of a degree, but made before the length of a degree was accurately determined. The great French league, 20 to a degree, or 6080 yards. The common French league is the 25th of a degree, 4868 yards, or 2 76 miles, equal to 2283 toises. 2 are 1 post. The Neapolitan mile is the 60th of a de- gree, or 2026 5 yards. The Italian mile is 1766 yards, and about 69 to a degree ; it is also 1000 paces, of 5 ‘3 feet. The German mile is the 15th of a degree, or 4 sea miles, or 8106 yards, or 4-606 Eng- lish statute miles. The Vienna post mile is 8296 yards. Swiss miles are 9153 yards, or 5 2 English. Flemish miles are 6869, nearly 4 English. Dutch and Prussian miles have 1875 to the degree, or 6480 yards Danish leagues are 14 25 to a degree, or 8240 yards. Swedish leagues 118 to the degree, or 11,260 yards. Swedish and Danish miles are 7341 -5 yards, or above 4 miles English. The Castilian league is 26 5 to a degree, 4637 yards, or 5000 varas of 11*12 inches. The common Spanish and Dutch league is 7'5th of a degree, 6955 yards, or 7572 varas. The Indian coss is 2894 yards. Bengal coss is 6000 feet, or 1 mile, 240 yards. The Chinese li, 200 to a degree, 608 yards. Persian league 30 stadia, or 29 furlongs. Persian parasang 6440 yards, or 3f miles. Turkish agachs are 22 222 to a degree, or about 6000 feet. The berri, in Turkey, 665 to a degree is 1827 '3 yards. An hour is 3j, miles. A fur- %akh is 4 miles. The camel’s pace is 2£ niles an hour. A Spanish travelling hour, 20 to a degree. The Greek studium was 600 English feet. 10 The Olympic foot was 12f English inches, and the pythic nearly 9f. The jugerum was 3-5ths of an acre. The keramion 8 imperial gallons. The attic mina^vas nearly an English pound avoirdupois. The cubit of the Greeks and Romans was 18 inches. The Roman foot was 11| English inches, and the mile 1611 yards. Their jugerum was 5980 square yards. The am- phora was 7| gallons, and the dolium 153£ gallons. Their pound was about 5000 grains, and their denarius 60. The Jews’ great cubit was 22 inches, and the less 18 inches. 400 of the latter was a stadium, and 10 of these a mile of 6000 feet. 24 was a day’s journey, and a sabbath day’s journey 3500 feet. A comer was 65 pints, and an ephah 65 pints. An homer was 75f gallons, and an ephah 7 \ gallons. A talent was 113f lbs., and a shekel 6 ounces. The Greek acsena was a 10 foot rod. The Roman milliarium was 5000 feet. A surveyor’s chain is 4 poles, or 66 feet, divided into 100 links of 7*92 inches. A square chain is 16 square poles ; and 10 square chains are an acre. Four roods are an acre, each containing 1210 square yards, or 34 785 yards, or 34 yards 28 inches each side. ' Forty poles of 30 25 square yards each is a rood. And a pole is 5 yards and a half each way. An acre is 4840 square yards, or 69 yards, 1 foot, 8^ inches each way ; and 2 acres, or 9680 square yards are 98 yards, 1 foot, 2 inches each way ; and 3 acres are 120 yards and a half each way. A square mile, 1760 yards each way, is 640 acres ; half a mile, or 880 yards each way, is 160 acres ; a quarter of a mile, or 440 yards each way, is a park or farm of 40 acres ; and a furlong, or 220 yards each way. is 10 acres. Sides whose multiple makes 3097600 square yards is a square mile. Of course, any length or breadth in yards, which multiplied make 4840, is an acre. So any which makes 1210 is a rood; and any 30 25 is a pole. Every mile of mere hedge and ditch is about an acre. The Irish acre is 7840 square yards. 121 Irish acres are equal to 196 English. The Scotch acre is 2 7 English, and 48 Scotch acres are 61 English. One Scotch acre is 1 ‘270744 English. And one English acre is 0786941 Scotch. In other words, an English acre is a square of nearly 70 yards each way, a Scotch of 77 \ yards, and an Irish of 88^ yards. 28 cubic feet of sand, 18 of earth, and 17 of clay, are deemed a ton. A cubic yard of earth, or gravel, is deemed 18 heaped bushels, and after being dug, 27 or a load. A cawney is rather more than an acre. A baggah is 1600 square yards, about a third. A hide of land was one plough’s work. An ox-gang was 15 acres, or as much as one ox can plough in a year. A hide of land was 100 or 120 acres, and five was a knight’s fee. 17 MEASURES AND WEIGHTS, 18 GENERAL COMPARISON OF ENGLISH AND FRENCH MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. LENGTH. ENGLISH FRENCH. 1 Inch 1 Foot 1 Yard 1 Fathom (2 yards) 1 Pole or perch (5^ yards) 1 Furlong (220 yards) 1 Mile (1760 yards') 1 82876696 metres. .. 5 02911 metres. .. 20 1*1 6437 metres. . .1609-3149 metres. FRENCH. ENGLISH. 1 Millimetre 1 Centimetre 1 Decimetre C .. 0 03937 inch. . . 0 393708 inch. .. 3 937079 inches. .. 39 37079 inches. 1 Metre .. .. -j .. 3 2808992 feet. . .. 1 093633 yard. 1 Mvriametre .. 6-2138 miles. SUPERFICES. ENGLISH. FRENCH. 1 Square yard 1 Square rod 1 Square rood, or 1210 sq. yards 1 Acre (484 square yards) FRENCH .. 10 116775 ares. .. 0 404671 hectare. ENGLISH. 1 Square metre 1 Are 1 Hectare .. 1" 196033 square yards. .. 0-098845 square rood. .. 2-473614 square acres. CAPACITY. ENGLISH. FRENCH. 1 Pint 1 Quart 1 Imperial Gallon 1 Peck (2 gallons) 1 Bushel (8 gallons) 1 Sack (3 bushels) 1 Quarter (8 bushels) .. 1 .. 1 135864 litre. .. 4-54345794 litres. .. 9 0869159 litres. .. 36 347664 litres. .. T09043 hectolitre. .. 2 907813 hectolitres. FRENCH ENGLISH. 1 Litre £ 1 Decalitre 1 Hectolitre T760773 pint. .. 0 2200967 gallon. .. 22 009667 gallons. WEIGHTS. ENGLISH.— TROY. 1 Grain (24 to the pennyweight) 1 Pennyweight (20 to the ounce) 1 Ounce (12 to the pound) ! 1 Pound FRENCH. .. 0 06477 grammes. .. T55456 grammes. 1 .. 31 0913 grammes. . . 0 3730956 kilogram. ENGLISH. — AVOIRDUPOIS. FRENCH. 1 Drachm (16 to tne ounce) 1 Ounce (16 to the pound) 1 Pound 1 Quintal (112 pounds) 1 Ton (20 quintals, or cwts.) .. T771 2 grammes. .. 28-3384 grammes. .. 0 4534148 kilogram. .. 50 78246 kilogrammes. 101 5 649 kilogrammes. FRENCH. ENGLISH. Gramme . ^ . . . . 3 r .. 1 5 438 grains troy. . , 0 643 pennyweights. . . 0 03216 ounce troy. Kilogramme .. .. j .. 2-68027 pounds troy. .. 2-20548 pounds avoirdupois. 29 MONEY AND COINAGE. SO MONEY AND COINAGE. Money is an article of conventional value, serving as a measure of the price of articles of use and merchandize. Coin is a portable and durable convenience, and the prices of all articles are accommodated to its quantity in any country. Money may be any metal, •or a creditable engagement to pay ; but me- tallic money is universal, and paper engage- ments are only national, and as to coin a debasement. As every country at any one time has but a given amount of currency, so the comfort of the people depends on average distribu- tion. Thus, if, for example, of 50 millions of public currency, in a nation of 5 millions of families, 100 hold 20 millions, and another .200 hold 20 millions, then there remains but 10 millions among 4,999,700 families, with .great penury in the many, amidst enormous wealth in the few. Money has a tendency to accumulate in few hands, in two or three centuries, owing to interest of money alone. At 5 per cent, every principal sum doubles in 14 years; ■ at 7|, in 10| years; and at 10 per cent, in 7 years. In every fifty years, 5 per cent, raises 100,000/. to a million ; at 7£ per cent., to a million and a half, and at 10 per cent, to two millions, collected from industry in the name of interest. From this cause it is, that we have no record of any past people who have flou- rished in relative ascendancy more than two or three centuries. Their ruin is usually ascribed to some last cause, the power of which is but an effect. Owing to want of equal circulation, and equal distribution, public industry loses its elasticity, or enter- prise emigrates. Every increase of currency, whether of coin, debased metal, or paper, adds to nomi- nal prices of commodities or property ; and every decrease lessens the nominal prices. Currency is cheap when prices are high, and currency is dear when prices are low. If in 1738, articles could be bought for 5s. which in 1838 would cost 20s., currency would be four times dearer in 1738 than in 1838. The United Kingdom is apparently richer than other countries, because nominal prices are forced up by paper money and taxation ; and, because there is a better economy of currency in the general habit of making lodgments with bankers, by which the mo- netary strength of a district is concentrated and redistributed as from a reservoir. The present currency of England is about 32 millions of paper notes, and about 20 in gold, silver, and copper. Besides 28 mil- lions of exchequer bills, and 300 millions of bills of exchange and promissory notes, which answer most purposes of currency. Whatever increases the currency beyond the regular standard of the precious metals is a debasement, whether a base or alloyed metal, or paper. If it circulate with credit, it lowers the value of money, as to goods and property,-~and if it serve as currency it mat- ters not that it may on demand be exchanged for coin. Money falls, and property valued in money rises. This is debasement of money. The lowering the value of money is not the only ill-effect of debasement, for if effected in the period of social contracts, it reduces obligations of debtors to creditors, and buyers to sellers. Nor is the withdrawing it and. contracting the currency less injurious, for then it ruinously increases obligations. The debasement of the currency, i. e. the increase of the nominal price in money, of articles of property, varies in effect, accord- ing to the supply and demand, and to the necessity, stability, and fixed quantity of articles. It raises real property more than personal, and both kinds according to scar- city, or surplus. Hence, since the debase- ment by paper, land in fixed quantity has risen in price, and rent, from 500 to 1000 per cent. Houses from 200 to 500 per cent., owing to buildings and supply ; while perso- nal property has not risen generally above 1 or 200 ; where supply meets demand only from 50 to 100 per cent. ; and in cases of constant surplus, as in labour, not above 20 or 30 per cent. The financial operations of the British government, since the revolution of 1688, have been conducted on the virtual principle of debasing the currency. The first debt was only a charge on certain taxes ; but, as it did not meet the exigency, new taxes were raised, and so on from 4 millions in 1690, to 73 millions in 1813, and 50 in 1838. This would have been equivalent to a total confiscation of all property for the expences of wars, had it not been for the expedient of simultaneously debasing the currency by an alloy of paper, so as to increase the amount, raise nominal prices of rentals, produce, &c. The habits of the people obstructed the full effects of the debasement, till the in- crease of trade after the American war. The shopkeeping negociators in country towns then turned bankers, began to issue local notes, and to seek employment for their surplus capital. This led to innume- rable enterprises, and to all that factitious circulation which doubled and trebled rentals, and since then has rendered succes^ a lottery, and sober industry unavailing. There was a British coinage long before the invasion of the Romans, though ring- money, common to ancient nations, also cir- culated in Britain. Athelstan, in 928, first established uniform coin in England ; and, after that time, the kings became the bullion merchants and coiners. In the reign of Henry III. the king’s profit, or seignorage, was 6d. in the pound. Edward I. raised it to Is. 2\d. The Egbert silver coins were shillings, thrimsas, pennies, halflings, and feorthlings ; their brass coin was a styes. Alfred coined silver pennies and copper sticas, or half-farthings. The silver penny weighed 22£ grains ; but in the time of Elizabeth it had dwindled to less than one- third ; silver half-pennies and farthings were in use till 1560, and groats and half-groats. At the Conquest, a pound in talc or coin MONEY AND COINAGE. *21 was rmial to a pound of standard silver. Edward I. made’ it 205. and 3 d. in talc. Edward III. made it 255. in talc. Henry IV. 305. Edward IV. 375. 6d. Henry VIII. 455. Elizabeth, 625., and George IV. lowered the talc to 665. for a pound of silver ; this is 3 3 less, per shilling, than at the Conquest! Henry VIII. debased the gold coin from 23^ carats pure and £ alloy, to 22 pure and 2 of alloy, which has been continued as the standard to our time. Henry VIII. debased the silver coin to 4 oz. fine and 8 of alloy, so that a lb. of pure silver was coined into 13/. 65. 4cf. The silver thus became to gold as 7 to 3, and the gold was exported at a profit of 350 per cent. Elizabeth restored the silver coin to 11 oz. 2 dwts. fine and 18 dwts. alloy. The 205. gold coin of Charles II. passed for 215. (a guinea) because wrnrth it in silver, and it long passed for 305. We have reduced our silver coin as 3 3 to 1, but the florin has been reduced as 6 to 1, the livre as 74 to 1, the maravedi as 1000 to 1, and the re as 1100 to 1. We had no copper coins till 1610. Gold coin was introduced by Edward III. in six-shilling pieces, nearly equal in size to a modern sovereign. Nobles followed at 65. 8 d., and hence the lawyer’s fee ; after- wards there were half and quarter nobles. Edward IV. coined angels, with a figure of Michael and the dragon. Henry VIII. coined sovereigns and half-sovereigns of the modern value, puineas were the same size ; but being made of superior gold from sovereigns, guineas passed for 215., and, in 1798, at 305. The English silver penny of Edward III. was ordered to weigh 32 wheat grains from the middle of the ear. 20 of these pennies an ounce, and 12 ounces a pound. Eight pounds a gallon of wine, eight such gallons a bushel of wheat, and eight bushels a quarter. The silver penny, being marked with a cross, was easily broken into a half-penny, and fourth-penny. The Royal Mint, in England, was esta- blished in the 18th of Edward II. The Royal Mint is conducted by a master, warden, deputy, comptroller, assayers, melt- ers, weighers, clerk of the irons, engravers, &c. &c. The English Mint has eight presses, which strike 60 blows per minute, and produces 3600 coins an hour, for ten hours ; or, at least, 30,000 per day, making 240,000 for the eight presses. Good steel dies make 3 or 400, 005 impressions. Ingots of gold weigh 15 troy pounds each. Of silver from 50 to 60 pounds. The laint has eight melting-furnaces, two cranes, and two pouring machines. The furnaces are used three times a day ; and as each pot is about 420 pounds, they melt 10,080 pounds in a day of ten hours. The gold- pots are about 100 pounds, and melt it in an hour. The gold bars are rolled cold to the thickness of the coin, and the silver bars hot. In gold and silver, the troy pound of 5/6C 22 grains is divided into 24 carats , each 240 grains ; and the carat is sub-divided into four parts of 60 grains each, called carat- grains. As to pennyweights, of which there are 12 X 20 = 240 in a pound troy, the carat is 10 pennyweights, and the carat- grain is 24 pennyweights, or the 96th part of a pound. The diamond carat is 3 ^ grains. A pearl grain is 1 £ grain of 30 to the dwt. Weights of English Coinage in 1838 : oz. dwt. grs. Sovereign ..0 5 3274 Half-sovereign . . ..0 2 13-637 dwt. grs. Sixpence .. 1 19-6363 Shilling .. 3 15-2727 Half-crown . . .. 9 2-1818 Crown .. 18 4-3636 In England, the present relations of silver to gold are 1428 78 to 1. In Holland, as 158735 to 1. At Hamburgh, Venice, Petersburgh, and Bombay, as 15 to 1. At Madrid, as 16 to 1, and Paris 15 5 to 1. In China 14 25 to 1. In Bengal 14 827 to 1, per Mohur and Siccarupee. The eagle and dollar are as 15 94 to 1. The fineness of silver is expressed in ozs. and dwts. Thus, our standard silver is 11 ozs. 2 dwts. pure silver, and the remain- ing 18 dwts. is alloy. The fineness, there- fore, is \\ ■§•, or 0 9125. The fineness of gold is expressed in carats, as part of the 24 carats in a pound troy. Our standard gold is 22 carats out of the 24 pure gold, and the other 2 carats are alloy ; that is, the pure gold in a pound of standard gold is 5280 grains, and the alloy is 480 grains. The fineness, therefore, is -fy-§§ or or 0 917. Thp standard price of silver is 55. 2d. per oz., but our mint makes its issues at the rate of 55. 6d. per oz., or 665. per lb. troy. There are 107,520 half-pence in a ton of copper, worth £224. A lb. troy of silver yields 665., each 3 dwts. 15 2727, containing of fine silver 3 dwts. 87272 grains, and 6*5455 of alloy, at 1 1 oz. 2 dwts of fine silver to the lb. A lb. troy of gold yields 46 -5^5 sove- reigns, each 5 dwts. 3*274 grains, containing 4 dwts. 17 001 grains of fine gold, and 10‘273 of alloy, at 22 carats, or of fine gold to the lb. The best alloy for gold com is 1 oz. of silver and copper equal parts, to 1 1 ozs. of gold ; and for silver coin 3-37ths of copper. About | of gold coins are purer than English coin, and 99 in 100 silver are worse, and many are half, and more alloys, as Turkish, Venetian, and some German ; but Austrian, United States, Spanish, and Orien- tal, are nearest our standards. 917 of 1000 weight is the purity or titre of gold coins of England. Unired States, Portugal, Holland, Rome, Russia, and Aus- MONEY AND COINAGE. 23 tria ; 900 of France ; 901 and 875 of Spain ; 996 ot Naples ; 903 of Prussia and Saxony ; 976 of Sweden ; 904 and 979 of Switzerland ; 1 000 and 896 in Tuscany ; and 958 and 802 in Turkey. A pound of gold coin, of either country, is valued in these proportions. In silver, the proportion of silver to gross weight is 925 in 1000 in coins of England ; 900 of France ; 833 and 500 of Austria ; 875 to 688 of Denmark; 813 in Spain; 750 of Portugal ; of Rome 916| ; of the United States 903 ; of Naples 833| ; of the Nether- lands 941 to 583 ; of Russia ancl Prussia 750 ; of Saxony 823 ; of Sweden and Switzerland 8 78 ; of Tuscany 917, and of Turkey 802. The total of the French coinage of gold and silver, from 1805 to 1832, was 140 mil- lions sterling, or 3529 millions of francs, be- sides 2± millions of copper, &c. The total of the British coinage, in the same time, in gold and silver, was £62,361,168. So that the coinage of France, in 28 years, exceeded that of the United Kingdom by 77| millions. French money is one-tenth alloy, so that the claim in exchange is nine-tenths of the weight, or 0 9. In English gold coin the alloy is 0 083; so that the claim is 0 917. An English sovereign weighs 7 ‘980855, and is, therefore, in pure gold, as 1 to 0"917 ; i. e. 7318444035 is the claim. Then the French Napoleon, or Louis of 20 francs, weighs 6-45161 grains, from which one-tenth gives 5-806449 pure gold ; i. e. the two coins are as 58, &c. to 7‘31, &c., or as to francs as 20 to 25 2079, the fractions being usually reckoned in sous of 20 to the franc ; and truly, 25 francs, 4 sous, 15*8 centimes. It is com- monly 25 francs, and 6, 7, and 8 sous, and 1 sous is taken by the broker from the pub- lished rate. In 128 years, from 1689 to 1816, the gold coinage was 100£ millions, and the silver 13 millions, of which the first 58 of George III., included 744 gold (much recoined) and 4f silver. George I. and II., in 46 years, coined but 20 millions of gold, and .£537,405 of silver. There was coined in the entire reign of George III. in gold £71,639,213, and in silver £4,306,120. The gold coinage averaged, in 20 years of Bank suspension, only 4 a million per annum, and the silver nothing. The gold and silver coined in England, from 1790 to 1833, was 84 millions, of which 75 were gold and 9 silver. In 1821, the gold coined was 9£ millions of pounds sterling, and the silver £434,686. The gold coined in 1834 was £1,292,000, and of silver £432,775, copper £3,136. That is, 27,650 lbs. of gold, 131,144 of silver, and 14 tons of copper. In 1336, France coined 43£ millions of francs in silver, and 5 millions in gold. The first chiefly at Rouen, Paris, Lille, and Strasburg. The gold at Paris. The present circulation of specie, in France, is estimated by French authorities at 3583 millions of francs, or 150 millions sterling, and the great abundance in circula- tion warrants the assertion. 24 In 1800 and 1821, gold bullion was £3 17^. 10£d!. per ounce’; but, in 1813, it rose to £5 Is . ; and, in 1814, to £5 4s. ; in 1815, to £5 1 Is., by which the currency was depreciated 33 per cent Kelly's Cambist. In 500 years our silver coinage has been reduced in value as 99 to 32, and gold a*» 3 5 to 1. In France and Spain the reduction of silver coinage has been as 17 to 1. The chief gold coins of nations are in Ster- ling value as under : — £ : 5 . d. Austrian Sovereign m # 0 13 10’92 Ducat , # 0 9 4-98 Algiers Sequin , # 0 6 11 Belgian Sovereign . . # , 0 13 94 Berne Ducat # # 0 8 T48 Bavarian Carolin # # 1 0 4* Cologne Ducat • . , , 0 9 37 Mark , % 2 0 0 Denmark Christian * 5 0 16 74 Egyptian Sequin . , 0 5 4 4 East India Mohur . . , , 1 13 4 Rupee (Madras) 1 9 2-42 Star Pagoda # # 0 7 477 Japan Kopang 1 3 9*65 France, Louis , # 0 19 1071 Napoleon , , 0 15 10-5 Geneva Pistole , . # # 0 14 T9 Genoa Doppia , , 0 16 6'36 Hamburgh Ducat . . 9 # 0 9 4-35 Hanover George 0 16 4-66 Holland Ryder . . , . 1 4 975 Ducat , # 0 9 5f Japan, New Kopang # • 1 r\ 114 Milan, Sequin # , 0 9 4 98 — Sovereign . , 1 7 104 Doppia # . 0 15 774 Maltese Double Louis 1 18 2| Naples Oncetta # , 0 10 3 4 Netherlands, 10-florin piece 0 16 5-93 Persian Rupee , . 1 9 21 Piedmont Pistole # 1 2 275 Carlino # # 5 12 3 33 Poland, Ducat , . 0 9 4-34 Portugal, Joanese (6400 Rees) 1 15 1T98 Crusado (480 Rees) 0 2 7 43 Prussia, Frederic # m 0 16 61 Rome, Pistole # 0 13 84 Sequin , , 0 9 Russia, Ducat # . 0 9 2 4 - Imperial 2 1 7 Saxony, Ducat , . 0 9 4-34 Sicily, Ounce , , 0 10 lOf Spain, Pistole , m 0 15 11 35 Sweden, Ducat # 9 0 9 34 Switzerland, Pistole # 0 18 8-91 Turkey, Sequin , . 0 6 11 Tuscany, Sequin 0 9 61 United States, Eagle • • 2 3 101 Silver coins of all nations, valued in vure Silver. £ s. d. Austria, Rix Dollar 0 4 2 20 Creutzer m 0 0 81 Bavaria, Crown m m 0 4 5f — Florin m # 0 1 84 Belgian Crown . , # , 0 4 54 Cologne. Rix Dollar # # 0 4 T2 Denmark, 4 Marks ... 0 3 0-04 MONEY AND COINAGE, 25 Denmark, Rix Dollar , , 0 4 6 24 Skillings , , 0 0 9*62 East Indies, Sicca Rupee . . 0 2 0-54 France, 5 Francs , . 0 3 114 -Franc . . 0 0 Hi Geneva, 21 Sous . . 0 0 7'65 - 12 Florins . . . . 0 4 8 41 Genoa, Double Madonina .. 0 1 4-22 Hamburgh, Rix Dollar .. 0 4 7 8 Schillings . . 0 0 699 Holland, 3 Florins . . 0 5 2-33 Guilder . . 0 1 8-49 12 Stiver . . .. 0 1 090 50 Stiver . . .. 0 4 3-77 Lubec, Rix Dollar . . .. 0 4 6 Milan, Scuro . , 0 3 8-62 Lira . . . . 0 0 7 37 Naples, 10 Carl ini .. 0 3 5*20 Netherlands, Florin . . 0 1 8-72 Poland, Florin . . 0 0 11-72 Portugal, Crusado . . . . 0 2 4-67 Testoon . . 0 0 5-93 Prussia, Rix Dollar (30 Gros-l 0 2 iii chen) • • 3 Rome, Scudo . . 0 4 373 Testone . . 0 0 5-92 Russia, Ruble , . 0 3 Pol ten . . 0 1 7-06 10 Copick . . .. 0 0 3-95 Saxony, Rix Dollar .. 0 4 H Thaler . . 0 0 587 Sierra Leone, Macuta • . 0 0 4-53 Spain, Dollar .. 0 4 379 Real . . . . 0 0 5 Sweden, Rix Dollar . . 0 4 6 - 8 Skillings .. 0 0 -8-9 Switzerland, 40 Batzen . . 0 4 9-18 * 5 Batzen .. 0 0 6-88 Turkey, Piastre . . 0 0 9 45 Beshlie . . 0 3 2-54 United States, Dollar . . 0 4 H Dime, 1-lOth 0 0 571 Venice, Ducat # • 0 3 3-21 Lira • . 0 0 2-44 The British pound sterling is 24 francs 74 688 centimes of France; 11 gulden and 58 '868 cents of Belgium, 4 dollars 44 44 cents of tie United States, 74112725 rees of Por- tugal ; 9 florins, 31 kr., 3 24 pf., of Austria ; 6 thaler, 20 silver groscken, and 1 *601 pf. of Prussia ; 92 reals, 23 maravidis, and 2*456 dineros of Spain ; 4 scudi, 6 naoli, and 2 bajoschi of Rome, and 36 piastres, 8'585 paras of Turkey. Our new silver coins are of less value than the old coinage. Thus, the crown is but 45. 8-36d., and the shilling but ll*27d. in weight of pure silver. The Cologne mark is 3609 grains. The English mark is the troy pound, 5760 grains. The French mark is the kilogramme, 15,434 grains. The Spanish mark is 3550-5. The Russian mark 631 8 5, The Turkish cheque 4957 grains Sixty Cologne, Prussian, and Hambro’ marks are equal to 451 ozs. of standard English silver. 80 Amsterdam marks are S33 troy ozs. 5 Spanish marks are 37 ozs. 26 troy. 8 Portugal marks are 59 ozs. !9 marks of fine silver of Amsterdam are 164 ozs. 34 marks of Hamburgh ducats are 273 ozs. 8 marks fine silver of Hamburgh are 65 ozs. Ill ozs. of dollars are 1 07 ozs. and 48 ozs. are 43 of. fine silver. 61 ozs. poids de marc 60 ozs. of standard silver. 31 1 grammes are 1 oz. 1000 Spanish dol- lars, or pieces of eight, i. e. 866 ozs., are 835 ozs. of standard silver, and 1000 doubloons, i. e. 868 ozs., are 853 ozs. of our silver. In the United States, the dollar (whose par is 45. 6d. sterling, or 5 francs, 40 cen- times) is divided into 10 dimes, and each dime into 10 cents. The 100th of the dollar is a cent, and the 1000th a mill. The dollar, in the northern states, is 65. currency. In New York and North Caro- lina 85. In New Jersey, Pennsylvania, &c. 7s. 6d. ; and in South Carolina and Georgia 45. 8d. A golden eagle is 10 dollars, or sterling £2 3s. 8 d. Dollars are 45. 3\d. sterling, and cents are 208 grains of copper, the hundredth of a dollar. A bit is the tenth of a dollar, and a pistareen is 2 bits. Proportions of the Coin of various Nations to an American Dollar , its cents and thousandths : — D. C. M. In Thousandths A shilling 22 2 , , 222 A crown 9 0 # , 1,900 A sovereign, or a' pound 44 0 4,440 A guinea ,.4 88 7 4,887 A franc .0 18 7-5 . # 187*5 A livre tournois. . . .0 18 5 185 A marc banco .0 33 3 333 A florin, or guilder 0 40 0 400 A pistareen ....... .0 16 0 160 A rupee .0 50 0 500 A Danish rix- dollar 1 0 0 1,000 A Spanish 0 0 . . 1,00? A ruble 0 0 1,000 A Swedish rix-dol. 1 4 0 1,400 A milrea .1 24 0 m m 1,240 A Chinese tael .1 48 0 m m 1,480 A pagoda .1 84 0 1,840 A Spanish pistole . .3 77 8 m « 3,778 A moidore 0 8 8,008 A doubloon 14 83 3 14,833 18,000 A johannas 18 0 0 .. By means of the last column, any coins may be compared in a moment ; by multiplying the number of thousands in any one, and dividing by the other. Thus, 35 shillings X 222 = 7770, which is 7 dollars and 77 cents or rubles, or rix-dollars; or divided by 187 '5, is 42 francs and 82’5 cents; and so with the rest. The relations of the American dollar to the English gold sovereign has been changed by Act of Congress, and a sovereign declared equal to 4 dollars, 84 centimes, -instead of 4 dollars, 44 centimes. Dollars, in England, are estimated at 45. 65 h. 48/ 35" 3 365 days j Von Zach 5 h. 48/ 48" 016 Observatory, Greenwich 5 h. 48/ 49"7 The year is 365 24224 solar days, but our Leap years take 365 25, so that we gain the 0 00776 per annum, or a day in 128 years. The Sun is 7 days, 16 hours, 5i minutes, longer in the northern signs than in the southern. Northern signs. From the spring to the7 Q9 , 91 , 4 , summer solstice is . . J “ d ' 11 ' ra ' From the summer to thei 93d , 3 h 35 autumnal equinox ..$ Southern signs. From tne autumnal to7 Qa ^ i C , _ the winter solstice . . j 89 4 16 h. 47 m . From the winter to the7 on , . , An spring equinox j 90 d 1 h * 42 m * As the year used to be reckoned 365 days, 6 hours, and the true year is but 365 days, 5 hours, 48/, 48", the 12/, 12", in 1752, be- came 11 days too much, and the 2d of Sept. 1/52, was called the 13th, and the reckoning and the true motion made to agree. At Rome this was effected in 1582 when tiw C 35 TIME AND CHRONOLOGY. 3ti vernal equinox fell on the 11th instead of 21st, and 10 days were dropped. Three Leap vears are omitted in 400 years, but 109 Leap years in 450 years would be exact. Leap year is the year which divides evenly by four ; but the year 1900 will not be Leap year, to make up for the odd minutes gained between the astronomical and computed year, as 365 days. In 400 years 9 7 are Leap. The Romans added the day in Leap year on the sixth of the calends of March, making two sixths , or bis sextus, and hence the word Bissextile. The English, till 1/52, began the year at the vernal equinox. Thence, to make datf-3 agree with those of other nations, between January and Lady-day, our writers used to put two dates, as Feb. 10, 7- 7 T-he bottom date being that from Jan. 1, and the upper that from the previous Lady-day. Quarter-days, in civil reckoning, are March 25, June 24, Sept. 29, and Dec. 25, festivals of the Catholic Church. PERPETUAL ALMANAC TO ASCERTAIN THE DAY OF THE WEEK FOR ANY DAY OF THE MONTH WITHIN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. COMMON YEARS. d i\ c3 S ►*1 "3 i -i he P < a 19 nnnpars In hp nn FYirlav 1 for add 7 to the 5th, or first Friday we get the 12th, and if the 19th we add 14. Subtract from the given 1812 1840 1868 1896 3 6 7 3 5 1 3 6 2 4 7 2 1816 1844 1872 1 4 5 l 3 6 1 4 7 2 5 7 day of the month 7, 14, 21, or 28, and you get the day of the week. 1820 1848 1876 6 2 3 6 1 4 6 2 5 7 3 5 Thus in col. 4, opposite 1837, June — — 24 is on a Saturday, for 21 sub- 1824 1852 1880 1 4 7 1 4 6 2 4 7 3 5 1 3 1828 1856 : 1884 O 5 6 2 14 7 2 5 1 3 1 6 1 1 2 3 4 i 5 1 6 1 7 Monday I Tuesday 1 Wednes. 1 Thursday 1 1 Friday 1 Saturday 1 Sunday 1 Tuesday 2 Wednes. 2 Thursday 2 Friday 2 Saturday 2 Sunday 2 ! Monday 2 Wednes. 3 Thursday 3 Friday 3 Saturday 3 Sunday 3 Monday 3 Tuesday 3 Thursday 4 Friday 4 Saturday 4 Sunday 4 Monday 4 Tuesday 4 Wednes. 4 Friday 5 Saturday 5 Sunday 5 Monday 5 Tuesday 5 Wednes. 5 Thursday 5 Saturday 6 Sunday 6 Monday 6 Tuesday 6 Wednes. 6 Thursday 6 Friday 6 Sunday 7 Monday 7, Tuesday 7 Wednes. 7 Thursday 7 Friday 7 Saturday 7 Every year is distinguished by its Domi- nical Letter, A to G, and in every Leap year there are two Dominical Letters, one to the end of February, and the other the letter preceding. To find, for any year, the Dominical Let- ter, 1. Divide the centuries by 4. 2. Take twice what remains from 6. 3. Add this last remainder to the odd years above the even centuries, and to the 4th part of the?*! add year in even numbers. 4. Divide the sum by 7. 5. Subtract the remainder from 7, and this is the number of the Dominical or Sunday Letter. Thus 1836, by 4, gives no remainder ; then 6 -f- 36 + 9 = 51, which by 7, gives 2, and 7 — 2 = 5, which from G is C, and being Leap year after Feb. 29, is B. And being third from A, the first Sun- day is the 3d of January. To find the Golden Number , or year of TIME AND CHRONOLOGY. 437 38 the Lunar Cycle , add 1 to the date, and divide by 19, then the quotient is the number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden Number. The Dominical Letter, for 1838, is G, the Golden Number 15, the Epac.t 4. Easter Day April 15. Whit-Sunday June 3. The Cycle of the Sun is the 28 years be- fore the days of the week return to the same days of the month. It is found by adding 9 to the date of the year, and dividing by 28 ; the quotient is the number of cycles, and the remainder is the number of the cycle. The Epact is the moon’s age on the 1st of January. A year is 12 moons and 11 days. To determine this from 1800 to 1900, sub- tract 1 from the Golden Number, found as above, multiply by 11, and divide by 30, and the remainder is the moon’s age for January 1. To find the moon’s age on any day, add the epact of the year, the epact of the month, and the day of the month together ; if less than 29£, it is the moon’s age ; if more, take 29| from it. The epact of the month— 0 for January, 2 for February, 1 for March, and 3, 4, &c. to 10 from April to December. The Epact is the eleven days which the solar year exceeds twelve lunations. The time of the moon’s southing is four- fifths of an hour later every day from the last new moon. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full moon that occurs after the 21st of March ; to find it add 6 to the epact, and subtract from 50, or if the sum is above 30, subtract the remainder, and the difference is 'the day of the full moon, counting from after March 1 ; this is called the Easter limit, and Easter Sunday is the following Sunday. To fix the day of the month add 4 to the num- ber of the Dominical Letter for the year, and subtract the sum from the Easter limit ; then take this remainder from any multiple -of 7 greater than the said remainder, and add the new remainder to the Easter limit, .and the sum will be the day on which Easter •Sunday falls in March, if less than 31, or in April, if more than 31 . Easter is a festival of Phoenician origin, •called Estarte or Ashtaroth. The Cycle of Indiction was 15, and began 3 B. C. The three cycles, 19, 28, and 15, multi- plied, produce 7980 changes, after which period, they return in the same order as be- fore ; arid this is called the Julian period. The year 1 of Christ was 4714 of this com- pounded period. The metonic cycle of 19 years is 1 hour, 129 minutes more than 235 lunations of 29 days, 12 hours, 44/, 2", 48 HI i. e. 8 hours in 100 years, and a day in 300 years. The year 1838 is the 6551 of the Julian period. The Christian festivals appear to have been fixed astrologically. The feast of the Virgin Mary is on the day the Sun enters Aries that of John the Baptist on entering Cancer, that of Michael on entering Libra, and that of Jesus on entering Capricorn, these being the four cardinal points. St. Paul on entering Aquarius, Matthew on entering Pisces, Mark on entering Taurus, Corpus Christi on entering Gemini, St. James on entering Leo, St. Bartholomew on enter- ing Virgo, Simon and Jude on entering Scorpio. The days correspond, allowing for the precession of the equinoxes. Epiphany, or 12th Day, celebrates the arrival of the wise men of the East. Plough Monday is the end of Christmas. The Purification, or Candlemas, celebrates the Jewish ceremony of the presentation of the Mother of Jesus. Quadragesima Sunday is the first Sunday in Lent, Septuagesima is the Sunday before, and Quinquagesima precedes. Ash Wednesday is the day whi«h com- mences the forty days of Lent, when for four days the Popes sprinkle ashes. Lady-Day is the day of the Virgin’s mi- raculous conception. Palm Sunday celebrates Christ’s entrance into Jerusalem. Maunday Thursday, when kings give alms, &c. to the poor. Good Friday celebrates the Crucifixion. Easter Sunday the Resurrection. Ascension-day, forty days after Easter Sunday. Whit-Sunday is forty-nine days after Eas- ter Sunday, also the day of Pentecost. Trinity Sunday, next after Whit-Sunday. Lammas was an ancient quarter-day, ac- cording with W hitsuntide, Martinmas, and Candlemas. Michaelmas is a festival in honour of Michael, an angel much spoken of by magi- cians. All Saints is a day of prayer for' saints who have no special days. Advent Sunday is that which is nearest to St. Andrew’s day. Christmas celebrates the birth of Christ. St. Stephen’s and the Holy Innocents celebrate the massacre of the first martyr and the children by Herod. April is so called from Aperit, the Spring. September, October, &c. were the 7th, 8th, &c. months of the year of Romulus. Plough Monday was the feast of the plough, in honour of agriculture. St. David’s Day is March 1, St. Patrick’s March 17, St. George’s April 23, St. An- drew’s Nov. 30, St. Deny’s Oct. 9. These and other days, to the number of 300, besides Sundays, used to be celebrated by the Catholic Church, and being identified with the customs of the nation, have been preserved in the Anglican Church. Dionysius, a monk, introduced the iEra of Christ, in 527. It was not general till the 1 5th century. The astronomical equinoxes are on the 21st of March and 21st of September, and the Sun is in the tropics on the 21st of De- cember or June. Christian nations assign thirty days U\ April, June, September, and November v 39 time and chronology. 4C thirty-one to other months, and twenty-eight to February, making three hundred and sixty-five ; but three hundred and sixty-six in leap-year, when February is twenty-nine. The precession of the equinoxes is per- formed in 2&S68 years ; and the revolution of the line of apsides in 20931. The preces- sion of the equinoxes is per annum 50"'1005 or l'} 23' 30" in a century. The advance of the Apsides is 61" 9177 per annum, or 1° 13 1 16" in a century. One varies the de- clination of the perihelion and aphelion forces, and produces alternate accumula- tions of the seas in both hemispheres ; and the other (the precession) varies the aspect of the heavens at the same periods of the year. The Jews began the year in March, and the months were Nisan, Zif, Sivan, Tam- muz, Ab, Elul, Tisri, Bui, Cislieu, Tebeth, Shebat, Adar. The Sabbath, or seventh day, is Saturday. The days and nights, from sun-rise and sun-set, were divided into twelve equal parts, or hours, 1, 2, 3, &c. The night-watches were three hours each, from sun-set to sun-rise. The months were lunar, or 30 and 29 days, and they introduced an extra month every two or three years. The day commences and ends at sun-set. The Jewish months were alternately 29 and 30 days, and their year of twelve luna- tions 354 days. Their year commences with the vernal equinox. To recover the four days they intercalate a whole month after every two or three years, following their •welfth month, or Adar ; and they call this **xtra month Ve-adar. The Jewish day commences at six in the evening, or sun-set, and continues till the *ame hour on the following evening. Their civil year commences with the new moon *iear the vernal equinox, in the month called Tisri, of 30 days, corresponding with part of September and part of October. The Jewish year 5599 commences Sep. 20, 1838. The Ramadan commences November 18, #838. The ancients made convenient approxi- mations, when they gave 12 moons, or months to the year, and when they divided the Zodiac into 12 signs of 30 degrees each. In moons, they lost nearly 11 days, and in 160 degrees they lost about 5| in every year. Hence the confusion of their dates, some reckoning by the equal period of days — others by moons, or weeks — and some by revolutions round the Sun. Inattention, often wilful, to the motions or measures of different nations, or authors, leads to most of the discrepancies of ancient authors in chronology. The Roman lustra were periods of 5 vears ; and the Greek Olympiads periods of i years ; and the first commenced in 776 B.C. Italian days, from 1 to 24 hours, begin 24 it half an hour after Sun-set, and count 1 at 1| hour after Sun-set. The Mahometans reckon 12 hours from Sun-set to Sun-rise, and so for the day, whatever be the length of either. The Chinese begin an hour be- fore mid-night, and divide the rotation into 12 parts of 2 of our hours, and give a name to each division. The Hindoos divide the day into 4 watches, and each watch into ghurees of 24 minutes each, 60 of which make up the rotation of 1440 minutes. The Hegira, or Flight, took place July 16, 622, and is the Mahomedan era. Their year is 12 lunar months, or 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes ; and eleven days being lost, a year must be allowed every *33, to reconcile their dates with ours. The Mahomedans, for 1830, began June 22 ; 1831, June 12 ; 1832, May 31 ; 1833, May 21; 1834, May 10; 1835, April 29; and, going back, will be in 1895 on June 22 again; and in another 65 years, or 1960, they will begin the year on June 26th. Our year 1840 is the Hegira 1256, begin- ning March 5; our 1845 is 1261, on Jan. 10; and our 1850 is 1267, beginning Nov. 6; 1900 is 1318, on May 1. It falls back 11 or 12 days per annum. The periodical month of the Turks and Arabs, or sidereal period of the Moon, is 27 days, 7 hours, 43' 48". The synodical month, or return to the conjunction of the Sun, is 29 days, 12 hours, 44/ 3" 11 thirds. The Jews still celebrate as fasts the day of the deaths of Moses, Miriam, Joshua, Elijah, Samuel, Aaron, Gedaliah, and Herod. The Mahomedans celebrate the defeat at Vienna, the taking of Constantinople, and the birth of Mahomet. The eastern nations, where the day varies little, reckon the day from Sun-rise. Ro- mans reckoned from midnight. The Persians give names to every day in the month, just as we give them to days of the week. Saturday, the seventh day, is, by the Arabs, called Sabt. And Monday is called Jama, in all the Eastern languages. In the year 1000 A. C. the Arabs used the pendulum as a measure of time. The Hindoos have been caricatured in their chronology, either by ignorance of European reporters, or by such misinforma- tion as the Egyptian priests used to give the Greeks. They are profound astronomers, and have tables for calculating the Planets, or places, consisting of multiples of periods, exactly like our tables for the same pur- poses. Ignorance has converted these into records of past time, and the usual multiples of mean motions have been supposed to be thousands and millions of past years ! Their longest astronomical period is the maha-yug of 4,320,000 years, as the least even multiple of even lunations and solar days ; and it con- tains (if we get the figures right) 52,753,336 lunations and 1,577,917,828 days. They thus determine a mean lunation to be 29 days, 12 hours, 44', 2", 4 7' // , 36"", and the year to be 365 days, 5 hours, 31', 31", 24"'. But every intelligent reader will perceive that this is astronomy, not chronology ; yet we are told the Hindoos claim millions of years ! Their civil history does not go back above 2000 B.C. But their sciences poetry. HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY. 41 &c. are of much higher antiquity. Prose histories were a later invention. The Astro- nomers divide the maya-yug into the sabya- yug of 04. The treta of 0 3. The dwapa 0 2, and the cali-yug of 01, or 432,000 years, all of them approximate multiples ; and this last is often quoted by ignorant ancient writers, as a real period of observation ! It began in 3102 B. C. It is, however, proper to state, that the priests claim a theological time of nearly 2000 millions of years since the beginning, and they say, that Brahma was 17 millions of years creating. They refer also to pe- riodical deluges, such as the elliptical orbit and geology demand. According to the Hindoos, 4944 years have elapsed since the commencement of the cali-yug, or present period of 432,000. The European reporters, also, describe it as an article of Faith , that Satyavrata lived through the first period of 1,728,000, fifty- five sovereigns in the next, 23.000 years each, twenty-nine in the next, nearly 30,000 each, and then thirty in 1000 years, or 33 each, called solar kings. In India, a day is divided into 60 ghurries, a ghurry into 60 puls, a pul into 60 prans, and a pran into 10 tas, in 2-5ths of a second. Chinese reckoning is lunar months, or 29 and 30 days alternately ; every three years they add a 13th month to reconcile the mo- tions of the Sun and Moon. The difference between a solar and ancient lunar year was 10 8755 days. The Chaldeans made the sidereal year 365 days, 6 hours, 14 minutes, or 1 minute, 49 seconds more than our present year ; and the tropical year 365 days, 5 hours, 49 mi- nutes, 30 seconds. Hipparchus, in his measure of the tropical year, made W’2 11 more than at this time. The Brahmins made it 1 minute, 43 seconds more than now. The Egyptian year began at the heliacal rising of Sirius, and being 365 days, they lost a year in 1460, and then called 1461, 1462. The Chaldeans, Egyptians, and Jews, be- gan their civil year from the autumnal equinox. The Persians, Greeks, Romans, from the vernal equinox. The Olympic games were reckoned from the praetor Coraebus whose name had been first recorded, in 776. The games had been re-established 108 years previously. The Olympian date was continued till the fifth century A. C. Newton reckons reigns at only 18 or 20 years, but modern history makes it 25 ; and he fixed the Argonautic expedition in 928, on data now exploded. Ancient observations of eclipses verify many dates, and have been used to some advantage. In computing the year of the Hegira, sub- tract 621 from the year A. D. and then add 0 03ths to the remainder. The Ancients measured time by sun-dials and clepsydra. The latter founded the laws of the unequal flow or pressure of water. *t appeared that if, in 12 hours, 14 inches 43 in heighth of water flowed, the flow is 23 inches in the first hour, 21 in the second, 19 in the third, &c. to 1 inch only in the last or 12th hour. Hence, the height in each hour is inversely as the squares of the times, 1 in the 12th hour, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 121 and 144, in the commencement of the 1st hour. They also used sand-glasses. The Zodiac corresponds with the Egyptian seasons, 15,000 years ago . — La Place. As the orbits of the planets complete their seasons their periods are taken to be their years ; hence Mercury has nearly four years in ours, Venus two-thirds. Mars is nearly four times as long, Jupiter twelve times, Saturn thirty, Herschel eighty-three, and more distant planets longer. HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY. The Roman years were A. U. C. that is, ah urhe condita , from April 21, To 4, B. C. Year 10 months. Greek Olympiads of 4 years began 776 B. C. Year 1 2 and 593 months. The first was Hecatombeon, and in years of 13, Po- seideon was repeated. The Romans dated by the indiction of 15 years, and extended it in their conquests. Of the time, or motion, that has elapsed since the Beginning of the globe, we can have no approximate idea. Genesis speaks of it indefinitely, and the data afforded by rocks and fossils are vague ; yet, till geology surprised us by its facts, historians had been so mystified that their opinions are worth- less. Whether a million, or many million of years have elapsed since the coal forma- tion, cannot be ascertained, and then below these are organized relics, whose production must have employed far more time. The Hindoos first used cycles and epochs, then the Egyptians and Chinese. The Jews had none till after their return under Ezra. The Greeks had none till they counted by the series of the Olympic games, and the Babylonians none till they adopted the first year of Nabonaser. History without epochs to count from, is like mile-stones without a first standard. The era of the cali-yug began 3101 B. C., and now commences in April. The cycle of Brihuspotee, or Jupiter, is 60 years, and the 84th is now passing, so that it began before the time of the cali-yug, L e. 3184, and every period has a name. The Hindoos have two others, Vikrama- ditya in 56, and Saka in 76. Taautus introduced at So, in 3160, the cycle called Sothic, of 1460 years, which in. eludes the odd £ day (4 X 365 = 1460.) The second expired about 240 B. C. and its return is called the Phoenix. The Chinese cycle is 60 years, each 10th and 12th having a name. They are now in the 76th, which, therefore, commenced about 4550. The era of the Seleucidae, 311 B. C., of Alexander 223 B. C., and of the battle of Actium 31 B. C., of the Caesars 38 B. C., of 43 HISTORICAL Tyro 125, of Abraham 2016, and of Antioch 49 , were also used by some early writers. The Mexican era began in 1090 A. C. and their year was astronomical. The Armenian era began 552 A. D. The French era began Sept. 22, 1792. The Chaldean Saros was the lunar cycle of 18 years, 10 or 11 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes. The 46th year of the Julian calendar was the first of our bra. There is an uncertainty about the Epoch of the birth of Christ, and also whether he was crucified in the 15th, 16th, or 19th year of Tiberius. The early fathers assigned but one year to his public preaching, others two, but Eusebius made it three and a-balf, and, if so, he lived till the 19th of Tiberius. The chronology was not inquired into till the sixth century, in the reign of Justinian. The first year of the Christian Era began on the Jewish Sabbath, Saturday. The early Christians, till the era of the birth of Christ was estimated, dated from the acces- sion of Diocletian in 284. Our earliest records are the Jewish Scrip- tures, the Dynasties of Manetho, the Chinese Annals, and the Abstract of Sanchoniatho, by Eusebius, but the learned are divided into parties, when these are used as mea- sures of past time. We have in the Bible an accurate mea- sure from Abraham to Joshua, and from Samuel to the Christian JEra. But mankind have not agreed about the period before Abraham, nor about the length of the inter- val from Joshua to Samuel. Manetho is thought to have confused his Dynasties. The Chinese Annals merit respect ; but San- choniatho has no dates. Josephus, Syncellus, Herodotus, and some other Greek and Roman writers, compiled with the advantage of authorities no longer in existence, but none of them had the ad- vantage of the new lights, which the study of Geology has thrown on the age of the world. The Epoch of Adam is that to which chronology usually aspires. The Vulgate fixes it at 4004 years B. C., which is adopted by the Romish church. The Samaritan Pentateuch makes it 4700. The Septuagint 5872. The Talmud 5344. Hales 5411. Alphonso, king of Castile, 6934. Pezron 5872. The Greek church 5508. The early Fathers 5502 and 5592. Two hundred other authorities vary it from 6984 to 3268 B. C. The Jews are said to have altered the He- brew text as an argument against the Christians. Many critics believe that Adam was the Alorus of Central Asia, a chief, who first drew tribes into a social state. He had ten successors, or Dynasties, who lived hundreds of years similar to the ten Antedeluvian Patriarchs. It is also asserted, that the constellation Orion was formed from Alorus, and refers to this first chief. This seems certain, that as no remains of man have yet been found below the alluvial or outer surface, so the human race must CHRONOLOGY. 44 * have originated since that terrestrial epoch, when the last formations of deluvium took place, in which are found genera and species of animals, &c. no longer in existence ; but with which man has not yet appeared to have been contemporary. By the Author's theory, that the chief part of the Northern hemisphere was submerged by the Perihelion Forces, between the years 4000 B. C. and 14,500 B. C. we fi-x a limit to these speculations ; for none but high lands would be habitable before 7 or 8000 years B. C., and between that time and 5 or 6000 years B. C. all animals might multiply in the plains, and man then lay the foundations of our history. The Perihelion passed the Equator exactly 4000 years B. C. and then the land in the Northern hemisphere would take its present forms. The next great epoch is the Deluge, and believing it to have happened after the age of Adam, it is impossible to speculate on its cause. Seme ascribe it to the bursting of the Atlantic into the once fertile basin of the Mediterranean ; and others to the irrup- tion of the Euxine and other seas, through the Hellespont. Sacred history makes Noah, the 10th patriarch, escape in an ark, and profane history makes Xisuthrus, the 10th king of Sipporah in N. W. Syria, escape in like manner, and both to Caucasus. The dates of this event must of course be traditional and conjectural. Sanchoniatho, Manetho, and the Greek schools, do not notice it, though they treat of events long anterior. Moses speaks of Vulcan and of giants, and god kings, before the Flood, and so do the above, but without a Flood. The Vulgate fixes it so late as 2348 B. C., but the Septuagint makes it 3246, the Samaritan in 2998, and Josephus in 3146; Cullimore quotes five or six other dates. The Laws of Menu speak of it like Moses, but their date,, though of great antiquity, is uncertain. Amidst a thousand speculations, may it not be a tradition of a Perihelion Deluge, and demand other 3 or 4000 years to its epoch ? Josephus, in his 1st and 2d chapters, as- signs 4053 years from Adam to the Exodus ; then, if we add 1830 from Thuthmosis, per Young, to our era, we get 5883 from Adam to Christ, on his high authority. His 3d chapter, after the Exodus, is 2 years ; 4th, 38 years; 5th, 76 years; 6th, 32 years; 7th, to the death of David, 40 years. His 8th, is 163 years; his 9th, 157 years to the Captivity, when Josephus calls it 947 years from the Exodus, though the addition is but 908. He then makes it 182£ to Cyrus, and 253^ to the death of Alexander in 323,. B. C., 759, which added to the 947 is 1706 from the Exodus to our era, to which add 4053, and we get 5759 -f- 1838 = 769 7 from Adam. In other places, Josephus claims 5000 years for the period of the Old Testament, to Ne- hemiah or Artaxerxes, and 3000 from Adam to Moses. Manetho was expressly employed by Pto. lemy Philadelphus to arrange the Dynasties,, and he made a list of 31, distinguishing the* HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY. Thiban from the Memphite, or Upper from Lower Egypt, when separate. There are, however, a party who discard the first 17 as fictitious, simply because the extension does not agree with the chronology of the Vulgate. The Parian Chronicle is on marble, found at Paros, and (if true) formed in 284 B. C. It contains 79 paragraphs, from Cecrops, the first king of Athens, in 1582 B. C. (the pe- riod of the birth of Moses) to Dion, Tyrant of Syracuse. It speaks of some Mars and Neptune as contemporary in 1532. Of the deluge in the iEgean Sea, which drove Deu- calion to Athens, in 1529, and of Hellen, his son, who gave the name of Hellenians to the north of Greece. Cadmus, on the same authority, built Thebes, as a Phoenician co- lony, in 1519. The first arrival of a ship from Egypt, under Danaus, in 1514. It tells that Minos the First reigned in Crete, in 1434 j and mentions the arrival of Ceres, to teach the sowing of seeds, in 1409 ; and the sending of Triptolemus, to teach the same art to others, in 1406. It speaks of poems on the rape of Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, in 1399. And of Hercules, as living in 1300; of the oracle of Apollo as existing in 1295, and of Theseus, as living in 1259. Of the siege of Troy, from 1218 to 1209. Of Hesiod in 944, and of Homer in 907. Many of these dates do not accord with the Egyptian Chronology, but the Chronicle enables us, in two or three instances, to verify the dates of Manetho’s list of Egyp- tian Kings. Thus, he states, that the local flood of Deucalion took place in the reign of Misphragmuthosis, and that Troy was taken in the reign of Thuoris, 1209. Both Mane- tho and Josephus assert that the Jews, or Hycsos, were driven out of Egypt by Thuth- mosis, the first of a native dynasty, preceded by four Jewish kings, and Young, in ascend- ing from Cambyses in 525, makes the middle of the reign of Thuthmosis 1774 B. C. Josephus reckoned 393 years from the Exodus to Sethos, whom he considered as Sesostris, the brother of Danaus ; but, if we take the middle of the reign of Sethos, or 1400, this would give 1793 for the expulsion. By the list, Thuthmosis began to reign in 1800, and reigned 50 years ; and Manetho states, that he reigned 25 years and 4 months after the expulsion. Annotators on Jerome’s Vulgate make it 1491, a date which confuses all ancient his- tory. The Shishak of the Jews, the Egyptian Seconchosis, by Young’s list, began to reign m 971, and took Jerusalem, but he was not Sesostris, as Newton imagined. Then we have the joint evidence of Ma- netho and Josephus, that the Jews, or Hycsos, were 511 years in Egypt, and this, added to 1775, gives 2286 for the immigra- tion of Jacob and his family. Adding, then, the agreed 290 to 2286, we g?t 2576 for the birth of Abraham ; which, by Josephus, leaves 570 from the Deluge, or by the Septuagint850, as the period in which society arrived at its state in the days of Abraham 46 The observations of eclipses, &c. in India, Chaldea, &c. carry us to the same epoch of 3150, and the Chinese claim the year 2953 for the reign of Fohee ; which are reconcile- able with the Septuagint, which fixes the flood in 3426. The 36,535 years claimed from Vulcan to Julius Caesar, divided by 12 4 moons, per annum, gives nearly 3000 years. But astro- nomical periods as the Chaldean observa- tions, are to be taken as astronomical days, and 430,000 by 365 2 gives 1177 years The loss of time in the Vulgate Chrono- logy, in the 10th and 11th of Genesis ; and in Judges, where in chap. ii. ver. 10, & c. 2 or 300 years are set down only as 20 and 30 years. Chinese Chronology is founded on their observations of eclipses 4700 years ago. The Hindoos determined the mean motions of Saturn and Jupiter in 3102 B. C. Manetho’s 31 Dynasties include 5471 solar years, before Cambyses, but they included two sets when Egypt was divided, and may be safely taken at 3000 years. The sacred family of Chronus, not strictly Egyptian, lasted other 307 solar years. The Jews, in their five or six reigns of 190 years, de- stroyed every vestige of the previous dynas- ties, and the present ruins are chiefly those of the 18th and subsequent dynasties, which were not destroyed by Cambyses. Tw Sothic periods of 1460 years elapsed abot. 250 B. C. and this carries back Thoth to 3170, which harmonizes all ancient chro- nology. Those who would disturb these deduc- tions, are constrained to represent the shep- herd Hycsos and the shepherd Jews as distinct, contrary to the positive declara- tion of Josephus and others, that they were identical ; so that unless a dozen peculiar circumstances happened alike to two races, and not one unlike, the difference cannot be maintained. Two nations were not driven out, and two did not flee to Canaan. In constructing a chronological table, w T e are obliged to begin with uncertain periods. The best data seem to be cycles in succes- sion, for these are preserved by universal consent. Now Thoth invented a cycle of 1460 years to include the quarter days, i. e. 365 X 4, and this Phoenix returned about 240 B. C. Then twice 1460 is 2920, and 240 added is 3160 B. C. + 1838 = 5008. The living Thoth started this period, no doubt, from the first day of first month called after his own name. Then Thoth, we know, was contemporary with Chronus and his family, after whom he named the planets. The next cycle is that of the Hindoos, of 60 years, of which they are now in the 42d of the 84th, that is 83 X 60 = 4980 + 42 = 5022 — 1838 = 3184 B. C. They have, also, 3 other cycles corroborative. The third is the Chinese of 60 years, now in the 76th, i. e. 4560 — 1838 = 2722, about 260 years, after Fohee. We have, also, various observations of eclipses, &c. about 3150 in India, China, anj 47 HISTORICAL Chaldea. Mankind appear, therefore, about this age, of 3200, to have made a start in civilization, and they afford corroborative evidence of each others science. According to the Septuagint, the Deluge took place about 300 years before, or in 3426, and to Josephus in 3146, which must be wrong, if it was general. Before Christ. The Deluge, per Septuagint, .. 3426 The Hindoo Cycle commenced .. 3184 Sothic Cycle do. .. 3160 Chinese Cycle .. „ . .. 2/22 The next following Bates are from Manetho and Sanchoniatho : — Hephaestus and Vulcan, about .. 3300 Helius and Ouranus, about . . 3200 Chronus, about 3180 Dagon invented the plough, &c. about 3160 — as Ahsi-Erietis, or Osiris in Egypt, about 3150 The Planets named after Chronus, Jupiter, Ares, Astarte, and Taau- tus. The Sun after Apollo, and the Moon after Dione, about . . 3130 Taautus succeeded Misor, or Menes, in Egypt, about 3140 Taautus invented Hieroglyphics . . - — the Sacerdotal System in Egypt introduced medicine, ma- thematics, written laws, and regulations of time Jupiter, son of Chronus, in Crete, about 3135 Belus, another son, in Babylon, about 3130 The Titan War among the children and wives of Chronus, about .. 3125 Fohee, in China 2980 Shinnong Ditto 2848 Eclipses, &c. recorded in China . . 2830 The Pyramids built, about «. .. 2/00 Jewish and Greek Dates : — Birth of Abraham 257(5 Yao, Emperor of China .. .. 2357 Jacob goes into Egypt .. .. 2286 T'nu.thmosis, King of Egypt .. 1800 Exodus of the Jews, or Hycsos .. 1 775 Flood of Ogyges 1764 Flood of Deucalion .. .. 1529 Cadmus builds Thebes .. .. 1512 Amunmai Rameses .. .. 1510 Danaus in Argos 1509 Utica and Cadiz built by the Phoeni- cians 1450 The Argonautic Expedition .. 1263 T heseus reigned in Athens .. 1259 Troy taken 1209 Codrus, King of Athens .. 1069 David, King of Israel .. .. 1053 Solomon’s Accession .. .. 1015 Hesiod and Homer flourished .. 920 Carthage founded by Phoenicians . - 886 Death of Lycurgus . . . . 873 The First Olympiad .. .. 776 Rome founded .. .. .. 753 Samaria, taken and tribes dispersed 721 T he Pentateuch found by Hilkiah 625 Nebuchadnezzar flourished .« 600 CHRONOLOGY. 48 Solon and Thales flourished ■ ft 594 Jerusalem taken and destroyed • ft 586 Cyrus became King of Persia 559 Babylon taken by Cyrus 538 Cambyses conquers Egypt 529 The Tarquins expelled 509 The Battle of Marathon 490 Aristides banished 484 The Sea-fight at Salamis 480 Herodotus flourished 445 Phidias flourished 440 The Peloponnesian War 431 Death of Pericles and Anaxagoras 42S Death of Socrates 400 Rome taken by the Gauls 385 The Death of Plato 348 Alexander destroyed Thebes 335 Alexander built Alexandria 332 Alexander died at Babylon 323 Aristotle and Demosthenes died 322 Macedonian Empire divided 301 Praxiteles died 288 The Alexandrian Library founded 283 Death of Epicurus 2 70 The First Punic War 264 End of the First Punic War 242 Romans conquered all Italy 226 Antiochus the Great 223 Battle of Cannae 219 Second Punic War 218 Death of Archimedes 212 Jerusalem taken by Antiochus 203 Persius defeated 170 Battle of Zama 167 Judas Maccabeus flourished 166 The Last Punic War 149 Carthage destroyed 146 Greece, a Roman province 145 Death of Tiberius Gracchus 133 Athens taken by Sylla 86 Sylla perpetual Dictator 82 Syria conquered by Pompey 64 Caesar landed in Britain 55 Gaul conquered 51 Caesar made Dictator 49 Pompey killed 47 Caesar killed 44 Cicero killed 43 Battle of Actium 31 Death of Horace 8 Birth of Christ 0 After Christ. Death of Augustus 16 Death of Ovid and Livy . . 17 Pilate governor of Judea • . 27 Sejanus put to death „ . 31 Jesus Christ crucified . . 33 Death of Tiberius . . 37 Claudius succeeded Caligula . . 41 Claudius visited Britain 43 Nero succeeded Claudius . . 54 Boadicea defeated . . 61 Seneca and Lucan put to death 65 St. Peter and St. Paul put to death 67 Galba succeeded Nero . . 68 Otho succeeded Galba, and Vitellius Otho 9 m 69 Jerusalem taken and destroyed 70 Titus succeeded Vespasian 7 ® Pliny killed at Vesuvius • ft 79 HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY. 40 50 Doinitian succeeded Titus The Dacian war began .. Death of Josephus Nerva succeeded Domitian Trajan succeeded Nerva Death of Tacitus St. Ignatius destroyed at Rome The first Bishop of Rome Trajan subdued Assyria * . . Jerusalem rebuilt, and the Temple dedicated to Jupiter The Romans destroyed 580,000 Jews, and banished the rest from Judea The Romans agreed to pay tribute to the Goths Persian Kingdom restored The Temple of Diana at Ephesus destroyed The Teutons and Franks invade the Empire The Goths and Heruli defeated by Claudius II., and 300,000 killed The ninth Persecution of the Chris, tians Palmyra taken Dioclesian divided the empire Constantine tolerated the Christians The Council of Nice Constantinople made the capital of the empire The Mythological Temples demo- lished Death of Constantine Death of Eusebius The Emperor Julian abjures Chris- tianity Theodosius emperor of the East The Empire divided Europe overrun by Alaric Rome sacked by Alaric The Romans left Britain Genseric, the Vandal, overran Italy, and invaded Africa Pope Leo the Great Attila and the Huns overran Europe The Frieselanders arrived in Britain. under Hengist and Horsa Rome taken by Genseric Other Frieselanders, under Octa, landed in Northumberland Hengist murdered 300 British Chiefs at Knighton Rome taken by Odoacer, who was made King of Italy, which put an end to the Roman Empire 1229 years after building Rome Clovis, King of the Franks Death of St. Patrick The Bishop of Rome asserted his supremacy Alaric defeated and killed by Clovis Arthur, King of the Silures The Christian iEra invented and in- troduced by Dionysius, a monk . . Justinian made Emperor of the East The Angles, a Gothic race, landed in the Northern counties Death of Arthur Totila, the Goth, took and plundered Rome Retaken by Belisarius 81 And recovered by Totila 550 88 Death of Justinian and Belisarius 569 93 Latin tongue ceased to be spoken 580 96 The flight of Mahomet from Mecca 98 to Medina 622 99 Death of Mahomet 633 108 Jerusalem taken by Omar „ m 636 109 Saracens overran North Africa . m 698 115 Spain conquered by the Saracens . . 713 The Christian religion propagated in 130 Germany • . 719 The Saracens in France 722 135 Charles Martel defeated the Sara- cens, near Tours 732 222 The Christian iEra first used in books 748 226 Bagdad built by Almanzor m m 762 Charlemagne King of France m . 77 2 260 subdued the Saxons m m 7«1 Haroun al Raschid, Caliph 786 263 The Huns extirpated by Charle- magne .. 794 269 Charlemagne crowned at Rome . . 800 The Normans landed in France . . 808 2/2 Death of Charlemagne . . 814 273 The Heptarchy united by Egbert . . 827 292 Rome besieged by the Saracens . . 846 323 Christianity preached in Denmark 325 and Sweden 850 The Danes ravaged England . . 86/ 329 Alfred defeated the Danes m m 878 Death of Alfred m m 901 331 Rollo, the Pirate, obtains Normandy 912 33/ Sueno, King of Denmark 980 342 Sueno conquered England „ . 1013 Canute, King of England . . 1017 361 Macbeth murdered Duncan m m 1040 379 The Turks took Bagdad, and over- 393 turned the Caliphate m m 1055 401 The Battle of Hastings, and Norman 410 Conquest m . 1066 426 Feudal Law introduced . . 1070 Gregory VII., Hildebrand . . 1073 439 Doomsday-book finished . . 1086 440 First Crusade m * 1095 447 Jerusalem taken by the Crusaders 1099 William Rufus killed in ’ the New 451 Forest m m 1100 455 The Second Crusade m m 1147 The Bank of Venice established % m 1157 457 Becket killed at Canterbury . . 1171 Ireland conquered 1172 4/5 Jerusalem taken by Saladin . . 1187 Saladin defeated by Richard I. 1192 The Fourth Crusade 1202 The Inquisition established 1204 476 Gengis Khan overruns Asia . . 1206 481 King John excommunicated . . 1208 491 Magna Charta signed . . 1215 Russia conquered by the Tartars 1238 494 The Fifth Crusade „ . 1248 507 Hanseatic league 1250 515 Wales conquered . . 1254 Bagdad taken by the Tartars, and 516 the Saracen Empire terminated 1258 527 First English House of Commons 1258 Death of St. Louis at Tunis . m 1270 540 Moguls conquer China 9 m 1279 542 Massacre of the French in Sicily 1282 Wales united to England m m 1283 547 Death of Friar Bacon m m 1284 549 The Jews banished from England 1290 51 HIST< King 1 of France excommunicated The Popes removed to Avignon Battle of Bannockburn Bruce, King of Scotland Battle of Cressy Great Plague in Europe and Asia Battle of Poictiers Turks take Adrianople The Popes returned to Rome A Second Pope chosen at Avignon Death of Wicklifle Battle of Angora France under a Papal interdict Battle of Agincourt John Huss burnt Jerome of Prague burnt Joan of Arc defeated the English Inundation at Dort ; 72 villages and 100,000 people lost Constantinople taken by the Turks Battle of Towton Battle of Barnet . , Battle of Tewkesbury Castile and Arragon united Battle of Bosworth The Moors expelled Spain Cavanarola burnt at Rome Battle of Flodden Luther began to preach Magellan’s Voyage Mexico invaded and plundered Battle of Pavia Rome taken by the Germans Servetus burnt by Calvin The Pope’s authority in England abolished 645 monasteries and religious houses suppressed in England The Council of Trent from 1545 to Cardinal Beaton put to death Interest fixed at 10 per cent. Eldest sons of Peers permitted to sit in the House of Commons Five Bishops burnt by Philip and Mary Charles the Fifth resigns his govern- ment Death of Calvin Rizzio murdered Massacre of St. Bartholomew Death of Knox Republic of Holland commenced Mary Queen of Scots put to death The Spanish Armada defeated The first newspaper in England Edict of Nantes tolerating Protest- ants in France East India Company established James I. of England, and VI. of Scotland Gunpowder Plot Spain acknowledged the indepen- dence of Holland Henry IV. of France assassinated Shakspeare died Vanini burnt at Toulouse Death of Cervantes Hugonot, or Religious War in France begun Death of Lord Bacon Buckingham assassinated [CAL CHRONOLOGY. 52 1301 Nine Members of the House of Com- 1308 mons imprisoned 1629 1314 Bagdad taken by the Turks 1631 1328 Battle of Lutzen m m 1632 1346 Hampden’s trial in the Exchequer 1637 1349 Lord Strafford beheaded . . 1641 1356 Massacre in Ireland m 1641 1361 Battle of Edgehill m 9 1642 1377 Death of Galileo m 1643- 1378 Archbishop Laud beheaded •*. • 1644 1385 Death of Hampden m m 1644 1401 The Tartars overran China m m 1644 1407 Battle of Marston Moor m m 1644 1415 Battle of Naseby m m 164& 1415 Charles I. delivered by the Scots m m 1647 1416 Peace of Westphalia m m 1648 1428 Charles I. beheaded m m 1649 Battle of Dunbar . . 1650 1446 Death of Des Cartes m m 1651 1453 Battle of Worcester m m 1651 1462 War of England with Holland . . 1652 1471 The English Fleet defeated 1653 1471 Cromwell dissolved the Long Parlia- 1479 ment, and made Protector m m 1653 1485 Death of Gassendi m m 1650 1491 Death of Harvey . . 1657 1498 Death of Cromwell 1658 1513 Charles II. restored m . 1660 1517 Prussia independent . . 1663 1519 Great Plague in England 1665 1521 Great Fire of London . . . . 1666 1525 Candia taken by the Turks m . 1660 1527 Murder of the De Witts 1672 1531 Death of Milton . m 1674 The Habeas Corpus Act passed 1678 1533 Lord Russel and Algernon Sydney put to death 1683 1539 Death of Colbert 1684 1563 The Edict of Nantes revoked 1685- 1546 Battle of Sedgmoor 1686 1547 Seven Bishops sent to the Tower m m 1686 Revolution in England . . 1688 1505 Battle of the Boyne 1690 The English in Bengal 1690 1555 The French Fleet defeated the English and Dutch 1691 1557 Surrender of Limerick 1691 1564 Battle of La Hogue 1692 1566 The English funding system com- 1572 menced 1694 1572 Bank of England incorporated .. 1694 1579 Treaty of Ryswick . . 1697 1587 Battle of Narva 1700 1588 Death of James II. m . 1701 1588 Gibraltar taken 1703 Battle of Blenheim .. 1704 1598 Barcelona taken 1705 1600 Battle of Ramilies 1706 Battle of Almanza m m 1707 1603 Battle of Oudenarde 1708 1605 Battle of Pultowa . . 1700 Battle of Malplaquet . . 1710 1609 Treaty of Utrecht . . 1713 1610 The interest of money in England 1616 fixed at 5 per cent. # # 1714 1619 Rebellion in Scotland m 1715 1620 Louis IV. died m m 1715 Septennial Act passed . . 1716 1621 Death of Leibnitz . « 1716 1626 Chaiies XII. killed , , 1718 1628 The Mississippi Bubble .. 1719 \ 63 HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY. 54 The South -Sea Bubble Death of Peter the Great Death of Newton Kouli Khan made King of Persia . . . conquered the Mogul Empire Porto Bello taken Battle of Dettingen Anson’s Voyage completed Battle of Fontenoy Battle of Culloden Kouli Khan murdered Lord Lovat, &c. beheaded Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Earthquake at Lisbon Braddock defeated Battle of Colin Battle of Hockkerken Louisburgh taken Battle of Minden Quebec taken Havannah taken Treaty of Fontainbleau Wilkes’s first election for Middlesex Ditto second and third The Shakspeare Jubilee Peace with Hyder Ally Partition of Poland Commencement of the American War Declaration of American indepen- • dence, July 4 Meeting of Deputies at London for Parliamentary Reform Riots in London Rodney’s Victory over De Grasse Recognition of American indepen- dence Call of the States-general in France Taking of the Bastile - - Tuilleries taken French Republic proclaimed Louis XVI. guillotined French declaration of war against England and Holland Revolutionary Tribunal Robespierre guillotined The Bank of England suspended its payments in cash Buonaparte conquers Italy - _ Rebellion in Ireland Buonaparte made Consul Battle of Marengo Peace of Amiens War renewed Buonaparte crowned Emperor Battle of Austerlitz Battle of Trafalgar Battle of Jena Battles of Friedland and Eylau Peace of Tilsit Napoleon seized Ferdinand Joseph Buonaparte, King of Spain. Jerome, King of Westphalia. Mu- rat, King of Naples. Napoleon, King of Italy, &c. &c. Battle of Wagram Marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa Moscow burnt, and the French armies destroyed by frost 1720 Battle of Vittoria 1/25 Battle of Leipsic 1/27 Paris surrendered to the Allies 1/36 Treaty of Fontainbleau Treaty of Vienna 1739 Napoleon returned from Elba 1740 Battle of Waterloo (June 18) 1743 Napoleon surrenders to the Belle- 1744 rophon 1745 Treaty of Ghent, between England 1746 and America 1747 Tragical assault of petitioners at 1 747 Manchester 1748 Republic of Columbia proclaimed 1755 Ditto Peru, Chili, and Mexico 1755 Death of Napoleon 1757 Death of George III. 1758 Trial of Queen Caroline 1759 Greece independent 1759 War of Russia and .Turkey 1759 Catholic disabilities removed 1762 Death of George IV. 1763 Counter Revolution in France, and 1768 Charles X. expelled 1769 Poland conquered, and united to 1769 Russia 1770 The Bill for Parliamentary Reform 1772 passed 1813 1813 1814 1814 1814 1815 1815 1815 1819 1819 18)9 1820 1820 1820 1821 1822 1829 1829 1830 183C 1831 1832 Prince Otho, of Bavaria, chosen king 1775 of Greece -- -- 1833 Don Pedro invaded Portugal - - 1833 1776 Miguel’s fleet taken by Captain Napier -- -- 1833 1780 Slave Emancipation Bill passed - - 1833 1780 Attempt to assassinate Louis Phi- 1782 lippe, July -- -- 1835 Municipal Corporations Bill passed, 1782 September -- -- 1835 1788 New Marriage Act passed -- 1836 1789 William IV. died June 20 -- 1837 1792 Queen Victoria crowned, June 28 - - 1838 1 792 For continuation of Chronology , See Sup- 1793 * plement. j; 93 DISCOVERIES. 1793 1405 The Canaries. 1794 1420 Madeira. 1432 The Azores 1797 I486 Cape of Good Hope, by De Gama. 1797 1492 America, by Columbus. 1797 1510 South America, by Amerigo Ves- 1799 puccius. 1800 1673 Louisiana, by the French. 1802 1686 Easter Island, by Roggewein. 1803 1690 Kamschatka, by the Russians. 1804 1765 Otaheite, &c. by Wallis. 1805 1770 New South Wales, by Cook. 1805 1771 Sandwich Islands, by Cook. 1806 1774 New Caledonia, by Cook. 1807 1819 New South Shetland, by Williams. 1807 The Icelanders discovered the Continent 1808 of America, about 1000, and called it Winenland, from the vines. The South Sea was first seen by Euro- peans in 1513 from Mexico. 1808 Japan was discovered in 1542. 1809 Cape Horn was discovered by Le Maire and Schouten in 1616. 1810 The discoveries on the North-west Coast have extended from East to West, to 149$ 1812 West, and from West to East, to 156$, to MATHEMATICS. 56 and these have been still further extended by the Arctic voyagers. See Supplement. Dates connected with the progress of know- ledge and improvements. 2/4 Silk brought from India. 373 The Bible in Gothic. 400 Bells mounted. 493 Silk. worms in Europe. 660 Organs used. 663 Glass in England. 800 The Aristotelean Philosophy. 830 Oxford University. 991 The Arithmetical Digits. 1080 Doomsday-Book. 1124 Musical Notes. 1180 Glass in private-houses. 1200 Mariner’s Compass. 1220 Astronomy cultivated in England. 1239 Coals dug as fuel. 1299 Spectacles invented. 1302 Cambridge University. 1319 Dublin University. 1336 Gunpowder invented. 1341 Petrarch crowned at Rome. 1 360 Wickliffe flourished. 1 436 Printing invented. 1454 University of Glasgow founded. 1464 Posts and diligences established. 1470 The first Almanac. 1471 Printing in England. 1517 Luther began to publish. 1543 Copernican System published. 1549 Telescopes invented. 1602 Decimal arithmetic. 1604 Satellites of Jupiter seen. 1614 Logarithms invented. 1619 Circulation of the Blood. 1623 Barometer invented. 1662 Royal Society established. 1’680 Air-pump discovered. 1682 Philadelphia founded. 1710 Newcomen’s Steam-Engine. 1716 Death of Leibnitz. 1720 Inoculation introduced. 1722 Electricity improved. 1726 Petersburgh Academy established. 1730 Fahrenheit’s Thermometer. 1736 Gottingen University established. 1753 British Musuem established. 1768 Steam-Engines improved. 1771 Cook’s First Voyage. 1773 Cotton-spinning Machinery. 1774 Oxygen discovered. 1778 Linnaeus died. 1779 Hydrogen discovered. 1784 Euler died. 1788 Galvanism discovered. 1789 Atomic Theory suggested. 1797 Priestley died. 1798 Vaccination announced. 1781 The planet Herschel discovered. 1804 Gas-lights introduced. 1812 Lithography invented. 1813 Steam-boats invented. 1816 Steam Printing-engines. 1820 M’ Adam’s new roads. 1831 Steam-carriages on railways and roads. 1832 Cuvier died. 1833 Magnetism and Electricity identified, and Electro Magnetic Telegraph in- vented. See Supplement. The past history of London records 16 visits of contagious pestilences in England. In 762, 1025, 1247. 1347, 1367, 1379, 1477, 1499, 1548, 1594, 1604, 1625. 1631, 1632, and 1665, averaging 73 years between each. Some change in the proportions of the con- stituents of the atmosphere, affecting va- rious artificial constituents, is one of the pre- sumed causes. MATHEMATICS. The sciences comprehended in mathema- tics are the arithmetic of figures, the arith- metic of signs, geometry and its collateral uses in mensuration, &c. They are the sciences of certainty, when confined to ab- stractions in numbers, form, and quantity ; but pregnant with absurdity when applied to qualities, or moral, or metaphysical sub- jects, in which the data are uncertain, or vary in sense, relation, or degree, or are hypothetical, or assumed. Without a fami- liar acquaintance with arithmetic, with the use and force of algebraic signs, and some acquaintance with geometry and its uses, a man does not belong to the intelligent clas- ses of society, and supposed difficulty indi- cates a mind of superficial character. Signs express the relations of numbers and quantities. They are of different kinds, as The sign of addition, -f-, called plus, as a b, reads a plus b, or a added to b. The sign of subtraction , — , called minus, as a — b, reads a minus b, or b subtracted from a. The sign — always means subtraction and never negation or less than nothing, except relatively. Whenever it stands alone, as — a , the a has been separated from some positive quantity, but it still means only subtraction. The sign of multiplication , X, as a X b, signifies that a is multiplied by b. Multi- plication is also expressed by a full point (.) and by into , as a -{- b . c d, or a + i into c -j- d. The sign of division, -f , as a b signi- fies that a is divided by b ; or it is in the form of a fraction, as °L b. The sign of equality, =, as a + b = x, or a added to b is equal to x. The sign of difference, on, as a on x, signifies either a — x or x — a. y is put between two quantities, to express that the former is greater than the latter, as a 7 b, or a more than b ; Z. signifies the reverse, as a Z. b, or a less than b. A Vinculum is a line drawn over an expression to denote the root, &c. of the expression, as sj a -f* b, and sometimes the same is expressed by parenthesis, as sj {a -j- b) ; or ( a + b) x means that x is multi- plied by their sum. A ratio is expressed by : or : thus, as 4 : 2 : : 8 : 4, that is, as 4 is to 2, so is 8 to 4, or as a : b : : c : <*. MATHEMATICS. 57 58 Ratios are £.lso expressed as fractions, that is, ^ : ^.or as . . S or with = 2 4 b ' ' d between them, a3 — - = or fL = — • 2 4 b d Every fraction is the ratio of the numeratoi to the denominator, or of the denominator to the numerator. The radical sign denotes the root of the quantity, as y/ a is the square root of a j or the cube, biquadrate, Ac., as 3 yj a, “V a, &c. ; or by fractions, as a 3 , at, a ~ for the square, cube, biquadrate, and the wth or unknown, or general root of a. a — l , a — a — 3 } & Ct denote inverse pow- ers of a, and are equal to JL JL i &c. a 1 a* -r, — x y y i u 1 x—* y— 3 ' or x 2 may be A full point before a figure denotes a decimal, read from the point as tenths, hun- dredths, &c., thus, ’5 is Ive tenths, 05 five nundredths, &c., and better to distinguish, a 0 is placed before 0 5, or 0 05, Ac .— (See Blair's First Lines of Arithmetic.) In the Roman notation, 13 or D, stood for 500 ; and C after them, for as many hun- dreds as C’s ; CI3, or M, was 1000, with C’s for odd hundreds. M, with a dash over it, was one million : X, with a dash over it, 10,000. The 3 is tenfold the number to which it is added. The decimal division of days, degrees, &c., was used in China 4000 years since. The word digit, applied to the 10 figures, comes from digitus , a finger; computation being, in ancient times, performed by fingers. We are indebted for Euclid, Ptolemy, and Aristotle, to the Arabian universities in Spain. Athelard, of Bath, translated Euclid from Arabic into Latin, about 1130. In the 11th and 12th centuries, all learned men travelled to Toledo and Cordova. Stiefel suggested the principle of Loga- rithms, in 1530. The Differential calculus of Leibnitz finds a small quantity, which, taken an infinity of times, is equal to a required quantity ; and Fluxions consider momenta as quantities. One is expressed by e?, as dx, and the other by a dot, as x. Fluxions were an invention of Newton, and at the same time and inde- pendently Leibnitz invented the Differential calculus. Newton’s invention is however laid aside, and the differential calculus pre- ferred by modern mathematicians. Geometry is connected with mechanics solely because the rectangle, or multiple, of quantity and velocity is always equal to force or momentum. The results of mathematical analysis de- pend always on the data. Analysis applies the data, or any data, but it proves nothing as to the datum, wmch is either some pre- sumed fact or theory, and may be true or false. It merely determines certain condi- tions and consequences of the data assumed ; but in the determination does not prove the truth of the data : for the analysis is an ab- stract enquiry founded on the data. In calculations, lines or single dimensions can only be compared with lines ; superfi- cies or double dimensions with super- ficies ; and cubes or treble dimensions with cubes. The same principle applies to all arithme- tic ; we cannot add or multiply pounds and pence, or miles and yards, or tenths and whole numbers. Denominations of figures must be alike. There is no ratio between finites and infi- nites, all finites having the same indetermi- nate ratio to the mere creation of the mind called infinity ; therefore, all knowledge is strictly limited to the ratios of finites. All momentum is quantity of matter mul- tiplied into velocity ; and all momentum or power is evidence of matter and velocity acting in the direction of the resulting mo- mentum. Quantity of matter in cubes is detected only by relative momenta, as in the varied momenta of weight ; or the varied reaction of resistance, in the same medium, &c. Bodies in motion determine, by the mu . tual reaction of their connected parts, a line of direction, which line always passes ex- actly through the centre of all the atoms of the body. The existence of this line of direction, and of this centre of all the atoms, are evidence that the body is under the go- vernment of the force of motion ; and, on the contrary, motion is proof that the line and centre exist in the body. For this reason, the line of direction and centre of gravity in falling bodies, is proof that such bodies are subject to motion, and not to any peculiar power, as was fancied in the dark ages. Prime numbers are those which have no divisor ; perfect numbers are those which are equal to the sum of all their divisors. The prime or indivisible numbers under 100 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29,31,37,41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97. To convert a mixed quantity into a deci- mal, express it fractionally, and then divide the numerator with cyphers, by the denomi- nator. Thus, 5s. 6d. as the decimal of a pound is as a vulgar fraction ; then 11 000 by 40 gives -275 for the decimal. Decimals of Fractions. A 4. i i t i i i t = 5 = -25 . m 75 . = *125 . = 375 . = *625 . = *875 . = -333 &c = 666 Ac 1- 5th = 2- 5ths =. l-7th = l-9th = 1-llth l-12th = l-16th = l-20th — 3 - 24th = 2 4 142857 &c. 1111 &c. 090909 Ao. 08333 Ac. 0625 05 041666 Ac. £9 MATHEMATICS. 60 Decimals of Mixed Quantities. T s . is *05 of one pound. lc?. is ’0041666 of one pound. 1 farthing is 0010416 of a pound. 1 inch is ’08333 of a foot. 1 lb. is 0008928 of a cwt. 1 oz. is ’000558 of a cwt. 1 yard is ’000568 of a mile. 1 inch is ’0000158 of a mile. 1 day is 002739 of a year. 1 minute is ’000694 of a day. 1 dwt. is -004166 of a lb. troy. 1 square yard of an acre 0 0002066116. 1 quart of a bushel 0 00390625. 1 grain of a lb. troy 0 0001/361. 1 ounce of a cwt. 0 000557857. Logarithms, so useful in philosophy, are an arithmetical series in contrast with a parallel geometrical series, by which the multiplication of any two terms of one series corresponds with additions of the other. The Logarithms for prime Numbers, under 100, are as under, and all others may be formed from these by mere multiplications and additions : — 2— -301030 3— -477121 5— -69S970 7— ’815098 11 — 1 041393 13—1 113943 17—1230449 19— 1 278754 23—1 ’361729 29—1-462398 31-1-491362 37—1-568202 41—1-612784 43-1-633469 47— 1672098 53— 1-724276 59— 1-770852 61—1 785330 67— 1-826075 71-1-851258 73—1-863323 79-1-897627 83—1-919078 87—1-939390 97— 1-986772 100—2000000 The index is always one less than the number of digits in the whole number. As examples of the use of the above, all the powers of each number are found by multiplying by 2, 3, 4, &c. Thus the Log. of 4 is twice that of 2 ; of 8 is thrice ; of 16 is 4 times ; and so on. And the Log. of 9 is twice that of 3, of 2 7 is three times, Sec. So the multiples of any two of the figures give the sum of their Logs, for their Log. Thus 2x7=14, and the Logs, of 2 and 7 added, are the Log. of 14. This short table will, therefore, produce any desired Logarithm of any number. Naper's and Briggs's Logarithms. Nos. Naper’s log . Briggs’s log. 1 .. 0000000 .. 0000000 2 .. 0-693147 .. 0-301030 3 .. 1-098640 .. 0477121 4 .. 1-386294 .. 0-602060 5 .. 1-609438 .. 0-698970 6 .. 1-791759 .. 0 778151 7 .. 1 945910 .. 0-845098 8 .. 2 079441 . . 0*903090 9 . 2 197225 . 0-954242 10 . . 2-302646 .. 1 000000 Naper’s are a constant multiple of Briggs’s, called Hyperbolic Logarithms, by 2 302646 ; but Briggs’s are those in general use, and found in all the tables, as Nichol- son’s, Hutton’s, &c. Binary logarithms were invented by Euler to facilitate musical investigations, and 2 is their integer instead of 10 in the common, and 1 in the hyperbolic. The following are the logarithms for seve- ral oft-recurring numbers: — Log. of the arc of a quadrant T57079 = 0196118. Of the chord = 0150515. Of the circle (radius, 1) = 6 283 = 0-798180. Of the circle (diameter, 1) = 31416 = 0- 49714987. Of the earth’s circumference, 24869 = 4-395658. Of earth’s rotation per second at the equator, 152T5 feet = 3 182272. Of days in a year = 2 562592. Of seconds in a day — 4 935326. Of the moon’s fall in her orbit per minute, 128814 feet — 5 109963 (nojt 16 feet!) Of second’s pendulum London 39 1393 = 1- 592644. Of the French metre 39 37079 English inches = 1*595173. Of the imperial gallon 277 274 cubic inches = 2-442919. The first Six Bowers , 2 to 9 : — 1st 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th 2 4 8 16 32 ~~ 64 3 9 27 81 243 729 4 16 64 256 1024 4096 5 25 125 625 3125 15625 6 36 216 1296 7776 46656 7 49 343 2401 16807 117649 8 64 512 4096 | 32768 j 262144 9 81 729 ! 6561 59049 | 531441 The following are the first Six Powers of a -f- b ; and a b is the same with -f- and — alternately : — Square. — a 2 -f- 2 ab + b 2 . And a — b is 4- a 2 — 2 ab + b 2 . Cube, a 3 -f 3 a 2 b + 3 ab 2 + b 3 . 4 th Power, a* + 4 a 3 b -|- 6a 2 b 2 -f- 4 ab 3 + b* 5 th Power, a 5 + 5 a 4 5 + 10a 3 5 2 + 10a 2 5 3 + 5a5* + b\ Qlh Power, a 6 + 6a 5 b -j- 15 a 4 5 2 + 20a 3 b 3 + 1 5a 2 5 4r f 6«5 5 + b <3. The square of the square is the 4th power, and the square X by the cube is the 5th power. The square of the cube is the 6th power. | X | = |= square of -|. 9 ^ f = -2*7 = cube T * X = gy, biquadrate o e and so of others. Any number taken any number of times is a power of that number, and it may bo MATHEMATICS. 62 Cl expressed as a power. And to find the power, we hare only to divide the logarithm of the number of times, by the number of times, and the quotient is the power. Thus, 3 a is a 1,39 ; for if we take the log. of 3 = 0 477125 and divide it by 3, we get 0159040, which is the logarithm of the root of a, or of a multiplied into itself, so often as to produce treble its own sum. If we divide the logarithm of any number by the index of any power, the quotient is the logarithm of that root of the power whose index has been used. And conversely if we require any power of any number, we obtain it by multiplying the logarithm of the number by the index of the power, and the product is the logarithm of the power of the number. Dr. Hutton’s rule of Trial-and-Error is very useful. He assumes two roots, one of them too little, and the other too great; and then using them in the expression makes a denominator of their difference, and a numerator of the excess of the true value of the expression over the least result. The value of this fraction, added to the assumed least number is the approximate root. He then uses this as the least, and takes ano- ther near it, but too much, and by two or three repetitions gets the root very nearly. A proportion, or ratio of two numbers, is greater or smaller as the quotient of their division is more or less. Thus 6 is to 2 in greater proportion than 6 to 3, because % gives more than -§• In Ratios , if a : b : : c : d Then a : c : : b : d. a c And ad = cb, or ^ And a + b : b :: c d : d And a — b : b : : c — d : d If b equal c Or a : b : : b : d. Then b is a mean proportional to a and d. It is also a third proportional to a and ad. And it has to c a duplicate ratio of a to d. Then also ad = b 2 j and b is the square root of ad. When a is to b as b to c, and c to d, and d to c, then a is a triplicate ratio to d, the third term ; and a quadruplicate to e, the fourth term. Duple ratio is that of 2 to 1. Subduple that of 1 to 2. Duplicate ratio is that of the square of one number to the square of ano- ther. Sub-duplicate is the ratio of the square roots. In a proportion, the two extremes and the two means are similar terms, and being so kept may be arranged in eight different ways, their products being always equal. Any multiple, or part, of dissimilar terms does not disturb the proportion. And two proportions multiplied or divided, term for term, are still proportional. And tv* equal powers, or roots, of the terms proportional. Every number is its ratio to 1, thus 5, is 5 to 1 ; or 4, is 4 to 1. And every number may be expressed fractionally, thus 5 is x > or 4 is 4 ; 5 to 1 is therefore the same as 4 5 or 4 to 1 the same as x* Every ratio may therefore be expressed a fraction, and every fraction as a latio. In every triangle, the 3 angles are equal to 2 right angles, or 180°. In every right-angled triangle, the square of the hypothenuse is equal to the squares of the base and perpendicular. Triangles are the half of paralellograms of the same perpendicular heighth 1 and base. The 4 angles of paralellograms are 4 right angles. The sides of an hexagon are equal to the radius of its circle. The sides of every triangle are propor- tional to the sines of the opposite angles. The tangent is a fourth proportional to the cosine, sine, and radius. The secant is a third proportional to the cosine and radius. The cotangent is a fourth proportional to the sine, cosine, and radius. The cosecant is a third proportional to the sine and radius. Taking the radius as 10,000 parts : — Deg. Sine. Cosine. 1 .. 175 .. 9998 3 .. 523 .. 9986 5 .. 872 .. 9962 7 1219 9925 « 9 1564 4 9877 £3 11 1908 £ 9816 £ 13 2250 & 9744 §• 15 2588 §* 9659 a 17 2924 a 9563 £ 19 3256 .3 < 9455 3 21 3584 5 9336 0 23 3907 0 9205 3 25 4226 ^ 9063 £ 27 4540 £ 8910 g 29 4848 © 8746 * 31 5150 o* 8572 -5 33 5446 3 8387 § 35 5736 -5 8192 '~ 37 6018 © 7986 0 39 6293 7771 J 41 .. 6561 . . 7547 43 .. 6820 . . 7313 45 .. 7071 .. 7071 intermediate degrees, add next, and divide by 2. For the last ten degrees of the quadrant, the sines are nearly equal parts, the differ- ence, per minute, in the 81st degree being 28 71 , and those in the 80th and 90th being 291, hence every sine is merely 291 less per minute in those degrees. For one minute it is 291, and = 4 85 is the sine of one second, the radius being one million ; and the multiple of 4 85 is the sine for any num- ber of seconds below a minute ; and so for thirds, as to 4 '85, if required. It is a property of triangles, that if each of any two of its sides be X by the cosine of the angle which the side taken makes with the third side, the sum of the products is equal to that third side. G<) MATHEMATICS. 64 The diameter of a circle is to its circum- ference as 113 to 355, or as 1 to 3 141593. And the circumference, to the diameter, as 1 to 0 318309. The circumference of a circle whose dia- meter is 1, is= 3 141592653589/93238462643 3832/950288419/1693993751058209749445923 078164062862089986280348253421 1 706798214 80865132723066470938446., &c —Goodwin. In a circle, calling D the diameter, C the circumference, A the area, and P 314159, D = C = A = P = - or 1- , or 2 y/ £ P C v P P D or 1- , or 2 J P A D v LB? or 51, or — 4 4 P 4 C n 4 A C 2 D D 4 A The length of an arc is 8 times the chord of half less the chord of the whole, and divided by 3. The periphery of an ellipse is the square- root of half the sum of the squares of the 2 axes by 3-14159. The arc of a quadrant 1 5707963, is 10-9ths the chord 1414214. The chord of the third of a circle, diame- ter 1, is I 732051. Of a fourth, 1414214. Of a fifth, T17557. Of a sixth, 1. Of a ninth, 0 68404. Of a twelfth, 0 517638. The length of a circular arc is the radius X by degrees in the arc X by 0 0 17453. The decimal of a degree, or 360th of the circle, is 0 00872664626. The square-root of 2 is T41421356. The square-root of the circle is 1 77245385. The square of the circle is 9‘8696. The radius of a circle is equal to an arc of 57 2957795 degrees. Conic Sections are the figures made by a plane cutting a cone, and according to the different positions of the cutting-plane there arise five different figures or sections, viz. a triangle , a circle , an ellipsis , an hyperbola , and a parabola : When the cutting plane passes through the vertex of the cone, and any part of the base, the section is a triangle. When parallel to the base, the section is a circle. An ellipse when the cone is cut obliquely through both sides, or when the plane is in- clined to the base in a less angle than the side of the cone is. A parabola , when the cone is cut by a plane parallel to the side, or when the cut- ting-plane and the side of the cone make equal angles with the base. An hyperbola , when the cutting-plane makes a greater angle with the base than the side of the cone makes. The sum of an arithmetical Series is found by adding the first and last terms, and mul- tiplying by half the number of terms. Any term is the first term added to the addi- tional number of common differences. If the first term is 3, and the common diffe- rence is 5, then the twelfth term is 11 X 5 -f- 3 = 58. When the first and last are given, any intermediate terms are found by subtracting the two terms, and dividing by one more than the number of terms sought for the common difference. Thus, if we want 6 terms between 5 and 40, then 40 — 6 = _LL = 5 ; and 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 0 6 + 1 35, 40 is the series. Every geometrical series being the conti- nued multiplication by a fixed difference, the terms are, (r being the difference) o, or, ar 2 , ar s , &c. to arn for n terms. The last term, therefore, is ar n — l , because the first involves no power of r. The sum of an ascending Series is found by multiplying the last term by the common ratio — subtracting the first term and dividing the difference by the ratio less 1. The sum of a descending series is found by deducting the power of the ratio raised to the number of terms from 1, and dividing the difference by 1 less the ratio, and multiply this quotient by the first term. And the sum of a descending infinite series is found by dividing the first term by 1 less the common ratio. If a be the first term of a geometrical series ; r the common ratio j z the last term ; n the number ; and s the sum of the terms. Then a = s + r % — r s. » — 1 s [r n — r When a body falls in a vertical line by the two motions of the Earth, we have s the space fallen, v the velocity, t the time, g the gravity or force of weight. s % g l 2 =. L. = £ t v ^ y v—gt— 2 _f — y/2gs t v 2 s ,2 s t= ~ ~ = V— g v g v 2 s The fall of bodies through 16 08 in 1 second, is 48 24 in the second second, t N in the third, and 112 56 in the fourth second, making 257'4 in the four seconds, and so on This acceleration is ascribed, by Galileo, to any continuous force, as motion added to motion, but the same effect will arise on a body abandoned to the two terrestrial mo- tions, owing to the spaces generated by the rotation being superfices. The acquired force of a falling body is usually taken as equal to its weight when it (J5 MATHEMATICS. ft 6 has fallen an inch and a quarter. At the end of a foot in a quarter of a second, it acquires, therefore, (the square-root of the heighth fallen) a force 31 times its weight, and 31 more in every quarter of a second. That is, 12 4 at the end of a second, 24 8 at the end of 2 seconds, and so by multiples of quarter seconds. If a body fall 16 feet the first second, and if the descent be a proportion to the squares of the times ; the second column of the fol- lowing' table gives the space fallen in each successive quarter of a second, and the third column gives the whole space fallen. Quarter Seconds. Feet per Quarter. Whole Space Fallen. 0 25 1 1 0*50 3 4 0 75 5 9 1 00 7 16 1-25 9 25 1*5 11 36 1 75 13 49 200 15 64 225 17 SI 25 19 100 2 75 21 121 300 23 144 3*25 25 169 3*5 27 196 375 29 225 4*00 31 256 The greatest height to which a projectile ascends, is the square of the velocity by the square of the sine of elevation. The time of flight is the velocity into the sine of elevation. A body, raised with a given velocity, will rise with retardation to such a height as, in falling again by acceleration, confers the first velocity. The Area of every paralellogram is its heighth by its base ; or, if the sides are un- equal, take the mean of the two, or the square-root of their product. When the angles are not right angles, take the perpen- dicular heighth. The area of a triangle is half the base into the heighth. The area of a triangle, whose sides only are given, is found by taking half their sum, subtracting each side, and then multiply the half continually by the three remainders, and the square-root of product is the area. In reducing square yards to acres, instead of dividing by 4840, multiply by 0 000203. The area of a circle is ll-14ths of the square of the diameter, or 7-88ths of the square of the circumference. If the square of the diameter of a circle be X by 0 /854, the product is the area. The diameter of a sphere cubed and mul- tiplied by 0 5236 is the solidity. The square of the diameter multiplied by 314159 is the surface of sphere. The surface of a sphere is 4 times the square of the radius into 3 1415927. The solidity is cube of radius into 4 18879. The area of a circle whose diameter is 1 is 07853981, and the side of an equal square 0*8862269. Diameter 2 is 3 14159265, and square 1 77245384. The square whose sides are 1 is equal to a circle whose diameter is T1 128379 17. The proportion of the area of a circle to its circumscribed square, is as 11 to 14. The area of a sector is half the arc by the radius. To find the surface of a spherical zone multiply the product of the diameter into the heighth by 3141 59. To find the solidity, add the squares of half the two diameters to l-3d of the square of the heighth ; multiply this sum by the heighth, and this by 15708. For the area of spheres or parts, the cir- cumference by the heighth, whether sphere, zone, or segment. Pyramids are one-third of prisms of equal base and heighth. They are to each other as their bases and heighths. One-third of the area of the base by the heighth is the solidity. The surface is half the product of the length of the base by one of the sides. To find the area of a .spherical triangle, multiply the difference between the sum of its three angles, and two right angles by the radius of the sphere. Areas of Polygons, whose sides are 1 : — ■ Sides. Polygons. A rcas. 3 Trigon 0-4330127 4 Tetragon, or Square 1 -ooooooo 5 Pentagon 1-7204774 6 Hexagon ! 2*5980762 7 Heptagon 36339124 8 Octagon 4 8284271 9 Nonagon 6-1818242 10 Decagon 7-6942088 11 Undecagon 9-3656399 12 Dodecagon | 11-1961524 For an ellipsis, multiply the product of the two axes by 7854. For the solid contents of a prism or cylin- der, the area of the base by the heighth. A paraboloid is the area of the base by the heighth and two-thirds the product. A spheroid is the multiple of the fixed axis by the square of the revolving axis, and by *5236. The area of a cycloid is triple that of the generating circle. The sum of the squares of the bung and head diameters, and of the square of double the intermediate diameter into the length, and into 0 785398, then divided by 6, is the contents of a cask. The length by the square of the diameter both in inches, into 0 00283257, is the con- tents of a cylinder in imperial gallons. The mean diameter of a cask is nearly half the sum of both, or the square-root of their product. To measure trees multiply the feet in the length by the square of the inches, and divide for cubic feet by 2304. Or when an 8th, or 10th for bark, by 3009 or 2845. A standing tree is measured by squaring l-4th of the girth, and multiplying it by the heighth of the trunk. D MATHEMATICS. 67 68 The length of a tree into the square of its mean girth, by 1807, is its cubic feet; or for l-8th bark by 2360. To find the area of any very irregular plane, draw it on paper, and with the same paper cut any regular square, and their areas will be as their weights. The contents of any irregular body are determined by the quantity of water, or sand, which it displaces in a regular vessel. In land-surveying, it is usual to divide into all forms, to arrive at the true area of irregular forms. There are 384 bricks in a cubic yard, and 4356 in a rod. In cross-multiplication 12 fourths is a third, 12 thirds a second, and 12 seconds an inch. Feet into inches are inches, and into seconds are seconds ; inches by inches are seconds, and by seconds are thirds ; seconds by seconds are fourths. The convexity of the earth interposes to prevent the sight of distant bodies : thus, at 600 yards, 1 inch would be concealed, or an object an inch high could not be seen in a straight line ; at 900 yards, 2 inches; at 1400 yards, 5 inches ; at 1 mile, 8 inches ; 3 miles, 6 feet ; so that at that distance a man would be invisible; 4 miles, 10 feet; 5 miles, 16 feet ; 6 miles, 24 feet ; 10 miles, 66 feet ; 12 = 95 ;• 13 == 112, and 14 miles, 130 feet. In levelling, it is usual to allow the 10th of an inch in every 200 yards, or 8 inches in a mile, for convexity. In all horizontal distances, l-13th should be added to the distance for horizontal re- fraction, and Legendre says l-14th. Making this allowance, and remembering that a mile curvates 8 inches, we may determine a distance by knowing the elevation, or an elevation by knowing the distance. By multiplying 8 inches by the square of the distance ; thus, if it is 10 miles, 10 times 10 is 100, and 100 times 8 inches is 66 feet, as stated. If the top of a mountain is seen at 50 miles distance, it would be 2500 times 8 inches, equal to 1666 feet of elevation, to which adding l-14th for refraction, it would make the hill about 1800 feet high. For visible distances multiply the Earth’s diameter 7920 by the heighth of the eye above the sea. Thus, at 2 miles, it is the square-root of 15840, or 126 miles. At 4 miles 31680, or 178 miles; at half a mile 3960, nearly 63 miles, at a quarter of a mile 1980, or 44| miles, and at 220 yards, or the 8th of a mile, 31 £ miles. When both bodies are elevated, the two heightlis are to be added. So we determine distances by knowing heighths and boundary of vision. On a smooth surface, two bodies, 10 feet high, are invisible to each other at 8 miles distance. The proportion of the Earth’s surface visible is as the heighth to 7960, so that at 1 mile we see the 7960th, of the surface and so on. A man five feet six inches high, on the sea-shore, or on level ground, can see about three miles distant. The dip of the horizon for various heighths of the eye is as under, to be deducted from the degrees per quadrant. At 5 feet for the heighth of the eye at sea, the dip is 2 min. 8 sec. ; at 10 feet, 3 min. 1 sec. ; at 20 feet, 4 min. 16 sec. ; at 30 feet, 5 min. 14 sec. ; at 60 feet, 7 min. 23 sec. ; and at 100 feet 9 min. 33 sec. To approximate distances, Gregory gives it as a rule for every foot in the heighth of the object to divide 343773 by the minutes in the angle, or 206264 by the seconds ; and multiply by the feet in the heighth. The vernier scale is 11-tenths divided into ten equal parts, so that it divides a scale of lOths into lOOths, where the lines meet even in the two scales. The Chain-rule solves many complicated questions. A dozen circumstances produce one result, and a dozen others some other which is required ; we then multiply each set, and their quotient is the answer. To effect this, we enter the terms in two co- lumns. The first on the right, is the term of demand, or what is sought. Then to the left, enter the same in kind, and on the right what it is equal to. Then, again, on the left, the same in kind as the last and its equal. Proceed thus, till all are set down, then multiply each set, (purged of similar numbers on each side) and their quotient is the answer. It is useful in Exchanges, &c. The number of Changes which any number of things, as Bells, Letters, Cards, &c. can produce, is the product of all the figures multiplied together, thus: — 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 bells, produce 720 changes. The 26 letters of the alphabet make 403 quintillians of combinations ; 20 make 2^ quadrillions ; and 12 make 479 millions. In general, 2 raised to the power of the number of things, and 1 subtracted, is the number of all possible combinations. Thus, in 12 bells or notes, two raised to the 12th power — 1 is every combination. Then the log. of 2 = 301030 X 12 = 3 612360, is 4096 — 1 = 4095 combinations. And in the 26 letters of the alphabet, •301030 X 26 = 7 826780, log. of 67111193 — 1 — 67111192 positions of the 26 letters. A player at whist may hold above 635 thousand millions of various hands ; so that continually varied, at 50 deals per evening, for 313, or 1 5,650 hands, per annum, he might be above 40 millions of years before he would have the same hand again. Eight persons, at a round table, can be seated 5040 ways. If an event may take place in many different ways, and each be equally likely to happen, the probability that it will take place in a particular way is properly repre- sented by i-, certainty being unity. n If an event may happen in a ways, and may fail in h ways, the chance of its happen- ing is — - - , and the chance of its failing, a b b is aT6‘ 69 The probability of throwing an ace with a single die, in one trial, is i- ; and the pro- 5 bability of not throwing an ace is — . The 6 probability of throwing either an ace or a 2 deuce, is If balls a , b, c, d, &c. be thrown pro- miscuously into a bag, and a person draw out one of them, the probability that it will be a is JL ; and the probability that it will n aiATIIEMATICS. black balls left 70 either be a or b is 1 If two balls be drawn out, the probability that these will be a and b is — — . n. ( n — 1) If 6 white and 5 black balls be thrown promiscuously into a Ijag, and a person draw out one of them, the probability that it will be a white ball is ~ and the probability that it will be a black ball is ~ ir If two events are independent of each other, and the probability that one will hap- pen be L, and the probability that the other m will happen L, then the probability both n will happen is — . The probability that run , . , , . . 1 mn — 1 both do nol happen is 1 , or — . inn mn And the probability that they will both fail 1 is ( m ~ 1) ( n 1) The probability that mn one will happen and the other fail is in -f- n — 2 m n If there be any number of independent events, and the probabilities of their hap- pening be -1, J, &c. respectively, the in n r probability that they will all happen is 1 mnr &c. The chance of throwing an ace is — , and G the chance of throwing a deuce in the se- cond trial is i : therefore the chance of 6 1 both happening is — 36* If 6 white and 5 black balls be thrown promiscuously into a bag, the probability of drawing a white bailors* is and then the 5 probability of drawing a black ball is <*r J, , because 2 therefore the probability ol white and black is * *2 ~ n ’ In the probability of throwing an ace, with a single die, in two trials ; the chance oi 5 failing the first time is and the chance 6 5 of failing the next is therefore the chance of failing twice together is ^ and the chance of not failing, both times, is 25 11 — , or — 30 36* There are 36 chances upon two dice. It is an even chance that you throw 8. It is 35 to 1 against throwing any particular dou- blets, and 6 to 1 against throwing any dou- blets. It is 17 to 1 against throwing any two desired numbers. It is 4 to 9 against throw- ing a single number with either of the dice, so as to hit a blot or enter. Against hitting with the amount of two dice the chances against 7, 8, and 9, are 5 to 1 ; against 10, is 11 to 1; against 11, 17 to 1; and against sixes is 35 to 1. The probabilities of throwing required totals with two dice, depend on the number of ways in which the totals can be made up by dice. 2, 3, 11, or 12, can only be made up one way each, and, therefore, the chance is but l-36th. 4, 5, 9, 10, may be made up two ways, or l-18th. 6, 7, 8, three ways, or 1 -12th. The chance of doublets is l-36th, the chance of particular doublets is 1-21 6th. The chance is equal, in dealing cards, that every hand will have seven trumps in two deals, or seven trumps between two parties, and also four court cards in every deal. This is so certain, on an average of hands, that nothing can be more superstitious and absurd than the prevailing notions about luck or ill-luck. The chance of having a particular card out of 13, is 13-52nds, or 1 to 4, and the chance of holding any two cards is l-4th of 1 -4th, or l-16th. The chances of a £ame are generally inversely as the number got by each, or as the number to be got to com- plete each game. The chances against holding 7 trumps are 1 60 to 1 ; against 6, it is 26 to 1 ; against 5, 6 to 1 ; and against 4 nearly 2 to 1. It is 8 to 1, against holding any 2 particular cards. To determine the number of Combina- tions which any number of things will form in 2, 3, 4, &c. at a time. Multiply the num- ber of things by the number less 1, and this product by the number less 2, and so on, as the number of formations is 2, 3, 4, or more. Divide the last product by the product of 1, 2, 3, &c. as it may be, and the quotient is the answer. Thus, six things in three at a ‘"'•'- Vx -, 1 ways, so in hands at whist, four at a time 52 X 51 X 50 X 49 _ 6374900 there are 5 white and 5 1 X 2 hands. X 3 X 4 24 = 265620 1 SPECIFIC GKAYII JT, OR STATICS. 72 M. Joubin, of Havre, by a very acute analysis, assimilates every numerical ex- pression to the equation /10» -f- <7> i n which f is the number or units in the figure ; 10« the power of 10 in that place, and q the lower additive. He thus expands any nu- merical expression as of G figures, or 247169, by putting x for 10, into f x-> +/>* +/* 3 f x* -j-/* 1 +/«°, or 2 X 10 3 -j- 4 X 10* + 7 X 10H 1 x 10 2 + 6 X 101 + 9 X 10°. /10n-J- q f taken at any term. As at 7, then it becomes 247 X 10 s ~|- 169. This analysis then enables M. Joubin to make many determinations as surprising as new and original. Thus he readily assigns to a dividend or divisor, the fraction necessary to make them commensurate, and his great aptitude at calculation enables him to mul- tiply 3 figures by 3 in one line, taking in mentally, by a sort of cross-multiplication, the products of the inferior lines. His series also enable him to break down large numbers into their component factors, with inconceivable readiness. Zerah Colborn, the calculating boy, in a minute or two could give the exact product of five or six figures, by five or six, or ex- tract the square or cube-root of eight or ten figures, George Bidder, another calculating boy, did the same. Angular measure is the inclination of two lines. When perpendicular, it is 90 de- grees, called a quadrant ; 60 are a sextant , and 45 an octant. These degrees are divided into 60 minutes, each minute in 60 seconds, each second into 60 thirds, &c. This is called sexagenary , and was the ancient arithmetic. Latterly, an attempt has been made to introduce decimal divisions into minutes, as better according with general calculations, but retaining the 90° in the quadrant, and the 360° in the entire circle. A centesimal degree is 54 minutes. An angle of a minute, in a circle of vision of 10 inches distance, or 20 inches diameter, is but the 350th of an inch ; and in a circle of 72 inches, a second is but the 5700th of an inch. In the Earth’s orbit, a second is equal to 451 miles. At the distance of the fixed Stars, (40 billions,) a second would be 192,900,000, so that the orbit of the Earth would, at that distance, be but a second. SPECIFIC GRAVITY, OR STATICS. Specific gravity, or weight in species, is the measure of force with which matter, in its various forms, falls, when unsustained, towards the earth’s centre. It is best de- termined by poising solids in water, and in regard to gases in air; and the relation to equal bulks of water or air, is the rela- tive weight of an equal bulk, called the specific gravity ; gravity being, in this case, a mere synonyme with weight. That weight is a mere phenomenon of motion, is evident to sight; but it is further proved, by the fact that every body, while falling, generates the usual line of motion or centre, which is generated by all moving bodies. It in called in one, the centre of gravity or weight ; and in the other, the centre of percussion. This motion is in the diagonal of the two motions of the earth, and always directed from the circumference of double motion, to the centre of uniform, but least motion. The centre of the Earth moves with a mean velocity of about 97,890 feet per se- cond; but the rotation of 1521 5 feet per second at the equator deflects every part of that circle, a mean 969 feet perpendicu- larly from the line of the centre, and simul- taneously through the entire 360 degrees. It is, therefore, an inverse force to the orbit force equal to 969 X 6 283 = 6086 227. 97890 Then = 16 083, which in round 6086- numbers is the increase of the motion of the diagonal of both motions, directed to the centre, or is the mean fall of a body in a second. Then, since the hemispheres consist of 2 dimensions, heighth from the plane, and proportionate diminution of rotation, mea- sured in a sphere by the sine and cosine of the latitude ; and, as the rotation in gene- rating areas has a force as the square of the radius, so the same now prevails every, where, cos. 2 + sine 2 being = rad. 2 And since in an oblate spheriod the sines become too short near the poles, and cos. 2 -j- sine 2 is then less than rad. 2 , the inverse force is, therefore, less, and the ratio or quotient 16 083 is greater, as is known to be the fact. Again, as the motions generate areas, and the times are as the equable motions, so the fall is accelerated as the square of the times. _ , . Orbit „ Further, since — = F, or fall, 6*283 Def. * so F by observation X 6283 Def. (= 4 X rot.) is equal to orbit per second, and we thus learn the Earth’s distance by known physical numbers. The equation is also susceptible of other alternations and varieties. No proposition can be more clear in the circle of human investigations, and, indeed, no other resembles it; and though the Editor submitted it in 1826 to the world, yet it is not received in the schools, because it does not harmonize with the absurd and superstitious, and impossible principle of the attraction of universal weight or gra- vitation ! If a progressive motion acted alone on a mass, it would form a train of the rarer parts, and disperse them. If a rotative motion acted alone, it would direct the parts in tangents, and disperse them. Their com- bination direct the parts to the centre, and the two become a force of aggregation, centripetal force, gravity, or weight. In a revolving sphere the mean force is at 30°, when the cosine is half the radius, but there being in the 2 hemispheres 2 such cosines, the mean force is that at the equator. 74 SPECIFIC GRAVITY, OR STATICS 73 Space is the extension of matter, or of matter in motion, or, in fine, the extension of material power ; every equal space having within it an equal momentum, or u tendency to equality, created by more matter and less motion, or by less matter and more motion. Some paradoxical writers, by an equivo- cation, deny the existence of matter: but philosophy treats justly of an actuality, called matter, whose various quantities and densities, in various motions, produce all the phenomena sensible to relatively ma- terial beings, and this to them is matter. There is always proof of the presence of matter, when power is displayed on other matter; and also, that the said matter is in motion, since all power displayed on other matter is the power of some matter in motion. Power and matter in motion are convertible terms. By power is meant action on other matter, since our senses take cognizance of no other power, and true philosophy takes cognizance only of actuali- ties, not of creations of fancy like powers of attraction, repulsion, and the like. In like manner, liquidity is a state of matter maintained by the atmospheric pres- sure of 15 lbs. to the square inch, and the liquid becomes gas as this pressure is re- duced ; or, as the excitement of heat or atomic motion is so increased in the liquid as to overcome the atmospheric pressure. It then takes the expanded orbit form of gas. Matter is either concrete, liquid, or gaseous. In the first, the atoms are mu- tually fixed and combined, whatever be their interstices or density. The motion of heat converts some into fluids, and when increased, into gas ; Jjut, in others, the conversion is into smoke, or vapour, or gaseous. Fluidity is an intermediate state, preserved by the pressure of the atmosphere; but in various intractable substances, the' heat or motion required to change the form at once overcomes the atmospheric pres- sure, and they expand as smoke or gas. In the concrete state the atoms have no motion, but their interstices are filled with gas, which forms also their local atmospheres, producing inflections of light and certain affec- tions on the surfaces of other bodies ; but no chemical union or affection of the matter of the bodies. In the liquid state, the matter of the bodies is dissolved or combined with the gases in the interstices, so as nroduce a mobile substance, or liquid restrained by atmospheric pressure, and susceptible, by mixture, of chemical and mechanical union with other liquids. But in the gaseous state, the atoms are projected, and then repelled into orbits by the atmospheric pressure, and maintain a space or volume byre-action; for all projectiles, uniformly re-acted on, are converted into orbit motions. The various relative unions, actions, and re-actions in the fluid, and chiefly in the gaseous state, may be considered as the effect of forms of the respective atoms, which permit, assist, or oppose union, in a variety of degrees, as they are like or un- like, constituting all the phenomena of affinity, repulsion, combination, &c. &c. Atoms of matter, or their first com- pounds, unite as grains or fibres, but more commonly in juxta-position of fitting sides as chrystals ; and their indefinite smallness renders them, when in union, impervious to our coarse edged- tools, and separable only by friction, blows, heat, or other forms of intense motion, acting and re-acting among the atoms. No limit can be set to the smallness of atoms, which still maintain definite actions and re-actions. The imagination cannot reach the divisibility of matter ; an ounce of gold-wire may be drawn out 50 miles; and in leaves 300,000 are but an inch, or 1500 to a sheet of thin paper. A grain of iodine with starch tinges 5 pints of water; but animalculse, and their perfect parts and formations, prove that diminu- tiveness is even more wonderful than en- largement, and yet the atoms of the sus- taining elements must be even less. In one of Newton’s speculations, he ima- gined that if the matter of the whole earth were compressed into absolute solidity, it might be reduced to a body but a few yards in diameter. Reduced to a sphere of 1 mile in diameter, the matter to the interstices would be but as 1 to 510,000,000,000. Densities are so various, while the bodies still maintain their space and integrity, that a cubic foot of platinum weighs 20,000 ounces, while one of cork weighs only 240 ; of ether 716; of water 1000; air but T285. Hence the law of equal power in equal space demands an inverse activity of the atoms, or 19,000 to 1 as to platinum and air, and 92 to 1 as to platinum and cork. That we do not see matter in any sim- . plicity, is evident from the consideration, that every part of the earth is moved 49 times more than that of a cannon-ball at issuing; and certainly equal to a cannon- ball in other directions. While the actions and re-actions of such a system are the life of nature, it baffles our conceptions. Cohesion is destroyed either by a sudden blow, or by imparting so much heat, or atomic motion, as produces a general mo- tion of the atoms in orbits, owing to re- actions of other atoms. It is computed that atoms begin to cohere when within the 250 millionth of an inch. That aqueous vapour has its particles at such distance, and that particles of water are the 10,000 millionth of an inch asunder, or from that to the 2,000 millionth. Bodies at rest never move, unless some force is impressed on them in the direction of any motion which they acquire. All motion in bodies, whether masses or atoms, has been transferred to them in the direction in which they move. Within our sphere of observation there is no original motion. Bodies have no force or momentum but what they derive from some transferred motion of another body in motion. 75 SPECIFIC GRAVITY, OR ST A.TICS. 76 The force or momentum of a body in motion, is the quantity of atoms which it contains, by its velocity in the line of di- rection of the centre of all the atoms united in the mass. As every body parts with its motion only to other bodies which then display it, so action is transferring motion, and re-action is receiving what is transferred, both there- fore equal. Percussion is one mode of parting with motion, friction another, and resistance another, all resolvable into mere transfer. Reflections and deflections arise from the velocity being parted with only on the striking side. Power or momentum in any body or atom \s evidence that it is in motion, whether the power be massive or chemical. In chemical powers there is no action between fixed or concrete bodies, however antagonist or in juxta-position ; and reci- procal energies appear only when they have acquired the motion of fluidity, and the atoms are intermingled. When one body moves another body, their subsequent velocity is lowered as their joint mass is increased. Large bodies move small ones by division of velocity, often miscalled re-action. Small bodies in great motion are reflected by much larger ones, because the impulse affects only the adjacent parts of the large one, which returns it by perpendicular vibra- tion, making the angles of percussion and reflection equal. Action and re. action are always equal, and in directions varying as the angle of impulse. Impulse is the union of a body in mo- tion with another body. The force conti- nues the same, but the velocity is as the mass of the first to the mass of the two. Small bodies are moved by large ones, because involved in their motion. Action and re-action being equal, whe- ther in contact, or by intervention, so any law of force with which intervening bodies may transmit the action of either to the other, has the same effect reciprocally ; and as equal action and re-action always result, the law of force is neutral as to both. When two bodies are fixed at the ends of a rod, and made to turn on a pivot hori- zontally, in circles inversely as their masses, it signifies not whether the intervening rod is of wood, brass, or iron, or what is the law of the cohesion of its parts, for it is the same for one as for the other. Wherever there is matter in velocity, there is force, and vice versa. And when the same quantity of matter in equal ve- locity produces different modes of force, the differences may be ascribed to forms which yield or combine variously. Diminution of volume always gives out heat, because the motion which sustained the expansion, is parted with. So enlarge- ment of volume abstracts and absorbs mo- tion or heat from surrounding bodies. Since the laws of the communication of motion are essentially similar, we may rea- sonably infer, caeterls paribus, that the mo- tions of atoms resemble those of sensible aggregates. And with regard to all aggregates and atoms on the earth, or connected with it, we seem warranted in concluding, that there is no motion or force on the sphere of the earth which is not, directly or indirectly, derived from its two great motions, and part or parcel of them, excepting only tnose atomic motions, which are derived from the light and heat of the Sun. Masses describe spaces, but forces only the lines which pass through the centre of gravity ; hence the spaces are as the squar e of the velocities, while the force is only as the velocity of the line in the centre of the mass. Bodies in motion in one direction, have no force of motion in any direction but that in which they are moving ; consequently, there can be no mutual repulsion when the bodies are each moving from the other. Bodies do not act where they are not present, unless by the intervention of other bodies, fluids, or gases ; and they move other bodies, or these in maximum, only in the direction of their own motions. There is no force but impulse in some form or other ; and no motion but'in the direction of an impulse, which impulse is necessarily on the contrary side of the body to that part to which the body moves. A body on the right hand cannot, therefore, by any force of its own, make a body on the left hand move to the right, or towards itself, since it is not present on the side from which the impulse must proceed. Whenever, therefore, bodies go together, or move from one another, without sensible cause, the effects do not arise from any cause which is an exception to Mechanical Action ; but the cause, or causes, become a proper object of philosophical enquiry, and its discovery involves the correct con- ception of the collateral phenomena ; and such a discrimination of the laws of action as would facilitate both practice and theory. Such a determination would be knowledge , and the want of it is ignorance. The momentum of a body in motion is a constant test of its number of atoms, since it is always equal to V X Q. With the uniform velocity, therefore, which is produced in bodies, in the diagonal of the two terrestrial motions, weight, or centri- petal form, is universally as the number of atoms in the body. But there is a diminu- tion of weight in the same number of atoms, whenever the atomic motion, called Heat, has converted a concrete mass into a liquid or gas, since, in this condition, the atoms have great lateral motions, which counteract the perpendicular force of the two motions in producing weight. Motion seems to be a necessary adjunct of all matter, and determines the density of bodies by their atomic quantity, and the form of the atoms, and the central force by the direction of their motions. Direct, and oblique motions are merely 77 SPECIFIC GRAVITY, OR STATICS. 78 relative to the position of the agent and patient. Every motion as to the mover is direct, and the obliquity, as it is called, is m the direction of the striking line. The direct motion is that of the constant centre of the mass, and the obliquity is the angle of the impinging point, with the line of direction of the centre. If a body, put in motion, suffered no resistance, or friction, or were not pre- viously involved in other motions, as part of a system, it would move for ever. But this is an hypothetical case, since all bodies move in air, or some medium which re- ceives part of their motion; or they are involved in other motions. Bodies in motion display power, mis- called Inertia, as the angle of any deflecting body, with the line of direction, increases. If the lines concur, there is no inertia ; if 180°, the inertia is a maximum ; if at 90°, it is a mean ; and this is the inertia of bodies on the earth whenever we seek to move them at right angles, or draw them horizontally. The inertia, as it is called, is merely their own previous force downwards. Breaking in pieces is when the action and re-action is greater than the cohesion, or union of the parts ; and the motion after breaking, is the display of the first motion, and the deflection aside and around are the re-acting vibrations. Elasticity in hard bodies means the vibra- tions of the adjoining fibres, when struck by another hard body. Those vibrations return the motion, and hence the usual rebound. Elasticity in gases is the greater or less orbits of their atoms, as the excite- ment, or their susceptibility, is greater or less. There is no space void of material power, owing to the elasticity or orbit motions of atoms of gas, which enlarge as any space presents itself ; that is, any space less filled with power than any other space, as in the pores of bodies, and spaces be- tween the planets and stars. Fluids press equally in all directions, up- wards, downwards, obliquely or laterally. Solids press only downwards , or in the direction of the earth’s centre. The upper surface of a fluid at rest is horizontal, and seeks to become so. The velocity of waves is as the square- root c? their breadth. Thus, if the summit of 2 waves are 16 feet asunder, and of others 4 feet, the velocity is 2 to 1. A pendulum equal to the breadth vibrates in the time that the waves proceed. The pressure of a fluid on every part of the vessel containing it, is equal to the weight of a column of the fluid, whose base is equal to that part, and whose height is equal to its depth below the upper surface of the fluid. The pressure of fluids on a square inch, at the depth of 30 feet, is 131bs., at 3,000 feet 1,300 lbs. ; and on a square foot, at 35 84 feet, is a ton, and- at 105 feet 3 tons. The pressure of a fluid on a lighter body, or rarer fluid, arises from the heavier fluid seeking to maintain its own levol, or the level of its own weight. The extraneous body is, therefore, driven upward. So with gases, steam, vapour, smoke, &c. Air would become as dense as water from its own weight, at a depth of 34 miles ; and water would be of double density at 93 miles, and as heavy as mercury at 362. Gravity or weight is the name of an eflect, and every cause, or all the causes, are equal to the eflect ; so, in quantity, the effect in this case may be taken for the cause. But, philosophically and logically, if the causes are various and compounded, we cannot take the result or effect as the cause. Again, the several kinds of going toge- ther, of which gravity is one case, may have different causes ; and it is, therefore, very illogical to ascribe the whole to one cause or to a property of matter. Nor ought we when the causes are explained, and their explication serves as the basis of various reasoning, to treat them as of no conse- quence, because the effect is their uniform result. We might, in like manner, treat, every other investigation of causes, as thai of combustion, with contempt, because we are familiar with its effect. Vulgar truths and philosophical investigations are totally distinct. To determine the number of fixed atoms in any bulk by their downward tendency, the hydrometer is a very convenient instru- ment, and it gives the specific gravity withm the 40,000th part. In other cases, on a body being weighed in and out of water, as the lost weight in, is to that out, so is the spe- cific gravity of water to that of the body. Taking water at 32° as 1, at 41 o it is 1-0001032; at 46 4 is 1 0000129; at 48‘2 is 0 9999579 ; at 59^ is 0 9993731 ; at 680 is 0-9985615; at 77° is 0*9974608 ; at 860 is 0 9960993 ; at 122^ is 0 988 1227 ; at 149^ is 0 9798108; at 185^ is 0 9661788 ; at 203^ is 0 95S4651 ; and at 212° is 0 9544219. These being taken as to water, cubic foot to cubic foot, and a cubic foot of water being 1000 ounces, or 62£ lbs., so these figures express the weight of a cubic foot of each; and if divided by 1728, the quo- tient is the weight of a cubic inch of each in ounces ; and the weight of any plate of any metal or wood is known, by dividing the weight of an inch by the number of plates to an inch. Specific gravities are determined by di- viding the weight of the body, of the same bulk, by the weight of air or water. Specific Weights of the Gases. Air 1 000-1 Hydriodic Gas - - . - 4 443 Fluo-silicic - - 3 573 Chloro-boric - - 3-42 Arsenical Hydrogen 2-695 Chlorine -- 2-47 Fluo-boric Acid -- 2 371 Sulphurous Acid -- 2-234 Cyanogen . . 1 -806 Phosphoric Hydrogen -- 1761 Protoxide of Azote . . 1-52 80 79 SPECIFIC GRAVITY, OR STATICS. Carbonic Acid -- -. 1-5245 Tungsten _ m Hydro-chloric Acid - - 1 2474 Mercury (at 32^) Proto-phosphoric Hydrogen -- 1-214 Lead - - Hydro-sulphuric Acid - - -. 11912 Palladium • _ Oxygen -- 11026 Rhodium . m Deutoxide of Azote - - 1 0388 Silver _ _ Bi-carbonated Hydrogen -- 0-978 Bismuth Azote -- Copper, Fibrous - -- Carbonic Oxide - - 0-957 Copper, Red - - Ammoniacal Gas -- 0-5967 Molibdenum Carbonic Hydrogen of Marshes - . 0-555 Arsenic Hydrogen -- 0 0688 Nickel Specific Weights of Vapours. Uranium Steel - - -- Air Cobalt Bi-cliloride of Tin -- 9199 Iron Bars - - Vapour of Iodine -- 8-716 Tin Vapour of Mercury - - 6 976 Cast Iron Mi M Vapour of Sulphur -- 6617 Zinc Proto-chloride of Arsenic -- 6-3 Antimony Tellurium Chloride of Silicum - - 5-939 a f Hydriodic Ether -- 5-4749 Chromium *’ Camphor -- 5-468 Ponderous Spar Benzoic Ether - - -- 5-409 Jargon of Ceylon Oxalic Ether - - -- 5 087 Ruby, Oriental Proto-chloride of Phosphorus -- 4-875 Topaz, Oriental Essence of Terebenthine -- 4-763 Sapphire, Oriental \ Yellow Chloride of Sulphur -- 4-73 Sapphire of Brazil - • Naphtalin - - 4-528 Topaz, Saxon Vapour of Phosphorus - - -- 4-355 Beryl. Oriental Red Chloride of Sulphur -- 3 7 Diamond, Rose-colour Hypo-nitric Acid -- 318 Diamond, Lighter . _ Acetic Ether -- 3-067 Spar.fluor, Red Sulphur of Carbon - - 2 644 Lime-stone Hypo-nitric Ether - - 2-626 Tourmaline, Green Sulphuric Ether -- 2-586 Asbestus Hydro-chloric Ether -- 2-212 Hone Chloride of Cyanogen -- 2111 Basalt Pyro-acetic Spirit -- 2019 Marble of Paros N _ _ Alcohol -. 1-6133 Quartz-jasper Onyx Hydro-cyanic Acid - - 0 9476 Chalk Water or Aqueous Gas - - .. 0 6235 Porphyry Liquids. * Emerald Pearls Distilled Water 1- Marble Sulphuric Acid - - 1 -8409 Granite Nitrous Acid -- 1-55 Coal - - Water of the Dead Sea ... - - 1 2403 Quartz-jasper Nitric Acid -- 1-2175 Coral Sea Water . - 1 0263 Slate Beer - . - 1 034 Pebble Madeira - - 1 -038 Flint .. _ Milk -- -- 103 Glass, Flint _ _ Claret 0 9939 Glass, White - . Burgundy -- 0 9915 Glass, Bottle - - „ _ Olive Oil -- 0-9153 Glass, Green -- Muriatic Ether -- 0-874 Portland- stone . _ Essential Oil of Terebenthine -- 0-8697 Paving-stone Naphtha .. 0 8475 Mill -stone Alcohol, pure -- 0-792 Crystal, Rock Sulphuric Ether .. 07155 Ouartz-agate Specific Weights of Solids. Water at 64° 1. Felspar China-ware Distilled Water . 1- Coals, Sulphuretted r Laminated - - - 22 069 Porcelain of Sevres feed :: : - 210417 Sulphur, Native - 20 3366 Bricks C Purified - 19-5 Ivory - _ r Forged Gold 4 Melted . 193617 Alabaster . 19-2581 Anthracite . - t. Jeweller's . . - 15 709 Alum -- 176 -- 13 598 - - 11 3523 -- 113 -- 110 - - 10 4743 -- 9-822 -- 8-3785 -- 8-788 -- 8 611 - - 8-308 -- 8-279 -- 8-1 -- 78163 -- 78119 -- 7 788 -- 72914 -- 7207 6 861 - 6-712 -- 6115 -- 5 9 -- 4 43 -- 4 4161 - - 4 2833 -- 4 0106 -- 3-9941 -- 31307 -- 3 564 -- 3 5489 -- 3-531 -- 3 501 -- 31911 -- 3179 -- 31555 - - 2-9958 -- 2-876 -- 2-864 - - 2-8376 -- 2-816 -- 2-784 -- 2 765 -- 2 7755 -- 2 75 -- 2 742 -- 2-654 -- 2-7182 -- 2 7101 -- 2-68 -- 2-672 - - 2-664 - 2-594 * - 3-3293 - - 2-892 - - 2 733 -- 2 642 - - 2-52 -- 2416 - - 2-484 -- 2 653 -- 2-615 -- 2-5644 - - 2-3847 -- 2-3117 2 1457 -- 2-0332 -- 2- -- 1917 -- 1874 1-8 -- 1 72 81 MECHANICS AN Bone, Ox _ . 1-659 Honey 1-456 Solid Oil - _ 1-3292 Lignum Vitfe - - - - 1*333 Ebony 1*331 Amber 1 078 Oak -- *27 to 1*17 Tallow 0*945 Camphor 0-989 Sodium _ _ 0*9726 Ice 093 Ambergris 0*926 Box 0-912 Wax - - 0 897 Logwood . . 0-913 Potassium . . 0 8651 Yew . . 0-807 Beech 0696 Elder . . 0-695 Walnut 0 671 Pear-tree . . 0*661 Pine 0*66 Fir . . 0*75 Teak 0-745 Apple-tree 0-733 Orange-tree 0*705 Cyprus-wood . . 0 598 Cedar- wood 0-561 Larch 0 544 Elm 0 556 Mahogany 0*56 Willow . . 0 585 White Poplar . . 0*529 Sassafras-wood . . 0-482 Common Poplar .. 0*383 Cork .. 0-24 tery. 82 14 835 cubic feet of paving-stone weigh 1 ton 14-222 13 505 1307 12-874 11-273 common stone granite marble chalk lime-stone The weight of atmospheric air, at 32o, is to distilled water as 1 to 770, and of air to mercury as 1 to 10466. A cubic Inch of zinc and cast-iron weigh 4*16 ounces; of steel and bar-iron 4£; of brass 4*858 ; copper 5 ; silver 6 ; lead 6£ ; cast-gold 10 l-5th; pure platinum 11 ’285, and laminated 12f ounces. A cubic Foot of paving-stone is 151 lbs. ; mill-stone 155 lbs. ; granite 165 87 lbs. ; slate 167 lbs.; marble 171 ^ lbs.; chalk 174 lbs. ; basalt 179 lbs. ; lime-stone 198§lbs. A cubic Foot of oak is from 54 to 73 lbs. ; of ebony 83 lbs. ; of box 57 lbs. ; yew 50| lbs. ; ash 47| lbs. ; teak 464 l bs - '•> beech 434 lbs. ; walnut 43 lbs. ; mahogany 35 lbs. ; elm 34f lbs. ; larch 34 lbs. ; poplar 24 lbs. ; and cork 15 lbs. 100 cubic inches of air weigh 31 01 1 7 grains; of hydrogen 21614 grains; of car- bureted hydrogen or coal gas 17 3025 grains; of nitrogen or azote and olefiant gas 30*2794 grains; of oxygen 3445048 grains; of muriatic acid gas 40 0121 grains ; of car- bonic acid 47*4691 grains ; of chlorine 77*8615 grains; and of hydriodic acid gas (the heaviest) 100 cubic inches weigh 135176 grains, being 4^ times the weight of air, and 4 times that of oxygen. 430 ’25 cubic inches of cast-iron weigh 1 cwt. 397 60 „ „ bar iron 368 88 „ „ cast brass 352*41 „ „ cast copper 272*8 „ „ cast lead 64-46 „ ,, elm 64* „ ,; Honduras mahogany 51*65 „ „ Mar Forest fir 514 ,, „ beech 47*762 „ „ Riga fir 47*158 „ ,, ash, and Dantzic oak 42 066 „ „ Spanish mahogany 36 205 „ „ English oak O. Gregory. A square foot of cast iron, one inch thick, weighs 38 lbs. 107 ounces; of malleable iron 39 lbs. 13*1 ounces; of copper 47lbs., and of lead 59 lbs. — Other thicknesses in proportion. 100 inches of wrought- iron bars, one inch square, weigh a quarter of a cwt. An iron shot, of 4 inches diameter, weighs 9 lbs. ; and a lead one of 4|, 17 lbs. ; and others to these are as the cubes of their diameters. Hammering renders metals more dense, and heating in fire restores them. A body falls at the equator in a second of time 16 045223 feet ; in the lat. of 45^ per Sabine 16 095375 ; at London, 51^*31/, in 16 093; and at Paramatta, in 33° 48/, 16-0703 feet ; or, per mean, 16*08728 feet. The fall of a body at the level of the sea, (per Kater), in the latitude of London, is in a second exactly 16 085375 feet, or 368*289 inches at the level of our seas. The centripetal force being known at 45°, that at the poles is its multiple by 1*002837, and at the equator by 0997163. A cubic foot of rain-water, which weighs 62j pounds, presses at 30 feet deep 13 pounds per square inch, and at 3000 feet is 1300 pounds. At 36 feet the pressure per square-foot is a ton, and 108 feet nearly 3 tons. MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. Mechanics are the practical economy of Motion and Matter, and they consist of various contrivances, to vary momentum by varying the velocity or impulse. They are also made to vary the directions of the motion, so as to produce particular effects. Power is gained by increasing the velocity of the acting force, and when speed is re- quired in the work, by diminishing the velo- city of that force : for power at one end of a machine into its velocity, is always equal to velocity and power at the other end ; and there is no exception to this law, except in the allowance to be made for friction and resistance, from one- third to one -fifth. The contrivances for conveying the power of a machine to the work, are Wheels and pinions on axles. Conical wheels. Rack work. 83 MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 84 Belts, bands, and chains. Cranks, single and double. The universal joint. The sun and planet wheel. The ball and socket. The lever of Lagoaroust, for producing a rectilinear from a circular motion. Spiral geering, is when the cogs or teeth are cut obliquely, to act with slight friction. Conical drums, inverted to each other, increase and decrease velocity, as desirable. Wheels of different diameters, on parallel axis, put in and out of geer, effect the same purpose ; also, by an eccentric crown- wheel, which varies the velocity. Tilting-hammers, fulling-hammers, &c. are raised by cams or wipers, which are connected with the axis of motion. Cartwright’s reciprocating crank converts a rectilinear into a circular motion, by two opposed joints, which turn two wheels into one another. The encycloidal wheel is a very simple means of converting rectilinear into circular motion. The toggle-joint is a lever of oblique action. A machine merely directs and modifies the force which has been transferred to it. Universally to determine the power of a machine, divide the velocity of the action by the velocity of the power. For the ac- tual effect, multiply this by the force of the power, and deduct a fourth for friction. In wheel-machinery, to determine the number of revolutions of the last-moved part for one of the first-moved part, divide the product of the cogs in the driving-wheels by the product of the cogs in the driven. Reversing a motion is merely crossing a belt, or making one wheel work into another. A force of 50 lbs. per second, imparted to a loaded wheel, so accumulates, as to enable it to overcome a resistance of nearly 500 lbs. in ten seconds ; and this is a fly- wheel. This not only equalizes power, but it is accumulated by making this large and heavy wheel acquire a great velocity. A vane, or fly, in machinery, has such a surface, that a too rapid motion is corrected by a resistance of the fluid it revolves in. The composition and resolution of forces may be effected by the construction of a parallelogram, whose sides are the forces ; and many forces may be combined in one resultant, or diagonal, by taking each pair separately, and using the resultant as datum for a new construction. — Or, the resultant, or diagonal, in force and direction, may be determined by adding the square of one force to the square of the other, then adding or substracting (as the forces are, or are not in the same direction) twice the pro- duct of the two forces by the natural cosine of the angle of their directions ; and of this sum, extracting the square-root, which is the resultant force. — Then the angle of the resultant with the major force, is a division of the product of the minor or other force, bv the natural sine of their angle, by the major force, added to the product of the natural cosine of their angle by the other force. The quotient is the natural tangent of the angular direction of the resultant, in relation to the first force. Three forces, not in the same plane, are strictly the diagonal of a parallelopipedon, and may be so resolved by construction, &c. ; or, they may be brought into one plane by multiplying the eccentric force by the cosine of the angle, which its direction makes with the plane of the others. Two forces and their resultants may each be represented by the sine of the angle formed by the directions of the two others, as in the following formula : — If f, /, represent two forces, and a the angle made by their respective directions ; then the resultant = \/(F* + P _+ 2 F / COS A) And the angle with the force / sin a ~ f + / cos A These propositions are of universal ap- plication by architects, mechanics, &c. The following are the varied relations of forces ; b the body, / the force, m the mo- mentum, v the velocity, s the space, t the time. Then severally — b as m .. 1. m t V 'as w as s 7 as / as m, as b v , as b s ~ m as f, as b v , as b s ~T v as m ~ s " as ~T / ’ as ~ t v , t m t.f s as as — ’ as ~ s sb sb t as V ■* as «’ as — It is the principle of virtual velocities , that if a system of bodies be in a state of equilibrium, in consequence of the action of any forces whatever, on certain points in the system j then if the equilibrium is for a moment destroyed, the small space moved over by each of these points, will express the virtual velocity of the power applied to it. And, if each force be multi- plied into its virtual velocity, the sum of all the products when the velocities are in the same direction, will be equal to the sum of all those in the opposite. Our moving powers, or first movers, are steam derived from air, currents of water, and wind, descending weights, the elasticity of air, and fibres of steel. We use, be- sides the muscular re-action of animals against the ground, which we deflect for special purposes, through the superior limbs of bipeds, and the alternate limbs of qua- drupeds. I** all, action and re-action ar« 85 MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 80 equal, and we gain power on the patient by increasing the velocity of the agent ; matter and velocity in agent and patient being always equal. The primum mobile is the two-fold motion of the Earth, and the rest are its deflections. The Mechanical Powers for varying ve- locity may be reduced to three ; but they are usually expressed as six, the Lever, the Wheel and Axle, the Pulley, the Inclined Plane, the Screw, and the Wedge. In a single moveable pulley, the power gained is double. In a continued combi- nation it is twice the pullies, less 1. In levers, the power is reciprocally as the lengths on each side £he fulcrum of motion. The power gained in the wheel and axle, is as the radius of the wheel to the axle. On an inclined plane, the power gained is as the length of the plane to the length of the base. The velocity, in descending to that, falling perpendicularly, is as the heighth to the length, and the force is the same. For a body acquires the same velo- city as in falling perpendicularly through the heighth of the plane ; and a body acquires the same velocity in falling down any number of planes, or down a curve, as perpendicularly from the whole heighth. A body, moving down an inclined plane, moves 4 times as far in 2 seconds as in 1. The power of the screw is as the circum- ference to the distance of the threads, or 6 ’2832 that distance. The power of the wedge is as the length of the two sides to the thickness. The diameter of the wheel of a pulley should be five times its thickness. The pin one-twelfth, and one-twelfth on each side allowed for play. The most effective machines for saving and superseding human labour, now in use, are of American invention. 1. Dyer’s Wire-carding Machine. 2. Wilkinson’s Reed Machine. 3. Church’s Nail Machine. 4. Fulton’s Steam-vessel. 5. The new machine for preparing and spinning by one operation and movement. 6. Perkins’s Engraving Apparatus. The most perfect machines of British Invention have been — The Steam-engine, in origin and pro- gress, by more than 500 Patentees. Hargrave’s Spinning Jenny and Doffer. Arkwright’s Water or Steam-power Frames. Crompton’s Mules. Cartwright’s Power Looms. De Jonge’s Power Mules, &c. Heathcote’s Lace Frames. Carpet Looms for all colours. Cloth Cropping Machines. Tilting, Rolling, and Slitting Mills. Applegatii’s Printing Machines. Babbage’s Calculating Machine. Apparatus for Grinding Lenses. Centrifugal Pump. Damask Weaving Machine. Coining Apparatus. Androides, to perform human actions, have been made in all ages. Bacon was said to make one to speak ; and Albertus Magnus spent 30 years in making another. The Writing Androides is merely a pentograph, worked by a confederate out of sight. So also the Automaton Chess-player, and the Invisible Girl. They are,- in general, con- structed of wheel-work. Vaucanson, in this way, made a Flute-player ; Kempelen, the Chess-player and Speaking Figure. Mai- lardet and Hancock many others. Vaucanson made an artificial duck, which performed every function of a real onej. even an imperfect digestion, eating, drink- ing, and quacking. A coach and two horses, with a coachman, footman, page, and a lady inside, were made by Camus, for Louis XIV., when a child. The horses and figures moved naturally, variously, and perfectly. Cotton-spinning machinery, and manu- facturing machinery in general, are merely varieties of the inventions of Androides, and toy-makers. A central power, with axles, wheels, cogs, ketches, ratches, straps, lines, levers, screws, &c. &c. variously com- bined, to reverse, direct, take up, drop, in- crease and decrease motion, constitute the wonders of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Derby- shire, and Warwickshire. Till 1776, cotton-spinning was performed by the hand spinning-wheel, when Har- grave, an ingenious mechanic, near Black- burn, made a spinning jenny , with eight spindles, and having permitted one Peel, of that place, to view it as a curiosity, under an engagement of secrecy, Peel availed himself of Hargrave’s invention, while Hargrave, on the report of the invention, had his cottage pulled down by a mob. Har- grave was obliged to remove to Notting- ham, where he assisted Arkwright, but died in poverty. His last surviving daugh- ter, the very one who worked the first jenny, was living in 1829, at Manchester, on a charitable stipend of 3s. per week, though the cotton manufacture, consequent on this invention, had yielded to Britain 1,000 mil- lions sterling. Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine, with cylinders. Arkwright’s machine for spinning by water, was an extension of the principle of Hargrave; and he also applied a large and small roller to expand the thread, and, for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first, he worked his machinery by horses ; but, in 1771, he built a mill on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1772, his patent was contested, and can- celled in 1785, on the evidence of the widow and sons of Hargrave, who appeared to have been the inventor of the crank, so essential to the carding process. In 1786, Crompton invented the mule , a further and wonderful improvement of this art. By its means, cotton is spun of a de- gree of fineness which never could be ap- proached by the thumb and finger ; and 200 hanks to the lb., each 840 yards, is its ave- rage performance, while 300 and 350 hanks are often produced. The number of hanks MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 87 8 ^ is called the number , and, for different purposes, the lb. is spun from No. 6 up to No. 300 ; 30 being the average for hosiery, 200 to 280 for lace, 20 to 50 for calicoes, and higher numbers for muslins, &c. &c. The largest spinning manufactories are at or near Manchester, and each employs from 600 to 1000 men, women, and children. The buildings are five or six stories high, filled with frames, each containing some hundred spindles, wrought in every part-of the process by steam-engines. The Mule, invented by Crompton in 1779, has now superseded the Jenny of Hargrave, of which it is such an extension, that 500 or 1000 spindles may be worked by it, and the finest weft be produced. Crompton called his machine a Mule , because Arkwright’s spinning-frame used to be worked by a Horse- wheel, and it is intermediate between that and the Jenny. The number of mule- spindles is upwards of 8 millions in Britain. The old-fashioned distaff furnished the idea of the most important of these new me- chanical powers. One, the crank by which the reciprocating power of the steam-engine beam is transferred to wheel-w r ork ; and, the other, the different motion of the thumb and finger, in twisting the thread, imitated in the rollers of Arkwright. Marshall estimates our mechanical power of machinery at 12, and its consuming power at only 1 ; and hence the miseries inflicted on labourers, for the manufacturers are not a seventh of the population, and their ma- chinery supercedes the domestic labour of half the cottage population. The Steam-engine, which confers on a piston the power of any number of horses, or 5 times their number of men, is the wonderful machine which has raised mo- dern nations above their ancestors. Who ever invented it, it is now altogether English, and made what it is by our me- chanics, and by successive additions to its facilities by Savary, Newcomen, Watt, and others. The Marquis of Worcester published mere projects, many of them very wild and absurd. As to the. origin of steam-naviga- tion and circular paddles, the Editor has seen an engraving of circular paddles, work- ed by oxen in an horizontal wheel, in a foreign book of 1510 ; and, with regard to the substitution of steam for oxen, it is not to be questioned that Blasco de Garay , a Spanish Captain, in 1543, made and exer- cised a steam-vessel in the port of Barce- lona, but laid it aside, owing to the bigotry of an imperial officer. But, the French refer the developement of the principle of gaseous expansion to Solomon de Cans , of Frank- fort, in 1615. Water is a very vapid fluid, yet, when heated and converted into steam, it is the most powerful of all substances ; or, when frozen, or when melted, it tears rocks in pieces, and splits the largest trees. Its power of action is therefore derived from various degrees of heat, while its facility of re-action, by sudden condensation, makes it so efficient an engine of power. It raises a piston by its expansive force, and as readily lets it fall again by the simple in- troduction of a jet of cold water. This double facility of receiving, and parting with power, renders its agency so important. If from 275 to 450 grains of water are, in the same time, made into a cubic foot of steam, they act with a force of 16 27 lbs. per square inch. We, however, use the powers of steam, without knowing the source ; but the spirit of a philosopher will lead him to inquire, whence so extraordinary a force proceeds ? First, he will perceive, that it is derived from the action of the fire on the water. He will then inquire, why fuel in combus- tion transfers so extraordinary a degree of force — and will find that a current of air is necessary. Then, by inquiring into the con- stitution of air, and its effects on the fuel, it will be evident, that the air itself con. tains the primary element of this great force. All that intervenes between it and the effect of the engine, is merely a series of means for transferring and displaying the energy of the air which feeds the fire, which converts the water into steam, which re-converts it into water, gives out its steam- power to the piston, and this to the beam, &c. &c. In fact, all that is changed is the air, which has lost its oxygen in the fire, where the oxygen has been fixed and con- centrated by the evolved excited hydrogen of the fuel. In fact, air has fed and sus- tained the ignition, and in parting with its motion, and becoming fixed, its atomic mo- tion, as heat, has been simply transferred to the water, whose susceptibility and den- sity display the force by lifting the piston, the beam, &c., and by its susceptibility of parting with its motion to cold water thrown into it, re-condenses, and lets the piston fall again. This is the general principle, and the variations are a volume of steam applied above the piston, to drive it down with increased force, and a separate vessel for the refrigeration. Shut up the ash-hole, and you stop the engine, — consequently, the whole force is the motion which was in the air itself when it passed to the fuel. That motion is there fixed, but not lost; for it is transferred to the boiler, and by the boiler to the atoms of the water. Thus these atoms are enabled to overcome the previous pressure of the air, by a projectile force greater than 15 lbs. to the square inch, and being projected and re-acted on by the aerial pressure, the two forces turn them into orbits, whose size is in proportion to the excitement, and conse- quently is the expansive force. A single bushel of coals will raise 9 7 mil- lions of lbs. one foot, and in ordinary 90. The cylinders of the engines employed to drain the Cornish mines, are 7£ feet * n diameter, or 350 horse-power, and raise from 45 to 75 barrels of water per minute. The whole in Cornwall are equal to 50,000 horses, reckoning each horse at 1-1 6th of « bushel of coals. MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 89 Wheal Abraham mine is 1452 feet ; Dol- eoath, 1410 feet; and Gwennap, 1740, or the third of a mile in depth. Horse. power is reckoned as constant, but if they work but 8 hours a day, a 100-horse engine is equal to the work of 300 horses. Horse-power in steam-engin.es is calcu- lated as the power which would raise 33,000 lbs. a foot high in a minute, or 90 lbs. at the rate of four miles an hour. One-horse power is equal to the lifting by a pump 250 hogsheads of water ten feet high in an hour. Or, it will drive 100 spin- dles of cotton-yarn twist. Or, 500 spindles of No. 48 mule-yarn, or, 1000 of No. 110, or twelve power-looms. One-horse power is produced by 16 lbs. of Newcastle coals ; 50 lbs. of wood, or 34 lbs. of culm. Coals 1, wood 3, and culm 2, give equal heats in the production of steam. ' In other words, these combustibles fix oxygen in the inverse ratios of 1, 2, and 3. 1584 gallons; a cylinder 142 inches; ten horses; fifty men ; or 56 57 feet Dutch sails, are equal to raising 1000 lbs. 130 feet in a minute. — Fenwick. By the steam-engine, one bushel of good coals raise from twenty-four to thirty-two millions of pounds one foot per minute. Four bushels of coals per hour, with a cy- linder of 31^ inches, and 17£ strokes of seven feet per minute, is a force equal to forty horses constantly. A rotative double engine, with a cylinder 23 75 inches, making 21 5 strokes of five feet per minute, is a twenty-horse power; and a cylinder 17'5, making 25 strokes of four feet, is a ten-horse power ; the consumption of coals being pro- portional. — Watt. By Parke’s system, 10 lbs. of water is eva- porated at 212° by 1 lb. of coals ; 7£ lbs. of water is usual for 1 lb. of coals. Parke’s boiler has 10 square feet of surface instead of the usual 7 5 and 5 feet. A cubic foot of steam, at 212°, is pro- duced by a cubic inch of water, i. e. steam is to water as 1800 or 1728 to 1. The piston of a steam-engine works twice the length of the cylinder at each stroke ; and at a maximum, in a 9-feet stroke, 14 per minute, travels 250 feet, or with a 6-feet stioke, at 21 per minute, 210 feet. The effective force of a piston is taken at 10 lbs. per square inch, or two-thirds of the atmospheric pressure, and is of course ten times the square inches in lbs. This force, by the number of feet the piston moves per minute, is the momentum, or lifting-power per minute. The momentum, or lifting-power per mi- nute, divided by 33,000, a one-horse power, is the number of horses equal to the engine. The nozzles of safety-valves are one-fifth that of the cylinder. The powers of the steam-engine have been directed to every variety of manual labour. Its reciprocating motion is so readily ren- dered circular, that wheels, straps, &c. per- form every desirable operation, great or small, with unerring regularity. There is power from 500 horses to 1, capable of being 90 directed and modified, concentrated or divi- ded. Hence, there is no object of labour which it does not, or may not effect. The most powerful steam-engine, in Eng- land, is that erected at Hawkesbury Col- liery, near Coventry. Its cylinder is 58 inches in diameter ; the piston moves 8 feet in a stroke, and makes 12 strokes in a mi- nute ; the pump is 14 inches in diameter and the lift is 65 fathoms. The steam-engines, in Cornwall, use now but 1 bushel of coals for 16 used 30 years ago. At the United Mines, in Cornwall, 11,00ft bushels of coals, of 94 lbs. each, were used with 1,200,000 imperial gallons of water ; as 1 to 121, or 1 bushel of coals to 16 cubic feet; others make it average 1 to 14. Explosions in steam engines sometimes arise from the fire rising above the water, and generating hydrogen, which is exploded by atmospheric air derived from the neglect to keep the feed-pump surrounded by water. Water is the best conductor of heat up- wards, and the worst conductor downwards. Iron, at a white heat, keeps water at a distance, and generates less steam, as 1 to 15, than a lower temperature, called the evaporating point. — Perkins. Antharcite, or Welsh stone, is best adapt- ed to steam-boilers. Tubular Boilers are free from all danger, and if a tube bursts, it is scarcely perceived by bye-standers, while its place can be instantly supplied by spare ones. They are used in all locomotive engines. Weaving is performed by stretching threads generally horizontally, called the warp ; and then raising or depressing certain portions of the warp- threads by treddles, so as to pass between them a thread called the weft, by means of a shuttle , to which the weft is fastened. The fly-shuttle was invented by John Kay, who, in consequence, fled to France. The reed for weaving in England is counted by parts of 36 inches. In Scotland and Ireland, by parts of the Scotch ell, 3 7 inches ; the Dutch, 40 inches ; and the French, 34 inches; so that 100 of Scotch and Irish is equal to 92 French, 108 Dutch, and 103 English. Women originally spun, wove, and dyed ; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient nations, to different women, as wo- men’s arts. The Egyptians ascribed it to Isis ; the Greeks to Minerva j and the Pe- ruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. But in China and India it is still more ancient. In Schulze’s experiments on human strength, he found that men of five feet, weighing 126 lbs., could lift vertically 156 lbs. 8 inches ; 217 lbs. T2 inches. Others 6T feet weighing 183 lbs. ; 156 lbs. 13 inches, and 217 lbs. 6 inches. Others, 6 feet 3 inches, weighing 158 lbs. ; 156 lbs. 16 inches, and 217 lbs. 9 inches. By a great variety of other experiments, he determined the mean human strength at 30 lbs. with a velocity of 2 5 feet per second, or it is equal to the rau sing half a hogshead 10 feet in a minute. MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 91 92 Most authorities rate one horse as equal to five men, some at six, and the French at seven. Porters carry from 150 to 250 lbs. A man draws horizontally 70 or 80 lbs., and thrusts at the height of his chest 28 or 30 lbs. In hot climates, men cannot perform half the continued labour A man’s mean labour, per Young, is suffi- cient to raise 10 lbs. 10 feet in a second, for 10 hours per day, or, 100 lbs. 1 foot in a second, or 36,000 feet in 10 hours ; that is, 100 lbs. per day would be 3,600,000 lbs. 1 foot in a day, which he calls a dynamic unit. A man, unloaded, can walk 3^ miles per hour for 10 hours, without prejudice. That is, 308 feet per minute, or 5 per second. His most useful effort is to raise half a cubic foot of water 2 feet per second. Bricklayers ascend ladders with loads of 90 lb. 1 foot per second. The force of a horse, per Desagulier, is 44,000 lbs. 1 foot per minute. Per Smeaton, 22,916 ditto. Per Watt, 33,000 ditto. Then, as Mr. Watt, in a steam-engine, considers one-fourth lost by friction, he takes Desagulier’s 44,000 lbs. as the horse- power in his steam -engine. A man or horse will perform his labour with the greatest advantage, when the re- sistance is four-ninths of his natural strength, and when his velocity is equal to one-third of his greatest velocity when not impeded. The force of a man at rest is about 70 lbs. and his velocity six feet when not im- peded, therefore his force is exerted to the best advantage by a resistance equal to 31 lbs. and a velocity of 2 feet per second. So with a horse, his greatest pull is 420 lbs., equal to 20 cubic feet of steam per minute, and his rate 10 feet a second, therefore his labour is best performed at 187 lbs. and 3 ft. 4 inches per second. Smeaton, a good authority, reckoned a horse equal to 5 men, and Bossuet seven men, and an ass to two men. A horse, says Desagulier, can draw 200 lbs. 2± miles per hour, for eight hours per day, or 243 lbs. six hours. Smeaton says, that a horse loaded with 224 lbs. can travel twenty-five miles in seven or eight hours. A horse will draw 200 lbs. for eight hours, at 2| miles an hour : and the strength of five men is equal to one horse. Accord- ing to work or position, a horse can perform the work of seven men, or only of three men, but 5| is taken as the mean. The force of a man in turning a winch is taken at 116 lbs., or as much as would raise 256 lbs. 3281 feet in a day ; his force in pumping is as 190, or equal to 419 lbs. in 3281 feet ; in ringing 259, or 572 lbs. in 3281 feet ; and in rowing 273, or 608 lbs. in 3281 feet. In working a pump, a winch, a bell, and rowing, the effects are as 100, 167, 227, and 248. A man with an augur exerts a force of *00 lbs., with a screw-driver of 84 lbs., with a windlass 60 lbs. A hand-plane 50 lbs A band-saw 36 lbs. In sawing stone, the labour on calcareous stones is as 45 to 60, on granite as 500 to 700, and on red and green porphyry 1 200. Hatchett’s Dynamic Unit is T3124 hogs- heads, raised 10 feet. The Unit of Trans- port is 2208 lbs. 3281 feet. Cotton — The application of Machine- power to this fibre led to its extension to all others, and brought mechanism into general request.. It can only be understood by being seen, but the general principles of all are the same. The various mills employ 4000 machinists, engineers, and millwrights ; and not a month passes without improvements to save the expence of manual labour. Al- together there are, in the United Kingdom, about 1282 cotton factories which employ 220,000 hands, of whom |th are under 13, and about half above 1 8. England contains .. .. 1080 Wales 6 Scotland 166 Ireland 30 1282 So that these employ, on the average, 172 hands. They have, besides, 1050 steam- engines, and 500 water-wheels, which, at 25 horse-power to the former, is 26,250 horses, and at 12 horses to each water-wheel, is 6000, or 32,250 together. Hence, at a mean of 5^ men to a horse, the machine power is equal to 177,375 men. Taking, then, the 220,000 men, women, and children, at half the power of men, we have, in this manufactory, a total force equal to that of 287,375 men. The weavers, dyers, &c. in connection with spinners, are about . . 75,000 Cleaners and spreaders .. 5,200 Carders 44,000 Mule spinners .. .. 70,000 Reelers 16,000 Roller coverers .. .. 8,000 218,200 So that 143,000 spinners, &c. produce about 250 million lbs. of yarn and twist, or about 1700 lbs. each, or about 5| lbs. per day each, assisted bv steam-power equal to 177,375 men. Woollen. — There are about 1313 facto- ries in the United Kingdom. London district .. 19 Leeds ditto .. 3 78 Halifax, &c .. 157 Gloucester .. 118 West of England .. 140 Lancashire .. 106 Wales .. 85 Scotland . . 104 Ireland .. 46 Huddersfield, &c. .. 160 1313 They employ about 72,000 hands, or 55 on the average, half above twenty, and nearly half females. The process includes a score of manipulations, much heavy and ingenious machinery, and 560 steam-engines* and 480 water-wheels. t>$ MECHANICS AND MACHINERY, 94 The domestic wool trade, much reduced. The cotton-spindles inEnglai.d are neany .s supposed to employ as many more, be- 10 millions, in France nearly 4, in the United sides blankets, hosiery, &c. about half, or States about 2, and in Switzerland half a altogether 180,000 men, women, and children, million. l'he wool for fine and second cloths Formerly linen warps were worked with is usually Saxon, with some Spanish and Co- cotton wefts, and cotton warps were first lonial. British wools are more generally used used about 1765. for flannels, blankets, and worsted purposes. In cotton-factories Kay estimates the cost Hemp and Flax. — The spinning and of machinery, buildings, &c. at £500 for weaving of hemp into sail-cloth and sacking, every horse power. and of flax into linen, cambrics, &c. em- ploy 347 factories. London m m 6 Leeds m m .. 35 Scotland m m .. 175 Ireland m m .. 41 Other parts .. " * .. 90 *347 They employ, by returns, about 33,500 hands, or 9 7 on the average, two-thirds men and boys. Dumferline alone employs 8,000, and Dundee 3,500. In Ireland the Do- mestic system still chiefly prevails, but is fast diminishing. This fabric employs about 60 steam, and 60 water engines, in various manipulations. Silk. — We have in the United Kingdom about 250 throwing-mills, with l£ millions of spindles, which employ about 7000 men, 5000 children, and 19,000 women and girls. They are aided by 130 steam-engines, and 60 water-wheels. The trade has risen in consequence of Jacquard’s improved machi- nery. In and near London 31 Nottingham, &c 22 Leeds 2 Scotland 6 Lancashire, Cheshire, Coventry, &c. 189 250 So that altogether our mechanics, engi- neers, and patentees, have employment in, — Cotton Factories Woollen Hemp and Flax Silk .... 1282 .... 1313 .... 347 250 Fibrous Manufactories . . And we have in them, — .... 3192 Steam Water Engines. Wheels. Cotton 1050 ... 500 . Woollen .... 560 .. 480 . Hemp, &c. .. 60 ... 60 . Silk 130 .. 60 . Equal to Man’s Power .. 177,378 ,. 103,180 .. 12,210 .. 21,835 1800 1100 314,600 Hence it appears that the mechanical powers applied in our Fibrous Manufactures, are 1800 steam-engines, and 1100 water- wheels, equal in force to 314,600 men, at 1374 men to every steam-engine, and 66 men to every water-wheel. And that the same factories employ 143,000 in cotton, 72,000 in woollen, 33,500 in hemp and flax, and in silk 31,000. As operatives, men ; women and children about 279,500, with supernumeries, &c. perhaps 300,000. A lea of linen yarn is 300 yards, and lbs. are spun as fine as 50 leas, or 15,000 yards ; but Nos. 30 and 40 are the average. A hank of cotton thread or twist is 840 yards, from Nos. 10 to 350. Lace weaving-machines being complicated, are very expensive, costing from 4 to 800/. each, and yet liable to be superceded by im- provement. There are about 1000 proprie- tors, who let them to operatives in this increasing trade. The social importance of the Cotton Ma- nufacture will justify a few observations on its origin, and the first invention of the improvements, founded partly on the per- sonal knowledge of the Editor : — In 1600, cotton was first brought from Cyprus and Smyrna, and made into fus- tians, dimities, &c. In 1697, two millions pounds were imported for weft, to work with linen warp as a domestic manufacture, the carding and spinning being performed by children and women for rural weavers. Between 1743 and 1750, the quantity fluc- tuated between one and two million pounds. In 1742, one Wyatt took out a patent for spinning with rollers, and set up a mill at Birmingham, worked by two asses and teij girls. He failed, and it was then unsuccess^ fully tried at Northampton. In 1767, Har- graves, a carpenter, near Blackburn, t r facilitate the work of his children, invente,/ the spinning Jenny , first for 8 threads, and afterwards for 20 or 30. In 1768, Hargraves shewed the Jenny to Peel, of Blackburn. In 1769, on Peel’s speaking of it, a mob of distaff spinners destroyed Hargrave’s house, and, in 1770, Hargrave removed to Notting- ham with Arkwright, who had bought the principle of double rollers of one Keys, who had obtained it from Highs. In the same year, Hargrave and Arkwright, for want of a steam-engine, contrived the water-frame, and Hargrave invented the Doffer-crank. In 1771, they wanted capital, and their part- nership was dissolved ; but, in 1773, Needs and Strutt joined Arkwright. In 1774, Hargrave died poor at Nottingham, and in 1785, after twelve years enjoyment of the patent for the water-frame and horse-frame, with immense profits, the patent was set aside on the evidence of Hargrave’s son, as his father’s invention. In 1786, Crompton’s Mule , for making weft, was invented, an improvement on the Jenny and i/orse-frame, but it was ob- structed in use by Arkwright’s patent. It spins a pound of cotton into 300 and 350 hanks, of 840 yards each, or 143 and 167 miles, and it perfected the other inven- tions. 95 MECHANICS AN Arkwright’s spinning-frame was used chiefly for warp, and Crompton’s Mule for weft, but Crompton died in poverty, the £5000 voted to him by Parliament, in 1812, not defraying debts incurred during the invention ! The Power-loom was invented by the -Rev. Dr. Cartwright, brother of the patriotic Major, in 1787, for which he obtained a par- liamentary grant of £10,000. It enabled the weaver to make into cloth the over- whelming quantities of machine-spun warp and weft. They are now extended to cot- ton, woollen, silk, and flax, in the proportion of 109, 5, 1 7 and 0-3. In 1829, after 10 millions a year had been gained for 50 years, by the manufactory under these inventions, Sir Richard Phillips found the aged daughters of Hargrave at Salford, subsisting on a charitable endow- ment of 3s. per week, obtained for them by the kindly feelings of Joseph Brotherton. On the disputed point, whether the appli- cation of the thumb and finger principle was due to Highs, Kay, Hargrave, or Ark- wright, the Editor of this volume (who knew most of the parties) was often told by Live- sav, a barber, and fellow-apprentice of Ark- wright, that “ Dick,” as he called him, “ had £100 coming to him when out of his time ; but, instead of setting up as a barber, he bought a mechanical secret of one Kay, a watchmaker, who had been employed by one Highs to make a machine, which he sold to Arkwright, because Highs could not pay him.” On the other hand, Mr. W. Strutt, of Derby, who knew Arkwright well, told the Editor that these were fictions, for Ark- wright was a superior man, and perfectly competent to invent for himself. Again, the daughters of Hargrave gave the Editor various proofs that the whole originated with their father, who lost his advantages, by permitting the inspection of “ Master IJeel.” ' Be this as it may, the original parties gained millions, and died the greatest capi- talists, and richest subjects of any age ; and the progress of this, and kindred fibrous manufactories, have been the most extraor- dinary phenomena in the history of society. The cotton trade employed, in 1834, 110,000 power-looms; the woollen nearly 2200 ; the worsted 3200 ; the silk-weaving 1714 ; of the linen 309 ; in all nearly 116,000, which, in 1838, are full 160,000. France employs 1700 steam-engines with 22,500 horse power. Heathcote, of Tiverton, has applied the steam-engine to the plough, &c. Avery’s rotatory steam-engine derives its power from the reaction of escaping steam, like Barker’s mill. The steam escapes from a hollow horizontal tube of 2£ feet to 6 feet jadius. This reaction against the air pro- duces a rotation from 3000 to 1000 times in a minute and a pinion in its axis serves to turn a spur-wheel for work of any kind. The steam may be 4 or 8 atmospheres, and it escapes from an orifice of only the fourth or eighth of an inch. It works with such D MACHINERY. 9G facility as to save the two-fifths friction tost in the reciprocating engines of Bolton, Watt, &c. Avery’s engine, of 15-horse power, weighs but 500 pounds, and consumes 500 gallons of water and a ton of coals in 12 hours. One of 5-horse power performed the heavy work of a large establishment. Other important applications of steam power, in late years, have been made to steam navigation and the locomotive engines on rail-ways, for which, see the Articles Navi- gation and Intercourse. Donkin’s velocity cup is nearly filled with mercury, and, by revolving, the surface be- comes concave, and elevates or depresses the fluid in a tube, which becomes a guage of velocity in the works which move the cup. It has long been a question, whether ma- chinery is, or is not beneficial. The argu- ments are as under : — In favour of machinery. 1. That it produces cheaper than by hand. 2. That it produces more uniformly. 3. That it produces required quantities in fixed times. 4. That it employs more hands. 5. That it brings more capital to bear on operations. 6. That it promotes sales in foreign markets. 7. That it represents the march of science and discovery. Agamst machinery it is urged : 1. That it supercedes human labour, and deprives thousands of families of their here- ditary domestic employments. 2. That the numbers of operatives are in- creased only at the seat of manufacture. 3. That it pays the manual labour which it employs inadequately, and thereby alone sells cheaper. 4. That the foreign monopoly will last no longer than foreigners are without the same machinery. 5. That capitals are only concentrated, not increased. While the concentration re- duces the operatives to irremediable slavery. 6. That when domestic manufactures were annihilated, no system of liberal policy, as to land and poor-rates was adopted, to pro- vide for those who lost their subsistence. 7. That the concentration of numbers is inimical to moral improvement, and destruc- tive of domestic comfort and social hap- piness. 8. That the benefits of science and disco- very ought to be enjoyed by poor as well as rich, and if the powers of nature are made to supersede manual labour, then all men ought to enjoy as much with less manual labour, or more with the same labour. 9. That discovery and increased produc- tion are not objected to, but the misdirection of the advantages, which, instead of being divided, are monopolized. 10. That the untirable steam-engine ought to be no test of daily hours of labour, and that human powers ought not to be exhausted by concert with it, in a hopeless existence ot stultifying slavery. MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 3*7 11. The chief mischief of machinery has been the ignorance, or cruel indifference of legislation, to those whose employments it has superceded. Water-mills are an ancient great means of power. They are undershot, i. e. carried round by a current in which the floats dip ; and overshot when the water from above falls upon the floats. Till the steam-engine, these and windmills were our only inani- mate powers. The circumference usually moves from 2 to 6 feet per second, and the wheels are from 20 to 40 feet diameter. The water falls about l-7th beyond the top. Windmills are also a great power. The force of wind, at 10 miles an hour, is half a pound per square foot ; at 14 miles is a pound ; at 20 miles, 2 pounds ; at 25 miles, 3 pounds ; at 35 miles, is 6 pounds ; at 45 miles, 10 pounds ; at 60 miles, is 1/| pounds; and at 100 miles, is nearly 50 pounds. To give the fullest effect to this force, the sails are inclined to the axis from 7*2° to 75°. The tips of the sails often move 30 miles an hour. From tip to tip is about 70 feet, and the breadth from 5 to 6 feet. Windmill-sails move 30 miles an hour, or 44 feet per second. If windmill sails are inclined to the wind from 60° to 80°, the effect is 6-7ths the force of the wind. The velocity of the wind, per second, is to the turns of the sails, per minute, as 5 to 3. The effect is a sixth of the force of the wind, or generally equal to 11 horses at a walking- wheel. In a mill, observed by Coulomb, with wind at 20 miles an hour, or 30 feet per second, the sails, each 34 feet, made 17 turns per minute. Pumps are machines which demonstrate the pressure of the atmosphere, by raising water into a vacuum, from 32 to 34 feet, ac- cording to the state of the air. It rises 13£ higher than mercury in the barometer, water being to mercury as 13 568 to 1, and the cause of the ascent of each being the same. Pumps were of ancient invention, but the ascent of the water was ascribed to suction, a power as ridiculous as attraction, &c. Torricelli discovered the true cause, and then made the barometer. The forcing has a solid plunger, with acting valves beneath and at the sides. — See Meteorology. The hydraulic ram raises water through a valve, by the lateral action of a current within a pipe. It rises in an air vessel, and the reaction of the air forces the water up a tube placed in the water. Blowing-machines, for iron smelting, have lately been invented by Street, to give a constant blast of 1200 cubic feet per minute. The effect is as the quantity and density of air. Previously-excited or hot-air has also been used with reported good effect for the same purpose, and it is said to improve the iron while it accelerates the fusion. In complicated machinery, steam-engines, &c., friction is one-third or two-fifths of the force ; unless diminished by gurnetts, or other friction-wheels. 98 Friction is the parting with motion, or force, to surfaces in contact with the mover ; and resistance is the parting with motions to the atoms of any medium through which a body in motion is passing. Friction varies with the nature of the sur- faces rubbed, and with the weight, or down, ward force of the mover. Ferguson found that the friction of soft smooth woods was a third of the weight ; rough woods, half ; soft on hard, a fifth ; steel on steel, a quarter ; steel on brass, a sixth. Coulomb determined that it increased with time of contact, and varied between half and a quarter the weight. It varies little from extent of surface or velocity. Gun-metal against steel has but two-thirds the friction of cast-iron against steel. It is the friction of twisted fibres that gives strength to all fibrous substances. It checks all great natural motions, by carrying off their excess. Resistance is a case of parting with mo- tion, by its transfer to media through which a body passes. It depends of course on the density and viscidity of the medium. In air it is so great, in great velocities, that a ball which leaves a musket with a velocity of 1670 feet per second, and which, by the parabolic theory, ought at an angle of 45° to go 16 miles, goes but half a mile. And a 24-pound ball, which, with 16 pounds of powder, ought to range 16 miles, goes less than 3 miles ; and, another 5 6 inches in dia- meter, with an initial velocity of 1640 feet, ranges*but 1± mile. An iron ball 3 pounds weight, or 2 7$ inches diameter, thrown with a velocity o? 1800 feet, is resisted with a force of 176 pounds, and a ball 1 05 pounds, with a velo- city of 2000 feet, will ascend but half a mile; and, if in vacuo, it ought to go Ilf miles — Hutton. Balls ascend when directed horizontally, because their velocity is greater than the Earth's rotation, and for the instant they lose the force of gravity, or w’eight. Balls also range further when fired from West to East, in the direction of the Earth’s motions, and the same affects a race-horse. Cannon-balls moving 1600, 1200, 1500, and 1060 feet per second, or near the mouth of the gun, penetrated elm 20 inches, 15, 30, and 16 respectively; oak at 1200, 34 feet; and earth at 1300, 15 feet. The balls were from 2 inches to 5£ in diameter. In sandy soils, the greatest force of a pile-engine will not drive a pile above 15 feet. A 32-pound rocket, sent up perpendicu- larly at Shooter’s Hill, rose 6000 feet, and was seen at Deal. A 24-pound rose 4500 feet; a half-pound, 2400 feet; and a quar- ter-pound 1500 feet. The object was to de- termine the longitude on Whiston’s plan. Owing to the centrifugal force, it is easier to do feats of horsemanship in a small ring, as at theatres, than if the animal were run. ning on a straight road. The man and horse always inclining inwards, to counteract the centrifugal force, and ii the rider tend to fak E MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 99 inwards, he has merely to quicken the pace; if to fall outwards, he has to slacken it. Men working at the Tread- Mill ascend nearly half a mile an hour. The largest battering-rams of the ancients were equal in force to a 36-pound shot from a cannon. Haroun al Raschid, in 802 sent from Bag- dat among other presents, to Charlemagne, a cIock of curious workmanship. The first clock, with a balance, was made by De Vick in 1364, and the first pendulum clock was made in 1641, for St. Paul’s, Covent Garden. Franklin and Ferguson made clocks with only 3 wheels, and 2 pinions. Watches, with springs, were first made at Nuremberg, about 1477, but Dr. Hooke, the inventor of the Principles of Physics adopted by New- ton, was the first who applied a spring to a watch, in 1658. The beats in an hour of a common se- cond’s clock are 3600, and 17,280 a common watch; but seconds watches beat 18,000 times, or 5 per second. Chronometers, for nautical and astrono- mical purposes, are now made with such precision, that they do not vary from true time more than 2 or 3 seconds in a year. The best watches and timepieces are made in London, but many at Liverpool and Coventry, also at Paris and Geneva. The first decided improvements were by Harri- son, Arnold, and Earnshaw, each of whom received rewards from Government. Bre- quet is the most skilful maker of nautical time- pieces in France. Two prize chronometers, in 1825, varied in 12 months but 1//-8 and l'/-85. The ex- treme variation of two watches at Green- wich, in 12 months, was '9 11 to 2 8/ in tempe- ratures from 39° to 82^. The mean daily variation of the Greenwich transit clock, in 6 years, is 3 9'/. The wheel work of watches is chiefly made at Prescot, and some villages near Liverpool, and then fitted and put together by makers at London, Coventry, &c. The Goldsmith’s Company assay 100,000 per annum. Those assayed out of London are about 150,000, making a gross return of nearly a million and a half on the 250,000. They employ nearly 10,000 hands, and nearly 3000 live by this trade in Clerkenwell and St. Luke’s parishes, where the most perfect chronometers are made. One of the most useful mechanical contri- vances is the pendulum for measuring and equalizing time. It is an effect of the cen- tripetal force created by the Earth’s mo- tions, and its results are referrable to them. A pendulum which vibrates seconds of time at the sea-level, in the lat. of London, must be 391393 inches, or 3 feet 3139 inches long. It varies as the square of the time required ; that is, in half a second it must be a 4th, or 9 7848 inches ; in a quarter of a se- cond, a 16th. In two seconds, 4 times. It varies too in different latitudes, owing to the oblate figure of the Earth, for since •be inverse force is everywhere as the sum •f the squares of the sine and cosine of the 100 latitude, and the sines are short at the poles, so the inverse force is less at the poles and the approach to them. The lengths an* 39 011684 at the Equator, but by calcula tion 39 11682 at the Poles. Observations, the nearest to the Equatot, make it 39 02069, 39 01197, and 39 01717, and others above lat. 70, make it 39 1951 2 a 39 20328, and 39 21464. Lat. 45 gives 39 1 1682. Lat. 34, gives 39 07696. The same pendulums at London and Paris, made, at London 85945 85 and 85933'29, and at Paris, 85933 83 and 85922 06 vibra- tions in a mean solar day, being 12 more at London than Paris, and proving that they ought to have been longer at London. The length of the second’s pendulum is the quotient of twice the fall of a body in the first second, by the square of 3 1416. The length of a second’s pendulum every where, is the fall in a second into 0 20264. And the fall in a second is 4 9348, the length of the second’s pendulum. Owing to the shortness of the sines in the oblate spheroid, the weight of the same body is different in different places, that is, as the lengths of the pendulum ; conse- quently, if at the Equator a body weighs 39-011684 lbs., it would weigh at London 39 1393 lbs.; at lat. 45, 39 11682 ; andatthe Poles, 39 221956 lbs. The proportion of seconds to 100 vibra- tions, in any pendulum, is the multiple of the square-root of the length, by 16112. A pendulum of 4 3 inches, vibrates tlnee in a second, of 17 3 inches in 2-3ds of a se- cond, of 25 inches 4-5ths of a second, of 27*1 inehes, 5-6ths of a second. 39 inches gains a second in every 1000, and 39-2 loses 7 seconds in every 10,000. 193 inches is commonly taken as the fall of a body, per second, in London, but at the sea-level, Kater made it 193 1445 inches, or 16 095375 feet. By this last, the second’s pendulum is 39 1393 inches. A leaden ball fell from the cupola of St. Paul’s to the pavement, 27 2 feet, in 4-25", which squared, is 18 06; then-j^^- = 15 feet per second. But 17 feet being allowed 2 8 9 for resistance, it is taken as TIP 06 = 16 feet per second in air; and as 16 08 in vacuo. A hollow glass globe was 6 11 in falling the same height. The time of a complete oscillation in a cycloid is to the time a body would fall through the axis, as 3 1416 to 1. Then the fall of a body in a second is 3141 6°, X half the length of a seconds pendulum. Oscillations of pendulums are equal onl* in small arcs, or in cycloids. The time of falling through the chord of a circle is equal to the time of descent through the diameter; and through all arcs of a cycloid are equal. Arcs of circular vibration of 30° increase the time 0 01675, of 5^ the 12-100000th, and of 2}p the 3- 100000th. In small arcs, the vibrations of equal pen- dulums are performed in the same time. 101 The times are as the square-roots of the lengths. The lengths are as the squares of the number of vibrations in the same time. An elastic pendulum, vibrating between semi-cycloidal cheeks, performs all its arcs in equal time. Compensation, or gridiron pendulums, are formed of steel and brass alternately, so as not to vary in length by temperature. A gridiron pendulum is 5 rods of steel and 4 of brass, whose varied expansions by heat correct each other. Mercury in a glass tube has been used for the same purpose. Reid’s pendulum of a zinc tube below the ball is excellent. Velocity and chords in a pendulum are as the square-root of the versed sine. A given velocity of collision may be given to any body, by allowing it to fall as a pen- dulum from the perpendicular heighth, which gives the force. This is effected by dividing the square of the proposed velocity by 64 34 for the heighth which it must fall. Thus, if MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 102 we want a velocity of 10 feet, I ^ > = T56 is the heighth, allowing for friction. In the hydrostatic balance, in Bramah’s pressing engine, (independently of his forcing pump) the force is to the weight of water in the pipe as the area of the surface acted on is to the area of the orifice of the pipe. A dredging machine raises in its buckets, in four hours of each tide, 960 tons of gravel per day ; or, on a clay bottom, about half that astonishing quantity. A pin-making machine has been set up at Stroud, which makes pins with solid heads, from the wire to the polishing, without the interference of the hand. A water-wheel, of 40-horse- power, works 100 several ma- chines, which produce 4500 pounds of pins per week, or 19 millions of pins. Sepping’s diagonal trussing saves «£20S0 value of timber in a 74. The price is £10,420 instead of £12,500. The life-boat was invented by Henry Greathead, of South Shields, in consequence of a premium being offered for the object. Its principle is such an elevation of the two extremities as that, if overset, these elevated ends would be as light as the body of the boat ; and, to add to the effect, several pounds of cork are attached to the ends. The shape of the boat is curvilinear, ap- proaching that of a crescent. The life-buoy used in the Navy consists of two hollow copper vessels balanced by a mast fitted with shifting lead, and with ropes to hold by. It is ingeniously let down in case of persons falling over-board, and in the night provided with port-fire. That important instrument the anchor consists of the ring, the shank, the flukes, and the stock. The flukes consist of the’ palm, and the bill and the stock is the beam at right angles to the fluke, which, lying horizontally, causes the bills to fix in the ground. Anchors for the navy weigh from I cwt. to 90. —In the first, the shank and stock are 5 feet 8 inches each, and the fluke 1 foot 10 inches. And in the largest, the shank and stock are 20 feet each mri fluke 6 feet 8 inches. The cost of ^ largest (called the bower-anchor) is .£ 4 ] 5 - and every first-rate has four. In 36 inn frigates the bower-anchor weighs 40 cwt and costs £115. In seventy-fours thev weigh 70 cwt., and cost £285. Every maJ of-war has four bowers, 1 stream, abo^ta fourth oi the weight, and 1 kedge. r>fTn^w?* eat block -™ achi ne unites the action of 16 different machines in 1 steam-engine— 7 for the shell, and 9 for the sheave 10 200^ he i W?rk °i 1 10 ' lt makes ab °«t 200 sorts and sizes of blocks : i e 79 sizps of thick blocks, 48 of thin blocks, 'l0 of due 24 e fiddl t p’i °u SiSt Z bl ° Cks ’ 20 t0 P sail ditt °, 24 fiddle ditto, 20 jack ditto. Of which pe^day 8 ’ th ® machines make 1420 blocks linn m Ve . nty ' f ° J Ur u gUn ship re( I ui res about 1300 blocks, and there are 200 different sorts ?l s ‘ zes * varying from 4 to 28 inches in 1 ^ very gun re( l ui res 6 blocks. rhillips s capstan gives a quadruple power and works the chain-pumps. ’ Iron cables are now commonly used in LfiG navy. llt C , ar ( dlns wool b y hand > previous to 1800 used to employ many thousand wool-comb- ZM, the P^paring and inserting the wires, many thousand women and children - but combing, both of cotton and wool, has for some years been performed by rotating machinery, and the cards are made by ^,h t ^ m ° r t and ^ yer ’ s American machine, with astonishing celerity. v„w? e ? et p f seco " d is the common velocity of overshot water-wheels. But the wheels of steam-engines move from 5 to 1 2 feet per second, and make from 20 to 40 revolutions per minute. Casks have lately been made by Brown’s machinery, which produces 300 with the manual labour previously expended on 80 Brunell s saw-mill at Chatham, with' a S° rse ei f ine > wi th 10 or 12 hands without horses, performs the labour of 50 saw-pits It takes the timber from the vessels, and delivers the sawn planks to the stacks. « mln he ™ a '*V ner y at Weevil, Portsmouth, » men and 2 boys manufacture 90 cwt. of biscuit in an hour and a half; less time than 10 men manufactured 36 cwt. J 8 , 11 * tbe printing-machine was in- vented by Koenig; it perfects 900 sheets m an hour; Applegath’s 1000. Rollers for distributing ink on types are made of glue and treacle. Inking types, in press- work, by balls con sume above double the ink that is used in printing-machines. The increased power of the Stanhope Press is produced by the crank, called a 1 oggle , or knee-joint. Locks have been made with twenty-four moveable wards, so as to spell any words and no key will open them but one adjusted! to that word. Tanning, by atmospheric pressure and the forcing-pump, is performed in a few weeks and used to employ twelve times the period E 2 ANIMATED NATURE. 103 The best workmen use the simplest tools. The highest polish of cutlery is produced by a woman’s hand. A sheet of paper has been made 13,800 and 24,000 feet long, and 4 and 10 feet wide. A good hand makes 5000 bricks per day. A patent in the United Kingdom, owing to the multiplied fees of sinecurists, costs from 100/. to 125/., and it secures for 14 years. In France and the Netherlands it is for three terms of five years, which costs from 12/. to 60/. in France, and 6/. to 30/. in the Netherlands. In the United States for 14 yearj, and costs but 6/. 15s. Spain grants 15 years to an inventor, 10 years to an im- prover, and 6 years to an introducer. The number in England, France, and Austria, is about 160 in each, per annum. Patterns, in printing, are first engraved on steel, hardened, and then transferred to copper rollers. Five colours can be fixed at once. Plated goods are made at Sheffield and Birmingham, by rolling with machinery a block of copper, on which is laid a plate of silver till it is the required thickness. There is a manufacturing room, at Heap Bridge, near Bury, 85 yards long, 75 wide, and 12 high. In it are 2688 feet of shafting, 8 large carding-engines, 8 slubbing-frames, 40 vules, and 200 looms, all worked by one e’ -ine. Of machinery and mill work, about a (Quarter of a million, in value, is annually exported. At Molsheim, near Strasburg, are large iron-works, where machinery, saws, files, and edge-tools, are made in perfection. Carpets, &c. are now manufactured in France of vegetable fibres, called silk, 15 or 20 feet long, the tenacity of four of them equal to 40 pounds. Lowell, near Boston, is the seat of very flourishing manufactories, wrought by the water-power of a canal which falls 30 feet in 2500 yards. It is 60 feet wide and 8 deep, and affords 1250 cubic feet of water per second, which acts on wheels of 30 feet. The whole of the Telegraphs in France were formerly on the sermaphore principle, but these are being superseded by the Elec- tric Telegraph of which some interesting facts will be found in the Supplement. The state of New York has 6948 saw- mills, 2051 grist-mills, and 1060 carding. Two American patents have been re- corded, for using the rise and fall of the tide as a power for machinery, by its action on large floats connected with chain cables on the shore. Since action is always equal to re- action, and either the actor or re-actor may be one, or may be many in different angular directions ; so the single action or re-action will affect the opposite point only in maxi- mum, and the scattered bodies inversely as the sines of their angles. A tendency will, however, be created in those bodies (if free to move) to unite in the opposite point ; and this neglected principle may account for many phenomena hitherto ascribed to im- 104 possible powers of material attraction, &c. especially in a planetary system subject to the action of one centre. Diagrams often mislead both analysts and the vulgar. They usually exhibit what takes place only in long time , as mere his- torical emblems, not present mathematical relations. In Philosophy, opinions are generally ab- surd in the direct ratio of their antiquity. In Philosophy , truth is in the inverse ratio of the dogmatism of schools and authorities. In Philosophy , there is no inverse ratio to the evidence of experience and abstract demonstration. In Philosophy , no direct ratio in support of opinion is derived from social rank or distinction. In Philosophy , as the sale of books is in the direct ratio of their conformity to ge- neral and vulgar prejudices, so the opinions of books are commonly in the inverse ratio of truth, and this inverse ratio increases as the books are costly in their preparation. In Philosophy , the advancement is in the direct ratio of doubt in regard to existing dogmas. In Philosophy , when first principles as- sumed in the infancy of an inquiry lead to confusion and mystery, the first principles are the inverse ratio of truth. In Philosophy , there is an inverse ratio in assumptions of societies, who substitute the acclamation and suppleness of numbers for the modesty of retired demonstration. In Philosophy , there is an increasing in- verse ratio, arising from formula derived from mathematical . analysis, founded on false or equivocal data, in which, as in the ancient syllogism, the value and relevancy of terms often undergo change, and there- fore prove what is false as plausibly as what is true. In Philosophy , in fine, there is no test of truth, but in the unprejudiced, unsophisti- cated, and disinterested average intellect of man. ANIMATED NATURE. ( General Circumstances.) There are in species Of mammalia _ .. 1200 Of birds _ _ 4000 Of amphibia . - 1500 Of fishes _ _ 7000 Of mollusca _ - 4500 Of annelides _ _ 315 Of crustaceae _ . 259 Of ararchnida _ _ 138 Of insects _ _ 12500 Of enthelmenta _ . 1100 Of radiaria _ _ 280 Of medusa _ _ 208 Of zoophyta - - 536 Of rotaria - _ 291 Of infusoria - - 291 The total in the highest numbers of mo- dern naturalists are about 70,000, though Linnaeus did not make them above 20,000. ANIMATED NATURE. 105 106 The gev'^ra of insects are 1,423, and of Crustacea 2 (r» oer Latreille, which latter Linnaeus made but 3. Sachs makes 50,000 species of insects, be- sides 26,000 Arachnida, and 1,500 Crus- tacea. Humboldt makes the known species of insects 44,000, of fishes 2,500, reptiles 700, birds 4000, and of mammiferous animals 500. Adanson gave an arrangement of 40,000. The known number of species of organic being are 140,600, exclusive of reptiles ; but the probable numbers are estimated by Swainson at 5/7,600, the insects being taken at 550,000, and the reptiles at 1,500. Climate greatly varies species. Green- land sustains 467 species of all kinds of ani- mated nature ; Wirtemberg 4,500 and Nice 4242, independently of infusoria, &c. Our John Kay was the first systematic zoologist. He published in 1693. The Systemae Naturae of Linnaeus was first published in 1735. Cuvier reduces all animal nature to 4 types— vertebrata, mollusca, articulata, and radiata. The first have a back-bone and skull, with appendages, viscera and muscles. Th q second are soft, and have muscles at- tached to the skin or bony plates. The third are Crustacea, insects, and worms. The fourth are zoophytes, whose members ra- .diate from a centre. The bony skeleton distinguishes fishes ; muscles, reptiles ; nerves, birds j and the perfection of nerves, mammalia. Animal organization consist of ten classes, depending on their bony structure, — their warm or cold blood, — their mode of rearing their young, — lungs or gills, — and bony or no bony parts. 1. Mammalia have a double heart and warm blood, with an internal bony skeleton and brain, and they suckle their young. 2. Birds have the same, but do not suckle their young. 3. Reptiles have lungs, and jointed or divided members, but a single heart and cold blood, with a brain and skeleton. 4. Serpents have lungs, and a single heart and cold blood, but no jointed mem- bers, with a brain and skeleton. 5. Fishes have gills and fins, and no lungs, with a single heart and cold blood, with a brain and bony or cartilaginous skeleton; and no jointed or articulated members. All animals having vertebrae are called Vertebral. The following have no internal skeleton, and no brain, as — 6. Crustacea, with articulated mem- bers, and a circulatory system, with gills or branchiae. /. Insects like the former, but with trachiae and no circulating system. 8. Mollusca, with simple nerves. 9. Worms, with knotted nerves. . 10. Zoophytes, with no nerves and no vessels, but without articulated members, And no skeleton or brain. The last five are called Invertebral. The Linnalan Arrangement embraces Minerals, Vegetables, and Animals, in Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Va- rieties, with names and characters. In Animated Nature he has six classes, consisting of Mammalia, in 7 orders, 47 genera, and 577 species ; Aves, 6 orders, 90 genera, 2641 species; Amphibia, 2 orders, 19 genera, 366 species ; Pisces, 6 orders, 66 genera, 889 species ; Insecta, 7 orders, 131 genera, and 10,896 species ; And Vermes, 5 orders, 118 genera, and 4036 species. In all 1 9,405 described species. But two millions of species of terraqueous animals and plants are believed to exist. There are at least 100,000 species of plants and 400,000 of insects only. The species in the seas are believed to be still more nume- rous. The number of Polypes exceeds that of other insects, and the Infusoriae are not numbered, nor are the Parasitic tribes. The species of the whole may even be five millions. If an old species became extinct, and a new one were evolved once a week, the whole would last 100,000 years. We may imagine, that at the first the forms of organized beings were almost in- finite in number, and that they have been constantly narrowed, either by their own unfitness, or their incompatibility with the claims of other species on the products of nature. Hence species constantly disap- pear. We now find neither mammoths, nor enormous lizards, gigantic elks, &c. &c. whose remains are in modern strata. The hands and arts of man enable him to be the universal destroyer and monopolist, and he uses his power without sympathy or remorse. Asia, Africa, and Europe, he has peopled and worn out ; and America and New Holland will be densely populated and worn out within 500 years. At the same time, by destroying, he diminishes his paeans, and breaks the circle. In mammiferous quadrupeds the quantity of respiration is less than that of birds, but is greater than that of reptiles, on account of the structure of the respiratory organs ; and exceeds that of fishes, on account of the different elements in which they live. Hence result the four kinds of movements, which the four classes of vertebrated ani- mals are particularly destined to exert. Mammiferous animals, in which the quantity of respiration is moderate, are generally formed to develope their strength in walking or running. Birds , which have a larger quantity o c respiration, have the activity and strength of muscles necessary for flying. UeptileSy in which respiration is more feeble, are condemned to crawl ; and many of them pass a part of their lives in torpor. Fishes require to be supported in an element nearly as heavy as themselves, in order to exert their motions in swimming. The distinctive characters of the four classes of loco-motive beings, founded o~i 107 ANIMATED NATURE. 108 the circulation and respiration, are thus given by Cuvier. Mammiferous Animals have a double firculation, and the serial respiration is simple, by the lungs only. Birds exceed mammiferous quadrupeds in the quantity of their respiration, for they have not only a double circulation, and an serial respiration, but they respire also through other cavities besides the lungs, the air penetrating the whole body, and the branches of the aorta or great artery of the body, as well as the pulmonary artery. Fishes have a double circulation, but their respiratory organs (the gills) are only formed to respire by the intervention of water, and their blood receives only the portion of oxygen mixed in the water. In Reptiles, the organs of circulation are simple, and only a portion of the blood brought back by the veins passes through the organs of respiration. The term Order denotes a subordinate division, and bears the same relation to a class which this latter does to a kingdom ; so that a class is made up of orders , in the same manner as a kingdom is made up of classes. The next subdivision to an order is a Genus ; and this is itself composed of Species, which comprehends all those ani- mals which may reasonably be supposed to be descended from one common stock. It is usual, in works of Natural History, to place the scientific name of a species after the popular or local name. By the scientific name the species is recognized in every country, while the popular or local name is limited in its use. But as the same species are often called by several scientific names, each of which has been given to it by a different naturalist, it is also usual to place the name of the naturalist after the word which he has invented or adopted. Mammalia, and birds, have two auricles and two ventricles. Warm red blood. Amphibia and fishes have one auricle and one ventricle. Cold red blood. Insects and worms have one ventricle and no auricle. Cold white blood. Mammalia, birds, fishes, and amphibia, have two nervous systems, the cerebro- spinal and the ganglion. Mollusca, Crustacea, spiders, winged in- sects, annelides, &c. have a nervous system in the oesophagus, with ganglia, and a sym- pathetic nerve, with tracheae for respiration. Zoophytes have a nervous system, but no sexes, no centre of sensation, and no heart, or respirable organs. Birds and reptiles have no urinary blad- der, and the urine passes into the rectum or cloaca. The yellow poison of serpents is secreted by two glands above the upper-jaw, and conveyed to a tooth which the animal can erect or depress at will. The marsupium bag, or secondary uterus of some animals, is provided with nipples, and not merely a place of refuge. The bones of young birds are not hollow ; a short time the centres are marrow, and this soon disappears, and the round bones are filled with air. Cetacea and amphibia are without a me- dullary canal. Some animals which live on vegetables have no gall-bladder. It is the same with the pigeon, parrot, ostrich, and mollusca. The hoofs of animals are similar to the nails of a man, and grow from the roots. Hair and feathers are analogous to human hair. Horns of animals are. similar, in ge- neral, to nails and hoofs; in cows, sheep, & c. they are formed of concentric layers in fibres, like a collection of hairs agglutinated together. In deer, they are bones attached, but in the giraffe part of the skull. The definite sizes or expansions of all genera and species result from the balance , at maturity, of the assimilations and elimi- nations. During growth, the assimilations are in excess ; during decay, the elimina- tions. At maturity, they come to a balance. There seems to be a law or ratio of these powers for every genus, similar by analogy to the law which generates different curves by the varied ratio of ordinates and ab- scissae. The life of every species may, on this analogy, be represented by the forms of curves ; and abscissae and ordinates may be deduced conversely from the times of growth, maturity, and decay. All animal structures are similar, or ana- logous. Bones of phosphate of lime, or shells of carbonate of lime as bases, or frames for strength. Tissues and ligaments for union. Tendons and muscles for deflect- ing motion from the ground, or reaction from fluids. Tubes or pipes for circulations. Glands for secretions. Stomachs for tritu- ration and absorption. Intestines to carry off excrementious matters. Nerves with brain or ganglea for directing motions. Senses to discriminate and protect nerves of perception. Lungs to fix oxygen, and excite and restore the arterial blood. The skin to cover the whole, and fix nitrogen for venous blood. The heart to propel the arterial blood. Other viscera for subordinate pur- poses. The whole forming a microcosm which grows and lives, and then dies to make room for renovated organizations. All animal matter contains ammonia, nitrogen, and sulphuretted hydrogen, nei- ther of which are in vegetables, and conse- quently not in the food of those who live on vegetables. The fluids of animals contain alkalies, especially soda. Silica and manganese are found in the hair. Iron with phosphoric acid constitute part of the blood. There is iron enough in the blood of 42 men to make a plough-share weighing about 24 pounds. The proximate principles of the body are albumen, fibrin, and gelatine, with mucous and oily matter, which by analysis are re- solvable into oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorous, and sulphur. Bones are composed of gelatinous fibres in net-work, and of earthy salts, as phos- 109 animated nature. 110 phate. caibonate, and sulphate of lime. The gelatine prevails in young. animals, and, nence their bones are flexible. In the foetus the bones are gristly, and ossification commences at their centres. The prime agent, in animal systems, is described to be the cellular tissue, or mem- branes, which extend through every part of the body, under various names and func- tions. It constitutes what is called tone and vigour in the system, and this depends on the facility of its contractions. The cellular tissue is the most universal formation in the structure both of animals and vegetables. It protects and unites every organ, and composes many. In its cells, salts are secreted for bones, and ge- latine for cartilages. The fibrous tissue forms vegetable fasci- culi, and by its ligatures and tendons unites the bones and muscles. Organization proceeds by cellular tissue ; motion by fibrin; sensation by medullary substance ; and the fibrous confers resist- ance and strength. As the cellular tissue consists of crossing threads, rather than cells, it has properly been called the filamentous tissue. The lymph is acid, the bile alkaline. The fluids which effect a purpose in the system are alkaline, and those which do not, are excremental and generally acid. Horn is distinguished from bone by its bending, and softening by heat and water. It consists of albumen, some gelatine, and phosphate of lime. The two hands of man direct his name Bimana. The four hands of most monkeys lead to their being called Quadramana. Those with no thumbs, or opposing finger, are called Ferae, or carnivorous. The Pe- cora have cloven feet, no incisors in the upper-jaw, and quadruple stomachs. The Pachyderma have thick skins, slightly co- vered, with only one apparent toe or hoof. Many which have opposing thumbs on their hind-feet, have none on the fore-feet. The guinea-pig has 10 teats, the rat 12, and the hare 10. In a laying hen, the ovary contains a great number of yellow round bodies, each in its own membrane or calyx, which when exuded, is received into an extension of the membrane, forming a bunch, of which the outer are the largest. These are the yolks of future eggs, to be provided with whites and shells. The procreative powers of animals are so various, that Linnaeus had a design to extend his sexual system to them. Leeches, worms, snails, slugs, are hermaphrodite. Crustacea have teeth within the stomach. In serpents and fish both jaws are move- able. In animals that have no circulating sys- tem, the air is respired by air-tubes running below the skin, called tracheae, as in insects and mollusca ; or, it passes through the in- teguments to every part of the body, as in worms ana zoophytes. The lungs of birds are small, and of a flattened form, and much dispersed ; but they respire through the bones and in ca- vities of the muscles. In the larva of insects there is an air-tube on each side, with branches and apertures. The neighing of a horse is effected by a membrane which is attached to a cartilage* and runs along the margins of the glottis. The braying of an ass is produced by a simi- lar membrane, and 2 large sacs, which open into the larynx. It is the same with the mule. In apes*, the bone connected is con- cave, and hence their noises. All animals ruminate which have horns and cloven feet. The power of reproduction in insects is one of the most wonderful parts of their economy. On beheading a slug, a new head, with all its complex appurtenances, will grow again ; so with the feet of the sala- mander and the claws of lobsters. The end of a worm split produces two perfect heads, and if cut into three pieces, the middle re- produces a perfect head and tail. Repro- duction is also evidenced in the growth of trees from slips and cuttings, of polypae and worms from small fragments, and of the re- newal of the claws of crabs and lobsters, with all their nerves and parts in perfection. So also in the skin, hair, and nails of man. The rete mucosum, the coloured layer which lies between the cuticle and the skin, is one-sixteenth of an inch thick in whales, and is of the consistence of the grease rubbed between the nave and the axle of wheels. The rete mucosum gives colour to all ani- mals, and Cuvier considers shelly coverings as analogous to it. Trevinanus determines that the cellular membrane, in vertebrated animals, is com- posed of tubes. The relations of their dia- meter in man 0 002 millimetres, and rabbits 0 001 1 ; while the globules of blood are larger, or 0 004 and 0 0049. The celebral mass also consists of tubes containing pulpy matter, and larger in the medullary than the cortical, and still larger in the nerves, and always in bundles. Hair, from the silk to the wool, bristles, and spines, belong to mammalia ; feathers to birds ; and scales to fishes. They connect the outer elements with the cellular membrane. In many animals, torpid in the winter, the fat in the cellular membrane is absorbed as nourishment. In some, as whales, hogs, seals, &c. it is nearly fluid. In some, the integuments have muscles ; as for laughing in man, for coiling in the hedgehog, for mo- ving feathers in peacocks, turkeys, &c. Txhe ossification of soft parts of bodies arises from the deposit of phosphate aud carbonate of lime on the part. All hair is hollow and cylindrical. Young birds are covered with it, and feathers are a variety produced from a bulbous root in the skin. Hairs are a sort of vegetation on animals. Their trunks are round, triangu- lar, or square. It may be bleached on grass, like flax, and dyed of any colour. It is made to curi by boiling and baking. 1152 grains yield 99 of carbonate of ammonia, 1/9 water, 288 gas, and 324 coal. It con- Ill ANIMATED NATURE. 112 tains silex, sulphur, oil, iron, 'manganese, and lime. It measures in man the forty- eighth of an inch. Haller and Cuvier discovered the relative proportions of the body under : — to the brain A child of 6 years . . . . 22 to 1 An adult .. 35 to 1 Ourang-Outang .. 35 to 1 American monkey . . .. 24 to 1 Baboon .. 104 to 1 Elephant . . 500 to 1 Ox Horse .. .. 700 to 1 Ass . . . . . . 254 to 1 Sparrow .. 25 to 1 Canary 14 to 1 Cock Fox .. 205 to 1 Tortoise .. 2240 to 1 The sleep of winter and that of night are different in those animals which are torpid for months. The bat, the hedgehog, the tawrie, the marmot, the hamster, the tor- toise, the toad, snakes, mollusca, spiders, bees, flies, bears, badgers, &c. retire to their closed holes, and, in various degrees, undergo a temporary death for four, five, six, and seven months of the year. They usually roll themselves up, but bats suspend them- selves in caves. Those who lay up provi- sions use them before they become torpid, and on reviving before they venture abroad. When a cow of the black-cattle breed has two calves, one a bull and the other not, this other never breeds, and is of different cha- racter in size and habits, and known among farmers as a free martin, having the bellow of an ox, and no sexual propensities. Earth- worms, &c. are of both sexes ; and caterpil- lars and larva generally are of no sex till they change. All plants are hermaphrodite, except moncecia and dioecia. Mules and other mixtures do not propagate. Some cause of the same kind affects branches of the human family as stops to population ; and hence the continual extinction of fami- lies ; the males particularly being without offspring, as impotent or withered branches. Swammerdam traces this defect to luxury, and to breeding in and in, and asserts that it arises oftener in royal and noble races than in families which mingle or cross breeds. The produce of different species, or hy- brids, as the mule from ass and horse, do not propagate ; and this has been made a test of species, but is not always correct, for mules often propagate, and especially in warm cli- mates so also the progeny of the dog and wolf, fox and jackall, of the bison and cow, of sheep and goats, of a ram and deer, of sea-lions and sea-bears, &c. in all of which the hybrids propagate with the parent races, but not among one another. Pritchard infers from this, that the human races are all of one species. The ancients had refined notions of the universal sexuality of continuous organized beings, now so accurately systematized. They called it Psyche, love, &c. whose pro- duct was the universal mundane egg, and on this idea their poets played. Migratory animals are lemmings, rats^ bisons, wild horses. Among fishes, the sab mon, cod, herring, pilchard, and anchovy. Among insects, locusts, ants, &c. Among birds, storks and swallows return to the same spot, however distant their migrations. In cold climates, animals in winter acquire either an excess of covering, or they become torpid and retire into holes. The peculiar secretions of animals, used by man, are as under Castor , near the end of the rectum in the beaver. Civet , in the same part of the civet-cat. Music , near the navel of the male musk. Oil, by birds, to lubricate their feathers, taken from the rump. Poison, by serpents. Silk , by the larvae of the silk-worm, and the webs of spiders. The acrid matter that passes through the stings of wasps and bees. The inky fluid of the cuttle-fish, in a bag near the anus. Silky matter , produced by the sea-mus- sel, &c. Ambergris, an internal production of dis- eased spermaceti whales. Spermaceti from the head of the cacheloi, and ambergris the excrement of its intes- tines. The Bezoar stone in the stomach of goats, antelopes, and sometimes camels. Its nu- cleus appears to be some indigestible hard seed or stone, and its specific gravity is from 1^ to 2j. The genus mephitus has glands near the anus, which secrete a foetid acrid liquor, which they squirt on their enemies with un- erring destruction to clothes and skin, and so offensive as to be distinguished for a mile. The tails of monkeys are prehensile. The proboscis of the elephant, owing to its oppo- sing termination, is the most perfect of all prehensile organizations, and a fifth limb. All horned animals have cloven hoofs, and, in general, have no front teeth above. The hind hoof embraces all the toes, and the fore hoof consists of flattened toes with greater sensibility. The grinders, or cheek-teeth, are in herbi- vorous, or hoofed animals, flat at the crowns, in a jaw which moves horizontally. But, in carnivora, or toed animals, they are like scissors, or a saw, with only an opposing force. Besides these, all have canine teeth and incisive teeth. Oviparous quadrupeds live long without food. The tortoise and crocodile a whole year. They are gentle, grateful, and long- lived. Their young have no parental care, but they go hundreds of miles to secure places for their eggs. Animals with spines, as porcupines, hedge- hogs, &c. have a great developement of muscles to the skin. A chamelion has a horror of black ; a bull, a buffalo, and a viper, of scarlet. Bright yellow flowers decoy perch. ANIMATED NATURE. 113 114 Elephants and hippopotami are fond of music, and the hare is fond of a drum. Compound stomachs exist in ruminant animals, the sloth, and cetacea. The sloth and cavy have two stomachs. Ruminants nave four : the paunch, the king’s hood, the maniples, and the red. The maniples, or folds, are 40 in the sheep, and 100 in the ox. The camel is similar but the king’s hood consists of cells for retaining water. Birds have three : the first is the crop with stones in it to grind the food, instead of teeth ; the second, the glandular crop j the third, the gizzard. In the ape and bear families, the length of the intestinal canal is from 5 to 8 times that of the body. In the lion, ocelot, and weazel, it is 3 times ; hyena, 8 times ; agouti, 1 6 times ; sloth, 3£ times ; ram, 28 times ; ass, 9 times ; horse, 10 times ; in the Asiatic ele- phant, 10 times ; in the African, 7 ; and in man, 7 times his heighth. The cow eats 276 plants, and rejects 218 ; the goat, 449 and 126 ; the sheep, 387 and 341 ; the horse, 262 and 212 ; the hog, 72 and 171. Wild ducks are estimated to fly 90 miles an hour, swallows fly rather faster, and the swift flies above 200 miles in an hour. The roe of the cod-fish, per Harmer, con- tains 3| millions of eggs, of a large flounder 1| million, of a large mackarel 450,000, and of tench 280,000, Hogs and dogs were the only animals in the newly-discovered South Sea Islands. The West India Islands contained only a small animal, the agouti. The continent of America contained many large animals, but unlike those of the old Continent. Asses, hogs, black cattle, sheep, dogs, and cats, introduced into America by Columbus, have increased to numbers beyond estimate. Vase droves cf wild asses and buffaloes maintain their pasture, and wild dogs hunt in packs. The largest quadrupeds are now on the old continent, but America once contained the largest, still discovered in a fossil state, and it still contains huge monsters, called sloths. All the tribes of quadrupeds differ in spe- cies, in the old and new continents, and also in Asia and Africa. All the marine animals of the Southern ocean, even of similar species, may be dis- tinguished from those of the Northern. Insects vary, of course, with trees and plants, and even birds, so free to move, have their locations, and a foreigner would be hunted to death. Sparrows who occupy one side of a building do not mix with those on the other side. The condor belongs only to the Andes chain, the emu to Australia, and the great eagle to the Andes. In Australasia there is an organized world of its own, and nature displays new types and new forms. Its animals, as the kan- garoo, have a double gestation, the females have a pouch formed by the integuments of the abdomen, with marsupial bones to sus- tain it. In it are paps for suckling, and tne half-formed embryos are there completed till able to provide for themselves. How they pass from the uterus to the pouch has not been determined. The birds too are different, since there being no forest fruits, their apparatus for feeding is peculiar, and its swans and cockatoos are black. All the quadrupeds of the continent were once natives of Britain, because, in a remote geological epoch, there were neither German oceam nor British channel, and the bear, wolf, wild boar, beaver, &c. filled our woods, till exterminated by the occupation of man. Bears were hunted in Wales and Scotland, within the historic period. So late as Edward the First, there were royal appoint- ments to kill wolves. The last was killed in Scotland, in 1680, and they infested Ireland after 1710. Wild boars existed down to the reign of Charles I. The wild ox, or white long-legged urus, was the animal killed by Guy Earl of Warwick, and it once ranged the British woods. Specimens are pre- served at Chillingham castle. Bulls weigh 560 lbs. and have manes, the cows 480 lbs., and both are untameable. Beavers lived in Wales till its union with England. In digging ponds in the interior of coun- tries, it is found that in some countries they soon abound in various fish. The soil having been under the sea in remote ages the spawn may exist in the sand, the fish being vivified by the access of water just as the germs of animalculae are revived by water in the vegetable substances infused. The sphinx, satyr, mermaid, centaur, unicorn, hypogreff, hydra, dragon, griffin, cockatrice, &c. are now believed to have been poetical creations of the ancients, though so gravely described by many authors, and introduced, as fact, on the celestial globe, in a series of real animals. Marcel des Serres infers, from the figures of animals on the great Mosaic of Pales- trina, 20 feet by 15, that several species have disappeared within 1900 years; and he adduces ancient drawings in support Animals are universally organizations, which are qualified to fix or appropriate the motions of the atoms of the gases that constitute the atmospheric air. The air, in being converted from oxygen and nitrogen into carbonic acid gas and nitrogen, by the galvanic or antagonist chemical action of the lungs, loses a portion of its atomic motion ; and this being imparted as heat to the blood, is by it transferred to the system, conferring the energies of life. It is a pro- cess exactly similar to combustion, but no flame appears, owing to the excess of fluids in the system. Animals live within this world of atoms in such intense motion, and the functions of life consist in respiring them, fixing certain of them, and displaying the results in their own bodies by activity, sensation, and all the various phenomena of life. All animals display varied and strong intelligence, but we notice most those acts which resemble our own. Thus, the species of the motacilla , called the tailor-bud* 115 ANIMATED NATURE. 110 astonishes by sewing two leaver together, with vegetable fibres, as with a needle and thread, for its nest. The instincts of animals are their habits and practices resulting from their varied forms and natural powers. They fly, swim, crawl, run, &c. and eat and locate agreeably to their respective experienced convenience. The young universally follow the habits of their parents, and education becomes their nature, generating peculiarities in each kind. They thus replenish the earth, promote its intense fertility, and become useful and necessary parts of the general circle. It is impossible to peruse accounts of the infinite numbers of animals, especially of the insect tribes, without perceiving that the principle of animal life is universal, and almost as common as matter, the distinct existences being as numerous as grains of sand. All, no doubt, enjoy themselves, and all have common rights to live. The final cause in the harmony of nature appears to be the re-fixing of the volatized matter of the earth, which they effect by their lungs, air-vessels, and secretions, living themselves, as one result ; and, as another, returning to the earth, in concrete forms, what is neces- sary for vegetation, and, therefore, for all. Hence, the whole is a circle of existence, of which every thing constitutes a part, and to which all, the meanest and the least, as well as the largest, are accessory parts. Atoms are the bases of gases ; gases and solid carbon, as in lime, are the bases of minerals ; minerals and gases are the bases of vegetables ; and vegetables, or prepared minerals and gases, are the bases of ani- mals. The order of nature forms minerals as food for vegetables, and regards these as a means of preparation for animals. The gradation of one kingdom into ano- ther has no precise boundary. It is often difficult to decide whether a mineral is fish or insect ; whether vegetable is animal, or animal is vegetable ; while each is con- nected by ambiguous existences, partly one and partly another. The strata exhibit few organic remains till we ascend to limestone or lime. This alkaline earth, in contact with the atmos- phere, appears to be the fundamental prin- ciple, or pabulum, of animal organizations ; for all shells are carbonate of lime, and all bones are phosphate of lime ; therefore, neither shells nor bones could exist without this component part. Every animal is a chemical composition put in action by chernico-electrical excite- ment. Food triturated, and combined with saliva, is conveyed into the stomach as soil, or manure. The coats there grind it, and muriatic acid changes it into chyme, just as muriatic acid and the substance of food, digested at 100°, in a few hours also becomes enyme. Bile, in the next stage, converts it into milky chyle. C ertain absorbents, like the roots of plants, then carry a portion to the thoracic tube, or duct, which leading to the heart, the chyle is there mixed with the bloody and, by compression, sent through the arteries for the renovation of tli* system. The energy of the parts is sustained by fixation of oxygen in the lungs by inspira- tion; and this oxygen abstracted from the air being positive electricity, it creates a correlative action, and a negative, or nitro- hydrogen surface is generated at the external skin and surfaces. The restoration by the intermediate parts constitutes that excite- ment of the whole, which is Animal Life. Hence, there are two sets of organs, as in all cases of natural products, the lungs, the heart, the arteries and their adjuncts, for positive, or oxygen action; and the skin, liver, veins, &c. for correllative, or nitro- hydrogen re. action. All is chemical, or chemical agency in action and reaction. An animal stands on his feet by an energy of antagonist muscles, by force derived from the fixation, of oxygen of atmospheric gas, by respiration. The central force deter- mines a line, or axis, which divides his quantity of matter into two equal parts, and in that line is the centre of weight, or cen- tral force, and of all the actions and re- actions of his system directed to it, and from it, as well as to and from opposite muscles through it. The object of the muscular energy being to sustain this centre, if by the will, or any cause, it is moved on either side of the line of direction, or axis of the system, the muscles move the mass to sus- tain it, and hence walking, &c. Every resultant animal, for all purposes of motion , is double, and is provided with corresponding muscles, bones, &c. in each half, in regular pairs for action and re- action. At the same time, the two halves are combined by certain organs common to both, as the heart, the brain, and viscera, thus securing a common identity in parts which move in sympathy, like a lever. Antagonist power in an animal is either an opposing muscle of the other half, or the elasticity of a contrasted or opposed part terminating at the ground. All the lateral motions of an animal refer to the axis of the two halves, and through this to the ground. The power of acting against the ground is living energy. In debating problems about the origin of those germs, seeds, or eggs, whose gradual physical developements constitute all the complex ultimate forms of vegetation and animalization, we are bound to adopt our data from the microscope which displays the sub-strata of organized atoms on which other forms subsist; and from the labora- tory, where, in the contrasted actions and reactions of elementary atoms that fill space, we discover the sources of combinations and resolutions. Nor ought we to neglect those prolonged continuations of unceasing acti- vity, by which complications are so varied, and so matured in their variations. These are the data by which speculations on na- ture may be rendered natural, and be re- lieved from the perverse assumptions of ignorance and superstition. Changes of animals are universally felt by 117 ANIMATED man in advancing age, almost as much (be- tween infancy and fourscore,) as that ot the egg, the caterpillar, the chrysalis, and the butterfly. The no-beard and the beard, the black hair and the white, the fair smooth skin, and the parchment and wrinkled, the successive passions and their extinction, &c. &c. bring man within the law which gives young birds down and old ones fea- thers, deers at puberty annual supplies of new horns, lobsters, &c. new shells, and serpents new skins! The vegetable world from the seed to the tree, the soft rind to the knotted bark, the leaves and no leaves, the sexual sympathies, the germs, &c. all indicate the same laws of change. The germs of all animals and vegetables are delivered to the known and understood action of the elements, and the assimilations of food by the absorbent stomach. The creation, so to speak, is of the germ ; and the actions and re-actions of its own ele- ments with the elements present in the space, raises the first minute germ into the mature beings which we contemplate in all the ultimate forms of animal and vegetable existence. No primitive germ is, perhaps, larger than the 100th of an inch, whatever may be the ultimate bulk. All expansions of germs into mature ani- mals and vegetables must taxe place from within j and maturity must be the result of the limit of the actions of the central germ, and the re-actions of the outward elements. Both sexes concur, in mammalia, to pro- duce the perfect individual of its kind. The animal powers predominate in males, the sensitive and moral in females. All animals, both viviparous and ovipa- rous, are produced from eggs, or vesicles like eggs, developed in the ovary of the female. In vegetable seed and the animal egg, there is an exact analogy— as the em- bryo, the placenta, the secundine, the navel fibres, the umbilical cord, the membranes, the nourishing vessels, &c. & c. The cotyle- dons are the umbilical vesicle, the albumen of grain is the white of the egg, and the allantoid of mammalia. After the germ has evolved into the ma- ture being, learnt to use its faculties, and propagated, it gradually decays. In dying, it ceases to exist just as though it never had existed. Iloom is thereby made for succes- sions, and all its own living perceptions have been only as the shadow of a shade, an unit in the endless succession of existence. In discussions by Pritchard and others, about the origin of animal organizations, the parties lose sight of the fact that origins are mere Germs, millions of times less than the mature objects of discussion, and are expanded to ultimate forms, thjt puzzle by processes and laws well understood. All organization, whether vegetable or animal, is a concentration of the elements, and maintained by circulations. If these are arrested, the elements re-disperse by what is called putrefactive fermentation. Hence organized life is a mere contest be- KATURE. 118 tween the circulations, and re-dispersion by putrefaction. All Animated Nature is, through life, in each individual, in a constant state of dis- persion and decomposition. Life is the simultaneous restoration by assimilation, accretion, and composition. The effluvia, the secretions, and the various eliminations, are the separation and dispersion, in every 3 or 4 hours, of the accumulations in the previous 3 or 4 hours. Life is acquired sensation, and the succes- sion of perceptions and ideas. Death is the abatement of sensation, and the arrestation of the succession of perceptions and ideas. Enjoyment is the individual sensation of life. Death is a return to the negation of indivi- dual enjoyment. Brocchi assimilated whole species to fami- lies and individuals, and then conceived that their powers of re-production might expire. The organization of beings that germinate, grow, mature, and decay, can only be under- stood by considering the difference between a bubble and them. A bubble is an expan- sion of viscous matter, which, by mere gra- vity, falls from its crown to its base, and becoming too thin, bursts for want of atoms in juxta-position. An organization, whether vegetable or animal, on the contrary, main- tains itself by gaseous actions and re-actions, which counteract gravity. These actions and re-actions thus counteracting gravity, are life. To understand them, would be to understand life ; while the knowledge would include all that relates to constitu- tional diseases and remedies. It would appear that matter in the monaes or hydatid form, constitutes that kind of simple primitive organization, which is the basis of vegetable and animal substance, as distinct from other matter, which, in crystalline forms, are the bases of mineral matter. In vegetable substance they com- bine with the element of hydrogen ; and in animal substance with the mixed element of nitrogen. These organized bubbles are seen permeating the vessels of plants and trees, and the globules of the blood seem to be species of them. The grades of animal existence, the vermin of our vermin, and the animalculae of which it requires millions to make the bulk of a pin’s head, yet all of them perfect, seem to prove that the infinite subdivision of matter is no mere geometrical conundrum. We may, in fact, conclude that bulk is a mere relative idea, founded on our own bulk and expe- rience, and that what we call large and small, are as equal parts of infinity ; in truth, equal bulks as to the sublime Creator. There can be no doubt that the earth’s motions of 98,000 feet per second, with a deflection of 969 feet in the same time, are the competent cause of all those motions of the atoms which compose the earth, and thereby the immediate secondary cause of all those combinations in which result the materials of life in the indefinite varieties of forms which we witness, and the almost infi- ANIMATED NATURE, 119 Hite numbers which we discover. Fitness is the universal law of duration and con- tinuity. The habitudes of all animals accord with their forms and resources, and these are called their instincts ; but these habitudes or instincts are pursued by various details of choice and preference, and so mingled with incidents and circumstances, as to imply ra- tional comparison, and the use of their varied experience. Their senses, in fact, would be worse than useless, if they did not qualify them to discriminate and exert the free-will of choice. Every animal looking at the ha- bitudes of others may, however, ascribe them to instincts, or to such a necessity as governs a falling body ; so that if the brain or its substitutes did not act in all, there would be as many modes of natural action as habitudes, which is absurd. The bloody set-battles among animals of the same species, and their deference in the same pasture, prove the existence among them of moral sentiments. The various cluck of the hen displays anger, grief, fear, andjoy. The language of the cock is distinctly varied for every pur- pose ; most animals vary their tones by va- rious passions, though the vanity of man does not regard it. Leibnitz states that he heard a peasant’s dog utter 30 common words. The Ouarine monkeys assemble and sit round, while One chatters. They then signify assent or dissent, and the speaker waves his hand and resumes his discourse. All animals have - been tamed by suitable treatment, — even the hyaena, the rhinoceros,, the lion, the tiger, the alligator, and the cro- codile. The tiger, wolf, &c. have remem- bered a former master for yeai«, and re- ceived them with extreme affection. The most inimical animals have been brought to live in amity and familiarity. Kindness subdues the most ferocious in all cases, and few forgive injuries, even for years. Natural history in living objects, well treated, as at the two Zoological Gardens near London, or the Jardins des Plantes, is a very amusing study. Variety of forms is a barren object, but habits and passions of living animals are inexhaustible - subjects. The Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, contained, in 1836, 294 mammalia, 693 birds, and 27 reptiles. The cruelties practised by entomologists, and collectors of specimens in natural his- tory, are, as matter of mere curiosity, inex- cusable, and impeachments of the sympathy and benevolence of the enthusiasts who practice them. Microscopic curiosity often leads also to very great cruelties. All the world have agreed to condemn the mon- strous barbarities of theoretical and experi- mental physiologists. Relatively, butchers, fishmongers, poulterers, and cooks, are per- sons of refined sentiments. Every region has its own earths, minerals, vegetables, trees, insects, and animals ; and nothing can be more distinct and charac- teristic than their distribution in species, 120 and often in genera. The types are alike, because all elementary operations are inde- finite proportions, and the atmosphere, the elements, the motions of the Earth, and the action of Light and Heat are common. The whole globe is like two mountains placed on the equatorial plane. The vege- tation and zoology vary from the equator to the poles just as they would on mountains, and the poles or summits like them, are involved in perpetual congelation. The regions of Etna or Teneriffe, in species, almost exactly accord with latitudinal breadths, and the longitudinal accord witl the soil and local circumstances. The hygrometer shews less moisture, ac- cording to elevation, and in this respect the two hemispheres represent a mountain, for the hygrometer exhibits the greatest mois- ture at the equator. De Candolle makes 20 botanical regions, and Schouw 22, in which half the species, and a fourth of the genera are peculiar. St. Pierre believed that every square league contained, at least, one peculiar ve- getable and insect. Linnseus sought to reconcile the creation of all genera and species in one spot, by the hypothesis that Paradise was a high moun- tain with every variety of climate, like Etna or Teneriffe. And Bishop Warburton, for a similar reason, conjectured that Noah assembled his pairs of species from some mountain near the place where he con- structed the ark. Several authors have treated of regions of distinct Floras ; viz. Faunasas Treviranus, De Candolle, Humboldt, Brown, Schouw Von Martins, and Mirbel. Species are so local, that they are dif- ferent on the east and west sides of the same country. Of the whole there are, at least, 580,000 species of animated organizations, in which the principle and economy are similar, and the forms diversified, so as to constitute dis- tinct species, with habits adapted to every habit and mode of life and subsistence. Of animalculae and infusoria, there can be no estimate of species, but they indicate matter and liquids as swarming with life, and com- bine with visible beings to fix and consoli- date the elements as food for vegetables, while these in return supply sustenance for a whole globe swarming with life, derived from its own motions and the solar heat. If the juxtaposition and the wants create much misery, it seems to be preferred that many should perish rather than any spot should be without enjoyment. The periods of gestation are the same ir. the horse and ass, or 11 months each. In the camel 12 months In the elephant 2 years, and in the lion but 5 months : in the dog and cat 2 months : in the human female nine months, and in sheep five months. The hen sits 21 days, the goose 30, and the duck 30. In the she-wolf, the period of uter» gestation is from 90 to 95 days, and in tli* dog but 62 or 63 days. A new classification of the Animal King- J-21 ANATOMY AND PH'S dom has been published by Dr. Grant, be- ginning with the lowest : — ANIMALIA. I. Sub-regnum, Cyclo-neura vel Radiata. 3. Polygastrica— microscopic animalcule. 2. Porifera — sponge. 3. Polypifera — coral. 4. Acalephae — sea-nettle. 5. Echinoderma — star -fish. II. Sub-regnum, Diplo-neura vel Articulata* 6. Entozoa — tape-worm. 7. Rotifera — wheel-insect. 8. Cirrhopoda — barnacle. 9. Annelida — leech. 10. Myriapoda— centipede. 11. Insecta — bee ; butterfly. 12. Arachnida— spider. 13. Crustacea — lobster. III. Sub-regnum Cyclo-gangliata vel Mol- lusca. 14. Tunicata — cynthia dione. 15. Conchifera — oyster. 16. Gasteropoda— snail. 17. Pteropoda — clio borealis. 18. Cephalopoda — cuttle-fish. IV. Sub-regnum Spini-cerebrata vel Verte- brata. 19. Pisces — salmon , shark. 20. Amphibia— -frog. 21. Reptilia — crocodile , serpent. 22. Aves — eagle , humming-bird. 23. Mammalia — whale , monkey , man. OF MAN. The Genus Homo is divisable, according to colour, into four species : the white, the copper-coloured, the tawny, and the black. The whites are carnation or reddish, dead white, and dark. The tawny are yellow and dark brown, as the Arabs, Jews, Hindoos, Persians, &c. The dark brown are the Calmuc Tartars, Chinese, and Gypsies. The copper -coloured are the native Ame- ricans. The blacks are Negroes, with woolly hair ; and Malays, &c. with straight hair. Other black-brown are the Malays and South Sea Islanders. The species of men are also determined by the hair, as, woolly, or long, black like the Hindoos, or flaxen and white, as Goths or Swedes. By physiognomy, as the European, the native American, the Negro, the Hindoo, the Chinese, the Tartar, and the Hebrew. By skull, as the Caucasian , round, cheek- bones low, and face oval; the Mongolian, head square, cheek-bones projecting out- wards, nose flat, angle of the eye depressed to the nose, or cat-like ; the Negro , narrow and compressed, forehead very convex, cheek-bones projecting forwards, nose flat, and nostrils wide. The American, like the Mongolian, but the forehead low, and eyes sunk ; the Malay, summit narrowed, upper- jaw projecting, features more prominent than the Negro. SIOLOGY OF MAN. 122 The Mongolian family includes the Tar- tars, Siberians, and Chinese, Esquimaux, and Laplanders. The two last, however, appear to be distinct. The Hottentot family seem also to be distinct from the Ethiopic race. The Malayans brown, and skins soft, black hair, head narrow, -and nose broad at top, large mouth. Ethiopians or Negroes, black skins, woolly black hair, head compressed laterally, large black eyes, thick upper lips, and chin falling back. Native Americans, red copper com- plexion, hair straight, black eyes, deep, broad face, and fiat nose. These are con- sidered as distinct families of the human race, though intermixed in every shade. The original inhabitants of the European nations were the Celts, Goths, and Sclavo- nians. The purest Celts are to be found in Wales, Goths in Denmark and Sweden, and Sclavonians in Poland. The former are distinguished by black eyes, black hair, and a sad complexion. The Goths by light eyes, light hair, and fair complexions. The Sclavonians by a browner complexion, dark eyes, hair, and red beards. BufFon made seven varieties of the human race, in which he included stature. Blumenbach defines man — order , bima- num ; genus , homo ; species , single with several varieties ; teeth close and of equal length, with inferior incisors perpendicular, prominent chin ; characters, erect stature, reasoning, endowed with speech, defence- less. B ’s species are the Caucasian, or white ; the Negro, or black, with woolly hair ; the Malay black with long hair ; the Mongolian, or tawny, and the American, or copper colour. Of each of these there are Varieties in different nations, created by climate, diet, and habits. He found three varieties among Egyptian mummies. Climate does not produce species, for in the same burning latitude we have the in- digenous coal-black negro with his woolly hair, and at Para in South America, the reddish-brown Indian, with long hair, and as decidedly indigenous, as the negro of the Gold Coast. And in lat. 36 S. in Africa, we have the dwarfish and squalid Hottentots and Bosjesmen, and in tne same lat. in South America, the noble and full-grown race of the Patagonians. The .form and stature of men differ as much as distinct species of animals. Tire arms, legs, and feet vary, and the stature from seven feet in the Patagonians to 4 to 5| feet in the Esquimaux, Laplanders, Sa- moides, and Bosjemen, some not four feet. The species intermingle and produce varie- ties ; but the species, to the number of seven or eight, are as distinct as the dog from the wolf, the horse from the ass, or the deer from the antelope. In this con- clusion, phrenologists agree with anatomists. St. Vincent, Grant, &c. give 15 species to the biped genus, founded on varieties of colour, hair, size, physiognomy, and lan- guage. The Japetic, the Arabic, the H in- 123 ANATOMY ANtt rilYSIOLOGY OF MAN. 124 doo, the Scythian, the Hyperborean, the Neptunian, the Australian, the Columbian, the American, the Patagonian, the Oribo- tric, or Negro, the Ethiopean, the Caffre, the Melavian, and the Hottentot. Each of these are indigenous in certain tracts ; and in certain cases have no common resem- blance, but the generic resemblance of walking upright on two legs. Differences of colour, woolly and flowing hair, the broad faces, and small inclined eyes of the Kalmucs, the diminutive size of the Laplanders and Esquimaux, the pot- bellies of the Samoides, the humps and bumps of the Bosjesmen, the hairy and mon- key-like faces of the Mallicolize, and the differences of temperament in all, seem to be conclusive that the causes wliich con- curred to produce one race of men, con- curred also to produce others in other re- gions. Man is found from the 75th degree of north latitude to Terra del Fuego, south. Boerhaave describes eight temperaments, the warm, cold, dry, moist, bilious, san- guineous, phlegmatic, and melancholic. The ancients divided men into the airy, the fiery, the phlegmatic, and the earthy ; or, the sanguineous, the choleric, the moist, and the melancholic. Seven constitutions are connected with disease : the sanguineous, or inflammatory ; the phlegmatic, or relaxed ; the erysipeta- lous, or nervous ; the hypochondriacal, or spasmodic ; the scrofulous ; the rheumatic ; and the arthritic, or gouty. The grain on which man chiefly subsists, is rice, wheat, maize, bar ley, oats, and rye. The atoms composing a man are believed to be changed every forty days, and the bones in a few months. Modern physiologists divide the vital powers into muscular contractility, nervous agency, sensorial power, and organic affi- nities. The common definition of man is false ; he is not a reasoning animal. The best you can predicate of him is, that he is an animal capable of reasoning. — Warburton. The more remote men are from artificial life, the more perfect are their senses and perceptions. The human race have been used to be reckoned at 1000 millions, but modern enu- merations do not exceed 700 millions. This has, probably, been the number during the historic period. Increases and decreases are local and temporary. Varieties arise among the people of a nation, but it is highly improbable that whese varieties were parents of separate nations in distant parts of the Globe. If -Barents in Persia had black children, it is not likely they would emigrate to Africa ; or, if others had the Calmuc physiognomy, these would not emigrate to Tartary. Inferences drawn by Pritchard, from uni- versality of superstition, that man is but one species, are irrelevant. Superstitions every where only affect the listless, the feeble thinkers, and the gross! y ignorant. Even conformity to them, ill the prudent minority, renders their presumed univer- sality only apparent. Superstition is an error or aberration of reasoning often art- fully sustained. Pritchard and others think, that extinct races of men have existed in most coun- tries anterior to those whom we now call Aboriginals, and the opinion is sustained by general tradition and ancient works. Women, so praised for kindness, fidelity, and hospitality, by travellers in all coun- tries, are the originals of the oriental fancies about angels. Painters adopt this idea by always depicting angels as women. Male angels were either demons or analogical ima- ginations : they were the secondary powers of superstition, and they correspond with the scholastic fancies about Attraction, Re- pulsion, Fermentation, Caloric, and the like. As the contemporary human race are the maturity of the several germs ; and, as the effect of elementary re-actions and assimi- lations during growth are known, and very nearly the same every where, so varieties seem to result from original varieties in the several germs ; for every growing and living being is, in fact, to be regarded as the expansion of its indefinitely small germ. Man, born helpless, availed himself of his instincts and imitations of other animals, to seek asylums in caves. Born with a naked skin, he found convenience in clothing him- self in the skins of animals. By a transition not yet complete, as to large portions of his genus, he raised his caves above-ground, and became an architect ; and by combining fibrous materials, he became a manufac- turer. This taste led him to adopt different styles of building, and his materials dif- ferent fabrics. But, nevertheless, the varied progression proves, that certain species had more genius and aptitude than others ; and this, combined with natural differences, seem to prove, beyond reasonable doubt, that species must originally have been as dif- ferent, or nearly so, as the generic results in civilized and in still barbarous tribes. Every individual has two parents ; these have had four, the four have had eight, and so on, in a geometrical series. Hence, it is not difficult to determine the co-mixture of families, in past and in future ages, taking every generation as forty years, or 5 gene- rations in 2 centuries, or 25 in 1000 years. 200 years previously, or 5 generations ago, the ancestors of every living individual were 2 3 or 32 persons. 400 years ago 2 10 , or 1024; 600 years ago 2 15 , or 32.768; 800 years ago 2^ 0 r 1,050,000 nearly; 1000 years ago 2^ 5 , or 33,548,000. So that this series, in duplicate ratio, con- nects every living person in Britain with 1,050,000 in the age of Edward the Con. fes6or, and with the whole population in the age of Alfred. And, as it is in looking back ward, so it is as to futurity. In 1000 years hence, 33,548,000 will be the posterity of every living parent of every child who has children, after an interval of 1000 yeara. 125 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. 126 The co-mixture may not be complete, but such is the tendency, and, in degree, the effect. — Walk to Kew. In this way the average powers of hu- manity and of animals are kept up, for, without mixture, families would deteriorate in faculties and become extinct. In one nation the people are all kindred in remote degrees, have had common ancestry, and will have common posterity. Whatever were the original varieties of the human race, long time has so mingled them, that most nations are, more or less, a mixture of all. The ancient Conquerors, the Romans, the Crusaders, &c., and com- merce and colonies have mingled all nations. There seems reason to believe, that lines or branches of families wither, or cease to have the power of propagating. Records do not exist in regard to obscure families ; but the extinct peerage, a class so favour- able to propagation, proves the fact. Since Edward III., above seven hundred families have thus ceased to exist ; and, in the reign of George III., no less than 48 titles became extinct, from the power of propagation ceasing in the male branches. Hybrids, in some races, do not propagate, but in many others they do. The Forty Hybrid plants afford no rule. Hybrid birds are common, and propagate. Mules are not always barren, and many Hybrid ani- mals propagate. Pritchard infers, that the propagation of blacks with whites, &c. is a proof that they are the same species, espe- cially as the Hybrid progeny propagate. Intellect seems to be averaged among men, and to be displayed in nations in the degree in which its exertions are patronized and distinguished. The Ethiopians, Egyp- tians, Hindoos, Phoenicians, Greeks, Ro- mans, Saracens, &c. &c. have played their part with little difference beyond what arose from the varied efficiency of encou- ragement. In general, power is jealous of genius, and even in Greece, where it was 'reest, opposing interests were always strong. In many countries, the formal institution of castes neutralizes much talent ; and, in all, the virtual generation of castes, by pride and property, subdues 9-tenths of the genius. How much genius Pericles, Pto- lemy, Lorenzo de Medici, and the Duchess of Saxe Weimar developed. The productive industry of man in society resolves itself into pasturage, tillage, horti- culture, mining, and manufactures. Blumenbach possessed a library of works written by Negroes ; from which it appears, that there is not a single department of taste or science, in which some negro has not been distinguished. The enlarged brain and improvable in- tellect of man render the characters of his maturity as variable as his education, ha- bits, and associations, which are varied in all nations, by climate, by means of sub- sistence, by hereditary prejudices, and pre- dilections, and by religious and social castes. Savages do not enjoy civilized life uiore than civilized men endure savage life. Nova Zemblians prefer train-oil as the highest luxury, and Orientals their clangour of discords to European melodies and harmonies. All the conclusions of man are, therefore, relative, and the absolute can be discriminated only by the highest abstractions of science. The facial angle is supposed to measure the brain in the cerebrum, but it fails. Birds have the smallest, and men the largest angles. The lowest ape has 42°, the Ourang only 30°, and the Troglodyte but 35^; one of the Simiae, 50°, the Negroes and Kalmucs 70° ; Europeans have above 80°, and Gre- cian Statues above 100°, as the beau ideal. Termites, bees, and other insects, have no cerebral lobes ; and yet they reason closely on all practices of their habitudes. Breadth is a character of skulls. — Kal- mucs have the greatest, Negroes the least, and Europeans are a mean. Blumenbach refers more to this test than to the facial angle, and he decides that there are 3 spe- cies, the Caucasian, the Mongolian, and the Negro. Pritchard adopts the base of the skull, and also finds 3 varieties. The Negro skull and skeleton are heaviest and hardest. A Greek skull averages 27^ oz. Negroes vary from 28 to 17. Chinese 23 j oz. The Negro skull is narrow, with a very protruded upper-jaw. Soemmering likens them to those of many apes, but there are differences. All the Islanders and Tribes in the Southern Ocean are considered by Blumen- bach as one distinct variety, or species of the human race. Bory de St. Vincent considers the Bos- jesmen of South Africa as the most de- graded of the species, which has the usua characteristics of man. They do not, like many animals and insects, build any habi- tations, but live in holes and caves, and feed on the roots, fruits, insects, and reptiles of the woods. The Hottentots are the next remove above the Bosjesmen, and both are steps between Simiae and white races, if New Hollanders and Esquimaux interpose not. In the Northern borders of Ava, a people called Kookees build in trees, and live like monkeys, while in person they are the lowest specimens of humanity. They are cannibals, and speak a language of their own. They infest the mountains of Chit- tagong. In Cretins, or idiots, a goitre disfigures the anterior part of the neck. In the Pyre- nees, Switzerland, Styria, and the moun- tainous chain of the Crapacs, they are most abundant; in Thibet, the Ural, the Andes, and Sumatra, they are also met with. In Albinos, the skin is white, the eyes weak, the iris red, the hair of a pale flaxen colour. Albinos, observed by voyagers in Java, form a wandering, proscribed tribe. Accouchement is a very slight affair with North American Indian women. They go abroad the second day on their usual severe employment. — Dunton. The Gypsies preserve their family colour ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. 127 In every part of Europe ; and the Jews pre- serve the same complexion, though dis- persed for 2000 years all over the world. Cases are said to have occurred, in Ame- rica, of Negroes becoming white, and after- generations becoming whiter. The Abyssinians, whose history goes back 3,500 years, have dark-olive complexions and long straight hair, though curly-headed blacks occupy all the tracts in their vicinity. The Kalmucs, or Tartars, have oblique eyes, like cats. The nose is flattened near the forehead. The cheek-bones are promi- nent, with head and face round. The ball of the eye is brown, the lips fleshy, the chin short, and the ears very large and loose. They are naturally fair, but, from exposure, tawny. The hair is uniformly black. They occupy the north-east, east, and centre of Asia, including China, &c. The posteriors of Hottentot women are covered with a huge mass of fat. The Aboriginals of all America have a striking- similarity. From Terra del Fuego to the St. Laurence they are of a swarthy copper colour, with straight hair, small ears, prominent cheek-bones, thick lips, long eye, gloomy aspect, and squat form. There are families with six fingers and toes, in successive generations. A female with 6, had 10 children with 6, and the llih had 6 on one hand, and 5 on the other ; 9 generations of one family had a thumb and the fingers united without nails. The Im- perial Family of Austria has had a thickness of the upper lip for 12 generations. Weight and Stature of Men. The Mean Weight and Stature of the IIu. man Body at Birth , and at every subse- quent Age , is as under : — MALES. FEMALES. Ages. | Feet. | lbs. Ages. Feet. lbs. 0 1-64 706 0 1 61 6 42 2 2-60 25 01 2 2-56 23 53 4 3 04 3138 4 3 00 28 67 6 344 38-80 6 3-38 35-29 9 400 49 95 9 3 92 47-10 11 4-36 5977 11 4-26 56-57 13 472 75-82 13 4 60 72-65 15 5-07 96-40 15 4 92 89-04 17 5-36 116 56 7 5-10 104 34 18 5 44 127 59 18 5 13 112-55 .20 5 49 13246 20 5 16 115-30 130 5-52 140-38 30 5-18 119 82 M0 5-52 14042 40 5 18 121-81 ' 50 549 139-96 50 504 123-86 .60 5 38 136 07 60 4 97 119 76 1/0 5 32 131 27 70 4 97 11360 80 5 29 127 54 80 4 94 108 88 90 5 29 127 54 90 4-94 10881 Mean... . .103 66 Mean. . ..93 73 The weight of the male infant, at birth, is 7 lbs. avoirdupois ; that of the fe- male is not quite 6£ lbs. The maximum weight (140$ lbs.) of the male is attained at the age of 40 ; that of the female (nearly 12a 124 lbs.) is not attained till 50 : from which ages they decline afterwards ; the male to 12/Jlbs., the female to 109 lbs., — nearly a stone. The full-grown adult is twenty times as heavy as a new-born infant. In the first year, the child triples his weight; after- wards the growth proceeds in geometrical progression, so that if fifty infants in their first year weigh 1000 lbs,, they will in the second weigh 1210 1b?. ; in the third 1331 lbs. ; in the fourth 1464 lbs. ; the term re- maining very constant up to the ages of 11 — 12 in females; and 12 — 13 in males; where it must be nearly doubled; after- wards it may be continued, and will be found very nearly correct up to the age of 18 or 19, when the growth proceeds very slowly. At an equality of age the male is gene- rally heavier than the female. Towards the age of 12 years only, an individual of each sex has the same weight. The male attains the maximum weight about the age of 40, and he begins to lose it very sensibly towards 60. At 80 he loses about 13 2328 pounds ; and the stature is diminished 2 756 inches. Fe- males attain the maximum weight about 50. The mean weight of a mature man is 104 lbs., and of an average woman 94 lbs. In old age they lose about 12 or 14 lbs. Men weigh most at 40, women at 50, and begin to lose weight at 60. The mean weight of both sexes in old age is that which they had at 19. When the male and female have assumed their complete developement, they weigh almost exactly 20 times as much as at birth, while the stature is about 3| times greater. Children lose weight during the first three days after birth ; at the age of a week they sensibly increase ; after one year they triple their weight ; then they require 6 years to double their weight, and 13 to quadruple it. In a child the head is equal to a fifth part, and in a full-grown man to an eighth of the heighth of the individual. The skeleton of a man weighs from 12 to 16 pounds, and the blood 27 or 28 pounds. The human skeleton weighs from 9 lbs. 6 oz. to 12 lbs. 8 oz. The adult body from 130 to 140 lbs. * A calcined human body leaves a residuum of only 8 ounces. All besides is restored to the gaseous elements. Mere drying reduces the body to a 10th of its weight. In general, the fluids are to the solids as 8 or 9 to 1. A female skeleton of the same age is smaller than a male. The head, hands, and feet are smaller, the neck longer, the pelvis wider and deeper, and the prominences less. The pelvis of the female is to that of the male as 5 to 4, in every dimension. The Englishman’s skull averages 7 inches in diameter, and the female 6| inches. Yorkshire, &c. averages 7{ inches ; and Scotland 7§ inches. The length of the head from the frontal to the occipital bone is about 5 inches ; the 129 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. 130 breadth is 4*5. The heighth is 4-25 inches. The vault is flat, oblong, or conical. The Belgic skull is the most oblong and globular. The German, Italian, and lurk- ish, the most spherical. The English are most prominent in the occipital, the Italians in the parietal. The French forehead is the most vertical. The Italians most ele- vated. The Calmucs all prominent, but the frontal flat, and cheeks high. In the area of a vertical, or fate direction of the cranium, to the lower-jaw, and a hori- zontal or cranial area, the cranial in the European is to the vertical as 4 to 1. In the Negro 10 to 3. In the Calmuc 40 to 11. In the ape and pig 2 to 1, and it varies in all. In man the cranial section is an ellipse, and the facial a triangle, whose base is less in other animals. The facial angle is the horizontal angle formed by a line, parallel to the bottom of the nose, with another line from the level of the upper-jaw to the ridge of the frontal bone. It is In Europeans, from 73 to 85 In American Indians. . . . In Africans 70 In ourang-outangs 55 In monkeys 5 7 In dogs 40 In sheep 30 In a horse * 23 The Indians west of the Rocky Mountains flatten the heads of their children by com- pression, for a whole year, and apparently without injuring the functions of the brain. In two men, 68 and 71 inches high, the distance between the tips of their middle fingers was respectively 68 and 73 75 inches. From the top to the pubes 34 and 35. -Top of the shoulder and elbow 12 in each, from the elbow to the wrist 10 and 10 5. Thigh 14 and 17. Knee to the sole 18 and 20. The foot 9 75 and 10. Women are from 5 25 to 5 4 or 5 5 feet. Above is tall. A man is taller in the morning than at night, to the extent of half an inch or more, owing to the relaxation of the cartilages. The belief of the existence of races of giants is accredited by the Bible and San- choniatho. There are, sometimes, men 7, 8, or 9 feet high ; and, among savage tribes, this adds to their ascendancy, and assures the rank of chief. All buildings, door-ways, passages, &c. indicate, however, that 5 feet 8 inches, or 5 feet 9 inches, have always been the average heighth of the human race. Genesis tells us of “ Sons of God” who were giants, of the men of Anak, to whom the Jews were as grasshoppers ; and the Bible tells of Og, king of Bashan, who was 13£ feet high, and Goliah 11 feet! There appear, however, to have been races 8 or 10 feet high, used as oigs (ogres) or champions ; and all history lies if there was not such a race in and near Lebanon, some of whom were employed in ancient armies, while others emigrated to Ireland and Corn- wall, among Phoenician colonists. The Esquimaux and Bosjesmen attain but 4 feet 3 inches, and the Mongdl Tartars and Kamtshadales but 4 feet 9 inches. The Caribs are 5 feet 11 inches, the Navigators Islands 5 feet 6 inches, and the Patagonians 6 feet 7 inches, and upwards. Complexion and Hair of Men. A fair complexion arises from the trans- parency of the skin, which shews the blood in the cutaneous tissues. In warm climates they become red, but dark persons in Europe become yellow in the tropics. The skin consists of three laminae, the cuticle, the rete mueosum, and the true skin. The rete mueosum is a coagulated substance, lying between the two others, and giving the external colour to the body, but constantly adhering to the transparent and porous cuticle. The colour of the skin depends on sub- stances exterior to the true skin, or hide, which is always white. The rete mueosum between this and the outer, or scurf-skin, is a secretion from the true skin, or vera cutis, and is the seat of colour. It is an irregular net-work, and with difficulty separated from the vera cutis beneath, or the scurf-skin above. But, after death, in blacks it may be washed away like the pigment of the iris, which it somewhat resembles. T .t is less ob- vious in white races ; but as a mucous secreted between the skins, it gives the shades of colours. The blood of blacks and whites is the same colour, and the darkening of the rete mueosum is ascribed by Blumenbach to carbon, and to the increase of bilious secre- tions in hot climates. The children of the blackest Africans are born whitish. In a month they become pale yellow. In a year brown, at four dirty black, and at six or seven glossy black. The change is in the mucous membrane, * below the cuticle. Portuguese, Spaniards, &c. living near the equator, in several gene- rations, are almost as black as Negroes. Red or white haired persons very seldom have black eyes, but blue or grey. When the choroid is red, it arises from the absence of the pigment of colour, and such are called Albinos. There have been cases of the pig- ment coming and making blue eves. The agitation of the eyes of Albinos arises from their sensibility to the solar light. Grey or blue eyes, at birth, often become brown. In regard to the colour of their hair, mankind are divided into the black, or rne- lano comous ; the red and yellow, or xab ■ thus ; and the white, or leucous, with red eyes and white skins called albinos. The hair rises from roots in the cellular membrane below the cutes. The external part is horny, and the centre is vascular and susceptible of changes. The colour arises from secretions in the root of the same co- louring pigment as appears in the iris The hair is woolly, straight, black, bushy black, brown, red, flaxen, and auburn, F 131 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. The Human Voice. As all animals have means of communi- cating their ideas and passions to one ano- ther, and some by vocal sounds, so man used the means afforded by his peculiar flexible organs, and hence that vocabulary which analysis has reduced to generic words and grammar. The most copious language then spread, and its words were adopted, and hence the similarity which puzzles much idle research. The wind-pipe is composed of sixteen or eighteen cartilaginous rings, about the twelfth of an inch broad, and joined by elastic ligaments. The larynx, or organ of voice, is a cavity composed of moveable pieces, twice as large in men as women. Its five cartilages are moved by eight pair of muscles, and fifteen other pairs are connected with its varied powers. M. Maingault states, that, in experiments made on the larynx, he observed that when air is forcibly thrown into the lungs of a dead infant or animal, the air, in passing out again through the larynx, produces a sound analogous to that in the living state. Language is another test of distinct races, and the Malay, Chinese, Sanscrit, Arabic, Sclavonic, Etruscan, Welsh, Araucanian, and some others, accord with colour, hair, &c. indicating fifteen species. In experimental researches into the phy- siology of the human voice, by Bishop, the following conclusions are deduced : — 1. The vibrations of the glottis are the fundamental cause of all tones. 2. The vibrating length of the glottis depends con- jointly on the tension and the resistance of the vocal ligaments, and on the pressure of the column of air in the trachea. 3. Grave ones vary directly, and acute tones in- versely, as the vibrating length and tension of the vocal ligaments. 4. The vocal tube is adjusted to vibrate with the glottis by the combined influence of its variations of length and of tension. 5. The elevation of the larynx shortens the vocal tube ; and its de- pression produces the contrary effect. The diameter and extension of the tube vary reciprocally with the length. 6. Falsetto tones are produced by a nodal division of the column of air, together with the vocal tube, into vibrating lengths. 7* The pitch of the organs, when in a state of rest, is, in general, the octave of the fundamental note. Vital Parts of Man. The human body consists of — 240 bones, 9 kinds of articulations or joinings, 100 cartilages and ligaments, 400 muscles and tendons, 100 nerves ; besides blood, arteries, veins, glands, sto- mach, intestines, lungs, heart, liver, kidneys, lymphatics, lacteals, and three skins, — the epidermis, the rete mucosum, and the true •kin, beneath which is the tela cellulosa. Lime combined wiUi phosphoric acid is 132 the basis of animal bones, and is found also in the fluids. Till lime appeared in the strata there were no bones or shells. Shells consist of carbonate of lime , and their remains have been considered as the basis of lime-stone mountains. The vertebral bones in man are 29 or 30, of which 24 are separate or true vertebrae. The length is nearly uniform in all statures. If the spinal chord be divided at the occipi- tal bone and atlas, above the phrenic and intercostal nerves, instant death follows. The costal vertebrae, in men, and many animals, are 12. In others, from II to 23. The lumbar vertebrae vary from 2 to 9 The vertebrae, including those in the tail, are as high as 60 in the whale tribe, and 50 in some quadrupeds. Vertebrated animals, or those with a brain and spinal cord, have a muscular heart, lungs, and warm red blood, with venous, or returning circulation, connected with the liver and biliary system. They live in an atmosphere composed of oxygen and nitrogen, which elements they fix. There are 12 ribs in the human body, though sometimes 11 or 13. Seven, the true, are united to the sternum by their own cartilages ; and five, the false, only to the seventh and successive cartilages. The ribs correspond with the costal ver- tebrae. They are, in general, from 12 to 15, but the horse has 18, the rhinoceros 19, and the elephant and taper 20. Madder in food stains bones and absti- nence restores ; and the vessels so palpably convey the matter of bone, that in cases of necrosis, or death of a bone, .a new bone is formed as a case to the dead one, which may be taken away when perfected. The bones in the head consist of — 1. Frontal or coronal. 2. Parietal. 3. Temporal. 4. Occipital. 5. Sphenoid. 6. Ethmoid. 7. Nasal. 8. Ungual. 9. Cheek. 10. Upper-jaw. 11. Palate. 12. Spongy or nostril. 13. Vomer or nasal. 14. Lower-jaw. There are three sutures, the coronal, the sagittal, and the lamboidal. The skull consists of 8 bones, 4 at top, and 4 in pairs at the sides. The 4 at top are the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and occi- pital. The sides, 2 parietal and 2 temporal. The bones in the skull of man, and most quadrupeds, are often but 7, owing to the union of the parietal bones ; and in the elephant and cetacea there is no suture. At birth the head is l-6th of the body ; at 2, it is but 1 -15th, and at 3, but l-18th ; at 7 or 10, it attains its full weight; at 20, it is but l-35th of the body. At 70, it often decreases to l-45th. The head of women is a quarter to half a lb. less than men. 133 The three kinds of teeth, the incisors, the tearing, and the grinders, are found not only in man, but in the hornless ruminants, all quadrupeds, and thick-hided animals, ex- cept elephants. In man alone, the three kinds exactly oppose in each jaw. In carni- vora, the canine teeth work by the side of each other in a cavity. The number of teeth at maturity is thirty- two, or sixteen in each jaw. The eight front ones are called cutting- teeth ; and the two next on each side are called dog, or eye- teeth. The two next are two pointed teeth ; and the three next on each side are called molares or grinders. The two last are called wisdom-teeth, as they are cut last. The four front teeth in each jaw come first, in eight or ten months ; the four canine or eye-teeth in ten months ; the sixteen grind- ers from twelve to fourteen months. At twenty-two or twenty-four years, four other grinders come, making thirty-six. Teeth are phosphate of lime and cartilage, but the enamel is without cartilage. The teeth of an adult have a specific gravity of 2'27, and those of children 2 08. On the average, the front, molar, and central incisor teeth are renewed at 7 in the lower jaw, the canine at 11, the second molar at 13, and the third molar at 18 or 19, called wisdom. The human teeth are incisores, or mo- lares, and not like those of carnivorous animals. Man, too, has a ccecum at the upper end, such as herbivorous have, and not carnivorous. — Wallis. The perspiration of a man in health is 28 ounces in 24 hours. It diminishes while eating, but increases during digestion and sleep. The odour varies in different parts. Urine clears the system of superfluous nitrogen. It is generally half the weight of liquid and solid food, and contains all the salts received in the food. Its specific gra- vity, in health, is from 1 005 to 103, but in disease is 105, by Newman’s hydrome- ter. The solid matter is 0 07, or in dia- betes 009. Water evaporates from the lungs and the skin, carrying with it none of the salts con- tained in our daily food, and accompanied by scarcely any animal matter, or organic products, besides carbonic acid. With the exception of carbonic gas, of lactic acid, saliva, mucus and bile given off from the several secreting glands or mem- branes, the products of all the various che- mical actions going on in every pan of the body, and all substances absorbed, but not retained in the blood, appear in the urine ; which ordinarily amounts to half the weight of the solid and liquid food. A hundred ounces of urine usually con- tain, in solution, 7 ounces of solid matter ; diabetic urine may contain 9 ounces. In the same weight of cerebral matter there are 20 ounces of solid. 1000 parts of urine contain 30 of urea ; 1 of uric acid ; 17 of free lactic acid, lactate of ammonia, and animal matter ; 17 of phosphates, sulphates, chlorides of potash, 134 soda, and ammonia; 1 of phosphate of lime and magnesia; and a trace of sili:a. Action and re-action are in nothing more obvious than in the animal structure, every motion and function being performed by exactly similar pairs of muscles, and one side is also exactly opposed to the other side. The only difference' is in the viscera, in which the agency of oxygen and nitrogen require a heart on one side, and liver on the other side; but even these contribute to one result in the circulations. The cause of muscular contractility ha» produced numerous theories, in which ana- tomists have regarded the power of muscles as powers per se ! Nervous agency has also produced numerous theories, the nerves being considered separate from the general identity of the animal ! Sensorial power has also been examined as a property of the substances, and not as a personal result ! Muscular force is produced by the draw- ing up or swelling of the muscles in the middle, and dilating again. The entire muscular system to the ground concurring by its vigorous re-action, is called health. Those muscles which perform involuntary motions, receive nerves from the spinal marrow and cerebrum, and those voluntary from the cerebellum. A muscle consists of 3 parts, muscular flesh or belly, fascia, and tendon — the two last attachments brought together by the swelling or contraction of the belly. The head has 77 muscles. 8 for the eyes and eye-lids. 1 for the nose. 8 for the lips. 8 for the jaw. 1 1 for the tongue. 1 1 for the larynx. 1 1 for the ear. 17 for motions of the head and neck. 1 to move the hairy scalp. 1 the eye-brows. The chest, abdomen, and loins 17. The shoulder 15. The arm and wrist 15. The hand and fingers 23. The hip 10. The thigh 14. Leg and foot 24. The muscles of the human jaw exert a force of 534 lbs., and those of mastiffs, wolves, &c. far more. Contracting muscles are called flexor muscles ; expanding muscles extensor ; the pair antagonist. Man has but 2 muscles in the coccyx, but in the tails of some animals they are 8 in number. The circulatory system consists of the heart and arteries ; and of the veins and lungs. The compression, or systole of the left auricle, forces the red blood into the arteries j it is then brought back purple by the veins to the right auricle, compressed by it through the lungs, and, reddened and vivified, is passed by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, which expels it again through the arteries. Such is the economy of all animals, the greatest and the smallest The Tendo-Achillis is the union of several tendons inserted in the Os calcis. F 2 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. 136 The diastole is the expansion of the heart, &c. ; and the systole is its contraction. The right auricle of the heart is larger than the left. The 2 ventricles are equal. The blood found in the right ventricle, after death, is from 2 to 3 oz. The liver, the pancreas, and the gall- bladder, form a system of large organs, whose purpose is unintelligible, except as assimilators of the nitrogen fixed in the blood through the skin. The oxygen passes by a more simple process to the lungs, and is assimilated to the nitrogenated blood. The liver occupies the right hypochon- drium, within the false ribs, and lies under the diaphragm and above the stomach. It is smallest in healthy persons. The spleen, of which the use has not been discovered, is found in all vertebral animals. It is always near the stomach, and near the first in those that have several. The gall-bladder in the human subject is in the shape of a pear, and the size of a hen’s egg. It lies on the concave side of the liver. It sometimes forms calculous secretions, which pass to the duodenum. A healthy liver weighs nearly 4 lbs., but diseased ones four or five times heavier. The diaphragm is the membrane which divides the thorax from the abdomen. The chest, filled by the lungs, extends from the neck to the pit of the stomach, and is lined with the pleura. The lungs are spongy substances. The right lung is divided into three lobes, and the left into two. They are of lighter co- lour in youth than age, glossy and elastic. They join the wind-pipe, heart, and spine, but in other parts are free. They are com- posed of cells, of innumerable ramifications of blood-vessels in the cells, for exposure to the inspired air, and of nerves, &c. In animals with double circulation, the venous blood is dark Modena red, but the arterial is light Scarlet, and is the fluid on which depend excitement and sustenance. Venous blood is to water as 1049 to 1000, and arterial as 1052. Disease makes it lighter, but in full health it rises to 1126. In man, its temperature is 98 degrees, in sheep 102, and in ducks 107, and the arte- rial is higher than the venous. In ague it falls from 98 to 94 ; in fever rises to 102 or 105. In man, the red particles are the 5000th part of an inch. In birds larger, more so in reptiles, larger still in fish. The ter/n, circulation of the blood, is incorrect. It is a mere distribution by the arteries, for the purpose of feeding the or- gans and extremities : and a re-assemblage or absorption by the veins. It is, therefore, not as taught by the schools, a revolution in a circle of tubes. iSTor is it the same fluid, for at each extremity it suffers great changes. At the extremities of the arteries it is deoxydized, and rendered alkaline by the nitrogen of the atmosphere ; and at the extremity of the veins it is oxydized by the process of inspiration. Some anatomists abandon Harvey’s views about the circulation of the blood, as no ac- 136 tual connection of arteries and veins at the extremities of one. and the commencement of the otner can be seen , by the naked eye I The arteries become so fine, as to have even no membraneous walls, and the blood passes into the solid parts, or into the filamentous or cellular tissue, where it is taken up by the venous tubes and lymphatics. Arteries are in a state of positive, or oxygenous electricity from the lungs ; and the veins in negative or nitrogen electricity from the skin. The only con- nection is in some fine capillary vessels, too minute even for the passage of red blood. Harveyhas trmy oeen considered tne great, est medical philosopher of bis day, and hi& discovery -of the circulation of the blood the most interesting in connection wi:.h the human structure. The truth is, that in Harvey’s time, the electrical action and re- action of oxygen and other gases were not understood nor even the compound con- stituents of air. The globules, which in serous fluid con stitute the blood, are oblate spheroids,. 1 -5000th of an inch in diameter. The globules of the blood vary in dia- meter, according to the organs which supply the blood under examination. The quantity of pure water which blood, in its natural state, contains, is very consi- derable, and makes almost seven-eighths. The vivification of the blood appears to arise from its chemical combination with oxygen, which thereby parting with its previous motion, that motion received by the blood is animal heat, and the power and energy of the system, or the principle and cause of vitality. The arteries distribute universally, and the distinct veins absorb universally, taking up the nitrogen of the air at the skin, and the carbon of the sys- tem. Hence, the chemical combination in the lungs, expiration of carbonic acid gas, and restoration of the powers of the blood. Keill estimates the surface of the lungs at 150 square feet, or ten times that of the external body. Besides the nitrogen absorbed by the skin, it may be assumed that the hydrogen in the food is converted into nitrogen, since we know that the chyle of the food oxyginates the blood, and employs the oxygen in the food. In the ordinary respiration of man, 16 or 17 cubic inches of atmospheric air pass into the lungs 20 times in a minute, or a cubic foot every 5 25 minutes ; 274 cubic feet in 24 hours, or a cube of 6£ feet each way. The lungs hold 280, and at each expiration T375 of the oxygen is converted into «ar- bonic acid gas ; in 63 minutes a cubic foot, and nearly 23 feet in 24 hours. The loss iu bulk, per respiration, is but 006 or 0 12 per minute, or only the tenth of a foot in 24 hours. The nitrogen inspired and expired is exactly equal. If then the relative spe- cific heat, or atomic motion of oxygen, and carbonic acid, as the mean of Crawford and Dalton, be taken as 3 65 to 1 ; and the ab- solute heat of a cubic foot of oxygen aa 8J6°; the difference between inspired oxy- ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN, 137 138 gen and expired carbonic acid is 688° for every foot in 63 minutes, 0 53° per respira- tion, or 688° X 23 = 15824^ + 87‘6^>, or 15911 -6° in all, for heat and strength by ordinary respiration per day. — Phillips. The arteries contain more blood than the veins, and the quantity increases with the temperature. The solid part, after coagu- lation, is the crassamentum, or clot, and consists of the lymph, or fibrin, and the red particles, of which the first is the most im- portant part of the blood, constituting the solid parts of the body and the basis of muscles. On separation, it floats in a fluid called serum or albumen, like the white of an egg. — Hunter ascribed life to the blood, that is, the blood itself is alive ! The blood is a fifth of the weight of the body. Serum coagulates in water nearly boiling ; and consists of gelatine, soda, phosphate of lime, and ammonia. The cruor contains subphosphate of iron, soda, and albumen. The heart, by its muscular contraction, distributes two ounces of blood from seventy to eighty times in a minute. The lungs, owing to the continued local accession of fresh cold air, are the coldest part of the body, for the degree of heat which they generate, is successively carried away by the blood and breath. The diaphragm, whose action compresses or dilates the lungs, and on which they rest, is a fleshy partition, which divides the chest from the belly. It is**arched towards the lungs, but flattens during a strong inspira- tion, and rises during a strong expiration. The dilating muscles are four, with ten aux- iliary ; and the contracting are six, with four auxiliary. In sleep, the respiration is less frequent, and inspirations being greater, snoring results. A respiration will hold a minute and a half, or more, if taken deep and long. The blood of each species of animal con- tains a principle peculiar to each. This principle, which is very volatile, has an odour resembling that of the exhalation of the animal from which the biood was taken. In the blood, this volatile principle is in a state of combination, its odour being then ■insensible. When the combination is broken, it is easy to recognise the animal to which it belongs. In each species of animal, this principle is more decided, or has more in- tensity of odour in the male. Lymph and serum is common to all blood ; but in insects it is transparent ; in cater- pillars green ; in frogs yellow j in fish it is red in the vital organs, and transparent at the extremities ; in man the red particles are too large for some of the vessels, as the coats of the eye, the tendons, and serous membranes. It is deepest red in quadru- peds, and less so in birds, while it varies being. deeper in the hare than the rabbit. Majendi has given a scale of the pulse, which shows that the difference in frequency between that of the infant and the aged is more than double. The scale is — at birth t3C to 140 a minute; one year 120 to 130 ; to two years, 102. At birth the pulsations are from 165 to 104 ; and the inspirations from /0 to 23. From 15 to 20, the pulsations are 90 to 5/ ; and the inspirations from 24 to 16 ; 30 to 60, the pulsations are 112 to 56 ; and the inspi- rations 23 to 11. In general, it is 4 to 1. Digestion of food into chyme is called trituration, fermentation, putrefaction, and solution by the gastric juice, by different au- thors. Philip says, it is nervous and galvanic. The stomach converts food into a pulp called chyme , and passing into the intes- tines, bile converts it into a milky substance called chyle , in which state the lacteal ab- sorbents convey it to the blood near the heart, through which it passes to the lungs and becomes blood. Vegetable aliments are gum, starch, glu- ten, jelly, oil, sugar, and acids. Animal aliments are gelatine , or jelly; albumen , as the white of an egg ; fibrine , or muscular fibres ; and fat : also blood and milk. Absorbents which convey chyle to the thoracic duct are called lacteals ; and those which collect other fluids in the system, and convey them to the same duct, are called lymphatics. The lacteals, lymphatics, and their glands, the mesenteric glands, and the thoracic duct, are the absorbent system. The fluids taken up by the lymphatics are prepared by the lymphatic glands ; and the chyle is prepared by the mesenteric gland, before either pass into the thoracic duct, situated on the- right side, near the first vertebra of the loins. It ascends to the left side of the neck, and enters the venous sys- tem at an angle formed by the subclavian and jugular veins. Animals are vegetables with a case for the soil, and their roots turned inw'ard tc the soil. By replenishing the soil in the stomach, and expelling that which has lost its powers of sustenance, the animal is in- dependent of locality, and loco-motive. Mr. Rye, weighingl97 lbs., ate and drank, on the average of 12 months, 96 ounces or 6 lbs. per day. Dr. Robinson ate and drank 85 ounces, perspired 44 ounces, urine 36 ounces, and 5 ounces otherwise. In August his perspiration was to his urine as 2 to l ; and, in November, only as T2 to 1. Experiments on Digestion , by Dr. Beau- mont, surgeon in the United States army; on a man whose stomach had been ex- ternally laid open by a wound. Rice, boiled soft, was perfectly converted into chyme in Sago Tapioca and barley, &c Fresh bread Stale ditto Strong cake Cabbage, raw Boiled (vinegar much assisted* its digestion) Potatoes roasted Boiled Carrots boiled Beet boiled h. m; I 0 1 45 2 3 2 2 3 ( 2 3 1 4 2 3( 3 3 C 3 15 3 45 139 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN, 140 H. M. Turnips boiled 3 30 Parsnips ditto 2 31 Apples, sour and hard 2 50 Ditto, sweet and ripe 1 30 Oysters undressed 2 3 Stewed 3 30 Turkey and goose 2 30 Fowls, domestic 4 Ditto, wild 4 30 Tripe or pigs’ feet. . 1 Venison 1 35 Beef and mutton, roasted or boiled 3 Beef, salted 3 15 Pork, broiled 3 30 Ditto, salted and boiled 4 30 Ditto, roast 5 15 Eggs, raw 2 Ditto, soft boiled 3 Ditto, hard boiled or fried 3 30 Custard, baked 2 45 Milk 2 Butter and cheese 3 30 Suet 4 30 Oil 4 40 Apple dumplings 3 Calf’s-foot jelly 0 30 The first portion of the intestinal tube, for the extent of twelve fingers’ breadth, is called the duodenum. It is in this portion of the intestines that chylification is chiefly performed. The jejunum, which commences where the duodenum ends, about an hour and half after meal, has distended lacteals. The great intestine, or colon , ascends to- wards the liver, passes across the abdomen, under the stomach, to the left side, where it is like an S, and descends to the pelvis. The colon, or large intestine, is from 6 to 7 feet long, and 2 inches in diameter. It contains about 250 cubic inches, or the 7th of a cubic foot. The ilium, or small intes- tine, is from 28 to 30 feet long. The duo- denum is a foot long. Hence, the food, after it is converted into chyme in the stomach, passes through 37 or 38 feet of duodenum, ilium, and colon, before its elimination. There are four species of worms gene- rated in the human intestines : 1. the taenia, or tape- worm ; 2. the tricuris ; 3. the asca- rides; and 4. the lumbricoides. The re- medy is bitters, or turpentine, or gamboge. The Brain and Nerves . Avicenna, and other Arabians, place the power of reasoning in objects of sense in the brain within the forehead, imagination behind it, judgment in the third ventricle, and memory in the fourth. M. Flourens by his experiments proved that the sensations existed in the cerebrum, and the will in the. cerebellum. Descartes considered the fa- culty of thinking to be in the pineal gland. Gall considers the brain as a collection of distinct organs, the form and expansion of which distinguish the intellectual powers and predominating passions of individuals. Its functions are three — organic, sensitive, and intellectual ; to each of these purposes he assigns a particular organ. He divides the parts of th 4 * encephalon into twenty- seven organs, in three classes ; those of or- ganic life ; those of sensation and percep- tion ; and those which relate to reasoning and intellectual energy on the vertex and smooth part of the forehead, which expands as animals advance in intellect. The most extravagant departure from all the legitimate modes of reasoning, says Bell, is the system of Gall. Without com- prehending the grand divisions of the ner- vous system, without a notion of the distinct properties of the individual nerves, or having made any distinction of the columns of the spinal marrow, without even having ascertained the difference of cerebrum and cerebellum, Gall describes the brain as com- posed of many particular and independent organs, and assigns to each special faculties. That perception, memory, volition, and all the mental phenomena, are associated with, or dependent for their proper action on the brain, is not questioned. Various powers of brain in different animals arise from its relative bulks, or multiplied fibrous convolutions. Physiog- nomy refers much to the form of the skull, and all common experience judges of mental power by this unanalysed test. Latterly Gall, Spurzheim, Deville, Holm, &c. effect this analysis, and they refer variance of powers and passions to local enlargements. The general principle is little disputed ; but doubts are entertained in regard to their details and subdivisions. The schools determine in set terms that life is some principle of activity added by the will of omnipotence to organized struc- ture, and that to man is added an immate- rial soul. Hunter, Lawrence, Abernethy, Morgan, Bichat, Adams, &c. are the last physiological writers on the subject. But to organized structure is known to be added atmospheric air, since, without it, no prin- ciple of life is developed, or can be con- tinued, and its mechanical activity may be the proximate cause of the will of omni- potence in this case as in all others. Life seems, therefore, likely to be a result of organic structure and atmospheric air. Sensibility and motion originate in the ce- rebrum. Two columns descend from each hemisphere, one giving origin to the anterior roots of the spinal nerves, and the other to the posterior, also to the sensitive root of the fifth nerve, and this is the column for sensation. These, and the two for motion, join and decussate in the medulla oblongata. The brain consists of globules, slightly elliptical, larger in the grey than the white substance. It contains pulverulent yellow fat, elastic yellow fat, reddish-yello*w oil, white fatty matter and cholestrine ; besides lactic acid, sulphur, and phosphorus, in the fats. On analysis, all the elements are found in the substance, but chiefly carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The brain itself appears to have distinct functions, like the nerves ; the chief part of it may be cut away or removed without affecting the power of voluntary motion, or giving pain, and this part is the cerebrum. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOO* OF MAN. 142 141 which appears to be considered as the organ of sensation. The animal, on its being re- moved, loses its powers of sensation. But, if the cerebellum , or posterior part, is re- moved, the animal loses the power of volun- tary motion. The organ of feeling in this analysis appears to be the medulla oblon- gata , and the adjoining spinal marrow. The brain and heart are the chief instru- ments of the lungs, and are alike insensible. In the time of Harvey, a young man had his heart exposed by a disease, and Harvey handled it without being felt. 12 pair of Nerves issue from the brain. 1 to the nose, 1 to the eyes, the 3d to the limbs. 4th to 8th to the face, ear, &c. The 9th to 1 2th to the viscera ; and 25 pair ex- tend from the spinal cord as nerves of volition and sensation. The great sympa- thetic or intercostate is connected by the 6th pair with the brain, and with several ganglions and plexuses, forming a sub-sys- tem of its own. The 8th or nervous vagus , is the 10th in the above, accompanying the jugular veins, governing the stomach, &c. The phrenic, which governs the diaphragm, arises from the 10th, or 8th, and 12th. Nerves are not single, and the combina- tion possesses different powers; two fila- ments being united for convenience of dis- tribution, while their office and their origin are distinct. The tongue, for example, has nervous papillae for taste, and others for feeling; this sort communicates pain or feeling, and the other the sense of taste. Bell shews that the nerves which proceed from the front and back of the spinal mar- row have totally different functions, though they spread through the system in pairs and in contact. Those which issue from the posterior part might be cut without con- vulsing the muscles ; but the mere touching those from the anterior part produces con- vulsions. One set performs the functions of sensation and the will, exquisitely sensible and universally diffused ; the other set are connected with the functions of respiration, circulation, secretion, and muscular motion. In less complicated animals, the nerves for different purposes are more decidedly distinct than in the higher classes. When the nerves to any gland are injured the secretion of the gland is modified.— Home. All the nerves, without a single exception, which bestow sensibility from the top of the head to the toe, have ganglia on their roots ; and those which have no ganglia are not nerves of sensation, but are for the purpose of ordering the muscular frame. The notion of a fluid moving backwards and forw’ards in the tubes of the nerves, equally adapted to produce motion and sen- sation, is an error. The nerves which govern the muscles act by experience. They are soft, gray, or whitish non-elastic cords, and in their course display swellings and conglomerations. Without moving, they direct mobility in the muscles, and convey feeling to the organs of sensation, and, in fact, appear themselves to constitute a sort of telegraphic wire. In this last case, the sensitive apparatus would be to be regarded as the brain and nerves, and the body their subordinate case and covering. After death we may stimulate the body by an artificial galvanic apparatus. Whatever be the mode of action in the nerves, its effects are results of future de- velopement. There are no thinking and acting infants. The brain is invested with the dura mater, a membrane with arteries. Within the dura mater , and adhering to the brain, is the via mater , a very fine transparent membrane, filled with blood- vessels ; but a finer membrane lies above this, called membrana arachnoidea. The brain is called the encephalon. Its portions are the cerebrum , which occupies the top and front of the skull ; the cere- bellum, which rests on the base of the skull behind, and separated from the cerebrum by a fold .''f the dura mater ; and the me- dulla oblongata , or commencement of the spinal marrow, which projects upward into the centre of the encephalon. In the foetus, the first part of the nervous system that is formed is the spinal marrow ; the upper part of which is enlarged, and the brain succeeds. The brain in the foetus of superior verte- brated animals arrives successively at the same forms in fishes, reptiles, and birds ; but in the mammiferae are modifications. The spinal marrow and brain appear in the foetus before the blood. The spinal chord is formed in the foetus before the brain, and animals are perfect as it is perfect. The cerebrum has three lobes, or round parts ; the middle, called the corpus cal- losum : and it consists of two kinds of matter, the outside reddish-grey, and the middle bluish-white and softer. The cerebellum has two lobes, and is ot firmer consistence than the cerebrum. The medulla oblongata lies between the lobes of the cerebellum and the middle lobe of the cerebrum, from which it is separated by a streaked part, the pons varolli. The spinal marroiv is a continuation of the medulla oblongata, which unlike the cerebrum, has the bluish- white outside and the reddish-grey inside. It is divided down the middle, and enclosed by the pia and dura mater. The four are considered as the common sensorium. The cerebrum is the organ of sensation, the cerebellum of volition, and the medulla oblongata and spinal marrow extend and conduct their functions to thr system. The weight is nearly four pound in a male adult, and in the female less. A tenth part of the whole mass of bloo is continually in the encephalon. The nervous system has an intelligence; which has been considered analogous to the web of a spider, or the net of a fisherman. And its precision is palpably a mere effect of education and repeated experience, since none of the powers of nerves and muscles, and none of the useful operations and re- ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. 143 II 4 fleeted acts of the brain appertain to in. fancy. The uses of the nerves and of each nerve, and of the muscles and of each muscle, are slowly learnt, and then rendered subservient to well-being and the will. Th % first nerve of the Head is provided with a sensibility to effluvia, and is properly called olfactory nerve. The second is the optic nerve, and all impressions upon it ex- cites only sensations of light. The third nerve goes to the muscles of the eye solely, and is a voluntary nerve, by which the eye is directed to objects. The fourth nerve performs the insensible traversing motions of the eye-ball. It combines the motions of the eye-ball and eye-lids, and connects the eye with the respiratory system. The fifth is the universal nerve of sensation to the head and face, to the skin, to the surfaces of the eye, the cavities of the nose, the mouth, and tongue. The sixth nerve is a muscular and voluntary nerve of the eye. The seventh is the auditory nerve, and the divi- sion of it, called portio dura, is the motor nerve of the face and eye-lids, and the res- piratory nerve, and that on which the ex- pression of the face depends. The eighth , and the accessory nerve, are respiratory nerves. The ninth nerve is the motor of the tongue. The tenth is the first of the spinal nerves ; it has a double root and an office ; both muscular and sensitive. The three nerves of the tongue perform three distinct functions, and stand related to three different classes of parts. Taste and sensibility belong to the office of the fifth nerve, voluntary motion to the ninth, and deglutition to the glosso-pharyngeal nerve of the tongue. — Bell. Flouruns, Mayo, and Bell, have traced and clearly distinguished between the nerves of the will and motion, and those of sensa- tion or the organs of sense and feeling. The brains of blacks and whites are the same colour. The influence of poison is on the nerves, not on the circulating fluids. — Addison. Whatever may be the nature of the im- pulse communicated to a nerve, pressure, vibration, heat, or electrical action, the perception excited in the brain has only reference to the organ exercised, not to the impression made upon it. Fire does not give the sensation of heat to any nerve but that appropriated to the skin. However delicate the retina be, it does not feel like the skin. The point which pricks the skin being thrust against the retina, will cause a spark of fire or a flash of light. The tongue enjoys two senses, touch and taste ; but, by selecting the extremity of a particular nerve, or, what is the same thing, a particu- lar papilla, we can exercise either the one or the other sense separately. If we press a needle against a nerve of touch, we shall feel the sharpness, and know the part of the tongue in contact with the point ; but if we touch a nerve of taste, we shall have no perception of form or of place, but expe- rience a metallic taste. — Bell. The sense of feeling is created \y the papillae of the skin, consisting of small white nervous fibres, which erect themselves when the sense of touch is excited. The sense of taste by the tongue and palate, by means of nervous papillae. The organ of smell is in a fine periosteum, lined by mucous membranes, which covei the ethmoid bone and its sinuses and cells, which are more numerous in dogs and car- nivorous animals. The sense of hearing is effected by a mechanism which conveys the vibrations to the internal parts, where nervous fibres are distributed. The drum of the ear is called the membrana tympanum ; and its vibra- tions are conveyed to four bones in the in- ternal cavity, which again propagate the vibration to a double spiral cavity, called the cochlea. The eye is an optical instrument. The outer coat is the sclerotic membrane. The fore part is the cornea, made up of concen- tric layers. Between this and the former lies the white of the eye, covered by the membrana conjunctiva , that lines the out- side of the eye-lids. Within the sclerotica, and concentric with it, is the choroid membrane. At the back part it is perforated by the optic nerve, where it forms the retina. Three-fourths is filled with the vitreous humour, like the white of an egg. In front is the chrystalline lens, convex on each side, but more so in- ward. It is composed of transparent laminae, more dense towards the centre. The front is filled with the aqueous humour, in the middle of which floats the iris, a coloured membrane. The specific gravity of the humours is but a 200th more than water ; but the lens one-thirteenth more than water. They consist of water and albumen, and gelatine. The iris is supplied with blood- vessels and nerves, and is very irritable, contracting and dilating to the light, and appearing to be governed by the retina. Between the ball of the eye and the vault of the orbit lies the lacrymal gland, which secretes tears, and consists of two lobes, with several small canals. The pigment which colours the iris, is a secretion from the vessels of the choroid. The humours of the eye vary with the medium in which the animal lives. In fishes, the crystalline is nearly spherical. Sleep is the arrestation of that succession of perceptions and thoughts, which charac- terizes the active animal. It is the rest of the brain and the nervous system. The retina is powerless, the tympanum is placid, and the papillae, or ends of the nerves of taste, smell, and feeling, have lost their energy. The cerebellum has no will ; the cerebrum no powers of sensation, compari- son, or reason ; and if we dream, it is the pineal gland, or some auxiliary part, which acts without will or reason. It is impossible to contemplate the fitness and curiosity of these arrangements, extend- ing as they do through all animal nature, and often rising in contemplation and exact adaptation (in what consider the meanest 145 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. I4*r creatures) without Lowing our souls vvitn feelings, which no words can express, to that Power, and that Wisdom, which so trans- cends our own conceptions, as to require a language of its own, and so exalts all sensi- bility as only to be felt by the wisest of our race. We can examine, and we ought to examine, the details and the laws which govern these wonders, and we may trace some proximate causes ; but our investiga- tions, at best, are very crude ; and a long life of enquiry ends in over-powering admi- ration of a sublime scheme of things, infi- nitely divisible, infinitely expansible— so small! — so large! — so perfect! — yet, when understood, so harmonious in all its details ! Longevity of Man. Children die in large proportions, because their diseases cannot *be explained, and be- cause the organs are not habituated to the functions of life. Half die before 26, and- two-thirds before 50. The mean of life varies in different countries from 40 to 45. A generation from father to son is about 30 years. The mean succession of kings is about 22 years, less than a generation, be- cause they often suffer violent deaths, or destroy themselves by vice and indulgence. Of men in general, 5-6ths die before 70, and 15-16ths before 80. After 80, it is rather endurance than enjoyment. The nerves are blunted, the senses fail, the muscles are rigid, the softer tubes become hard, the memory fails, the brain ossifies, the affec- tions are buried, and hope ceases. The 16th die at 80, except a 133d at 90. A remainder die from inability to live, at, or before*! 00. — See the Article Population. The legends, in ancient writers about longevity for hundreds of years, must neces- sarily' be mistakes of theiis, or errors of translations. Moons for solar years, or dynasties and tribes for their patriarchs, as in Arabia to this day. The elements must have been far less active, if human germs were hundreds of years growing and decay- ing, and hundreds at maturity, or man of those times could not have had the modem organization. The Persians, Chaldeans, and other orientals dealt in these fables, or they expressed time differently, or they put the name of the founder for a tribe or dynasty. Most of these hyperbolic numbers, divided by 12 5 moons, give rational results. The period of the Moon was observed long be- fore that of the Sun, and used to this day. In Russia, much more than in any other country, instances of longevity are nume- rous, if true. In the report of the Holy Synod, in 1827, during the year 1825. and only among the Greek religion, 848 men had reached upwards of 100 years of age ; 32 had passed their 120th year ; 4 from 130 to 135. Out of 606,818 men who died in 2826, 2785 were above 90 ; 1432 above 95 ; and 818 above 100 years of age. Among this last number, 88 were above 115; 24 more than 120 ; 7 above 125 ; and one 160. Riley asserts that Arabs, in the Desert, live 200 years. The black races on the African coast are short-lived, and old at 45. In the plains of the interior many live to 100. Slaves in the West Indies are recorded from 130 to 150. Burchell mentions Hottentots above 100. Native Americans often attain 100 and upwards, and Humboldt mentions one of 143, but want of registers are generally fatal to these claims, and reports fallacious. The proportion of boys to girls born, are, in the average of Europe, 106 boys to 100 girls; highest in Russia, or 10891, and lowest in Great Britain and Sweden 1047 to 100. In illegitimate children, the propor- tion of girls is higher, or 105 to 100. In towns still higher, i. e. as 104 46 boys to 100 girls. It seems to depend on the greater age of the father than the mother, for when the father is 50 or 60 and the mother but 25 or 30, the boys are to the girls as 190 or 200 to 100. But when the father is younger than the mother, the boys are to the girls only as 90 to 100. Then, as fathers, in ge- neral, are oldest, the boys preponderate. On the average, men have their first-born at 30, and women at 28, which is, therefore, the term of a generation. The greatest number of deliveries take place between 25 and 35. The greatest number of deliveries take place in winter months, and in February, and the smallest in July, i. e. to February, as 4 to 5 in towns, and 3 to 4 in the country. The night births are to the day, as 5 to 4. Of 100,000 male and female children, on a mean of many tables, it appears by Quetelet, that in the first month they are reduced to 90,396, or nearly a tenth. In the second , to 87,936. In the third, to 86,175. In the fourth , to 84,720. In the fifth , to 83,571. In the sixth, to 82,526, and by the end of the first year 77,528, the deaths being 2 in 9. The next four years reduces the 77,528 to 62,448, indicating. 37,552 deaths before the completion of the fifth year. At twenty-five years the 100,000 are half, or 49,995 ; at 52, a third. At 58$ a fourth, or. 25,000; at 67, a fifth ; at 76, a tenth; at 81, a twentieth, or 5000; and 10 attain 100 . Females in towns are not reduced to half till 28, and in the country till 27. Men in towns, at 20£, and in country at 23£. At 5 years also, the females who survive are from 400 to 500 more than the males. About the age of thirty-six the lean man usually becomes fatter, and the fat man leaner. Again, between the years forty- three and fifty, his appetite fails, his com- plexion fades, and his tongue is apt to be furred upon the least exertion of body or mind. • At this period his muscles become flabby, his joints weak, his spirits droop, and his sleep is imperfect and unrefreshing. After suffering under these complaints a year, or perhaps two, he starts afresh with renewed vigour, and goes on to sixty-one or sixty-two, when a similar change takes place, but with aggravated symptoms. When these grand periods have been suc- cessively passed, the gravity of incumbent 147 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. 146 Ears is more strongly marked, and he egins to boast of his age. — Waterhouse. The grand climacteric in human life varied between sixty and seventy ; and was an astrological period, which depended on the revolutions of Jupiter and Saturn, five of one and two of the other. The catamenia in women appear at 13 or 14, in France. Italy and Spain, at 12. In Asia Minor, at 10 or 11 ; in Persia and Arabia, 9 or 10 ; Jamaica and West Indies for whites and blacks, at 9 or 10. In Ger- many, at 15. In Africa, at 8 or 9, and three days in every third week. In North Ame- rica, the Indians at 1 8 or 20, and cease at 40. In South America at 11 or 12, and in California the same. Puberty, in northern climates, commences from 15 to 20, but in India and Arabia from 11 to 14. Age in the former from 45 to /0, and in the latter from 30 to 45. j Diseases and Medicine . Cullen divides diseases into 4 classes ; pyrexiae, neuroses, cachexiae, and locales. These into 23 orders, these into 158 genera, and the genera into various species, 3 or more. The first class includes fevers, in- flammations, eruptions, and haemorrhages. The second, apoplexy, paralysis, vertigo, spasms, and mental diseases. The third class, emaciation, dropsy, and cutaneous. The fourth, defects of sense and motion, discharges, obstructions, tumours, ruptures, Ac. Hence the species of human diseases are above 1000 in number. Dr. Young divides the remedies of the materia medica into four classes ; mechani- cal agents, chemical agents, vital agents, and insensible agents : 1 . Air, diet, habits, passions, &c. 2. Caustics, astringents, &c. 3. Excitants, cathartics, &c. 4. Specifics. The human race are exposed to endemic diseases, arising from local causes, and miasmatous influence ; as goitre, plica po- lonica, marsh ague, dysentery, and swamp bilious fever, &c. To epidemic diseases, travelling over a greater or less extent of country, as typhus, influenza, plague, yellow fever ; these are usually infectious dis- eases, arising from miasmatous effluvia, of a nature as yet unknown, mingling with the atmosphere. The contagious diseases of animal origin, as small-pox, whooping- cough, measles, psora, leprosy, siphilis, rabies, &c. To infectious diseases arising from crowded habitations, scanty food, inat- tention to cleanliness and ventilation, which render also many diseases infectious that otherwise would not be so ; as typhus, dysentery, fevers from filth in cities, from burying-grounds, &c. To diseases arising from other nuisances, as unw holesome trades and manufactures, bad water, &c. Epidemic diseases are not easily pre- vented, and they are easily confounded with endemics, which sometimes become epide- mic; but more cleanly habits have con- quered the leprosy, the plague, the falling sickness, the sweating sickness, and the ma- lignant typhus. Jackson, of Philadelphia, has shewn in what way the yellow fever can be impri- soned and circumscribed until it be eradi- cated. It appears that its miasma do not mount over a fence of a dozen feet high, so easily as over an inclined plane 100 feet high. All infectious and contagious disorders owe their origin to animalculae ; and these have their infancy, their maturity, and their decline. Yellow fever first attacks the sto- mach ; bilious fever the liver ; black vomit, examined by a microscope, presents a con- geries of animalculae; the bubo of the plague is full of them; so are the pustules of psora. The rot in sheep seems to be owing to animalculae. Water, after producing successions of animalculae, becomes foetid. It then affects the lungs, and is deemed the source of pes- tilential miasmata. — Dwight. Contagion is one of those generic words which, like attraction, bewiiching, suction, &c. &c. mislead and obstruct enquiry. “ Is not contagion,” says' Dr. Dwight, “such a fermentation of an animal body as generates animalculae, and, hence, the danger of con- tact ; and is not exemption, after affection, evidence that the germs in that subject have been exhausted ? Do we not subsist on such germs, and is not the class of conta- gious diseases evidence that they have over- come the usual economy of the subject ? The generation of animalculae, in our mi- croscopic experiments, proves the univer- sality of their seeds or germs.” Dr. D’Arcet has proved that clothes in- fected by persons who have just died of the plague, are purified by being steeped in a chloruret of soda or lime. Vinegar boiled with myrrh or camphor, and sprinkled in a room, corrects putridity. Smyth’s plan was, to heat half a tea-cup of vitriolic acid in a vessel of hot sand, and stir into it some powdered nitre, till the room is filled with nitrous vapour. The chlorurets of sodium and calcium have lately been adopted. Quarantine was contrived by the Vene- tians, in 1437. Medicine is as old as man, and is used by most animals as by dogs in grass. A cupunctu ration was a valuable disco- very of the early Chinese, as well as the burning of moxa. Bleeding was a sequence. The Egyptians and Phoenicians deified discoverers in physic. Esculapius, or JEs- clepius, was one of these, coeval with Menes. The Chaldeans united diseases with the influence of the Stars, and set horoscopes to discover remedies and results. The jews acquired crude notions from the Egyptians, but were very ignorant. Hippocrates flourished in the fourth cen- tury, B. C., and extended surgery. The functions of the several organs were developed by the Greek schools of philoso- phy, and they discriminated arteries, vein^ and nerves. Erasistratus performed dis. section, discriminated the functions of the ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF N N. 149 two kinds of nerves, and discovered the lac- teals. Herophilus perfected the knowledge of the brain, nerves, and eye. The Caesarian operation was prescribed by a law of Numa, and temples erected to im- provers in medicine and surgery. Augustus exonerated medical practi- tioners from taxes. Moschion was the first known writer on Midwifery, in the third century A. C. Celsus was contemporary with Christ, and recorded the state of medicine. Archigenes, in the first century, describes amputation, with ligatures and caustics. He also analyzed mineral waters, and dis- tinguished their chief constituents. Posidonius referred the organs of the mental powers to parts of the brain. Galen almost perfected medicine as we now have it. He was a native of Pergamus, and died about 200 A. C. He described seven pair of nerves, and distinguished be- tween the hard motive from the spine, and the soft sentient from the cerebrum, also those from the medulla oblongata. He described the motion of the blood through the heart and arteries, with arterial and venous blood. He also described respira- tion, and likened it to combustion, as the source of animal heat. In the third century, the eye was ex- plained, and cataracts, &c. treated as at present, by Antyllus and Severus. A plague occurred with buboes in 531. The small-pox spread through Europe, ir- 680. The Chinese inoculated for it 100 B. C. In 1250, Myripsus used quicksilver, and Paul of JEgina, Psellus, and Seth, made minor discoveries down to Paracelsus. Mondino taught anatomy in 1315. Har- vey by tying up veins and arteries, and by considering the direction of the valves of the veins turned towards the heart, and from the absence of valves in the arteries, he in- ferred the general circulation in 1610. Ascelli discovered the lacteals in 1622; the lymphatics by Ruysch in 1665. Lady M. W. Montagu introduced inocu- lation for the small-pox from Turkey. Her own son had been inoculated with perfect success at Adrianople in 1718. She was allowed to inoculate seven capital convicts, who on recovery were pardoned. Dr. Jenner made the first experiment in vaccination in May, 1796, by transferring the pus from the pustule of a milk-maid who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, to a healthy child ; and, publishing the re- sult, the practice spread through the world. Previous to vaccination, the annual deaths from small-pox in London were 4000, or abovit 1 in five or six.. Since, they have been reduced 1000. The- deaths from small pox in London, in the twenty years previous to the promul- gation of vaccination, were 36,189 ; but in the next twenty years only 22,480. In the same periods, in the Small-Pox Hospital, the numbers were 1867 and 814. The fre- quency of small-pox after vaccination ren- ders it necessary to repeat the vaccination. ISO The College of Physician? was founded in 1522, and now consists of 420 members. The College of Surgeons was founded in 1541, and now includes 14,000 members, though 1 candidate in 10 is sent back. The age must be 22, with 5 years’ study and lectures for 2 years ; 501 passed in 1834. The Apothecaries’ Company was founded in 1616, and consists of 630 members. Cer- tificates are granted to 5 in 6 ; candidates aged 21, who have served 5 years, and at- tended 3 winter, and 2 summer courses of lectures ; 455 were passed in 1832, and the living members are about 12,000. The increase of Surgeons in 12 years, is 125 per annum, and of Apothecaries, dou- ble. The gross living number of those passed by the 3 branches in London are about 26,400, besides half as many from Edinburgh, &c. &c. making full 40,000. There are schools also at Bath, Birming- ham, Bristol, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, Man- chester, and Sheffield. There are 14 authorized schools for lec- tures in London, besides 11 private schools. There are 9 great general Hospitals in London, and 7 for special objects ; 5 mu- seums, and 3 medical libraries ; 4 infirma- ries, and 11 dispensaries, in which last 40,000 receive relief; also 68 hospitals, in- firmaries, Ac. in the counties of England. There are 1 1 medical institutions in Edin- burgh, 13 in Glasgow, and 3 at Aberdeen; 9 in Dublin, besides 31 county infirmaries in Ireland, which constantly provide for 900 with 5 or 6 weeks’ treatment. The mixed and fanciful diet of man is considered as the cause of numerous dis- eases, from which animals are exempt. Many diseases have abated with changes of national diet, and others are virulent in particular countries, arising from peculia- rities. The Hindoos are considered the freest from disease of any race. It has been computed that nearly two years’ sickness is experienced by every per- son before he is 70 years old, and therefore that ten days per annum is the average sickness of human life. — Till forty it is but half, and after fifty it rapidly increases. So great, says Dr. Currie, are the diffi- culties of tracing out the hidden causes of disorders, that the most candid of the profession have lamented how unavoidably they are in the dark, so that the best medi- cines, administered by the wisest heads, often do the mischief they were to prevent. The same medicines have contrary effects primarily and ultimately, and, as applied to different functions of the system. Thus opium is at first stimulating, and then seda- tive. Cayenne and black pepper are in- flammatory stimulants of the skin, but re- move inflammation of the palate. Turpen. tine excites the skin, but operates as a sedative in puerperal fever and on the kid- neys. Digitalis diminishes the action of the heart and arteries, and increases that of the absorbents. So with others. Pritchard ascribes local or endemical diseases which affect natives, and not fo- 151 ANATOMY AND I’ll reigners, to the identity of climate, &c. with constitution. A3 the animal system does not admit of two excitements at the same time, most morbid affections are relieved by new ex- citements; and these abating, the disease abates, and is often cured. This is called sympathy, and the stomach and brain ap- pear to be the common centre of it. Diseases which affect all men are not communicable to any animals ; and so the diseases of animals do not affect other spe- cies. The similarity of human diseases is deemed a proof of similarity of species. In Ausculting , the stethoscope should be held in the hand lightly, and fixed flat on the skin ; the small opening corresponding to the external opening of the ear. The respiratory murmur is at its maximum in infants ; in the healthy parts of a lung partially hepatized ; at its minimum in old people ; perfectly healthy lungs sometimes give no respiratory sound. The sound is heard most distinctly in the auxilla, between the clavicle and the anterior border of the trapezius, between the clavicle and the breast, posteriorly between the verte- bral column and the border of the scapula. On striking different parts of the body, various sounds are produced, dull or clear in proportion as the subjacent parts contain more or less elastic fluid. The pulpy ends of the middle and forefinger are employed to strike, and the ivory plessimeter, a piece of leather, or the second plinth of the forefinger of the left hand, is placed on the part to be struck. On the surface of the body the following scale of sounds may be distinguished, beginning with the dullest ; the femoral, the jecoral, the cardial, the pulmonal, the intestinal, and the stomachal, the clearest of all. Besides these, there are the osteal, the humoric, (when organs are filled with air and liquid,) the hydatic, and noise, where a cavern is filled with air. Lamb infers, from the teeth, stomach, and intestines of man, that his natural food is vegetables. Other anatomists have main- tained the same opinion, and many philoso- phers, in all ages, have proved the advan- tages of vegetable diet in their continued good health and extraordinary longevity. If there be any universal medicine in nature it is water ; for, by its assistance, all distempers are alleviated or cured, and the body preserved sound and free from corrup- tion. that enemy to life. — Hoffman. Lettsom ascribed health and wealth to water, and happiness to small beer, and all diseases and crimes to the use of spirits : making, of the whole, a moral thermometer. The Abbe Gallani ascribes all social crimes to animal destruction, thus treachery to angling and ensnaring, and murder to hunt- ing and shooting. Reece enumerates 220 drugs in general use in the relief or cure of diseases. The chief part are derived from the vegetable kingdom ; and there are five preparations of steel, three or four of mercury, one of tin, two of sulphur, four of nitre, and tweuty ISIOLUGY OP MAN. 152 or thirty chemical products, as quinine, morphine, iodine, prussic acid, &c. In diseases the European is the most ir- ritable, and the American the most torpid in constitution. Persons who die of famine exhibit a foul breath and skin, with no evacuations. — When without food for any number of days, they are inebriated by a basin of broth. V egetable poisons are numerous ; the acrid are briony root, bitter apple, helle- bore, spurge, wolfsbane, meadow anemnoe, narcissus, and ranunculus. The narcotic , as hemlock, henbane, laurel, opium, stia- monium, tobacco, coculus indicus, fox-glove, nux vomica or ratsbane, meadow saffron, elaterium, fool’s parsley, and fungi. The mineral poisons are arsenic, corrosive sub- limate, oxalic acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid or aquafortis, verdigris, white vitriol, and white lead. Among the gases, carbonic acid, nitrogen, hydrogen, chlorine, &c. Arsenic and acid solutions of mercury, copper, lead, antimony, Ac. are active mi- neral poisons, for which sulphur and salt of wormwood, or charcoal, are the best anti- dotes next to the stomach-syringe. Vegetables poisonous to man prove in- noxious to other animals, while some which men eat with impunity are fatal to some animals. Parsley kills parrots ; the prussic acid in bitter almonds kills dogs, and some birds : opium and arsenic have a diminished effect on dogs. One-fourth of the deaths in London are from consumption, and one- eighth of the deaths arise from drinking spirituous li- quors, which has been greatly increased by legislative measures. Diseases of cattle afflict men who subsist on them. In 1515 and 1578, nearly all the sheep in France perished by a disease re- sembling the small-pox ; and in 1599 the Venetian government, to stop a fatal dis- ease among the people, prohibited the sale of meat, butter, or cheese, on pain of death. As nature does not act freely and always equally, especially in clothed and capri- ciously-feeding men, so the oxygen absorbed at the lungs, and the nitrogen at the skin, do not exactly balance and neutralize each other. The system is provided with means for discharging the excesses of either within a limit, but when the excess exceeds the natural means of carrying it off, diseases result, and their number and variety in man may therefore be ascribed to his arti- ficial mode of life, and his ignorance of the means by which health is maintained. The human constitution is not destroyed by heat, but by excessive moisture in the air. Batavia has become healthy since the evergreen avenues have been cut down, and the street-canals filled up. The coasts of Africa and Asia are healthy where open, and destructive when covered by woods and mo- rasses to the sea-side. Anatomy is the knowledge of the mecha- nical structure of the parts of tbe body. Physiology treats of the powers by which they produce their results in the living body. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP MAN. 153 l b4 Pathoiogy treats of diseases and their symp- toms, the classification of which is called Nosology. Therapeutics treat of cure, and medicines to be applied, and include the Materia Medica. Pharmacy is the art of compounding medicines, and Posology de- termines the doses. Miscellaneous Facts, Jeffery Hudson, the dwarf, was but 18 inches till 30, and then he rose to 39 inches. Bebe, the Pole, was only 32 inches at his death, aged 23, and slender in faculties. Borulawski was only 28 inches at 22. yet a man of talents. In Ava, a man was lately living, covered from head to foot with hair. The hair on the face was shaggy, and about eight inches long. On the breast and shoulders it was from four to five. At Ava he married a Burmese woman, by whom he has two daughters ; the eldest resembles her mother, but the youngest is covered with hair like her father. The foot of a Chinese female, from the heel to the great toe, measures only four inches ; the great toe is bent abruptly back- wards, and its extremity pointed directly • upwards : while the phalanges of the other toes are doubled in beneath the sole of the . foot, having scarcely any breadth across the foot, where it is naturally broadest. The heel, instead of projecting backwards, de- scends in a straight line from the bones of the leg, and imparts a singular appearance to the foot, as if it were kept in a state of permanent extension. From the doubling in of the toes into the sole of the foot, the external edge of the foot is formed, in a great measure, by the extremities of the metatarsal bones ; and a deep cleft or hol- low Appears in the soles. A bicephalous, or double-headed child, named Christina- Ritta, lately excited curio- sity in Paris. She was born in 1829, of well- formed parents, and christened at the left bust by the name of Christina the right by that of Ritta. Ritta was more feeble than Christina, and in journies she suffered much more than the other. — Christina- Ritta is double from the head to the pelvis. The two vertebral columns were distinct to their lower extremity — that is, to the coccygis. Below the pelvis it is simple. Thus, there were two heads resting on two necks. The corresponding chests are so disposed that the left arm belonging to Ritta naturally places itself on the neck of Christina, whose right arm placed itself, in the like manner, on the neck of Ritta. The union of the two busts was effected towards the middle of the pectoral cavity, and on the side ; so that the two corresponding breasts are almost blended together. The abdomen was single, as is also the pelvis, which is evidently formed by the junction of two primitive ones. Within there were two lungs, perfectly separate ; two hearts, in only a single membraneous envelope ; but the hearts were so disposed that their peristaltic motions must have been in unison. A single diaphragm sepa- rated the cavity of the chest from the cavit y of the abdomen, and the diaphragm being an organ indispensable to the functions of respiration, the cessation of motion in the part belonging to Ritta paralysed the motion of the part belonging to Christina The Biddenham maids, born in 1100, had distinct bodies, &e. but were joined by the hips and shoulders. They lived to be 34 ; and one dying, the other refused to be sepa- rated, and died in a short time. They left twenty acres to the poor, still distributed in bread every Easter Sunday. The Siamese or Chinese youths were shewn in London, joined by a band of carti- lage and skin at the stomach, from two inches and a half to four inches long, and eight inches round. They were healthy and cheerful, and one in body, inclinations, and habits. The band of union was considered as an enlargement of the umbilical cord. There was no nervous connexion through the band, and their sympathy of feelings appeared to be the result of habit from in- fancy to maturity. When both coughed, the band was distended like a chronic her- nial sac. The abdominal cavities appeared to communicate, and to have but one peri- tonial lining; but the viscera are distinct. At the exact line where one began to feel, the other ceased to feel, and there was no point where both felt. They had a fever together, but not equally great, and both had a cold at the same time. Their evacu- ations were made together. They went to sleep together, and woke together exactly. They played at chess, and differed in ideas about moves — but in habits they were alike, and different in body, though they grew upon one placenta by one umbilical cord. Seurat, shewn as a living skeleton, in 1825, was 27 years old. He was five feet seven and a half inches high, and his bones were merely covered with his dry parchment skin. The upper joints of the arms were four inches round. The distance from the chest to the back-bone was but three inches. Round the waist was twenty-three inches. The shoulder blade-bones were scarcely an inch asunder. His appetite was good. The pulsation of the heart was visible to the eye. His ribs resembled pieces of cane. The lungs did not appear to be in the chest, but in the lower abdomen. Rachael Hertz, of Copenhagen, had, be- tween Feb. 1819, and July 1822, 395 needles extracted from tumours in all parts of her body ; the breasts, the navel, the thighs, lumbar region, &c. She had for fifteen years been variously diseased, and was supposed to have swallowed the needles in fits of deli- rium, A female, who, in 1829, was 42 years of age, and resided at Pynacre, near Delph, had, from disease, not eaten any thing since 1818, nor drank any thing since 1820. Total exhaustion was prevented by damp wrap- pers German paper . Total abstinence above seven days is fatal to man; but there are instances of surviving after a louger period. A religious fauatiev 155 ANATOMY AND PH in 1/89, determined to fast forty days, but died on the sixteenth. In 1800, a French prisoner, at Liverpool, exhibited a most extraordinary propensity to devour nauseous diet, particularly cats, of which, in one year, he eat 174, many of them while alive. An Esquimaux boy, supplied by Captain Parry, eat in one day 10£ lbs. of solid food, and drank of various liquids 1^ gallon. A man of the same nation ate 10 lbs. of solids including two candles, and drank 1| gallons, yet they were only from 4 to feet high. A soldier of 17, named Tarare, ate 24 lbs. of leg of beef in 24 hours ; and, on another occasion, all the dinner prepared for 15. Comaro, the dietetic, allowanced himself to 12 oz. of dry food, and 14 oz. of liquids per day, from the age of 40 to 100. Vegetable aliment, as neither distending the vessels, nor loading the system, never interrupts the stronger action of the mind ; while the heat, fullness, and weight of ani- mal food is adverse to its efforts. — Cullen. You ask me for what reason Pythagoras abstained from eating the flesh of brutes ? for my part, I am astonished to think what appetite first induced man to taste of a dead carcase ; or what motive could suggest the notion of nourishing himself with the putri- fying flesh of dead animals. — Plutarch. Nothing can be more shocking or horrid than one of our kitchens sprinkled with blood, and abounding with the cries of crea- tures expiring, or with the limbs of dead animals scattered or hung up here and there. It gives one the image of a giant’s den in romance, bestrewed with scattered heads and mangled limbs. — Pope. Anthropophagi, or feeders on human flesh, have existed in all ages, and still exist in Africa, and the South Sea Islands. Diogenes asserted, that we might as well eat the flesh of men as the flesh of other animals. The Greeks inform us, it was a primitive and universal custom Some of their gods lived on human flesh, and the Cyclops did the same. Aristotle and Herodotus name va- rious nations who preferred human flesh to that of animals. The Giagas, and several African nations, have tne same preference ; and we remember the practices at Owyhee, New Zealand, &c. &c. Human flesh has the flavour of hog’s flesh, and veal. Voltaire says, that, in 1/25, he saw four sa- vages from the Mississippi one of whom, a female, admitted that she had eaten men ; but contended that victors ought to have the preference over wild beasts. St. Jerome states, that he saw Scotchmen in the Roman armies, in Gaul, who fed on human flesh as a delicacy. At Dailly, in Ayrshire, a miner was en- tombed without food for 23 days, and found alive ; but he died within three days. The poison so freely administered by Ita- lians, in the 17th century, was called aqua tofana , from the name of the old woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small flat vials, which she called manna of St. Nicholas, «n one side of which was an image of the saint. YSIOLOGY OF MAN. 166 She carried on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police, but, on being taken, confessed that she had been a party in poi- soning 600 people. Numerous persons were implicated by her of all ranks, and many of them were publicly executed. The Kroo nation, on the African coast, travel and perform the hard labour of the other tribes, at such low wages as provides them with rice, their only food. Infanticide is practised in many countries, but, in some of the South Sea Islands, it is practised by a society called the Earowits , which consists of heads of families. In marching, soldiers take 75 steps per minute, in quick marching 108. and in char- ging 1 50 steps. A man from 16 to 30 can jumD 7 feet, and rise 3 feet. The Hindoos have the art of personating death, so as to deceive able surgeons. In pearl-diving the common immersion is a minute, but often 90 or 100 seconds. Two minutes is uncommon. The French, says Lavater, have no traits so bold as the English, nor so minute as the Germans. I know them chiefly bj thei. teeth and their laugh. The Italian I discover by the nose, small eyes, and projecting chin. The English by their foreheads and the weak- ness of their hair. The Germans by the angles and wrinkles round the eyes, and the cheeks. The Russians by the snub nose and their light-coloured or black hair. The perception of a woman is as quick as lightning. Her penetration is intuition ; almost instinct. By a glance she will draw a deep and just conclusion. Ask her how she formed it, and she cannot answ’er the ques- tion. While she trusts her instinct she is scarcely ever deceived, but she is generally lost when she begins to reason. — Sherlock. 100 Quakers buried at Chesterfield ave- raged the age of 48 years, but 100 others averaged only 25 years and 2 months, pro- ving the value of regular and sober habits. The number of ova in the ovarium of the human female, is generally 23. They remain the same size through li/e, unless one is dis- turbed by impregnation of the male, when it becomes the germ from which is nurtured and raised the future being. — Malpigi. As this period extends about thirty years, so it affords time for the maturing or deve- loping of the 23 or 24 ova. The fact, how- ever, is fatal to all population theories, and all speculations founded on lengthened du- ration of life, since this is a period of propa- gation fixed by a law not to be passed, and not dependant on duration of life, while the sexes are equal in numbers. The human figure is equal to ten faces. One-third from the crown to the forehead ; one to the chin ; to the pit of the collar-bones two-thirds ; from the pit to bottom of the breast one ; from the bottom of the breast to the navel one ; from thence to the privities one ; to the knee two ; the knee half ; from the lower part of the knee to the ancle two ; and to the sole half: in all ten. When the arms are extended, the distance of the tips ANIMAL KINGDOM. iG7 15S of the longest fingers are equal to the height. From one side of the breast to the other is two faces ; from the shoulder to the elbow two ; from this to the root of the little finger two. The sole of the foot is a sixth of the heighth. The thumb equal to the nose. The teats and pit between the collar-bones of a woman is an equilateral triangle. The length of the face and hands is equal. Such are the proportions of painters and sculp, tors in perfect figures. The non-naturals are air, food, and drink, sleep and watching, motion and rest, the passions, and the secretions and excretions. There are estimated to be 140,000 deaf and dumb in all parts of Europe, and about 6000 in the United States. In Europe, 1 in 1537 are deaf and dumb. Ireland, 1 in 171.4 ; in the United States, 1 in 2000; but, in Switzerland, 1 in 503. Europe has 114 institutions for their in- struction. MAMMALIA. Mammalia are vertebrated organizations, with lungs for breathing, warm red blood, a heart with two ventricles and two auricles, a diaphragm, teats or mammae for giving milk, hairy or smooth skin, and viviparous. The cervical vertebrae are seven, attached before to a sternum, with cartilages, and commencing from the suspended shoulder- blade. To these are annexed the humerus , or upper arm, with a fore-arm consisting of a radius and cubitus , finished by a hand of metacarpic bones and fingers ; or by pha- langes with nails or hoofs. The hinder or posterior extremities are attached to the spine, so as to form a girdle or pelvis, which again is divided into the ilium attached to the spine, next it the pubis , and behind it the ischum. Their point of union is the articulation or junction of the femur or thigh, connected with the leg compound or two bones, the tibia or skin, and th e fibula. The foot resembles the hand, called the tarsus. Metatarsus , or five toes with nails, and three joints or articulations, but varying in number and forms into talons. These forms of termination distinguish be- tween carnivorous and herbaceous, the for- mer having prehensile organs, and the latter having no prehension with hoofs. The head is united to the atlas , or first vertebral joint, and the brain has two hemi- spheres, united by medullary laminae, called corpus callosum , which has two ventricles and four pair of tubercles, the corpora striata, optic thalami , nates , and testes. The optic thalami has a third ventricle, connected with a fourth below the cerebellum, which last is connected with the medulla oblongata by the pons varolii In all mammalia the eye and ear are si- milar. The latter has its cavitas and mem- brana tympani . its pharynx , and its eusta- chian tube. The cavitas has four small bones called the incus or anvil , the hammer, and the stirrup. The cranium itself has three compartments, the two frontal bones and the ethmoid , the parietal and the sphe- roid, and three the occipital. The tongue is attached to the hyoid, and suspended by ligaments. Their lungs are two, composed of cells, and lodged, without adhering, in the cavity of the ribs ; and diaphragm, which is lined by the pleura. Motion, or force, is effected by muscles attached by ligatures to the bones, and acting or reacting by pairs, like two animals in the envelope of one skin, and joined by the spine or vertebra. Mammal (or Mammalia , plural) from mamma, signifying a breast or udder, de- notes those animals which suckle their young. Quadruped excludes man and the cetaceous tribes, and comprehends the li- zards, tortoises, and other reptiles not Mam- malia. Mammals compose a class , or pri- mary division of the animal kingdom. The number of species of Mammiferous animals of different authors, are, — Linnaeus - 230 Pennant 412 Buffon 333 Gmelin 440 Desmarest .. .. 662 Illeger, the last writer, divides the Class into 14 Orders, 39 Families, and 125 Genera. Demarest assigns 88 species to Europe, Asia 119, Africa 107, and America 235. The Oriental islands and Australasia 84. The cetacea and seals are 42. Late descriptive catalogues contain 900 species, and recent discoveries raise them to 1200. Only 13 species have been subjugated to the service of man, which have branched into 112 varieties. There are 42 Fossil species. Taking the human species as 4, Desmarest makes the Quadrumana or monkey species 141, the true Carnivora 147, the ltuminantia 97, the existing Pachederma 55, and various Carnivora at 177. Lamarck’s system is founded on the prin- ciple of progressive developement from simple to complex forms, and it preceded the discoveries of Geology. A natural order comprises those which, like the rat, the squirrel, the rabbit, and the guinea-pig, have only two la?ge teeth in front, which they continually employ in gnawing whatever falls in their way ; they are, therefore, called Rodentia, or gnawers. These, in the number of their incisor teeth, form the link which connects the Carnivora with the Edentata, which have no front teeth, and therefore live entirely upon vegetables, or upon soft substances which require little mastication. The orders of Carnivora, Rodentia, and Edentata, together with the Ruminantia or ruminating animals, and the Cetacea or whale kind, compose the class mammalia, which are divided into unguculated with nails, unguculated with hoofs, and necto- pode or web-footed, already described. The smallest mammiferous animal yet known is the minute shrew, (sorex exilis ) ANIMAL KINGDOM. 159 which weighs but half a drachm ; the small- est animal of the stag kind is the pigmy musk, the legs of which are but two or three inches long, and no thicker than a tobacco- pipe; and the smallest of birds is the tro- chilus minimus , a species of humming-bird, which weighs, when dried, only 30 grains. These visible beings are, however, as much larger than animalculae, as the whale, elephant, &c. are larger than they are, yet the same perfection of organization appears. To smallness there is no limit, but in the size of primitive sustaining atoms, and these in the elements are so small, as, in resis- tance, to constitute perfect fluidity. In fact, our conceptions, which are relative as to our own dimensions, are as much baffled in our endeavours to estimate the little as the great, the series being infinite each way, and our 5 feet 9 inches, and our Globe it- self, being but middle terms. The following are the mean dimensions of various mammiferes : Man — 4 to 5 feet in Lapland and Labrador, to in Europe and Asia, 5 to 5f in Africa and America, 6 to 7 in Patagonia. I GO Ourang-Outang .. . . 4a to 5A feet Pigmy apes 2 „ Striated monkey . . Vaulting monkey .. 13 Malbrook . . .. 14 feet Barbary ape .. .. 34 „ Sphinx 3 or 4 Dog-faced baboon . . 5 The preacher .. 31 „ The lemur .. -.1 foot Vampire .. .. 6 to 12 inches Common bat 4 or 5 Hedgehog .. 10 „ The shrew . . . . -.24 „ Mole Badger • .. Glutton -- 24 „ Racoon -.2 „ Ichneumon -.15 inches Weasel -- -- 74 „ Ferret .. 14 „ Martin .. -. 18 „ Ermine .. 10 „ Sable .. .. 11 „ °olecat .. .. 17 „ Zurillo 17 „ Otter Lion 6 to 8 and 9 „ L ioness 5 to 6 and 7 „ lYAcU II1UL •• •• Porcupine .. .. 24 n Ant-eater .. . * .. 12 Spines .. 4 feet Great ant-eater . . .. 4 Armadillo and tail m 9 .. 5 jf Elephant . . 10 or 11 8 to 10 feet high Rhinoceros .. 12 feet 6 to 7 feet high Hippopotamus , . 12 to 20 feet Dromedary 9 feet high to top of head 6 or 7 1. Lama .. 6 Musk deer . „ .. 3* Stag . . 4 to 5 ',1 Roebuck . . - 3| 51 Reindeer 4 to 5 Giraffe 15 or 18 feet high Chamois .. 3 11 Antelope . . -. 3‘- Pigmy antelope . . . . .. 10 inches Bottle-nosed seal . . . . 1 1 to 18 feet Ursine seal 6 to 9 11 Common seal m 9 4 to 6 1 1 Walrus or morse . . 15 to 18 11 Manat i Siren 20 to 28 .. 5 11 Tails 3 feet, height 3 to 5 „ Tiger .. .. .. 8 to 9 ,, Tail 4 feet, height 4 „ Wild Cats 2 to 5 Lynx 4 Civet 2 „ Hyena .. 3 „ Wolf 2 4 to 3 feet Fox 1| to 2 „ Jackall . . 24 „ Dpossum 15 to 18 inches Wombat .. .. ..2 feet Kangaroo .. .. .. 3 to 4 „ Flying squirrel 6 inches Ordinary squirrel . . . . 8 „ Dormouse 6 There are 90 species of quadrupeds in Europe, of about 42 genera, including 4 cetaceae ; and about 110 genera of birds, in- cluding rapacious, fissirostres, dinterostres, climbers, swimmers, and gallinaceous. Great Britain contains but 60 species of Mammalia, of all sizes and habits. The great forests of Northern Europe and Britain formerly sustained animals from mammoths to hyenas, bears, wolves, &c. Man has, in countless ages, destroyed them in Britain. Bears, wolves, wild boars, bea- vers, &c. existed even since the Norman invasion. Our caves, in all parts, exhibit bones of bears as large as horses, hyenas and tigers of the largest size ; while the strata expose remains of the elephant, rhinoceros,, hippopotamus, and even the kangaroo,— pal- pably natives when Britain joined the Conti- nent, and when the tropics were wider. France has wolves, beavers, and wild boars, with some bears. One breed of cats is very large. Wolves, wild boars, and scorpions, are met with in Italy. The States of the Church contain 247 species of birds. Sicily has ter- mites. Goats supply cheese, milk, and but- ter. Sheep are scarce, and agricultural breeds neglected. Spain has a breed of fine horses, introduced from Barbary; also useful mules and large asses. The Merino sheep, once so famous, are now superseded by the Saxon. Norway has 41 quadrupeds, as the elk, lynx, glutton, beaver, lemming, stag, rein- deer, and fallow-deer. The Swiss ibex, or goat, has horns from 24 to 30 inches. The Alpine spaniel is 2 feet high and 6 long, and useful to travellers. The chamois is of wonderful agility. Asia has 27 species of of apes, 31 of bats, 110 various quadrupeds, and 38 ruminants. Elephants are employed in India fo» ANIMAL KINGDOM. 161 162 parade, tiger-hunting, and military purposes. Arabia supplies India with the best horses. Indian bullocks are small, with humps; the buffaloes heavy, long-horned, and bare of hair. The Indian ox has a hump of 40 or 50 lbs., active, with a shrill groan. There aie in New Holland 40 species of the Opossum and Kangaroo family, wholly peculiar to that country. The kangaroo is the size of a large sheep, carnivorous and gramnivorous. Their fore- legs are short, and have five fingers. The hind-lejrs are four feet long, and they stand upright, and run and leap, or rather fly. It uses its short fore- feet as hands, and leaps on its hind-legs 14 or 16 feet at a bound, faster than a dog can run. The kan- garoo displays a great maternal feeling. If wounded, she assists her offspring in their escape ; and on gaining a place of safety she caresses them to dissipate their alarm. The pouch of the kangaroo and the opossum is a fold in the integuments of the belly, with an external opening, where the young are re- ceived in a tender state, and nourished by the paps within the cover. In New Holland, nature is not only singu- lar, but reversed. Swans are black, and large eagles white. The kangaroo has five claws on its fore-legs, and three talons on its hind ones, yet hops on its tail ; moles lay eggs, and have a duck’s bill ; a bird, the meli- phaga, has a broom instead of a tongue. Pears are made of wood, and the cherry has the stone on the outside ! Every thing has an original character. All the quadrupeds are like opossums, all the fish are like sharks, and the very land and trees have peculiar features. — Field. Africa is the native country of ferocious and noxious animals, and in the deserts and forests they continue to flourish, after man has expelled them elsewhere. The animals of America, like those of New Holland, were different from those of the old Continent, though types for the most part. They have had mammoths, but if they had larger animals, they have become ex- tinct. Domestic animals are importations. There are four classes of simics , called apes, baboons, monkeys, and japajocs, in 63 species. Lepon considers Simice as the connecting link between man and other animals. The senses are perfect, the brain similar, and their viscera the very same. The Bornese ourang has a perfect human brain. Other of these tribes differ in slight particulars, serving as links in the chain of being. The ourang differs m his muscles, being obliged to use all his limbs for support, the upright posture being irksome. Their maternal and filial affection are affecting. The old ones govern the young, lead them in troops, and chastise disobedience Some tribes use clubs as men use arms, and their union implies mutual understanding, while the preacher tribe harangue in vocal sounds. In their non- improvement they a little resemble the black races in Africa, and the aboriginals of the woods of New Holland. In improve- ments and in arts, certain races of men prove themselves at the head of the animal system. The monkey tribes live only within the tropics, except a few on the Rock of Gibral- tar, as evidence that it once joined Africa; and a few at the Cape of Good Hope ; but there are none in Persia, Chili, or Mexico. The ourang-outang walks erect, and is often six feet high and very powerful, ca- pable of imitating all habits of man. It has no tail. The arms are long, and they use them as legs and hands. They carry clubs for offence, move in herds, and reside in huts made of leaves. Two or three which have been brought to Europe were docile, sensible, imitative, and very affectionate. In Africa they perform labour, and are useful. The Angola ourang, simia troglodytes , is the nearest approach to man, and far more perfect than the simia satyrus, or ourang- outang. which in running goes on all-fours. A noble specimen of the full-grown pongo was lately killed under circumstances cf peculiar atrocity, on the north coast of Su- matra. He was 7 feet high, and defended himself with resolution and sagacity, till overpowered by balls and stabs. The Barbary ape, oi magot, is known for his agility as an object of exhibition. In Borneo, Sumatra, and on the Oroonoko, baboons and monkeys are employed to climb trees, and gather ripe fruit. Different species live in colonies, and distinct species in the same forest without mutual annoyance, and in the same trees with parrots. The pigmy without a tail is only 2 feet, but ingenious, active, and mischievous. The mona monkey is a great favourite in India, and they are fed and encouraged in some places. At Amanadab, the Gentoos have three hospitals for them, and at Dhuboy they are more numerous than men, and must be fed, or they do mischief. The sphinx baboons in Borneo pillage houses, and move in mischievous troops. The ursine baboon resides in the high lands, near the Cape of Good Hope, and is often dangerous to travellers, carrying clubs and throwing stones with dexterity. The preacher monkey fills the woods with noise, travelling on the tops of the trees ; and one in haranguing the rest, displays perfect sagacity and articulate language. The most obvious distinction of the Old Continent monkeys and the American, is in the division of the aperture of the nostrils, which in the first are thin, and the aper- tures close; and in the American thick and wide apart. One also has 10 molar teeth, and the other 12. There are also other constant variations. Types the same, as in many other cases, but differences which indicate distinct evolutions. The ourang-outang and pongo of the Asiatic Islands, and the African chimpanzee, are the nearest approach to man in ex- ternal form. They arc little like our supe- rior races ; but the connection is close with the Bosjesmans, Hotteutots, Cretans, and Esquimaux. In bipeus, there are the gamo G ANIMAL KINGDOM. 168 close grades as in other genera. Some small organ is defective in the brain, or some little cord of connection is reversed or wanted, by which results are varied. The facial angle, 100° in the Caucasian races, is but 40 or 45, or at most 60 ; consequently, there is deficiency in the cerebral organs. The mandril is often the size of a man, and very ferocious, with coloured cheeks. The American monkeys (cebidae) are as various as the African ; but all have tails, and some are prehensile, or have fifth hands, with great sensibility of touch. The my- cett, howlers or preachers, are the largest. A dog-faced baboon lately died in the Tower. The right arm was employed like the corresponding part ot the human figure. He used to brandish his pot of porter, and drink it with relish. His attentions to a dog were in the style of patronising; nor did the dog re- cognize any difference between the pat of his paw, and that of human friends. He sunk under a dropsy, the effect of potations. The Gossein devotees in India have a school for monkeys, whom they train into regular habits. The genus atiles has a re-acting great toe, which answers as a thumb, nearly equal, in effect, to the fingers and thumb, and hence they have 4 hands. The lemur family, in 5 genera, are like the monkey, except in the head, which re- sembles the fox, and they are less imitative, ♦hough in trees as active as monkeys. The conformation of the mastedon or mammoth was similar to the elephant. In- stead of teeth the elephant has enormous tusks, and instead of a nose, a trunk or proboscis, which is a tube of muscles of ex- quisite sensibility, tapering to the extremity like a little finger. With this trunk he car- ries food to his mouth, and he drinks by suction. The intestines are extensive, and the stomach simple. The mammoth dif- fered from the elephant in having grinders, and when alive must have been twice the external dimensions, and 8 times the weight. Young male elephants and females have no tusks, but are killed in wantonness. Teeth imported are generally found cast in the woods. Elephants are from nine to twelve feet high. They swim with ease, with the point of the trunk above water, and live on vegetables. They respire, and eat and drink through the trunk, which is so sensible as to pick up a pea or a pin. The young are three feet high, and the female seldom has twins. They grow for 30 or 40 years, and live 200 or 300, some say 400 years. The tusk or tooth of the male elephant is harder than horn, and less brittle than bone, weighs from 120 to 200 lbs. and is brought from Ceylon and Africa. 100 parts contain 24 gelatine, and 64 carbonate of lime. The bones of the elephant destroyed in Exeter Change, under symptoms of mad- ness, were anatomically united. The head is 13 feet from the ground ; the top of the back 12 feet. The bones weigh 876 lbs. and the skin 17 cwt. An elephant bred to war stands firm 104 against a volley of musquetry, and 30 bul- lets in the flesh will not kill them. They eat about 30 lbs. of grain per day. besides sweets, of which they are very fond. They are docile, grateful, intelligent, and most careful. Female elephants assist hunters in making captive the wild elephants. The Asiatic elephant is more rational than the African. The Rhinoceros is twelve feet long, with a horn three feet, and a skin so hard as to turn a sabre. They are solitary, and harm- less, living entirely on vegetables. One species in Africa has a horn like a cock’s spur, rising nine or ten inches, and behind a short thick horn ; but another has a horn three feet long, like the unicorn. The hippopotamus is a very timid animal. Young ones are reared docile. There is one now in the Royal Zoological Gardens. The behemoth of the Jews was either the hippopotamus or mammoth, said in the Talmud to feed on a thousand mountains in a day ; a speed which accords with the Indian tradition about mammoths. When mammoths ranged, man lived in caves. Under the genus Felis , Linnaeus classes the lion, tyger, panther, leopard, ounce, ocelot, cat, serval, lynx, and caracal. The order Ferce, or Carnivora , have sharp and cutting grinders, as contrasted with tuberculated vegetable feeders, and rough pointed ones in insect feeders. They have acute senses of smelling, and short intes- tines. The order comprehends lions, tigers, panthers, hyenas, wolves, dogs, foxes, cats, stoats, weasels, and otters. Bears, weasels, polecats, raccoons, badgers, gluttons, gennets, and civets, are of one family. Bears excavate their caves, or winter habitations for hybernation. There are three living species of the hyena. That found in caves is extinct. Even this down-looking race has been tamed at the Cape, and is assimilated to the dog. The claws of lions and tigers are, at rest, drawn within the toes by ligaments. The tiger and the hyena are the vultures and sharks among quadrupeds. A lion lived 70 years in the Tower, and another died at 63. There are few now except in Africa, and in N. W. India. A Lion-Bait , by trained dogs, took place at Warwick, in July, 1825. One lion killed two or three with his paws, but would not bite them. Another seized them with his teeth, and held them up with contempt, killing three or four. But a tame lion, bred in a cage, is not a lion of the woods. Camels weigh from 13 to 14 cwt. The Bactrian camel is the largest, and has two bunches on its back. The dromedary of the Arabians has but one, and is the most com- mon. The bunch on the back is glandular, and not connected with the spine. They move both the feet on the same side, and, therefore, jolt their riders. They require little and coarse food, and live for 10 or 15 days without water. They kneel to take up their load, and carry from 500 to 1500 lbs. Their average pace is two miles and a haU ANIMAL KINGDOM. 165 an hour. The deserts could not be tra- versed without them. Dromedaries are swifter than Bactrian camels, and without a load go 6 or 8 miles an hour for 10 or 12 hours. Caravans con- sist of from 1 to 4000, and many Arabs possess 4 or 500. The Tartars employ them :n waggons : they cast their hair every year, and it is made into cloths, stockings, shawls, carpets, &c. They live from 40 to 50 years. The camel in the east is the most valu- able servant of man. It eats little and drinks less; the milk makes cheese and butter ; shoes and harness are made of his skin ; and of his hair tents and clothing. For burthen, he is the ship of the desert. The horse is believed to be indigenous in Tartary, and there they have the finest breeds, and treat them as of the family. A horse has 24 grinders, 4 tushes, or single teeth, and 12 front teeth. At five the colt’s teeth are shed, and the tushes appear ; at six they are grown, and at eight the black marks disappear, and the horse is aged. Stage-coaches, with their draft, often run 10 or 12 miles an hour. A four-wheel car- riage has been drawn 20 miles an hour, Bakewell’s black draft-horse will draw above three tons. Eclipse ran a four-mile heat in eight minutes, carrying 12 stone, and requiring neither whip nor spur, beating with ease every horse against which he was ever matched. JHe died at 25, in 1/89. Chil- ders ran 50 feet in a‘ second, that is 3000 feet in a minute and three quarters, or above 34 miles an hour. White asses are used for riding, in Bag- dad, instead of wheel-carriages, since the streets are mere lanes and alleys. An American-bred horse, in Feb. 1829, trotted in harness 100 miles in 10 hours and 7 minutes. The driver and vehicle weighed 248 lbs. He had gruel at every 20 miles, was 14 hands, and 12 years old. In a race near Petersburgh, of 7 1 versts, or 47 English miles, betweep two English hunters, and two picked Cossack horses from the Don and Ural, the English beat. The diziggtai, or Tartary horse, lives in communities, governed by a leader, and never has been tamed. It baffles pursuit by its fleetness, but they are shot and eaten by the Tartars. Young ones cannot be broke, or tamed, and perish in attempts to escape. The zebra, and the quagga, have the same habits, and cannot be tamed or used. The Bedouins never allow their horses to lie down. All the thorough-bred mares are descended from Mahomet’s mare, and no other are highly prized in Arabia. But fine breeds are prized and treated as children. The mule is the produce of the male ass aud mare, and the hinny of the she-ass and horse. The mule is larger, more like the mare, and the hinny more like the she- ass. Neither propagate with one another. Mules are more hardy and longer-lived than horses, bear heavier burthens, and are more sure-footed. Spanish asses are often 15 hands high. 106 Wild asses in Tartary and Thibet live in troops, and keep sentry, being very vigilant ; and if attacked, swift in escape. It is the same with sheep, buffaloes, and all gregarious animals. The Lama is a valuable animal, which supplies the place of the camel and horse in Southern America. They inhabit the Cor- dilleras of the Andes, but are most common in Peru and Chili. They congregate ii large herds, and feed on grass peculiar tc the mountains, and as long as they car. procure green herbage, they never drink. From the form of their feet, they are pecu- liarly fitted for mountainous countries, being even safer than mules, and waning “ neither bit nor saddle. There is no need of oats to feed them ; it is only necessary to unload them in the evening, at. the place where they are to rest for the night, and they go abroad into the country to seek their own food, and, in the morning return to have their baggage replaced, and continue their journey.” They carry from 100 to 150 lbs. at the rate of 12 or 15 miles a day. There are 9 breeds of oxen and 14 of sheep pastured in Britain ; 3 of the oxen are British, 3 Scotch, 2 Welsh, and 1 AL derney. Ancient breeds of sheep had horns. The wild ox, formerly dangerous in Bri- tish woods, is now only found in the fossil state in recent formations, or in strata with elephants’ bones, or in three or four parks as curiosities. It is white, with a black muzzle, and very vicious. The Dun cow oi Dunchurch and Warwick castle, was one. Bullocks perform indifferently with yokes and bows : in France, they draw by the horns. They plough an acre per day with ease. Four bullocks draw three tons of coals ; two draw 35 cwt. three miles ; and two draw 1020 sheaves, weighing 63/5 lbs. Herds of -10,000 wild bisuns are often seen on the Mississippi, each herd with its arranged sentinels. The horns of the Abyssinian ox are nearly four feet long, and seven inches diameter a. their base. The Abyssinian buffalo is dou- ble the size of our oxen ; and two draw as much as four horses. Bull-fights in Spain are equivalent to the fights of gladiators among the Homans, which at once disgraced and brutalized that people. The amphitheatre for this amuse- ment, as it is called, is 330 feet in diameter, with an area of 225 feet, and sitting and standing room for fifteen thousand specta- tors. The assailants, called piccadores, are on horseback, and provided with a long spear. The bull soon destroys the horse and then other combatants carry cloaks tc distract the bull till the piccadore has pro- cured a fresh horse. In 1710, Bullocks weighed 370 lbs., calves 50 lbs., and sheep 28 lbs. In 1832, bullocks weighed 800 lbs., calves 140 lbs., and sheep 80 lbs. There are in Great Britain above fi v e million head of cattle. Each of the inhabitants of London eats or wastes 107 lbs of meat per annum, Paris 85 lbs., beside*, poultry, &c., Bruxelles 89 lbs The Chats G 2 ANIMAL KINGDOM. 107 worth ox, four and a half years old in 1831, weighed 220 stone of 14 lbs. or 308^ lbs. In Malta, oxen are used for draft, mules for carriages ; asses are large, sheep are scarce, goats supply milk, &c. A new species of sheep has been bred in New England. The fore legs are short and crooked, and the bodies long. It is called the otter breed, and if not crossed, it is sus. tained, but a mixture of other rams, or ewes, produces either species, twins being frequently of both kinds. The sense of smell is possessed in the highest degree by antelopes. Their herds always have many sentinels. The sight of their large and admired black eyes is acute. Their characteristics are fleetness and timi- dity ; no horse or dog can keep pace with them There are 50 species in Africa, and about 15 in Asia. They vault 12 or 13 feet high, and 10 or 12 yards at every bound. When they lie down, the sentinels examine every bush within a quarter of a mile. If surprised, they fight with system, the bucks m front, females and fawns in the centre. Beavers are among the most sagacious of animals, and being gregarious, they claim sympathy by their social habits from every man who is a man. With their small paws and tails they construct curious habitations, solid and strong. They choose a river, and form a dam across it with perfect foresight as to water-way, strength, &c. contriving to drive strong stakes three feet into the bed. They live chiefly on roots, of which they form magazines for the winter, and sufficient for their village of 18 or 20 tenements. A beaver in the Jardins des Plantes was, during severe weather in winter, furnished with fresh twigs of trees, and with apples, &c. On a snow-storm, he cut his supply of twigs into proper lengths, so as to be wove basket fashion, and between the bars of his cage chopped his apples to fill up. The genus Canis , or the dog kind, and the genus Fells, or the cat kind, compose the natural Order of Carnivora , or flesh- eaters, and have six incisor or front teeth in each jaw, and live upon the flesh of other animals. Dogs, according to Cuvier, are of three species : — i. The New Holland, the French matin, the Danish, the greyhound, and Al- banian. 2. The spaniel, hound, shepherd, Siberian, and Esquimaux. 3. The Iceland and Danish, mastiff, &c. In Britain, there are as many dogs of various breeds as men. Cats are indigenous in Northern Africa; the Welsh King, Howel, regulated, in 950, the price of cats — a penny and two-pence for a kitten, and four-pence for a mouser. The wild cat was a beast of prey in 1400. The pole-cat is larger than the male house-cat, and very destructive to poultry, pigeons, rabbits, &c. Cats on the N. E. coast of Africa change their fur for white hair. The European wild cat is not considered as the original of the domestic cat, but a Nubian which passed through Egypt into Europe. The 16ft Angora cat has one eye blue and the other yellow. White cats with blue eyes, when old, are always § deaf. Three Hudson’s Bay dogs draw a si' 'ge, loaded with 300 lbs., i5 miles a day. for draught are now much used in London, and other large cities. Travelling in the North-west of Ame- rica is effected by dog-trains. Three dogs will draw a man and his provisions. The traders travel all over the wilderness with them, over unbeaten snow, generally fol. lowing the course of rivers. The dogs are easily trained to turn, halt, or go by the word of command. When the traveller wishes his dogs to turn to the left, he says, “ chuck,” and cracks his little whip on the right side of his train ; if to the right, he says, “ gee,” and cracks it on the left side. When they wish them to start or quicken their gait, he says, “ march,” or avancez ; when they wish to turn short about, they say, venez let, making a motion with a little whip at the same time. Some dogs hunt by sight, others by smell. The dog, the fox, wolf, andjackall inter- mingle their breeds. Jackalls hunt in packs with much noise, and hence drive prey into the haunts of lions, &c. The dam of the northern foxes will follow those who kill her young for 60 or 70 miles, and howl round them by night and day, till she has in some way avenged herself. A commission to hunt wolves in the counties bordering on Wales, was granted so late as 1281, and in Scotland 200 years later. The wolves in Russia devour horses, foals, cattle, sheep, &c. In one government, Livonia, in 1823, they destroyed 3000 horses and foals, 2500 cattle and calves, and 16,000 sheep and lambs. Wolves near Hudson's bay hunt in large parties. They surround their prey, or form crescents, and drive them over precipices. Wolves avoid passing under any thing, therefore shun woods, and seldom pass through hedges. When they cross a river, they follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first in its mouth; the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure was chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed of 12 months following one another, which they denominated Lycabas, that is, the march of the wolves. — Abbe ' Pluche. There are two sorts of Goats ; the race of Angora, with hair long and pendant; the other, the goat of Thibet, with hair short and stiff. The former has no down ; the latter is covered, and more abundant and finer in those kept on mountains. These two races have produced, by the in- fluence of climate, many varieties. Two importations of the goats of Asia have been made into Germany. The goats, from whose under-wool Casn- mere shawls are made, abound on tlie dreary table-lands north of the Himalayas. Some have been brought alive to England and France. In many countries, and on ship-board. 169 ANIMAL goats for milking serve the purposes of cows. The Swiss, &c. make cheeses, butter, &c. of goats’ milk. There are now few in Wales. Two Rein-deer drag a sledge 50 or do miles a day. The traveller placed in it, poises it if necessary. Fallow-deer tight in parties for their pas- ture, often for successive days. From 500 to 1000 stags were slain in some ancient hunting- matches. Male deer only have horns, which, after their sixth year, they shed annually ; they weigh from twenty to twenty-five pounds. Park deer are called fallow-deer. Great red deer are less common. They have a leader, and, if necessary, fight in concert. The females expose themselves to save their young. The horns shed by the Wapiti American deer, in the Zoological Gardens, weigh 21 lbs. 5 oz. The wild boar is the parent of the common hog. but smaller, less gluttonous, and living chiefly on vegetables. They are only dan- gerous when attacked, and then the means of defence are tusks ten inches long. The hedge-hog is an inoffensive animal, often barbarously treated by the vulgar : they live on roots and insects, in holes in banks, and roots of trees with a mossy bed. Guinea-pigs, or cavies, are the most proli- fic of animals, but very harmless and amus- ing. They feed on herbs, fruits, Ac. Squirrels are the most active of animals, and very harmless, living on nuts and fruit. The Java squirrel flies from tree to tree, by a membrane stretched like a sail. They are 18 inches long. Squirrels in bad seasons often migrate in northern climates in amaz- ing troops, moving onwards in right lines, like lemmings and rats. Hares are universal animals, but of various sizes from ^ to 12 lbs. In the arctic circle they are white in winter. Their stratagems to escape danger are numerous and ingeni- ous, but besides man (the enemy of every thing living,) they are the prey of dogs, cats, weasels, eagles, &c. The Tartarian hare is not larger than a rat, and burrows. The hare is a timid, hut very sensible animal ; it cries like a child when caught in a snare, and exclaims rafe with human dis- tinctness when worried by ferocious dogs and hunters. Rabbits would increase to a million in 3 years, and rats in 2 years. Raubits do not burrow in hot climates. They have centinels to give warning of Janger, who enter the holes last. The great ant-eater catches ants by stretch- ing out its tongue, and lying still, and on the ants running on it he draws in his tongue. But it often breaks into ant-hills, and pene- trates them with its tongue till satisfied. Mole-hills are curiously formed by an outer arch impervious to rain, and an inter- nal platform with drains, and covered ways, on which they pair and their young reside. They live on worms and roots, and bury themselves in a few minutes. The fore-feet of the mole have great mus- cles, and in burrowing, the* perform the KINGDOM. 170 functions of the pickaxe and shovel. Their smell and hearing is very acute. The sloth crawls on its beliy and does net advance 100 yards in a day. It is two days in climbing and descending a tree. — The arm and fore-arm, taken together, are nearl> twice as long as the leg and thigh ; so that when the animal walks on all-fours, it is obliged to trail along. on its elbows. The pelvis is so wide, and the cotyloid cavities turn backwards so much, that it cannot bring its knees together, but is obliged to keep the thighs wide apart. The articula- tion of the hind-feet prevents the animal from having any power of using them. When the leg is vertical, the foot is in a direction nearly similar, standing on its edge, so that the animal cannot place the sole of its foot upon the ground. The toes of the animal are enclosed, quite to the nails, in a stiff skin, which will only allow of their being bent and straightened all together. The badger is a perfectly harmless animai, but the object of brutal attacks by the lowest of the people. They are about two feet long, and live under-ground, feeding on roots, frogs, and worms, and are inoffensive. The Aard-Vark , or earth pig, is extremely common in Southern Africa. It measures about three feet five inches from the snout to the origin of the tail. It feeds entirely upon ants, like the pangolins in Asia, the mijrmecopliaga in America, and the echidna in New Holland. Wherever ant-hills abound the aard-vark is found. He makes a deep burrow, and the facility with which he burrows is such, that it is quite impractica- ble to dig him out, as he can in a few mi- nutes bury himself at a depth far beyond the reach of his pursuers ; and his strength is so great as to require the efforts of two or three men to drag him from his hole. Lamnings are the locusts of Norway, Lapland, Ac., as far as the Urals. They form a bridge head and tail, and those which follow pass over the backs of others. They vary in size from the rat to the mouse, and are celebrated for numbers, and their straight line of emigration in tens of thou- sands, never turning aside, and destroying as they advance, but encamping at times, and always acting with method. The Uralian lemmings form magazines, and la> up winter stores. The Scandinavian have hut one chamber. They migrate in millions, moving under leaders. The glutton is the size of the badger, .and very fierce and voracious, eating from 6 to 13 lbs. of flesh per day. The raccoon, of the same genus, is well known in Jamaica, &c. where, in troops, it devours ihe maize and fruits, and catches shell- fish. The spines of the porcupine are from nine to fifteen inches, and perfectly hard quills, which the animal can raise at plea- sure, but not dart. They roam by night in quest of roots and vegetables, and are inof- fensive, their spines protecting them. The hedge-hog and porcupine have a cu taneous muscle to raise their bristles, a*? man has one to move his face. ANIMAL KINGDOM. 171 The ichneumon, in Egypt, performs the office of the European cat as a destroyer of rats and reptiles, and devourer of eggs. It is like the cat, but with shorter legs. The weasel has similar propensities in northern climates. The ferret has the habits of the weasel. The martin is an enemy of cats. The ermine, or stoat, and the sable, are like weasels but longer, and their skins fetch high prices. The armadillo, when in danger, rolls itself into a ball, and very hard. Rats follow man, and in most cities are incredibly numerous. Those of London are calculated at millions, and some, in the common sewers, are double the usual size. They move in troops from farm to farm. The zorilla or yagouare of Tucaman, has the faculty of discharging such a volume of offensive phosphorescent excrement as to blind and burn its assailant, and render it impossible to wear the same clothes again. Marmots make spacious and convenient habitations of several chambers, some of them several feet in diameter, and they cut and carry hay for their nests. Bats , in India, are called flying foxes, and measure six feet from tip to tip. Bats have *wo pectoral teats, and a thumb separated from the fingers. They fly, but have neither feathers nor beak ; they are covered with hair, and have teeth. They breed living young, and suckle with teats. Their wings are the drapery of their bodies, except when they stretch them to fly. They fly in the dark, and avoid objects by a sixth sense, independent of sight or hearing. Many species of bats have a ieaf-like appendage to the nose. Modern classification does not rank Ceta- ceous animals as fishes. They suckle their young, and, therefore, are classed among mammalia. Their heads are large, and they have little or no, neck. Their eyes are very small and backward. The tail is horizontal, and they have swimming paws, analogous to the fore.feet of seals. A single stroke with the tail will cut a boat in two ; and they move in the sea above a mile in a minute. The stomach consists of four or five succes- sive cavities. They live chiefly on other species of fish. The aorta of whales is thir- teen Miches in diameter. In general they are black, but those of Spitzbergen are white. The marine mammiferae are whales, dol- phins, and porpoises, whose feet are con- verted into fins. TJieir tail is horizontal, while that of fishes is vertical. They have warm and red blood, and teats to suckle their young. The dolphins are carnivorous. The powers of spouting water enables whales to expel what they swallow with their food. It passes into the nostrils, and is ac- cumulated near the external cavity of the nose, from which it is expelled by powerful muscles in fountains of considerable heights. Certain cetacea are herbivorous, as the tamantins, or dudongs, which occupy the bottom of the mouths of tropical rivers. They are inoffensive, but their fins extend like legs for creeping and carrying their 172 young. They are often 15 feet long, and nearly allied to the hippopotamus, though it goes on the land. Whales, seals, morse, and the dugon tri. chichus, have breasts like a woman, ana suckle their young with great affection. ^ When a male whale was killed, its female companion threw itself on the body in frantic lamentation, and quietly received from the human monsters the same fate. Seals, morse, and walruses, display great intelligence, and vie with man ; and when a manate is caught, his tribe attempt his rescue with generous and courageous sympathy. Whales are sportive, and often leap out of the water 15 or 20 feet. They, and the nar- whal, are remarkable for their tame and playful character. The balaenae, or common whales, are often sixty feet long and thirty round. Instead of teeth they have whalebone plates, with hairy borders hanging from the upper jaw. This class includes — The common whale and Iceland whale 60 feet Finned whales 50 „ Norwhals 21 „ Spermaceti whale . . 60 „ Dolphins 25 „ Porpoises 6 „ Grampuses 20 „ Beaked whale 24 „ The great whale is a very harmless animal, but has neither the habits nor the conformation of fishes. Whales appear to pass from the Green- land seas to the Pacific, as is proved by harpoons found in them. The whale whose skeleton was lately shewn at Charing Cross, was 95 feet long and 18 broad, with 22 feet of head. When found dead it weighed 49 tons, and the skeleton was 35 tons. It yielded 4000 gal- lons of oil. It was estimated to be 90 or 100 years old. The whales generally caught are from 40 to 58 feet, and yield 30 tons of oil. The tail is 4 or 5 feet long, and 20 feet broad, with great power and activity. There are nineteen species of that half- human inhabitant of the sea called Seals. They are more like men even than monkeys, live in social communities, and display great sagacity and affection. The females are specially interesting in their duties to the young; and among some species but one male and one female cohabit, while in othew* polygamy is practised, but with regular family government. Seals may be tamed like dogs, and fed with fish. The land, or water, are indiffe- rent td them, and they bask in the sun whiL* they nurse their young. They are often 9 feet long. Varieties of seals are called sea-lions, sea- bears, sea-cows, sea-horses, and sea-ele- phants. They are gregarious, very intelli- gent, sociable, and affectionate. The males have wives and families, and they seem to be, in the sea, the types of man on land. But man, more savage than they, destroys them without compunction for their oil and 173 ANIMAL KINGDOM. 174 tusks, though the fruits of the earth yield more oil than he can consume. Herds of seals keep sentinels. Sea-otters kiss each other, and die with grief at the loss of their young. Many quadrupeds are strictly nocturnal, as the lynx and most beasts of prey. They sleep through the day, and hunt by night. Lacteals absorb aliment. Lymphatics ab- sorb noxious superfluities. The veins ab- sorb foreign substances applied to the sur- faces of the body. Bakewell described animals as machines for converting herbage into flesh. Duffenbach, of Berlin, ingrafted the fea- thers of black chickens into a white pigeon, and the contrary, feathers of chickens, &c. into rabbits, &c. ; bristles of cats into pigeons ; the eye-brow of a friend on his own arm ; the claw of a pigeon on its rump ; and they all took root and grew. He also scalped a pigeon, and transferred a new scalp from the thigh ; and he cut off a rab- bit’s nose, and sewed it on again with success. All this resembles the Talicotian nose, produced in London by Mr. Carpue. The following is the average length of life of certain species : — Beaver Years. .. 50 Dog .. Wolf .. 20 Fox , , 14 to 16 Lion . . , # 25 to 60 Domestic Cat . . .. 15 Squirrel . . . . 7 Hare . . .. 8 Rabbit * . .. 7 Elephant . . .. 100 Pigs • . .. 25 Rhinoceros . , .. 20 Horse .. 30 Ass Camel .. 50 Llama .. 15 Rein-de'er , , .. 16 Chamois . . 25 Stag under 50 Goat # , .. 12 Sheep under 10 Cows , # .. 15 Ox .. 30 Dolphin and Porpoise .. 30 Mr. Cross, of the Surrey Zoological Gar- dens, states, from the experience of forty- eight years, that lions, tigers, leopards, jaguars, and hyenas, (in confinement,) upon an average, live twenty-five years ; the smaller cats, as the tiger-cat, lynx, ocelot, margay, and serval, sixteen to eighteen years ; monkeys and baboons, sixteen to eighteen years ; the coatimondi, racoon, beaver, and civet cats, twelve to fourteen years ; the antelope, sixteen to eighteen. The London Zoological Society was formed m 1826. The Society’s Menagerie, in the Regent’s Park, and their Museum in Lei- cester Square, are visited by about 40,000 persons, monthly, during the summer. The stock of animals, in 1837, was: — quadru- peds, 297 ; birds, 637 j reptiles, 18; total, 952. In the Surrey Gardens the animals are superbly lodged under a glass dome, ind among them are some fine specimens. It was established by Mr. Cross Hawks Years. 30 to 40 Blackbird 10 to 12 Thrush • • 8 to 10 Nightingale .. .. 15 Wheatear # # .. 2 Blackcap . , . . 15 Redbreast . # 10 to 12 Wren # , 2 to 3 Titlark # . 5 to 6 Skylark . . 10 to 30 Chaffinch , , .20 to 24 Goldfinch 10 to 16 Linnet # . 14 to 23 Starling , # 10 to 12 Ravens, crows, and par- 7 iaa rots, sometimes exceed 1 w Peacock .. 20 Common Fowl # # .. 10 Pheasant and Partridge .. 15 Pigeon , , .. 20 Heron .. 60 Crane 9 9 .. 24 Swan # m .. 100 Pelican m , 40 to 50 Goose 9 , .. 100 Tortoise # , 100 to 220 Toad 20 to 30 Viper •• • 6 to 7 Crocodile # # .. 100 Carp 70 to 150 Bream and Tench , # .. JO Pike , 9 30 to 40 Salmon .. 16 Cod-fish 9 9 14 to 17 Eel ■ 9 .. 10 Beetle # 3 Mantis .. 10 Eagles attain a great age : one is said to have died at Vienna, aged 104 years j and Pennant mentions one thirty-two years old. Tacitus states the eagle at 500 years ! Bees : — Drone, four months ; worker-bee, six months ; female bee, four years. In 1838, a live frog was found near Kil- marnock, at the depth of 120 feet, embedded in coal, in a nest the shape of its own body. From appearances, it must have lain dor- mant for several centuries. Hundreds o. similar cases of toads, have been published. Menageries are expensive establishments. The expences of Wombwell’s collection are .£35 per day, or above j£\ 2,000 a year. The cost of the animals is very considerable. A fine elephant cost him 1 000 guineas ; tigers have been sold at .£300 each ; a pan- ther is worth «£100 ; hyaenas, from .£30 to .£40; zebras, from .£150 to .£200; a fine ostrich is worth .£200. A young Indian one-horned rhinoceros cost Cross £‘1000; and three giraffes cost the London Zoolo- gical Society .£700, exclusive of expences. Womb well gave «£75 for a pair of boas. The Carnivora, in the Menagerie of the London Zoological Society, are now partly fed with horse-flesh, substituted for beef 175 OF BIRDS (AVES.) LiNNiEus distinguishes birds into six or- ders; Accipitres , angular projecting beaks ; Piece , compressed beaks, with climbing feet; Ansares, beaks with skin, and broad at end; Grallce, with three or four toes ; Gallince y convex bill, and arched upper mandible ; Paperes, conic, and pointed bills. 3800 species of birds have been described. America contains 396, and Europe 395, of which 275 are in Britain. The Museum at Berlin contains 6000 species of birds, and there are 500 in other collections, besides new discoveries. In birds, the vertebrae of the neck vary from 9 in the sparrow, to 23 in the swan. Of the back, from 6 in the bull- finch, to 11 in the 'wan and cassowary. Those in the tail, from 0 in the sparrow, to 9 in the os- trich. They have no lumbar vertebrae. The pectoral muscle is fixed in birds, and they have three muscles to assist in flying, equal in bulk to all the other muscles. They have also peculiar muscles for perching. Birds exceed mammiferous quadrupeds in the quantity of their respiration, for they have not only a double circulation, and an aerial respiration, but they respire also through other cavities besides the lungs, the air penetrating through the whole body, and bathing the branches of the aorta or great artery of the body, as well as those of the pulmonary artery. The song of birds is a movement in suc- cession, equal to a bar of 4 adagio crotchets, performed in 4 seconds. Of singing-birds, the nightingale unites the highest perfection of qualities, the linnet next, then the tit lark, the sky-lark, and the wood-lark ; the gold- finch and the robin excel in lively notes. Birds have two larynxes at each extre- mity of the wind-pipe. That next the lungs is the organ of singing. In some there are windings in the windpipe. In July, most singing-birds become silent. Those which sing through the winter are young birds. Gardner shows, in his notation of the music of birds and animals, that most of the original ideas of the first composers are derived from those natural expressions. The song of free birds is different and su- perior to that of the unfortunates kept in confinement — often in such small cages as scarcely to be able to turn. The voluntary act of emptying the stomach is possessed by some birds, as the pigeon, which has an organ for secreting milk, and it softens the food for its young by previously swallowing it ; and afterwards, putting its bill into theirs, returns it into their mouths. Small birds baffle hawks by flying round and above in great numbers. The crests of birds are analogous to the boras of ungulata. Birds which nestle in holes, as wood- peckers, wry-necks, robins, swallows, &c. Aave eggs of a shining white. Pale green or pale blue characterizes the eggs of the star- ling, fly-eatchers, hedge-sparrows, &o. A green colour in those who lay loosely among grass. The nuthatch, titmouse, and ehim- 176 ney-swallow are party-coloured, with a white ground. The birds which pass but part of the year in Britain are the cuckoo, grouse, wry neck, stare, hoopoe, thrush, ring-dove, chatterer, turtle-dove, grosbeaks, buntings, finches, larks, fly-catchers, wagtails, warblers, night- ingales, black-caps, willow-wrens, white- ears, white-throats, goat-suckers, herons, curlews, snipes, rails, wild-ducks, &c. Most birds live half the year in their na- tive and breeding country, and half in other countries. Birds of prey migrate by day, and others chiefly by night. At a degree per hour swallows can pass from England into Africa in 20 hours. The males, in general, precede the females. Migrating birds go in a direct line from north to south, and never deviate in their course from east to west, or west to east. In the arrivals of migrating birds, the males arrTVe several days before the females. Birds of passage which pass to very distant climes and regions return to the same localities, and often occupy the same nests, though absent for many months, at 3000 miles distant. Their migration; can, of course, only be the result of intel- ligence and habit, in which the older birds direct the young ones from generation to generation. Their flights to and fro are often witnessed in the Mediterranean. Soma fly 120 miles an hour, and start when the wind is fair. The following are the days on which the migrations of swallows, to and from the neighbourhood of Gosport, have been suc- cessively observed for 10 years by Burney. ARRIVAL. DEPARTURE. 1818, April 25 1819, 22 1820, 1821, 1822, 26 13 15 8 27 1823, 23 1824, 18 1825, 1826, 13 11 18 1827, 13 The greatest deviation in the time of their arrival is a fortnight, and in the time of their departure four weeks. Spring in Norfolk . — The following table is the register of more than sixty years’ observations, made by Mr. Marsham. Earliest. Latest.. Thrush sings Dec. 4 Feb. 13 Nightingale sings Apr. 7 May 19 Churn Owl sings Apr. 29 June 26 Cuckoo sings.. Apr. 9 May 7 Ring Doves coo Dec. 27 Mar. 26 Rooks build Feb. 2 Mar. 14 Young Rooks Mar. 26 Apr. 24' Swallow^ appear Mar. 30 Apr. 21 Frogs and toads croak .. Feb. 20 May 16 Yellow Butterfly appears Jan. 14 Apr. 17 Swallows stay in England from 22 to 26 weeks. Other birds from the arctic circle pass their winter with us, and breed there, as the auk, the woodcock, snow-bunting, &C; which pass to Lapland, Greenland, &c. ANIMAL KINGDOM. 177 ANIMAL KINGDOM. 17 $ The swan lives 200 years, the crow, parrot, and raven 100, the goose 80, the hen and pigeon 16. The golden-crested wren is the smallest British bird. There are 50 species of woodpeckers. The largest native of England is the green, 13 inches long, an enemy of ants. Sparrows have three broods in a year. The magpie, the wren, and the long-tailed titmouse, build domed nests. The Pelicans use a throat-bag, for the purpose of bringing the fish which they catch in the sea to the shore, and then eject them and eat them at their leisur e. In the atrocious practice of pitting cocks, the Battle Royal and Welsh Main demand that every bird should be destroyed! Rooks live in sagacious polity. They consider for days before they build ; and those established resist all encroachments. 20,000 Gannets are taken annually at St. Kilda. There are 32 species of the falco genus, including most birds of prey, as eagles, kites, hawks, falcons, &c. They are very active, keen-sighted, strong, and long-lived. They subsist on young animals, fish, seals, and other birds. These savage birds used for- merly to be tamed, and used for genteel pastime! In the age of Henry III., John, &c. falconry was in such request, that par- ticular falcons were valued and fed highly. There are 4 species of swallows, or hy- rundo genus : the chimney swallow (rustica,) the house martin (urbica,) the sand martin (riparia,) and the swift, (apus.) They ar- rive in this order. There are 50 species of Owls, a bird of night, and very solemn in its appearance, having a ruff which resembles the full wigs worn by judges. Carrier pigeons are a larger species than the common pigeon. They have a wattle extending half over the bill, and hanging down on both sides as a piece of white flesh, and this is supposed to be connected with their properties as carriers. Their eyes are also surrounded by a similar substance, and importance is attached to its width. They were used by the ancients during sieges, and all eastern nations employ them. In Turkey there are stations from which they pass, and fresh birds are forwarded. They train them to different distances progres- sively, but their flight is only certain while they have eggs or unfledged young. They rise very high before they start, and travel from 25 to 40 miles an hour. Besides this singular return of pigeons, the swallow, the crow, cats and dogs, have the same occult faculty. By a careful experiment in July, 1830, it appeared that pigeons passed from London to Antwerp, about 210 miles, in 5£ hours, i. e. at 38 miles per hour. Two pigeons flew from London to Lis- fceard, 220 miles, in six hours. The Swift moves 4 miles a minute. The raven lives through the arctic winter. The pheasant is Asiatic, the fowl and peacock Indian, the turkey American. A swallow usually flies a mile a minute for 10 hours a day. It is calculated that the birds of passage that visit the British Islands consume 15 millions of insects per day, whose existence is promoted by our hedge-rows. The grosbeak creates a social nest in a canopy like a parachute, and builds some hundred nests in the rim or eaves. 320 nests, for at least 640 of these interesting birds, were found in one tree. The roof is a thatching with grass. The bay a, or Indian grosbeak, remarkable for its pendant nest, is rather larger than a sparrow, with yellow-brown plumage. He builds his nest on the highest tree he can find, especially on the palmyra, or Indian fig, and he prefers that which happens to overhang a well or a rivulet. He makes it of grass, which he weaves like cloth, and shapes like a large bottle, suspending it firmly on the branches, but so as to rock with the wind, and placing it with its en- trance downwards to secure it from birds of prey. It usually consists of two or three chambers. The black ostrich stands ^ feet high. The speed is that of a horse, and they can carry a man. The cassowary is as large, but has a shorter neck. They feed on ve- getables. In Norway, eagles destroy oxen by the following contrivance ; they dive into the sea, and then roll themselves in the sand, and afterwards, by flapping their wings, and shaking their feathers in the eyes of an ox, they blind it and overcome it. Hungary contains the cinereous vulture, the golden eagle, and the ring-tail eagle. The bird of Paradise is a native of North Guinea, near the Equator. They migrate to Aroo in flights, but will not live in the cruelty of confinement. A Peruvian condor has spread wings 40 feet, feathers 20 feet, quills 8 inches round. The male Emus collects the eggs dropt by the female, sits, and hatches them. On the Malabar coast, a flight of parrots is as destructive as locusts. Petrils are called by sailors, Mother Carey’s Chickens, and are absurdly consi- dered as portentous of disaster. Flinders saw a stream of sooty petrils in Van Dieman’s Land, 88 yards deep, 300 broad, and l£ hour long, as swift as a pigeon, which stream, nine cubic yards for each bird, must have contained 151 millions. Black swans are found in Van Dieman’s Land, in New South Wales, and on the western coast of New Holland. They are generally seen in flocks of eight or nine. The great peculiarity of structure' of the Penguin , is its large and excessively dis- tended jugular veins near two inches in diameter. But the abdominal venous sinus of the sea-leopard, or leopardine seal, is 17 inches in diameter. The duck-billed platypus is said to pro duce by hatching its eggs within itself, and to have a poisonous spur on its legs, Walsh describes a species of woodpecker ANIMAL KINGDOM. 179 180 about the size of a thrush, of a light-blue colour, with black marks beside the bill. It entered my room with all the familiarity of an old friend, hopped on the table, and picked up the crumbs and flies. It climbed up the wall by any stick or cord near it. It sometimes began at my foot, and, at one race, ran up my leg, arm, round my neck, down my other arm, and so to the table, and there tapped with its bill. The biscacho, or Coquimbo owl, is found all over the plains of the Pampas. They live in holes like rabbits, and as soon as the lower limb of the sun reaches the horizon, they are seen issuing in all directions. They sit outside and appear to be moralising, being the most serious-looking of animals, and even the young ones look thoughtful. In the day-time, their holes are guarded by two, who never go from their posts. Chickens are hatched by the heat of ovens by the natives of Berme, a village in Egypt. They hire themselves over Egypt for the purpose, and undertake to deliver §ds as many chickens as eggs. The ovens contain from 40 to 80,000 eggs, and there are 400 of them in different parts. Each brood occu- pies 21 days, and they work their ovens for 6 months, producing 100 millions of chickens. The hatching eggs by steam is now com- mon in this country. A male and female peacock was sold in Athens for 31 guineas of our money, as emblems of Juno. They live a century. All travellers agree that language cannot convey an idea of the beauty of the plumage of birds in the woods of America. Audubon describes the wonderful flocks of pigeons which range over North America. He saw 163 flocks in 21 minutes, all passing in one direction, at the rate of a mile per minute, and he estimated each flock to con- tain a billion of pigeons, and in this way they were passing many days. But what is most extraordinary is their encampment. It is upwards of nine miles in length, and four in breadth ; the lines regular and straight ; within which there is scarcely a tree, large or small, that is not covered with nests. Persons on going into their camp have great difficulty in hearing each other speak, and every thing appears to be conducted in the most perfect order. They take their turns in sitting, and in feeding their young, and when any are killed upon their nests by savage sportsmen, others supply their place. The great American bittern has the power of emitting a light from its breast equal to the light of a torch. Humming-birds are peculiar to America. The grouse to Britain, Norway, &c. The American mocking- bird is the prince of all song-birds, and altogether unrivalled in the extent and variety of his powers j and, besides the fulness and melody of his own notes, he has the faculty of imitating the notes of all other birds, from the hum- ming-bird to the eagle. Wilson states, that the ease, elegance, and rapidity of his move- ments, the animation of his eye, and-, the intelligence he displays in listening and laying up his lessons, mark his genius. His voice is full, strong, and musical, and ca- pable of almost every modulation, from the clear mellow tones of the wood-thrush to the savage scream of the bald eagle. In measure and accent he faithfully follows his originals, while in force and sweetness of expression he improves upon them. In his native woods, on a dewy morning, his sohg rises above every competitor, for the others seem inferior accompaniments. His own notes are bold aud full, and varied beyond all limits. They consist of short expressions of two, three, or at most five or six syllables, generally expressed with great emphasis and rapidity, and continued, with undi- minished ardour, for half an hour or an hour at a time. While singing, he expands his wings and his tail, glistening with white, keeping time to his own music, and the buoyant gaiety of his action is no less fas- cinating than his song. He repeats any tune taught him, though it be of considerable length, with great accuracy. He runs over the notes of the canary, and of the red-bird, with such superior execution and effect, that the songsters are silenced. His imita- tions of the brown thrush he often interrupts by the crowing of cocks ; and his exquisite warblings after the blue bird are mingled with the screaming of swallows, or the cach- ing of hens. The American yellow-breasted chat scolds an intrusive passenger in a great variety of odd and uncouth monosyllables, difficult to describe, but easily imitated so as to de- ceive the bird himself. At first are heard short notes, beginning loud and rapid, and becoming lower and slower. Then succeeds something like the barking of young puppies, followed by a variety of gutteral sounds, and ending like the mewing of a cat, but hoarser. The red-eyed flycatcher has a loud, lively, and energetic song. The notes are, in short emphatic bars of two, three, or four sylla- bles. On listening, it requires but little imagination to fancy you hear the words, Tom Kelly ! whip ! Tom Kelly ! The crested titmouse possesses a remark- able variety in the tones of its voice, at one time not louder than the squeaking of a mouse, and in a moment after whistling aloud and clearly, as if calling a dog. The red-breasted blue bird has a soft, agreeable, and often-repeated warble, ut- tered with opening and quivering wings. In his courtship he uses the tenderest expres- sions, and caresses his mate by sitting close by her, and singing his most endearing warblings. If a rival appears, he attacks him with fury, and having driven him away, returns to pour out a song of triumph. FISHES. (PISCES.) Fishes are, by Linnaeus, divided into five orders: — Abdominales, Apodes, Cartaligi- nii, Ingulares, and Thoracaci. He possessed materials for describing 181 ANIMAL fiO^O species of fish, and there are in all 8000. Peron and Le Sueur assert, that there is not one fish, or zoophite, however simple in form, the same in the Arctic seas as in the Antarctic, or even in the Southern hemis- phere as ill the Northern. Air is as necessary to fishes as to animals, and they respire in sleep twenty-five times in a minute. The air is extracted from the water by an apparatus called branchial , small, but extensive when spread out. They die in water deprived of its air, under ice, or on having their gills tied up. The gills of fishes are composed of four plates on each side, and communicating with the throat by a single opening for each gill. They receive the water by these holes, and discharge it by a different opening, after appropriating the air. The gills too, have a moveable cover. The gills of the cancer are near the legs. The air-bladder of fish enables them to rise or sink at pleasure; and this power, and that of the fins and tail, gives the largest speed — a speed many times greater than any ship. The brain offish is small, and does not fill the skull. They have no tympanum, and no external ear. They have neither windpipe nor larynx, but breathe by gills. Their nose is not connected with respiration, and they have no urinary bladder. There are 115 vertebrae in the eel, and 20 7 in the shark. Only a few fishes have ribs, there being no respiratory organs to protect in the chest. Their bones are radii. Fishes have a double circulation, but their respiratory organs (the gills) are only formed to respire by the intervention of water, and their blood only receives the portion of oxy- gen dissolved or mixed in the water. Fishes are believed to be of equal specific gravity with water, and occasional inequali- ties are corrected by their air-bladder. They move by the action of their tails, and not by their fins, which are mere regulators. Fishes are from £ to 2 degrees warmer than water. Many fishes are very playful, and display much humour in their frolics. In general, fish are voracious, and prey on one another. They grow slowly, carp grow but 2 or 3 inches per annum, and live to a great age ; some in the lake at Fontain- bleau being 2 or 300 years old. Sea-fish grow for 6, 8, or 10 years. Mackarel, turbot, and barbel, are 6 or 7 years old when eaten by men. Whales live many centuries. Fish are drawn towards a light ; they assemble to be fed by the sound of a bell, are fond of music, and of particular in- struments. Many fish feed chiefly on herbs and vege- tables, and carp and tench are reared on grains, malt, or boiled seeds. The eel feeds on worms and snails, and Vften traverses fields in search of them. Young eels migrate in May when about KINGDOM. 182 two inches long, in a line often extending for miles, for room and change of water. The Chinese hatch the spawn of fish in hens’ eggs. All flat fish are comprised in the genus pleuro nutes : species of which are the flounder, hollibut, plaice, sole, turbot, dab, &c. They have their eyes on the right side.' The cod-fish, or gadus, which supplies the Catholics with such luxurious repasts on their /a^-days and in Lent, abounds, in shoals, on the coasts and banks of Newfound- land, Cape Breton, and Nova Scotia. They are from 14 to upwards of 40 lbs. The cod, according to Leuenhoeck, an- nually spawns nine millions of eggs ; the flounder a million, the mackerel half a mil- lion, the herring 10,000, the carp a quarter of a million, the perch more, and the stur- geon six or seven millions. Of the vivipa- rous, the blenny brings forth two or three hundred. The spawn of one genus is mostly devoured by others, and not one egg in a hundred is supposed to be hatched. Mackerel, &c. pass the winter in the mud or sand in deep water, and emerge in spring. Sprats live in the sand. Herrings breed in the Arctic ocean, and in April and May pass in immense shoals through the British seas, followed by fishes and birds of prey. The Dogger Bank in the North Sea, 190 miles long, is the favourite resort of these, and of turbot, cod, soles, &a Other banks in the same sea, from Hollaud to the Shetland Islands, are also resorts. Herrings form 3 shoals round the British coasts of 5 or 6 miles long, and 3 or 4 broad, each comprising millions. Pilchards are so numerous, that 240 mil- lions have been at one time in St. Ives’ Bay. The cod, haddock, whiting, mackarel, and tunny also visit our seas, and generally arrive on the same spot, in the same week of the year. A shoal of haddock has been seen on the Yorkshire coast, 3 miles by 40. Gold and silver fish livewith little food, sc the pike, and even the salmon has usually an empty stomach, and also the whale. The sturgeon lives on sea plants. In ponds, heated by the waste water dis- charged from steam factories, gold and silver fish breed abundantly. Gold and silver fish, or gold carp, were first brought, about 1728, from China, where they are only the size of an anchovy. Dolphins are gregarious, and move in shoals of thousands, so do salmon and sharks. Large seas only afford whales, porpoises, dolphins, sharks, bonitos, and flying-fish. Sharks, blennies, rai-fish, and eels, arf viviparous. The salmon, salmon-trout, smelt, and shaa deposit their eggs in fresh water, and ascend rivers leaping over all obstacles. The salmon is in the egg 4 months, and the carp 3 weeks. Salmon like migratory birds return year after year to the same spawning place. The sea-unicorn is 17 feet, with a horn 17 feet like ivory. 183 ANIMAL KINGDOM. 184 > Many fish, as the John Doree, 8ic. are of a gold colour when alive in the water. Sharks are often so large as to weigh 3 or 4000 lbs. They live partly on vegetables, but are voracious of every thing, and the terror of tropical seas. The white shark has swallowed a man whole. The delphinus, or dolphin genus of fishes, consists of the dolphin, porpoise, grampus, and leucas, or whke fish. The dolphin has a larger and more cir- cumvoluted brain than man, and taken altogether is one of the cleverest of fish ; many of them displaying great powers and strong feelings. The flying-fish rises 10 or 12 feet out of the water, and keeps the air 100 yards, when it is obliged to wet its fins by dipping. They are 12 or 15 inches long. The fishes that fly by their pectoral fins are species of triglia, as the gurnard, the tropical flying-fish, the blennius, &c. The medusa has long blue filaments, which are so poisonous that no fish of prey dare approach them. The chsedoton rostratus, sparus insidiator, and zeus insidiator, live on insects caught by ejecting water at them. Several species live on crabs. The jaculator fish of Java, if placed in a circular pond, from the centre of which pro- jects a pole two feet in heighth, and if at the top of this pole are inserted small pieces of wood sharp-pointed, and on each insects placed of the beetle tribe, the fish coming to the surface of the water rests there, and, after steadily fixing its eye on an insect, dis- charges from its mouth a small quantity of watery fluid, with such force and precision of aim, as to force it off the twig into the water. After this, another performs a simi- lar feat, and is followed by the others, till they have secured all the insects. They fre- quent the shores and the sides of the sea and rivers in search of food, and when a fly is sitting on plants that grow in shallow water, it swims on to the distance of from four, five, or six feet from them, and then ejects a single drop of water, which never fails to strike the fly. The salmon grows to 6 feet, the pike from 1 to 6 feet, the carp to 4 feet, the porpoise 6 to 8 feet, and the dolphin 9 to 10. The coryphaena hipparis follows ships for offal, &c. Many kinds of sea-fish, kept together in a salt-water pond, live in harmony. At Coppermine River, fish are so frozen as to break with the blow of a hatchet ; but, if others when frozen, are thawed before the fire, they revive. TEST ACE A AND SHELLS. The Testacea, or Shell- fish, have 4500 species, and those without shells 600 j of radiata, as star-fish and medusa, there are 1000 species, and of polypus and corals 1500. Turton enumerates 37 genera of testacea, with hundreds of species, the Helix 269, tl e Patilla 220, the Venus 154, the Muiax 181 the Voluta 144, the Turbo 151, &c. Mollusca have no skeleton, and the mus- cles are attached to the skin, which encloses the viscera and nerves. In many, a shell is added to the skin, and, in all, there are cir- culating, respiring, and digesting systems, with senses of taste and sight. Aristotle divided Shells into three orders; univalves, of one piece, and bivalves, and turbinated; and the same arrangement is still preserved, except that the order is changed by Linnaeus, and the turbinated are called multivalves ; and he divides them into three genera of multivalves, fourteen of bivalves, and nineteen of univalves. Latreille has published another arrange- ment in 153 genera. The best work on British shells is by Donovan. In univalves, in some species, the cavity is divided into chambers, with a pipe of com- munication ; the base is the mouth, and op- posite is the apex. The convolutions are called whorls. The hinge in bivalves is sometimes furnished with teeth. It is usually joined by a strong ligament. They adhere to rocks by a thread-like substance, called the beard. Crustacea cast their shells once a year, and after remaining some time in a tender soft state, secretions of carbonate and phos- phate of lime renew them. They also renew lost limbs, which after two or three moultings resemble the originals. Their remains, often very perfect, different from modern species, are found in cretaceous rocks, as oolite, lias, chalk, with crabs and lobsters often above the chalk, and in London clay. In general, they are poisonous, and if eaten produce blotches in the face, and cutaneous erup- tions. There are four genera, the cancer the oniscus, the monoculus, and phalangium. Nautili, volutae, and cyprae, are only per- fect in warm climates, and chiefly confined to them. The haliotis gigantea is found at Van Dieman’s Land. Four shell-fish, packed in cotton, and brought from Valparaiso, were, after from 13 to 20 months, revived in full health. Snails, shut in a box with air, close them- selves in their shells, and live in a dormant state for months, or years, and revive in water, at 72°. The tridacna gigas, the largest of testacea, is a bivalve whose valves are 4 feet long, and the animal enclosed weighs 500 lbs., and the ligament by which it is fixed to rocks re- quires to be cut with a hatchet. The shell of a sea-cockle is the circulating medium of Angola and the neighbouring kingdoms. The cockles are caught on the shores of the island Loanda, held by the Portuguese, who make the people tributary. The snail called helix for matio is eaten at Rome by the people during Lent, being fattened purposely! When snails attack fruit, they touch no other till that is gone. Their eyes are at the end of each horn. Lice are found on their bodies, and worms in their intestines. A shower of crabs fell with heavy rain, in ANIMAL KINGDOM. J85 t.he summer of 1829, in the yard of the poor- house at Reigate, and were lively, weighing two ounces. Facts of the same kind are from the mouth being surrounded by nume- rous short feelers, forming a kind of fringe round the head ; and, by the motion of these feelers, they form an eddy or vortex in the water, which draws prey into their mouths. The volvox globator , or globe animal, is one of the most curious, as well as one of the most beautiful of the animalculae. It is found in the clearer kinds of stagnant waters, and often equals the size of a pin’s head. Its general colour is green, but it is sometimes of a pale orange. Its motions are irregular in all directions, and at the same time rolling or spinning as if on an axis. When microscopically examined, it presents one of the most curious phenomena in natural history, being always pregnant with several smaller animals of its own kind, and these with others still smaller. Mouldiness resembles a forest of perfect trees. The vorticelli and other animalculae have the power of resuscitation, and after being dry grains for years, revive again on being put in a drop of water ; and this may be repeated 10 or 12 times, if they are kept in sand, however dry. The little animal which makes rapid cir. VEGETABLE KINGDOM, 203 des on water is the gyrinus, or water-flea. When disturbed, they dart into the water. None are to be found in wines, or any other fermented liquor which has not passed into the state of vinegar, or which has not become completely vapid, neither are they to be found in distilled or spring- water. They abound as a sort of tad-poles in the semen of all male animals, from man to the smallest insect. The presence of ani- malculae in male semen, and no other animal fluid, led Spallanzani, &c. to the absurd con- clusion that the larger animals are merely expanded animalculae, aided by the economy of the female parent, by food, &c. Air destroys many animalculse, also heat and cold, but the eels in vinegar survive repeated freezings. The foul matter of dirty teeth abounds in a sort of eels. Diseases of the skin are generally occasioned by them, or they ac- company such morbid parts. The itch, according to Willan, is caused by an insect, white, with eight reddish legs, to the four hind- ones of which is appended a bristle. It may be distinguished in the joints with the microscope in the vesicles which accompany the disorder. On the same authority we learn that most of the diseases of the skin arise from other insects. The monns , a water hydatid or viscid bubble, is the first germ of animal secretion, or stomachic absorption, which indicates irritability. When found in man and ani- mals they are called bots. The monas, is the 9600th of an inch in dia- meter, so that 885 thousand millions would form but a cubic inch. Mites are found not only in cheeses but in preserves, meal, dried flesh, and other articles of domestic consumption. They nave as regular a figure, and perform all the functions of life like creatures that exceed them many times in bulk. They have a sharp snout, and a mouth that opens and shuts like a mole’s. They are so ex- tremely quick-sighted, that when they have been once touched with a pin, they avoid a second touch. The various parts of the body are covered with long hairs, and even these hairs are bristly. From the eggs of the females the young are hatched in twelve or fourteen days, and are so small, that ninety millions are not equal to a pigeon’s egg. Ehrenberg keeps and feeds animalcules of different species like so many birds. The hollyhock has' twelve species on the upper surface of the leaves, and the lipder surface is covered with their eggs. Luminous animalculae in sea-water are the size of a poppy seed. By day-light they appear like drops of grease, and they ag- gregate in groups like balls. They are called noetiluca miliaris. The phosphoric light seen in the ocean is caused by innumerable quantities of these phosphoric insects, and is sometimes so intense as to make the waves appear like red-hot balls. Brown lately promulgated the idea that 204 all atoms were animalculae, because, when diffused in liquids, they obeyed the motion of the atoms of that liquid. Maton pub- lished a similar theory, founded on the same mistake, and on the phenomena of revivifi- cation by immersion. It is supposed that the animals and their eggs are involved in the fluids of vegetation, and fixed in the substance till revived. Some have sup- posed that vegetation generates them, and that they are the primary existences which afterwards expand into species of animals. Cary’s exhibitions of the hydro-oxygen microscope, illumined by a pea of lime, exhibits several hundred subjects of many different forms and species in a drop of putrid water : and all are put in great ac- tivity by the excessive light to which they are suddenly exposed. The variety is greater in summer and autumn, and certain ditches produce certain kinds. Previously to the discovery that a small pea of lime, or chalk, exposed to a blow- pipe of oxygen and hydrogen, affords for some time a light nearly equal to the Sun,’ the greater powers were limited to the solar microscope; but now we are independent of hours and weather, so that objects mag- nified many thousand times can be examined at leisure. Hence, The Wonders of the Mi- croscope is now the most instructive of books for old and young. Ehrenberg has found silecified remains of infusoria, and that the slimy iron ore of marshes is covered with infusoria. A man as to the globe is like the smallest animalculse seen with microscopes, i. e. but the 8 millionth the diameter. VEGETATION, OR BOTANY. Vegetation is that evolution of germs, and that fixation of the elements, which serves as the food of loco-motive evolutions in animal forms; for, though some ani- mals devour one another, yet the devoured have been sustained by vegetation. Vegetable substances are the first term in the progression of substances, ending in the genera and species of all kinds of ani- mals, and without vegetable preparation, mineral and earthy substances could not be- come animal substances ; for though shells and bones are deposits of lime, yet the lime enters the animal after the preparation by vegetables. They are evolved by heat and light, and from air and water, in all situa- tions where their food in the soil is not ren- dered intractible by metallic diffusion, and their varieties and universal distribution fit them for their end. Brogniart estimates the known Flora at 50,350 species, of which 10,200 arc Crypto - gamus , (the 24th class of Linnaeus.) and 40,150 possess visible organs of reproduc- tion, or are Phanerogamous. Linnaeus distributed 1260 genera into 7540 species. Stendel makes 33/6 genera and 39,680 species of phtenerogamous plants, and 557 205 "VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 200 genera and 10,965 species of crypto gamous. That is, 50,645 species. The ancients knew but 1400 species. Britain alone has now 3400. Linnaeus made about six species to each genus, but Persoon extended the species to an average of ten ; and Stendel makes twelve. De Candolle reckons 60,000 species, but Keferstein only 32,000, besides 803 fossil. Some modern botanists carry the number of known species to -110,000. Europe con- tains half the number. Asia 4-5ths, and America 7-8ths. The Southern hemisphere is scanty, and proves itself in this respect to be elevated land. The Linnaean system consists of twenty- four Classes , and twenty -six Orders , now divided into 3900 genera ; into 50 or 60,0U0 species ; and into an almost infinite number of varieties. The twenty-four Classes depend on the number cf stamens, and the twenty-six Orders on the number of pistils. The twenty- four Classes are called ac- cording to the number of Stamens : — 1 . Monandria. 13. Polyandria. 2. Diandria. 14. Didynamia. 3. Triandria. 15. Tetradinamia. 4. Tetandria. 16. Monadelphia. 5. Pentandria. 17. Diadelphia. 6. Hexandria. 18. Polyadelphia. 7. Heptandria. 19. Syngenesia. 8. Octrandria. 20. Gynandria. 9. Enneandria. 21. Monesia. 10. Decandria. 22. Dioecia. 11. Dodecandria. 23. Polygamia. 12 . Icosandria. 24. Cryptogamia. The Orders are as under, depending the Pistils 1 . Monogynia. 15. Siliquosa. 2. Dygynia. 16. Polygamia 3. Trigynia. equalis. 4. Tetragynia. 17. Polygamia 5. Pentagynia. segregata. 6. Hexagynia. 18. Monogam ia. 7. Octagynia. 19. Monceeia. 8. Enneagynia. 20. Dicecia. 9. Decagynia. 21. Triaecia. 10. Dodecaginia. 22. Filices. 11. Polyginia. 23. Musci. 12 . Gymnospermia. 24 Hepatic®. 13. Angiospermia. 25. Algae. 14. Siliculosa. 26. Fungi. The sexual system has been understood in the East, from remote antiquity, and is made use of in fructifying many fruit-trees. It is spoken of by Theophrastus, and Grew distinguished between stamens and pistils. Van Royen, of Leyden, after Linnaeus, taught another system; Gleditch another; and Haller, a third. The Jussieus then promulgated a natural system, founded on the habits and affinities of plants. Jussieu divides plants into three divisions; the Acotyledons , when the seeds are desti- tute of lobes ; the Monocotyledons , with one lobe ; and the Dicotyledons, with tw o lobes. 'I'hefirsi includes what Linnaeus calls cryp- togamia ; the second is divided into three classes, of four orders. The dicotyledons are divided into eleven classes, of seventy-eight orders. In other words, monocotyledons have only one lobe in the seed. Their leaves spring from the root, as in palms, lilies, onions, leeks, &c. Dycotyledons have two lobes and produce trees with wood, pith, and bark Acotyledons , as mushrooms, mosses, &c. are cellular texture only. The others are cellu- lar and vascular, differently disposed. As many vegetables grow from the root in external layers, botanists have called these exogenous j while those whose root acts differently, or by the axis of the plant, they call endogenous . Stamens are five or ten in Exogencc, and three or six in Endogence , and they consist of filament and anther. The pistilla, also, vary in number. When both are in the same flower it is hermaphrodite or perfect. Linnaeus laboured till his death at another classification, founded on more popular dis- tinctions, and this has been perfected by Lamarck, Jussieu, and De Candolle; the latter of whom has published a system, and arranged all the species under seven classes, corresponding to the 15 of Jussieu. Plants may be classed as the internal plantlet is enclosed by one, more, or no cotyledon, which forms the seminal leaf, leaves, or none. There are 6000 species which have one leaf, called worcocotyledons ; 32.000 have many, called ^'cotyledons ; and 6000 have none, called acotyledons; in all, 44.000 species. The plantlet is the future plant in miniature, as well in seed as buds. Many plants are composed entirely of cellular tissue and ducts, as equisetacea, felices or ferns, marsilaceae, or floating- plants, and lycopodiaceae, in mosses, or on trees. Others, of cellular tissue only, as mosses, hepatica, algae or water-plants, lichens, fungi. All which have no visible organs of reproduction in stamens and pis- tils, and are cryptogamous, or Agamous. All having stamens and pistils, or evident sexes, are Plicenerogamous. The corolla are the leaves or petals of the flower, one, two, three, or more ; and hence wowopetalous, cfr'petalous, &c. Plants of different genera have similar qualities; Gray says there are Jour greater carminative hot seeds : anise, carui, cum- min, and fennel. Four lesser hot seeds : bishops’ weed, stone parsley, smallage, and wild carrot. Also four cold seeds : cucumber, gourd, melon, and water-melon. And four lesser cold seeds : endive, let- tuce purslain, and succory. Four sudorific woods : guaiacum, per- fumed cherry, sarsaparilla, and sassafras. Four cordial flowers : borage, bugloss, roses, and violets. Four carminative flowers : camomile, dill, fever-few, and melilot. Four resolvent meals : barley, bean, lin- seed, and rye. Again, h? gives to others a quintuple affinity as five opening roots : asparagus, 207 VEGETABLE butcher’s broom, fennel, parsley, and smallage. Five lesser opening roots : caper, dande- lion, eryngo, madder, and restharrow. Five emollient herbs : beet, mallow, marsh-mallow, French mercury, and violet. Five capillary herbs : hart’s tongue, black, white, and golden maidenhair, and spleen wort. Culmiferous plants are wheat, tnticum. Rye, sccale. Barley, hordeum. Oats, avena . Leguminous plants are potatoes, solanum tuberosum. Turnips, brassica rapa. Peas, pisum. Beans, vice a fubia. Carrots, dau- cas. Parsnips, pastinaca. Cabbages, bras- sica oleracea. Burnet, poterium. Beet, beta. Herbaceous plants are flax, linum. Hemp, canabis. Rape, or cole-seed, bras- sica napus. Woad, isatis. Hops, humulus. Cellular tissue is transparent, cohering vesicles. Woody fibre is elongated, or tubular cel- lular tissue. Spiral vessels are elastic tissue, so turned or twisted as to form a tube, but capable of being drawn out. They conduct the sap, &c. on a continued inclined plane. Ducts are other tubes, which do not draw out or unrol. Deciduous trees are those whose leaves fall off every year, as opposed to evergreens. The mass, caudix, or trunk and root of all vegetables are, 1. an epidermis covering pulp. 2. Rind, pulp, longitudinal fibre. 3. Bark, wood, and pith, vascular and cel- lular. The generic name resembles the family or sur-name of men ; and the name of the species, that of the baptismal name of each individual of the family. As pyrus, for the apple- family ; then pyruS malus, the apple strictly ; pyrus sative , the pear; and pyrus cidonia, the quince. The marks used by botanists are an annual; biennial; triennial; , a shrub or tree; an evergreen; , pistilla and no stamens ; , both pistilla and stamens. Animal and vegetable life is a continued succession of dispersions and renewals — of eliminations and assimilations — from the first excitement of the germ or seed, till the exhaustion of the functions and the decay of the powers of renewal, followed by death, or dispersion in gas, or unconnected particles. There are two generic kinds of organiza- tion, adapted to produce very different re- sults. In one the absorption of the assimila- tions are by roots from the soil of the earth, as in vegetation ; and, in the other, the ab- sorption of the assimilations are from a selection of soil prepared by vegetables and * put into the stomach. The first is primitive, and the latter is consequent on the first, and dependent on it. It is difficult, if not impossible, to deter- mine the boundaries of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Vegetables ascend to animals, and these descend to vegetables, so closely up and down, that naturalists cannot KINGDOM. 208 agree in the line of demarcation. Hence, many think, that the superior and most con- trasted of each kind, may be ramifications or transmutations from the lowest, or most alike of each ; especially, as in early geolo- gical periods the pabulum was scanty. The succession of organizations appears to be mineral, vegetable, and animal, and the kinds run into, or join, each other by impercep- tible gradations of approximation. Molecules, or atoms of matter operated on by the action and reaction of the elements, produce mine- rals. These acted on by the elements, pro- duce the cryptogamia, and these work their way to the sexual system of reproduction by tshe finest gradations. Vegetables, as fucoids, lichens, mosses, &c. &c. were the first germs of vegetation* and they are found abundantly in the an- cient grauwacke slate formations, to the number of 100 layers in 20 feet. Their remains were the first soil for superior plants, and these then became the support of the first evolutions of fixed and loco-motive ani- malization, after the transition lime forma- tions above the grauwacke. The whorls of Goethe result from indiffe- rence of action on all sides of a centre. The results are a concentric circle, or sphere of phenomena. A germ evolves from the womb of nature, and its actions and reac- tions are equal on every side. Growth is the effect of the excess of the powers of assimilation ; maturity is the ba- lance of the assimilations, and eliminating functions ; and decay is the excess of the eliminating. Germs are similar in the same species, and their varied results in growth and maturity depend on the soil, air, cul- ture, pabulum or food, and on all the exter- nal circumstances. Cuvier says, the bark of the earth was not made by a single cast. The transition of cryptogamic plants into monocotyledons, of these into dicotyledons, result from the action of different soils and different proportions of the gaseous elements. The improvements of plants and fruits by manuring, grafting, &c. and the enlarging and varying of breeds of animals indicate plain principles of production, and afford data from which we may reason in a series from the state in one age to that of former ages. Bakowell used to say, that he could totally alter the shape of any animal in a few generations. Young and Knight said the same of plants. Chemistry of Vegetation . G*ay Lussac and Thenard have deduced three propositions, which they call laws of vegetable substances. First . — That a vegetable substance is al- ways acid, whenever the oxygen it contains is to the hydrogen in a greater proportion than in water. Second . — That a vegetable substance is always resinous, or oily, or spirituous, when- ever it contains oxygen in a smaller propor- tion to the hydrogen than in water. Third .— That a vegetable substance la VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 209 neither acid nor resinous, but either saccha- rine or mucilaginous, or analogous to woody fibre or starch, whenever the oxygen and hydrogen are in the proportions of water. The Chemistry of Vegetation consists in the decomposition of the aqueous solution of the soils ; and re-combination of the ele- mentary constituents in the membranes, fibres, and cellular and vascular tissues of the bark, wood, pith, or marrow. The fine membrane forms mucilage, and in cells, chiefly hexagonal, pervades the whole plant. The chemical decompositions in plants are believed to be effected in the leaves, in which the sap is exposed to the action of the air. Vegetables are composed of carbon, oxy- gen, and some hydrogen, with nitrogen ; and they mainly produce gluten, farina, mucilage, oil, and sugar. The chemical growth of plants is proved by fuci, which thrive without roots. The epidendrum grows, flourishes, and blossoms, when suspended in a room, by decomposing the air and absorbing vapour. Vegetables are, therefore, believed to de- rive their support as much from the atmos- phere as from the soil,. t>y a breathing process The disintegration of rocks, and the decom- position of vegetables and animals, preserve the equality and necessary variety of soil. The ultimate and proximate principles of all vegetation are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and occasionally nitrogen. When there is an excess of hydrogen, then unctuous and inflammable bodies are generated, as fixed oil, volatile oil, resin, caoutchouc, camphor, and wax. In the divi- sion containing nitrogen is vegetable gluten. When the oxygen and hydrogen are com- bined in the same proportions as in water, the substances are not acidulous, but consist of sugar, gum, starch, wood or lignum, tan- nin, and what is called extractive. Vegetables contain, in substance, acids, sugar, gum, mucus, jelly, starch, gluten, and five or six peculiar principles, as tannin, indigo, the bitter and narcotic principle, &c. They also yield oils, wax, resins, &c. In all about 34 several products. Vegetables yield nine several acids : the oxalic in rhubarb ; the tartaric in tamarinds, grapes, and mulberries ; the citric in oranges, lemons, and onions ; the malic in apples, cherries, &c. ; the gallic in elm, oak, &c. ; the benzoic in balsamic trees ; the prussic in laurel-leaves, peach-blossoms, and bitter kernels ; phosphoric in barley, oats, &c. Plants are the first decomposers of mine- rals into their elements ; and they also assi- milate the constituents of air and water j and, therefore, are nature’s chemists. Phar- macy has in some degree superseded them ; but, till within two or three hundred years, they were medicine as well as food. Their various virtues were seized on by supersti- tion, and for many ages they were connected with the fancies of astrology. The day was divided into planetary hours ; and no plant was believed to have its virtue, unless ga- thered in the hour of its planet, and also at a particular age of the moon. 210 The evaporation of vegetables consists of water and minute portions of gummy matter* and carbonate and sulphate of lime. A retention of the oxygen, for want of light, renders plants white ; and its excess produces the same effect. The colours of flowers depend on light; and the colouring matter which they yield becomes red when an acid is added to it ; and violet, blue, or green, when an alkali is added. Flowers decompose no carbonic acid, but they convert the oxygen in the air into carbonic acid. Vegetation converts the gas of the atmos- phere into an equal bulk of carbonic acid gas, without affecting the azote. When no oxygen is present, they either form carbu- retted nitrogen, or carburetted hydrogen, always evolving carbon. The epidermis of canes, reeds, and grasses, contains much silex. By day-light plants abstract carbon from carbonic acid gas, and oxygen from water ; in the dark they give out carbon, and absorb oxygen. Plants of a succulent nature require strong light, with much given surface, and have resinous juices. Fungi, without colour, grow in darkness ; mosses, ferns, &c. grow best in shade. Light separates the moisture in plants into its constituent hydrogen and oxygen, and it disengages the oxygen from the carbonic acid, so as to deposit the carbon in union with hydrogen, as gum, resin, and oil, which forms their ligneous parts. Consolidation and vigour depend on light. The closing and expanding, or sleeping and waking of flowers, are governed by dark- ness and light. Linnaeus says, that yellow indicates bitter flavour ; red, acid or sour ; green , a crude alkaline taste ; pale-green, insipidity ; white , luscious j black, harsh and nauseous. Green is most common, and black the most rare. No flower has its proper colour till in full bloom. Some change twice or thrice. Red changes into white and blue ; blue into white and yellow ; yellow into white ; and white into purple. Scotch pine contains 83 of volatile matter, ash 81, and sallow, birch, and Norway pine 80. Lignum vitae but 73. Other woods in- termediate. Lignum vitae, mahogany, and laburnum, afford above a quarter charcoal, or 26 in 100 ; chesnut and oak 23 in 100. Pit-coal gives 75 per cent, of coke. Leaves are coloured in the proportion in which acids and alkalies prevail in them ; green indicates an excess of alkali. Solar light is the agent by which the carbonic acid in gas is decomposed. The oxygen is thus expelled, and the alkali produces green. Fleshy leaves absorb oxygen in the night, and give it out in the sunshine. They pro- duce carbonic acid, and also decompose it; and, therefore, do not vitiate the air. In a close vessel they deteriorate and restore air The metallic poisons and mephitic gases which kill animals, also kill vegetables. In plants, azote or nitrogen is only found 211 VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 212 accidentally. Their nutriment is water, de- composed into hydrogen and oxygen, with air and carbonic acid. They retain the hy- drogen and carbon, and exhale the oxygen by aid of light. Animals, on the contrary, absorb and fix oxygen. Plants produce vater and carbonic acid, and animals reject them. Plants exhale oxygen, and absorb carbonic acid ; and animals absorb oxygen, and exhale carbonic acid. Oxyde of carbon, or what is called humic acid, is said to be the food of plants. Turf contains the most of it ; heaths the least. Atmospheric pressure is intimately con- nected with the growth of plants. The pabulum of vegetation is, by ignorant man, carried away with crops. Part may be restored by manure, from cities where the crops are consumed, but it can be but a tithe or a centum. Cultivation may turn up un- exhausted soil, and sometimes a fructifying substratum, but the annual carrying away will, in a certain time, be fatal to future fer- tility. A rich country thus becomes gradu- ally poor. What would England be without its annual products of 100 millions ? This exhaustion, therefore, is the secret of the poverty of all old countries, without any superstitious malediction or prophecy. Nor in the absorption by roots is the mi- neral soil indifferent, for growth and fertility depend on due mixture of soils containing various elements; on moisture, which con- sists of hydrogen and oxygen ; on air, com- pounded of nitrogen and oxygen; and on heat, or atomic motion, which last seems to be essential to the due developement and mixture of all the others. Form and fitness are also necessary in the germs, and these, by various actions and reactions on the ele- ments, and by secretions among themselves determine the results. Plants with a spongy tissue, with large soft leaves, with no hairs, of rapid growth, with no resin, and many roots, require moist scites. Water, or soil, ought to abound in the elements which the plant secretes. Cruci- form plants, and fungi, require animal ma- nure, &c. for their azote and lime is neces- sary to those whose analysis gives an excess of earths. So saline waters are necessary to those which yield soda. Gsertner thinks that the germs or embryos of plants are products of the fluid of the pollen, combined with fluid matter secreted by the stigmata Strange pollen attaches with less force to the stigmata, than the pol- len of the plant. Germs of vegetables and animals originate in the male ; and in animals it may be seen by the microscope, as animalculae, often like tadpoles, and sustained and matured by the female to their state at birth. Afterwards they expand to the limit determined by their ratios of assimilation and elimination. The first lively germ is but the fourth of a grain, and the fully-expanded animal is to the primitive germ 28,000 X into the weight in lbs. to 1. In plants and trees the grains of pollen to the expanded plant or tree are still more disproportionate. The principle of continuity in all organic existence is nearly the same. The seed of plants consists of three parts ; the cotyledon or side lobes, the radicle, and the plumula. The radicle is the germ of the root, and the plumula the stem of the plant. Germination depends on heat, moisture, air, and rest. TRe seeds of plants are their eggs. A sun- flower produces 4,000; a poppy 30,000; a tobacco- plant 3 or 400,000 ; and spleen- wort 1,000.000. Some, as the sea-pink, have but one seed, umbelliferous flowers two, and the spurge and ranunculus three. The capsule of the white poppy contains 8,000 seeds. Some seeds germinate after boiling, 'l'he seeds of mosses germinate either in hot earth, or in water. The radicle and plumula germinate at an angle of 90°, and hence one spreads in the ground and the other rises. Seeds and Germs. Grains of wheat in different countries yield from 6, 10, 16, and even 30 to l. Cape wheat 80 to 1, and Barbary 50. Barley yields from 50 to 120. The sarrazin of Tar- tary yields from 50 to 2000 grains for 1. Oats increase from 200 to 2000. Wheat and millet-seed germinate in 1 day, barley in 7, cabbage in 10, almond, chesnut, and peach, require 12 months, and rose and filbert 24. Singular cases of wheat-increase was one near Bath, where one grain produced 73 stalks and 7445 grains ; and Millar, the botanist, produced 500 plants from one grain, and 576,840 grains, weighing 47 lbs. Peas and scarlet beans increase from 300 to 500 fold. Reeds in Brazil grow from 30 to 40 feet, and grasses from 6 to 7 feet. A peach-tree has yielded 1560 peaches, and a rose-tree from 1 to 2000 roses. An acre of potatoes yields 2700 lbs. of flour, and wheat but 1300 lbs. In equal weights wheat yields 2| flour, potatoes 1, barley l£, and oats 1£. The malva sylvatica yields 200,000 seeds, the orchides 8,000. The date gives 12,000 flowers on one spatha, and every bunch of the seje palm has 8000 fruit. Man for his wants, animals and birds in their excrement, and the atmospheres, rivers, and ocean, are extensive diffusers of exotic seeds. The seeds scattered by birds in their ex- crements are more fructifiable from passing through their bodies. Linnaeus states the plant of one poppy- seed has produced 32 000 seeds, and one of tobacco 40,320. Such numbers to 1, are the natural odds against mere continuity. Wheat, barley, &c. the staff of life, are derived from the feeble tribe of grasses. White clover springs up on mixing limo with dry heaths and barren soils ; and rasp- berry-bushes spring up where fir-woods are burnt down. Other plants rise also, as underwood in the decayed fragments of fir- VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 213 trees, though in each case strangers to the '•icinity. In turning up soil from great depth, new varieties of vegetables generally arise. Old garden-pots newly dug up exhibit the revival of seeds long buried. At Kingston-on-Thames, soil brought up from a depth of 360 feet, and then covered with a hand-glass, exhibited speedy vege- tation. As the sea retires from a shore, various plants spring up, wholly strange to the neighbouring land. Seeds buried in old garden grounds, and turned up after many years, become plants, and deep ploughing always produces a la- tent crop of anciently buried seeds. A bul- bous-root found in the hand of a mummy above 2000 years old, lately produced a plant. A field cf wheat buried under an ava- lanche for 25 years, proceeded on its growth, &c. as soon as the snow had melted. Potatoes planted below 3 feet, do not vegetate ; at 1 foot they grow quickest, and at 2 feet are retarded two or three months. If we give credit to the spontaneous gene- ration of plants from various earths, we establish the connection of plants with earth; but as the succession of nature is mineral, vegetable, and animal, we have to examine the origin of animals from vege- tables, and not directly from earths. Then we know that vegetable matter produces infusoria, maggots, worms, and the like, as may be presumed from the mere action and re-action of the elements. The sexual system of plants is strictly analogous to that of animals, and both sexual systems may be grades of one another. Cellular or cryptogamus plants are propa- gated by the dilation of a part called a spo- rule, something like the increase of polypi. They are nurtured by moisture, but the pollen is considered as a sporule which re- quires the nurture of the juices of the plant. Germination appears to be an action taking place between the olefiant gas, which has been previously formed by a vinous fer- mentation, and the oxygen of the atmos- phere ; and is effected by the peculiar ope- ration of the plumula and the rootlets. This decomposition and combination of the diffe- rent elements go on,* in well-regulated pro- cesses, as long as there is any farinaceous matter to be decomposed : the food of the plant being at this time always the oxygen of the atmosphere, and the newly-formed olefiant gas, differing in equivalent combina- tion, according to the constitution of the plant. Fruit is the sustenance of the seed, and resembles the after-birth, or placenta of vi- viparous animals. All Fruit consists, in various proportions, of water, sugar, potass, malic acid, mucilage, tannin, gelatine, and a flavouring and colour- ing principle. The essentials in making wine from them are the sugar, tartarous acid, mucilage, and water. Flavour, colour, wid tannin, are not essential. The tartarous 214 acid distinguishes wine, and the malic cider. The sugar, by fermentation, yields the alco. liol, with extractive vegetable matter. The substance of fruit varies as it matures. Green apricots afford no sugar, but more advanced -066, and when ripe -165. The woody fibre is 036, then -025 and 019 : the proportion of water also is '89, -84, and 75. Fruit put into an atmosphere that contains no oxygen, does not ripen ; but the ripening process commences when oxygen is supplied. The total weight of fruit in ripening is very little diminished. Heat produces saccharine matter in fruits ; and heat without light will ripen them. The process of germination changes oxy- gen gas into carbonic acid, but does not affect the azotic portion of the atmosphere ; it is supposed that the seed absorbs the oxygen, and gives out the carbon. In a pear, shut in a close vessel for seven- teen days, the ingredients were much changed : the sugar w r as doubled ; and the gum, water, and woody fibre had decreased. 100 parts of the air contained 13^ of carbonic acid, 7| of oxygen, and 79 of azote. The sap of plants is mucilaginous, albu- minous, and saccharine, in the alburnum ; and astringent, or tannin, in the bark. The cambium, between the wood and bark, is a mixture of both. The sap consists chiefly of water, with a small portion of potass, some vegetable matter, and carbonate of lime. Dutrochet considers the formed tubes as the sap-vessels, and the spirals as conductors of the gaseous results of the chemical action of the leaves on the atmosphere. The odorous matter of flowers is inflam- mable, and arises from an essential oil. When growing in the dark their odour is di- minished, but restored in the light ; and it is strongest in sunny climates. The fraxi- nella takes fire in hot evenings, by bringing a candle near its root. Geography of Plants. Every district has its own Flora, the result of soil, climate, elevation, water, Ac. ; and though the types, or genera, in similar situa- tions are alike, yet the species are distinct. De Candolle divides the earth’s surface into 59 botanical districts, each with a preponde- rance of distinct species or genera of plants, proving their entire dependence on local, chemical, and mechanical causes. In fact, too, the metamorphosis effected by culture is another proof. Ue Candolle’s distinct botanical regions are the Arctic and Antarctic Circles. Middle Europe to the Altaic Chain, Eastern Siberia, and the Steppes of Tartary. The Mediter- ranean shores. The Euxine shores. The East Indies. China and Japan. New Hol- land. South Africa. Abyssinia and Mo zambique. Middle North Africa. The Canaries. The United States. West of the Mississippi. The W T est , Indies. Mexico. Tropical South America. Brazil. Chili. Magellania. Besides islands far from con- tinents. Humboldt localizes the 39,000 species % 215 VEGETABLE of plants and trees, (not crypt ogamia) as under : — Furope . 7000 Siberia, Ac 1500 Tropical Asia 4500 Africa 3500 Tropical America 13000 Other parts ditto ,. 4000 New Holland, &c 5500 The quantities in lat. 0, 45, and 68, he considers as 12, 4, and 1. Mirbel has dra.wn out a table of the spe- cies and proportions of 100 plants in four regions, exclusive of the tropics. The re- gion 1 of 30 and 33 N. lat., 2 of 40 to 50 N. lat., 3 of 60°, and 4 the arctic. Of grasses, he gives in 1, 503 species, in 2, 246, in 3, 134, and in 4, 36. Their proportion to all other vegetation is 0 061 in the 3 first, and 0'088 in the 4th. Sedges are 1 95, 275, 90 and 33. Lilies 180, 78, 38 and 1. Orchis .. 106, 54, 42 and 5. Palms only 3 in the first. Pines 34, 12, 9 and 1. Goosefoot.... 104, 126, 47 and 0. Plantain .... 65, 24. 12 and 3. Figwort .... 298, 150, 93 and 23. Heaths 37, 28, 32 and 27. Compound ..1168, 520, 223 and 41. Umbelliferous 368, 182, 74 and 3. Labiate .... 431, 135, 77 and 1. Leguminous 9/5, 283, 155 and 16. Pinks 382, 180, 125 and 35. Cruciferae .. 540, 252, 140, 50. Ranunculus 192, 126, 116, 21. Roses 200, 152, 108, 28. Altogether he makes 10,292 species in the four zones, of which there are 8193, 3982, 2129 and 438 in the respective zones. In the first 1262 are woody ; in the second 357, in the third 193, and in the fourth but 46. In the first 3861 have perennial roots ; in the second 2610; in the third 511; and in the fourth 371. In the Torrid zone, plants with one seed- lobe (monocotyledonous) are in proportion to those with two seed-lobes ( dicotyledonous ) only as 1 to 4. The former consist of grasses and palms, and the latter are European species. In the middle zones the two kinds are as 1 to 6, (and a sixth of all plants) while in the extreme north, the region of mosses and lichens ; the one seed-lobe are to the two-seed lobes only 1 to 2. The lig- neous exceed the herbaceous as we approach the line, and in forest-trees America has 120 species for 34 in the same latitudes. In regard to the distribution of plants in localities, Linnaeus divides them into aquatic, alpine, umbrosius, field and heath plants, parasites So connected are plants with one another, that the number of one species being given, the number of others may be determined in the same district. Monocotyledons are l -6th of the plants in the tropics, 1 -4th in the temperate zone, and L-3d in the frigid zone. Ferns, heaths, and rhododendrons increase KINGDOM. 218 towards the Poles ; and the rubiacae, eu- phorbiae, and legumes, towards the Equator. America has no heaths. Africa no lau- riniae. The southern hemisphere no roses. Of 2891 species in the United States, only 385 are found in Europe. In South Ame- rica, but 84 species belong to Europe. In Australasia, of 4100 species, less than 100 are found in Europe. The mountains in South America present every temperature, yet Humboldt no where saw rose-trees or heaths. All the vegetation of America is different in species from the same kinds in Europe. They often resemble, but are not the same. All plants require a definite degree of heat ; and, therefore, their growth and heat are mutual tests. Between the tropics succulent plants prepare on rocks, Ac. the mould for suc- cessors. In the temperate zone, crypto- gamias are followed by ferns, and these by grasses, &c. The natural classification divides plants into acotyledons , monocotyledons , and dico - tyledons. The first increase from the Equa- tor to the Poles, except ferns. In the se- cond, the palms are tropical. Sedges and rushes increase to the north. The cultivated grasses, as wheat, barley, rice, Ac. abound chiefly in the middle zone. The third are universal. Leguminous plants diminish from the Equator. In England and Wales there are 2045 species of acotyledons (fungi algce , fyc.j 416 mono . 1220 dico. In Scotland 2084 ac. 26 mono, and 823 dicotyledons. Ireland has but 4 ac. 211 mono, and 682 dico. In all about 3400 species in the British Islands. For food of animals and men, there are, of glumaceae, in England and Wales, 294 species, and in Scotland 188. Of legumi- nosse 69 and 43; of graminese 170 and 94 ; and of cruciferae 73 and 56. Trees indigenous to Great Britain are 2 species of oak, 5 of beech, the ash, maple, sycamore, hornbeam, lime, holly, white thorn, alder, birch, aspen, poplar, fir, and mountain ash. In England, forests are of oak and beech ; in Scotland, of Scotch fir. Cryptogamia are numerous in the British Islands. We have 310 species of mosses, and 519 of algae, besides ferns, lichens, and fungi of all kinds, from the archil in Scilly, to the rein-deer lichen and Iceland moss. Woods are a 12th of France, and a 24th of England ; 2500 young trees are an acre. Lichen in Lapland is 1 foot high. The lichen tartareus, or cudbear, is found there, and in Sweden and Norway, and exported, The grain of Sweden is rye, oats, and barley. The trees are birch, pine, and spruce firs. Italy abounds in leguminous plants, Eng- land in mosses, Germany in rushes and grasses, and Scandinavia in lichens. The South of Spain sustains bananas, cayenne pepper, the sweet potato, the fig, orange, lemon, olive, pomegran te, the carob, dwarf-palm, cork, and chesnut. 217 vegeiaBle kingdom, 218 Portugal has no oaks, beeches, or limes, but the trees are orange, olive, cypress, cactus tuna, and indas, with some elms and poplars. Sicily cultivates the sugar-cane, date, custard apple, orange, citron, olive, vine, myrtle, laurel, stone pine, carob, and pomegranate. The Western side of Greece produces prickly figs, and dates, and nearly all Greece olives, oranges, lemons, capers, grapes, vines, currants, almonds, and pomegranates. It is the native country of our flower-gar- dens, and supplied all Europe with the tulip, ranunculus, hyacinth, &c. It also yields much gum, laudanum, mastich, and tragacanth. They use mastich, cypress, and cedar for firewood. The tree-pink grows only in Crete, the double cocoa-nut only at Praslin; the thrift, the scurvy-grass, and the rose-root will grow only in stony places. The Jews had palms, fates, and vines. Dates ripen at 70°, and not less. Grapes will grow in 71° and 72°, but 74° is too hot for them. Therefore, 70° to 71° was the ancient temperature of Palestine ; and it is nearly the same at this day. In fact, there is slight evidence that the temperature of the Earth has varied in 3 or 4000 years. The Michaelmas daisy and the golden rod are a third of the compound flowers in the United States. America has not a single species of heath. The forests in America have far more species than in Europe, chiefly conebearing and amentaceous. Ame- rica has 137 trees of 30 feet and upwards ; Europe but 45. The vegetation of South Africa is totally distinct from that of North Africa and Eu- rope, and in South America the proportion to Europe is still less. The equatorial regions is the line of demarcation, and the plants in the North and the South seem to originate independently, though similar. The river Yenisei, which separates Siberia from Europe, also separates the organic world, both in vegetables and animals. The argali, the musk, &c. appear among animals, and all the vegetation is derived from the Altaic mountains. The vegetation of New Zealand is totally different from that of New Holland. India produces cocoa-nut, beetel-nut, and race, the great staple. Pepper, cardamoms, and coffee, are pro- duced in shady and elevated situations. Millet and hard grains are cultivated east of the Ghauts : wheat on elevated spots, and potatoes have been introduced by the English. Tobacco, castor-oil plant, and cotton, thrive where water is not abundant. The Indian fruits are the mango, the orange, the tamarind, the guava, the custard apple, or annona, the plantain, &c. The Aurantiaceae, or orange and lemon family, are Askitic, and the Camellia and Thea, Chinese. The medicinal barks, the mutisiae, fuchsia, and cachti, are exclusively South Ame- rican. Within the tropics, the genera are si- milar, but the species differ. Asia has the oriental plane, and America the occidental ; in genus the same, but dif- fering in species. The Peax of Tenerifcte presents five zones of different vegetation : for 7 or 800 feet it produces vines, corn, olives, &c. the second zone produces myrtles and trees ; the third chiefly pines ; the fourth and fifth produce little vegetation, and is very cold ; the upper part is pumice-stones and lava. The flora of distant tracts, even of the same continent, is very different. In dis- tant islands, the flora of each is mostly its own. Thus, at St. Helena, of 61 species, but two or three are found elsewhere. Humboldt determines that the floras of the mountainous Antilles and the Andes are different and particular. He describes the forests as gigantic and wonderful ; and such is the over-production, that the parasite orchis, piper, and pothos on a single fig-tree would cover a large area, while they pass from one tree to another above 100 feet from the ground. The bamboo and the fern-tree characterise the scenery of the tropics. In New Holland, &c. the vegetation is gloomy and sad, says Leschenault, and un- like all the rest of the world, with the aspect of our heaths and evergreens. The greater part are new genera, and those of old genera are new species. The leaves are small and spinescent, and even the grasses are stiff and harsh. The larger trees belong to the fa- mily myrthoideae, and to the genus, enca- lyptus and leafless acaciae. He ascribes it to the dryness of the soil and atmosphere. Even South American vegetation, says Brown, is more distinct from Australian than the latter from African. The 'plantain requires from 82° to ; and, therefore, will not grow beyond the 27th degree of latitude, or, at an elevation higher than 2000 yards. The sugar-cane 82° to 73°, or within latitude 36°, or the height of 1800 yards. The cotton-plant from 82° to 68°, and latitude 34°. The olive requires from 66^ to 58°, from latitude 36° to 40°. The vine requires heat from 62° to 48°, and the winter not below 33°. Wheat flourishes at a mean annual heat of 55°; but, when so low as 46°, neither wheat, barley, oats, or rye, mature. Maize thrives in America to latitude 45°. Oaks will not grow above 62 or 63 feet. The Scotch fir grows to 70. The larch, pine, birch, and mountain ash, cease in N. Asia at 68 ; and at Hudson’s Bay at 60. Potatoes, barley, flax, and hemp, grow on the Alps from 5 to 5600 feet. The larch 1000 feet higher. The limit of perpetual congelation has been theoretically calculated; it is made 15,000 feet at the equator; and from that to 13,000 between the tropics; and ffom 9 to 4000 between 40° and 59^. Wheat requires between the tropics an 219 VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 220 elevation of 4500 feet to produce ears, but 10,800 feet is its limit. Wheat will not grow and produce in the South Sea Islands. In general, palms, tree-ferns, and the parasite orchidese, flourish only in the glow- ing tropics. Tne cruciferous and umbellife- rous in the temperate zone. The coniferous and amentaceous in the higher latitudes. Regions, similar in climate, &c. if distant, produce only analogous plants, but not the same in species. The two Arctic circles produce, for example, in the North the dwarf birch, but in the South its anologue is the different betula of Terra del Fuego. The whole earth has but 10 plants com- mon to each quarter. The most universally distributed plants are the simplest in structure, as the agamous of Jussieu, or the cryptogamous of Linnaeus. They seem to be evolutions of all soils. The wheat harvest begins at Upsal, and in England, in the first days of August ; at Naples, in June. Barley, second week in June. Cherries ripen at Paris, end of June; at Naples, early in May. At Upsal, the ash, poplar, &c. cast their leaves before Michaelmas ; at Paris, in October ; at Na- ples, in November. In England, the walnut is first defoliated ; then the mulberry, ash, and horse-chesnut. Evergreens do not past their leaves till new ones appear. Flower- ing is 7 weeks at Naples, and 3 at Paris, earlier than England, Upsal 5 weeks later. Vegetation is arrested when the heat is too little to prevent the crystallization of the fluids, and keep up the circulations. Long tap roots, which descend into depths of warm earths, old trees whose layers pro- tect the pith, and fluids mixed with resin stand the cold of winter. The pine, the spruces, the larch, &c. bear cold 440 below Zero ; and, in that degree of cold, the larch, the stone pine, alder, birch, juniper, &c. become large trees. Great summer heats confer strength on trees, to enable them to bear frosts. The weeping willow thrives in England with its hot summers, and fails in Scotland where the summers are colder. The agents which excite the germs of all vegetation, are heat and light ; and the food and substance are the elements in water, soil, and air. These are the expanding causes till the bulk equals the powers of the fibres, and then more food creates accumu- lation and disease, and the mass yielding to the decay of nature returns to the earth. This is the law of all things that grow, K v e and mature. Light as well as heat is so necessary to vegetables, that tropical plants will not grow in the frigid zone ; and, we are compelled to infer, that they grew in them only when the tropics were from 9(P to 100°, instead of 4/ ° as at present. At that time, the perihelion would give 113° of heat, and the aphelion but 88°. Locality in plants arises from soil and climate, then these determine the insect tribes, these the reptiles and birds, and these again the quadrupeds. It is the Law of Fit- ness, arising from subsistence and gregarious habits. The same law governs man in tribes of families, and in nations of tribes. The currents and tides of the sea, rivers, winds, animal and bird excrement, extend the domain of plants. Wrecks and com merce also transport many. The sea has its botanical districts. Algae are universal, and called the marine plant, but particular genera and species flourish in certain seas. The Atlantic, from the Equa- tor to the 40th degree, the West Indies, the coasts of Brazil, the Indian ocean, and the seas of Australia have all distinct species. The Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Euxine differ also. Algae are so dense near the Equator as almost to obstruct navigation, and carried by currents to higher latitudes, the masses olten near the Azores, resemble irrigated meadows, and form wide-spread banks of sangassum, almost solid, whose ultimate descication must add to the crust and manure of the earth. They have splen- did colours, and may often be drawn up 500 or 600 feet long. Algae are at once the green covering of stones, or surface of ponds ; and those sub- marine forests which obstruct navigation, and grow to the length of 25 or 30 feet with trunks 2 feet round; and, in other cases, to 1000 feet long, and not 2 inches round. They also produce the first stratum of fertile soil, and in their decay are the first source of all vegetation; so that one order of vegetables grow out of relics of previous orders. Countless ages must have passed in the transition of Algae into the food of vegetables, but as they increase so much in water, this explains the use of the alternate submersions of seas. The green and red slime in damp and shady situations, are minute species of Algae; the same rise on water, and in ponds and ditches are food for ducks and fish, but in the sea they accumulate in dense masses, and form weeds, laver, kelp, manure, &c. The sea-shores present many varieties, as leather-like leaves, some with pods, &c. called fuci. Others, called conferva, are connected and jointed, and found wherever there is water, and seem to be a link be- tween vegetables and polypi. They abound but are viewed as the rubbish of vegetation. Laver is a species of Algae, and kelp is made from another species. Peculiar Vegetable Productions . Arrow-root is a native plant of South America, and cultivated in the West Indies. It is a creeping root, with stalks about two feet high, and the roots, pounded and bleach- ed, make the starch which is used as nutri~ cious food. The elymees, arenarius, and the sedge carex arenaria bind sand-hills like walls against the sea. Aloes are soccotrine, hepatic, Cape, ani horse. The heart of the aloes -tree sells in India for its weight in gold, under the name of tambac. 221 VEGETABLE KINGDOM. The arum capanulatum , on the conti- nent of India, and in the Archipelago and Northern Circars, is cultivated and valued as the potato is with us, and as the yam is in the West Indies. The roots weigh from four to eight lbs. They are compressed tubers, from each of which is produced a large leaf, from one and a half to two feet high. The flower is very large and showy. — Curtis. The poisonous mushroom is the agaricus muscarius, whose juice is used in Sweden to poison flies, and in Russia for intoxication. The reed used in covering houses is the arundo phragmitis. A gigantic fir, called the araucaria, which now flourishes only in Australasia, is often found in fragments, in a fossil state, in Eng- land. Bamboo is, in the torrid zone, and in the East, a production of various most important uses. It grows from fifteen to sixty feet high, being from five to fifteen inches in diameter. It grows rapidly, as much as twenty feet in a few weeks. It flourishes wild in many places, but in China and other countries, is carefully cultivated. The soft shoots are cut and eat like asparagus, and sometimes salted, and eaten with rice. The hollow joints afford a liquid, and if not drawn off, a concrete medicinal substance. Decoctions of the leaves and bark are also prescribed. Its seeds are eaten as a deli- cacy j its large joints are used as buckets ; and, in many countries, no other wood is used for building. Ships are framed out of it, and it furnishes masts and yards. Its leaves make fans. It is also used to make bows, and instead of lead-pipes, to convey water to great distances. It also forms writing-pens, and is woven into baskets, cages, hats, &c. Bruised into pulp, it makes fine paper : and it is also used for every kind of furniture. The Banana, or plantain, is also one of the most useful of trees. Its fruit, 12 inches long and two thick, serves for bread ; the leaves serve for cloth and covering. The root is perennial, but the stalk is annual, and grows to 15 or 20 feet. An acre planted with bananas yields 20 times more aliment than in grain. The bannian is the sacred tree of the Hindoos. Every branch shoots a new root to the ground, so that they spread indefinitely, and afford shady retreats for comfort and religion. The Cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with bread, water, win6, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basons, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. Our Cocoa is the cacao of the West Indies, and is the seed of the cacao-tree. Twenty- three millions of lbs. are consumed in Europe, and it is the general beverage of Spain. Cocoa-trees are from 40 to 60 feet, with leaves 12 or 14 feet long, with 6 or 9 clusters of 10 or 12 nuts, near the top. They produce timber, coverings for houses, oil, arrack, and cordage. The oil 222 is used and preferred all over the East for light and soap, and excellent candles and soap are made from it in London, clearei and sweeter than tallow or whale oil. Cey- lon exports thr ee millions of lbs. of cordage only. Chocolate is cacao-nuts roasted, pow- dered, mixed with water, and dried in cakes. But, in England, it is adulterated with flour and Castile soap. The Coco de Mer grows only in two of the Sechelles. It is a palm from 60 to 80 feet, and the nuts fetch high prices. Cocoa nuts have the fruit in every stage of growth on the same tree. Bananas, plaintains, and hogs, supply all the wants of the Polynesian Islands, without care or cultivation. The chinchona tree, which produces the Peruvian bark , flourishes chiefly in the ele- vated plains of Quito. The cultivation of indigo in Bengal oc- cupies 12 million acres on the banks of the rivers, and employs nearly 5 million fami- lies, and an annual outlay of 16 millions rupees. The annual produce varies from 95 to 130,000 maunds. The Cotton plant, or genus gossypium , contains 10 species, and is extensively cul- tivated in warm climates. It belongs to the class monodelphia, and the order polyandria. The seeds are enclosed in a capsule, and involved in the filaments called cotton. The plant is raised from seed sown in holes in the spring months. The superfluous plants are pulled up, and the others pruned to the height of four feet. The seed springs up in a few days in showery weather, and the cluster of plants is weeded when they are a few inches high. The tops are pruned to increase the branches. They yield in seven or eight months, and the crops improve for two or three years, and every four or five years the plants are renewed. The blos- soms, a double calix exteriorly, three cleft, appear in July and August, the pods opening in a few weeks, and the first crop being picked in November and December. The rainy season then produces a second crop, picked in March and April. The pods are then dried in the sun till the seed becomes hard, and the seed is then separated from the cotton by a gin. It is then picked and packed for market. Its great enemy is the caterpillar, called the chenille. An acre of cotton-irees, under favourable cir- cumstances, yields 400 lbs. of cotton. The pods are the size of small apples, and filled with cotton, surrounding the seeds. The cotton-tree flourishes in Arabia, Egypt, and India, and is 15 or 20 feet high. Another species grows in the Mauritius, and a third in China, of the colour of the nan- keen made from it. The shrubby cotton flourishes in Georgia^ and is 5 or 6 feet high, known as Sea Island. It endures 5 or 6 years, and an acre yields from 150 to 250 lbs. The cotton and seeds are taken from the husks on the trees, and 50 or 60 lbs. of the seeds are separated by a gin per day, or 8 or 900 lbs. by a steam- engine. 223 VEGETABLE In Louisiana, tne plants yield for market 1& to 2 cwt. per aere. The wild cotton-tree grows 100 feet, and 25 feet diameter at its base. Two thirds up it has no branches, but they there become a forest 160 feet over, and a world of in- sects, &c. The Coffee-tree is evergreen, and like the bay-tree 8 or 12 feet high, which flourishes in countries, in which the thermometer does not fall below 55^. It travelled from Persia and Arabia to France, and thence to Mar- tinique in 1/32, whence it has been spread through the West Indies. It was first sold at Constantinople about 1550, and in Lon- don in 1650. The trees begin to bear at two years, and the ripe berries are procured by the Arabs, by shaking - the trees over a cloth, each bushel yielding 10 lb£. of coffee for use. The berries are then dried and fermented, and the husks separated in a mill. The seeds are delicately roasted before ground. 140 millions of lbs. are now annually con- sumed in Europe. In Asia and Africa, owing to heat of climate, coffee is roasted, ground, boiled, and drank within an hour ; and corn is ground, kneaded, and baked, in half an hour. The corn for the day is al- ways ground by hand-mills, in the morning, by two women, and baking immediately follows. The Cinnamon-tree is a species of laurel, and is a native of Ceylon. It grows to 20 or 30 feet, and its trunk and branches produce the bark. The Cow-tree of South America grows in rocks. It has dry and withered leaves — its roots scarcely penetrate the stone, and it enjoys little rain, yet when pierced, and especially at sun-rise, it pours out streams of sweet and rich milk, with which the In- dians crowd to fill their bowls, and make a nourishing repast. The Clove-tree grows to 40 or 50 feet, bears at 20, and continues till 50 ; they yield from 5 to 30 lbs. per annum. This spice is cultivated chiefly at Amboyna, and three adjacent islands. When possessed by the English, the islands yielded about 120,000 lbs. per annum, which sold for ^£20,000. The same mercenary despotism on the part of the Dutch prevails here as at Banda. Cork, whose specific gravity is 0 - 24 or \ that of water, is the bark of a tree called quercus suber, which flourishes in southern Europe and northern Asia. It falls from the tree at 12 or 15 years old ; but for com- merce they are stript for several years suc- cessively, and then allowed an interval of two or three years. Cinnamon-trees, so abundant in Ceylon, yield cassia buds, or unripe fruits, cinna- mon, the dried bark of the tree, and essen- tial c ; l, at the rate of oz. to 801b. of chips and filches, and is 20s. per oz. The night-blowing cereus has a flower 8 inches over, of exquisite beauty. It begins to open in the evening, at midnight is in perfection, and in the morning disappears. The Date , in all tropical countries, is one KINGDOM. 224 of the most common trees, and grows from 50 to 100 feet, affording food, clothing, &a For 70 years, a tree yields from 250 lbs. to 400 lbs. of dates. Every date-tree produces 3 or 4 clusters, weighing from 20 to 50 lbs. each. Our dried dates are very inferior to the fresh-gathered. The foliage is evergreen ; it has no branches, and rises from 40 to 60 feet. The Himalaya cedar, (Deodora) is the most indestructible ofsubstanc.es. It is firm in the oldest buildings in India. New Zealand flax, which, it appears, will grow on the bogs of Ireland, has been adopted in the navy for sAil-cloth, tarpaulins, ropes, &c. It had long been known in Ire- land as the bog-lily. New Zealand flax, the phormium tenax, has been cultivated in Devonshire, and the valleys of other countries. There are 400 species of heaths, and four natives of this island. In the Highlands they are used in building, for beds, and as a substitute for malt liquor. They dye an orange-colour, with a mordaunt of alum. The lace bark-tree yields a membrane of which caps, &c. have been made. The lotus of the Egyptians is a species of nymphaea, or water lily, with a flower like a tulip, white or blue. The roots of the white are eaten. There are 216 species of lichen : of which the orchall is purple or crimson dye ; the omphalodes, paler, but more lasting ; and islandicus, used as bread and in medicine. The Mahogany-tree is a native of Cuba, Jamaica, &c., and grows from 60 to 100 feet high, with deep-green foliage, orange-co- loured flowers, and fruit the size of a large egg. Mahogany was first imported and known in England in 1724. The present imports are 20,000 tons per annum. It is one of the most majestic trees, single blocks often weighing six or seven tons. The trees are cut in forests called the bush , by gangs , who open new roads to draw them to the water-side. The mangostien, about the size of an apple filled with pulp, is the prime luxury of the Indian islands. The morus , or mulberry-tree, has several species. The white feeds silk-worms in China, the leaves sheep, and the branches make fire-wood. The myrica pennsylvanica yields fine wax, and there is a tallow-tree in China and the Mauritius. The dry-rot is caused by the fungus meru- lius lachrymans, and other fungi are the blight and brand of corn. The Nutmeg-tree bears fruit from 10 years old to 100; the leaves resemble the laurel ; the flowers are white, two or three on a peduncle. The nutmeg proceeds from a reddish nob in the centre of the flower, but not more than one-third ripen. The fruit is the size of an apricot, pear-shaped. When ripe, it opens and displays the nut- meg in a black and shining shell, enclosed in net-work of scarlet mace. The shell is like that of a filbert ; it is dried with care, VEGETABLE KINGDOM 225 220 and when the nutmeg shakes in it, it is broken, and the nutmeg soaked in sea-water and lime to preserve it from insects. There are three sorts, the wall-nutmeg, the royal, and the green. About 190,000 lbs. are ex- ported and sold in Europe, and 50,000 are sold in India. Nutmegs are now raised at Penang, and in abundance at Bencoolen. The trees come into bearing in seven years, and the annual produce of a tree is 3 lbs. of nutmegs, and 1 of mace. There are eight varieties; and the trees are male and fe- male, the latter only bearing fruit. In Great Britain, 60,000 lbs. of nutmegs and 4000 lbs. of mace are consumed. — Curtis's Botan. Mag. Onions possess more nourishment than perhaps any other vegetable. A Highlander, with a few raw onions in his pocket, and a crust of bread or a bit of cake, can work or travel to an almost incredible extent, for two or three days together. In France, the soup de Vonion is now universally in use after all violent exertions. The moss Spagnum palustre constitutes the Peat of Europe. It has the property of throwing up new shoots in its upper parts, while the lower are decaying. Time is be- lieved to convert it to ignite by the action of water. 100 parts have above 60 of hy- drogen and carbon. It covers a tenth of Ireland. An overturned tree lying on a damp soil soon forms a covering of peat moss — a number of them a peat bog. A wood and a storm will always form peat, and in time beds of coal. The iron and its oxide are supposed to be precipitated from the vegetables. On the sides of mountains, peat is 3 or 4 feet thick, but in vallies, &c. often 40 feet. In hotter climates, vegeta- bles putrify, or are devoured by insects, but in colder ones they form peat. Trees are found standing in peat bogs. There are 21 species of the pine : among which the cedar is the largest, and the wild, or Scotch, the most important, producing yellow deal, and trunks 60 or 80 feet high. The silver fir is not less valuable for its quick growth and vast size. The larch is another species of rapid growth. There are sixty species of the pepper- tree. Palms are the most useful productions of Ceylon. First the cocoa-nut, in universal use for food, drink, and the arts of life. The palmyra, nearly as valuable. The areca catechu, whose nuts, the betel and the chunan, are the universal luxury of Asiatic's. A tree produces from 500 to 1000 nuts. The sago palm, whose pith, dried and granulated, is in use through Europe, is also prolific in sugar. The talipot is famous for its large leaves, which shelters 15 or 20 men, and its fruit. The jack produces fruit as large as a man’s body, rilled with deli- cious pulp, and with seeds as large as chesnuts, of which many dishes are made. A Cingalese family live at ease on the pro- duce of a dozen cocoa-nut and three or four jack-trees. The chique-chique Palm of the Amazons produces abundance of hemp for cordage, and is cheap ; and South America contains 80 or 90 species of Palms. The fruit is farinaceous, yellow, sweet, and highly nutri- tive. Each tree bears three clusters, with from 50 to 80 large nuts in et eh. Linnaeus thought that the countries of palms were the first abodes of our species, and that man is essentially palmiverous. The Pimento , or all-spice, is a species of myrtle in the West Indies, which grows thirty feet high. In the pitcher plant of New South Wales, there is a lid with a hinge, by w r hich it opens and shuts. It is generally half open, and contains fluid, in which ants and flies get drowned. The pitcher is attached to the foot-stalk, and supposed to be the means of nutriment instead of the root. — Curtis's Bat. Mag. The palo de vaca, or hya hya, 100 feet high, and 7 in diameter, yields a rich milk, which, in coffee, cannot be distinguished from cow’s milk. It flows at sun-rise from incisions in the bark. The species of the genus Rosier, either indigenous in France, or cultivated in gar- dens, amount to 79. Species. Varieties. Rosier mousseux 18 de chien 20 des Alpes 21 de Francfort 30 the 42 rubigineux 57 noisette 89 de Damas 117 cent feuilles 121 pimprenelle 123 blanc 125 de Bengal 254 de Pro v ins 1215 The Sugar-cane is a tall reed. The soft parts are eaten by the negroes, and from the hard parts the juices are expressed, which, by boiling and evaporation, chrystallize as sugar. It was cultivated in China 2000 years ago. It travelled thence into Arabia and Egypt, and afterwards to Sicily, Spain, and the West Indies. The plant is from 12 to 20 feet high, and propagated by cuttings, renewed every four or five years, The canes are cut down close to the ground, and then pressed through cylinders in a mill. The juice is then boiled briskly, and every 5 gallons afford 6 lbs. of crystals of sugar, as the produce of 110 good canes. It is then put into casks, and the drainage is molasses, or the uncrystallized part. This, with the skimmings, is fermented and dis- tilled for rum. The sugar plant is called the saccharum officinarum. Skirret root, the sium sisarum, yields 18 per cent, of pure sugar, and flourishes in Great Britain. The Otaheite and Mauritius sugar-cane is extensively cultivated in India, where its produce is four times that of the indigenous species. If the West Indies fail, the Eastern Islands, Bengal, &c. can supply all the world with sugar. In fact, the Saccharine prin- I 227 VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 228 ciple is so intimately blended with all vege- tation, that modern art could supply the human race with sugar from beet, pump- kins, wheat, barley, &c. &c. independently of the labours of the cruelly-abused bee. The people of Kebba collect the fruit of s^ea-trees, from which they prepare the ve- getable butter. These trees grow naturally in the w r oods, and in very great abundance. They resemble the American oak : and the fruit, from which the butter is prepared, is like a Spanish olive. The kernel is enve- loped in a sweet palp, under a thin green rind ; and the butter produced from it, be- sides the advantage of its keeping the whole year without salt, is whiter and firmer, and of a richer taste than any butter made from cows’ milk. The strawberry-tree flourishes near Kil- larney, with a trunk 3 feet in diameter. The Tcha , or Tea-tree, flourishes best in a light soil : it is raised from seeds sown in spring and transplanted in rows three or four feet asunder. After three years the leaves are plucked, and the plants yield three years’ crops and are then renewed. They resemble myrtles, and their flowers are like the wild white rose. In some pro- vinces they grow six or seven feet high, and in others ten or twelve. They are often made use of for hedge-rows, and the leaves gathered for domestic use. The leaves at the extremities are the best, and in spring of bright green. When gathered, they are first steamed, and then placed on copper, iron, or earthen plates over fires, by which they are shrivelled and curled up. The black teas are then exposed to the sun. The leaves of some other shrubs are so like that they are often fraudulently mixed. The common sorts are sold in China at 4 d. per pound, and the superior at 2s. — The addi- tions in foreign countries arise from freight, profit, and government-duties, and the pro- fits of the Chinese merchants is from 25 to 50 per cent. Green teas are chiefly produced in the province of Kianguan ; the difference is be- lieved to arise from the black being dried on iron plates, and the green on copper plates. The sanglo green teas are so called from a mountain of that name, on and round which the shrubs grow. Haysuen , or hyson, is sold at double the sanglo. Tchu-tcha or gun-powder tea is rolled up by the hand, and sold at treble the sanglo. Black teas are grown chiefly in the pro- vince of Fo-kien. The Chinese prefer it to green tea, as a better stomachic ; the com- monest sort is called bouy or bohea. Con- gou or coagfoo is a finer kind, sold at double the price. — Saot-chong or souchong is the best kind and sold at treble. Pekao is ano- ther superior kind, but milder. The tender leaves of young plants are called mastcha , or tea for the emperor. The cultivation of Tea is not general tnroughout the Chinese empire ; the nor- thern parts are too cold, and the southern too warm. The plant is the growth of a region betv een the 30 and 33 degrees of latitude, called the tea-country, Tok-yen, Ho -ping, An-koy, &c. The trees are planted four or five feet asunder ; and are not allowed to grow higher than it is conve- nient to pick the leavei The gatherings take place from one to four times in each year, according to the age of the plant. It j is the difference in the times of gathering, and manner of curing, which causes the distinction in appearance, qualities, and value. Those which are gathered earliest in the spring make the strongest and most valuable teas, such as pekoe, souchong, &c. ; the inferior, such as congou, bohea, are of the latest gatherings ; green or hyson can be made of any of the gatherings, by different drying. The first gathering of the leaves begins about the middle of April, and conti- nues to the end of May ; the second lasts from Midsummer to the end of July ; the third during August and September. The Chinese keep tea a year ; generally in those jars which in Europe are used as chimney ornaments. They infuse it in boil- ing water, and drink it without milk or sugar. They frequently reduce it to fine powder, and put a tea-spoonful into a cup, fill it with boiling water, stir it, and drink it. The Japanese cultivate this shrub as well as the Chinese. The best tea drank in China is the yu-tien , consisting of the youngest buds of the tree. The tea of Paraguay is called caa. It thrives best in marshes, and the gathering the leaves is an obnoxious and very un- hralthy employment. It is, however, the common beverage, and deemed a good sto- machic. Tea was first introduced into Europe, about 1660, and sold at 60s. per pound, and hence coveted as a luxury ; 45 millions of pounds are now used in the United King- dom, and about 4 millions of pounds, or one-fifth, of sloe, liquorish, and ash-leaves, are alleged to be annually mixed with tea- leaves. Captains Jenkins and Charlton, in 1835, determined that the tea plant is not only indigenous, but cultivated, prepared, and used in Assam, on the Boorampooter, all the way from Tadiga and Beesa to Yunnan, in China. Every 5 pounds of green leaves produce 1 of dried, and they pass seven times through the process. The genuine tea plant is distinguished, from its likeness to the camellia, by the shape of the seed, that of the former being round, produced in three distinct cells, and the latter being oblong with broad and narrow ends. The true tea plant rises 12 or 15 feet. The leaves are serrate about 2 inches long, and 1 wide, and they are heated and rolled several times till reduced to a fifth of their green weight. The plants live from 10 to 20 years, and they are propagated by seed in beds, and transplanted when 4 or 5 inches high ; so that when grown, they are 1$ yard asunder, and each bush is about 2 feet dia- meter. 12 plants produce 1 pound of tea. On the spot, the prepared leaves sell at 23 dollars per pecul, 133| pounds. The dis« VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 229 covery being made, it is expected that Assam tea will become an object of great speculation, a company of Chinese cultiva- tors, from Yunnan and Fahkin, being already employed. All books in Cingalese, relative to the re- ligion of Buddhoo, are written on the leaves of the talipot. The character is engraved upon them with a brass, or an iron style. Some of these books are 500 and 600 years old, and still very perfect. This leaf is also used in Ceylon as a mark of distinction and in making" tents, large enough to hold a party of ten persons at table. One leaf affords sufficient shelter for seven or eight persons from rain. The Teasel , used in raising the nap in •woollen cloths, is the flower of the dipsacus fullonum, cultivated in clothing districts. They are fixed on a cylinder, and revolved against the cloth. They are chiefly grown on strong soils in Gloucestershire, &c. and are very important crops. They are sold in packs of 9 or 10,000, at 61. or 71 . , and a pack is used in 6 or 7 pieces. The tillandria, a species of aloe, yields by tapping, from 1 to 2 quarts of pure water. Tobacco was brought to Europe from Tabaca in St. Domingo, by a Spaniard, in 1559, and sent from Lisbon to Paris, by Nicot the French ambassador.— In Virginia, Tobacco is a very exhausting crop, and severe labour attends the operations. An acre yields about 1400 cwt. The United Kingdom imports of it 21f millions pounds, and only §ds of a million from other coun- tries. It is, however, grown everywhere, except in this revenue-ridden country, where the duty is eight or ten times the price of the article. The upas-tree, the antiaris toxicaria , or poison-tree, grows in Java to the height of 100 feet, and 6 feet diameter. Its emana- tions affect some persons and not others, but none fatally. It yields a bitter light-coloured juice, from which poison is extracted. The same island also yields a parasite, whose resin is still more poisonous. The parasitical vegetable which occasions the dry-rot in ships, is a gigantic leather- like fungus, called xylostroma giganteum , or oak-leather : and that which causes the dry-rot in houses is a parasite of fir, called voletos lacrymans. The fungus appears to grow on the timber, and extract its cohesive parts. Wet-rot has no fungus, but separates rather than decomposes the fibres of the wood. Dry-rot first appears in the sap-ves- sels of the alburnum, and on the surface beneath the bark. It is reticulated, but as it proceeds the meshes are filled up, and a Jeather-like fungus appears. Fermentation, as in the case of mushrooms, seems essential to the growth of fungi which accompany dry- rot, and hence live trees are not affected by the seeds of fungi, or they might be con- verted into mushrooms, and other fungi. Size and Age of Trees , Sfc. The Wallace oak, near Paisley, is full 700 years old. An oak in Dorsetshire, in 1755, 230 was 68 feet round ; 2 near Cranborne Lodge are 38 and 36 feet. A Polish oak, 40 feet round, had 600 circles. There are yews from 10 to 20 feet diame- ter, whose age is from 1000 to 2000 years. A lime in the Grisons is 51 feet round, and about 600 years old. An elm in the Pays de Vaud is 18 feet diameter, and 360 years old. Some olives, near Jerusalem, are 800 years old. A dragon’s-blood tree, in Teneriffe, was 48 feet round, and 1000 years old. The banian, or / ecus Indica , is a collec- tion of trunks shooting downwards; and the cubbeer burr , near Baroach, has 350 main trunks, and 3000 small ones. It is believed to be 3000 years old. A sweet chesnut on mount Etna is 200 feet round, 2 others are 7 2 and 64 feet. The African baohab is the patriarch of living organizations. One specimen, by its circles, is estimated at 5700 years old, by Adamson and Humboldt. The trunk is but 12 or 15 feet to the branches, and often 75 feet round. Cypresses are known to be 8 or 900 years old. They rise 120 feet, and are from 25 to 40 feet round. Strabo speaks of one in Persia, 2500 years old. One in Mexico 120 feet round, and De Candolle considers it older than Adamson’s baohab. The plane or button tree, or sycamore, runs from 50 to 150 feet round. They often become hollow and useful as’ habitations. Pines in North America grow 160 and 180 feet high. Some on the Columbia are 230 feet, and 50 or 60 feet round. For 120 feet they have no branches. One of 300 feet high, had no limbs for 200 feet. The mahogany is full grown in 200 years to a vast size. A single log has weighed 7 tons, and sold for 500 guineas. Thistles in the Pampas are 1C feet high, and clover rises 4 or 5 feet. Marigolds and camomiles in North Africa grow to 4 or 5 feet. The fucus pyriferus is 300 feet long. The rhododendron grows to 30 ft. in India. Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, for 1828, describes a new genus, the telfairia pedata of the Mauritius, the fruit of which is an enormous berry, or pepo, from 18 to 26 inches long, and 6 or 8 across. It contains five cells, filled with fleshy pulp, in which 2 or 300 seeds are imbedded, the size of a kidney-bean, and of the quality of an almond, for oil, &c. The gigantic flower Rafflesia was disco**’ vered in the interior of Sumatra. It is pa- rasitical, growing on thec&sws angustifolius. The whole plant consists of flower and root. The diameter of the flower is three feet , and some parts of the calyx or corolla are three- fourths of an inch in thickness. The vine at Hampton Court surpasses any in Europe. It is the black Hamburgh spe- cies, and is 72 feet by 20. It has, in one season, produced 2272 bunches, weighing 18 cwt. It was planted in 1769, and the stem, in 1810, was 13 inches. 12 231 VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 232 Of the gum-tree, in Van Dieman’s Land, there are 100 different species, some of them 150 feet high, and 40 feet round. There are also 100 species of the leafless acacia, and these two kinds of trees chiefly compose the woods of the country. The eucalyptus, or gum-tree, grows to 180 feet high and 36 feet round. The forests in watered troiical climates are formed of trees from 100 to 200 feet high, which grow to the water’s edge of rivers, presenting a solid and impenetrable cliff* of trunks 10 or 12 feet in diameter. The dragon-tree is in girth from 40 to 100 feet, and 50 or 60 high ; and a misosa, in South America, is described, whose head was 600 feet round. South American trees are often 22 feet in circumference. In such trees, 1 80 feet high, what a wonderful assemblage of cells and vessels preserving organic life in them for 1000 years ! The Damary oak, near Brentwood, was sixty-eight feet round, and seventeen feet above the ground ; was twelve feet in dia- meter. A chesnut-tree on Etna is 196 feet round close to the ground ; and five of its branches resemble great trees. A chesnut-tree grew at Tamworth, which was fifty-two feet round ; it was planted in the year 800 ; and in the reign of Stephen, in 1135, was a boundary, called the Great Chesnut Tree. In 1759 it bore nuts, which produced young trees. Dry reeds, twenty feet high, cover tracts of hundreds of square miles in the Burmean territory. An oak-tree in three years grows 2 feet 10£ inches. A larch 3 feet 7f inches. An elm 8 feet 3 inches. A beech 1 foot 8 inches. A poplar 6 feet. A willow 9 feet 3 inches. An elm is full-grown in 150 years, and it lives 5 or 600. Ash is full-grown in 100, and oak in 200. The yew-trees at Fountain’s Abbey are about 1200 years old. That at Crowhurst 1500. That at Fortingal above 2000. That at Braburn from 2500 to 3000. The famous^cws Indica of the Nerbudda is believed to be 2500 years old. Ivys reach 5 or 600 years. The larch the same. The lime 600 or 700 years. Cy- presses not less. A chesnut in Gloucester- shire is 900, and one at Sancerre 600 years. A plane-tree, near Constantinople, is 160 feet round, and is mentioned by Pliny. Two orange-trees at Rome, planted by St. Dominick and Thomas Aquinas, are from 600 to 600 years. De Candolle says there are oaks in France 1500 years old. The tree of Chapultepec, in Mexico, is 1 1 8 feet round. The California pine is from 150 to 200 feet high, and from 20 to 60 in circumference. A yew found in the bogs had 545 rings of annual growth, though its diameter was but 18 inches. There were 100 rings in an inch. In Penan, the tootoman-tree grows to 115 feet before it branches, and is 3 7 feet in girth for 10 feet high. There is a cedar at High Clare, 3£ feet ins diameter, a yard from the ground. The American aloe grows at Salcombe Bay, in Devonshire. In 1820, one was 27 feet high, and had, in September, 16,000 blossoms, then but 19 years old. Tho largest pine ever grown in this king- dom was cut from the hot-house of Mr. Edwards, of Rheola. It weighed 14 pounds 12 ounces, was 12£ inches high, and 26 inches round. The large black Hamburgh vine, at Sell- wood Park, was brought from Sion Hill gardens, in 1810. About the fourth or fifth year, it nearly filled the house, which was lengthened. The present length is about 100 feet, breadth 14 feet; number of bunches on the vine 1200. Many of the bunches weigh upwards of 2 pounds. The troolie leaves, used for roofs in De- merara, are 20 to 30 feet long and 2 or 3- broad. They spring directly from the root,, and are very durable. The largest tree in Mexico is near Oaxaco, and is 127 feet round and 120 high, with branches of 30 feet. The cypress of Monte- zuma is 41 feet round, and of majestic heighth. The trunk of a walnut-tree, 12 feet in diameter, hollowed out, and furnished as a sitting-room, was lately imported from Lake Erie, and exhibited in London. The trunk was 80 feet high, without a branch, and the entire heighth 150 feet. The bark 12 inches thick, and the branches from three to four feet in diameter. The old apple-tree was in existence, in 1820, at Woolstrope, from which Newton saw an apple fall in 1665. The cedars of Lebanon are now reduced to a single grove of 7 ancient trees, and others of all sizes. Terebinth-trees, the El-Elah of the Bible, live 1500 or 2000 years, but neglect has ren- dered them scarce in Syria- Stringy bark- trees, 200 to 213 feet high, and from 28 to 55 feet round, are not uncom- mon at Van Dieman’s Land. Sassafras, 1 40 feet high, and myrtles 30 feet. Progression of Plants . The only indigenous fruit of Britain were the sloe, currant, black-berry, straw-berry, cran-berry, elder-berry, hips, haws, acorns, hazel-nuts, and beech-mast. Carrots, celery, beet, sea-kale, and mushrooms were our pri- mitive vegetables. In the reign of Henry VIII. the London markets were supplied with vegetables from Holland and the Netherlands. The Exotics, hardy and tender, introduced into England, are 11,970 species, 47 before Elizabeth, 533 in her reign ; 964 in the 17th century, and the remainder since 1760. Sallads, artichokes, carrots, and turnips, were first cultivated in England, about 1530 Cauliflowers in 1680. Hops and spinach in 1520. Pine-apples in 1696. Potatoes and tobacco in Ireland in 1603. VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 233 Sea-kale became edible about 1780. The Saracens introduced the sugar-cane into the islands of the Mediterranean and Old Spain, where these plantations still flou- rish. Hence it was conveyed to the Cana- ries, and then to the West Indies. The fig, vine, olive, and pomegranate, are the earliest noticed fruit-trees cultivated by mankind in the temperate zone. Italy was supplied with the fig from Syria, the citron from Media, the peach and nec- tarine from Persia, the pomegranate from Africa, the apricot from Epirus, the apple, pear, and plum from Armenia, and the cherry from Pontus. From hence they have been spread over Europe ; The fig-tree, about 1548 Lavender 1568 Laurestina 1596 Different mulberries . . . .1548, 1596, 1629 The larch 1629 Common laurel 1679 Weeping-willow .... 1692 The flowering-ash 1710 Roses came from Persia, and into Persia from India. They abound in the countries round the Caspian. The potato was a native of Chili, but known in England at the Reformation, and its culinary preparation described by Ge- rarde. Turnips were introduced into England from Hanover, in 1716, The larch was first imported into England in 1735, and taken to Scotland in 1737. 1000 trees have been sold for 5000/. The walnut and peach came from Persia. The vine and apricot from Armenia. The cherry, chesnut, fig, olive, and mulberry, from Asia Minor. The damask rose was brought in the Crusades from Damascus. Henna is a plant much esteemed in Egypt, &c. for its yellow dye of the hair, skin, &c. The vines in Syria produce bunches of 10 or 12 pounds, and 20 inches long with grapes like small plums. Fig-trees also give two or three crops. The sycamore is a wild fig- tree. The pomegranate is a fruit prized at Aleppo, and the carob or locust-tree has pods of seeds and pulp, the juice of which is. used for preserves, &c. Potatoes were introduced from England to the continent in the reign of George I. Into Switzerland about 1730, and into France between 1760 and the Revolution. Sugar-cane, in Arabic, is lukseb : and sugar, assakur ; hence, therefore, the com- mercial name. Coffee was first used in Arabia about 1426, and was introduced at Cairo in 1530, at Constantinople in 1554, at Venice in 1615, at Paris 1644, and in London 1652. The Dutch introduced its cultivation at Batavia in 1669, the French at Martinico in 1727, and the English at Jamaica in 1728. It is indigenous in St. Domingo, Abyssinia, Zan- guibar, and Guyana. In Yemen it grows 18 feet high. Rye and wheat were indigenous in Tar- tary. Wheat was first cultivated by Dagon, or 234 Ahsieriates, in Phoenicia. Rye was a native of Candia, but now flourishes in Orkuey, where its straw is made into bonnets. The Jerusalem artichoke is a native of Brazil. The common artichoke, cardoon, and liquorice-root, of Spain. Onions and beans are Egyptian and African. Endive and radishes are Chinese. Lettuce and cress from the Levant. Beet and hemp are American. The vine was brought from Asia by the early Greeks, and flourished in France be- fore Caesar’s invasion. The nectarine is a variety of the peach, and the peach is derived from the almond. The shaddock, citron, orange, and lemon, are improvements of wild lime. Celery is derived from smallage. Filberts, &c. are improvements of the hazel-nut. The plum had its origin in the sloe. The apple-tribe are varieties of the crab The small colewort is the origin of the cabbage, brocoli, and cauliflower. Sea-kale and asparagus were insignificant marine plants. By culture, the marine brassica oleracea is in our gardens, the cabbage, cauliflower, savoy, kale, brocoli, and turnip-cabbage. The wild briar is the parent of the rose ; the sloe of plums, peaches, apricots, and nectarines ; the crab of apples of all kinds ; and corn the improvement of grass. An olive has been grafted on a juniper, a peach upon a myrtle, pears upon oaks, apples on planes, mulberries on figs, a rose on an orange, carnations on fennel, peaches on mulberries, and red and white grapes, with peaches and apricots on the same stem ; for as all buds are distinct trees, and the stem furnishes nutriment, so any bud in- serted uses the passive stock for its own support. All do not assort, and many decay. Botanical Memoranda. The first green incrustation on rocks and walls, called Byssus , a species of moss, leaves a thin stratum of earth for a second crop ; and, in fine, for wall-plants. Lichens and mosses are the first vegetables that grow on rocks : and in long time create soil for others by their remains. Linnaeus considers trees as all root, and the trunk and branches as roots above- ground, and the roots as subterraneous stem. Trees are aggregates of individuals or buds, each being, in effect, a distinct tree ; and their aggregate roots are the fibres of the tree descending to the ground. Hence, br mcnes with buds grow when planted. In the rhiieophista, the roots are aerian. The moat active parts of an old tree are the layers next the bark. Growth and much nourishment diminishes flowers, and rapid growth supercedes them. Stigmata and stamens often become petals. Bulbs are buds under-ground. Plants in Water grow, but die early j an oak in water lived 8 years. 235 VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 236 In England, the following is the order in which plants flower in spring : — . In January , the black hellebore and sweet colt’s-foot. > In February , the crocus, the snow-drop, the polyanthus, and the hepatica and daisy. In March , the early violet, the primrose, the daffodil, the pile wort, and the red dead nettle. In April , the cowslip, the crowfoot, the harebell, the lady’s smock, the wood-anemone, the dandelion, wood- sorrel, and the wild yellow tulip. Field-plants flower as tinder, on the ave- rage of seasons : — In January , grounsel, hazel, chick-weed, maiden hair, hart’s tongue. In February , shepherd’s purse, daisy, lung-wort. In March , green hellebore, golden saxi- frage, fumitory, speedwell, heart’s-ease, violet, lady’s smock. In April , ground ivy, dandelion, stitch- wort, blackthorn, buttercup, crowfoot, hare- bell, bugle, and globe-flower. From this time till autumn all vegetation flowers. In October, November, and De- cember, only the mosses and yew-trees ; but many blow till Christmas. The first flowers of the year, or in March, are the daphne mezereum, thymeleee ; fucus vesiculosus, helleborus fcetidus, ranuncu - lacece ; tussilago fart'ara, compositce tribe corymbifer ; viola odorata, violaceee. Snowdrop appears Dec. 24 Feb. 10 Turnip flowers Jan. 10 June 18 Wood-anemone blows Mar. 16 Apr. 22 Hawthorn leaf Feb. 11 Apr. 22 Hawthorn flowers Apr. 13 June 2 Sycamore leaf Feb. 22 May 4 Birch leaf Feb. 21 May 4 Elm leaf Mar. 4 May 6 Mountain. ash leaf Mar. 5 May 2 Oak leaf Mar. 31 May 20 Beech leaf Apr. 5 May 10 Horse-chest-nut leaf .... Mar. 10 May 2 Spanish-chestnut leaf Mar. 28 May 12 Hornbeam leaf Mar. 7 May 7 Ash leaf Apr. 2 May 26 Lime leaf Mar. 19 May 7 Maple leaf Mar. 15 May 7 Flowers of one climate do not open at the same hour in others. Thus, an African plant which opens at 6, if removed to France will not open till 9, nor in Sweden till 10. Those which do not open in Africa till noon, do not open in Europe. In charcoal, the microscope discriminates vessels, or tubes, of which there must be millions in a square inch. In a square inch of oak, or gourd, there are 12 millions of such tubes or cells. In stems of herbs the small bunches of vessels consist of from 100 to 500. Through these tubes the fluids ascend in spring, beforo the formation of buds and leaves ; they are larger as they recede from the centre. The pores in leaves are, per square inch, 13.000 in the vine, 64,000 in the ilex, and 160.000 in the hydrangia and syringa. It is this minute structure which enables vegetables to secrete from dead matter those corpuscles which constitute the substance of all living matter, as a new order of subsist- ence in all the forms of organized being. The comparative quantities of Produce on an Acre , in Pounds weight, during the Season, of certain Vegetables. Pounds per Acre. Time Growing. Mangel Wurzel.. 22,000 12 Months Parsnips 11,200 9 do. Cabbages 10,900 6 do. Vetches (Green) 9,800 4 do. Cinque-foil Grass 9,600 12 do. Turnips 8,420 6 do. Apples 8,000 12 do. Potatoes 7,500 8 do. Carrots 6,800 9 do. Grass 7,000 12 do. with feed Pears 5,000 12 Months Hay 4,000 12 do. and feed Onions 2,800 6 Months Plums, Cherries, ■» and other fruits} 2,000 12 do. Beans 2,000 8 do. Peas 1.920 8 do. Oats 1,840 8 do. Barley 1,600 7 do. Wheat 1,260 12 do. Hops 448 12 do. Every part of a tree and plant contains spiral vessels, except the bark and pith, and they seem to be the germs, or basis of all the tubes ; and this may be the mode of raising the fluids, since the weight would be diminished by the inclined planes of the spirals. In fact, the tubes themselves are spirals or the cases for spirals. Cellular texture and these tubes make up the wood. The wood of trees is annually formed by a single ring of vessels, which at first sur- round the pith, and in each following year a new ring of vessels is formed around the preceding ; so that the timber consists of a series of annual rings, enclose ! in each other. The outer one being whiter and more juicy, is called sap-wood or alburnum. Leaves have their origin in the bark. Those near the root are called radical ; higher on the stem, cauline ; near the flower, floral. Leaves consist of the petiole , or stem ; the lamina, an expansion of the skin of the petiole ; and the stipules , rudi- mentary leaves and sometimes spines. After the sap ceases to flow, the leaves supply moisture to the bark, till then quite dry, and, therefore, this is a descending circulation. The sap of the bark and that of the wood is different. The pith is composed of cellular texture, filled with fluid or air. , But its uses have no relation to the medullary system in ani- mals. The wood is cellular texture, or the tubes fit to convey fluids in fasciculi from the root ; more compact towards the centre, and more expanded towards the bark, which binds the whole, while it is itself sustained by the leaves. The leaves of the mimosa genus collapse either by touch or in the night, or by cold j VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 237 238 and the foot-stalks are the most sensitive to The wooden sculptures and mummy cases touch. The species scandens spreads to a in Egyptian tombs are found perfect, and vast extent from tree to tree, and has pods only the metal parts decayed. The image eight feet long. The late experiments of of Diana of Ephesus, of ebony, was perfect, Dutrochet led him to conclude that the after seven destructions of her Temple. mimosa pitdica possesses the elements of a Foundation-piles are perfect after 1000 years, nervous system. All the motions are spon- The Bushy Labyrinth at Hampton- Court, taneous, and depend on a nervous principle, which receives impressions externally. The hedysarum gyrans, according to Lin- naeus, possesses, in its leaves and petioles, the power of loco-motion, seldom being quiescent ; the different leaves all over the plant moving variously up and down, round about, &c. Sexual plants have spiral vessels, and are asculares. Cryptogamia are cellulares. Metals are absorbed or secreted by plants. Quinine and coffee contain copper. Oak, iron ; and vines, pine, and fig, manganese. The fragrance of the carnation led me (says Sir John Hill,) to enjoy it frequently and near ; and while the sense of smelling was satiated with the powerful scent, the ear was constantly attacked by an extremely soft but agreeable murmuring sound. I distended the lower part of the flower, and placing it in a full light, could discover, by means of microscopes, troops of insects frisking and capering with wild jollity among the narrow pedestals that supported its leaves. I admired their elegant limbs, their velvet shoulders, their backs, vyeing with the empyreum blue, and their eyes. Sir J. E. Smith, the botanist, would not pluck a flower for fear of giving pain ; and others object, owing to multitudes of ani- malculae which flourish in every flower. Pinks enlarge watered by solution of nitre. Katraan, a vegetable tar, obtained near Moch i and in Arabia, is the most powerful preservative against putrefaction yet dis- covered, and was the substance employed by the Egyptians in preserving mummies. Turf is 30 feet deep in upper marshes, and it grows 30 inches in a century. In Hanover it grows 8 feet in 60 years. In the apricot there is a pulpy part, an osseous part, and in the centre the kernel ; and the pulp and the stone, or osseous part, consisting of cellular tissue. The seed is con- nected with the stone by an umbilical cord. Within the ovulum is an inner tunic filled with cellular tissue, and a small tube, the apex of which is the embryo. The pulp of the pear is made up of very fine cellular tissue, every where furnished with vessels. In the centre are five cells, each containing two seeds, severally at- tached by an umbilical cord. Throughout the pulpy matter solid particles are dis- persed, chiefly about the core, and they serve as centres to little knots of vessels, of which the^e are fifteen principal ones, and ten of them connected with the seeds. Small quantities of tannin and acids hin- der vegetation ; but alkalies promote it. A similitude has been established be- tween feathers and prickles in their offices. Vegetable butter is in general use in Africa, and is potted ; also palm-oil. called the Maize, is in imitation of one in Holland, but the largest and most intricate in Europe is that of Versailles. That at Hampton- Court stands on two acres of ground. There were ancient ones at Crete and in Egypt, built with walls. Knight considers flowers as products of the pith, wood, and bark. Flowers have different temperatures. When the Richardiere CEthiopica is 55, the rosa odorata is 56, and the amaryllis John- son 56. When the kerria Japonica is 56, the anemone double red is 5 75, while the atmosphere is but 54°. The fertility of the West India Islands has been greatly abated within memory — the crops being but half or a third, owing to exportation of produce without return of manure, and the diminution of rain from cutting down woods. Henry VI. forbade the planting of hops, and Henry VIII. forbade the use of “ hops and sulphur.” Hops now occupy nearly 50,000 acres, and flavour and preserve the eight millions of barrels of beer brewed from 30 millions bushels of malt. Flinders suggests the advantage of plant- ing cocoa and other productive trees on all sand-banks, &c. for the relief of wrecks. Cocoas, Bananas, and Mangroves, are the first trees of coral reefs; and pines, oaks, and chesnuts, soon rise on streams of lava. In the Netherlands and Holland fruit- trees are not nailed to walls, but tied to rods, planted and fixed a short distance from the wall, with immense benefit. In Armenia, castor-oil is used for lamps, and palma christi much cultivated. Apples ripen in order : the juncating, the codlin, the margaret, the pearmain, the golden rennette, the russet, the nonpareil, the golden pippin. Those used for cyder are the red-streak, the royal wilding, white- sour, the John, the hanger, and the gennet. Hops entwine to the left, and convolvulus to the right. Tendrils bend to the left and back again. The herb-shops, in London, have 500 spe- cies on sale. The Botanical and Horticultural Estab- lishments, in England, of pre-eminent in- terest are that at Kew, a royal establish- ment, which contains specimens of all indi- genous plants, and of many rare and o'ther exotics, classed and arranged in fine order ; the Horticultural Society’s Garden, at Turn- ham Green, consisting of an arrangement of flowers and shrubs ; the Horticultural and Botanical grounds of Curtis, of Glazenwood, between Coggeshall and Braintree, consist- ing of 50 acres of all the flowers and fruits which bear the English climate ; Loddige’s Nursery Grounds at Hackney v which claim notice for superb palms ; the' Duke £if Nor- VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 239 240 tliumberland’s extensile and costly conser- vatory at Sion in Middlesex. The Royal Botanical Societies’ Gardens in the Regent’s Park, &e. The Jar din des Plantes , at Paris, dates its origin from the 17th century ; and, as a school of botany and vegetable culture, is the first establishment of the kind in Eu- rope. Plants are brought from all countries, by universal correspondence, and by natu- ralists, sent out at the expence of the nation. Every warlike, exploring, or com- mercial expedition, is accompanied by na- turalists, officially appointed or voluntarily admitted. Plants received in the Paris garden are propagated without loss of time, and distributed to all the botanic gardens of France, of which there is at least one in every department. Roxburgh’s Indian Flora proves that every part of India has been explored by botanists under the patronage of the Com- pany. Their Garden, at Calcutta, employs 300 persons in naturalizing plants of other countries, and in cultivating rare oriental ones, under the enlightened management of Dr. Wailich. There is no circulating system in plants, only an ascending and descending current. The epidendron, flos aeris, or Chinese air- plant, lives in and on air ; flowers, and gives out fragrance without any root. The orchis latafolio appears to walk by the oscillation of two bulbs. Male and female plants, as in turnips and spinach, are to each other from 700 or 900 to 1000. Plants are mature for propagation as they are well or ill-nourished, and this appears to hold in animals, and the human species. In the West Indies the bread-fruit tree, transported from the South-sea Islands, has oeen attended with no success. Many plants close on the approach of rain. Wheat and barley-straw melts into glass before the blow-pipe ; and bamboo is con- verted into the highly-refractory tabasheer crystal. The equisetum contains so much silica as to abrade brass. Twelve yards square of Banana plants yield 4000 pounds of fruit, while the same area of wheat would be but 33 pounds, and of potatoes 100 pounds. The blossoms of heaths cover moors, the blue gentians the mountains in Switzerland, poppies confer redness on fields of grain, the beard of cotton-grass whitens marshes, and the blossoms of cardamine bleaches pastures. The sea-side sedge, the sea lyme-grass, and the sea-reed or arundi arenaria flourish on sandy shores and bind by their roots. The oak supports hundreds of species of insects, besides ferns, lichens, mosses, &c., and affording apples, gall-nuts, acorns, &c. Part of the interior of the white mulberry is composed of a tissue of beautiful white fibres of silk, much resembling China silk, which leads to the inference that silk is a vegetable, not an animal product, that is to say, that the basis of the material, in its proximate form, is derived from the vege- table kingdom, though the spinning of its substance into a lengthened thread is entirely due to the mechanical functions of the silk- worm. Black produces the best fruit. The bark of the papyrifera species is employed in Japan to make paper, and it also makes fine white cloth. It was the misletoe , parasite of the oak, which the Druids reverenced. Similar su- perstitions prevailed in Greece. Grape-wine used to be produced in Eng- land, and might still be produced, if the vines were pollards, or trained near the ground as in France. The leaves of the hawthorn are an excel- lent substitute for Chinese tea. The cypress flourishes in gigantic size when its roots are six months under water. Fairy rings are ascribed to expanding fungi, which in a circle of enlarged dimen- sions exhaust themselves. Cuba has a scented climbing- plant whose leaves are as hard as wood. Eighty existing plants are depicted on Egyptian monuments, and many have been found in mummies. New walls and roofs are covered by the gymnostomium ovatum, and the lanceolata. The three great oceans present vast ex- tents or banks of sea-weeds, often like mea- dows. They prevail west of the Azores, between lat 25^ and 36°. Black lead pencil-cases are made from the wood of a juniper-tree. The culture of coffee is now preferred to the vine in Madeira. In the generation of mushrooms by com- posts, only one species appears, the agaricus campestres, and the sporules of these are infinite in number and minute in bulk. When trees are felled in the lofty forests of the Alps, they are then conveyed to the water by slides. The slide of Alpnach, on Mount Pilatus, is above eight miles long, and consists of 25,000 trees, stript of their bark, laid at an inclination of 1(P to 18°. The trees run down it in six minutes. Tournefort mentions that, in Provence, the maturation of figs is hastened by prick- ing them at the open end with a straw dipped in olive oil. A similar practice pre- vails in Syria. The down of thistles was spun by the an- cients to make acanthine garments. Red snow is coloured by a fungus, the protococcus nivalis. The truffle grows under-ground. Fungi grow on all animal matters. Paper, and, in damp places, glass, generate peculiar conferva. Also, wine-casks, goulard- water, &c. Salt and glass-worts grow near salt-pans. Algse, fuci, ulvae, &c. grow in the sea. The flowers of aquatic plants fructify at the surface only. Docks, nettles, &c. sustained by animal substances, always follow man A fungus in mines yields light Orchideae, or air-plants, have no roots, and derive support from air. VEGETABLE KINGDOM 241 New Holland produces acacia without leaves, and large petioles in place. Potatoes grow at Quito 10,000 feet above the sea ; but olives not above 1250 feet. Wheat grows at the heighth of 1000 feet, and oats and potatoes at 2000, in England. Barley has 2, 4, or 6 ranks. The Scotch call the 4 Bigg ; and the 6, Barley Bigg. Within the tropics few trees are ever divested of their foliage. In the Mediterra- nean region about 300 retain their leaves ; the middle temperate zone has 40, the nor- thern 24, and the arctic but 8 or 9. Hot-houses are now most advantageously heated by hot-water, a plan tirst adopted by Marsland, of Stockport, by which he sup- plied London tables with pines and grapes. Indian arrows are poisoned by the milky juice of manchineel, of the euphorbian genus. Rhodium is the scented wood of the Chi- nese rose-tree. Yellow saunders is another eastern scented wood. Cassia lignum is a scented bark from Ceylon. Cinnamon bark is well known for its fine scent. Clove bark is another of these scented vegetables. Poisonous plants have the fruit a berry, the flower a single petal, and the fructifica- tion of five stamens and one pistillum. Vines of the most delicious kinds are indigenous on the Arkansas. Dr. Charles Hutton, who hated supersti- tion in every form, asserts that in his pre- sence, and that of other persons, a lady de- tected a spring of water by the bending downward of a hazel-twig. Dutch gardens were straight walks with dipt hedges of yew, holly, or box. Kent, Phillips, Brown, and Repton were the fathers of the open English garden system. The taste for flowers proceeded from China and Persia 2 or 3 centuries since. The flower trade in Holland was memora- ble. Haarlem was the centre of it. In 1636 and 1637, the tulip mania prevailed in Hol- land. Bulbs, which the seller did not pos- sess, were sold at enormous prices, on condi- tion that they should be delivered at a given time. 13,000 florins were paid for a single semper-Augustus ; for three of them toge- ther, 30,000 florins ; for 148 grains weight, 4500 florins ; for 296 grains of admiral-Lief- kenshoek, more than 4000 florins ; for admi- ral Enkhuizen, more than 5000, &c. For a Viceroy , on one occasion, was paid 4 tons of wheat, 8 tons of rye, 4 fat oxen, 8 pigs, 12 sheep, 2 hogsheads of wine, 4 barrels of beer, 2 barrels of butter, 1000 pounds of cheese, a bundle of clothes, and a silver pitcher. At an auction in Alcmaer, some bulbs were sold for more than 90,000 florins. An indi- vidual in Amsterdam gained more than 68,000 florins, by this trade, in four months. In one city of Holland, it is said, more than 10,000,000 tulip bulbs were sold. But when, on account of the purchasers refusing to pay the sums agreed upon, the states-general (April 27, 1637) ordered that such sums should be exacted, like other debts, in the common way, the extravagant prices fell at once, and a Semper-Augustus could be had for 50 florins. Even at present, 25 to 150 242 florins is the price of a single rare tulip, m the catalogues of florists. Haarlem still continues to be the emporium. Hyacinths first began to rise in estimation in 1730. In that year 1850 florins were paid for passe- non-plus-ultra, and in the same proportion for others* Between Alcmaer and Leyden there are more than 20 acres of land appro- priated to hyacinths alone, which thrive best in a loose and sandy soil. 12 or 13 great florists in and around Haarlem, send their flowers to Germany, Russia, England, &c.. End even to Turkey, the Cape, &c. The dendrometer is an instrument for taking the exact contents of standing trees. To obtain the figure of a plant, rub a piece of paper with powdered dragon’s blood, in the manner practised by engravers, and then the small branch or leaf, of which the design is required, is to be laid upon it ; by means of slight friction, it soon takes up a small quantity of the powder, and moist- ened paper, an impression is taken. In France, vines grow like raspberry- bushes ; in England, they are trained high against a wall ; and, in Savoy, they are trained around the trunks of decayed trees. An acre of ground will contain 43,560 plants, at 12 inches apart; 19,360, at 18 inches; 10,890, at 2 feet; and, of course, 4,840 a yard asunder; 2,722, at 4 feet; at 10 feet but 435, and at 20 feet but 108. Vegetable life being a process of chemis- try, and its products exhibiting every variety of elemental combination, so as animal dis- eases are chiefly elemental disturbances these are corrected by vegetable prepara- tions. The materia medica consists, there- fore, almost entirely of vegetable products, with a few earths and some metals. Peruvian and cascarilla Bark , and ca- momile flowers, are powerful tonics. The Bitter principle prevails in quassia, gentian, hops, camomile, and some others ; it has been made by chemists as quinine. Starch, the product of tuberose roots and grain-like vegetables, is a white insipid powder, which with boiling-water forms nu- tritious jelly, and in various forms is the basis of most animal food. Treated with water and a 50th of sulphuric acid it forms sugar, or with dry gluten it gives half sugar. It is, in fact, part sugar and part other matter. Potato-starch consists of 43 48 car- bon, 49 45 oxygen, and 7 06 hydrogen, and 1£ pounds give 1| sugar, which is 44 carbon, 49 oxygen, and 7 hydrogen. Oils are the product, by pressure, of the seed of nearly 100 trees or shrubs ; olive-oil is 77 -2 carbon, 9 4 oxygen, 13 4 hydrogen. Alcohol, in every form, is derived from the fermentation of vegetable products. It is 43 65 carbon, 37 85 oxygen, 14 94 hydro- gen, and 3 52 nitrogen. The preparations are fully described in the Author’s volume of The Arts of Life. The saccharine principle is found in all vegetables that contain starch, but chiefly in the sugar-cane, maple, beet, potato, carrot. Cathartics are rhubarb, jalap, pulp o I 243 VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 244 cassia, bitter apple, aloes, senna, oil of cro- ton .seeds, castor-seeds, &c. Diuretics are squills, fox-glove, dande- lion, wild carrot seeds, parsley-root, buchu. Farina , or meal, is made from grain, and its nutriment depends on the starch. Gum is pure mucilage, and the juices, ivhen matured, are sweet, oily, and farina- ceous. Gum Arabic is obtained from a spe- cies of mimosa, called nilotica. Gum traga- canth is a native of Crete, and more adhe- sive than gum arabic. Aromatics in general use are cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, orange, and lemon-peel, pepper, pepper-mint, spear-mint, cardamom, carraway, anise, coriander, ginger, dill and cummin-seeds. Sanatives are opium, nightshade, lettuces, poppy-heads, colchicum, henbane, hemlock, stramonium, and tobacco. Stimulants are the aromatics, mustard- seed, euphorbium, and fox-glove for the kidneys, and ergot of rye for the uterus. The Narcotic principle in the white poppy produces opium, which is its concrete juice. Amber is the product of a tree now ex- tinct, or an exudation from the roots, by which it entangled insects. Sc c. Assafcetida is the root of a Persian plant. Areca-nut makes tooth-powder. Argol , or archel, is a mordant substance obtained from lichens, and used by dyers to improve and fix colours. Arnatto is a dye, prepared from reeds. Arrack is made from the juice of the tops of cocoa-nut and palmyra-trees ; also from paddee , rice in the husk. Balm of Gilead , or balsam of Mecca, is made from the resin which exudes from in- cision in the bark of a plant belonging to the genus amyris, which grows near Mecca. The balsams of Tolu and Peru are made from resins which exude from S. American plants. Balsam of Peru, from peruiferum. The Betel , or pawn, chewed in the East by both sex'es, like tobacco, consists of the fruit of the areca palm, wrapt in leaves of the betel pepper, plant. The Belladona , or deadly night-shade, produces berries like black cherries. Bird-lime is prepared from the berries of the misletoe and the bark of the holly. Catechu is the boiled heart or leaves of a tree or shrub which flourishes in the Burman empire, and in Concan on the Malabar coast. It is an inspissated tan, and the most powerful known astringent, 1 pound being equal in tanning to 7 or 8 pounds of oak bark. Caoutchouc , or Indian Rubber, is formed of a gum which exudes by incision from two plants which grow in Cayenne and the Brazils, called hcevia caoutchouc , and the jatiopha elastica ; the resinous substance, as it hardens, is formed round clay moulds. Cudbear grows on rocks, and is used in dyeing purple. Dragon's Blood is the product of large rattans of Sumatra. Frankincense is the gum of the libanus theorifera , also called olibanum. Gall-nuts are protuberances on trees, created by the puncture of insects, and gallic acid is made from those on the oak. Gamboge is a concrete juice, and produced from two* trees called caracapulli , which grow in Cambodja. Storax is a gum used in honey-water, &c. ; gum Benjamin is another gum, labdanum another. Litmus is made from the archil lichen. Acids turn its purple to red, and alkalies the red into blue. Lichen , or liver- wort, yields mucilage, and makes a strong jelly when boiled in water or milk. Liquorice is the extract of the juice of a root cultivated at Pontefract, where it is made into pectoral cakes, and also in Spain and the Levant. The flashes of torches used on the stage are made by the fine dust or seeds of Lyco. podium , or club- moss. Madder is the root of the rubia tinctorum which grows in Europe. It gives a deep red dye, changed by alkalies, &c. into crimson and orange. Manna is a natural product of the ash and larch, in Sicily, Calabria, &c. Molasses is the syrup of the cane, which does not crystallize, corresponding with the water of crystallization. Myrrh is a gum-resin. The Nux vomica , or poison-nut, is im- ported in large quantities. Opium is the juice of the white poppy. Otto of Roses is the oil which swims at top in the distillation of rose-water. Pitch is inspissated tar, drawn chiefly from pines, and from ruins of the ancient forests, in the coal distilled for gas. Pyroligneous acid, or condensed steam of green-wood baked in an oven, is a most powerful antiseptic ; and the smoke of wood-fires and charcoal is the same. Quercitron is the inner bark of the Quer- cus Niger, or Oak, and it produces yellow dye. Oak saw-dust produces drabs and shades of brown. Oak-apples are a substi- tute for galls. Raisins are perfectly ripe grapes, dried in the sun, or in ovens. Sarsaparilla is the root of a Peruvian plant called smilax. Sassafras is wood of the laurel kind. Salop is made from the root of the orchis. Sycamore wood makes bowls. Soy is made from the beans of the dolichos soja , a native of Japan. Terra japonica is mimosa catechu. Tapioca is the powder of the jatropha manihot. The juice is poison, but the fi- bres and seed make casava bread, and tapioca. Turmeric is the root of the cureuma Tonga. Paper stained with it becomes brown by alkalies. The green colour of vegetables arises from the fixation of the nitrogen of the atmo- sphere on the surface by the action of light and the solar rays. Fir contracts in width one 124th, and oak one 140th, by changes in the atmosphere. MINERAL KINGDOM. 245 24 6 Northern India has a flora of 3500 phce- nogamous plants. An acorn in 24 years becomes an oak 19 Inches in girth at 5 feet high; in 41 years 32i girth, and 117 years 13 feet girth, and 64 feet high. In 75 years an oak contains a toh of tim- ber; in 150 years 8 tons; but the poplar increases three times faster than the oak. So in 13 years, while the oak increased 4£ inches in girth, the larch increased 33 inches. • Longevity of Plants . The list is an approximation merely, fur- nished by the high authority of Mr. Don, Secretary and Librarian of the Linnaean Society. Years. The Boabab tree of Senegal, (adan- sonia digitata) 5150 Deciduons Cypress (Taxodium dis- tichum ) 6000 Quercus Robur (Oak) 1600 Pinus Cedrus (Cedar of Lebanon) .. 800 Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) 400 Ivy (Hedera Helix ) 600 Larch (Pinus Larix) 270 Lime-tree (Filia Europcea) 583 Spanish Chestnut (Castanea vesca 700 Yew (Taxus baccata) 3000 Juniper (Juniper us communis) .... 380 Olive (Olea Europcea) 2500 Oriental Plane (Platanus orientalis) 1200 Orange ( Citrus Aurantium ; 1500 Pear-tree 260 Apple-tree from 80 to 175 Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestus ).. . . 90 to 120 Balm of Gilead Fir (Pinus bal- samea) 30 to 50 Pinaster (Pinus Pinaster) 80 to 100 at other times of grains cemented by the exudation and filtration of the finely-divided atoms of superior strata; sometimes oi masses chrvstallized by evaporation ; and often of ores which separate into metals. The Crust of the earth may be compared to a great compost in chemical fermentation, subjected to the excitements of heat and light ; to the varied actions and reactions of the elements ; to the central force of weight ; and to the motions which cause weight. It is only in this enlarged sense that we can correctly examine the singular results. This fermentation, or incessant composi- tion and decomposition, has operated on all the parts, or surfaces, which in countless re- volutions have been exposed to the Solar action, to an atmosphere of oxygen and ni- trogen, and to water of hydrogen and oxygen, with muriatic acid. We find the primitive earth only when we descend below the con- glomerate of what has been surface, at the mean depth of 1 or 2 miles. Fossil remains of organized beings are the subject of geology, but the same processes which have fossilized them, also, so to speak, have fossilized earths themselves ; conse- quently, few subjects are in their primitive state, but in intimately mingled states. The Study of Mineralogy is the study of the use and value of the country which man inhabits. Of all sciences and arts, those of Mineralogy, Agriculture, and Gardening stand foremost. Geology is the theory or Mineralogy, and the natural history of the globe. It divides itself into earthy or rocky formations, stones, gems, and metals. The best systems of minerals are those of Berzelius, and the chemical arrangement o) Mohs. Naumann unites them. The following are Monocotyledonous or Endogenous trees, viz. — Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) 200 to 300 Cocoa Nut Palm ( Cocos mucifera) 330 Brazil Cabbage Palm (Cocos ole- racea) 600 to 700 Showy Brazil Palm (Gulielma speciosa ) 300 Brazil Vine Palm (CEnocarpus Batana) 150 Dragon’s-blood 'Free (Dracena Draco) 4000 This last is by far the longest lived of the monocotyledonous class. It might be sup- posed that complexity of structure was unfavourable to longevity, but in reality the longest lived are those beings endow- ed with the highest organization, as man among animals, or, Adansonia and Taxodium among vegetables ; while the simplest forms in both kingdoms are the shortest lived, as Fungi and Algce and polypes and infusoria among animals. THE MINERAL KINGDOM. The external shell, or crust, of the globe, consists of atoms combined by the action of air, water, heat, electrical action, and weight, bometimes in grains pressed into masses; Buckland's Order of the Strata. Granite. Gneiss. Mica slate. Primary lime-stone. Chlorite slate. Hornblende slate. Clay slate. Quartz rock. Transition conglome- rates. Quartz rock. Grauwacke slate. Transition lime-stone. Shale & sand-stone. Old red sand-stone. Mountain lime-stone. Coal formations. Red conglomerate. Magnesian lime-st. Variegated ditto. Shell ditto. Variegated marl. Lias. Oolitic formations. Purbeck Wealdon. Green sand. Chalk. 4 Fresh-water. 4 Marine formation* Diluvium. Alluvium. Other Series. Trap. Lavas. Werner ranges the primitive rocks : — 1. Granite. 2. Gneiss. 3. Mica slate. 4. Clay slate. 5. Prim, lime-stone. 6. Prim. trap. 7. Serpentine. 8. Porphyry. 9. Transition sienite. 1 0. Topaz rock. 11. Quartz rock. 1 2. Prim, flinty slats 13. Prim, gypsum. 14. White stone. 15. Clay porphyry. 16. Pearl stone do. 17. Obsidian do. 18. Trans, sienite 19. Pitch saone. 247 MINERAL B.1NUD0M. The transition rocks — 1. Lime-stone. 3. Gneiss-wacke. 2. Trap. 4. Flinty slate. The Classification of Mohs is as follows : — CLASS I. Order 1. — Gas. Genera. 1. Hydrogen. 2. Atmospheric air. Order 2 .—Water. Genus. 1 . Rain-water. Order 3. — Acid. Genera. 1. Carbonic acid. 2. Muriatic acid. 3. Sulphuric acid. 4. Boracic acid. 5. Arsenic acid. Order 4.— Salt. Genera. 1. Natron salt. 2. Glauber salt. 3. Nitre salt. 4. Rock salt. 5. Ammo- niac salt. 6. Vitriol salt. 7. Epsom salt. 8. Alum salt. 9. Borax salt. 10. Bry- thine salt. CLASS II. Order I. — Haloide. Genera. 1. Gypsum haloide. 2. Cryone haloide. 3. Alum haloide. 4. Fluor ha- loide. 5. Calc haloide. Order 2 .—Baryte. Genera. 1. Parachrose baryte. 2. Zinc baryte. 3. Scheelium baryte. 4. Hal baryte. 5. Lead baryte. Order 3. — Kerate. Genus. 1. Pearl kerate. Order 4. — Malachite. Genera. 1. Staphyline malachite. 2. Li- rocone malachite. 3. Olive malachite. 4. Azure malachite. 5. Emerald mala- chite. 6. Habroneme malachite. Order 5. — Mica. Genera. 1. Euchlore mica. 2. Cobalt mica. 3. Iron mica. 4. Graphite mica. 5. Talc mica. 6. Pearl mica. Order 6. — Spar. Genera. 1. Schiller spar. 2. Disthene spar. 3. Triphane spar. 4. Dystome spar. 5. Kouphone spar. 6. Petaline spar. 7. Feld spar. 8. Augite spar. 9. Azure spar. Order 7. — Gem. Genera. 1. Andalusite. 2. Corundum. 3. Diamond. 4. Topaz. 5. Emerald. 6. Quartz. 7. Aximite. 8. Chrysolite. 9. Boracite. 10. Tourmaline. 11. Garnet. 12. Zircon. 13. Gadolinite. Order 8. — Ore. Genera. 1. Titanium ore. 2. Zinc ore. 3. Copper ore. 4. Tin ore. 5. Scheelium ore. 6. Tantalum ore. 7. Uranium ore. 8. Cerium ore. 9. Chrome ore. 10. Iron ore. 1 1. Manganese ore. Order 9. — Metal. Genera. 1. Arsenic. 2. Tellurium. 3. Antimony. 4. Bismuth. 5. Mercury. <5. Silver. 7. Gold. 8. Platiua. 9. Iron. ID. Copper. Order 10. — Pyrites. Genera. 1. Nickel pyrites. 2. Arsenic py- rites. 3. Cobalt pyrites. 4. Iron pyrites. 5. Copper pyrites. Order 11. — Glance. Genera. 1 . Copper glance. 2. Silver glance. & Lead glance. 4. Tellurium glance. 5. 243 Molybdenum glance. 6. Bismuth glance. 7. Antimony glance. 8. Melane glance. Order 12. — Blende. Genera. 1. Glance blende. 2. Garnet blende. 3. Purple blende. 4. Ruby blende. Order 13. — Sulphur . Genus. 1. Sulphur. CLASS III. Order 1 . — Resin. Genus. 1. Melichrone resin. Order 2. — Coal. Genus. 1. Mineral coal. The experiments of Crosse and Becquerel, and the observations of Fox and others, leave no doubt (as suggested by the Editor in former editions) that crystals and metallic ores are immediate products of electrical action between those plates of rocks, which are the sides of fissures and veins. Iron, as coeval with the primitive rocks, has its peculiar laminated and magnetic characters; and it may also be generated in rocks, like infiltrated sparry fibres, which, when in open recesses, appear as stalactites. This inference is, however, derived from a ra- tional theory of electricity which ascribes it to the separation of oxygen and hydrogen, and its forces to the re-union of the same elements. The walls of veins, &c. are plates in correllative action ; and the aura of dif- ferent rocks, carried from side to side, would in time, and at rest, generate filaments, fibres, and all the novel materials of ores. Rocky substances in general are, beyond question, results of those attritions, sepa- rations, re-mixtures, deposits, infiltrations, crystallizations, &c. which would result from the centrifugal force of the mobile waters in perihelion, depending on the varying de- clination of the perihelion, as North or South in every 10,450 years. Tidal action rising over the highest hills, storms, currents, &c. would dislocate, decompose and recompose in all the varieties of formation which we witness. In other words, the waters follow- ing the greater force in the perihelion, as a physical centrifugal force, would change all things moveable and changeable; and produce all the compound bodies and masses that, under the name of Mineral, compose the crust of the Earth. [Both these theories, due to the Editor, are to be regarded as indisputable facts.] No guess can be formed of the materials of which the Earth is composed below the primitive rocks. But these are supposed to have been once fluid, and in cooling or otherwise, presented an unequal hard sur- face. The abradings by the elements then produced detritus which filled up the hol- lows and valleys, leaving the nodes and asperities uncovered as mountains. Hence the lowest are also the highest, and their decompositions cover their sides, as strata. The primitive rocks are chemical forma- tions of silica, alumina, and magnesia, and are of 19 kinds. The transition are of four or five kinds, and partly chemical, partly mechanical, with petrifactions of Zoophytes. The secondaiy , above these, are of twelve MINERAL KINGDOM, 249 kinds, abounding in vegetable and animal petrifactions. The upper strata have been tormed by water from submersions of the sea, rain, and rivers, and abradings of these are called alluvial. The greater solidification of lower strata arises from the precipitation and infiltration of cements, from overlying strata, which often changes original characters, densities, colours, &c. Heat, too, has its share in effecting many changes, and this with pres- sure of superincumbent rocks, and over- lying water, during thousands (or millions) of years, as Buckland imagines, removes all surprise at the compactness of the hardest rocks of primary grauwacke from sand, and of primary slates from clay. The Crystalline rocks are the granitic series of quartz, felspar, mica, gneiss, sienite, porphyry, green-stone, basalt, and compact lavas, all in varieties. Quartz, felspar, mica in grains or imper- fect crystals are granite ; in scales are gneiss. Immediately above granite lies gneiss, then mica slate, and above that clay slate. Mingled with these last is primary lime- stone, trap, and serpentine. Quartz is the basis of all the silicious compounds in nature, and is distinguished by the hardness of the bodies, as crystals, gritty sand, &c. It cannot be cut with a knife, and strikes fire with steel. It is 96 or 97 silex in 100, and 3 or 2 clay and lime. Felspar is white, red, or grey, and consists of 64 in 100 parts of silex, 19 of alumine (clay,) 2 lime, 13 potash, and 1 oxide of iron. Felspar is composed of lamina or plates. Its constituents are silex and alumina, with gome potash. It abounds in granite, gneiss, sienite, and porphyry. When large crystals of felspar appear in granites, they are called porphyritic. In Cornish granites, the fel- spar is white. In the Scotch, reddish brown. Felspar, next to quartz, is the most abun- dant stone, being a constituent of granite and other rocks. It scratches glass, and gives out sparks with steel. Felspar is of vitrified character, but of different colours, and, when broken down, forms the basis of clay. Mica, the other equal part of granite, is 47 silex, 22 clay, 14 5 potash. 15 oxide of iron, and 175 oxide of manganese. Mica is found in such large plates, in many mountains, as to be used as a substi- tute for glass, being semi-transparent, tough, flexible, and elastic. In Siberia, some spe- cimens are 2£ yards square. Mica is a dark grey, often decomposed by the atmosphere, and, when worn down, it mixes with the clay of the felspar, or the sand of the quartz. Various proportions and circumstances render the three the bases of all secondary rocks, which appear to be their ruins. Therefore 300 parts of granite consists of '207 silex, 43 of clay, 4 of lime, 27 5 of potash, 16 of oxide of iron, and 175 of oxide of manganese. Silex consists in 100 parts of 52 of oxygen ; clay of 46 oxygen; lime of 28 oxygen; potash 259 of 17 csygen, and the oxides of about 30 oxygen ; hence, 138 parts of 300 granite are oxygen, and 161 other substances. Carbonate of lime, now one-eighth of the crust of the globe, contains £6 parts in 100 of oxygen Nitrogen is 78 parts in 100 of the at- mosphere, and hydrogen .12 of 100 parts of water. The atmosphere is, therefore, a further magazine of a fifth oxygen, and water an eighth. The rocks most abundant are the sili- cious ; the next the argillaceous or clayey ; the next the calcareous, lime and magnesia. Silex is derived from quartz, mock crystal or flint, and is the most abundant of earths, in rocks, clays, and soils. Clay is next abundant to silex, and found in primitive and secondary, and in all soils. Clay-slate is 49 silica, 23 clay, 11 oxide of iron, and 5 potash. Werner teaches that what we call primi- tive rocks, were originally a compost of quartz, mica, and felspar, in a solid crys- talline state, without any remain of either vegetables or animals. The subdivision or disintegration of these, formed a second series above them, which he calls transition formations, and in them some shells are found. Above these are strata of fioetz rocks, in which shells and simple forms of vegetables are found. Other successions then lie one above the other, till we arrive at the surface. Mineral bodies are characterised by an- gles, straight lines, and plane surfaces ; but vegetables and animals by rounded lines and convex surfaces, spreading from the central source of life. The external structure of rocks, consi- dered as mountain masses, is also distinct. This external structure, as forming moun- tain masses, may be Stratified , or strati- form, composed of strata. Tabular , or in large plates. Columnar , or polygonal. Globular , or in spherical masses. Inde- terminate, including all unstratified rocks. A simple rock is one unmixed homoge- neous substance, whatever be its constituent elementary parts ; as lime-stone, roof-slate, and serpentine. Compound rocks are com- posed of different mineral substances, either cemented by another mineral substance, as sand-stones and pudding-stones. Or aggre- gated, which implies an intimate union of the parts without cement : as in granite. The Elementary substances which com- pose the varieties of stones or rocks are few, consisting only of the four earths, silex, CLAY, LIME, MAGNESIA, with OXIDE OP IRON, carbon, and sulphur. These, in fact, are the solid substances of the mineral kingdom, and the first-mentioned compose above 10 parts in 20 of our planet. The fractured surface of fragments broken from simple rocks , displays the internal structure of the parts called the stony struc- ture. Compact , without any distinguishable parts or divisions ; — or, Earthy , comprised of minute parts resembling dried earth. Granular , composed of grains. Fibrous. 251 MINERAL KINGDOM. composed of long and minute fibres. Radi- ated , when the fibres are broader and flattish, and so large as to be distinctly visible. Lamellar , or foliated, composed of thin smooth plates laid over each other. Po- rous, penetrated by pores. Cellular , or vesicular, when the pores have rounded cavities, like bladders, as in some lavas. Slaty, composed of thin leaves, or laminae. There are in minerals eight shades of white, nine of grey, six of black, five of blue, twelve of green and yellow, fifteen of red, and eight of brown, besides clear, dark, light, or pale in those shades. Metals have five degrees of lustre — splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering, dull. Minerals are compact solids, friable, or crumbly ; or fluid, (as mercury, or rock tar.) Their qualities are— 1. Hardness ; 2. Tena- city ; 3. Frangibility ; 4. Flexibility ; 5. Adhesion ; 6. Unctuosity ; 7. Coldness ; and 8. Density. 1 expresses the hardness of talc ; 2, gyp. sum ; 3, calc, spar ; 4, fluor spar ; 5, apatite ; 6, felspar ; 7, quartz ; 8, topaz ; 9, corun. dum ; 10, diamond. All mineral productions, as to their sub- stance, are comprehended in four classes : viz. the earthy, or the stones; the saline, or the salts ; the inflammable, as sulphurs, &c. ; and the metals, or metallic ores. The first class, or earthy minerals, in- elude eight genera ; as diamond, zircon, flint, clay, talc, calc, barytes, and strontian. Of flint there are thirty-four species, of clay thirty-two, and of calc, twenty. The second class, or saline minerals, consist of only one genus, with 10 or 12 species, as natron, nitre, rock-salt, alum. The third, or inflammable class, includes five genera, as sulphur, bitumens, graphite, charcoal, and resin. The fourth, or metallic class, includes twenty-one genera, as platina, gold, mer- cury, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin, bis- muth, zinc, antimony, cobalt, nickel, man- ganese, molybdena, arsenic, &c. &c. Of copper ores there are seventeen species, of iron fourteen, and lead ten. The four varieties of Transition rocks are disentegrated primitive formations, re-united by a calcareous or argillaceous cement. Sienite is a middle rock between granite and porphyry, composed of felspar and hornblende, or quartz and mica. Porphyry is stone with a compact base, intermixed with crystals. The base is trap, and the crystals felspar or quartz. Curved gneiss proves that it once was fluid. It is in slaty layers or plates, formed of felspar, quartz, and mica, separated by thin layers of mica, and it contains in its veins all the metals. Serpentine is so called from its varie- gated colours, generally green. 32 silica, 37i magnesia, half alumina, 10i lime, with iron and carbonic acid 15. Magnesia is obtained from magnesian lime-stone with the bittern of salt manu- factories. The muriatic acid of the salt 252 unites with the lime, and affords the mag- nesia. Exposed to the air it absorbs, in time, carbonic acid, and becomes lime. Magnesian limestone effervesces little in acids, and it renders dilute nitric acid milky. It contains about 20 magnesia, 30 lime, 48 carbonic acid, clay and oxide of iron. Hornblende is 42 silica, 30 oxide of iron, 12 clay, and 11 lime. Augite is 54 silica, 22 lime, 12 magnesia, and 10 oxide of iron. The Schistose strata are inclined from 52 to 70 degrees in mountains. Gneiss follows the sinuosities of the granite. Mica-slate is mingled with quartz in masses ; clay- slate has quartz in layers. Sienite, porphyry, hornblende-slate, green- stone and basalt are composed of hornblende, augite, and felspar, in various proportions. The primary and transition rocks con- tain few saline or inflammable fossils ; but are the repositories of metallic ores, not often found in the third division, called secondary stratified rocks, in many of which numerous remains of ancient vegetables and animals occur. Secondary rocks, consisting of greywacke and sand-stone, appear to be depositions, and lie more horizontally ; and among mountains of primary formation they termi- nate at lower levels. The newer secondary rocks lying more horizontally on the older, are at lower levels; so that the older rocks basset, or display their edges higher and higher on the sides of a granite mountain. Rounded pebbles are broken fragments of rocks rendered smooth by mutual attritions, by water and tides. Limestone, marble, and chalk, by burn- ing, form lime, which does not unite with alkalies or oxygen, and only with sulphur and phosphorus among combustibles, and their and other acids. In becoming mild, it renders insoluble matter soluble, and hence its use as a manure under due caution. The smell in lime-slacking arises from the ascent of part of the lime with the vapour. Lime appears to be a very active agent in all organization, for none appears till we arrive at lime strata in ascending ; but, it seems to be undetermined, whether lime is the cause or the effect, that is, whether it is the remains of the first agent. Some sup- pose lime to be the debris of shells, while it is certain that there can be no shells without carbonate of lime, nor bones without phos- phate of lime. Magnesia is always combined with car- bonic, sulphuric, or boracic acid, and is best prepared from the carbonate. It is found in serpentine and basalt. Alumine is the basis of alum, and consi- dered as pure argil or clay, which in general is combined with oxide of iron. The rocks entirely mechanical, or formed by trituration, consist of sand-stones, lime- stones, gypsum, chalk, iron-stone, &c. and are called secondary. Countries formed of secondary rock* nrt» generally capable of cultivation over the MINERAL KINGDOM, 25£ whole surface, These include, 1. Siliceous sand-stone, or grit-stone. 2. Argillaceous sand-stone. 3. Earthy lime-stone. 4. Cal- careous sand-stone. 5. Chalk ; which con- tain beds of gypsum, rock-salt, iron-stone, *oal and trap, or basalt. Pudding-stone is rounded pebbles em- .edded in cement, capable of being fashioned ind polished. Stalactites are crystalline spar, whies aozes from the earth over the tops of ca- verns, like icicles, often reaching the bottom, and forming solid sparry columns ; and proving how similar oozings cement all lower strata by the gradual precipitation of cement from above. Staglamites are calcareous exudations and precipitations. Calcareous spar is crystallized carbonate of lime, one of whose varieties is Iceland spar. Iceland spar , the substance which pro- duces double images, consists of 56 lime, and 44 carbonic acid, with a specific gravity 2714. The faces are parallel, and inclined 105° ’51, but even and polished, splitting always on the face. From this cause it pro- duces a double image, a direct one, and another, which is the result of all the reflec- tions from all the surfaces, which, being re- gular, produce a definite effect. Alabaster is gypsum, or calcareous, or common and oriental. Montamia best. Emery is a mineral, containing 86 alu- mina, 3 silica, and 4 iron. There are two substances called marie , one earthy and the other a stratum, but not hard. The earthy is used as manure, as well as the other found in beds, with lime- stone, and coal. Barium, witherite, or carbonate of baryta, is a mineral found in Cumberland, York- shire, and other parts. Borax is purified tincal, found in Thibet. Pits of Fuller's earth are found in Bed- fordshire. There lie over the stratum several strata of red sand, six yards thick ; then a stratum of sand-stone seven or eight yards; then other sands ; then the Fuller’s- earth. Below it is white free-stone. Amber is a mineral substance, white or yellow. Its oil is used in eau de luce. When rubbed, it becomes negatively elec- trical, like sealing-wax. It is a vegetable gum ; but some have considered it as honey converted into bitumen. Some pieces con- tain insects and leaves, of extinct species. Tabasheer is a transparent fluid in the joints of the bamboo. It thickens till it is converted into a white solid, and is com- posed of silica. Humboldt discovered it in the bamboos of South America ; and a solid pebble of it is so hard as to cut glass. Tabriz marble is semi-transparent, and is the modern production of ponds which stagnate and concrete. The process may be seen in all stages, and the whole seems like freezing and frozen water. The bubbles of its springs also concrete in hemispheres. The Lime of nature is made chiefly by aoophites and testaceous animals, by com- bining alkalies, or alkaline earths with 264 oxygen. The lime in granite is 0 37, in green-stone 7‘29. Lava and basalt have equal proportions. In fact, these and the atmosphere are magazines of alkalies. We have been mystified about the origin of lime, by Davy’s ambition to make metals from earths. A better knowledge of elec- trical action would have shewn him that his metals were only pure alkalies, which, for a moment, he deprived of their oxygen by an intense electric current. Fire effects nearly the same purpose, and water creates heat by the refixation, in burnt lime, of its oxygen. The elastic bitumens of Derbyshire are ascribed to sublimation from the mineral veins and fissures in mountain lime- stone. Derbyshire spar is barytes and Sicilian spar, strontian. Angles of cleavage are those which result from cleavage in two directions, and always the same in the same substances. Slaty cleavage does not necessarily accord with the direction of strata, — Sedgwick. Carbonates of lime (calc-spar,) of magne- sia, of protoxide of iron, and manganese are isomorphous, or alike in form, and other carbonates agree nearly. The largest paving- stones are quarried near Barnsley. Portland and the hills near Bath yield stone for building. Newcastle and Rotherham, grindstones. Granite is sup- plied from Cornwall, Mountsorrel, and Aber- deen. Large slate quarries exist in Wales and Scotland, at Swithland and Ulverstone. Portland stone is coarse grit, cemented with earthy spar. Potter's clay is 43| silica, 33 alumina, 3i lime, 18 water, and 1 oxide of iron. The alkalies exist as compounds of oxygen and a base of pure alkali, or nitrogen, w'hich in potash is 83 per cent., and in soda 75 per cent. They are separable by the action of galvanic poles, which involves and carries the oxygen to the negative pole, and the alkali to the positive. Zircon, glucine, yttria, barytes, strontium, thorina. and some others, are mineral curio- sities, discovered only by the decomposition of peculiar substances. When substances are divested of all their foreign materials, the remainder is called carbon, or pure matter. The earthy minerals are called Silex, and the compounds in which it chiefly prevails, as opal, hornstone, chalcedony, garnets, slates, clays, hornblende, &c. This with Alumine and Magnesia , compose 230 dif- ferent species of minerals. Silex with potash forms about 60 species, as mica, feldspar, talc; and with soda, &c. lava, basalt, pumice, soap-stone, talc, &c. Lime, with carbonic acid forms spare, stalactites, limestone, marble, oolite or beds of stone, chalk, marie, tufa, &c. ; with clay and iron, lias under oolite ; with magnesia, pearl-spar and magnesian lime-stone; with fluoric acid, fluor spars ; with sulphuric acid, gypsum, &c. Barytes with sulphuric acid forms heavy spars. Potash and nitric acid form nitre. Soda with carbonic acid, natron ; with bora* MINERAL KINGDOM. 255 cic acid, borax ; and with muriatic acid, common salt. Alumine with sulphuric acid and potash, alum; and with silex, alum, stone. Iron and sulphur form pyrites ; iron, oxy- gen, &c., form red, brown, and black ores, as ochres, red chalk, umber, fibrous hema- tite. With manganese and phosphoric acid, bog- iron ore. With carbonic acid, the clay iron of the furnaces, consisting of 43 26 prot- oxide of iron, 29 3 carbonic acid, silex and alumine 2078 with lime, carbon, and water. Iron with sulphuric acid is green vitriol. Arsenic 69, and sulphur 31, is realger, and 62 and 38 is orpiment. Cobalt with sul- phuric acid and water, is red vitriol. Copper combines with 60 several sub- stances, and Lead with as many. Zinc and carbonic acid is calamine, and with sulphuric acid white vitriol. Mercury and sulphur are cinnabar sul- phur, called elementary. It evolves hydro- gen in burning, and is chiefly found in veins as an adjunct of metals. Carbon and iron are 'Plumbago. With 72 carbon, 13 silex, and 15 alumine, and carbonate of iron, it is Anthracite. With hydrogen it is Naphtha , Petroleum , and Bitumen. At Barbadoes, asphaltum dug in the island, is used instead of coal. In Trinidad there is a pitch-lake on a cape. It is three miles round, and of uncertain depth. It lies in furrows or chasms, constantly chang- ing, but is so hard as to require to be broken with an axe. The district near consists of cinders and burnt earth, and for a large extent appears to be of volcanic origin. By analysis, the asphaltum appears to consist of stone saturated with pitch. It is very in- flammable, and is considered as a result of the changes from naphtha and petroleum into tar and pitch, by successive decom- positions. The pitch springs of Zante were described by Herodotus, 420 B. C. Trees, &c. which fall into the Pitch Lake of Trinidad, soon become true coal. Naphtha is purer and lighter than the petroleum of coal, of which it seems to be a native species. Knox distilled 34 varieties of stsne, and in nearly the whole found more or less of bitumen. It appeared in all the floetz trap, and in the old rocks, as mica-slate, but it is greater in the recent formations. The 5 or 600 petroleum wells, on the Irrawaddy, furnish the Burmese with excel- lent lamp-oil at 6d. per cwt. They are 2 or 300 feet deep, and the oil rises like boiling. Compounds of carbon, hydrogen, &c. form various coals, thus Newcastle coals are 75 carbon, 4 2 hydrogen, 16 azote. 4 8 oxy- gen. Soft coal is 74 carbon, 13 hydrogen, 10 azote, and 3 oxygen ; and eannel coal is 65 carbon, 22 hydrogen, and 11 azote. Coal consists of bitumen and wood, in the state of charcoal, and it is the ligneous part which soils the hands. The vegetable origin is no longer disputed. Minute grasses, and even trees, are found in and near them. A cubic foot of coa’ weighs from 75 to 256 80 pounds, and 27 are equal to a ton per cubic yard, or 4840 tons to an acre, of a yard thick, and m proportion. 5£ chaldrons of Wylam Moor coals weigh, on an average, 7 tons ; or 1 ion, 6 cwt. 78 pounds, which is 87 pounds per bushel ; and bean-coals weigh only 66 pounds to the bushel, or only 1 ton, 1 cwt. and 24 pounds per chaldron. Carburetted hydrogen explodes in coal- mines when there is one part of gas to six or twelve of air, but at one to fifteen it merely lengthens the flame of a candle. Carbonic acid gas also abounds in mines, but, lying on the ground and by first extinguishing the can- dles, it is seldom fatal. In Seghill colliery, near Newcastle, the pit is 60 fathoms deep ; and four worked coal- seams are 9 feet 6^ inches. In Wall’s End, near South Shields, the pit is 125 fathoms ; and the six worked coai-seams are 14 feet 3 inches. 5 other strata are but 2 feet 3. High Heworth is 139 fathoms, with 24 seams, 3 of which are 7, 6, and 5 feet. Thill lies under the coal-seams, with two or three exceptions of gray or blue metal ; and blue metal, or black stone above. The coal-pit of Borrowstonness was long worked half a mile under the sea ; but an extraordinary tide filled it and drowned all the work-people. In 23 beds of strata, 25 fathoms deep, there were but six varieties ; and shiver occurred 9 times, post 7 times, coal 3 times, sandstone 2, and whinstone 2. An acre of coals, 2 feet thick, yields 3000 tons, and 5 feet 8000. The King pit at Whitehaven is nearly 1000 feet deep, and worked to some extern under the sea. Five engines raise 28 hogs- heads of water per minute. The Hetton Blossom pit is 109 fathoms, and it has 25 feet of worked seams. The Minor pit, near it, is 147 fathoms, and has 42 feet of worked seams. These and ano^ ther pit yield 200,000 Newcastle chaldrons per annum. They pass through 26 fathoms of magnesian limestone, near the surface. At 147 fathoms, or 882 feet, the seam is 6 feet 2 inches. There are in all 18 seams, and we may re- ceive them as evidence of at least that num- ber of revolutions of the perihelion. The different thicknesses merely indicate the sub- merged wood and accumulated bitumen at the spot. Another gives 25 seams, and there may be other 25 within a mile deeper, which would give half a million of years. The dip to the east is 1 in 22. One Staffordshire bed is 10 yards thick. Near Paisley 10 beds have 33 yards, and near Pontipool 23 beds have 31 yards of coal. They mostly contain iron ore in the shale, lime-stone for reduction, and mill- stone grit adapted to furnaces. Seventy species of coal are brought to London, of which forty-five are Newcastle. The demand for Wall’s End occasions all seams to be so called in London. Pittsburgh has beds of coal six feet thick ; and hence is the Birmingham of the United States. The same beds extend unequally over a vast extent. Wheeling, lower down MINERAL KINGDOM. $57 on the Ohio, is rivalling - Pittsburgh, and has the advantage of the great road from Cum- berland, which is now carried to the Missis- sippi, in lat. 41 50. Coal-beds become unproductive in the vicinity of porphyry or granite. Each par ricular stratum preserves its own parallel- ism, though often interrupted by dikes and slips, which are filled up with clay, sand, and rounded stones, evidently swept into them by water, and some of them contain basalt. Strata of coal are not continuous, but divided both horizontally and perpendi- cularly by dikes or chasms, by slips, hitches, and troubles, apparently produced by the ■drying and sinking of the strata. Coals vary 30 per cent, in tne production of steam. The heat is as oxygen fixed, and, therefore, as the hydrogen evolved. Sunderland first sent coals by sea. in 1620. Coals are raised in Burdwan, Bengal, from a seam of 9 feet. 90 feet deep, and sold for steam-engines at 15s. the ton. Produce 15,000 tons per annum. The coal-props, in old mines, were half the bulk of the workings. By wooden and other props the produce is 4-5ths more. In 1801, the coals shipped from Newcas- tle were 1^ million tons; but, latterly, it nas been double 2|. So at Sunderland, the respective quantities were 2-3ds of a million tons, and 1^ and 1§ millions. The ship- ments abroad are not half a million from both places. Stockton and Seeham have yielded nearly a million of tons since 1820. The Port prices are from 11s. to 13s. per ton. The lowest household prices in London in 1853, for “ Great Northern’ 4 coals, 17$. and 18s., for money. The whoie quantity of coals put in freight is about 7 million tons, and canals and rail- ways convey above 11 millions more. A million tons of pig-iron consumes about 4 millions of tons, arid in bar and cast another roiillion. Practical men reckon tne entire consumption at 35 or 40 million tons. Taylor calculates the Northern coal-fields at 837 square miles, of which 105 have been excavated. Then estimating 12 feet for the average measures, and taking a cubic yard (.27 feet) for a ton, he makes each mile 12£ Uiillion tons, and the whole 9000 millions of tons, or allowing a third for waste 6000 mil- lion tons, which by 3 - 5 per annum is 1700 years. The rest are Yorkshire, Stafford- shire, Derby, Gloucester, Welsh, Scotch. X:c. In South Wales the fields extend 1200 square miles, with measures of 95 feet, yielding, as above, nearly 100 millions to a square mile, i. e. in the whole 120,000 mil- lions of tons, or 80,000 millions net, which would supply 20 millions per annum for the period of 4000 years! It may be assumed that other coal-fields would last as long. The chief coal formation are the central beds of 14, 15, or 20 seams. If we take the primary strata as evidence of perihelion cycles lor each, we have evi- dence of 14, and adding 16 for the coal formations, this makes 30 X 21,000 =- f 30,000 years. Then 10 for the secondary 258 strata is 210,000, and 4^ for the tertiary 94,500, we get 834,500 years since tne granite ; but, as the early strata are often blended, we may assign to the granitic epoch a million of years since. If the 70 outcrops in England were dis. tinct formations of as many submersions, we should hat e evidence of 1,470,000 years, but the same submersion would make 2 or 3 in advancing and retreating. Common salt is found abundantly in na- ture ; it exists in small quantities in most waters, and in all soils. It diminishes the tendency of animal or vegetable substances to decompose. It preserves the ocean in a state, fit for animal life, and is a part of the nourishment of animals. The sea, if desic- cated, would afford a bed of salt 500 feet thick. 100 for every mile. The Cheshire stratum of rock-salt is 50 feet thick, a deposit in the channel which once joined the Severn and Mersey. It is found at the depth of from 28 to 50 yards, and the beds are separated by clay or slag stones ; the colour is reddish, and it is so hard as to require to be blasted with gunpowder. The largest mine is 330 feet deep, and 20 feet high, supported by pillars of salt. The Droitwich salt-springs contain one quarter of their weight in salt. It is said that a stream of salt-water runs 250 feet below the surface, over which is 140 feet of gypsum, the boring produces the spring. There are, in 1000 parts of rock-salt, 986 5 of salt and 1325 sulphate of lime. The salt-springs of Cheshire and Droit- wich contain 22 per cent, of salt. At North- wich is a bed of solid salt. In most coun- tries, salt-rock is below the surface, but in Spain, &c. it is above. The salt-mountain at Cordova is 300 feet high; and there are others still higher, and several of them. In Tyrol, the salt galleries are horizontal in a mountain. In Peru, salt-mines exist 10.000 feet above the sea. The salt-mine, near Cracow, is 1J mile long, £ broad, and 750 feet deep. The mines extend several miles in vast caverns, sustained by pillars of salt, and have been wrought for 12 or 13 centuries. Salt is either a result of the desiccation of salt-lakes, or an accumulation by tides. The salt-springs of Luneburg yield 75,00C gallons of brine daily, which, at 25 per cent, of salt, is 55 millions of pounds per annum. There are extensive beds of salt at Lake Inder in Asiatic Russia, lat. 48^ 30', long. 69°. Salt-springs and others of inflammable gas are found in China in long, lljio 29/, lat. 29°, near Thibet. They bore the well through the rocks, and prepare the salt by firing the gas of others, so that one gas-fire heats 300 kettles. The salt, in sea-water, is about 4 per cent. Rather more at the Equator. Five parts of water will dissolve 2 of salt. Salt-beds overlay each other like beds of coal, but much th cker. Salt is commonly made from springs which run through the beds and become strong brine. Rock-salt is purified as brine, on the spot, and in otb©/ K 25U MINERAL places. The rocks are 120 yards below the surface. The quantity made at Northwich, Winsford, &c. is full 400,000 tons, and employs 7 or 8000 hands. Price 10c?. per cwt. Rock-salt is chiefly exported, and our white domestic salt is the evaporation of brine springs. Mines of rock-salt, near Northwich, yield about 80 or 90,000 tons, and of white salt about 300,000 tons are made. The duty by the bushel, in 1815, was received on 15 million bushels, of which 2 were retained for home consumption. The export is immense, 4$ million bushels to Europe, and 5f to North America. Crystals and Precious Stones. Nature and art present Crystals, both regular and irregular. To procure regular and well-formed crystals, by art, time, space , and repose are required. To dispose a substance to crystallization, it is necessary to reduce it into the most complete state of division ; which may be effected by solution, or by an operation purely mechanical. The same chemical elements in the same proportions generally exhibit the same crystalline form. The shape of the fundamental atoms, and the pressure of the air, produce crystals. Solution may be effected by water, as with salts ; or by fire, as with metals ; the solution is complete only when a degree of heat is applied sufficiently intense to con- vert them into gas. Some crystallized salts contain above half their weight of water, yet are dry. When fluids evaporate and the residuum becomes solid, or when they freeze, they generally solidify in regular figures called crystals, either cubes, or four sided, six- sided, eight-sided, or twelve-sided figures, or terminated by ends always regular. The separation and analysis of these figures reduce them to primitive forms. 1. In the parallejopiped, with six parallel sides, there are forty species. 2. In the octahedron, consisting of two four-sided pyramids, joined at the base, thirty species. 3. The tetrahedron, of four equal trian- gles, belongs to only two ores of copper. 4. The six-sided prism, consisting of six equal right-angled sides with a six-sided base, has seven species. 5. The dodecahedron, of which there are two figures, one the rhomboid and the other the triangle. Two have rhomboid sides, one garnet, and only two the other. There are from 12 to 1500 different crys- tals ; and 642 of carbonate of lime. Hauy, in his theory of crystallization, conceives that all the forms may be pro- duced by atomic molecules of three species. The tetahedron, the tringular prism, and the parallelopiped, of four, five, and six Rides : and Wollaston conceives that these figures may be formed by piling spherical atoms as the fundamental form. The crystals of congealing water shoot at an angle of 120A When solutions freeze. KINGDOM. it is the water that freezes ; the foreign substance is entangled or separated. When water solidifies into ice, its crystals cross at angles of 60°, and enlarge the bulk nearly an eighth, with such force as to ex- plode rocks, trees, and even cannon. The diamond is often in the octahedron form, but it varies. Gold, silver, copper pyrites, and salt, crystallize as cubes. Calcareous spar (angle 105°,) quartz, emerald, and tourmalin crystallize as paral- lelopipeds, with rhomboidal sides, and un- equal angles. Diamond, the magnet, antimony, and bis- muth, have the regular octahedron, and topaz the same with right, angle bases. Gold and silver crystallize in four-sided pyramids : copper the same : tin in rhom- boidal prisms : lead in four-sided pyramids : zinc the same : bismuth in four-sided pa- rallelepipeds : antimony in oblong perpen- diculars : arsenic in tetrahedrons. Fluor spar and common salt make cubes. Nitre a six-sided prism, sulphate of mag. nesia a four-sided prism. Sulphur and carbonate of soda the same, in two pyramids, rhomboid base. Emerald and cinnabar six-sided prisms. Common salt dissolved in viscid liquids crystallizes like leaves and branches of fir. Calcareous spar crystallizes only in rhom- boihedrons, fluor spar in cubes, and quartz in six-sided pyramids. The crystal, from sulfure parallelique y has 134 faces ; calc spar has 47 various forms. Chemical similarities lead to crystalline similarities, as in the salts of the phosphoric and arsenic acids. Soda, &c. is said to be isomorphous. Goniometers are delicate instruments for measuring the angles of crystals, and a very accurate one is Brewster’s. The diana arbor is a crystallization of silver and mercury in nitrous acid. Corundum is a stone, which, in crystals, is a six-sided prism, called adamantine spar. The amethyst, ruby, sapphire, and topaz, are varieties of this spar, differing chiefly in colour. The amethyst is reddish violet ; the ruby red ; the sapphire blue j and the topaz yellow : — termed oriental. The Emerald is now found only in Peru. The oriental emerald is a green sapphire. The beryl is a variety of the emerald, of a paler green or blue. The emerald of Brazil is a tourmaline Mount Zabarah, near the Red Sea, is an emerald mine, with exten- sive excavations ; and other emerald quar- ries exist in the same vicinity. The eme- rald is 64 5 silica, 16 alumina, 13 glucina, 3 26 oxide of crome, and 16 lime. The tourmaline is hard enough to scratch glass, and becomes electric by heat. It is transparent when viewed across the thick- ness of its crystal, but opaque when turned in the opposite direction. Apophyllite, or fish-eye-stone, has a pearly lustre, like moon-stone, and its crys- tals are various. MINERAL KINGDOM 261 Leucocyolite is a name given to a variety of apophyllite. Cairngorm is a species of quartz. Agates are aggregates of different species, as quartz, flint, amethyst, &c. differing in colour and transparency. Mocho stones, containing little slips of moss, and varie- gated Scotch pebbles, are agates. Glauberite is a crystallized salt, composed of nearly equal parts of sulphate of lime and sulpnate of soda, without water. Analcime, or cubizite, is found in grouped crystals, deposited by water in the fissures of hard lavas. Zircon is a hard transparent stone, sus- ceptible of a fine polish, and has a double refraction. It has two varieties,, hyacinth and jargon ; the former yellowish-red, and the latter without colour. .The Oriental garnet is red, and the com- mon garnet brown or green, of the size of a pea or larger. The hardness of precious stones is in the following order; diamond, ruby, sapphire, topaz, hyacinth, emerald, garnet, amethyst, agate, torquoise, and opal. In Bundelcund there are diamond mines, in a range of hills near Pannah. One of them produced the largest known diamond. Diamonds are found in association with sand or alluvium, which contains grains of gold. The chief districts in India are on the Kistna, near Condapilly, and the Mus- nuddy, near Chunderpoor. In Borneo they are found at Landak. They seem to form a stratum. In Brazil the district is called Minas Geraes, 50 miles by 25, near Tejuco. The Portugal diamond weighs 1680 carats, the Mogul 280, the Russian 195, the Aus- trian 139|, and the French 136f. The first is unpolished ; the second lost 600 carats in cutting, &c. The Russian was the eye of an Indian idol, stolen, and sold for £90,000 and 4000/. annuity. The Austrian was bought oil a stall, as a piece of rock crystal. The French was sold to the Regent of France for about .£120,000. Their sp. gr. 3 5. One of the finest known diamonds was exhibited at the Crystal Palace, in 1851. It is called the Koh-i-nor or mountain of light. A diamond carat is 31/4 troy grains. Cornish diamonds are transparent quartz in six-sided pyramids. Diamonds are imitated by combining one- half red or white lead with silex, potash, and some borax or arsenic. Near Linken, in a cave, rock crystals have been found weighing 4, 5, and 800 cwt. The exudations which form crystals are a very extensive mode of rock formation in all varieties. Metals . Some mineralogists suppose that metals, &c. fill up fissures from above , others by heat from below , and others that they are contemporaneous with the rocks. The Editor advances a fourth theory, that they are gene- rated by long- continued galvanic action be- tween mixed rocks, "and are the Aura of the rocks, combined with the oxygen, and nitro- 202 gen and hydrogen, whose actions and re- actions are electricity. The results are the matrix, a compound of some of the peculiar aura with oxygen and hydrogen. The age of metals is judged by that of the rocks. Iron and manganese are found in the mica part of granite ; tin and molybdena occasionally ; silver and copper are found in both series ; gold and antimony in the lower secondary ; while lead, zinc, and mercury are found only in secondary formations. In density the order of metals is platina, gold, silver, mercury, lead, copper, tin, iron, zinc, all of which, except the first and last, were known to the Egyptians and Greeks. Few metals are found pure, or native; but in ores, gangues, or compounds, com- bined with oxygen or acids ; often two or more resulting metals, with sulphur, arsenic, Ac. in veins of rocks. The foreign bodies are called mineralizer s , — sulphur as to lead, forming sulphur eret of lead, called galena. The sulphur, as well as the lead, seeming to be a result of galvanic action between the surfaces of the rocks or earths. Metallic veins are found chiefly in the oldest rocks, called primitive or transition, but they occur also in lower secondary rocks, and sometimes higher. Earths constitute rocks, but metals, for the chief part, exist only in veins and fis- sures of rocks, and they must therefore be more recent than the rocks and earths. . Proximity is not essential to electrical influences, and the walls of fissures may be affected by excitements from a distance. The average of veins or lodes is 3 or 4 feet in diameter, but they vary from 1 or 2 inches to 10 or 20 feet. Fissures or rake- veins divide all the strata for unknown depths, sometimes perpendicu- larly, but oftener obliquely. They are slips of equal width, or chasms wider at top. Those from East to West contain ores, and those from North to South at the intersections. The mineral contents of lodes are varied, says Fox, by rocks and strata, through which they pass, and miners speculate accordingly. The mineral results in ores and crystalli- zations are, therefore, direct products of the oxygen and hydrogen, rendered active in electricity, and of the exudations and aura of the rocks and strata. — Phillips. Metals are always found as alloys, sul- phurets,' oxides, or salts. Gold, platinum, and columbium, are found only as alloys. Silver, mercury, copper, iron, antimony, arsenic, and cobalt, in the four states. Lead and zinc in the three last. Others various, in two or three states. Tungsten, uranium, titanium, chromium, and tantalium, only as oxides. The mineral veins of Cornwall traverse both the granite and slate rocks without in- terruption. They are highly inclined tabular masses of great extent. On a small scale, they exhibit numerous curves and irregula- rities, both in direction and dip, with very variable breadths ; but on a large view ‘have an approximation to a right line. Thei> K.2 203 MINERAL composition is chiefly quartz, with other earthy minerals, but in many places mixed with metallic substances, viz. copper and iron pyrites, vitreous copper ore, oxide of tin, blende, galena, with admixtures of small quantities of other minerals; as native copper, red oxide, carbonates of copper, salts of lead, &c. ; all frequently so inti- mately and indiscriminately mixed (mecha- nically) with the rock-contents of the vein, that their separation is among the most difficult and expensive of the mining ope* rations. These irregularly-distributed masses, veins, granules, crystals, and other forms of the ores, have usually a prevailing dip lon- gitudinally through the vein itself (stuts or shoots ; ) and this is almost universally from the granite , and towards the slate , which- ever of them may be the containing rock. Lodes of copper are generally covered with brown ochre, friable quartz (gossam,) &c. with tin on one side and the gossam be- tween. The copper is a bi-sulphuret, or sulphuret, and the tin a peroxide. Sulphu- rets of iron (mundik) and zinc, and also of lead, abound in the^odes likewise. The sides of lodes are quartz, shorl, and friable rock. Fluor spar appears with cop- per, and chlorite with tin, in veins which lead to metal lodes in other rocks, and in these of different metals. Rocks near lodes are less hard. — Fox. Cross veins of quartz, and others of earthy matters, run N. and S. in all depths and lengths, and dislocate the metal lodes. They also contain galena, or sulphuret of lead, iron ochre, arsenical cobalt, and, when E. and W., sulphuret of silver. At Huel Vyvyan the lode, in granite, is from 2 to 40 feet wide. In Chili the copper and gold lodes run nearly E. and W., and the silver every way. Metalliferous veins originate in cracks and crevices, which extend irregularly to un- known depths. They occur mostly in pri- mary or transition formations, in parts in which stratified rocks adjoin crystalline rocks ; for example, near the junction of the granite with overlying slates. Veins vary in width from an inch even to 20 or 30 feet ; but in the Cornish tin and copper mines they are from I to 3 feet. In narrower veins the ore, as might be expected, is more metallic. Ores are of four kinds : — 1. Mineralized with sulphur or sulphurets. 2. Mineralized with arsenic. 3. Mineralized with sulphur and arsenic. 4. Mineralized with saline substances. . hey are not always found where formed, or have been transported in fragments. When the Editor, in his theory of the growth of metals, alludes to aura of the substances in correilative action, the exha- lations from the lower parts of the vein are also to be considered. These may greatly contribute to the formation of the ores on the sides of the vein, for the veins probably proceed through the granite, and may con- tain vapours sui generis. The substance forming the outer coat of the vein is often intermixed, or forms layers KINGDOM. 204 alternating with the ore ; called the matrix , gangue, or vein-stonq. Sometimes the ore extends in a comnact mass from one side of the vein to the other. Metallic veins often divide and unite again, and sometimes separate into smaller branches, called strings. Veins, in hard granite, seldom afford useful metal ; but, in those of soft granite and gneiss are found tin, copper, and lead. Copper and iron are only found in those io serpentine. Lead, tin, copper, iron, and other metals are found in the veins of chlorite schist. Grauwacke, in large masses, with few fragments, is often metalliferous, holding the precious metals, iron, lead, and antimony; and sometimes veins or masses of anthracite. Lime-stone is the most metalliferous of the secondary rocks, and lead and copper are the metals usually found in it. When veins in rocks are exposed to the atmosphere, their superficial appearance often indicates the metals they contain. When a vein has fluor spar, it is associated with metallic substances. A brown powder at the surface of a vein indicates iron , and often tin; a pale yellow powder, lead; and a green colour the presence of copper. When the dislocations or fractures of strata are filled with stones or earth, and the separations are wide, they are called faults or dykes ; but when filled with metallic ores they are called Veins. In these last are found the ores of metals, separated from the rocks by gypseous spar, quartz, clay, or earth, called the matrix or rider of the ore. When the veins are not filled up with matrix, the ores are crystal- lized round the cavity. The sulphur, arsenic, and earthy sub- stances are separated by washing, roasting, reducing, &c. In the earliest ages no metals were used but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The smelting of ores was a compa- ratively late invention, and ascribed to ob- servations on volcanoes and the burning of forests. The genera of minerals are divided into species , and again into sub-species and va- rieties , according as they agree, or differ, in external qualities, shape colour, fracture, hardness, &c. Metals are considered as undecomposable substances, yet all those that are inflammable must contain hydrogen. They are twenty-three in number, with chemical ones. Platina , and the recently-known metals, palladium, rhodium, osmium* and iridium, have only been discovered in the sands of rivers. Gold and Silver are found in primary and transition rocks, porphyry and sienite, and the lowest sand-stone. Gold has been oc- casionally discovered in coals, and abun- dantly in sands of rivers. Mercury is found in slate, lime-stone, and coal strata. Copper in primary and transition rocks, 265 MINERAL KINGDOM. 266 sienite, and occasionally sand-stone, coal- strata, and alluvial ground. Ill North America are found, on the surface, masses of native copper, of many thousand pounds weight. Iron in every kind of rock. Tin in granite, gneiss, mica-slate and slate. Lead and Zinc in primary and transition rocks, except trap and sepentine ; in por- phyry, sienite, the lowest sand-stone, and occasionally in coal-strata. Lodes and mines are, by many, supposed to have been passes of streams of water choaked up ; and in most mines such streams still remain. In Cornwall, they run from east to west; hut, in other countries, they often run from north to south. The tests of a probable mine are mineral waters, trees or grass discoloured, metallic ore or sand, and the products of boring. Gold is yellow, copper red, iron grey, lead blue, and cobalt and manganese grey ; all the rest are white. The mines in the Cordilleras, in America, are remarkable for their richness. The most important are the silver mines ; and there are several of gold, quicksilver, copper, and lead. In Chile are several silver and some important copper-mines. The richness of the silver-mines of Potosi may be judged of from the fact that ahove 1300 millions of dollars have been coined there since 1545 ; but the ores are now poor. On the opposite side of the chain, in a low plain, are the silver mines of Guantajaya, famous for the large lumps of solid silver, which they for- merly furnished, and of which one weighed 800 lbs. In Peru, there are 40 districts particularly famous for their gold and silver mines. Gold is found especially in the pro- vinces of Guailas and Pataz, and silver in the districts of Guantajaya, Pasco, and Chota. The mines of Pasco, 25 years ago, produced more than two millions of dollars yearly, and the mines of the province of Chota now furnish about 42,000 lbs. troy of silver every year. The quicksilver mine of Guancavelica, in Peru, is the only one in South America. In Peru, gold is as abundant as silver, but, for want of capital, it is obtained chiefly from the sand of the streams, near Illimani, Tipuarii, Zorata, and Isola. It is also found in grains in clay, but sometimes in the mountains, in lumps, as one of 60 lbs. Such had been the accumulation of the precious metals and stones in India, where the mines are indigenous, that it is generally estimated that Nadir Shah, in 1/40, carried away not less than 400 or 500 millions sterling. In Jahanqueir’s auto-biography, he relates that a golden platform around his throne weighed 40 tons. His throne and diadem were worth 4 millions. When he married the daughter of his minister, he presented her with as many lacks as amount- ed to 7 millions, and with a necklace of 40 beads, which cost him .£2000 per bead. The province of Berar, on one occasion, furnished above 4 millions of gold. He spent, besides, nearly two millions on ' \.«3 tomb of his father Akbar, one of the wonders of India. The silver-mine of Potosi is sugar-loaf, 9 miles round, 16,000 feet above the sea, and 2/00 above the plain. The upper part has 5000 adits for mines. Since 1545, it has yielded 400 millions sterling. The lower part is as rich as the upper, but flooded with springs, and, for want of steam-engines and capital, the late produce per annum has been reduced to the eighth of a million. The silver-mines of Portugalate, in Chicas, have ore six or eight times richer ; and there are others at Chorono, Chuquisaca, Porco Lipes, Carangas, and Oruro. For want of fuel and engines to smelt the ores, the me- tals are separated by amalgamation with quicksilver, at a loss of 20 per cent. The Mexican ores yield four oz. of silver per cwt. Those of Saxony 10 oz. The Mexican mines are deeper, but the veins thicker and more extensive. The mines are a lottery, but Count Regia derived for many years a million per annum from them, and Count Valenciana a quarter of a million, and the Marquis del Apartado got £800,000 in six months, from a mine. Mines, in Chili, are worked by a proprie- tor, and one who finds capital called the habilitador. In 40 years, from 1/90 to 1830, Mexico pro- duced £6,436,453 in gold, and £139,818,032 in silver. Chili, £2,768,488 in gold, and £1,822.924 in silver. Buenos Ayres, £4,024,895 in gold, and £27,182,673 in sil- ver. Russia, £3,703743 in gold, and £1,502.981 in silver. Total, 18 7£ millions, or 4 7 millions per annum. The produce of silver in South America, at the beginning of the present century, ac- cording to A. Von Humboldt, was 3,259,153 marcs, about 2,036,970 lbs. troy (7£ oz. to the marc,) of the nominal value of six mil- lions sterling. Of this sum, Mexico yielded 2,196,140 marcs ; Peru, 573,958 marcs ; Bue- nos Ayres, 463,098 marcs, and Chile 25,957 marcs. Gold is obtained by washing. For an account of the gold diggings in California and Australia, — See Supple- ment. The mines of the Altai mountains are very important ; with a yearly produce of up- wards of 1875 lbs. troy of gold, 37,500 lbs. troy of silver, and a considerable quantity of copper, iron, and lead. South America, per Humboldt, yields pet annum 43,500,000 dollars’ worth of silver One mine is the third of a mile deep, and 8 miles in length, employing 3000 miserables. Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia have gold-mines, which, in 1830, produced 466,000 dollars’ worth of half and quarter eagles, the w hole gold coinage being in that year 643,105 dollars’ worth. The silver 2£ millions, and copper 17,115 dollars. In New Grenada there are several silver- mines ; at Aroa, in Caraccas, a copper-mine exists, which yields from 1400 to 1600 cwt. of metal yearly, and, at Santa Fe, rock-salt and pit-coal are found. The lead-mines of Adra, in Spain, are th* MINERAL KINGDOM. 267 2C8 most productive in Europe. Our lead is thinner, or only the 14 millionth of an inch, chiefly Derbyshire. Gold wire may be extended 50 miles to the The iron, silver, copper, and lead-mines oz. A grain of cerulin from indigo, or of the Hartz, are Osterode, Claustal, Gosltfr, aloetic acid, will tinge 5 pints of water blue Oker, Hertsberg, and Konigshutte. They or crimson. (Yet, small as are the ultimate employ from 20 to 30,000 people, and, though atoms, they must have an upper and under badly paid by royal proprietors, the mines side ; and the forms being definite, their yield no surplus profit. They carry castings own union produces the phenomena of cohc- to great perfection. sion, since no external instrument can pene- The silver-mines of Huantaxaya, near trate them, and the vibrations of blows are Ignique, are 2800 feet above the sea. too wide to affect them separately. Brittle The mines of Peru and Mexico yielded 3 bodies consist of compounded atoms, and millions of gold and silver, in 1834, and such atoms divide by motion or blows.) others in South America about 1 million. Gold-leaf can be reduced to the 300 thou- In the same year, the United States yielded f of a million of gold. Europe consumes 6 millions worth of gold and silver annually, for plate, jewellery, and ornaments. Gold coin wastes a half per cent, in 16 years wear, and silver from two to five per cent. The mines of Hungary, including those of Transylvania, and of the Bannat of Temes- war, compose four great districts. The whole produce amounts to 3,250 lbs. troy of gold, 53,125 lbs. troy of silver, 36,000 to 40,000 cwt. of copper, 6 to 8000 cwt. of lead, and about 60,000 cwt. of iron. Besides these, there are, in other primitive mountains, important mines in the Ural, Vosges, and Black Forest, Hartz, Saxony, Villefort, Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, Pyrenees, Alps, Ardennes, Nertshinskoi, Spain, Asia, and Africa. Besides others in the Floetz mountains, and the washing of pla- tinum tin, precious stones, &c. in alluvium. The obtaining of gold in mining countries costs about fifteen times as much as silver ; and this cost affects the future price in the market in that proportion. The gold-mines of Borisovsk, in Siberia, by washing and the findings of gold at Tagilsk, in masses 2 to 3, and even 18 to 20 lbs. are most productive. The masses are found but a few inches below the ttirf, and yield annually 12,000 lbs. Other alluvium, at Vilkni, have yielded 5 or 6000 lbs. The same district yields abundance of platinum. In 1833, the gold produced was 161 poods, of 38 troy lbs., and the platina 39 poods. Gold is too soft to be used pure, and, to harden it, it is alloyed with copper or silver. In its pure state, gold bullion is considered as 24 carats, and then it is sold by the num- ber of carats of pure gold, and gold of 22 carats is that used in our coin ; two parts cf which is copper or silver. Gold plate is about 1 8 carats, or one-fourth copper. The hundred- thousandth part of a grain of gold may be seen by the naked eye, and a cube of gold, whose side is but the hundredth of an inch, has 2433 million of visible parts. A cylinder of silver, covered with gold leaf, may be drawn out 350 miles long, and yet the gold will cover it. A fibre of silk, a mile long, weighs but 12 grains, so that it requires 583 fibres, a mile long, to weigh a lb. avoirdupois. 56 square inches of gilding weigh but 1 grain, so that a troy lb. would gild 2240 square feet, or 46 feet each way. Gilding on silver is still sandth part of an inch, and gilding to the ten-millionth. Silver-leaf to the 1/0 thou- sandth. The specific gravities are 193 to 105. — Kelly's Cambist. Lace gilding is the millionth of an inch thick : gold-leaf the 200 thousandth. Pla- tina wire may be the 50,000th of an inch. 50C inches of gold wire has been drawn from a grain. Tin-foil is the 1000th of an inch ; that is, 200 gold leaves are only equal in thickness to one of tin-foil. One grain of gold will cover 7 | inches each way, or 52 square inches, or be 1500 times thinner than writing-paper, i. e. a sheet of writing-paper would be 1500 leaves. A mass of 25 lbs. of pure gold has been found in Siberia. Silver-leaf breaks at the 160,000th part of an inch, or three times the thickness of a gold-leaf. It tarnishes from sulphur, and dissolves in sulphuric and nitric acid. Silver can be beat into plates, of which 110,000 make an inch, and drawn into wire, of the 13th of an inch sustaining 137 lbs. The weight of an ingot of silver is from 50 to 60 lbs., and the weight of an ingot of gold is 15 lbs. troy. The quicksilver mines of Carniola are the most productive in Europe, and have been explored 900 feet deep. The mercury is found in clay-stones, and it often issues from the rocks spontaneously. The mines yield 12,000 quintals, or 1200 tons weight per annum, and yield a million of florins to the imperial revenue. They yield also half as much native cinnabar. A cubic inch of mercury, at 62° m 30l f weighs 3425 35 grains. The veins in the north of England produce ores of various metals, but chiefly sulphuret of lead, and in limestone. Ireland yields copper in the southern counties ; and the hill of Croghan Kinshela, in Wicklow, has yielded gold, but not suffi- cient to sustain works. One lump of 22 oz., and another of 18 oz. The entire produce, in 20 years, did not exceed a few hundreds per annum. Mayo abounds in basaltic dykes, to the number of 11, of great length, and intersecting the rocks from the gneiss to the limestone. The platinum of commerce is found in the Spanish mines in South America in grains, and appears to be a compound of eight se- veral metals : as palladium, rhodium, irri dium, osmium, &c. A platinum wire, of the thirteenth of an inch, will suspend 274 lbs. SCO MINERAL KINGDOM. 270 Cornwall is the most productive and cele- brated of the mining-districts of Great Bri- tain. The mines run from St. Austle wes- terly to St. Agnes, by Redruth to St. Ive’s Bay, and on the surface it is a dreary district. The county also abounds in granite, with various proportions of felspar, quartz, and mica. The mines are tin, copper, and lead ; and in strata of schistus and granite. The tin is calciform and glass-like, the matrix argil or silex ; and the world has been supplied with this metal from hence since the Phoenicians. Tin is found as tin-stone, of a brown co- lour, composed of 77 of tin, 21 of oxygen, and 2 of iron and silex. It is obtained from granite or schist veins, sometimes 40 feet wide, and of indefinite depth, being worked above 1200 feet. The tin-mines yield latterly about 4000 tons, formerly only 2/50. Two tons of Banca tin are imported at 50s. per cwt. duty, and re-exported ; but Banca tin supplies all the East. The exports of British tin have been two tons, and are now not half a ton. The price has fallen from £140 to £75 per ton. Cornwall is now more celebrated for copper than formerly for tin. In 20 years the pro- duce has risen from 7 to 12,000 tons. Other copper-mines in the United Kingdotn yield about 2000 tons. Copper has fallen from £120 per ton to £105. Copper , now so important a product, was not produced till the Revolution. The Huelor mine is 840 feet deep, and spreads 1| mile, employing 1300 people. The Poldice mine yields 1000 blocks; but as copper follows the tin, many of them now are copper-mines, from ore of pyrites and sulphur, all among granite, and inclined from 60° to 70 °. Crennis, Huel, Alfred, and St. George’s are the most productive at present. The bottom of the Consolidated Mines, in Cornwall, is 1740 feet below the surface, and 1440 feet below the sea-level. That is, the third and 2-7ths of a mile, or the 12,000ths of the earth’s radius. Near Helstone there are two lead-mines, and at Endillion one of antimony. Gold and silver are also found, as well as bismuth, asbestos, and lapis calaminaris. The Tintagel slate-pit is 300 yards long, 100 broad, and 80 deep. Moor. stone, or granite, slates, and china stone, or steatites, for fine pottery, are also sources of wealth, and the whole employ from 12 to 15,000 people of all ages. The Cornish mines are 50 of copper, 2 7 of tin, 20 copper and tin, 4 lead and silver, 2 copper and silver, 2 copper and cobalt, 2 tin and cobalt, 2 antimony — in all 82. There are also as many quarries for slate, freestone, granite, soap-rock, and china-stone. Copper and tin-mines, and lodes, are ge- nerally situated near the junction of granite and killas, or porphyry and killas, and lodes of both metals are found in each, in an E.N.E. direction, and inclined at different high anglis. — Fox. The largest produce of copper was in 1832-3:5, about 12,200 tons. In 1837 it was 1 1,823 tons. Ores of 3 or 4 per cent, of copper, are now smelted by improved processes. From 1831 to 1837, 142,735 tons of ore produced 1 1,637 tons of copper, or 81 25 per cent. Before 1 790 a fifth of produce, yielded a third of copper, or 12 per cent. The steam-engines perform all the work, raise the ore and rubbish, and also the work- men, who, in the Consolidated Mines, work at an average depth of 1380 feet. The wages of 1 bour are miserably low ; the tributers get but 14s. per week, the tut- workers but 12s. 6d., the women 4s., the boys and girls 35. The labour is about 5-Sths the value of the ore, and the materials form other 3-Sths, only one in five or six of the mines being profitable. 60,000 hands are employed in Cornish mines, but they relieve every 6 or 8 hours, according to depth of shaft. Copper, in tin mines, has been produced for a century and a half ; but copper-mines, as such, were not worked till Newcomen’s engine, about 1720. Watt's engines, in 1769, gave a new impulse. The dynamic unit of the Cornish engines, is a lb. lifted one foot. The product of the lbs. into the feet raised, divided by the bushels of coals, is the duty of an engine. In 1837 there were 58 engines, and their average duty was 47 millions of lbs., while that of the best engine was 8 millions of lbs. of water, raised one foot by a bushel. The pressure of the steam, in the Cornish engines, is 50 or 60 pounds above the atmos- phere. The expansive action is extended to two-thirds or three-fourths the whole descent of the piston. One bushel of coals now does the work of 16 formerly in the Cornish mines, whose gross power is equal to 44,000 horses. In Anglesea, the Crennes mine yielded £84.000 in a single year, but has been worked out. Swansea is the focus for smelting copper ore, and all the Cornish and Irish ores are conveyed there and to Meath. The delete- rious effects are visible in the surrounding vegetation. Tin is cast into blocks from 3 to 4 cwt. j and then assayed in Cornwall, at Lestwythiel, Truro, Helston, or Penzance. Dolcooth mine stretches upwards of a mile from east to west, penetrated by innumera- ble shafts. Its depth is 1200 feet. Five large engines are employed in bringing up ore and rubbish, and three in freeing the mine from its water. The persons em- ployed, men, women, and children, amount to 1600. The great Swedish copper-mine at Fahlur yields from the ore but one and a half per cent, and has the appearance, says Thomson, of iron pyrites. It is a vast open cone. It has been worked for 5 or 600 years, and when most productive yielded eight mik lion pounds. Copper wire, the thirteenth of an inch MINERAL KINGDOM. 271 272 will sustain 302 lbs. Copper pyrites is a "native sulphuret of copper. British Silver coin contains one-thirteenth of copper. The Ecton copper-mine, in Staffordshire, js now working at the depth of 4/2 yards, being the deepest mine in England. The deepest mine worked in Europe, or in any part of the world, is at Trutienburg, in Bonemia, and it is 1000 yards. No imported copper is used at home ; nearly 8000 tons of British are exported. The Stannaries are the tin and copper mines of Cornwall. Malacca rivals Cornwall in its tin-mines. No less than 770 tons of banca tin were imported in 1831, from Singapore, &c. and was again re-exported. It appears to be largely used by the Dutch, Chinese, &c. A tin wire, the thirteenth of an inch, sus- tains but 34 7 lbs. The lead mines in Derbyshire, Cumber- land, &c. yield about. 1 5,000 tons per annum. A lead-wire, the thirteenth of an inch, sus- tains 28 lbs. Galena is the native sulphuret of lead, and often contains antimony, silver, and zinc. The ores of lead are sulphuric, and this is expelled by the heat of a reverbera- tory furnace. Putty is oxide of lead, or whitening and sweet oil. Zinc wire sus- tains 110 lbs., and if heated above 212°, it may be rolled very thin, and drawn into wire. At a red-heat it inflames, and dis- perses in flakes. It amalgamates with most of the metals, making a sort of paste. Manganese has so great an aptitude to combine with oxygen, that, on being ex- posed to the air, it absorbs so much as to fall into powder. If thrown into water it decomposes, the water becomes green, and is found to have absorbed 015 of oxygen. If this be exposed to the air it turns brown, and is found to contain one-fourth oxygen. In a native state, the oxide contains four- tenths. From this cause the native black oxide is used to obtain oxygen gas, which may be expelled by heat. The red oxide of iron contains 041 of oxygen and arsenic acid one half. Selenium is a new metal obtained by Berzelius from the pyrites of Fahlun. Its specific gravity is 432, and brown. Cadmium is another metal in union with zinc, with a specific gravity of 8 604, and of a grey colour. Wodanium is grey and the specific gravity 11-47. Gun metal is 12 lbs. tin and 100 copper. Zinc and copper form alloys in all pro- portions. 1 lb. copper to 2 zinc, is common brass. 1 of each is prince’s metal. 4 of copper to 1 of zinc is the malleable brass in watch- work. 6 and 1 is harder than copper. Tin and copper form valuable alloys in various proportions. 1 1 lbs. of tin to 4 of copper form speculums. 11 to 36 is bell- metal. 11 to 96 is the common casting for cannon. And 11 to 108 form cannon and statues. Bath metal is 2 lbs. of brass, and nine ounces of zitf c. Iron , as well as glass, was accidentally discovered by a fire made of iron-stone in one instance ; and of lumps of natron and silicious matter in the case of glass. Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal- Cain, Noah’s brother, who was drowned in the flood; but Sanchoniatho ascribes it to Vulcan, or Hephistus, the first god-king of Phoenicia, Egypt, &c. Tubal Cain and Vulcan are similar names, but Sanchoniatho speaks of no flood. The Greeks had very confused ideas about Vulcan, who, accord- ing to Manetho. lived about 6100 B. C. Iron-stone is known to practical men by its weight and other characteristics. But no iron is visible in the fracture. It is as easy to believe that it is then formed from primitive atoms, as that it is an oxyde. The air oxydates iron into the red or yel- low powder called rust. Iron burns brilliantly in oxygen gas. The black oxyde of iron contains 79 iron and 21 oxogen. The red oxyde, or peroxvde, is obtained by putting red-hot iron filings in an open vessel, and agitating them till they produce the common red paint. — It is this oxyde which produces the red colour of bricks and clays. It is G9 iron and 31 oxygen. Carburet of iron, or iron and carbon, ia black lead, or 19 parts of carbon and 1 of iron. Phosphuret of iron is called syderum. The ores of iron , or iron-stone, are con- sidered as mixture of clay with oxyde of iron, from 15 to 35 per cent, of metal. To procure pig-iron from these stones, they are mixed with charcoal and lime in a large furnace, and the oxygen combines with the charcoal, and the clay with the lime, by which the grains of iron are separated and melted, so as to run out in a fluid state from the furnace. It is white, grey, or black, and when cool has a density of 7 h. CVwMron is a supercarburet of iron : and wrought, or soft iron, is the simple metal divested of foreign materials. This cast-iron is then converted into bar or wrought-iron by being melted in charcoal and ashes with scoria of iron, and, by re- peated forging, it becomes malleable. Pig-iron is cast-iron, as it flows from the furnace. Its quality, for various purposes, is known by its fracture, but dealers judge by its surface. In general, one pig on the ground breaks another, which is let fall, across it from an elevation of 7 or 8 feet. The softest breaks with difficulty. White cast-iron is hard and brittle ; and it does not seem to be well-understood to> what this is to be attributed ; while black is soft and tender, and bears all the marks of containing too great a quantity of car- bon. The grey, or gun-metal, as it is some- times called, is superior almost for every purpose ; it is sufficiently soft to yield to the file, and it is much stronger than either of the other kinds. Bar-iron is converted into steel by being stewed, while red-hot, with charcoal from three to seven days. It is then cast in MINERAL KINGDOM. 273 ingots, and its specific gravity becomes 7 8, and is subcarburet of iron. These several conversions employ thou- sands of men in the largest and most im- posing manufactories. Steel has become a large product at Shef- field. It employs 60 furnaces, which produce 10.000 tons per annum besides some hundred nioulting-furnacos, all which consume 100,000 tons of local coal. The other manufactories consume 200,000 tons, besides 38,000 for 75 steam-engines of an average of 18- horse power. Swedish iron is employed for cut- lery, &c. in the proportion of 10 to 2 British. In 20 years, the exports of unwrought steel have risen from 500 tons to nearly 2000, above half of which goes to the United States. In forming iron-castings, to bear a trans- verse strain, it is common to increase their depth to several times their breadth ; for the strength is as the square of the depth multiplied into the breadth. But, by the experiments of Rennie, this rule was not found to hold in a bar of the depth of four inches, and the breadth of £ of an inch. Cubes of l-8th of an inch, taken from the middle of a large block, were crushed with a weight of 1440 lbs. Cubes of 1 -4 th an inch were not crushed with less than 10,351 lbs. Iron furnaces, among the Romans, were unprovided with bellows, but were placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of prevailing winds. Blasting.bellow r s are now the most colossal structures in the en- tire range of manufactories, some of them being of such sizes as to be wrought by a steam-engine of eighty-horse power, and their roar on entering the fire may often be heard for miles. In the largest class of blasting bellows, the ^blowing cylinder is eight feet in diameter, and it discharges twenty-four cylinders per minute, or nearly 12.000 cubic feet of air with the force of 3 lbs. to the square inch ; but, in general, one engine operates on different furnaces w ith 3 or 4000 cubic feet of air per minute. A single furnace thus smelts from forty to fifty tons of pig-iron daily. The old method was by water-machines, called Trompes. Alloys of iron with silver area 500th silver. Iron is fibrous. Gold is crystalline. The black stain, when acid is put on iron, arises from carbon. The ore called hematites produces the purest iron, by ignition with charcoal. The annual production of iron in Great Britain is upwards of 2,250,000 tons. Of this quantity, South Wales furnishes 700,000 tons, South Staffordshire and Worcestershire 600.000 tons, and Scotland 600,000. The re- mainder from smaller districts. Colnbrook Dale is a winding glen between iwo hills, about eight miles long and two broad. It supplies iron ore, coal, and lime, to some of the largest melting and casting establishments in the kingdom. Iron-stone china is also made here, and the district has been a seat of astonishing production. Wi export 71,000 tons of bar, 22,000 of 274 pig-iron, and 14,000 in castings, besides 10,0^0 as rod and wire. Of anchors, &c. 2000 tons, hoops 12,000, nails 5000, and sun- dries 21,000. In all 157,000 tons. There is also exported 1710 tons of bars of steel, from Swedish wood-made Iron. America, in spite of its Pittsburgh, is our greatest customer. In 1740, the 59 charcoal furnaces of England and Wales produced but- 17,380 tons of iron. About 17/0, coke was pre- ferred to charcoal, and in 1837, the produce is a million of tons. In 1836, a million of tons of iron were smelted at a mean price of 7/. 10s. per ton. Waste and increased density reduces every 100 tons of pig-iron to 70 of wrought- iron. As 5 cubic feet of iron make a ton nearly, so our whole annual manufacture is 3£ mil- lions of cubic feet, which in each dimension is 152 feet, or 50| yards only. Then, as there are about 14/ thousand millions of cubic feet in a cubic mile, so at the same rate it would require 42,000 years to make a solid mile of iron! But as the mine, coals, and lime, make 10 tons for every ton of iron, and their specific gravity is but l-3d of the iron, so a cubic mile of iron would exhaust 30 cubic miles of materials, and our annual waste dug from the earth is 105 millions of cubic feet, and make a cubic exhaustion, or pit, of a mile in 1400 years. There are about 400 blast-furnaces in France, chiefly worked with wood. The steel and iron factories at Pittsburgh consume 11,000 tons per annum: 3500 in castings, and 7500 in rolling. 18 tons ©f nails are made daily, and there are seven steam-engine factories. Daunemora is the largest iron mine in Sw’eden, and Fahlun is the greatest copper mine in that kingdom of rich mines. The ore forms a large vein in a hill, thirty miles from Upsal. It is wrought to a consider- able depth by blasting, and the ore affords 50 per cent, of cast-iron. This is the iron which is converted into steel at Sheffield, and known by its mark of three balls. Its supe- riority is ascribed to its being smelted with wood instead of coke. A gallery 6000 feet long, at 600 feet deep, has been recently formed in the silver-mine mountain, at Konigsburg, so as to carry out the ore horizontally. Rushwa, Ije, and Watka, are the seats of the iron and steel manufactories of Russia. Sobakin was their Watt. Magnetic pyrites is a sulphuret of iron, 63 iron and 37 sulphur, and called loadstone. Super-sulphuret of iron is iron pyrites, 47 iron and 53 sulphur. Loadstone abounds near Magnesia, in Natolia, and hence the name of magnet. Black lead , or plumbago, contains 9 parts carbon, and 1 of iron. Mercury is found native, or combined with sulphur, called cinnabar. Calomel is 389 mercury, and 67 chlorine. Corrosive sublimate is 380 mercury, and 134 chlorine. Gold forms 3 oxides, 2 chlorides, and 2 sulphuret. GEOLOGY. 275 276 Silver forms 1 oxide, 1 chloride, 1 iodide, cyanuret, and 1 sulphuret. Iron forms 3 oxides — blue, red, and black, 2 chlorides, 4 iodide, 2 sulphurets, 1 phosphuret, 2 carburets, as cast-iron and steel. Copper 2 oxides, 2 chlorides, 2 sulphurets. Lead has 3 oxides, 1 chloride, 1 iodide, and 1 sulphuret. Mercury has 2 oxides, 2 chlorides, 2 iodides, 1 cyanuret, and 2 sulphurets. Tin has 2 oxides, 2 chlorides, and 1 sul- phuret. All in various definite proportions, and so with the less important and the chemical and factitious metals. Fusibility and oxidation of metals is in- creased by being alloyed. Looking-glasses are silvered with an amal- gam of mercury and tin ; and glass globes with an amalgam of lead, tin, bismuth, and mercury. Brass is gilt with an amalgam of 1 gold and 8 mercury. An alloy of 10 copper and 1 arsenic re- sembles silver. An alloy of 1 platinum and 10 arsenic is fusible at a red-heat. Tin and lead is the solder of the glaziers. It fuses at 360°. Tin and lead ; or tin, copper, antimony, and bismuth are pewter. Three parts tin, 5 lead, and 8 bismuth, fuse below 212°. Iron-wire, the 140th of an inch diameter, bears 5 cwt., copper 3, silver and gold 1|, zinc 1, and tin and lead but Hence iron is 20 times the strength of lead and tin. Bronze is 1 tin and 10 Cbpper. Bell-metal 4 zinc, 1 tin. Brass is 4 copper, 1 zinc. Dutch gold 5 copper, 3 zinc. Wootz is steel and silicum. 500 steel, 1 silver, harder than wootz. 100 steel, 1 platinum, is like wootz. Sodium is procured like potassium, by the electrical or chemical decomposition of the mineral alkali, or the alkali from the ashes of marine plants, instead of pearl-ash. Soda, the oxide of sodium, is the chief ingredient in glass and hard soaps. Glass is soda united to earths and oxides.. Soaps arg soda united to oils. In mining districts ancient laws and severe customs govern every thing, and perhaps some of the laws of Minos, fabled to be made for hell, still prevail in Cornwall and Derbyshire. 954 persons are ascertained to have pe- rished by explosions in English and Welsh coal-mines, between 1810 and 1835; and 1 GOO in Durham and Northumberland only, between 1710 and 1810. Since Davy’s lamp, 538 have perished in 18 years in those coun- ties, and in 18 years before only 447 ; but a Committee of Parliament decided that Davy’s principle was previously known to Clanny and Stephenson. The examination of an ore is called the Docinastic A rt. The pieces are cleared from foreign and stony substances. The pure mineral is pounded, and then torrefied or roasted in a shallow vessel, and the sul- phur and arsenic dissipated. A certain weight of the roasted ore is then placed with fluxes in a crucible. The black flux for lead ; copper and antimony are two parts of tartar and one of nitre, melted together. The flux of scopoli, for iron, is two parts of calcined borax, one of nitrfe, one of the ore itself, and a fifth of slaked lime. The vi- treous flux for the same is eight of pounded glass, one of borax, and half of powdered charcoal. When the mine yields native metal, or its oxide, no further process beyond that of picking and fusing is necessary ; but, when it is combined with sulphur and arsenic, the ore must be cleared of the stony matter, or matrix. This is effected by a stamping-mill, consisting of pestels of wood, shod with iron, and armed with cocks, and which are raided by the turning axis of a wheel. Wate> passes during this pulverization, and carries off the light and waste parts, and what re. mains is called sclich. This is afterward? worked with brooms and water, and the sclich, in being roasted, is deprived of its mineralizer. It is then melted in strong furnaces, excited by blasting bellows, or sometimes by a well-known machine called a trompe, made of a hollow tree, and a cask into which water falls, carrying a current cf air to the furnace. GEOLOGY. Geology, or the History of the Earth, as it is and has been, deduced from its own na- tural records, is a new subject, raised into a noble science in our own age. Till the commencement of the present century, mankind were so blind to subjects constantly before their eyes, that Dr. Plot ascribed all fossils to an imitative sympathy of the inert for the organic; and Voltaire gravely referred the sea-shells, near Geneva, to the wallets of pilgrims in the Holy Wars. The first person who drew general atten- tion to the subject was William Smith, a land-surveyor of Bath, who, in constructing roads and canals, observed that the same strata gave the same fossils, and that strata and fossils were always identical. This was a key ; and no study ever became more po- pular, and raised itself into universal estima- tion more suddenly. Parkinson, Cuvier, Farey, Mantell, Brogniart, the German and Swedish miners, the Americans, the English in all colonies, and Sedgwick. Buekland, Murchison, Greenough, Lyall, Phillips, and Societies all over Europe, have been active in exploring beyond example. The Editor has contributed his mite by shewing, that the increased projectile force needed in the perihelion, is the active swing of the mobile waters increased in the hemisphere, over which the perihelion is ver- tical in declination. The seas therefore ac- company the perihelion south now, and north in 10,000 years ; so that every 20,000 years the northern hemisphere has been, and will GEOLOG Y. 277 be, as the southern hemisphere is now, and the southern will have an excess of fixed land, just as the northern has at present. This principle is presented as the master- key to the whole of these phenomena ; and if the elevation appears to have been greater at one time than at present, it is easy to per- ceive that, as the inclination is a decreasing quantity, it was once wider, perhaps even 45 degrees ; and then the perihelion action would he far greater, and the earth be tro- pical even to the centre of France, confer- ring constant sunshine lor a month on the centre of Britain, and three months on the north of Scotland. Hence the tropical cha- racter of fossils in high latitudes. Leonardo da Vinci was the recorder of correct opinions relative to fossil remains. Italy took the lead in these enquiries, but England was mystified by prejudices on this as well as other subjects, till within a cen- tury. Llwyd, Woodward, Nichoell, Bran- der, and Strachey, were our first collectors of what they ignorantly believed to be re- liques of the Jewish Deluge. Steno, in 1669, distinguished between pri- mitive rocks and those which contain fossils ; Arduino, Lehman, and Rouelle, about 1760, enlarged on these ideas of Steno, and classed rocks as primary, secondary, and tertiary, as products of different periods. Werner, about 1780, classed rocks into primitive (as granite, mica-slate, and clay- slate ;) transition, highly inclined like the primitive ; secondary, (floetz or flat strata,) more horizontal. Trap-rocks, which re- semble lava, were referred to volcanoes, but in general Werner referred to water. Hutton, a Scotchman, referred the whole to fire and to volcanic agency, and seized on the local exhibition of basalt, as proofs of universal action. Even the metallic con- tents of veins, ascribed to overflowing liquid metals, were pressed into his theory. Lamarck, Deluc, Cuvier, Brogniart, Par- kinson, Webster, Mantell, Lyell, &c. &c. gave finish to the study. The Greek schools, above 2000 years ago, treated of the world as of indefinite antiquity, and they speak of traditions, 10 or 14,000 years before their time, as facts not ques- tionable from their antiquity. The granitic groupe covers the unknown nucleus as mica, quartz and feldspar in granite, mica, quartz, and garnet in mica slate, and feldspar and hornblende in sienite. There are, says Buckland, 8 varieties of crystalline unstratified rocks, and 28 well- defined divisions of stratified formations. Then, taking the average thickness at 1000 feet, they exceed 5 miles, but, as the primary and transition series much exceed 1000 feet, the whole may be 10 miles in thickness. They are divided into primary, transition, secondary, tertiary, diluvium and alluvium ; the four last being produced from detritus of the two first. The inclinations of beds and formations arise, in all cases, from precipitation from floods while in progressive velocity, so that 273 the law of settlement is the angle or side of the two forces, i. c.,that of weight and that of horizontal velocity. Another^ effect of the two forces is the overlaying of strata, the nearer parts bfeing carrfed farther than the denser, and lying therefore uppermost. Angles of inclination are, therefore, neces- sary effects of aqueous causes and deposits, and declination indicates the course of cur- rents, ascents being created by perpendicular action, and descents by lateral currents. Horizontal beds were formed by still waters, the denser bodies forming the lower strata. ’ The declinations of the strata are, of course, dependent on the line of direction of the waters in tides and currents. Then the inclinations are simple and necessary effects of solution, precipitation, and deposit, com- bined with velocity. In stationary water, as in lakes or isolated basins, deposits would be horizontal. In water of great velocity precipitations would be arrested only by ob- structions, and then form ridges of hills and mountains. With equal forces of velocity and precipitation the deposits would be at an inclination of 45^, and generally, as velo- city exceeded precipitation, angles would be greater, and as precipitation exceeded velo- city, angles would be less. This is as certain as Geometry. The spiral direction of strata over strata with out-crops, such as we find at the sur- face, is exactly such a disposition as would arise from the velocity of water in carrying stratum over stratum, whether in solution, or by mechanical propulsion. In certain cases it would carry onward previously-laid strata, and hence that intermixture which baffles observers who are without a key. The formation of sand-banks in rivers, and of hills and mountains, would result from any small obstruction to a current of muddy waters, flowing on the oblique side, for nearly all mountains have oblique and abrupt sides. Troughs, or concave hollows, are the forms which the indurated strata appear to take in concreting, and then these are filled with the detritus of submersions and tides. Wherever secondary rocks are formed, we may be sure that the tides have flowed over the place ; and the strata of rounded pebbles that divide such sand-stone, and other rocks, are evidence of the sea level in the last southern absence of the perihelion. These alternate rises and falls of the sea level, a few hundred feet higher or lower in both hemispheres, are the foundations of the various traditions of nations about some ill-understood flood. In all countries, on digging to certain depths, and in mining, the remains of fishes, vegetables, quadrupeds, and birds, are found in the soil or embedded in the rocks, except in those of simple substance and primitive antiquity. The general regularity with which those that are marine are laid at one level, and those which are products of land are laid at another, lehd to the conclusion that the sea has repeatedly covered the land for long periods of time, and that the land GEOLOGY. 270 280 has, at intermediate periods, been dry. The remains consist always, at certain depths, of species of animals, vegetables, &c. not now in existence, and often of genera not congenial to the present climate. Cliffs or rocks in general are mere endu- rated sand, pressed and dried into stone ; and as the sand varies in quality, the cliffs and sub-rocks vary while other changes are wrought by infiltration, pressure, and dessi- cation. Then, as all land has been formed by tidal and sub-marine action ; this eco- nomy governs all the phenomena of rocks, &c. many periods of 20,930 years must have passed to produce the varieties ; but regular submersions and dessications, at such inter- vals, explain every thing. In ancient formations are veins of gold, silver, tin, copper, lead, and zinc. In others, beds of coal and ironstone, or salt and gyp- sum, or freestone or limestone, or clay and iron. With a base of granite compounded of silex, carbon, alkali, oxygen, iron and manganeze, with water, air, and solar light. The lowest rocks, it is therefore inferred, were at one time the surface of the earth and the seat of organic life. These appear to have been destroyed by some great revo- lutions, which brought new tribes of organ- ized beings, while their kinds prove that the surface was covered with water. The sub- sequent appearance of amphibia, &c. prove the developement of dry land where these appear to have been swept away. Among later solid rocks, the monstrous race of herbiferous quadrupeds and gigantic lacerta. came into existence, when the earth seems to have acquired herbage for their subsist- ence. The gypsum, &c. which now contains their remains, is covered with newer de- posits, abounding in sea-shells, and above this stratum is found a new race of herbi- ferous animals of the genera of the elephant, rhinoceros, &c. Above them is the first loose soil, intermixed with marine sub- stances, proving other immersions of the sea : and above this lies the soil which the present race of animals enjoy. The principal constituents of all strata, are flint, clay, and lime, and their mixture. Granite, gneiss, mica, slate, and quartoze rocks, beneath the limestone, have no or- ganic remains. In formation of soils, first, there is the green incrustation, called byssus by Lin- naeus, but recently proved by Drummond to be the primary germination of several spe- cies of mosses ; second , when this decays, a very thin stratum of vegetable earth is formed, which affords a scanty support for the roots of the next year’s crop of mosses ; and, third , in process of time soil is formed of a sufficient depth for wall plants, whose accumulations of soil are more abundant. The first organic remains appear in the early slate formations of the transition series, but they differ in genera and species from those found in carboniferous series. In the transition period, the vegetables are cryptogamous, and animals do not ap. pear till the transition limestone, lime being essential to their shells and bones, and the mountain limestone added to the variety of animals and vegetables in the immediately subsequent coal formations. In the second period, the dicotyledonous plants are equal to the cryptogamic. In the tertiary, the former predominate, and are now two-thirds. Monocotyledons are scarce in each geolo- gical period. The fossil flora is above 500 species— 300 from the transition and coal, 100 secondary and 100 tertiary, all named. The most popular view of the subject is this, that all the strata, to a certain depth, are loosely compacted and easily uprooted, disturbed, &c. by any submersion of masses of water or the sea ; and that wherever a man resides, all beneath him has been many times, at great human intervals, dry land and sea, the successive surfaces having sus- tained plants and animals differing from each other, and from those who now occupy the surface. In proof, it may be added : — That primitive rocks are crystalline, with no organic remains, embedded below all others, and also rising through all others. That transition rocks are partly crystal- line, and partly deposits with sea-shells, and lie above primitive. That alluvial or secondary rocks afe alto- gether deposits of ruins of others, and con- tain fossil shells, vegetables, and bones of animals : they lie above the two last. And that tertiary are the upper and more recent formations of sand and clay, the allu- vial or vegetable mould, and modern vege- tables and animals. In the preceding article is given a list of the primitive rocks, which in the first ages of our planet were its surface, indurated in knobs and projections, with corresponding valleys and hollows. By air and water, abradings, decompositions, filtrations, and re-compositions took place. Circles of de- velopements and returns were generated. These were enlarged and extended to organic life. Other enlargements of these circles kept pace with incessant novelties in the materials. Till at length all the formations, from the granite to the vegetable mould, were generated, and with them all the va- rieties of organization which we now discover. In the oldest limestones are found w'orms, tubipores, millipores, belemnites, ammo- nites, nautilites. In argillaceous schists of primary forma- tion are found the same, and corallitcs, echinites, fishes, leaves, reeds, palms, &c. In the lowest secondary sandstone are found the preceding, with orthoceratites and pectinites. In the secondary limestone below coal are found the same with the griphites, ostracites, buccinites, &c. The Coal above the preceding evidently consists of fermented timber, with leaves and shells and branches of shrubs lying upon the beds, and shells, &c. in the shale be- tween the beds. Red marl , or sandstone, contains all the preceding, together with crabs, and amphi- bia, and fishes. GEOLOGY. 281 282 The strata between the preceding and chalk contain every variety of shells and zoophytes Chalk abounds in fossil remains, like the preceding, with sponges, primites, tortoises, and parts of fishes. Above the chalk the lowest marine limestone, and two other strata above it, contain similar remains, with leaves of fuci, and the sandstone above is similar. Chalk also contains marine substances, from the sponge to the alligator ; and clay contains crabs and lobsters, shells, fishes, crocodiles, fruit, fossil wood, and seed-ves- sels of woods in great varieties. The secondary sandstone contains both trees and shells. Lias and oolite abound in bivalve-shells, spines of fishes and bones of turtles, crocodiles, opossums, and fossil woods, besides ferns and reeds. Gypsum, the lowest fresh-water forma- tion, contains various large animals of the genus palaeothera, canis, anoplothera, saurus, &c. besides birds, fishes, and palms. Above the gypsum is a marine formation of gypsum and marl, containing marine shells, crabs, and fishes. The upper sandstone contains various marine shells of a dozen genera. Above this is another fresh-water forma- tion, containing various animals with silici- Sed wood, and remains of crocodiles, turtles, lobsters, sharks’ teeth, and branches of trees. Lyall distinguishes the tertiary epoch into five periods. 1. The recent , or the age of man ; 2. The newer Pliocene ; 3. The older Pliocene ; 4 . The Miocene ; 5. The Eocene. So different are the shells in the newer Pliocene tertia, that Lyall says, it is as diffi- cult to find extinct species in them, as to find living species in the Eocene. He con- cludes, that only 1 in 30 Eocene shells are recent ; 1 in 5, of Miocene ; 1 in 2 in the older Pliocene; and 9 in 10 in the newer Pliocene, though very ancient, and in great elevations. The Eocene mammalia are all of extinct species, and of these 40 were pachedermata, of which only four species survive, and those distinct. The tertiary formations descend to the chalk-rocks. The next lower formations are the upper secondary, and below these the lower secondary or coal formations. The Eocene period had the palaeotherum, anoplotherium, large wolves, opossums, squirrels, owls, quails, pelicans, tortoises, crocodiles, and many fishes, but of species, and often of genera, all found in fossil states, different from the living specimens, The pachedermata, or naked-skinned ani- mals, were then numerous. The vegetation was trees, as palms, &c. of warmer cli- mates than Europe now, proving that the tropics were then wider. 16 degrees implies 94,500 years. The Miocene, or second period of the ter- tiary, contained the dinotherium, 15 and 18 feet long, large tapers, cats and dogs, and the tnastadon. The Pliocene underlies the modern alia vium ; but is as old as the races of men and living species, or many thousand years. The age proves, however, the inconceivable ages in which all the formations, from slate-clay to chalk, and from chalk to the vegetable mould, must have employed. Buckland says, millions of years, and the only ques- tion is, how many millions ? The Pliocene periods abound in elephants, and other pachedermata, also in oxen and large deer, hyenas, bears, &c. The seas contained whales, dolphins, seals, walrusses, and manati, but of species differing from the present. Lately, at Liege, human bones were found in a hyena’s cave of this pe- riod, that is, prior to the last submersion, about 16 or 18,000 years since. M. Schmes- ling, the dicoverer, and Dr. Buckland differ. The lower, or Eocene period of the Ter- tiary, had but 3| per cent, of species, of re- cent shells ; the second, or Miocene, but 18; the older Pliocene had from 35 to 50 ; and the upper, or last, has 95 per cent, of our shells. The gigantic lizards now disappeared, but there were land-monsters of vast dimen- sions. In this Pliocene full half are the same that are found in the alluvial, or still in existence. Among the relics are many of astonishing dimensions, as mammoths, mas- tadons, sloths, elephants, and the like ; some of nondescript genera, and mostly differing in species from living races. Five geological periods are imagined. 1. That of gneiss and mica-slate. 2. That of clay slate and the coal-formations. 3. That from the lias to chalk. 4. That from the chalk to the alluvium. 5. That from the alluvium to the surface. Buckland makes the primary series to include the coal formations ; the secondary to include the chalk, and, above the chalk. In the tertiary series, there are 4 alterna- tions of fresh and salt water remains, evidence of 4 entire revolutions of the peri- helion. He has then suspended a separate volcanic formation. Below chalk the remains are chiefly ma- rine ; but chalk and the coal formation, and upwards, contain marine and land remains, The tertiary strata abound in animal and vegetable remains more like those which now live, but differing in species, and often in genera. We are also enabled to deter- mine the parts of Europe which escaped submersion in the last perihelion visitation. Werner made granite the base, or funda- mental rock, but some moderns deny this, and produce instances that it often overlies others, and even allege, that it is often of recent formation. It is found in mineral veins, and hence supposed to have been forced up in a fused state. Felspar- por- phyry rises through granite at Ben Nevis. Granite, porphyry, and trap-rocks are not in strata, and they contain no fossil re- mains, either because they have been fused or are older than organizations. The oldest stratified rocks are gneiss and mica-slate. The former consists of layers of felspar, mostly quartz, and mica. But In mica-slate the mica prevails. The two GEOLOGY. 283 284 forming alternations ascending from felspar to mica. They contain no organic remains. Clay-slate or roofing-slate lies next above mica-, slate, and has some remains of un- known coralines and shells. Then old red sand-stone, and the conglo- merate with clay-slate, called greywacke. These contain vegetable remains of unknown genera, with G7 species of zoophytes, 48 of Crustacea, 88 of conchifera, and 82 of mol- lusca, &c. but no quadrupeds. Above these are the coal-strata and their alternations of sand-stone and slate ; clay, and sometimes lime stone and clay ; iron- stone, with dykes of green-stone and basalt. Above the coal measures lie the new red sand-stone formations : — 1. In red conglo- merate. 2. In magnesian lime-stone. 3. Variegated sand-stone. 4. Muschelkalk ; and 5. Uppermost, Variegated marl. The petrifactions of vegetables, zoophytes, Crus- tacea, fishes, and fresh water-shells, are numerous, and the impressions of birds’- claws and reptiles are found. The great oolitic formation comes next, and is in 3 divisions separated by lias lime- stone lying on the new red sand-stone, by Oxford clay and Kimmeridge clay, with occasional coal-measures. The Lias is a mixture of lime- stone with clay, and it con- tains the first appearance of quadrupeds in lizards of great size, as the ichthyosaurus, plesiosaurus, megalosaurus, turtles, an opos- sum, insects, shells, fishes, crocodiles, &c. &c. We then rise to the green-sand and chalk formations, the uppermost of the secondary formations. The sand is indurated as stone, and in it are found fossil crocodiles, alliga- tors, and other amphibia, with bones of a bird. Above this lies the chalk stratum, with petrifactions of fishes, shells, &c. &c. In the tertiary period above the chalk, which commenced, by estimation, about 94,500 years since, we find the same propor- tions of plants as on our diluvium, but the species, for the most part, are different ; and their localities have progressed towards the Equator. Cocoa-nuts and palm-fruit are found in London clay and Sheppy. The upper old formations contain the larger animals, and the alluvial and newest strata subjects with which we are familiar. Diluvial rocks contain elephants, &c. Those in the oldest rocks, as lime-stone and slate, are chiefly mollusca, as corals, am- monites, nautilites, &c. while vegetables seldom occur, except reeds and ferns. The older secondary rocks contain pecu- liar aquatic plants and reeds, then above these madrepores, corals, &c. all fixed where they lived ; then shell-fish, very simple, but differing from all now in existence ; in strata above these, fishes, bamboos, and ferns ; in a still higher stratum are more complicate shells and oviparous amphibia, as crocodiles, tortoises, and reptiles , these are embedded in the uppermost solid rocks of the oldest secondary formation. In the newest solid rock formations, whales, seals, and birds, appear; above these, land animals of enormous size, birds and fresh-water shells, all in concrete rocks. Above these, in the lowest beds of loose soil and peat bogs, elephants, elks, rhinoce- roses, of peculiar species, are found. Near the surface the remains of the existing races. The age of reptiles was that in which the secondary strata were formed. The age of extinct mammalia begins with the more recent tertiary strata; and of man, and living species, in the most recent of them. The secondary strata contained no mam- malia, but little marsupial animals, with the maternal habits of the opossum. The earth, however, then abounded with rep- tiles and gigantic lizards, some of which had wings. It afforded but slight traces of coal, at least in Europe. The past destruction of species is evidence of like effects in future, if the universal spread of species by the arts of man is not a security ; but even this depends on the continuity of races which may be silently ter- minable without overwhelming convulsions. Much has been done in geology in all parts of the world, but as subterranean dis- coveries are accidental, and of the 199 mil- lions of square miles on the surface, not 9 have been explored to the depth of 100 feet, it must be another century ere the true History of the Earth can be correctly developed. Pompeii is not the only city which will be disentombed; and we have many errors and false theories to dispel before truth will be discovered, and many sinister influences to combat, before it will be generally recognized. In the gradual developements of a planet, certain combinations would produce ex- hausting effects ; hence, materials of com- bustion would be diminished, and internal fires be fewer now than anciently. This will account for trap, basalt, and other ig- neous rocks created in the age of fire. But it does not seem necessary to suppose that all mountains were of igneous origin, and uplifted by forces from beneath. A perfect smooth plain surface is incompatible with the economy of nature, in rains, rivers, &c. &c. The external signs would be the same, in upheaving and in laying on the debris. The whole genus of hard brittle substances is produced as varied effects of the aqueous solution of finely-divided silex, in combina- tion with bases which contain various pro- portions of alkali. Filtration also varies its products according to the density of the solution. So silicious or mixed solutions, exposed to electrical ac- tion, generate crystals, gems, &c. Even a stratum of .diamonds may be the mere pro- duct of a peculiar infiltration. No agent is more definite, and more constant and uni- versal in its action than infiltration, and the consequent impregnation of all porous bodies with which the siliceous or calcareous solu- tion comes in contact. When the aqueous matter of stalactites evaporates in caves, &c. it produces stalac- tites ; but when the same matter descends among and through masses of earths and or- GEOLOGY. 285 286 gamzed bodies, we then seem, in long time, to get certain hard stones, as agates, flints, &c. and petrifactions of all kinds. The cement of pudding-stone is one palpable case, and if this cement had descended into a vacant space, it would have produced transparent stalactites, stagmalites, or spars. Conglomerate consists of fragments of pri- mary rocks held firmly together by siliceous cement, and lying as a transition stratum, with old red sand-stone, below the coal for- mations. When it is uppermost there is no coal. The forests which formed the coal- beds grew in the sand and shale, whose fil- tration formed the cement of the conglome- rate. In a chip of pudding-stone of half a lb., there are fragments of 5 or 6 rounded agate pebbles, and some hundred pieces, and minor stones which also have been rounded. The cement of the whole is harder even than the agate or flint, for these split in all propor- tions, instead of leaving the bed of the ce- ment. In 100, on a surface of 4 inches diameter, every stone and fragment has split rather than separate, and one only, of the size of a coffee-berry, stood proud in its rounded form, and had broke out from the opposite bed of cement. Agate-stones are wavy, and chip in brittle wavy laminae, so that even these appear to be gradual composts of other ruins. Each of them is penetrated, from the eighth to the fourth of an inch, by a flinty colour all round, having the agate in the centre, and more flint than agate. It is difficult to de- termine whether the flinty coating is an ac- cretion, or a conversion of agate substance to flint substance. Every pebble is but a fragment of a larger mass ; and its surface is smooth and rounded by attrition. “ I follow (says Mantell) the stream in which I find it to its source, half- way up the hill, and find that the waters issue from a bed of clay and gravel, forming the eminence on which I am standing. From this accumulation of flints our pebble has evidently been removed by the torrent, and carried down to the spot where it at- tracted notice. The bed of stones on the summit of this hill is clearly but an accumu- lation of water-worn materials — an ancient sea-beach — consisting of chalk-flints, that have been detached from their parent bed, and broken and rounded, and heaped to- gether ; and we are certain of this, because we know that flints cannot grow ; and, upon inspecting the specimen minutely, we are certain that it was formed in chalk , for it contains impressions of shells and corals, which are found only in that rock. This flint, now so hard and unyielding, was once, therefore, soft or fluid, for we have the deli- cate markings of the sea-hedgehog (echinite) impressed on its surface, and discover a fragile shell, covered with spines ; nay, more, upon breaking off one end, we perceive that a sponge, or some analogous marine produc- tion, is enveloped in the substance of the flint ; and also that there are several minute corals, with here and there scales of fishes.” Chalk abounds in marine shells, corals, and the remains of fishes, crabs, lobsters, and reptiles, all of which differ essentially from living species, although a few of them resem- ble, in some particulars, certain corals and shells of the seas of hot climates. These re- mains are found in so perfect a state— the shells with all their spines and delicate processes, and the fishes with their forms almost entire — that no doubt can be entertained that these animals were not only surrounded by the chalk while living in their native seas, but also that they were entombed in their stony sepulchres suddenly, and while the chalk was in a state of fluidity. Flint occurs in chalk in various forms ; sometimes in nodules, or irregularly-formed globular masses ; sometimes in continuous layers or veins, either horizontal or oblique ; and the nodules have generally shells, corals ; or zoophites, as nuclei, while the veins fill up fissures in the chalk rock. The chalk is stratified, or separated into layers, as if a certain quantity had been poured out, and had sunk to the bottom of the sea, and enve- loped the animals which fell in its way, and this layer had become consolidated before a fresh mass was superposed. The organic bodies served as centres, to which the siliceous particles attached them- selves, and hence we often find a shell or a fish, partly imbedded in the chalk, and partly in flint. We know also that the chalk (at least of the south of England) was not only deposited in a sea, but in the basin of a very deep sea, for the Ammonites, or snake-stones, which, like the recent Nautili, were inhabitants of deep waters, abound in the chalk. These shells, which are only known in a fossil state, were very abundant in the ancient oceans of our globe ; those o» Whitby are well known. Our flint, then, we perceive, was once a fluid, poured into a deep ocean inhabited by countless beings, none of the species of which are now known to exist ; it then became consolidated, and invested by the chalk, en- tangling the shells, corals, and other remains, which we find embedded therein. The incessant dashing of waves against the base of chalk cliffs, undermines the rock, and huge masses fall into the waters. The chalk then becomes softened, and finally is transported to tranquil depths of the ocean, where it forms new deposits, and the flints being detached, are broken and rolled oy attrition into pebbles and gravel, and ultimately sand. — Mantell. Lyall states that our carboniferous rocks are older than any other land, but that taking away the marine strata the primary moun- tains only would remain. Calcareous rocks with fossils, like those in our transition and mountain limestone, extend over great part of Europe and North America. The beds of sandstone covering some of the coal-beds, are 228 feet thick, indicative of the vast force, or long duration of forces, which covered woods with such volumes, which as sand must have been much greater. Sand-stone consists of grains of quartz GEOLOGY. — GEOGRAPHY AND LOCALITIES. 287 and mica, while the felspar (the other con- stituent of granite) is in clay. It also con- tains nodules of slate-clay, or carbonate of iron, and pieces of wood as coal. It lies in distinct strata of all thicknesses, as though laid on by tides and inundations. Slate-clay is in thin beds, with mica and sand-stone. The Silurian system of transition rocks contain 5 or 6 species. The old red sand- stone 20. The coal measures 54. The mag- nesian lime-stone 16. The oolitic series, from the lias to the wealden, 150. Green sand and chalk 50. London clay above 50, and crag 5 or 6. Remains of the gyrostres mirabalis , the large known fish, have been found at Whitby. Sedgwick divides the new red sand-stone of England into 7 members of sand-stones, lime-stones, and marls. Werner placed the old red sand-stone above the coal, but we place it below the coal. Tertiary strata lie on chalk, the uppermost 4 f secondary, and consists of clay and sand. They appear to be accumulations from tidal action, with more fossils than secondary, and of different genera or floetz. The microscope has lately shewn that the whole mass of chalk strata is composed either of marine insects or of their remains, a fact often asserted, and generally believed, but now made evident to sight. Chalk is covered not only with clay and sand, but with very large water-worn boul- ders of foreign rocks, containing fossil re- mains, which indicate that they were carried some hundred miles from the N. and W. to their present sites, during the last submer- sion. Abraded chalk turns up 48 bushels of flints to the acre, every four years. Coal strata lie between the lower and upper red sandstones. The coal measures vary from a few inches to 80 feet, and alternate with the others, so that coal-fields contain from 30 to 80 coal strata, more of sandstone, and many of limestone and slate-clay. The whole, as far as dug, are from 4000 to 4500 feet thick. The lowest coal-bed in Yorkshire lies on the millstone-grit ; the series between the flagstone and grit is from 120 to 150 yards, and extends from Halifax to Sheffield. It contains not only plants and fresh -water shells, but marine shells of the genera pec- ten, and ammonites and orthocera, ostrea, and scaly fish. It is the only coal-bed so furnished, and the same strata also contain muscle bands above and below the pectens. All the coal-beds are wood and vegeta- bles, palpably buried by the superincumbent strata of sandstone, Sec. which forests must have been ages in accumulating, and the covering must have been brought by the ocean in periods like the return of the peri- helion, so that a mean of 60 coal-beds would employ 60 X 21,000 years, or 1,260,000 ^ears. Porphyries cover many of coal formations. In the coal strata of Dalmarnock, 500 feet below the surface, a petrified fly has been found on the stem of the catamites dubias. The Durham and Northumberland' coal- 288 fields extend from South Shields to Castle Eden, 21 miles, and westward 32 miles to West Auckland. Thence to Eltringham 33 miles, and to Shields 32; in all 594 square miles. There is another breadth of 9 miles by 27, from Shields northward, making 243 miles. Above these are the ruins, or a solution of the preceding, forming the diluvial, allu- via!, or uppermost system, and filled with remains similar to those which now live ; but often of species extinct, or of greater numbers than now occupy the same coun. tries. :t is generally considered that all that, lies above the crystalline granite is formed out of its parts which are quartz, mica and fel- spar so intermingled as to produce the silex, clay, lime, and magnesia of the upper strata. Oxide of iron, cr iron-rust contained in the mica of the granite, mingles more or less with all earthy substances, and changes their colour and structure. The strata above these are composed of the ruins of the primitive rocks, and they contain remains of vegetables, fish, and ani- mals, of species different from those now in existence. Hence they are called transition rocks. The horizontal beds above these, called floetz rocks, belong to the transition series, since they contain fossil remains, not of ex- isting species. The internal heat has created, in time, many changes not cognizable by brief obser- vation, or chemical manipulations. The following are the General Conclu- sions of Mr. W. Phillips ; — 1. The lowest and most level parts of the earth consist of horizontal strata, composed of various substances, many of them con- taining marine productions. 2. Similar strata are found in hills to a great height. 3. Shells are sometimes so numerous as to constitute an entire stratum. 4. Shells are found in elevations far above the level of the sea, and at heights to which the sea could not be raised by existing causes. 5. These shells once lived in the sea, and were deposited by it. 6. Shells continue to be found as we i ise to the foot of great chains oj mountains. 7. At this elevation the strata, instead of being horizontal, as in plains, have various inclinations, and are sometimes vertical. 8. From these and other circumstances, it is inferred that there have been frequent irruptions and retreats of the sea. 9. As we approach the summits oj lofty mountains , the remains of marine animal and shells become rare, and disappear. Geography and Localities. The old continent may be considered ns having for its nucleus, or rest, an immense chain of mountains, which stretches 8000 miles from east to west, under various names. In Europe it bears the name of Pyrenees, Alps, &c and in Asia, Caucasus, Himalaya, and Thibet, and Tartary, till it 289 * GEOLOGY. — GEOGRAPHY AND LOCALITIES. 2gO reaches the Pacific Ocean. Atlas is part of &c. Mr. Wilson reports fires in the cliff's, this ridge ; and Etna and the Greek moun- tains are branches of the general chain. The heights are various ; or in Europe, from 5 to 15,000 feet, and in Asia from 10 to 28,000. ’ This ridge then determines the general form of the continent, and the course of the rivers. Some call it the spine of Europe and Asia ; while the Andes, in America, are called the backbone of that continent. The countries to the north and south are governed in their elevation by their connec- tion with this great chain; some are its valleys, and others are table-lands or steppes, all sustaining different levels from the sea. Italy is merely the declivities of the Appennines, and Barbary of the Atlas chain. Bohemia is a circular valley, and Hungary another. Asia Minor is an ele- vated plateau ; Persia is also a high plateau, depressed in the middle ; Thibet is a vast plateau, more extensive and more elevated, sustained on one side by the Himalayas, and on the north by the Altai mountains, both 20,000 feet high, while the immense plateau is 9000 feet. The tract northward of the mountain chain is a vast plain, which in- cludes England, France, Holland, Germany, and Russia to the Ural chain. The leading features in the geological structure of America are : 1st. the conti- nuous belt of high mountains and plateaux traversing its western border, from Behring’s Straits to Terra del Fuego, forming the most uninterrupted extent of primitive mountains known. Their northern portion, consisting of the Rocky mountains, appears to he chiefly granitic, while, in the Cordil- leras of Mexico, and the Andes of South America, the primitive strata are, for the most part, covered with immense accumula- tions of transition porphyries, trachytes, and lavas, forming numerous volcanoes, many of which are in constant activity. 2dly. The wide expanse of low and generally plain country, that succeeds immediately on the west to the above-mentioned zone of moun- tains, and through which, in both hemis- pheres, flow some of the most magnificent streams in the world. This region consists of immense deposits of newer rocks, over which is strewed every where, as with a mantle, the alluvial formation, or a covering of sand and gravel, with which are intermin- gled rolled masses of rocks. 3 fly. The chain of mountains of lower elevation and inferior continuity, which forms the eastern boundary to the low country, and whose principal masses and highest points are com- posed of granite. 4thly. The clusters of islands occupying the seas between North and South America, which are, almost with- out exception, of a volcanic origin. According to a late scientific traveller, the coasts of New Holland present, to the geo- logical eye, many features of curiosity. There are the same ruins of former sur- faces in the strata, fossil remains, fossil woods, coal strata, with all their charac- teristic vegetation, ironstone, fullers’ earth, resembling that near Lyme. South of the great chain of the old Conti« nent, the deserts of Africa and Arabia anij the plains of India present themselves ; ani. the rivers Indus, Ganges, &c. fall with the land towards the Indian Ocean. Asia is palpably the preponderating mass. The axis of rotation equalizes the whole, or reduces various inequalities to one. The pole of the earth, therefore, respects Asia, and the pole of the orbit is on the contrary side as to Asia. Their distance is 23|°, but constantly decreasing, because the Asiatic mountains are constantly spreading over the plains, and adjoining seas. Central Asia is an immense Table Land, terminated in the north by the Altaic chain, highest 100° east, and in the south by the Himalayas, and both are connected by the Belur-Tag range, east of which is the de- serts of the Monguls, and west those of the Tartars. The north Polar Regions consist chiefly of primitive and transition rocks, with few secondary and alluvial, no volcanic, and slight tertiary strata. Coal of the oldest formation was found at Melville Island : also tree-ferns and fossil corals, with fossil dicotyledonous woods in Baffin’s Bay, &c. Iron ores, copper ore, and graphite ; gar- nets. rock-crystal, beryl, and zircon, were also found. There are no solid rocks in the Arctic Regions, owing to the severe frosts. Above two-thirds of the surface of Mo- dern Europe are covered with remains of aquatic animals, &c. in tertiary strata, proving submergence. Bears, dogs, foxes, and wolves, are found in diluvial soils and caves ; hyenas and tigers in lime-stone caves and marl ; the teeth of horses, elephants, rhinoceroses, hyenas, bears, wolves, tigers, &c. are found in masses in diluvial soils ; oxen in peat bogs in several countries ; deer and elks in peat bogs and marl pits ; one six feet high and nine feet long was found in the Isle of Man, in marl, covered with sand, then the peat, and the vegetable soil. Rhinoceroses are found in every part of Europe, and in the arctic circle ; the hip- popotamus is found in England, France, &c. Mount Balca, near Verona, presents the most numerous specimens in Oryctology, which have yet been found in one place. Bones of elephants, stags, bears, and phocae, 200 genera of unknown testacea — 200 spe- cies of petrified shells, belonging to diffei'ent modern seas and climates, with zoophytes of different genera; and remains of birds and insects are found in immense masses ; basaltic columns, scoriae, lava, &c. appear, the whole proving that §re and water have operated in remote ages. The remains of land-animals are not more remarkable at Mount Balca than those of marine produc. tion, for the fishes of all modern seas and rivers are embedded in the calcareous quar- ries, a sort of marly schist of a light grey L 201 colour, affording a foetid odour like putre- faction. In general, they are perfect, and not mere impressions. There have been ninety-four species found, one three feet in length, and a young shark, with its food undigested in the stomach, and another fish had one half swallowed in its throat. The cave at Liege presents different layers of staglamite with exuviae in each, indicating a series of geological epochs. It is a feature of these caves, which the theory of dens does not solve, that the rocks which form the sides, &c. of the caves have similar bones imbedded in their sub- stance. We might, hence, conclude that water had passed through the caves, and then, having carried off the earthy part of the rocks, had left the insoluble bones. Christol has discovered two caves, con- taining bones in the department of Garde ; others have been found at Bayreath, Bize, Plymouth, the Mendips, &c. The sterile parts of Great Britain are Cornwall, North Devon, North Wales, Cum- berland, South West Scotland, and the Grampians full of primary and transitive rocks. The manufacturing parts are from the Exe to the Tyne, through the Western midland counties, whose base is new red sandstone with mines of coal and iron. The agricultural parts are from Dorset to Scar- borough, over plains of oolite, limestone, and chalk, without mine or coals. From Lyme Regis to Whitby is on the lias forma- tion, and from Weymouth to Hull on the Oxford clay. From N. E. to S. W. the out- crops of the strata are in lines from S. E. to N. W., and the road crosses them in breadth. Between Newhaven, S. E., and Whitehaven, N. W., there are 70 changes in 350 miles. The diluvial remains of England indicate a current of the sea from the northward. The Thames is charged with pebbles from the Licky Hill, near Birmingham. The bones of apparent birds, found at Stonesfield, &c. are pterodactyles, or ex- tinct species of flying reptiles. Ink bags, like those in the cuttle-fish, are found in the lias at Lyme. The bezoar stones, found at Lyme, in lias, are the faeces of the ichthyosaurus. Sharks’ teeth and fishes’ teeth abound in Oxfordshire. The plains of Middlesex are covered with enormous accumulations of~water-worn de- bris, chiefly of chalk flints, often abounding in remains of elephants, hippopotami, &c. Elephants’ bones have been found in di- luvial strata, in nearly every county of England and Wales. Never in the older strata, and not in the modern alluvial soils. Europe and Northern Asia equally abound in them, as well as in those of the rhino- ceros, tiger, hippopotamus, &c. &c. The strata near Reading consists of a deep bed of clay, three feet of coarse ful- lers’ earth, four feet of green sand, one and a half foot of sandy clay, two feet of oyster- shell:;, one foot of sandy clay, thirty feet of chalk, and a bed of flint. In other places, fossil-shells, sharks’-t ^eth, and remains of 292 fish, are found ; and in others, bones of ani- mals, and remains of birch-trees. Fossil tropical remains are found in our coal measures at great depths below the present surface. The reptiles and vegetables of Sussex, says Dr. Mantell, must have been inhabitants oi a country enjoying a much higher tempera- ture than any part of Europe ; and the former, from their enormous magnitude and osteological characters, clearly belong to an order of beings, of which the present state of the earth affords no example. The epoch of their existence may be termed the age OF REPTILES. The broken and rolled state of the greater part of the bones, the pebbles, and the con- glomeritic character of many of the deposits, prove that the strata were formed in the bed of a river, or an estuary. The Hastings, or Tilgate strata, must have been formed and consolidated before the chalk (which rests upon and once co- vered them,) was deposited. After the Hastings’ beds were formed, they must have been submerged beneath the ocean which formed the chalk ; for the latter contains nothing but marine remains, and not one fossil of the Hastings’ beds. The ocean of the chalk, in its turn, must have passed away, and the consolidated chalk have been covered by the waters which deposited the tertiary strata, for the latter contain fossils entirely distinct from those of the chalk. The tertiary, in common with the chalk and Hastings’ beds, must have been subse- quently broken up, and the wealds of Kent and Sussex formed, and the chalk dislocated and separated; the lateral fissures in the chalk now constituting the vallies through which the existing rivers flow. To this epoch may probably also be referred the formation of the beds of diluvium. There have been discovered in these strata of Sussex, exclusively of the organic con- tents of the modern' alluvial deposits, the remains of nearly four hundred species of animals and vegetables. — Mammalia, 5. Birds, one or more. Reptiles, 12. Fishes, 24. Testaceous Mollusca, 260, of which 21 are fresh- water. Annulose Animals, 11. Radiated Animals, 29. Zoophytes, 2 7. Ve- getables, 15. At Chadderton, near Manchester, a hu- man thigh, leg, and foot, converted into sand-stone, have been found in coal strata at 100 yards depth. On the shores of the Mersey, at Liverpool, at nineteen feet, was found fine sea-sand ; then a firm bluish marl, intermixed with lichen, fibres, and leaves ; then branches of trees ; then trunks and roots of oaks, firs, &c. ; then marl, and at thirty feet a pair of stag’s horns ; then black peat, with nut- shells, fibres of timber, &c. a foot thick, resting on the rock forty feet below the quay, and twenty below the level of the pool. The rocks on all the western coasts of Great Britain, with two or three exceptions of coal measures, are primary or transition GEOLOGY. — GEOGRAPHY AND LOCALITIES. 293 GEOLOGY. — GEOGRAPHY AND LOCALITIES. 29 * with occasional trap and basaltic rocks and transition conglomerated. But on the eastern coast and southern to Tynemouth secondary rocks or upper formations, nearer the sur- face only are found, as new red sandstone, compact limestone, lias or greyish limestone, oolite or yellowish limestone, endurated clay, sand, and, in certain cliffs on the English coast, of chalk, overlaid by tertiary limestone, sand, and clay. , In the interior of Norfolk is a bed of oyster-shells, 9 miles long and above 18 feet thick. Other shells and bones (some of ele- phants, &c.j also abound 100 feet above the sea-level. Alder and hazel bushes are found 20 feet below the surface-level. Remains of extensive forests are traced beyond the mouth of the Wash and under the land, with bones of elephants, oxen, and deer. The same forests are found on the opposite coast of Flanders, and it is believed that they once joined. In the north of England, Forster states that there are 32 beds of coal, intermixed with 62 of sandstone, 17 of limestone with marine remains. 128 of shale and clay with iron ore, and 1 of trap. The others contain land shells, &c. indicating alternations like the submersion and retreats of the sea. South Britain consists of primary rocks in the west, of secondary down to coal mea- sures in the centre, with upper secondary and tertiary on the south-eastern sides. Granite extends from Cornwall to Dart- mouth, and there is a granite rock at Mount- sorrel. The steepest sides of strata in England are to the W. and N. W. — Stukeby. Coal measures in the south of England are above the mountain limestone ; but in the north the limestone is broken into sand- stone and partial coal strata. The .Isle of Wight and part of Dorset- shire exhibit signs of disruption. Salisbury Plain is 22 miles by 15, 4 or 500 feet above the level of the sea, and a chalk and limestone formation with little soil. The detritus in districts which border Wales, is laid by currents N. W. to S. E. except when varied by the direction of mountain ranges. In Lancashire, Cheshire, and Shropshire, blocks of granite, porphyry, and greenstone, have been carried by cur- rents from the mountains of Cumberland and imbedded in the sand and gravel of ad- jacent formations, but more on the north than the south of high lands. Sea sheils and gravel are found 1000 feet above the sea-level in Caernarvonshire. The Welsh and Cumberland mountains are primary formations, consisting of slate, clay slate, felspar, porphyry, and greywacke. They are bounded in Shropshire, Monmouth- shire, &c. by old red sandstone and transi- tion limestone, and the’ Silurian district has beds /000 feet thick of old red sandstone, schist, freestone, and limestone. ‘ In Wales the geological lowermost are on the surface upper rriost, and in England the uppermost in Wales are covered by transi- tion, carboneous, secondary and tertiary strata. South Wales is an immense basin 100 miles by 20. Wales was anciently separated by an arm of the sea from the Bristol Channel to the estuary of the Dee and Mersey, on which line the salt strata are now found. The salt-pits at Northwich are 2 miles round, intersected by avenues 70 or 80 feet wide, supported by pillars of salt 20 feet square. The depth is 112 yards, and the general temperature 55°. Human bones and skulls have been found in a lime-stone cave at Cheddar 30 feet deep, beneath bones of boars, oxen, &c. Other human bones, with pottery, have also been found in a cavern in the South of France, mingled with those of the rhinoceros and elephant. Richborough near Sandwich, now 2 miles in the sea, was once a castle and port at the mouth of the strait, which once separated Thanet. Another Roman port off Romney Marsh is now several miles out at sea. Besides the immense cliffs near Tunbridge Wells, there are others still more extensive on the east of the Linfield Road to Brigh- ton. They are ocular proofs of tidal action, and of the presence of the sea in the inte- rior of Sussex, countless ages ago. In boring an artesian well at Mortlake, the gravel was 20 feet, the London clay 240, plastic sand and clays 55, hard chalk and fl-ints 35, and soft chalk 15. — Total 365 feet The water then overflowed. Cost .£300. Lyall thinks there existed an extensive archipelago in the northern hemisphere. Lizards found at Stonesfield must have been forty feet long, and eight feet high ! Fossil fishes occur every where, and in all forms. Crabs are numerous, as well as other shell-fish. Bones of several elephants, of a rhino- ceros, Sec. have been found near Ilford. Granite appears in 2 or 3 places in Cum- berland, &c., and the species at Shap are found in large boulders through Lancashire and Yorkshire. Cross Fell is of lime-stone, capped by coal strata. The Cheviot hills are porphyry pro- jecting through the upper strata. The Isle of Man, the Shetland and Orkneys are primary, and Orkney displays the power of water to move, split, and break up rocks. The Malvern hills are granite and sienite. Charwood is sienite, porphyry, trap, and slate. The Wreken, &c. are greenstone, amygdaloid, and claystone. The tertiary stratum of dark London clay, containing sulphurate of iron, and sulphate of magnesia, is from 250 to 350 feet thick, and was a deposit in a former estuary, which extended from Sheppy to Reading, called the London Basin, and abounding in fossils. Scotland consists of primary rocks below the coal measures and of transition rocks. The 1 ne of demarcation shows that the effi- cient forces proceeded from the North-west or Atlantic, for it lies across the country from South-west to North-east;, t. e. from the Clyde to Caithness. North of this line, we have all the primarv strata up to old red L 2 GEOLOGY. — GEOGRAPHY AND LOCALITIES. 295 sand-stone; south of it the transition courses, topped by coal measures and new red sand- stone, but little of the superior secondary, and scarcely any of the tertiary. The moun- tains and the islands range in the same di- rection, and all primary, the islands being marine mountains of gneiss mixed with other primaries. The lochs and indentations are also in the same direction, South-west to North-east. Skye, Mull, &c. are a groupe of gneiss, trap, with basaltic islands, near Stafia, which contains Fingal’s cave, &c. The South-western division of Scotland is separated from primitive and transition di- vision, and by the upper transition of con- glomerate and old red sandstone ; and above theliascoal measures and mineral products of value. The coal-fields extend 20 miles in breadth, from the Clyde to the Forth, and, as might be expected, are more accessible on the latter, where coal-works cover an area of 80 square miles, and in some places have measures of 40 feet. They sustain iron smelting to the amount of 70 000 tons per annum. Arran is divided like the main land, by a line South-west to North-east; the latter having granite mountains of vast heighth, and the latter of transition and coal-shales. Basalt is distributed in patches all over Scotland, and yet there are no signs of vol- canoes, &c. In fact, the recent determina- tion of great internal heat renders it pro- bable that most igneous rocks are products of that heat, and bared or turned up by marine inundations. On the descent of an excavated sand- stone-rock, near Lochmaben, then soft, there were found, for forty or fifty yards, four tracts of animals, distinctly marked in uninterrupted continuity, with regular al- ternations of right and left foot, and the heel and toes ; supposed in one case to be the tortoise or crocodile : and the most dis- tinct were on rocks sixty or seventy feet below the modern surface. Shell-marl, in Scotland, contains skeletons (in numbers as named,) of stags, oxen, swine, sheep, dogs, hares, foxes, wolves, and cats. Beavers are scarce. The coasts of all Ireland are alpine and primitive, and the Midland a full third are secondary limestone, but hilly, without ter- tiary. Opposed to the alpine coasts of Wales and Cumberland, stand the alpine eastern coasts of Ireland, and, as the western coasts of Ireland are also alpine and primary, we seem warranted in the inference that the Irish Sea was once a valley between the Irish and Welsh ranges, and the Irish Channel an irruption in a limestone plan like that which constitutes the central coun- ties of Ireland. Further to the South-west, between Ireland and the Azores, in a milder climate, may have lain the Atalantes of Plato. The bogs are ascribed to the prevalence of shallow lakes, which promote the growth of mosses and aquatic plants. The turf is the universal fuel of the poor. 290 In Antrim, the secondary formations are covered with massive beds of basalt to an extent of 800 square miles, and above 500 feet deep, (even 1500 in some parts,) cover- ing 10 or 1200 feet of chalk, green sand, lias and red marl, and in some places on the coal formations, fissures are also filled with basalt. All this basalt in Ireland, and under the sea to the Scotch coasts, are ascribed to the conversion of lava ejected from some ancient volcano, probably submarine, during the geological age which followed the for- mations on which the basalt is placed. The secondary formations beneath contain their usual fossils, and the basalt and the basaltic columns rise in sets one above the other to the number of 16, of which 6 are columnar. At Fair they shew themselves through an elevation of 500 feet, and some of the shafts are 150 feet high and 5 broad, in pentagons, hexagons, and octagons. At the Giant’s Causeway they are 30 feet high, and a foot broad. The constituent parts are felspar and hornblende. An extensive formation of basalt exists nearly in the same line of longitude, from the Canary and Madeira islands to Ireland, Scotland, the Hebrides, and Iceland. Few countries in the world present such magnifi- cent basaltic rocks as the north part of Ire- land, and some of the Hebrides : probably these are connected under the ocean. The Giant’s Causeway constitutes a small part of a vast basaltic range in the county of Antrim, along the north coast of Ireland. The promontory of Fairhead and Borge, in the same range, are situated eight miles dis- tant, and consist of various ranges of pillars and horizontal strata, rising from the sea to the height of 500 feet. Many of the co- lumns in the ranges of Fairhead are 130 feet high, and five feet broad. At the Giant’s Causeway, the columns seldom exceed one foot in breadth, and thirty feet in heighth ; they are sharply defined, and are divided* into small blocks, or prisms, a foot or more in length, fitted into each other, like a ball and socket. The basalt is close-grained, but the upper joint is cellular. The columns are mostly formed with five or six sides ; but some have seven or eight, and others only three. The cave of Staffa is made by the destruction of basaltic pillars by the sea. It is nearly 400 feet long, and 35 broad. There are in many bogs 3 separated strata or layers of large trees, separated by 10 or 12 feet of turf and heath. A carbonizing process gives them the appearance of being burnt. Under the bogs are beds of marl, and beneath clay and gravel. The turf is sphagnum, palustre. The bogs of Ireland cover 2,830.000 acres, to the depth of 5, 12, and even 30 feet. The transition mountains near Killarnev rise above 3000 feet, and one to 3400. The anthracite coal of Killarney contains the same vegetable fossils as our coal bods. The bones of an elk preserved at Dublin and found in the bogs, have a spine 10 feel 10 inches, with a heighth from the loot to the top of the horn of 10 feet 4. Each horu GEOLOGY. — FOSSIL VEGETABLES. 297 is 5 feet 9 in., and the distance of the tops 11 feet 10 in. France, geologically, consists of 5 basins, the Garonne, the Loire, the Seine, the Rhine, and the Rhone. The district near Paris lies over the chalk beds, and it was on the gypsum of this ter- tiary series that Cuvier and Brogniart dis- covered so many remarkable fossils, viz. /8 species of quadrupeds, 4-5ths mammalia. Italy consists of a central calcareous chain, highly inclined, flanked to the sea with strata, nearly horizontal, and obviously deposited by the seas on each side. The Alps are similar, central, and flanked by tertiary deposits, to the heighth of 2, 3, or 4000 feet, and containing some existing ani- mals. Parts of Piedmont are sea-sand with a strata of shells beneath. The desert'belt of sand extends from the Atlantic across Africa into Arabia and Persia, even beyond the Indus. Its breadth is from 400 to 100 miles. Limestone is the substratum of all the soil of Egypt. The Deserts are quartz and silex. All the hills which waste Norihern Africa are calcareous, and filled with shells, &c. to the heighth of 1500 feet. The Gulf of Syrtis is a gradual retreat of the sea from the interior, w'here beds of salt and mines of rock-salt are abundant. It has been suggested that, as the Deserts extend in a line to the Gulf of Syrtis, this gulf may have been the opening of an Afri- can sea which once covered all the deserts of that continent. Flakes of salt, sea.shells, and putrified fishes, are found every where in these deserts, and the clifts and sides of the hills are full of marine remains. The sand-banks in the German Ocean are one-fifth its area. The Dogger-Bank is 350 miles long, of quartz sand, with shells, &c. There is a tradition in Cornwall of the submersion of the Lionesse, a tract extend- ing to the Scilly Islands. St. Bride’s bay was once a flourishing province of Wales, called Gwaelod. The west coast of Greenland sinks or the sea rises. Calcareous water near Messina turns sand into mill-stones fn a few years, and in all Derbyshire, Iceland, and Lough Neagh in- crustations have the same origin. Tabrez marble is formed by some springs near Maragha, in Persia. The water over- flows a basin, and in spreading round in small lakes is clear, thick, black, and then white as if frozen. A section is like sheets of paper in layers, and finally it forms strong marble, on which persons' may walk. Between Mosul and Bagdad, Buckingham flaw cliffs of pudding-stone, and rounded pebbles, embedded in lime-stone like walls. Lesson conceives that the Sunda, Molucca, and Philippine Islands, with New Guinea, the New Hebrides, &c. were part of a great submersed Austral Continent. He describes them as primitive formations like the tops of mountain ranges. Other islands in the South Sea are volcanic, madraporic, or coralline, and. comparatively recent. The 298 vegetation of the former is splendid, and of the latter borrowed. Cape Horn is one mass of black rock, without vegetation or birds. The richest district at the Cape is a grey clay, very shallow, lying on clay slate. In consequence, its products do not accord with its climate. The rivers are mere tor- rents, and the coast is -inaccessible by surf. It exhibits proofs of the theory of alterna- tions of the seas in both»hemispheres. Both it and Southern America resemble, for hu- man purposes, the tops of elevated land. Chili has wood-mines, not coal, composed of immense prostrate forests covered with sand in districts without trees. We might imagine that they were the forests of plains now covered with the ocean, and transported to those high lands of the hemisphere. Teheran stands on an alluvial plain, and deposits of the same age form low hills and valleys. Below Sheergah, the country, as far as the Caspian, is an alluvial, muddy flat ; and along the shores are innumerable trunks of large trees, which had been dtifted down by the rivers. The sea is filling up. Melville Island is floetz sand-stone over coal and iron-stone; and the sand-stone contains remains of arborescent ferns, with impressions of stems of an incrinus and a striated reed. Jameson concludes that fo- rests once grew there, while corals indicate a climate adapted to polyparia. Fossil Vegetables. Silicified petrifactions preserve the most delicate ramifications of fibres and parts, so as to admit the highest powers of the micros- cope. The conversion has been ascribed to infiltration of water imbued with siliceous atoms which are deposited ; but, it is con- ceived by others, to be connected with com- positions of silex and alkali, which, under certain circumstances, produce glass, &c. Shells, bones, teeth, and various vegeta- bles are scarcely altered. In other cases, their impressions remain on the stones ; but more commonly they are incorporated with the stone. Fossil remains are found at great heighths and depths, because an increase of the ob- liquity gave greater effect to the Perihelion force, and because the greater rise of the sea in one hemisphere exposed lower land in the other hemisphere, like spring-tides. The fossil species, distinct from living species, are, mammalia 120, birds 25, am- phibia 50, fishes 250, and mollusca 31 00 • in all, 4645, besides vegetables. There are now 50,000 species of fossils recognized, but they are believed to be of very distant epochs. — Lyall. The first germs of vegetation would, in a perihelion period, not exceed the byssus, or moss forms in air, but the active density of water would evolve others and transfer them to the land. Local organizations would thus extend their varieties, and abstract pabulum from the soil in reaction with atmospheric elements. Forms for locomo- tion, carrying their soil in the stomach, seem GEOLOGY. — FOSSIL VEGETABLES. 209 lo have arisen in animalculae as germs, in the monus, the hydatid, the polypi, &c. &c., which each perihelion period would vary and extend, oxygen and its correlatives bring the agents and patients. Each peri- helion period would form the marine varie- ties', and, after several periods, the princi- ples of fit formation would appear, which we find in the upper transition series, progres- sing through the secondary and tertiary. Brogniart, in his Geological Flora, classes plants into four periods: 1, The transition and coal formations ; 2, Variegated sand- stone ; 3, The chalk; and 4, Above the chalk. He conceives that the successive creations are distinguished by a sudden change in the essential characteristics. Those of the fourth period are similar to the present. Below the chalk the most per- fect are the cycadece and conifera. A land vegetation marks each period, while one family of one period runs into another. The dicotyledonous begin in the oldest strata of the secondary, and increase in the more recent. The 300 fossil plants in, and below the coal measures, are mostly ferns, equise- taceae, and coniferae. The second are ferns, cycadeae, and coniferae. The third resem- bles the living genera of sea-weeds, ferns, lycopodiaceae, equisetaceae, cycadeae, and those of all periods, the coniferae and palms. The most ancient Flora consisted of vas- cular cryptogamia of large size. The se- cond of smaller size with cycadees, &c., and the third of all the vegetables now growing, more and less simple, or complicated. Mosses are cryptogamous ; wheat is mo- nocotyledons : and oaks and elms are dico- tyledons. Then every fact in fossil remains proves conclusively, that each kind was prior to the other ; and that three series of crea- tions, or gradual transformation of varieties took place, by different soils and elements, as the tools of creative power. The roofs of many coal-seams are often entire trunks of fossilized trees, and muscle and oyster- shells are also abundant in the roofs. Ferns are also abundant, and of those arborescent species now found only within the tropics, where 1200, out of 1500 species flourish. They once were common in the new red sandstone period all over middle Europe, anti 120 species are found in the coal formations. Lepidodendrons, which now rise no higher than 3 feet, were in the lowest coal series great trees, whose fragments are 45 feet, such as are only approximated in the tropics. Calamites, sigillaria, and stigmaria, other trees and plants in the coal formations, are now extinct, though their trunks in them are from 1 to 3 feet diameter and so sturdy, that the second are often found erect in sandstone cliffs adjoining coal-beds, some- times with roots, and sometimes the roots seem torn off, or being softer, perished from want of infiltration. When lying they are pressed nearly Hat, and often 15, 20, and 40 feet long. Brogniart makes 42 species of jgillaria. and he refers it to the genus cacti. 300 As submersions destroyed forests, so we have their beds, but 94,500 years has not sufficed to render all of them perfect coal ; and we have instead brown coal and surtur- brand. At CEningen 36 species of 25 genera have been found in the strata similar to those in brown coal, but different from living plants. The same vicinity has pro- duced fresh water shells, fossil fishes, and a salamander 3 feet long. In this period are also found many of the 1000 species of living palms,, their fruit and leaves, in all parts of middle Europe. In both Indies they are often found on the open ground, after being silicified in strata, carried away from them by submersions. Dates, and all tropical fruits, are found in Sheppy, and cocoa and aurica-nuts are found near Bruxelles and Cologne. A great forest appears to have been sub- merged in all parts of the surface of Eng- land, and De la Beche says, that in Corn- wall it contains remains of man, and frag- ments of stream-tin round the roots. Miners are familiar with a prodigious variety of vegetables, none of them like the plants of the present country. Remains of palms and tropical plants are found in England, and all over Europe. Forests of standing trees have been disco- vered in Yorkshire and in Ireland, in stone. Two or three hundred species of crypto- gamous plants are found in carbonaceous strata, but dicotyledonous are rare. The arborescent fossil forms found in our coal-beds have also been found at Melville Island. The old strata indicate greater heat in the temperate and polar circles than exist at present. A fossil forest has been discovered under the banks of the Tiber, petrified with calc, sinter, mixed with volcanic dust. Wood is found in Languedoc, part jet, part wood : and trees have been found con- verted into jet, but so entire as to distinguish their species, as walnut and beech. In Zealand, twenty-four feet below the level of the sea-dyke, there have been found turf, old alder, and other trees. Bogs in Ireland are remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose soil, often forming hills. The rain in Ireland has added to this feature of all countries. Coal is ancient peat beds, or fallen forests, or both. The sandstone, slate, and shale beds of the coal formations abound in vege- table fossils, and below the coal a large tree has been found 36 feet long and 3 diameter. Shale beds are rich in vegetable fossils, as gramina, junci, and cryptogami of vast size and richly marked, but all land plants, as ferns, club-moss, &c. &c. In English coal- mines 2 or 300 species have been detected of ferns, club-moss, calamites, reeds, lepidoden- drons, cactese, and palms, at least 50,00ft years old. In the magnesian limestone, over the coal, only 8 species of fuci, or marine plants, have been found. 300 species of plants have been classed in the coal-beds, 200 cryptogamia, and 100 301 GEOLOGY. — FOSSIL ZOOPHYTES, &C. 302 dycotyledons. The trees remain in their roots, and the broken branches are found in the sandstone, often in casts, as wrecks of overwhelming floods. The fish, zoophytes, conchifera, and mollusca, amount to sotne hundred unknown species, but no remains of quadrupeds or birds, too complicated for that stage of organization. Coal-fields are covered with shales, or new red sandstone, or they would have been fossilized by infiltration, and where bitumi- nous coals are wanting, the submerged fo. rests had not this covering. The forests that produced thick beds of coal must have resembled the compact forests of Brazil, North America, or Africa, where their ac- cumulating remains form elevated tracts, so that future strata overlaying them will con- vert them into future coal-beds. The shale over and between the coal-beds is rich in fos- sils, and also the slate over and between the limestone beds, as at Barrow. Trunks of trees, in strata, are common occurrences, and they are chiefly of the palm kinds. One of 60 feet was lately found in a stone quarry in Lothian. It stretched through 10 or 12 strata of white sandstone, but its back had become pure coal. Others are found, of 2 feet diameter, standing on the floor of the coal-beds, and rising through the upper strata. The roots are in the ad- joining shale. At Gosforth one was found 70 feet in length, oblique to the strata. Hutton has discovered that if coals are cut into thin slices, their vegetable structure can be traced with the microscope, and nu- merous cells discovered that are filled with a yellow bituminous liquid which creates the flame of common fires, and whose gaseous form is the gas used in lighting. Difference in coal arise from difference of vegetation, and the coal strata have produced the fossil flora of Steinburg, of Witham, and of Lind- ley and Hutton. Coniferae of the genus auricaria, abounded in our carboniferous and other strata, and some have been found near Edinburgh 47 feet long, and 33 feet diameter. Witham found 8 species in lias, and 4 are in the oolite of Stonesfield. A forest of them has been found on Portland stone, the trees in fragments, and the roots in the ground. Half the flora of the secondary strata are coniferae and cycadeae, and of the latter 4 or 5 genera, and 29 species of the palm family, all now tropical. After the submersion of the forests, the new red stone above contains but 5 species of algae, 3 calamites, 5 ferns, 6 coniferae, 2 siliaceae, and some endogenous plants, pro- ducts of the seeds of the coal formation. The fossil plants found in Devonshire be- long to transition level and schist, and those in Pembrokeshire to coal above limestone. They were similar. The plants in the coal formations of Baf- fin’s Bay are similar to those which now flourish between the tropics. Fossil horse-tails (Equisita) are 10 or 15 feet, and fossil club- mosses rise 60 or 70 feet. The shale over the coal-beds in Bohemia is splendid in perfect vegetable remains ; equal, says Buckland, to the most gorgeous tapestry. Standing trees with roots are found in Balgray quarry, near Glasgow. They are 30 inches in diameter, and were cut off at about 2 feet by upper strata. Screw-pines, now tropical, were indige- nous in Britain, in the age of the oolite for. mation, next but two to the chalk, and their fruit is a common fossil of that formation. The lias and oolitic formations contain fewer ferns, calamites and palms, and above the chalk the plants resemble the modern flora. In Tilgate forest Vegetable Remains are numerous, and the most remarkable is the Clatharia , Lyellii , of which there are speci- mens of the internal and external parts of the stem, in a beautiful state of preservation. The other large vegetable is the Endogenites erosa, of which there are enormous stems. A workman at New Haven, U. S., lately broke a mass of very firm conglomerate rock, and found lodged in a cavity, a piece of perfect wood, the small limb of a tree, apparently of the pine family, with the bark entire, and the wood not mineralized. Surturbrand, or black mineralized wood, is found in Iceland, either oak or pine. And near it a stratum of schistus in plates, like writing-paper, with impressions of leaves like poplar or willow. Trees are often found in Lapland and Siberia, converted into iron ore and carbo- nate of copper. Lignites are petrified trees, in a state between peat and coals. In the Cabinet of Mineralogy, in Langue- doc, are several pieces of wood, whose exter- nal part is in the state of jet, while the internal part still remains in the ligneous state ; so that the transition from the vege- table to the mineral state may be distinctly observed. At Montpellier have been dug up several cart-loads of trees converted into jet, with their original forms so perfectly preserved, that the species of trees thus bituminized can often be determined. Spe- cimens of jet can be distinctly recognised, as the walnut-tree and the beech. A wooden pail and a wooden shovel, M. Chaptal, whose authority is undoubted, affirms to have been found converted into pure jet. Fossil Zoophytes, SfC. Zoophytes are the oldest animal remains, a step between the vegetable and animal. It appears that no germs of animation are found in strata, till we rise to the limestone formations. We first find shell-fish, and as the lime increases, the varieties and compli- cation of vertebrated animals increase. Shells and bones are carbonate and phos phate of lime, and of course they are its results. Crocodiles have been found beneath the chalk, alligators and tortoises in the chalk. Fossil bones exist beneath the chalk. Hence it is inferred that dry land and fresh-water existed before the chalk. Mammiferous la- GEOLOGY. — FOSSIL SHELLS AND FISHES. 303 mentms and seals are first found in the coarse shell limestone which covers the chalk ; and above this, in sand and rounded pebbles, the remains of mammiferous land- animals, but of different species from the present. Forty-nine are new ; seven belong to new genera, and other twenty-two belong to new species of known genera. The bones of species now known are never found but in light, upper, alluvial deposits. Several successions of convulsions and changes are evident ; but as the last and every overthrow was of rocks in mass, which themselves con- tain shells, vegetables, bones, &c. &c. the previous existence of such is undeniable. The imbedding in strata of such multitudes of testaceous fish, who could not be drowned, proves that desiccation, as well as water, has been an operative cause. — Cuvier. Ammonites form some hundred species, from a diameter of four or five feet to ag- gregated millions of a few pounds. Coral formations occur chiefly between 30° of lat. in the Pacific ; also in the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, &c. Their increase is very slow, not above six inches in a century. In 32 surveyed, they varied from 30 miles to 1 in diameter, and 29 still had lagoons. The thickness of the walls is from half to a quarter of a mile. The lagoons gradually diminish in breadth and depth. Some have latterly considered them as extinct volca- noes, to which corals have attached them- selves ; and Mr. Lyall favours this opinion. Disappointment Islands and Duff’s groupe are connected by 600 miles of coral reefs, over which the natives can travel. Coral reefs are believed to be of very pro- longed formation. They are evidence of an antiquity of the world far exceeding all re- ceived estimate. Aqueous plants and floats of land ores, seeds spread by birds, &c. soon cover them when above water. Beneath the water, (Flinders says.) he saw wheatsheaves, mushrooms, stags’ horns, cabbage-leaves of all vivid colours, and resembling a garden. Nor are corals the only producers of these reefs, for among other shelly inhabitants were enormous cockles, from 50 to 200 lbs. weight. The rocks formed of dead corals and remains, united with gluten, are com- pact, dense, and in perfect cohesion. On the east of New South Wales is one reef 500 miles long, and upwards of 200 fathoms perpendicular ; mountains of limestone. Within half a mile of many coral reefs, there are no soundings to the depth of seve- ral hundred fathoms. Polypes, so iiifkiitely numerous, are mere gelatinous bodies, or stomachs in shells of carbonate of lime, which subsist as such after the life of the polype, and form mountain masses at the bottom of the ocean. Their genera are called madrepora, astrea, careophyllia, meandrina, and mellepora, and they are found in vast quantities as fossils under the name of coral-rag in most parts of England. Orthoceratites, lituites, baculites, hamites, scaphites, turrilites, nummulites and belem- nites, were other forms of ammonites, with 304 shelly structures and apparatus equally sur- prising, and extending as fossils through the transition and secondary strata, but extinct, perhaps, 100 thousand years since. The nummulites resembling coins are so nume- rous as to form extensive calcareous moun- tains, and yet so ancient that they abound in the stone of the pyramids and sphinx, and even then as embedded fossils. Tribolites are also a numerous class, and of curious formation with large eyes containing 400 lenses nearly spherical. Buckland states, that though animals and vegetables of the simplest forms prevailed chiefly in early formations, yet he quotes the nautili, the ammonites, the trelobites, &c. &c. to prove the contrary. The polypus family abounds in the transi- tion and subsequent formations in every form in which they now exist, and many others highly curious. Encrenites and pen- tacrites are found in extensive masses in Derbyshire and other limestone countries. The crinoideans had nine genera, every one composed of 26 thousand calcareous joints, or bones, capable of reproduction, but they were extinguished before the lias. The pen- tacrinite resembled star fishes with 100,000 bones, and their tentacula spread like a flower, or collapsed like a bud, while their side branches .made up another 50,000 bones, the star-fish having but 3000. The great coral reef of New Holland is 350 miles, unbroken, and then in parts 1000 miles, and from 20 to 50 in depth. Fossil- Shells and Fishes. M. De Basterot states, that, of the shells which occur fossil, there are — Genera. Species. Resembling Chambered 29 297 the existing. 6 Univalves . 81 1141 151 Multivalves and Bivalves . . . . Ill 1091 107 221 2529 264 Deshaves has a collection of 5000 shells of living species, of which 3000 are in ter- tiary strata. Out of 782, 426 are living and fossil, and 356 fossil only. Testacea are not destroyed by the periodical inundations of the ocean, like other beings. Of 1122 fossil shells in the Paris Basin, only 3S are of recent species; and, out of 226 Sicilian, 216 are recent. Testacea distinguish land, marine, and fresh-water formations, different species being common to each, and of all ages. 1234 species of fossil shells have been described in France and England, of which only 42 belong to adjacent seas and near London ; they are mostly extinct species. Other thousands have been found in other countries, mostly extinct. The shells of microscopic animals contri- bute to the bulk of many rocks Fossil sea-turtle have shells 8 feet long. Soldani extracted from F5 oi of stone, in Tuscany, 10,454 microscopic chambered shells. 4 or 500 weighed but a grain, and 305 GEOLOGY. — FOSSIL SHELLS AND FISHES. ' 306 they passed in numbers through holes made of air cells, and these regulated for ascent by a fine needle. The genus lypris is also incredibly numerous. Fossil shells are found in mountains every where • and they abound in the stone of which the Egyptian, Grecian, and Roman structures are formed. Shells and organic remains are found in Chili, from 9 to 14,000 feet above the sea. Mountains in Sicily, 3000 feet high, abound in existing tcstacea and zoophytes. There are beds of sea-shells 2000 feet high, on Etna, and strata of grey clay, filled with shells, much higher. The base is lava and marine substances in alternate layers ; and beneath a stratum of lava is a stratum of rounded pebbles, while above it are cal- careous eminences formed by the sea. A Sicilian canon, who examined some of the beds of lava, separated by rich soils, has cal- culated that at least 14,000 years have passed during their formation. Sea-shells are found 4 or 500 feet above the present level of the sea, at Van Diemen’s Land. Recent shells are found in Chili, 1300 feet above the sea-level, and a forest is growing over a bed of recent oysters, 350 feet above the sea-level. Immense quantities of the bones of the mastadon are found near Santa Fe in Chili, and others 600 miles distant. Also remains of the megatherium. Granite peaks have 14,000 feet of elevation, and Mr. Darwin thinks the granite must have been fluid since the tertiary rocks. More recent information leads to the conclusion that many of the phenomena of shells, &c. in elevated positions in Chili, &c. have arisen from sea-waves in earthquakes. The fossil oyster-beds rest upon the chalk. The strata above contain fresh- water and marine shells. Univalve and bivalve shells are the ear- liest reliques of the transition limestone rocks, with some articulated and radiated animals, curious in structure like all organi- zation, with eyes for light, and other organs of senses, though of inconceivable antiquity. The conchifers, or bivalves, like oysters, had no eyes or head ; but the inhabitants of uni- valves had both, and were of a higher order, partly herbivorous and partly carnivorous, the latter being more modern. The Shells in Tilgate forest consist of univalves and bivalves, allied to recent fresh- water genera, in some instances they constitute entire beds of limestone, of w hich the Sussex marble is a familiar example. The nautilus varies in strata, one species in transition rocks, one in shelly lime stone, two m the oolite, and two in the chalk ; five or six appear also in the tertiary, till we arrive at our nautilus pompilius and the paper nautilus. The most abundant species of animal existences, in the transition and secondary strata, were chambered shells from the am- monite three or four feet in diameter, beau- tifully decorated, to those of which many hundred weigh but a grain. They were all constructed on true hydraulic principles full and descent by a syphuncle extending from the animal in the outermost to the smallest in the centre. They were to the full as wonderful as the hives and cells of bees, or the webs of spiders, or as any construction of man, and yet the entire family became extinct in the age of chalk. 1 7 species are found in transition strata, 7 in carboniferous, 15 in new red sandstone, 137 in the oolitic system, 47 in the green sand and lower chalk, but in the tertiary systems none. They prevailed every where, and in all cli- mates, and the small ones often form whole rocks. Their purposes, economy, habits, &c. &c. are a profound mystery Of the 8000 species of living fishes, diffe- rent proportions are found in different strata. Only piacoids and gunoids are found before the age of magnesian limestone, when the piacoids became extinct ; and the gunoids prevail till after the oolite series, when they suddenly became extinct with the chalk for- mations. The ctenoids and cycloids com- menced in and after the chalk, and form three-fourths of the present fishes. Fossil fishes have been found in new red- sandstone, at Dungannon, reposing on moun- tain limestone. The quarry consists of red and green marl, passing into dark-red sile- cious sandstone, and at 30 feet deep are fishes in abundance, while the surface of some of the beds have ripple marks. The fishes embedded in chalk or above it, are not generally the same as those at Monte Balca. Mantell’s museum contains the for- mer, but the last are earlier and of 127 ex- tinct species, and 38 extinct genera. . There are also 39 new genera, and s*till existing. 150 species of the shark family only exist as fossils. They begin in the transition series, and became extinct in the commencement of the age of chalk. Rut the squaloid family then superceded and continues. Agassiz describes 300 new species of fossil fish found in England, making the whole 400. The simplest and earliest are in the Silurian System. 20 species in old red sandstone. 54 in coals. 16 in magnesian limestone. 150 in oolite. 50 in chalk. 50 in London clay. 6 in crag. The Geological Society have a slab 2 feet square, in which is imbedded 250 fishes. Below the lias, Agassiz finds no trace of two of the orders of fishes ; but the other orders then appear with large sauroid and carnivorous fishes. Types of the cuttle-fish and species of cephalapods, with feet round their heads, are common fossils, and their ink-bags and horney pens are found perfect in the lias oi lyme regis. The fishes of the carboniferous period were different from those of the lias, these from the oolite, and these from the chalk. Agassez thinks that those of each epoch were suddenly destroyed. Of 17 genera of sauroid or lizard-like fishes, only two now remain in fresh water. They had teeth over their palate. They are found between the transition and chalk for- 307 GEOLOGY. — FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 3C8 mations in coal lias and oolite, and disap- peared with the chalk. Fishes previous to the chalk had mostly such scales as served as a sort of armour, but not a single species exists of those found in the oolitic series below the chalk ! The formation of the mag- nesian limestone and the chalk, seems to have been fatal to them. Fossil fishes are found in masses at Saar- bruck, Mansfield, Solenhofen, Glaris, Oenin- gen, Aix, and Monte Bolca, of extinct spe- cies, species of other seas, &c. Agassiz is the laborious classifier of them, according to the four orders of placoids, gunoids, ctenoids, and cycloids, depending on different scales. Fossil Quadrupeds. Elephants, and animals much larger than elephants, called Mammoths, have been found in Europe, America, and Siberia. One found near Abingdon, now at Oxford, is sixteen feet high, and its bones were mixed with those of other large animals ; another was found in Siberia in the ice, quite perfect in its flesh, skin, hair, and eyes, with a long mane and tail of stiff black bristles; others have been found in Hud- son’s Bay. Fossil remains found in hills at the foot of the Himalayahs correspond with those in Europe, and consist of genera of the mas- todon, elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, hog, horse, ox, crocodile, fishes, and shells. A monkey of a large species is also found. The fossil elephant differs in the teeth and skull from the modern Asiatic and African. Lizards, twenty -four feet long, equal to the dragons of antiquity, are found at Maes- fcricht and Bavaria. The mastodon of North America was the .argest species of land animal hitherto traced. Its bones are not uncommon in New York and Kentucky, and a system of them, arranged in Peales* celebrated Mu- seum, is 18 feet long, and 11 feet 5 inches high, with tusks 10 feet 7 inches. The mammoth, a species of elephant, nearly as large as the mastadon, has been found 14 feet long, and 9£ feet high, with tusks 9 feet. It is chiefly found in Siberia, and often in ice ; but it3 remains are wide spread in various countries, and have ap- peared even in the Andes. A mammoth’s bones have been found at North Cliff, Yorkshire, surrounded by thir- teen species of fresh- water shell, still found in the district. The gigantic mastadon is found in North America and Siberia. The gigantic tapir, twelve feet high and eighteen feet long, has been found in different parts of Europe. Whales are found in Essex, in London clay. The Dinotherium is described by Buck- land as the largest of terrestrial animals. It had 2 enormous tusks, and is found in Hesse Darmstadt. The Migatherium was a gigantic sloth in the pampas of Paraguay, with armour like -he armadillo. Its length was 12 feet, and heighth 8 feet. Its haunches were above 5 feet, and its feet a yard long. Its tail was two feet diameter next the body, and longer than that of any animal. The Ichthyosaurus, or fish-Uzard, was 30 feet long, with the snout of a porpoise, the teeth of a crocodile, the. head of a lizard, and the paddles of a whale. It belonged to the secondary strata. Bones of the largest are to be seen*in the Mantillium Museum at Brighton. There is also a fine specimen in the British Museum. They resembled cro- codiles, ’and their jaws were 6 feet long. The Plesiosaurus is another reptile of gigantic size, with a neck 4 times the length of the head, containing 33 vertebrae, more than the swan, with above 100 crocodiles’ teeth. It is perfect in the Mantillian M useum. The Mososaurus of Maestrecht was 25 feet long, or 5 times the modern monetor, with 133 vertebrae. The Megalosaurus was a lizard from 40 to 50 feet long, in figure between the mone- tor and crocodile. The Iguanodon discovered by Mantell is the largest of known reptiles, but herbivo- rous, and full 70 feet long, or 12 times the size of the iguana. The tail is 52^ feet, and the body a diameter of 4 feet 9 inches. It had a horn of bone. The molar tooth of a mammoth weighs 8 lbs. ; and the knob of the bone of the leg is a foot in diameter. It was a carnivorous animal, and the Indians have traditions of their terrible mischiefs. Mr. Crawfurd has presented to the Mu- seum of the Geological Society the fossil remains of two new species of mastadon, and of other vertebrated animals found on the left bank of the Irawadi, in Ava. Gigantic bones, lately exhibited at New Orleans, consisted of one of the bones of the cranium, 15 or 20 vertebrae, two entire ribs, and part of a third, one thigh-bone, two bones of the leg, &c. The cranial bone was upwards of 20 feet in its greatest length, about 4 in extreme width, and it weighed 1200 lbs. The ribs measured 9 feet along the curve, and about 3 inches in thickness. The animal, when alive, must have mea- sured 25 feet round, and about 130 feet in length. Fossil bones of the great mastadon, and other animals, have been discovered in the Birman Empire. The Palseotherium was between the horse and the hog. The Anoplotherium was be- tween the rhinoceros and the tapir. The Megalonix and the Megatherium were sloths between the ox and* rhinoceros. The Ich- thyosaurus was between a fish and a lizard. The Plesiosaurus was nearer the lizard. In Jackson county, Ohio, a tusk has been found lOf feet long, and 2 feet round, weighing 180 lbs. A tooth of the same ani- mal weighed 80£ lbs. At Bigbone Lick, near Cincinnati, are found masses of bones of the mammoth, and also hoofs of horses, in a fossil state. Bul- lock has found the head of a mammoth with signs of a trunk. In some caves in France there is an in- 309 GEOLOGY. — FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 310 contestible mixture of human bones, with bones of mammifera belonging to extinct species. The remains of animals, mixed with those of the human species, belong to the hyena, the badger, the bear, the stag, the aurochs, the ox, the horse, the t wild boar, and the rhinoceros ; and some of the bones bear marks of the teeth of hyenas. Tournal concludes that man was contem- porary with the fossil animals found in caves ; that the bones depend on localities ; that the stones in the mud are those of the vicinity ; that the periods of formation were very long. He enumerates nearly 40 spe- cies of animals, and all the larger ones, besides birds, lizards, and snakes. The stone which encloses the Guadaloupe skeletons is harder than marble. Fossil remains have been found in Mau- ritius and Bourbon ; and, latterly, extensive discoveries of like kind have been made in New Holland, where bones of large animals are found, of unknown genera, which do not now belong to the country. There appear to be caves or accumulations of them, but they differ from European genera. Pallas tells us, that the islands of the Icy Sea are full of elephants’ and rhinoceros’ bones, and that the islands opposite the Lena are almost composed of them and fossil- wood— a proof, in spite of Cuvier, that the Tropics once .extended to 45° or upwards, forming but two zones on each side the Equator. Fossil bones, in general resembling those which have been found in the caves of Ger- many and England, and latterly in those of France, have been discovered in a Cave of Miremont, (Dordogne,) with remains of pottery, &c. In a cavern of Lunel Viel, there have been found the bones of twenty- one recognized species, imbedded in a fresh- water alluvium, including two varieties of the hyena, the lion, bear, rhinoceros, horse, deer, ox, shark, and sea-tortoise. In a spacious cave in the Cumberland mountains, Tenessee, there was lately found two petrified men and a dog. One standing with a spear balanced in his hand, and the other sitting on a rock. The dog lying as in the act of springing. This instance, and those of the sudden deaths in Bolca, &c. seem to indicate that some gaseous pheno- menon must have operated in the progress of nature, thus to extinguish life, and petrify at the same time. It is a district too of mammoth’s bones, and the vicinity abounds in fossils of extinct species. It may seem to • prove, that man was contemporaneouswith those species so very remote in time, and other recent discoveries in caves in France tend to the same proof. * The Kentucky cavern has been penetrated above fifteen miles, a small portion of its real size. A female mummy found in it has been a vulgar show through the United States. Trimmer, in Cefn Cape, gives clear proofs that a marine submersion followed the ex- istence of the rhinoceros and hyena, in the tertiary series. The bones found in caverns are proofs that Britain joined the Continent, when hyenas, bears, &c. ranged its forests. Also, that the tropics were wider. Eight species of birds are found in gyp- sum, near Paris. Crocodiles are found in blue cla? in Dorsetshire, and on the oppo- site French coast. Foot-steps of birds have been found on new red sand-stone, in Connecticut, which, from the size of the foot, and length of the step, must have been twice the size of the ostrich. Others of smaller birds have also been found ; and at Dumfries, and in Saxony, other footsteps of small, and also very large animals, have been found and depicted. Blasting is used for the hardest lime- stones, green-stone, basalt, sienite, gneiss, and granite ; and from 8 lbs. to 21 lbs. of powder is employed for every cubic foot above it, according to the density. For roads, taking Mountsorrel sienite at 100, the hardest material is copper slag, 234 ; Scotch granite and Quittle green-stone, 110; blue pebble, 105; Leeds grit-stone, 15; flint, yellow, 33, and black only 11; paving-stone, 20. Near Merthyr Tydvil, impressions of horses’ hoofs are discovered on an ancient sandstone. Silicified conifer® trees are found in the new red-sandstone, at Allersley, near Coven- try. Others of palms, &c. have been found in the same formations in Saxony. York- shire, &c. abound in them. An ancient beach, elevated in the cliffs, is traced in Barnstaple Bay for many miles, abounding in shells of the adjacent waters. Another beach, under the chalk, is traced at Brighton, strongly cemented. All round Devon and Cornwall, the same beach is ob- served, from 40 to 70 feet above the present sea-level. In Cumberland, &c. it is 300 feet above the level. 450 species of shells have been collected by Wood, from that important formation the Norfolk and Suffolk crag. At the Southern declivity of the Hima- layas, in conglomerate of muriate and clay, 1000 feet above the sea-level, there have been found bones of extinct species of many large and small mammalia and fish, with fresh- water shells. Captain Cautley discovered, near Behat, a town buried 17 feet below the surface, while he was directing the formation of the Doab canaL A fossil gigantic lama has been found in Patagonia, and other remains of very large extinct animals in Chili. Goppert has imitated the processes of petrifaction and oxydation. There are caverns with bones of elephants, rhinoceroses, horses, oxen, sheep, hyenas, dogs, wolves, foxes, bears, &c. at Yealm Bridge and Ketley, near Plymouth. All the land near the Clyde, lies over beds of shells, and bones of elephants, stags, &c. At the same time, the ancient vitrified forts, the Roman walls, &c. refer to the present level. HYDROLOGY. 311 312 The horizontal fracture of Havannah coal »ives a series of eccentric rings, like casts 1 of large shells. Lyall thinks that the non-existence of fossil remains in crystallized rocks, is no evidence that the materials crystallized did not contain them. He thinks, also, that granite has been in liquid petrifaction, but not all at the same time. The skull of the tivatherum, lately disco- vered in India, is 20 6 inches long, and 22 broad. The animal is to the elephant as 12-38 to 15-06. Mineralogical maps have been contrived by Humboldt : in which limestone is repre- sented by straight lines, salt by straight declining lines, porphyry by waved lines, granite by irregular points, &c. &c. Silica is the predominant substance, and silicates of alumine and the alkalies are the principal terrestrial products. One fault in Coalbrook Dale produces a difference of level of 6 or 700 feet, and ano- ther 300 feet. The formations and fossils of Africa cor- respond with those of England. At Maria Island, near Van Dieman’s land, there is a cliff from 2 to 500 feet of dark limestone formed of oysters, muscles, and other shells. An upper coal-seam, at Dudley, is 10 yards. The lower beds are iron stone. The coal measures in the central counties are, in general, worked only to the new red sandstone, but there are valuable beds be- neath it. The salt-mine at Durremburg, in the Salzbourg, displays galleries and excava- tions 7000 feet in length, within a vast mountain. Nothing can be more gratuitous and romantic, than the favourite theory about subterranean upliftings. In its support, most Geologists put out one eye. Consoli- dation or sinking is at least more reason- able j but, in certain cases, as at Greenland and in the Baltic, it is not easy to distin- guish between the rising of the sea and the lowering of the land. Both sinking and up-heaving may, however, occur from local eauses, but not as the rule, only as the ex- ception ; not as the course of nature, but as phenomena. That the North-Western shores of the Baltic are sinking, seems to be confirmed, while the North-Eastern seem to be forced up by tbe sinking of the other. Mexico has coal-mines, iron-mines, and tin-mines. The foreign substances, inter-stratified with coal, are pyrites, shale, galina, fire-clay, cal- careous spar, quartz, sand, and iron-stone. Trees are also found upright and inclined. The rivers have scooped out and carried away large breadths of the Newcastle coal- field, and the ascents are a section in the outcrops of all the seams as they live above the mill-stone grit. In consequence, many adits have been horizontal as well as drainage. On the shores the seams dip under the magnesian lime- stone. The High Main Seam is the chief, 9 miles square, and the others are the Two-yard, the Beleham, the Hight Quarter, and the Hutton Seam. Coal-mines seldom have above 4 or 5 workable seams, but these vary from 1 inch to 72 inches. At Monkwearrnouth there are 31 seams in 1584 feet, with 47 feet of coal, and only one worked. At Blackworth, in a depth of 1236 feet and 283 various strata, there are 45 seams, with 60 feet of coal, of which only 2 or 3 can be worked. Most of* the seams are not continued, but divide into others. The ninety-fathom dyke at Cullercoat? extends to great distances. At Whitby, it depresses the seams 510 feet, and, further West, the Northern side is 1200 feet lower than the Southern. Other faults run from it. Buddie thinks it was formed when the parts were soft and yielding. The flints in chalk, near Norwich, are crossed by perpendicular planes or rows of larger flints, some yards in height. Sedg- wick thinks they were petrified sponges, which grew out of one another. The ground-swell is the reaction of the deep waters by the oceanic librations of the mass. 'Various circumstances of place 'and time concur to render it sensible, though in general it is diffused in the superficial waters. On the Sussex coast, the mean velocity of the tide is but two miles an hour, so that the tidal superfices move backward and forward but 12 or 14 miles. In the 300 miles of our south coast, there are full 20 forward and backward tides at every high and low water. The oscillation forward is 13| days and 13 a backward in performance— during which the Earth and waters cross the Fulcrum- orbit twice. It is to all purposes a perfect vibration, as much so as a pendulum, and in efficiency cannot be otherwise considered. It is the sole cause of the Tides, and ah their phenomena, and is itself caused by the reciprocal orbit and action of the Moon. If any one draw a circle, divide it into 365 parts, and draw twice 13 37 curves, or a continuous wavy line outside and inside, so that their rise without, and their with- drawal within, may be deemed 5000 miles ; then those wavy lines will represent the oscillations of the Earth in its relation with the Moon, and the same oscillations will also be those of the waters on the Earth, for the period of a Moon. Where the lines cross is the point of the quadratuies, and where most distant the new and full. HYDROLOGY. We live upon a globe whose surface is water and land Pride leads us to give pre- cedency to the latter, but figures tell us that the former is as 3 to 1, or 150 to 47, and nature shows us that soil and minerals are mere vehicles to the activity and agency of water. Nor is it only in a mechanical sense that water effects so many wonders; since, by weight, it is formed of 8 parts of oxygen, 81 3 and 1 of hydrogen ; and by volume of 1 of oxygen and 2 of hydrogen ; and therefore it possesses within itself high powers of che- mical union and decomposition. Some of the epigrammatic philosophers of Greece referred all things to water , and not without reason. It is the agent of all terres- trial activity, the universal percolator and solvent, the transferrer of atoms from body to body, of soils from place to place, and of land itself into the silent bosom of its own depths. Its tides and currents, its evapora- tions, its circuit as clouds, rain, and mists, and its subservience to heat and atmospheric pressure, render it the Universal Fertilizer. Then its decompositions yield the elements of hydrogen and oxygen, and so vary its mechanical products, as even now to justify the conclusions of Thales and others, who had not witnessed, like us, the triumphs of the steam-engine. We treat it as a subordinate of Geology, but in truth it is the absolute master, former, and secondary agent of the power of motion in every thing terrestrial. It is that local display of the motions of the earth, as a planet, which elaborates every thing ; and the waters contain far more organic beings than the land. The surface of the sea is estimated at 150 millions of square miles, taking the whole surface of the globe at 197 millions ; and its greatest depth is supposed to be equal to that of the highest mountains, or four miles ; but La Place thinks that the tides demand an average depth of three miles, therefore the sea contains 450 millions of cubic miles of the 258,000 millions in the whole globe. The Pacific Ocean covers 78 millions of square miles, the Atlantic 25 millions, the Indian Ocean 14 millions. The Southern Ocean to 30 degrees is 25 millions. The Northern Ocean five millions. The Medi- terranean 1 million. The Black Sea 170,0(10. The Baltic 175,000. The North Sea 160.000. The sea swarms with life like the land, in forms kindred to those on land, for the prin- ciples of the economyof all locomotive beings have the same general types. Water and mercury are the most perfect liquids ; others are more or less viscous. The particles of liquids move and press equally in a 1 directions ; those of solids only downwards. They press on any surface, as the base by the distance to the upper surface of the fluid. The pressure is distinct from the weight of the mass. It is as the heighth whatever the base. A cone and cylinder of liquid of equal heighth have the same pressure. As every atom of a fluid is carried by the two motions towards the centre, so, when em- banked, the whole attains a perfect level. It is believed that the freedom to move arises from the motions of the atoms among 3ne another. All water, therefore, seeks |he lowest level. The state of fluidity is preserved by the pressure of the atmosphere, the motion of the atoms being less than that of the atoms of air. Hence water expands into gas, either when the atmosDheric nressure is removed. 314 or when the atoms of water acquire more motion by the access of heat. The earth would vibrate, owing to irregu- lar forms of its solid granitic nucleus, but for the mobile waters, which preserve the balance of its sides and parts, and accom- modate themselves to any unequal impulses of rotation. But as the Americas run from north to south, it may be suspected that they rotate a small fractional part above the ge- neral distance from the centre, and are colder. Between the Tropics the temperature of the sea is from 77° to 84^. It diminishes to 45 5° at 1000 fathoms depth. But, in the Arctic Sea, the temperature rises froi* 8° to 10° at 700 fathoms, and 6° at 200 fathoms. The sea is bluish green, and the Arctic sea is ultra-marine, and transparent blue to olive. green or opaque, in stripes caused by animalculae and medusae in countless my- riads. In the Gulf of Guinea it is white, and round the Maldives black. In other places it is red and purple. The solar rays pene- trate 2 or 300 feet, and objects may be seen in Arctic and West Indian seas at 150 feet. The sea is still at a certain depth. Divers report at 30 feet. Sea- water appears to contain from 3 4 to 4 per cent, of salt. Its specific gravity is 1 028. The salt-lake of Ourmia has specific gravity 1 16507, and the Dead Sea 1211 .—Marcet. Salt., so universally diffused, is an effect of oceanic submersions, and of desiccated lakes re-supplied by tides in countless ages. The component parts, with very slight va- riations, are water, muriatic acid, sulphuric acid, mineral alkali, lime, and magnesia. British sea-water contains, in 1000 parts, 22 of salt, 3 3 of sulphate of soda, 4 2 muriate of magpesia, and 0 8 muriate of lime. Sea-water is salt and bitter at the sur- face, but merely salt at great depths. Sea-water varies in sp. gr. in different seas, about 1 -500th. The Mediterranean is 1 0293, and the Atlantic 1*0283. The Black Sea is but 1 01418 owing to the great rivers. The luminosity of the ocean arises entirely from small insects, whose figures have re- cently been exactly determined by observa- tions with the microscope Fresh water begins to freeze at 32°, called the freezing point, but salt water not till 28£°. The atoms lose the motion called heat, and become fixed in crystals. Young estimates the Atlantic at 3 miles, and the Pacific at 4 deep. The Mediter- ranean varies from mile to a quarter. Parry, in lat. 5 7 N. long. 24 W., sounded to the depth of 1020 fathoms without bottom. Copper globes are compressed at 800 fathoms. Below 50 or 100 fathoms the water is per- fectly quiescent. Scoresby sounded, in 75° and 76° N., 1058 and 1200 fathoms, but found no bottom. 6000 feet have been sounded in the Carib- bean Sea. 4680 feet of line did not reach the bottom of the Northern Ocean. The greatest depth in the Straits of Dover is 29 fathoms, and off Bergen 190 fathoms. A sea is vulgarly said to have no bottom. HYDROLOGY. HYDROLOGY, 315 when the difference between the sp. gr. of ilhe line and water exceeds the plumb, or when an under-current carries the line aside. The sea varies in depth as the la'nd ad- joining is flat or mountainous. Lakes have great depth : thus, the Cas- pian, in the South, has been sounded without bottom 2400 feet. Geneva is 1000 feet, and Loch Ness 800 feet They do not freeze from this cause. The Pacific is so called from its tranquil- lity. Its winds and tides are not deflected by land and mountains, and the smallest vessels pass in security. Its vast expanse can only be conceived by consulting a globe. It is the Sea of Corals. The collection of oceans mingling round the south pole are of themselves an extra- ordinary phenomenon. They cover a third of the sjarface, but bounds have been set to their encroachments by pointed capes, whose foundations are connected with the granite base of the earth. The disposition to en- croach on the land is evinced by the acute angles and mountainous character of all the promontories which present themselves to it ; while, in the north, the passive cha- racter of the ocean is evinced by the obtuse forms both of Asia and America. The Icy Ocean, north of Siberia, cannot be navigated, owing to Cape Severovostoch- noi stretching among the ice ; nor the sea to the north of America, owing to a similar peninsula, which stretches to 74°. The Black Sea is believed formerly to have been united with the Caspian, and also to have extended its bounds to the north and west. Diodorus says, that cities formerly stood on the site of the Bosphorus. Tournefort adopts the same idea. Buffon thinks that the Black Sea, the Caspian, and Aral, were once one vast lake, and when a passage was forced through the Bosphorus, the sea was diminished in size, while it enlarged the Mediterranean ; and hence the traditions of a deluge. Olivier, a mineralogist, describes the islands in the Bosphorus as volcanic. Berg- man, who travelled last in these districts, states as an undoubted fact that these inland seas were once one. Dr. Clarke adduces many striking facts in proof of the same theory, that a volcano opened a passage for the Black Sea into the Grecian Archipelago, and thereby drained the Steppes which lie between the Euxine, Caspian, and Aral. Heeren maintains that the Aral and Caspian once formed one great sea, into which ran the Oxus and Jaxartes. The waters of the Red Sea appear to be thirty-two feet higher than the Mediterra- nean, and the Gulf of Mexico is twenty-two or twenty-three feet higher than the Pacific. The difference of level between the Pa- cific and Atlantic, at Panama and Chagres, is 3^ feet more in the Pacific. The Zuyder Sea was formed, in 1225, by a storm, which arrested great floods of the Rhine, and these carried the soil into the ocean. In 1421, another such flood formed the Bies. Boos 310 There is a current from the American coast across the Pacific. One branch passes through Basses Straits round South Cape. Another north of New Holland. A South Pole current passes round Cape Comorin towards Africa, and doubles the Cape of Good Hope. At the Equator it passes West, and one part goes round Cape Horn, and the other passes North along the Ame- rican Coast to Newfoundland, called the Gulf-stream ; then meeting North Polar currents crosses to Norway and Ireland, and turns South. Its breadth is from 150 to 1000 miles, and its rate from 2 to 4 miles per hour. It resembles a great ocean river, which constantly returns into itself. There is also a constant westerly current of open Tropical seas of 9 or 10 miles per day. Passing into the Gulf of Mexico, it returns by the Bahamas, and ascends to Newfoundland. Here another current reaches it from Baffin’s Seas, and carries it by the Azores and Canaries into the western current again. It thus travels about 10,000 miles within 3 years, and its breadth varies from 140 miles to 400, and its daily velocity is about 3 miles. This Gulf-stream reaches also even to Norway, and carries tropical products to all Northern shores as the Ork- neys, &c. A third branch enters the Medi- terranean, and a fourth coasts Brazil and enters the Straits of Magellan. A similar westerly current prevails in the Pacific, but produces no effects till forced to return in the Eastern Seas, and it partly escapes by the Cape of Good Hope, where it maintains a rough sea 130 miles wide with some degrees of increased warmth. The Banks at Newfoundland are partly ascribed to the meeting of the Gulf-stream, and the northern currents, and probably these and other silent currents, in long time, change the forms of the surface of the globe. The Atlantic contains other currents, often favourable to navigation. Thus there is one on the African coast, another from Gaboon to Ascension, which accelerates a ship one-fifth. Opposite Guinea there are two parallel currents, running in opposite directions, with a velocity of 68 to 100 miles a day. An upper current runs into the Mediter- ranean, and a south current runs into the Baltic, on the Danish side. Enclosed seas discharge the water from rivers by evaporation, and when no rivers they speedily dry up and leave beds of salt. The currents of the Mediterranean are always constant and regular. Both the Euxine and Atlantic flow into it, besides the Nile, the Po, the Rhone, &c. A corked bottle with a letter in it, cast into the sea in the mouth of the British Channel, was cast on shore at Barbadoes. The following are the chief rivers : The Amazons, in South America, falls from the Andes through 2600 miles. The Mississippi, from the Stony moun- tains, 2550 miles. The Hoang, in China, from the Tartarian chain, 3260. HYDROLOGY. 317 The Yangise, from the same, 3060. The Nile, from the Jibel Kumri moun- tains, 2690. La Plata, from the Ancles, 2215. The Wolga, from the Valdais, 2100. The Euphrates, from Ararat, 2020. The Danube, from the Alps, 1790. The Indus, from the Himalayas, 1770. The Ganges, from the same, 1650. The Oronoco, from the Andes, 1500. The St. Lawrence, from the; lakes, 1230. The Niger, or Whorra, 1900. The Don, the Dneiper, and the Senegal, are each above 1000. . The Rhine and the Gambia 800. The quantity of water discharged into the sea, by all the rivers in the world, is about 36 cubic miles in a day, hence it would take above 35,000 years to create a circuit of the whole sea through clouds and rivers. Rivers hold in suspension 100th of their volume (more or less,) of mud, so that if 36 cubic miles of water flow daily into the sea, 0 36 cubic miles of soil are daily displaced. The mud of large rivers extends conti- nents at their debouches. It forms deltas of low lands, which in time unite with the main land, and form the plains. The Amazons, the Oronoco, the Missis- sippi, the Nile, the Danube, Niger, Zaire, and Ganges, have deltas at their mouths, and the sea is muddy for a great distance. The Mississippi adds 300 feet per annum to the main land from this cause ; the Nile has advanced the land sixteen feet per annum since the time of Herodotus, and raises the surface four inches in a century. The Po carries out the land 228 feet per annum, consequently Adrea, which, 2500 years ago, was on the sea, is 20 miles from it. The Yellow River, in China, carries down two million cubic feet per hour of alluvium, so as to fill up the Yellow Sea. The Nile begins to rise in June, and attains twenty-four to twenty-eight feet of elevation in the middle of August, and Fhen floods the Valley of Egypt, twelve miles wide. The Ganges rises from April till August thirty-'two feet, and then creates a flood 100 miles wide. The Euphi ates rises between March and June twelve feet, and covers the Babylonian plains. The Burampooter rises in the Hima- layas, runs eastward towards China, and after a course of 1600 miles, when four or five miles wide, unites with the Ganges, and with it forms a delta to the sea. The fall of the Ganges is four inches to thfe mile, and nine inches in the mile of land ; of the Amazons four inches, and the land 6'75; and the Nile, 6 inches in 1000 miles. 'I ho Delta of the Ganges is 200 miles long, and consists of woods called Sunder- bands. The tides rise from thirteen to six- teen feet. Islands 25 miles in diameter are often formed and destroyed. It pours down from 80 to 4<)0,(i00 cubic feet in a second. The Mississippi flows through 20 degrees of latitude and 7 of longitude, and drains a valley 3000 miles long and nearly 1000 318 broad. It receives five or six rivers which are navigable 200 or 300 miles, besides the Missouri 3100, the Ohio 1000, White River 1200, the Arkansas 2500, the Red River 2500, and their branches, of great extent. In floods it spread over from 10 to 50 miles on the western side in the last 500 miles of its course from March to May. It has no tide, but checks the sea to a great distance. It is very serpentine, and often above 100 feet deep. Its sides are bluffs often 200 feet high. The same springs originate the Mis- souri to the East, and the Columbia to the West in the rocky mountains, in lat. ‘45° 10/, and 110 W. long. For 6 miles the Missouri passes between rocks 1200 feet high, and in 1 8 miles it falls 357 feet, one fall being 87 feet perpendicular. For the last 500 miles, the Amazons falls but 10 5 feet, and then but 5 inches per mile. The Ganges but 4 inches per mile. The Wolga 5 inches. The Rhine 2 feet per mile. In the Amazons, the bore of the tide is 180 feet The vast tract of land between the Andes and the Atlantic is so level, that, in 300 miles the river Paraguay does not fall above a foot. Three rivers fall into the estuary of fresh- water, called the Rio de la Plata ; which, at its efflux, is 150 miles broad, and 30 miles over, opposite Buenos Ayres. At 200 miles distance, it receives several rivers besides the Paraguay, and this receives the Parana and Aruguay. The country near the Oronooko, and its tributary streams, is flooded in the rainy season to a vast extent ; and the Oronooko, near its mouth, expands over the land in June, July, and August, 5 or 60Q miles. The Leven, from the basin of Loch Lomond, discharges 59,939 cubic feet per minute, and as 36 cubic feet of fresh water are very near equal to a ton, this gives 1665 tons per minute. Anciently the Adige and Po overflowed their banks, and committed great ravages ; embankments were resorted to, but the beds filling up, the banks have been so raised that the rivers now flow 50 or 60 feet above the level of the country, and are rising ! Mackenzie River being closed at its out- let, by frost, nine or ten months in the year, causes great floods in the interior, and great destruction of forests, Sic. so that it forms vast beds of water-loaded wood in the icy ocean, and generates the lakes of Canada. The water- fall of the Ache, in Bavaria, is 2000 feet. Of Garispa, in India, is 1000. O* Bogota 800. Of Niagara 164, and 150 feet, but 635 feet broad. Of the Lulca, in Lap- land, 400 feet, and 650 feet broad. The Columbia, which runs into the Pacific, is 1500 miles long, and there are 3 others of 900 each. The largest into the Atlantic, in the United States, are the Savannah 700, the Potowmac 620, and 1 4 others exceeding 200 miles, and equal to the Thames. Back’s River was traced 600 miles to the Frozen Ocean. The land always falls in the course o* rivers. When straight in maps, they indi- 319 HYDROLOGY. 821 cate a plain country, and when winding a district of hills. The Euphrates has been navigated nearly 1000 miles, from Bir to the Persian Gulf. If all the rivers in Europe be as 1 000 ; those which flow into the Black ' Sea are 0 273; and the Mediterranean 0 144. River-water contains about 28 grains of solid matter to every cubic foot. Hence, such a river as the Rhine carries to the sea every day 145,080 cubic feet of sand or stone. In and near the Arctic regions, owing to the freezing of the springs, great rivers are dry in winter beneath a slender surface of ice. Rennel thinks the mud of the Ganges, tarried in the flood season into the sea, is equal to 74 pyramids of Egypt, but Lyall reduces it to 1 pyramid. Rennel thinks the mud a fourth of the water. The silt, or mud, of the great rivers in India, precipitated by the annual inunda- tions, is the chief cause of fertility, for the high lands yield many crops only every 4 or 5 years, while the flooded lands yield peren- nially. This silt is 1 per cent, water, 2^ vegetable matter, \ muriate of potass, 7 or 74 carbonate of lime, 4 phosphate of lime, 6 oxide of iron, 5 alurnine, and 78 silex. The high lands have not 1 per cent, of car- bonate, and to the excess in the silt is ascribed the fertility. The floods rise in July, and descend in August. Rivers raise their bed by sediment, and would always overflow, but for the rise of the land, and when this is less than the sedi- ment a river acquires new channels. If the detritus, or shifting ballast of the Earth, is taken at a. fourth of the surface, or 50 millions of square miles, £ of a mile deep, or 12 5 millions of cubic miles, then 0 36 per day, carried down by rivers, would be 131 cubic miles per annum, or 12 5 millions in about 95,000 years, so that in every 95,000 years, the shifting or soluble land would pass through the sea and form new beds on its solid base by the simple solution of rivers. What an element of silent change, and what a cycle would be many such changes! Tides, &c. however, accelerate it, and more violence is visible in the results than permits this to be the only cause. Lakes vary in size continually from des- sication, and their extinction forms basins of organic remains. Water presents the most remarkable phe- nomena in Canada. Fresh-water lakes abound every where, and several are of vast extent : — Lake Ontario is 160 miles long, and 450 round, and several hundred fathoms deep ; the soil around it being volcanic. Lake Michigan is 300 miles long, 60 broad, and 900 feet deep. The Peninsula which it forms with Huron and St. Clair contains 36,000 square miles, and that with Superiour 2000, with black loam 30 deep. Lake Superiour is 420 miles long in dia- gonal, 170 broad, 900 feet deep, and 624 feet above the Atlantic at high-water, or 64 feet above Lake Erie. Lake Huron is 280 long, >0 to 100 broad, and 900 deep. Lake St. Clair is but 24 miles long, and 30 broad, with a depth of 20 feet. Lake Erie joins the Huron by the Detroit 25 miles, and the St. Clair 40 miles. Lake Huron joins Superiour by the St. Mary 50 miles, and Michigan by the Mackinaw 40 miles, and 4 to 6 wide. The Lake of the Woods is 75 miles long, and 200 round. Lake Winipig is 200 miles long, and 550 round. Lake Bourbon is 80 miles long, and 230 round. The Great Slave Lake is 200 miles long, and 500 round. Champlain is 120 miles long, and 300 round. The river St. Lawrence, with which most of these lakes are connected, is one of the largest in the world, being 2500 miles long, navigable for the largest ships to Quebec, 400 miles ; and for ships of 4 or 500 tons to Montreal, while fleets sail on the Lakes. The communication between these and the sea is intercepted by the great waterfall of Niagara, between Lakes Erie and Onta- rio, but a canal has been formed. The river is the third of a mile wide, and the fall takes place in three cataracts, made by two small islands, 150 feet; the roar of which is heard 15 miles, while the vapour may be seen for 60 or 80 miles. Since the banks of the Cataract of Nia- gara were inhabited by Europeans, the distance has been progressively shortening between the Falls and Lake Erie. When it has worn down the intervening calcareous rocks, and effected a junction, the upper lake will form an extensive plain. There is also a fall on the Montmorenei, 200 feet in breadth, and 246 feet high ; be. sides others, which in many countries would be remarkable. The shores of the lakes, and the cliffs around the lakes, often exhibit remains of fallen forests, 30 or 40 feet below the level of the surface of the country. Lake Baikal, in Siberia, is 300 miles long, between 51° and 55°. The lake of Titica, near Potosi, is 12,800 feet above the sea, and covers 16,000 square miles. That intelligent traveller Madden, visited the Dead Sea. “ I was desirous of ascer- taining the truth of the assertion, that ‘ no- thing sinks in the Dead Sea,’ and I swam a considerable distance from the shore. About four yards from the beach I was beyond my depth, and the water was the coldest I ever felt. No living creature is to be found in the Dead Sea. The aspect of the moun- tains, the terrible ravines, the romantic forms of the jagged rocks, all prove that the surrounding country has been the scene of some terrible convulsion of nature, and that the sea, which occupies the sites of Sodom and Gomorrah, Adan, Seboim, and Segor, covers the crater of a volcano. The water gave the following analysis : Oxy-muriate of soda grains 9 58 magnesia 528 lime 3 05 Sulphate of lime 1 34 There is no visible outlet to the lake, not- HYDROLOGY, 821 withstanding the Jordan daily sends into it six millions and ninety thousand tons.” Springs are formed by the intervention of clay and sand strata, the former holding water and the latter permitting its free pas- sage. So that, in well- digging, there is no water till clay is penetrated quite through. Springs of fresh-water arise in most seas, and some on our coasts. Near Cuba there are remarkable ones. About thirty fresh-water springs are dis- covered under the sea, on the south of the Persian Gulf. St. Winifred’s Well throws up 120 tons in a minute, and, in a mile and a furlong, turns 11 mills with great power. As springs run from high levels to low ones, so they seek to rise again to the first level, and hence the great force in ascent in most cases, especially after boring. Springs are the sources of rivers, which are fed by rivulets and other rivers till they form wonders on the globe. Springs that flow through limestone rocks deposit vast quantities of calcareous tuffa and sinter. Other springs deposit silica. The Acidulous springs are Seltzer, Pyr- mont, Spa, and Carlsbad, which last is 165°. The Sulphureous are Harrowgate, and Aix-la-Chapel e, which last is 143°. The Saline are Sedlitz, Cheltenham, and Plombieres. The Chalybeate, Tonbridge and Toplitz. The Calcareous are Bath, 114°; Buxton, 820 ; Bristol, 740 ; Matlock, 6fio. Thirty-eight several substances have been found in various mineral springs. The acidulous abound in carbonic acid. The chalybeate in iron. The hepatic in sulphu- retted hydrogen. The saline in salts. The mineral waters of England are Alte- ratives, Buxton, Matlock, Malvern. Ape- rients, Harrowgate, Cheltenham, Leaming- ton. Tonics, Bath, Tunbridge, Cheltenham. The Bath waters contain but the sixth of a grain of iron in a gallon, and some silica and azote. A gallon of Tunbridge contains 2 29 grains of oxide of iron, 8 OS of carbonic acid, 4 75 of azote, and 5 of oxygen. The hot. baths of Bath range from 96° to 115°, and generate 223 cubic feet of ?as, chiefly nitrogen, per day. Bristol or Clifton hot-wells water is 7 4^ degrees, and its spe- cific gravity 1 ‘00077. A gallon contains 43| grains of sulphate of soda, sulphate of lime, and carbonate of lime, and four grains of muriate of soda ; also 30 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas. Buxton water is 82 degrees ; and a gallon contains 11£ grains of calcareous earth, 2$ of vitriolic selenite, 2 of sea-salt and azote. The waters of Aix '.a-Chapelle contain 4 /5 carbonate of lime, 5 muriate of soda, and 12 carbonate of soda. The gas is sul- phuretted hydrogen. Nitrogen gas issues in almost a pure state from the earth on Bradt’s farm, in Rensse- aer county. New York ; from every part of a low hill, comprising four or five acres. Sulphuric acid rises in large quantities, both in a dilute, and concentrated state, in 322 Byron, Genessee county. The place ha* long been known in the vicinity, by the name of the sour-springs. Hot-springs, forming vast deposits of cal- careous rocks, abound on the north of the Himalayas, and their deposits display the highest antiquity. Iron, in springs, - binds together the sand and gravel into solid masses, and the car- bonate forms chalybeate springs. Carbonic acid gas is largely disengaged Irom springs, and decomposes the hardest rocks, especially feldspar, and even granite. A petroleum spring, in the Birman Em- pire, yields 400,000 hogsheads per annum, and there are others in Trinidad, Italy, &c. Calcareous springs hold carbonate of lime in solution, and more when impregnated with carbonic acid, which, being dissipated, the lime is precipitated as tufa and traver- tin. At San Felippo, the deposits in a pond are 30 inches per annum. The lake of Sol- faterra contains more than its own volume of carbonic acid gas, and some sulphuretted hydrogen. The banks are covered with reeds, lichen, conferva, & c. and the edifices of Rome are built with the travertin. The great Geyser rises out of a basin 55 by 46 feet over. The pipe in the centre is 78 feet by 8 or 10. To explain all the past changes and their system of consecutive change, the Editor refers to the Earth’s motions as a Planet, and to the varied direction of the forces at distant regular epochs. He considers mobile water as the first patient of change, and its conveniently variable quantity as the tool by which reactions are effected. He finds, too, that motions of water are the suffi- cient general cause of all geological pheno- mena If the planes of the Equator and Ecliptic coincided, if the orbit were a true circle there would be no element of change. But the orbit Is elliptical, and geometry demands an increase of projectile force in the Perihelion. Water then alone is the means of conferring it ; and in proof, at this time, we find the perihelion progressing through Southern signs, and, in coincidence, we find the waters in the Southern hemis- phere to those in the Northern as 436 tc 290, or as 3 to 2. Then, if the perihelion progress through the Ecliptic in 10,500 years into the same declination North, and the physical cause and effect go together, the seas in the Northern hemisphere cccteris paribus will be to those in the Southern as 3 to 2, consequently, all the v allies and secondary elevations in the Northern hemis- phere will be submerged for many thousand years, and be subjected in advance and re- treat, to tidal action, and to all the energies and actions of this changing, destroying and re-forming agent. At present, thf> Southern hemisphere is in the proportion of 436 water to 64 land, and the Northern is 290 water and 210 land, the excess of water in the Southern hemisphere being 146 parts over the water in the Northern hemis* phere, and the excess of the land in the Northern over the land in the Southern M 3*23 HYDROLOGY. 324 hemisphere being also 146 parts. The dif- erenee is demanded by greater and smaller /orces in perihelion and aphelion. Tn rela- tion to the whole Earth of 726 water and 2/4 land, i. e. a mean of 363 and 137 in each, we find the water in the Southern 73 too much, and the land 73 too little ; and in the Northern the land 73 too much and the water 73 too little. These coincidences are proofs of the principle, if proof were wanted of a cause and effect, so obvious, and on which all the observed phenomena are a running com- mentary. The data, however, taken at the present obliquity, lead to the conclusion that this change in the expansion of the waters would be accompanied by an increase in the mean depth of a third — that is, if the mean is 2 miles, there would be 3520 feet of elevation, and if 3 miles, 5280 feet, covering nearly all the hills in the British islands. The reader, in considering this theory, must carefully discriminate between the progression of the line of apsides, or of the perihelion and aphelion distances, (3 mil- lions of miles different) in 20.931 years ; and the mere precession of the equinoxes, or advance of the stars in 25,678 years. The secondary and tertiary strata, and their diluvial and alluvial remains, are as plain a commentary on this theory, as any natural phenomena could afford. The newest tertiary strata were formed in the last progress of the perihelion through the northern signs, between 6 and 16,000 years since ; the 4 other series at other intervals of 20,900 years, rendering the period of the tertiary formations about 93,000 years. The secondary formations, at least 10 in number, may be referred to 10 northings of the perihelion, or 21 3,000 years. The tran- sition periods may include 20 others, making together 600,000 years. On granitic and gneiss periods, when the earth was as barren and desert as the moon, it would be idle to speculate. Buckland assigns to the whole, a million or millions of years. Three hydrological accidents may have led to that irruption of waters which caused the transfer of an ark from Syria into Ar- menia, about 3 or 400 miles N. E. 1. The bursting of the pillars or embankments of Hercules, by which the Atlantic would inundate all the shores of the Mediterra- nean, till the waters expanded and settled. 2. The bursting of the Bosphorus, which would drain the channels across Poland to the Baltic and the channels to the Caspian and Aral. 3. The Bursting at Syrtis of the isthmus which confined the great African sea, whose remains fill the Deserts of Lybia, &c. Noah, the 10th patriarch of the Jews from Adam, or Xisuthrus the 10th king of Western Asia, from Alorus or Orion, were no doubt identical, for Xisuthrus resided at Sipporah, north of the sea of Galilee, and Noah’s tomb is shewn in the same country, and he is said to have lived in Cselo Syria, the valley between the Lebanons. The accounts in Genesis, and the Laws of Menu, Rgree exactly except in some miracles in the former. Several ancient writers refer to the catastrophe and ark of Xisuthrus. Rain could not have been the cause, since all the vapour in the atmosphere would form in water but a depth of 13£ inches. Comets were the bugbear, till it was found that a star of the 15th magnitude could be seen through their centre, and that their tails are only light reflected through them. There can be no doubt but an irruption of the Atlantic separated Britain from the Continent, and that the Irish Channel has also been formed by successive irruptions. The Welsh Chronicles record when Cardi- gan Bay was a fertile district, and the Irish, when the Scilly Islands were separated from Cornwall. Ancient maps and the salt-beds in the line, indicate on the con- trary, that the estuaries of the Severn and the Mersey were once joined by a tidal channel of salt-water. Our eastern coast, from Sutherland to the Humber, is encroached upon : villages have been absorbed, and the encroachment is four yards per annum. Ravenspur, Hyde, Sec. have long disappeared, and Spurnhead is in danger At Sheringham, the encroachment is two yards per annum. Ancient Cromer is in the sea. Hills of blown sand protect other parts. Dunwich, a considerable town and port, has now but twenty houses. Aid- borough is now sea, and Harwich will soon be an island. Sheppy is fast disappearing. Thanet loses a yard per annum. Submersion, currents, and tides, during perihelion periods, have transported rocks of part of England to other parts, for water reduces specific gravity, and a velocity of 32 feet per second,, or double that of a common tide, would carry rocks like wood or cork. Local beds of gravel would be pro- ducts of tidal action in bays, both in the advance and retreat, in respective periods of 3 or 4000 years. The beautiftil lake of Geneva is contract- ing, and the lakes in Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire have become dry in our days. The marine palace of Canute is now near Ramsey, twenty miles from the sea. The sea of Arad is 290 miles long, and from 130 to 200 broad. The Jaxartes and the Oxus flow into it. Tn level it is 16 feet be- low the Black Sea ; but above the Caspian. Within memory, it has shrunk 40 miles all round, and left salt-pits, while it is now half filled with sand. banks. Lyall confirms the prevailing belief that the bottom of the Baltic rises. Tt must, however, be difficult to decide between the rising of the land and the retreat of the waters, and the latter is far more probable. Hungary, if not Poland, was the basin of a'lake or sea. Fish are common in the seas of Surinam with 4 eyes, 2 of them in horns which grow on the crown of their heads. The petrifying powers of the waters of Lough Neagh still continue, and arise from silex brought into it by its brooks. The German Ocean was once an estuary of the Rhine, the Elbe, Thames, and Hum- ber. Hence those animal bones not indi- 0 325 HYDROLOGY. — THE TIDES. 326 genous, and the sand-banks of the German through 13177° per day. The orbit from Ocean. The irruption of the Baltic is men- star to star is 27'32 days. Honed by Aristotle, and in the Welsh Triads. The marine valley which separates Britain from Holland is not 100 yards deep. The similarity of fishes and aquatic plants m remote lakes and inland seas, is proof of the alternate submersion of both hemis- pheres, by varied declinations of the peri- helion. Owing to the Atlantic tides the Western coasts of Ireland, England, and Scotland are indented by bays. At 40 feet below the surface of the sea ulvee disappear, at 60 feet the ceramium , and at 100 feet depth all vegetation is gene- rally superseded by polypes and testaceae. The geology of England and Wales, is evidence of the flow of water from the W. and N. W. The western coast consists of rocks of a lower level, and the country to the east even to the shores, is palpably co- vered by the debris of elder and lower formations. In Ireland there is the same evidence as in England, of floods from N. W. to the S. E. in producing the ranges of formations. The Tides . Of all natural objects, the expanded sea is one of the most gratifying and sublime; and of all the phenomena of motion, its librations, or tides, conferring on the whole the activity of life, are the most surprising. They are a perennial commentary on the various motions and forces, of which the sphere of the Earth is the patient ; and the pliancy of the parts enables us to contemplate the reactions, by which are maintained an equilibrium too vast in size for human cog- nizance. But what a bathos is that credulous phi- losophy, which has too long presumed to sink these interesting causes and effects in the execrable gossip of the dark ages about lunar attraction ! Are we, under the influ- ence of such culinary reasoning, to abandon our sublime association of the coming and departing waves, with the scheme of Nature, which in moving every thing, also moves the vast ocean, and in it presents a glorious picture of the one secondary cause of all phenomena in the transfer and continuity of motion. The Ocean rises “and falls alternately ; and its depth is observed to be greatest at any given place, a certain time after the Moon has passed the meridian of that place ; after which it decreases until it reaches a certain point, when it again gradually rises.* The interval of time between low water and the following high water is called flood tide , and that between high water and the fol- lowing low water is called ebb tide. There are generally, or on an average, two high tides in one lunar day. The period of the Moon’s mean conjunctions is 29 530588716 days. The interval between successive high tides is 12 h. 24 m. 22 s. A quarter is 7 d. 9 h. 5 m. and 45 6 s. The Moon moves The interval, however, which elapses be- tween the Moon’s southing, and the time of high water, is very irregular, and depends upon her angular distance from the syzygy ; also upon the distances of both luminaries, and tbeir declinations. The variations are greatest when the Sun’s distance from the Earth is greatest, and the Moon’s distance is least ; and when the Moon’s declination is greatest, and the Sun’s declination least, as in the equinoxes. The heights of the tide at high water also vary ; they are greatest soon after the Moon is in syzygy, and least soon after she is in quadrature ; the one are called spring , the other neap tides. These heights depend also upon the declinations and distances of the luminaries. The time of high water at any port when the Moon is in syzygy (new or full), is called the Establishment. The unit of altitude of the tides at any place is the heighth a day and a half after the new or full moon, i. e. 3 tides after La Place determined the ratios of each hew and full, in a year, to that unit. The Bay of Fundy gives units 50, 60, and 71 feet, whilst Charleston and Augustines give but 6 and 5, and Cape Henry but 4|, New York 5, and Halifax 8. At Anapolis it rises 100 or 120 feet. All narrowing seas which compress the sides of a current as it advances, create greater units. Of this the 50 foot tide at Chepstow, at the end of the funnel of the Bristol Channel, is an example. Bores in narrowing rivers arise from the same cause. Tides differ so much yet so regularly in various angles and distances of the Earth as to the Sun, that Bouvart has made a table of factors for multiplying the mean heighth at the different Si/zygions. The highest factor is in September 1 '13, and in March 1’12, the lowest in January, February, July, and August 0 76. The great exciting energy of the waters is the Tides. Twice in every rotation the seas rise and fall from 4 or 10 to ‘40 or 60 feet, and they act on all shores like librating water in a shallow vessel. They are connected with the Moon, since they follow the Moon’s southing in time, however they may be specially obstructed and delayed. Attraction is absurd — the waters rise, and the Moon does not descend beneath them to push them up. To understand it,. we must consider the unity of the system of the Earth and Moon. They go together round the Sun, and act and react through a point which is the centre of their relative mo- menta. That centre performs the solar orbit ; and around it the Earth performs a terro lunar orbit 5043 miles distant (10^ // of parallax at the Sun) and the Moon an orbit of about 237,000 miles. In these reciproca- ting orbits,* like a large and a small ball at the two ends of a balanced lever, they move contrary ways, and the intervening point cr fulcrum goes round the Sun. At Full the Earth is 5043 miles, or 10 a'', as to the Sun, iu M 2 <327 HYDROLOGY,- ihe interior of the solar orbit ; and at the New Moon as much on the outside. The Earth’s fixed parts concur, but the mobile waters seek the fulcrum, which is the centre of the greater force. Hence the spring-tides at New and Full. In the Quarters, the Earth, Fulcrum, and Moon move in the Solar orbit, and the action is a continuation. But a tide on one side disturbs the balance of the sides in rotating, while all the motions fix the centre. It is easier, therefore, for water to flow to restore the balance of the two sides ; and, hence the second or opposite tide. It is a mechanical action of a fixed mass with a mobile ad- junct, and the adjunct keeps up the equili- brium. Of course, the fulcrum is in the line that joins the centres of the Earth and Moon, and as the Tides rise towards the fulcrum, they appear to rise towards the Moon which is in a line beyond it. With reference to the solar orbit of the Fulcrum, the tract of the Earth is a wavy line, which crosses the true orbit twice in every lunation, once to the outside and once to the inside, gradually deviating for 7 396 days to about 10 a seconds, or above 5000 miles, and then gradually returning. The mobile waters, of course, respect the centre of greater force in the Fulcrum orbit, and in seeking to revolve round it, generate on that side the accumulation of the Tides in the direction of the Fulcrum and Moon. But, as rotation implies equality of opposite sides of the Earth, and the centre is de- termined, so an accumulation on one side creates another flow on the opposite ; hence, two Tides during a rotation. If we can divest ourselves of the witch- craft of attraction, and the pedantic display of irrelevant mathematics, we can have no difficulty in understanding the Tides. But we must look to facts, and avoid the closet fancies of those who never saw a Tide. The waters rise, and the waves break over one another on sea-coasts, but the whole is only superficial. They flow 6 hours, and ebb 6 hours, at rates of 4, 6, or 8 miles an hour, the range being from 24 to 50 miles. The same water, to the depth at most of 3 fathoms, seldom 4, performs this race twice a day. A boat, or any floating body, drifted by the tide, goes and comes with the same water. The edges of the water librate both in the advance and retreat, and the dashing of waves is caused by an advancing wave tumbling over a retreating one, assisted by wind acting on the tops of the waves. Now all these appearances belong only to the coasts or edges of the great basin of the sea, or to any rock, bank, or island, acting as obstructions in the middle. Free, open, expanded, the sea displays none of the appearances on a coast, and yet from these we draw our general deductions. If, as an experiment, we put water into a shallow vessel, and then raise its sides al- ternately, the water at the sides will shew what happens on sea-coasts, and the water at the middle will^be as quiescent as large open seas in their middle. L H the bottom -THE TIDE®. 328 of the vessel be made unequal, and put rocks, &c. near the edges, and you have a closer imitation of the Tides. In fact, the course of the Earth inside and outside of the Fulcrum orbit, and the crossing of that orbit, is a natural oscilla- tion of the mass performed twice a month, which oscillations are not apparent in the rocks, strata, and mountains, but only in the mobile waters, and it is this which constitutes the Tides. The Earth, like the vessel, oscillates to the waters, or the waters librate in their oceanic basins ; hence all the phenomena, when the libration is gra- dually or suddenly obstructed by coasts. The variations in times, the springs, the neaps, &c. <&c. &c. depend on the curve which the Earth is describing in regard to the Fulcrum orbit; and its daily varying position as to that orbit, as near or remote, on the inside or outside, in the plane or out of it, acting causes more or less distant, &c. Spring tides, of course, arise from an im- pulse of the waters towards the Fulcrum as radius of the Moon’s orbit ; and then there is a fall in a ratio of the sine of the deflec- tion till the quarter. The sine then enlarges till again equal to the radius. The other half of the orbit is performed in like man- ner, decreasing to the quarter, and in- creasing to the syzygy. Except from de- clination, distance, &c. the heighths follow the table of sines with convincing precision, in situations where the effect is least dis- turbed by reactions, deflections, &c. When Wallis, in a nascent theory some- thing like this, supposed a difficulty about connexion, he did not consider that the Earth and Moon move in contrary direc- tions round the solar Fulcrum, and having equal momenta, one is as worthy as the other. In nature, there is no up or down, and the rarest intervent on is efficient. In considering the Tides, we must never lose sight of the fact that a tide everywhere is + and — about 40 miles, 'l'he retreat is equal to the advance, and the limit of both is about 40 miles, even in narrow seas. What is meant then by great tidal waves, which go round the world in two or three days, we are at a loss to imagine. The maps of them will be monuments of the folly of theory, and of the folly above all of the silly theory of lunar attraction ^ith which such dreams are associated. W T e have looked at the sea for thiee-score years, and we have read three-score voyages round the world, but we never saw, or read of any one that beheld these great tidal waves ! Of course, as water seeks its own level, and moves till it does, so we have tides in the British Seas excited by the librations ot the Atlantic, but whether the propuldon proceed up the British Channel, the Irish Sea, the Bristol Channel, or on the Western coasts of Ireland, the 40 miles -f and — pre- vails, and there is no great Ailantic wave broken into three parts, and flowing onward 1 or 200 miles an hour. There is, however, a mixture of some facts with error in the following by HYDROLOGY. — THE TIDES. 325 ) Whewell, and for the sake of the former it is introduced. “ The great tidal wave of the Atlantic reaches the mouths of the British seas about 4 hours after the southing. It is broken into 3, up the English Channel, the Irish Channel, and the West of Ireland. It reaches in the first direction the Nore in 8 hours, and in the second and third it arrives at the Orkneys in 5 hours; in other 3 hours reaches the Naze of Norway, but it employs other 8 hours to reach the Nore, and there meets the Channel tide of two previous original tides, i. e. in 28 hours’ motion it passes round the island.” — Whewell. The second tide is an experimental proof of the two motions, and of the necessary balance of the two sides in rotating. It also illustrates the mechanism of a primary and secondary, and altogether is a fine problem. The sun also tends to create a tide, by the difference between a solar and sidereal day, as was explained by Galileo and Wallis, equal in theory to 68 miles per day. It is generally high water 30° to the east of the moon, and of her antipodes. At new and full-moon, at the London Docks, spring-tides rise to 24 feet 1 inch ; then, in 7 days, fall to 18 feet 9 inches, or 5 feet 4 in. less, or neap-tides; after the quarter they rise again to 22 feet 8 inches, fall in the next quarter to 19 feet, and then rise to 24 feet. On the day of the new moon, high-water in the morning, at London-bridge, varies between 2 hours 20 minutes, and 1 hour 50 minutes. And in the afternoon , between 2 hours 12 minutes, and 1 hour 48 minutes. At the Full in the morning , high-water varies between 1 hour 51 minutes, and 2 hours 17 minutes. And in the afternoon, between 2 hours 19", and 1 hour 32". At the First Quarter, high-water in the morning varies from 6 hours 44 minutes, to 7 hours 21 minutes. In the afternoon , from 7 hours 48 minutes, to 6 hours 34 minutes. In the Last Quarter, in the morning from 7 hours 20 minutes, to 6 hours 39 minutes, and in the afternoon from 6 hours 30 minutes, to 7 hours 12 minutes. These, however, are approximations, and accuracy can be obtained only by consulting an almanac for the year. But relying on the above, 53 minutes is to be deducted for every day, for difference of time. Time of high-water, when the Moon passes the Meridian at Twelve o'clock , her pa- rallax being 57 1, and her declination 15°. h. m. London Docks mm 1 57 Sheerness 0 39 Brest .. 3 48 Plymouth m m 5 33 Portsmouth _ _ 11 40 Ramsgate Harbour 11 46 Pembroke Docks 6 4 Liverpool Docks . . 11 22 Howth Harbour 11 8 From more than 24,000 observations of the Tides at the London Docks, the interval corresponding to the Moon’s transit is at 330 3 h. 30 m. = 2 h. 26 7 m. , at 9 h. 30 m. =3 3 h. 50 4 m. The difference = 1 h. 23 7 m. From the Liverpool Tides, with reference to transit, the interval corresponding to the Moon’s transit is at 3 h. 0 m. = 11 h. 41 m. at 9 h. 0 m. — 13 h. 2 m. The difference z= 1 h. 21 m When the moon is in Syzygy, the primary tide arrives as under : — At Brest .. days 1 hrs, 4 . min. 27 Plymouth Dock .. . . 1 6 12 Portsmouth Dock 1 12 51 Pembroke Dock .. 1 6 42 Bristol C. G. 1 i 53 Liverpool Dock . . . . 1 12 2 Howth 1 11 4 Leith 1 15 5 Sheerness .. . . 2 1 48 London Dock . „ 2 3 13 London Bridge .. 2 3 23 The great and least heights in feet are as under, at different ages of the moon or pe- riod of transiting the meridian. London Dock Sheerness .. Bristol Leith Syzygy* Qrs. 22-82 19-39 25-63 22-96 32 23 21-72 16-29 12 58 At the following the lowest is 30 minutes after the quarters. Portsmouth Pembroke Liverpool . . 19 69 16 65 22 77 17 29 1757 12-32 The variations from lunar parallax is about 1'66 foot. From solar but 0 15 foot, from moon’s declination but 12. At the London Docks, high-water follows the Moon’s southing by day, between 39 minutes and 2 hours 22 minutes, mean 1 hour 32 minutes, according as wind and the state of the river permits. The mean in January is 1 hour 44 minutes, in February 1 hour 48 minutes, in March and April 1 hour 21 minutes. In May and June 1 hour 33 minutes, and 1 hour 38 minutes. In July, August, and September 1 hour 43 minutes, 1 hour 40 minutes, and 1 hour 35 minutes ; in October, November, and De- cember 1 hour 13 minutes, 1 hour 27 mi- nutes, and 1 hour 26 minutes By the mean of 18 years’ observations, it appears that when the Moon souths at 26 minutes, the high-water takes place 2 hours 23 minutes, or 1 hour 5 7 minutes after, and when at 1 hour 22 minutes, the high-water takes place at 3 hours 3 minutes, or 1 hour 41 minutes, after the southing. The mean time of high-water at the New and Full Moon, at the London Docks, is 2 hours 2 minutes, and 10 minutes are added for London Bridge. As the Moon souths, high-water follows, thus : 12 o'clock 1 h. 5 7 m. 1 1 42 2 1 26 3 1 11 4 « 56 5 0 45 6 o’clock 0 h. 42 m. 7 0 52 8 1 23 9 1 56 10 2 10 11 2 8 331 HYDROLOGY.* N. W. winds vary the Tides at the London Docks about 12/, W. 7', and other winds less. When the distance of the Moon and Earth from the fulcrum is greater, and parallax less, the Tides are later, as at 54/, 8 / or 9 / later at a mean ; at 5 7/ the mean, but at 60/ as much earlier as 54/ later. The Moon in the Equator postpones the time of high-water from 5 to 19 minutes, and this decreases to 15° of Dec. the mean. But, from 15^ to 27°, the high-water is as much earlier, even 20 minutes at 2 7°. It appears, by observation, that where a spring-tide is 10, the abatement of the cause in the quarters reduces it to 4^. As the same water makes the flood-tide at different places, so a great flood causes great ebbs at the same time. In the middle of the Pacific the spring- tides are 5 feet, and the neap 2 or 2^ feet. As the Moon advances in her orbit 13177 degrees, R. A. per day, so she souths on every meridian a mean of 52 7 minutes of time later, varying as to declination and latitude. Then, as the libration creates Tides only when she is about 2 hours from the meridian, so the Tides at a mean must be 52 7 minutes later one day than the pre- ceding. As matter of fact, there is at high and low-water a stationary time, which re- peated four times a day, is about equal to the two hours lost. The propulsion of the libration in mass, then acts on the superfi- cial parts whose motion is the tide of shores and narrow seas. The differences of Time of High Water be- tween London and the Torts of the United Kingdom , and some Foreign Ports. h. Aberdeen .. .. sub. 1 Alderney add. 4 Antwerp Ayr Harbour Bantry Bay Barnstaple Bar Blakeney Harbour Blexen Boulogne Brest Harbour Brighton Brill, the Buchan-ness Calais Campbeltown Cape Clear . . Cardigan Bar Carmarthen Bay . - Cherbourg Christchurch Harbour Cork Harbour Cowes Cromarty Cuxhaven .. Dartmouth Harbour Donegal Bar Douglas Harbour, Isle of Dover Harbour Dublin Duncansby Head .. Dunkirk Exmouth Bar sub. add. sub. add. sub. 2 1 3 3 0 3 2 3 — 1 — -2 — 2 — 2 add. 1 sub. add. sub. add. Ian, sub. add. m. 31 29 26 31 29 14 44 46 46 14 1 2 16 46 46 44 59 2 29 26 14 31 31 16 44 49 46 1 31 17 31 44 -TIIE TIDES. 332 h. rn. Evder, Mouth of the sub. 2 16 Falmouth Harbour add 2 59 Flushing (Walcheren) sub. 0 56 Fort Gedrge — 2 16 Galway add 1 59 Glenluce Bay sub. 3 16 Gravelines .. 2 31 Greenock 2 31 Guernsey . . add 4 14 Hartlepool . . . « — 0 59 Havre de Grace sub. 3 46 Heligoland • • — 3 16 Hellevoet Sluys . . 0 1 Holyhead Harbour — 4 32 Horn Point — 2 16 Hull add 3 59 Hvthe m m sub. 3 11 Ilfracombe m m add 3 14 Jersey m . — 3 54 King’s Road — 4 29 Kinsale Harbour 2 14 Leith — 0 4 Lerwick Harbour 0 m sub. 4 31 Little Hampton . . — 3 1 Liverpool .. _ . — 2 54 Ditto, Rock Perch, entrance to 3 16 Loch Foyle add 4 14 Margate sub. 3 1 Milford Haven, entrance to add 3 29 Montrose sub. 0 46 Morlaix add 2 59 Mount’s Bay — 2 14 New haven .. 16 Newport, (Isle of Wight) — 2 1 New Shoreham Harbour — 3 2 Nore Light-vessel .. 1 18 Orfbrdness .. — 3 46 Peel Harbour, Isle of Man 3 46 Pembroke Dock-Yard add. 3 48 Plymouth Sound . . — 3 14 Port Glasgow . . SUb. 2 31 Port Patrick m m 3 16 Portsmouth Harbour 2 36 Ramsay Harbour, Isle of Man — 3 46 Ramsgate Harbour . . — 2 30 Rye Harbour . m 3 40 Scarborough add 1 59 Scilly Islands m . — , 1 54 Shannon Mouth 1 29 Sligo Bay — 2 59 Southampton „ . sub. 2 46 Southend and Sheerness m m 1 47 Spurn Point, the add 2 59 St. Ives . . 2 14 St. IVJalo 3 44 Stromness sub. 5 16 Sunderland m add 0 44 Tay Bar sub. 0 31 Texel Road add 6 44 Torbay * . — 3 44 Tynemouth Bar — 0 34 Waterford, Hook point of — 2 59 Wells Harbour . . 3 44 West Scheldt, entrance sub. 1 31 Whitby add 1 14 Wigton Bay . . sub. 3 16 Wranger Oog . . — 2 16 Yarmouth Road . . add 6 26 Add or subtract the times in the above from the time of High Water at London 333 HYDROLOGY. — VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. 334 The tides are greater when the re-action of the moon is vertical to the Equator. The chief tide is on the same side as the Moon. Volcanoes and Earthquakes . The mixture and confusion of materials which compose the crust of the Earth, and the great internal heat, necessarily generate combustion, and also create various gases in caverns and hollows, whose expansion rends the incumbent rocks and strata in earthquakes, while in some instances, where the materials are abundant, they give rise to vents called volcanoes. This chemical fermentation shews itself in various forms. Sometimes in mountains, where there is access of air, and the water of melting snows, or communications with the sea. At other times, in hot springs, in emissions of carburetted or sulphuretted hydrogen, in vents, explosions, and conse- quent vibrations of the strata, called earth- quakes. As they may be imitated in various compounds, there is little to surprise in them, though much to dread, from their destruction of human structures, and the terrific magnitude of their devastations. They generate peculiar mineral products ill lavas, pumice, basalt, sulphur, &c., and the appearance of these is always a proof that the scite has been volcanic. Water, by generating hydrogen, feeds, rather than smothers such vast masses of burning ma- terials, and hence volcanoes under the sea are very common, and by generating greater volumes of steam, they are more exten- sive in their action even than volcanoes on land. Taking volcanoes at 200, each operating on 100 sq. miles, they affect with their pro- ducts 20,000 square miles, and if five times their existing number have become extinct it gives 100,000 sq. miles of volcanic pro- ducts. This, however, would be only the 20,000th part of the earth’s surface. They may enlarge a mountain, and their gaseous products may cause earthquakes and uplift beds of strata, but it is fanciful to refer to them the inequalities of the earth’s surface. Humboldt, a great authority on every subject, maintains that dynamical earth- quakes, and chemical volcanoes, have their causes in the interior of the earth, and act through fissures and empty veins. He as- cribes the mud and fishes, often distributed, to snow and lakes at the sides of volcanoes, and considers the matter properly ejected, as ashes and lava only. When the summit of Canguairazo, 18,000 feet high, fell in, •<3 square miles were covered with mud and fish. Volcanic action does not consist in the combustion of beds of coal, but in chemi- cal operations, seated deep in the oldest formations. The hot-springs in Germany issue from gneiss, granite, and clay-slate. Professor Daubeny ascribes earthquakes and volcanoes to the access of water to the inflammable bases of the earths and alkalies. When the explosion is single or double, and confined in a cavernous space, it is an earthquake; and when fed and supported by water, as in an elevation, it becomes a volcano. Humboldt and Davy also ascribe volcanoes to the oxydation of the bases of the alkalies and earths. Just as water burns potassium, calcium, &c. so it heats all other alkaline bodies, by imparting its oxygen to them ; and this union, and loss of bulk, is the cause of earthquakes, volcanoes, hot-springs, &c It is probably, also, a chief cause of sub- terraneous heat, since increase of tempera- ture is the immediate result of the contact of water with any alkaline earths, alkaline states of metals, &c. When the fermenta- tion is commencing, smoke appears; noises are heard ; earthquakes take place ; and explosions of ashes, sand, and stone, precede the flow of melted lava. The smoke consists of steam, and carbonic, sulphuric, or mu- riatic gas. The ashes appear to be exploded lava, and are often carried by the wind 1 or 200 miles. Thick accumulations form a compact stone, called tufa ; and the scoria is like the slag of iron furnaces. The explo- sive force is such as sometimes to throw stones of 200 tons 8 or 9 miles. All volcanoes appear to exist near a sea, and, by the matter they eject, to have some communication with it. Countries, near mountains, are more sub- ject to these effects, because water pene- trates their sides to the secondary rocks. Where frequently, the escape of gas might be facilitated, by boring down to the granite. Ships, by a sudden protrusion of the water, feel the blow as though they had struck on a rock. In this mechanical effect there is no indication of electrical action, and, in truth, the whole, beyond doubt, is a mere gaseous expansion under masses ot strata. No doubt, also, the earthquake ar- rests for the moment, the librations of the unlying masses of water. A line of granite hills has obstructed the action of an earthquake from one side to the other side, the tertiary and secondary strata being evidently those affected. A single shock lasts a few seconds. The common occurrence of radiated rents in the ground points to the cause in confined gas. Caverns and hollows in the earth give way, and often swallow tracts, which fill up with water from the adjoining strata. There is no evidence that volcanoes are so much as 5 miles deep. The American volcanoes throw up chiefly slime and mud, with slag and ashes. Primitive rocks are not near volcanoes. With an inclination of only 6° no lava from a volcano can rest on its sides so as to increase the bulk, but in Etna, &c. the rise is 29° to 32^. The strata of tufia round Vesuvius is not a product of the volcano, but a marine formation like limestone, and has its own crystals not volcanic. Von Buch says, the volcano forced its way through the tufia. The hills are composed of trachyte, a coarse, splintery basis, in which are embedded crystals of glassy feU 336 HYDROLOGY. — YOLCANOI spar and augite. Cones of volcanoes are sudden elevations through casting. Geological theorists assert, that the ine- qualities on the earth’s surface arise from upliftings by volcanoes, earthquakes, &c. and to these they ascribe the inclinations of strata, &c. Ac. But the minute seams in sandstones, and the parallelism of the strata in the same formations indicate that the whole is the effect of depositions and preci- pitations, while, in the submersions by the sea-and the advance and retreat during pe- rihelion periods, we have the aqueous agency required for the precipitations. About 200 active volcanoes are recorded, of which 89 are in islands. Submarine vol- canoes often throw up islands. The Azores, the Lipari, the Canaries, Ac. are examples. The ashes from volcanoes often produce total darkness from 30 to 50 miles round, and they often fall in showers from 2 to 300 miles distant. Pieces of rock are ejected with the velocity of a cannon-ball. Coto- paxi once threw a piece of 100 cubic yards 8 miles. Fish ejected from volcanoes are those of neighbouring waters. Lava is a stony substance like basalt, and may sometimes be seen at the bottom of a crater red-hot, like melted metal, bubbling as a fountain. When it overflows the crater, it is very fluid. At Vesuvius, a red-hot current of it was from eight to ten yards deep, 2 or 300 yards broad, and nearly a mile long. In Mexico, a plain was filled up by it into a mountain 1600 feet high, by an eruption in 1759. Its heat was so great, that it continued to smoke for above twenty years afterwards ; and a piece of wood took fire in lava 3£ years after it had been ejected, at 5 miles from the crater. Stones of immense size rise to the height of 7000 feet, and others, darkening the air, fall 100 miles distant. Thirty-one great eruptions of Etna, have occurred within the records of history. In an eruption in the year 1693, the city of Catania was overturned in a moment, and 18,000 people perished in the ruins. The crater of Etna is a quarter of a mile high, on a plain three miles across. It falls in about every 100 years. The mouth is a mile in diameter, and shelves as an inverted cone, lined with salts and sulphur. The central fiery gulf varies in size ; and noises arise from it with volumes of smoke. D’Orville descended by ropes near to the gulf, but was annoyed by flame, and sul- phureous effluvia. 141 millions of cubic yards of lava were ejected from Etna in 1699. The main cone is 90 miles round, or 30 diameter, formed of a succession of envelopes of lava. It has above 80 minor cones, a secondary one of which was thrown up 165 years ago. Lyall thinks, that as each is the remnant of a great eruption, so their formation must have occupied full 12,000 years, to be added to the history of the previous volcano ; and yet, in that time, he says, no waves could have reached them, without destroying heaps of sand and loose scoriae. He infers 5S AND EARTHQUAKES. 3S6 the same, in regard to the cones in Au- vergne, much older than the historic period. The contemporary Roman writers are silent about the destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii; but Dion Cassius, 150 years after, mentions it, and states, that giants issued from the earth, accompanied by sounds of trumpets, &c. ! ! Vesuvius reposed for 1492 years, till 1631 : and its crater, 1000 paces deep, and a mile and a half in diameter, was rich in wood, and herbage for cattle ; but, since thet\ every ten years has had its destructive erup- tion. It is now 800 feet lower, and its crater three-quarters of a mile over, and from 1 to 2000 feet deep. The lavas are augite and felspar, with variety of minerals. Pompeii was destroyed by showers of ashes, but Herculaneum by hot mud, on which six streams of lava have since accu- mulated. They had recently been destroyed by an earthquake, and were rebuilding. In the barracks at Pompeii were found the skeletons of two soldiers fastened by chains ; and in the vaults of a country-house were 17 persons, among which was a perfect cast of a woman, and a child in her arms ; the bones, with a gold chain and rings only remaining. Fishing-nets are abundant in both cities. A loaf, and various condiments, were found, and boxes of pills, &c. at an apothecary’s. The Papyrii of Pompeii are illegible ; but those at Herculaneum, though charred, may be decyphered. Other Pa- pyrii have been found at Stabiae, but ille- gible. Torre del Greco was coveied with a solid rock of lava in 1794. There have been twenty-nine destructive earthquakes in Calabria since 1602, occa- sioned, as is believed, by the materials of a pent-up volcano, the vapours of which pass through the soil in fissures, cracks, and chasms. Animals, buried under the ruins in the earthquake of 1793, were taken out alive after 30 or 40 days, and human beings survived after being buried 12 or 16. Fis- sures in the ground, radiating like a broken pane of glass, were from 30 to 200 feet deep. A new Island, called Carrao, was thrown up by a sub marine volcano, in July 1831, in the disturbed seas of Sicily. It was preceded by local earthquakes and terrific noises, many days before. It was in lat, 3 7° 11\ and east Ion. 12° 4P. The sul- phureous smell was suffocating, and the vapour and ashes ascended 1000 feet with lightning. In parts it was 2 or 300 feet high, and about two miles round. The substance was various ashes, but no lava or pumice-stone. It has since disappeared. In 1783, Hecla, in Iceland, ejected two streams of lava, 40 or 50 miles long, 7 to 13 broad, and 100 to 600 feet deep, which de. stroyed 9000 persons and 20 villages. In Java, there are apertures in the ground which throw up mud in spherical masses, and have changed the face of their vicinity. Some writers describe a volcanic band in the eastern islands, from 60 to 200 miles broad, extending in a segment of a circle, from the 337 HYDROLOGY. — VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. 338 Northern Philippines to Ceram and Timor, and thence through Java and Sumatra. Another such band is alleged to extend from Poros and Hydra to Santorin, in the Grecian Archipelago. And the vicinity of the Azores is supposed to be the seat of much volcanic agency ; which convulses zhoseseas, throws up islands, &c. From April to July, 1815, Tomboro, in Sumbawa, continued in violent eruption. The explosions were heard 980 and 720 miles, and only 26 of 12,000 inhabitants survived. The ashes darkened the air for 300 miles round. In 1759, the mountain Jorillo, in Mexico, was thrown up from a plain 1600 feet high, and numerous cones from 3 to 600 feet, on a space of four square miles in one night. In 1819, Jorillo threw ashes 140 miles. At Turbaco, in Mexico, on an extended plain, are about 20 cones, 20 or 30 feet high, with craters filled with water, through which azote and mud explode 100 times an hour. The Sandwich islands are volcanic, and Owyhee itself is the cone of a volcano as high as Mont Blanc. In 1822, 23, and 35, Chili was visited by a continued series of earthquakes, which continued daily for months. In 1687, the sea retired from the shores of Peru, and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed everything on the coast; among other places Callao. In 1746, the same phenomenon again took place, and only 200 out of 4000 inhabitants of Callao saved themselves ; nineteen vessels were sunk, and four, including a frigate, were carried over Callao into the country. The most frightful volcanoes and fiery eruptions often take place in Japan, and in the northern parts of China. The entire line of the Andes from Mexico to Chili, and the branches to Cumana, are volcanic, and subject to earthquakes. In Syria there have been no volcanoes since the formation of the Dead Sea, but History records 100 earthquakes at Aleppo, Damascus, Antioch, &c. By the earthquake of 526, 250,000 persons perished in Antioch, and in the ancient Bery. tus, all its inhabitants were destroyed. In 1822, Aleppo, &c. were overthrown in six seconds, and 30,000 persons perished. The series of shocks which destroyed Lisbon, and great part of Portugal, lasted but six minutes," on an otherwise fine morning, on November 1, 1/55. The Douro and Guadiana opened, and let out gases, and the quay of Lisbon, with 30,000 people on it, sank into an abyss, and not one body arose. The sea rose 20 feet so far off as Carlisle Bay, Barbadoes, and was of a dark colour. A wave, 60 feet high, passed over art of Cadiz. Kinsale was flooded, and at unchal the sea rose 20 feet. The Lakes of Switzerland, Scotland, and Canada, were agitated. Bristol Hot. wells became red. A well in King’s Wood became black, and the Avon flowed back while rising. It also affected wells and lakes in Scotland, and produced gratii.g noises in English mines. The houses which were engulfed at Port Roval, in 1692, were distinctly visible, in 1780, to persons who passed over them in boats. The Greeks used to allege, ages after, that the two cities of Bura and Helica were visible in the sea. 'The Welsh assert that the sea-w*all, built to protect their coast, might be seen across .Cardigan Bay 1000 years after. The natives of Syria affirm, to all travellers, that Sodom and Gomorrah may still be discerned in the Dead Sea. Calicut was overwhelmed by the sea, and its ruins are still visible under it. In March 1812, 12,000 persons were killed by an earthquake in the city of Carraccas only. Fourteen earthquakes, in different parts of the globe, were recorded in 182/, and perhaps this is the average number. . The noise which immediately precedes a great earthquake is astounding. Some com- pare it to the loudest echoes of thunder, others to a subterranean torrent of rocks and stones, which stuns the victims, and frequently deprives them of sense. Tucuman, in different parts, is visited by dull subterranean noises, often among rocks as loud as cannon. In Lima, the same noises resemhle the rattling of coach-w heels over paved roads. Lightning kills the fish of rivers, an effect ascribed also to sub- terraneous agitations. Explosions, like cannon, are often heard in mountainous districts, and they appear to arise from pyritical ejections at some depth. These merit more attention, for they seem to point to the origin of atmospheric meteors. Light spots, like flame, are seen on the tops of mountains, which may arise from ascending phosphuretted hydrogen. The Allemaine Zeitung relates that, m August, a subterranean fire burnt the roots of 250 acres of forest-trees, sit Magland, in Switzerland, which, on falling, were also con- sumed ; flames also, issued near Lausanne. Cader Idris and High-stile have basins like remains of craters. A remarkable volcanic explosion took place Jan. 20 to 25, 1835, at Cosiguina in Nicaragua. A total darkness took place at Leon, and showers of lava covered the country, and through Grenada the darkness lasted 40 hours. There were also successive earthquakes, and two islands were formed of pumice and mineral earth. Some farms were destroyed, a vessel was sunk, and the crew of another was involved in ashes 50 miles from Acapulca, and others over a space of 50 miles. The reports were heard and ashes fell at Kingston, in Jamaica, 800 miles distant. — Galindo. The accounts of the uplifting of the coast of Chili, by earthquakes in 1822, was a mis- take. Rivero, a scientific journalist on the spot, utterly denies it. Of course, however, a retreat of the sea has the same appear, ance as the rise of the land, and it ap. pears that this is common all round, even to the river Plata, where there have been no earthquakes. The cause appears to be, that when the perihelion passed into South de- 339 HYDROLOGY. — MOUNTAINS. 340 cliration, it carried an overflow of waters, which .stood* unduly high till the perihelion past the Tropic 000 years, since when its long tropical parallelism had operated for 2000 years, and within 600 years it has been re- treating northward, and taking a lower level, as appears in the coral cliffs of New Hol- land, South America, &c. An earthquake in Chill Feb. 1835, ex- tended 500 miles North and South, and was felt 300 miles at sea. At Talcahuano the sea retired, and then returned with a bore, destroying every thing. The earth opened and closed, vomiting steam and smoke. There was also a marine volcano. The land rises or the sea retires, so that recent marine shells are found 600 yards above the sea. Parish thinks, that recent shells at great elevations on the West coasts of South America arise from great earthquake-waves. In the middle of the 16th century, the sea suddenly rose and flowed some leagues over the land, leaving ships far inland. In 1586, the same occurred near Lima to the extent of 2 leagues. In 1605, Arica, and in 1687, Callao, &c„ were destroyed in like manner, and ships carried by the sea’s retiring, and then returning in mountainous waves, a league over the country. Wafer saw 3 vessels which had been carried in this way 5 or 6 leagues over the land. In 1746, an official account mentions the loss of 23 ships at Callao, some of which were carried over the city inland, and all the inhabitants of Callao, 5000, destroyed ; and similar circum- stances occurred along the whole coast. In 1751, Conception, in Chili, was destroyed in like manner, the sea retreating and then returning in mountains ; and the same phe- nomena also took place at Juan Fernandez. In 1835, the whole coast of Chili was visited by the same calamity in three overwhelming waves. On such occasions, ships at sea re- ceive violent shocks, and the sea becomes turbid with rising sand. In 1815, Holworth Cliff, near Weymouth, smoked and inflamed spontaneously. It began by the sinking of 2 acres 30 feet, which for 3 years slid 800 feet towards the sea. It contained bitumen and pyrites, with alu- mine, limestone, and various shells. In 1826, vapour rose from the summit, and soon after smoke 20 feet high. On digging at the spot a body of flame appeared, and the whole to the depth of 6 feet resembled a lime-kiln with a strong sulphureous smell. Workmen scattered the materials, but under different circumstances, it was an incipient volcano and points to their origin. Near Baku, in Persia, in some parts of Italy, and in an island in the Levant, there are natural orifices in the earth, through which inflammable gas passes. Sometimes it takes fire by its own friction, on coming into contact with the oxygen of the atmos- phere, and at other times requires to be lighted, like a gas -lamp. Similar gas con- stantly issues from the veins of coal-mines and produces fatal explosions ; but it might be lightod and consumed as it is generated. Superstition always attaches supernatural agency to this natural production of certain minerals. One of them, in the Levant, to this day, is called the burning-bush of Moses; and, at Baku, temples for fire-wor- ship are erected over them ; and one of them, the priests or devotees allege, has been burning for several thousand years, and will continue as a miracle till the end of the world. They call it everlasting fire. Hanway relates, that the flame makes the soil hot, without consuming it, and if made to pass through a cane, or cone of paper, does not consume them, as described by Moses, though the flame will boil a pot. The ground is dry and stony, and smells like sulphur, and, if uncovered, the flame spreads to any distance. Brimstone is dug as an article of commerce, and naphtha- springs arise, and frequently in jets two or three feet high, which, on drying, become black, like pitch. In Persia, they burn it in their lamps and for cooking; and in Russia use it as a medicine. The same sort of combustible exhalations arise in China, and that industrious people use them for purposes of manufacture. A smoking spring in cold weather, is evi dence of subterraneous heat in the depths whence it proceeds. Lake Avernus used to kill birds that flew over it ; Lake Quilotoa, near Quito, does so at this day ; and the vapours of this, and of Lancerote, one of the Canaries, kill cattle also. All are on volcanic ground. When hot-springs and minerals are found distant from volcanoes, the strata are much disturbed as though there had been volca- noes or other disturbance. Two lbs. of half-melted basalt raise 71bs. of water from 11 R. to 59 R., whence it is con- cluded that mountains of heated basalt may maintain the heat of hot springs for many centuries, as at Bath, &c. It is impracticable to follow the 200 vol- canoes more or less in similar action, or the 14 or 20 annual earthquakes with their va- rious devastations, but those described are examples of all. Of Mountains . :■ Mountains are the nodes or projections of the granitic nucleus, the transition or secondary formations. In general, later formations have been laid against them, by tides and currents of the sea, at various angles. The notion that they have been upheavings would be too ridiculous to men- tion, though adopted by many grave au- thorities. Granitic mountains are rugged and preci- pitous, gneiss less so, and slate smooth and round. The European and Asiatic moun- tains are crowned with granite ; but the Andes are topped with whinstone, or the newest floetz trap : and granite does not rise higher that 8 or 10,000 feet. Chimbo- razo has porphyry at its summit, and Pi- chincha basalt. Limestone is also found at great elevations. The Soudah, or Black Mountains, in Africa, are of basalt, 1500 feet high, 100 HYDROLOGY. — MOUNTAINS. 341 miles wide, from north to south, and many hundred long. Most mountains present their precipitous faces to the sea, and their slopes to the land. Mountains are the chief objects of geolo- gical study, because their structure is ob- vious to sight, and their masses are pene- trable by miners in search of the ores of metals. They are composed of strata, ho- rizontal, oblique or vertical, either cry- stalline in granite, or with crystals embedded as in porphyry. These crystalline rocks having no organic remains, and always lying beneath strata, which abound in remains, are deemed older than the others, and called primitive rocks or strata. The mountains subtract no more from the general rotundity of the earth, than the roughness on the coat of an orange. — We have no ridge above three miles, and only five or six mountains of four miles. The first is = the 2633d, and the se- 3 coi.d =. the 1975th the diameter. Now 4 an orange, 4 inches in diameter, has spiculce the 100th of an inch, which are the 400th. There are 120 mountains or ridges above 10,000 feet above the level of the sea, and 150 from 5000 to 10,000, many of them ex- tensive ridges. The chief are as under, by Riddel’s scale : Race-course, Brighton .. .. feet 400 Monmouth Hill 450 Arthur’s Seat 800 Dunsinnan .. .. .. .. 1030 Edgecombe 1300 Rumbles Moor 1331 Malvern 1350 Wrekin 1450 Tenmaenmawr .. . . .. 1460 Gibraltar 14/0 Pentland 1600 Boulsworth 1/08 Pendle 1839 Three Brethren 2000 Ingleborough 2384 Sion 2100 Vaucluse 2150 Whernside 2426 Cheviot .« 26/0 Sinai 3000 Saddleback . . . . . . . . 3080 Schehallien, Skiddaw, and Ben Lomond 3280 Montserrat, Athos, and’Heartfell . . 3300 Helvellyn 3350 Snowdon, Table at Cape .. .. 3500 Stromboli 3850 Vesuvius 3900 Parnassus 3950 Ben Lawers 4030 Ben Nevis 4400 Soufrlcre 4830 Hecla 4900 Pay de Dome (one mile) .. .. 5200 Fcugari 5248 Pel ion 5310 Port des Franyois .. .. .. 5/60 Col de Tende 6100 Pirrari 6143 342 Pierus feet 6167 Ossa 6 >07 Stony Mountains 6450 Cenis 6800 Rouge .. 76 0 Santa Fe 8700 Pilate 8950 St. Gothard 9(»80 Carnigou, Pic du Midi ■ . . . - 9300 Olympus 9754 Parmesan 1(1090 Buet 10120 Pic Blanc (two miles) .. .. 10400 Etna 1 0950 Perdu 11200 Granada 11 250 Hochhorn 113U0 Simplon 11512 Egmont II 140 Atlas and New Zealand . . .. 12000 Argentiere .. 12180 Teneriffo 12250 St. Elias 12700 Iseran 13272 Ophir 13850 Finster- Aar-Horn - .. ..14111 Ortel 14400 Cervin .. .. .. 14837 Long’s Peak, R. M. .. .. 15000 Southern Thule 15100 Dome de Gonte 15500 Rosa .. .. .. .. .. 15550 Pichincha 15600 Mowna Roas Owhyhee .. .. 15700 Mont Blanc 15732 Tartarian, or Altai (three miles) 15800 Cotocache 16450 El Altar and Hinica .. .. 1/500 Cotopaxi 18900 Disis Casada and f25 4,341 4,480 2,826 3,344 1,070 3,582 1,880 1,446 I, 126 194.500 80,450 8,326 9,700 21,000 1,660 1,570 6,324 13,000 31,460 29,150 137,400 223.000 127,000 96,000 16,500 1,535,700 1,499,000 36,700 112.500 9,ooo 21,600 II, 600 11.800 II 23,400 32.000 1,980 13.000 4,070 1,520 1,550 1,400 1,130 700 592 222 431 241 337 242 32.000 12,464 2,302 3,8i6 4,300 440 380 1,275 2,590 7,420 3,5^o 13,900 3,866 2,800 1,050 1,950 56,500 52,575 3,900 7, *oo 380 970 , 450 600 S i77 58 266 139 314 252 248 177 204 120 128 233 915 165 155 277 392 205 264 238 202 199 236 121 101 17 22 11 119 37 35 lob 63 42 45 39 51 60 40 •04 10 3 I II 1*9 1 *45 •42 *2 •24 •06 •15 •24 1-8 9 4 35 4 *5 14 20 4 15 2 r8 1*4 62 19 17 15 145 Army. 100.000 279,957 33,758 122,249 35,800 13,955 13,054 12,000 10,000 6,195 5,679 2,100 3,580 1,650 3,028 2,096 271,404 162,600 26,000 47.000 46,807 1,800 l,78o 4,000 7,400 5i,5io 29,645 90.000 45.201 33.201 12.000 30,838 710.000 674.000 36,000 300.000 ASIA. '4,070,000 170,0001 I 42 40 180,000 25,0001 139 10 210,000 12,000 1 57 4 152,000 3,600 1 1 24 1*7 153,000 3,7oo 24 r8 29,760 4,000 1 134 ri '55, •2 4 ] - •2jl 11,800 9H,000 120,000 90,000 30.000 35.000 20,000 Nepaul Seikhs Sindliy Cabul Belouches Herat Persia Bukbaria - Khiva Khokhan - Yemen Mascat - Foreign Possessions. English - East India Co Trib. toE. I.C Nizam Nagpour - Mysore - Oude Guicowar Indore Sattarah - Travancore Ceylon Asiatic Turke Asiatic Russia Portuguese Morocco - Tunis Tripoli - Tigre - Bornou - Fellatahs - Fouta-Toro Ashantee - Molouas - Changamera Madagascar Foreign Possessions. Turkish - Portuguese French English - Spanish - American Arabian • United States - Mexico - Central America Columbia Peru Bolivia Chili Rio de la Plata Banda Oriental Paraguay- Brazil I lay ti Independent Ind Foreign Possessions. English 40,000 2,500 63 *5 | 130,000 8,000 62 •3 40,000 1,000 25 6 110,000 4,200 38 12 110,000 2,000 18 — 50,000 1,500 30 *35 338,000 9,000 26 3’6 60,00a 2,500 42 5 110,000 800 7 58,000 1,000 17 — 40,000 2-, 500 63 *3 39,000 l,6O0 41 *19 849,650 114,430 135 _ 349,ooo 80,800 231 *11 485,000 32,800 68 - 72,000 10,000 138 *2 53,000 3,000 57 *6 20,000 3,000 148 1*2 15,000 3,000 201 1*9 13,600 2,000 147 •8 8,600 1,200 140 •85 8,000 1,500 183 •15 5,800 900 155 •35 15,650 830 53 556,000 12,500 23 - 4,010,000 3,600 0-89 - 3,700 500 136 - 358 6(M)Oo 50.000 150.000 150.000 8.000 80.000 25.000 100.000 100,000 5 .000 2,500 210,000 20.000 16.000 6.000 5.000 22.000 34.000 4.000 11.000 AFRICA. 130,000 6,000 46 1 26,000 40,000 1,800 45 '3 6,000 208,000 660 3'2 •1 4,000 150,000 1,800 12 50,000 1,200 25 . 70,000 1,700 24 - 15,000 700 47 . 100,000 3,000 30 . 200,000 1,000 5 50,000 500 10 120,000 2,000 17 ■ 367,000 3,000 32 41 70,000 390,000 1,400 36 . 74,000 1,600 22 . 91,000 270 3 . 2,430 208 86 . 3,000 25 8-3 . 4,000 100 25 - AMERICA. Spanish French Dutch Danish Russian 1 ,570,000 11,800 7’5 6 1,242,000 7,500 6 32 '39,000 1,650 H '9 04 82*, 000 2,800 34 1-8 373,000 1,700 46 1*3 310,000 1,300 42 •5 129,000 1,400 10 1 •6 683,000 700 1 •6 60,000 70 1*3 . 67,250 250 37 *1 2,253,000 5,000 22 *4 22,100 800 36 41 6,000,000 1,300 0-3 •6 1,930,000 1,900 0*98 35,400 1,000 28 30,000 240 8 30,000 140 3-8 324,000 110 03 ■ 1 370,000 50 01 5,779 22,750 3.500 32,366 7.500 8,000 5,000 30.000 45.000 AUSTRALASIA. Siak (Sumatra) Achem (Do.) Borneo (Borneo) Soulou (Do.) - Mindanao Hawaii, S. I. - Dutch Isles Spanish Isles • English Isles - Portuguese Isles 20,000 600 30 17.500 500 29 30,000 400 13 8,000 200 25 12,100 360 30 5,100 130 26 203,000 9,360 46 39,000 2,640 68 1,496,000 100 005 8,000 137 17 N 2 859 GEOGRAPHY. 3GG Corrected Tables of Modern Detei'minations of La titudes and Longitude at 400 Places. Names of Places. Aberdeen Acapulco, Mexico - Acheen Head, Sumatra - Acre, Syria Agra, India ... Ajaccio, Corsica Albany, United States - Aleppo, Turkey in Asia - Alexandria, Egypt - Algoa Bay, S. Coast Africa Alicante, Spain Amiens, France Amsterdam, Holland Ancona, Italy - Antigua, Caribbee Isles - Antwerp, Belgium - Archangel, Russia in Eu. Ascension Isle, Atlantic O. Astracan, Russia in Europe Athens, Greece Avignon, France Aylesbury ... Bab-el-Mandeb, Arabia - Bagdad, Turkey in Asia - Bahama Isle, Lucayos - Baltimore, United States Banda I., lud. Archipelago Barbadoes I., C'aribbee Is. Barcelona, Spain Basle, Switzerland - Batavia, Java - Bayonne, France Beaehy Head - Behring’s Isle, Sea of^ Kamtschatka - -J Bencoolen, Sumatra Bergen, Norway Berlin, Prussia Bermuda Isle, Atlantic Berne, Switzerland - Blanco C, W. CoastAfrica Bologna, Italy - Bombay, India - Bouavista C., Newfound Bordeaux, France - Boston, United States Boulogne, France - Bremen, Germany - Brest, France - Bridgewater Brighton - Bristol - - Bruges, Belgium Brus-els, Belgium - Buckingham Buda, Hungary Buenos Ayres, La Plata Bussora, Turkey in Asia Cader Idris, Wales - Cadiz Observatory, Spai Caen, France - Cairo, Egypt Calais, France Calcutta, India Callao, Peru - Cambridge Observatory Cam pet hey, Mexico Canary Isle Camlia, Candia Canterbury - • Canton, China - Caracas, Colombia Cardigan Isle Carmarthen • Carmel Cape,Syria- Cartliagena, Spain - Cayenne, Guayana - Chelmsford - Cheltenham Chcrbourgi France Lat. O / // 57 856N 16 50 19 N 5 36’ 0 N 32 54 35 N 27 12 30 N 41 55 iN 42 38 38 N 36 U 25 N 31 13 5 N 34 1 OS 38 20 41 N 49 53 41 N 52 22 17 N 43 37 54 N 17 4 30 N 51 13 18 N 84 34 0 N 7 57 oS 46 21 12 N 37 58 l N 43 57 8 N 51 49 3 N 12 40 o N 33 19 40 N 26 43 30 N 39 21 0 N 4 31 0 S 13 5 0 N 41 21 44 N 47 33 34 N 690S 43 29 15 N 50 44 24 N 55 36 0 N 3 48 0 S 60 24 o N 52 31 45 N 32 22 0 N 48 58 55 N 20 46 55 N 44 30 12 N 18 53 45 N 48 42 5 N 44 50 14 N 42 22 11 N 50 43 37 N 53 4 38 N 48 23 14 N 51 7 41 N 5<) 49 32 N 51 27 6 N 51 12 3.1 N 50 5 1 1 N 51 59 51 N 47 29 44 N 34 38 40 S 30 29 30 N 52 42 2 N 36 32 o N 49 11 12 N 30 2 21 N 50 57 28 N *22 34 15 N 12 3 38 N 52 12 43 N •9 50 45 N 28 10 o N 35 18 45 N 51 16 4» N 23 8 9 N lo 30 50 N 52 7 53 N 51 51 10 N 32 51 10 N 37 35 50 N 4 56 15 N 51 44 8 N 51 54 7 N 49 38 31 N O / II 5 42 w 49 18 W 19 0 E 6 20 E 17 0 E 44 4E 44 50 W 10 15 E 55 15 E 40 0 E 28 35 w 18 ll E 53 15 E 29 7 E 54 45 'V 24 10 E 43 oE 58 45 W 2 45 E 46 14 E 48 30 E 48 41 W 31 0 E 24 45 E 56 0 VV 48 oW 0 o E 41 15 W 9 57 E 35 27 E 51 45 E 28 26 W 15 12 E 46 0 E 0 0 E 20 o E 22 15 R 30 0 W 26 15 E 1 45 W 21 30 E 56 0 E 58 0 W 33 59 W 58 45 W 38 59 E 48 0 E 28 45 w 59 39 W 7 40 W 35 29 'V Ll 33 E 23 25 E 59 5 W 2 30 E 24 30 W 40 0 E 28 3 W 17 22 VV 21 38 W 18 45 E 5i 19 E 26 0 E 4 19 W 0 30 E 30 30 V V 31 0 W 18 15 E 4 5i E 2 45 E 4 45 W 40 27 W 18 48 w 59 35 E 0 21 VV 14 45 W 28 20 E 4 6 VV 37 3 W Names of Places. O / II Cherson, Russia 48 37 46 N Chester - 53 11 26 N Chichester - 50 50 1 1 N Chiloe Isle, Chili - 41 53 0 s Christmas Har., Tierral del Fuego - - - J 55 21 54 s Christopher (St.), Ca- ) ribbee Isles - - - j 17 19 0 N Clear Cape, Ireland 51 25 0 N Clermont-Ferrand, France 45 48 44 N Colchester Colombo, Ceylon Comorin Cape, India Constantinople, Turkey. Copenhagen, Denmark - Corinth, Greece Cork Cove, Ireland - Coventry .... Cracow, Poland Cronstadt, Russia - Cumaua, Colombia Cuxhaven, Germany Damietta, Egypt Dautzic, Prussia Dardanelles, Turkey Daventry - Deal Castle Delhi, India ... Derby Dieppe, France Domingo, St. Domingo - Dorchester - - - Dover Castle ... Dublin Observatory Dundee .... Durham — Easter Isle, Pacific Ocean Eddystone Lighthouse - Edinburgh Observatory - Elias !Vlt. NW. coast Amer Elsineur, Denmark* Ely Emden, Germany - Exeter .... Farewell Cape, Greenland Faro, Portugal Feruando-Po 1., Gf. Banin Fez, Morocco ... Finisterre Cape, Spain - Florence, Italy Flushing, Holland - Folkstoue Forelaud (North) Foreland (South) - Formosa Isle, Chinese Sea Francais C., St. Domingo Fraitklort on Maine, Ger. Geneva, Switzerland Genoa, Italy ... Georgia Isle, Atlantic O. Gibraltar, 8pain Glasgow, Scotland - Glastonbury l or, England Gloucester ... Good Hope Cape, S. Africa Goree 1 , VV. CoastAfrica Gotha Observa., Germany Gottenburg, Sweden Gottingen, Germany Greenwich Observatory Guadaloupe I ., CaribbeeL Guam Isle, Pacific Ocean Guayaquil, Peru Hague, Holland Halifax, Nova Scotia Halle, Germany Hamburg, Germany Hanover, Germany - Hartlepool Havannah. Cuba Lat. Long. O / II o' 53 i8N 6 57 0 N 8 5 oN 41 l 27 N 55 41 4 N 37 58 22 N 51 51 50 N 52 24 25 N 5<> 3 38 N 59 59 26 N 10 27 37 N 53 52 21 N 31 25 43 N 54 20 48 N 40 9 0 N 52 15 39 N 51 '3 5N 28 37 0 N 52 55 32 N 49 55 34 N 18 30 0 N 50 42 58 N 51 7 47 N 53 23 »3 N 56 28 0 N 54 46 31 N 27 9 33 S 50 10 55 N 55 57 1 ' N 60 17 35 N 56 2 17 N 52 24 49 N 53 22 3 N 50 43 25 N 59 42 0 N 36 ^9 0 N 3 28 o N 34 8 3 N 42 54 0 N 43 h 8 41 N 51 26 42 N 5* 4 47 N 51 22 30 > 51 8 26 N 25 1 I 0 N 19 46 20 N 50 7 29 N 46 12 0 N 44 25 0 N 54 58. 0 S 36 6 40 N 55 5i 32 N 51 843N 51 52 3 N 34 29 0 8 14 40 0 N 50 56 8 N 57 42 4 N 51 31 50 N 51 28 39 N 15 59 30 N 13 21 0 N 2 11 30 s 52 4 50 N 44 44 0 N 51 29 5 N 53 31 * l N 52 22 25 N 54 4' 49 N 23 9 27 N S2 38 33 E 2 53 1 VV 0 46 36 W ”2 54 45 W 69 47 14 W 62 49 0 W 9 29 0 w 3 5 17 E 0 53 34 E 80 0 o E 77 44 oE 28 55 15 E 12 35 6 E 23 28 29 E 8 16 30 VV 1 30 5 W L9 57 9 E 29 49 30 R 64 9 45 W 8 43 1 E 31 49 30 E 18 38 5 E 26 19 o E 1 9 3 VV 1 23 59 E 77 40 0 E 1 28 16 W 1 444E bg 49 0 W 2 25 40 1 19 7 6 20 30 2 56 0 1 34 8 109 25 20 4 15 3 3 10 56 140 50 6 12 38 2 0 16 35 7 11 1 3 31 0 45 16 0 7 51 o 8 40 15 5 1 19 9 16 0 U 15 45 3 34 57 1 10 52 1 26 50 1 22 6 121 56 0 72 *z 55 8 36 o 6 9 30 8 58 o 36 15 0 5 21 45 4 16 0 VV 2 41 19 VV 2 14 15 VV 18 23 15 E 17 26 0 VV 10 44 0 E 11 57 45 E 9 58 30 E 000 61 45 0 W 144 20 0 E 79 41 15 W 4 18 47 E 63 35 15 ' v ll 58 2 E 9 58 37 E 9 42 55 E 1 10 31 VV 82 22 53 VV SGI GEOGRAPHY. 3G2 Names of Places. (Havre, France - Heligoland I., German O Helena (St.) I., Atlantic O Helvellin Helvoetsluys, Holland Holyhead - Horn C.,Tierra del Fuego Horsham, England - Hudsoiv’sHouseNewWal Huntingdon, England Hyeres, France Icy C.,NW. coast of Ame llchester - Jngleborough - Ispahan, Persia Jaffa, Syria Java Head, Java Jerusalem, Turkey in Asia John's (St ), Newfoundl. Juan-Fernandez, Pacific O Kidwelly - Kiel, Denmark Kinsale, Ireland Lancaster - Launceston Leghorn. Italv- Leip’sic, Germany - Lew*chew I. Chinese Sea Leyden, Holland •Liege, Belgium Lima, Peru Lincoln - Lisbon Observ., Portuga Litchfield- Liverpool - Lizard W. Lomond, Scotland - London, St. Paul's - Londonderry, Ireland L ’Orient, France Loughborough Louisburgh, Cape Breto Louvain, Belgium - Lutterworth Lynn * Lyons, France - M acao, China - Madeira Funchal, Atlantic Madras, India - Madrid, Spain* Mahon, Minorca Maker Tower - Malacca Fort, India Malaga, Spain - Malo (St.), France - Malta, Valetta, Mediterra, Manchester Manheim Obser. Germany Manilla, Lucoma - Mantua, Italy - Marseilles Observ., France Martinico I.,Caribbee I Matapan C., Turkey in Eu. Mauritius I., Indian Ocean May Cape, United States Memel, Prussia Messina, •* icily Mexico, Mexico Michael’s (St.), Azores - Milan Observatory, Italy Minehead ... Mocha, Arabia Montauhan Oliser., France Montpelier Obser., France Montrose .... Moose Fort, New Wales Moscow, Russia in Europe Mozambique, E. of Africa Mumbles - Munich, Germany - Nangasaki, Japan Nankin, China Naples, Italy - Needles - Newark - Lat. Lon O / II O / II 49 29 14 N 0 6 38 E 54 ll 34 N 7 53 13 E 15 55 0 s 5 43 0 W 54 31 43 N. 3 0 21 VV 5* 49 29 N 3 27 53 E 53 18 51 N 4 39 27 VV 55 58 30 S 67 21 14 W 51 3 3b N 0 19 43 VV 53 0 32 N 10b 27 20 VV 52 20 27 N 0 11 3 VV 43 7 •2 N 6 7 55 E 70 29 0 N 161 42 30 W 5* 0 23 N 2 40 14 W 54 10 4 N 2 23 18 W 32 24 34 N 51 50 15 E 32 5 25 N 34 4b 8 E (i 48 0 S 105 11 0 E Names of Places. Lat. 31 47 47 N 47 33 45 N 33 40 0 S 51 44 15 N 54 19 43 N 51 4i 30 N 54 3 SN 50 38 18 N 43 33 5 N 51 20 16 N 26 14 0 N 52 9 30 N 50 39 22 N 12 3 0 S 53 14 7 N 38 42 24 N 52 41 12 N 53 24 40 N 49 57 44 N 5« 14 57 N 51 30 49 N 54 59 28 N 47 45 1 1 N 52 46 31 N 45 53 40 N 50 53 26 N 52 27 20 N 52 46 52 N 45 45 58 N 22 1 1 30 N 32 37 o N 13 4 0 N 40 24 57 N 39 5i 10 N 50 20 52 N 2 12 0 N 3b 43 30 N 48 39 3 N 35 53 ON 53 29 0 N 49 29 18 N 14 36 0 N 45 9 16 N 43 17 49 N 14 35 49 N 3b 23 20 N 20 9 45 S 38 5b 4<> N 35 20 15 E 52 39 45 W 78 58 >5 w 4 17 22 W 10 8 18 E 8 28 15 W 2 47 41 W 4 20 42 W 10 16 45 E 12 21 45 E 127 38 0 E 4 29 13 E 5 3i 42 E "6 56 45 W 0 32 1 W 9 8 30 W 1 49 21 W 2 58 55 W 511 5 w 3 17 4 W 0 5 47 W 7 14 49 W 3 21 2 W 1 11 S4 VI’ 59 54 45 W 4 41 4b E 1 12 1 W 0 25 4 E 4 49 24 F. l 13 31 30 E 16 54 46 W 80 22 0 E 3 42 15 W 4 18 17 F. 4 to ib w 102 15 0 E 4 25 2 11 2 1 11 W 14 30 35 E 2 14 22 W 8 28 0 E 120 58 0 E to 48 12 E 5 22 15 E 61 5 45 W 22 29 30 E 57 28 30 E 74 53 b VV 21 8 3 E 38 11 30 N 15 35 30 E 19 25 45 N 99 5 *5 W 37 48 0 N 25 13 0 W 45 28 2 N 9 ll 31 E 51 12 42 N 3 28 4 W 13 20 0 N 43 20 0 E 44 0 55 N l 20 45 E 43 36 16 N 3 52 40 E 45 55 56 N 7 52 32 f: 51 •5 54 N 80 5b 24 u 55 45 45 N 37 33 0 E *5 1 0 S 40 47 0 E 5* 34 0 N 3 57 20 W 48 b 20 N 34 30 E 32 43 40 N 129 52 7 K 32 4 40 N 118 47 15 E 40 50 15 N 14 15 ■iS E 50 39 53 N 1 33 55 W 53 4 30 N 0 49 IC W Newbiggen Newbury - Nice, Italy ... Nismes, France Nizhnei-Novogorod Russia Noo'tka, NW. Coast Amer. Norfolk Isle, PacificOcean North Cape, Lapland North Cape, Russia Nottingham - . - Odessa, Russia in Europe Okhotsk, Russia in Asia- Oporto, Portugal - Ortord - Orleans, France Ostend, Belgium Otaheite L, Pacific Ocean Owhyhee L, Sandwich Is. Oxford Observa., England Padua Observatory, Italy Palermo Observato., Sicily Panama, Terra Firma - Fara, Brazil ... Paramatta Ob., N. Holland Paris Observatory, F rance Parma, Italy - Pavia, Italy Pekin Observatory, China Pelew Isles, Pacific Ocean Pensacola, United States Pernambuco, Brazil Peterborough - Petersburg, Russia - Philadelphia, United Sta. Phillips’ Island Pisa Observatory, Italy • Plymouth ... Plynlimmon - - - Poole - Portland Lighthouse Port Royal. Jamaica Portsmouth Observatory Prague, Germany - Prince's I. Straits of Sunda Pr. Edward's I., Gulf of) St. Lawrence - - I Providence Isle, Lucayos Quebec, Canada Quito, Peru - Reculver (8011th) Retford (East) Rhodes, Levant Riga, Russia ... Rio Janeiro, Brazil • Ripon .... Rochelle, F’rance Rome, Italy ... Rosetta, Egypt Rotterdam, Holland Rouen, F'rance Sable Cape, Nova Scotia Salee, Morocco >alisbury - Sandy Hook, United States Santa-F'e de Bogota Colom. Sark Isle, English Channel Sebastian (St.*, Spain Sheerness Staff Shrewsbury Mam, India Sierra Leone, W.of Africa Si ncapore, East Indies . Skiddaw .... >myrna, Turkey in Asia Socotra Isle, Arabian Sea South Cape, New Zealand Southampton . . Spartei Cape, Barbary . Mart Point . . Stockholm, Sweden Strasburg, F'rance . . Strom holi I , Mediterran. Stmgard, Germany . . Suez, Egypt . Sunderland ... O I II 55 11 14 N 51 24 5 N 43 41 lb N 43 50 8 N 5b 19 43 N 49 35 15 N 29 l 45 8 71 10 0 N b8 56 oN 52 57 8 N 4b 30 22 N 59 20 10 N 41 8 54 N 52 5 oN 47 54 12 N 51 13 57 N 17 29 15 S 20 17 0 N 51 45 39 N 45 24 2 N 38 6 44 N 8 58 50 N 1 28 o S 33 48 45 8 48 50 14 N 44 48 1 N 45 10 47 N 39 54 13 N 8 8 30 N 30 24 0 N 830S 52 35 40 N 59 5b 23 N 39 5b 55 N lb 54 o S 43 43 11 N 50 22 20 N 52 28 3 N SO 42 5« N 50 31 22 N 17 58 0 N 50 48 3 N 50 5 19 N b 35 OS 46 14 0 N 25 5 oN 46 47 30 N 0 13 17 S 51 22 47 N 53 23 58 N 3b 26 0 N 5b 57 1 N 22 53 0 S 54 8 1 1 N 4b 9 21 N 41 53 54 N 31 25 oN 51 55 22 N 49 26 27 N 43 23 45 N 34 5 oN 51 3 5b N 40 25 oN 4 35 48 N 49 23 32 N 43 1.9 30 N 51 11 22 N 52 42 28 N 14 20 40 N b 31 ON 1 12 54 39 3« 25 12 30 47 lb 50 S 50 54 ON 35 48 30 N SO 13 26 N 59 20 31 N 48 34 5b N 38 4b 20 N 48 4b 15 N 30 0 30 N 54 55 12 N 0 N 12 N 0 N 0 N Long 0 I II 1 29 42 1 9 9 7 b 37 4 21 45 44 28 30 126 3b 46 thb 10 15 2b 0 45 179 11 30 1 8 14 30 45 22 143 13 45 8 37 18 1 34 14 1 54 41 2 55 8 149 30 22 155 58 45 1 15 22 11 51 32 13 22 0 79 27 15 48 39 45 151 1 15 2 20 23 10 26 45 9 9 48 1 16 27 45 134 50 0 87 11 30 34 54 0 0 14 45 30 18 45 75 n 30 *43 57 0 10 24 0 4 7 lb 3 4 b 4 1 58 55 2 26 50 7 b 52 30 1 5 59 14 25 *5 105 15 0 b'2 56 0 77 19 0 71 9 45 78 45 15 1 11 50 0 54 3 28 15 fl 24 7 45 43 12 0 1 30 4 ' 1 9 40 *2 29 47 30 28 20 4 29 11 1 5 59 b 5 29 45 b 42 45 1 47 24 74 13 0 74 *3 53 2 24 30 1 58 30 0 44 26 E 2 44 53 W 100 50 15 E 13 18 0 W 103 30 3 8 27 6 54 10 167 20 1 23 s6W 5 55 0 VV 3 38 21 W 18 3 30 E 7 44 51 E 15 12 30 E 9 n 0 E 32 28 o F. 1 21 16 W oE 9 W oE oE 9 E 363 GEOGRAPHY, 364 Names of Places. Lat. Long. Names of Places. Surat River, India . Swan River, New Holland Swansea .... Syracuse, Sicily Tarsus, Turkey Tenby .... Teneriffe I., Canary Isles Tercera Isle, Azores Ternate I., Indian Archi. Thebes, Egypt . . Thule (S.), Sandwich Land Timor I., Ind. Archipelago Tinian Isle, Ladi ones Tobago I., Caribbee Isles Tobolsk, Russia in Asia Tornea, Sweden Toulon, France Tours, France . Trieste, Illyria Trincomalee, Ceylon Trinidad Isle, Caribbee I. Tripoli, Barbary Tristan d’Acutiha, Atlantic Tunbridge Tunis, Barbary . . Turin Castello, Italy Tynemouth Upsal, Sweden Uraniburg, Denmark Ushant Isles, France Utrecht, Holland Valdivia, Chili. . ON ON ON 0 S OS ON oN O / // 21 4 0 N 3 * 50 oS 51 37 13 N 37 2 5 « N 37 l o N 51 40 20 N 28 17 oN 3 « 39 0 50 25 43 59 34 10 10 14 58 11 10 58 11 42 N 65 50 50 N 43 7 9 N 47 23 46 N 45 38 8 N 8 33 0 N 10 38 42 N 32 53 40 N 37 5 36 S 5 1 n 52 N 36 47 59 N 45 4 oN 55 1 21 N 59 51 50 N 55 54 38 N 48 28 8 N 52 5 31 N 39 50 0 S O / II 72 51 o E 11550 oE 3 55 32 W 15 16 10 E 34 52 oE 4 40 52 W 16 39 45 W 27 14 0 W 127 32 0 E 32 39 21 E 27 45 0 W 123 36 0 E 145 51 15 E 60 27 0 W 68 6 15 E 24 12 15 E 5 55 41 E 0 41 38 E 13 47 8 E 81 22 oE 61 34 o W 13 11 33 E 12 7 0 W 0 17 2 E 10 11 15 E 7 40 15 E 1 24 31 W 17 39 0 E 12 42 59 E 5 3 6W 5 7 16 E 73 34 0 W Valencia, Spain . Valladolid, Mexico . Valparaiso, Chili . Venice, Italy . Vera-Cruz, Mexico. Verd C., W. coast Africa Verona Observatory, Italy Vienna, Germany . Vigo, Spain Vincent (St.) Ca , Portugal Viviers Observa., France Wakefield Warrington Warsaw, Poland Washington, United Sta. Weimar, Germany . Whitehaven Whyda, W. coast of Africa Wicklow .... Winchelsea . . . Winchester . . Windsor Castle Winter Har., Melville I. Wolverhampton . . Workington . • . W 7 orm J s Head . Wrekin .... York (New), UnitedStates York ...» Zante Isle, Mediterranean Zanzibar Rd., E. of Africa Zurich, Switzerland Lat. o / II 39 28 45 N 19 42 0 N 33 0 30 S 45 25 32 N 19 11 52 N 14 43 45 N 45 26 7 N 48 12 40 N 42 13 20 N 37 2 54 N 44 29 14 N 53 41 2 N 53 23 30 N 52 14 28 N 38 55 0 N 50 59 12 N 54 32 50 N 6 18 0 N 52 58 22 N 50 55 28 N 51 3 40 N 51 29 oN 74 47 18 N 52 34 54 N 54 38 34 N 51 33 58 N 52 40 11 N 40 42 6 N 53 57 48 N 37 47 l l* 6 6 o S 47 22 33 N Long. O / II 0 23 100 52 71 38 12 20 96 8 17 30 11 1 l6 22 8 33 8 59 4 41 1 29 2 33 21 2 78 58 11 21 3 34 2 34 6 o 0 42 1 18 0 35 110 31 2 7 3 33 4 18 2 31 73 59 1 4 20 54 39 33 8 31 3 o 15 59 45 30 15 45 30 36 o 24 11 45 45 0 56 0 21 3 » 26 28 35 10 30 56 30 0 34 42 _ o E 30 E Length , in Fathoms of Six Feet each, of a Degree of Latitude and a Degree of Longitude , in every Fifth Degree of Latitude , compression the 304 th. Lat. Degree of Lat. Long. Lat. Degree of Lat. Long. 0 0 0 60458-6 60857*1 51 60819*0 38374-5 5 60463-2 60627-0 52 60829-2 375437 10 60476 5 59938 4 53 60839-3 36701-4 15 60498-4 58796-3 54 60849-3 35847 8 20 60528-2 57208-8 55 60859 3 34983-1 25 60564-8 55187-5 60 60906 6 305035 30 60607-4 527469 65 60949 6 257887 35 60654-5 49904 9 70 60986-7 20874-8 40 60704-8 46682-4 75 61016-8 15729-3 45 60756 7 43103-0 80 61039 1 10601-4 50 608087 39193-5 85 610527 5321-4 Degrees of longitude in miles : — At equator 68 /32 10 degrees lat. 67 694 20 64 587 30 59 523 40 52652 50 44 186 60 34 366 70 23 507 80 11935 90 0 000 One degree of longitude is equal to 4 minutes of time; 1 minute of long, to 4 seconds of time ; and 1 second of long, to * I5ih, or 0 0666 of a second of time. Degrees of latitude in Lat. 0 120 32/ 33 18 40 43 44 44 44 52 45 49 49 22 51 53 60 66 The mean 30 .. 15 .. 20 30" 20 .. of the 15 miles : — . 68 732 . 68 743 . 69 076 . 68 630 . 68 998 . 69 061 . 68769 . 69092 . 69121 . 68945 . 69119 . 69146 . 69 545 . 69292 . 69 403 is 69 0448 365 ASTRONOMY. 360 ASTRONOMY. We now proceed from the Earth and its productions, to the Heavens. No person, who, even in our own climate, has viewed the Vault of the Stars in the stillness of night, can be insensible of the impression which the contemplation imparts. It is, in its vastness and splendour, a glance at the infinite Universe, and the highest example of the sublime. It penetrates the soul with indescribable emotions of reverence for the Eternal Creator, and reminds man of his littleness, and his ephemeral character. The visible stars are either the shoal of the Milky Way, of which our Sun is one of a million ; or they are separate shoals equal to the Milky Way, seen through and beyond the others, but so distant, that the unaided eye recognizes them only as dull stars. Of the magnitude which the eye thus em- braces, we can form an estimate, by consi- dering that the nearest star is not less than 60 millions of millions of miles distant ; that each is probably as distant from its nearest ; and that our shoal of the Milky Way contains, in its diameter, at least 1000 stars in line, each at that distance, ren- dering the whole shoal in breadth equal to 60 thousand billions of miles. The distance then of other shoals, proba- bly of equal size, seen by us almost as points, may be written, but cannot be conceived by o being of 6 feet 9 inches, who grows old in 60 or 70 whirls of his own planet round one of these stars ! What study, therefore, can be so inviting and exciting! The bare spectacle of the Heavens, with- out any suspicion of its vastness and eter- nity, has, however, in every age forced the attention of mankind. It was, of course, a ready and speaking instrument of supersti- tion. Its variations, owing to the Earth turning daily from West to East on the solar side of its axis ; and moving in mass from East to West in its annual course round the Sun, were seized on as portents and prognostics, which created belief and reve- rence, just as the source was awful and sub- lime. This science of Astrology, therefore, became the religion of early nations, and the Priest, the Astrologer, and the States- man, were united in cunning and mistaken persons. This alliance to self and to vanity, rendered the study of the stars one of the highest antiquity, and that which was pur- sued with the greatest industry, and fostered by the most lavish patronage. Nor is this mere matter of history, for throughout Asia and Africa, it is now the only science of the great and studious ; and even in Europe, Astrology was one of the li- beral sciences till within two centuries. So late as our Revolution it was recognized by the governments of the Western nations. In the age of Anne every street and court in London had its thriving astrologer. Down to this time, Moore’s Almanac recommends itself by its astrological predictions to 3 or 400,000 annual customers ; and a few years since it retained, in one year, but a tithe of them, owing to a reforming spirit entering the Court of the Stationers’ Company. In a depth of time not to be penetrated, the course of the Sun in a year was divided into twelve equal parts, with names assigned by popular objects of the season, called the 12 signs of the Zodiac. The heavens were also divided into 12 similar parts, and these were called the 12 Houses. The Planets, then in their erratic courses, were daily changing their positions in the Zodiac, consequently, the Horoscope , or picture of the heavens, was constantly varying. Absolute and relative significations were then affixed to each sign, each house, and each planet, with further modifications by aspect, in sextile, quartile, trine, or opposi- tion ; and by many prescribed rules and forms, the astrologer was at once bound and deceived. It was not considered that any other varying Key would answer the same purpose, though of any number of probable events, a given number would come true, whatever might be the Key. Ifthe probability was even, then 50 of every hundred would happen as foretold, if 2 to 1, then 33; if 3 to 1, then 25, and so on. In this lay the mistake, for it was the error of inadvertency. What a fertile source, however, of popu- lar error, in which all common and uncom- mon sense were misled! Hence, half the temples of antiquity, and the millions squandered on them ! It was believed, that there was a soul of the world which har- monized every thing, and hence the oracles, the dreamers, the auspices from the en- trails of birds, animals, &c. &c. Just, however, as Chemistry rose on the fancy about the philosopher’s stone, and medicine out of the dream about the elixir of immortality ; so the pursuits of astro- logy created the perfection of her daughter, Astronomy. For we find, that, 4 or 5000 years ago, the mean motions of the Sun, Moon, and Planets, were known to a second just as at present; and the motions of the Earth’s and Moon’s nodes, the latitudes of the pla- nets, &c. were all adopted by astrologers in preparing horoscopes for any time past or future. Our modern observatories, no doubt have telescopes, and improved instruments, but the observatories at Benares, at Pekin, at Babylon, and at Bagdad, have been un. rivalled in the size of their instruments, and the splendour of the establishments. Nothing, therefore, can be more imperti- nent than the assertion of modern writers, that the accuracy of astronomical prediction arises from any modern theory. Theory may have suggested some unexplored corner, and increased the tables ; but astronomy is strictly a science of observation, and far more indebted to the false theory of astro- logy, than to the equally false and fanciful theory of any modern. Astrology and Astronomy took their rise in the East, where the splendour of the heavens far exceeds what our atmosphere permits. Their theory may be supposed to be that of Pythagoras, since he had been a soldier in tbs Persian service, before he be. 367 ASTRONOMY. 363 came a teacher of philosophy among the Greeks, who stole freely from the East. Ptolemy, in the native country of all super, stition, has preserved to us the whole science of Astrology ; but ambition led him, as is be- lieved, to invent a new system, in which he made the Earth the centre with sundry mis- takes, which the telescope would have pre- vented. This passed current for 1400 years, till Copernicus, in 1570, revived the Pytha- gorean system, in the face of which Tycho Brahe started another, now forgotten. Dow r n to this time, in spite of Bacon, the Catholic Church, and Tycho Brahe, the Co- pernican system has prevailed. But a rea- sonable motion of the Sun through space, dis- covered and established by Sir W. Herschel and others, tends to deprive us of those pretty pictures in concentric circles, except as resultants, which we have for two cen- turies been in the habit of calling the tolar System. For if the Sun has any power, it must be derived from motion; and if acting on bodies at a distance, like Jupiter on his moons, or the Earth on its moon, there must be an intervening medium to conduct its momentum through its system. The disco- very of the motion of the Sun towards the constellation Hercules, gives, therefore, its due place to Motion as the source of all material power ; for it is absurd to imagine power in the Sun without motion. Bailly maintains, from oriental records, that astronomy was cultivated in Egypt and Chaldea 2800 B. C. In Persia 3209. In India 3101, and in China 2952. The Indian tables of great antiquity make the tropical year within V 53" of our best tables. Other tables, equally accurate, ap- pear to Bailly, Playfair, and other authori- ties, to have been constructed 3102 B. C. One of their zodiacs places Aldebaran 40' before the vernal equinox, which carries it back to 3163 B. C. Other coincidences are astonishing, and prove the length of their observations and the perfection of their in- struments. Thus the place of the Sun agrees with our best tables within 46/ 54//, and the Moon within 37 1 , yet our tables include minute anomalies of recent discovery. The first recorded observatory was on the temple of Belus ; the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter, and that at Benares was at least as ancient as those. The earliest Hindoos practised trigono- metry and sexagesimal arithmetic. They taught that the earth was spherical, turned on its axis, &c., took latitudes and longi- tudes, knew the diameter of the earth to be 1600 vojanas, and the Moon’s distance 51 ,370, or 32 diameters. — In one yug they say the Sun, Mercury, and Venus, or Surya, Budha, and Sucra, make 4,320,000 revolutions. They called the Sun Surya, Mercury Budha , Venus Sucra , Mars Mangala, Jupiter Fri- haipati, Saturn Sani, Moon Chandra. According to the Chinese Shoo king , the periods of the planets, the Sun and Moon, were well known in the reign of Yao, 2357 C, C. Their observations, however, are mere records, and they had no tables by which to anticipate phenomena. If the earlier rude Zodiac was of Egyp- tian origin, with Aquarius corresponding to their September, it must be above 10,00© years old. At the same time no other peo- ple would be likely to confer a sign on water, and it would be made to accord with the flood or fall of the Nile, appropriately followed by Pisces. If of Hindoo origin, the flood of the Ganges and the Nile nearly accord. It was divided into 28 parts, called Mansions of the Moon, as by the Chinese. The so-called Zodiacs of Tentyra, &c. were mere Horoscopes of Nativities. Tablets found in mummies give 28 parts to the Zodiac, one for every day of the Moon, and they begin with Aquarius. . The astrologers of Babylon are stated to have presented Alexander with astronomi- cal observations during 430,000 years. Ig- norant reporters mistook a period fixed by multiplication ; it means moons or days. Yet the Chaldeans had made observations which extended 1903 years before the taking of Babylon by Alexander. The Phoenicians sailed by the stars in the Great and Little Bear. Job, Hesiod, and Homer, mention several of' the constellations. Democritus, a Greek, taught that the Milky Way was caused by innumerable stars. Nicetas and others taught the diurnal motion ; while Pythagoras, who had been in India, taught the two-fold motions, and the modern system. He ascribed eclipses to shadows, and arranged the planets as in our Copernican system. The system of Pto- lemy was his attempted improvement. Pytheas, in 330 B. C., made the obliquity 23° 50/, and mentions the connection of the tides with the Moon. Eratosthenes, in 276 B. C., made the ob- liquity 23° 51/ 20//. He, and Hipparchus in the same age, Ptolomy in 130, the Arabians in 800 and 900, and Ulugh Begh, in 1440, perfected the outlines of the science, and prepared the way for Copernicus, who, in 1543, allowed his system to appear. It is the system of the Chaldeans, and nearly the same that was taught by Pythagoras, and will always be believed by wise men. Taautus among the Egyptians, Chiron among the Greeks, Zerdusht or Zoroaster among the Bactrians, and Hipparchus and Ptolemy in more recent ages, effected va- rious services. Then the Sabeans and As- trologers were unremittingly active ; and the names conferred on the planets after Saturn, and his Rhea family, united astro- nomy, astrology, and theology in tripartite veneration for above 3000 years. The Caliph al Mamoun caused 2 degrees of the meridian to be measured in the plains of Sinjar or Shinar, and found a degree to be 5/ Arabian miles. The Chinese call Saturn Too, Earth fire, Jupiter Mo, .and Mars Ho, Venus Ken, (metal,) and Mercury Shoog, (water.) The stars are divided like the provinces of the empire. The Zodiac has 28 constellations. ASTRONOMY. — PLANETS. 309 and the equator 12 parts, of 3Q^. In 2/52, Fohi made astronomical tables, and, in 2697, the fixity of the Polar Star led to the inven- tion of the armillary sphere by Yuchi. In 2513, Chueni began his reign, and in his time the Chinese record the visible conjunc- tion of five planets, which, by calculation, actually took place in 2440. The Arabian astronomers, under the Ca- 'iphs in 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches radius ; and a sextant 5 7 feet 9 inches. The precision of Astronomy arises not 'rom theories, but from prolonged observa- tions, and the regularity of the mean mo- tions, and the ascertained uniformity of their irregularities. Ephemerides of the planets’ places, of eclipses, &c. have been published for above 300 years, and were, at first, nearly as precise as at present. The Hindoos, &c. &c. nearly 500 years ago, were by observation quite as minute as we are, and the Bolognese Ephemerides of 1560, reduced every prediction to se- conds, just as is done now. Even if theory or analogy has evolved some minutia, it is not by theory, for nature is never absurd. The British Museum contains a copy of the original work of Copernicus on the Solar System. Its title is — “ Nicolai Copernici Toriensis de Re- volutionibvs Orbium ccelestium Libri VI. — Habes in hoc opereiam recens nato, et aedito studiose lector, Motus Stellarum, tarn fixarum, quam erraticarum cum ex ucteri- bus, bum etiam ex recentibus observationi- bus restitutus ; et noois insuper ac admira- bilibus, hypothesibus ornatos. Habes etiam Tabulas expeditissimas ex quibus eosdom ad quodius tempus quam facilli me calculare poteris. Legitur erne, lege fruere. Norembergae apud Joh. Petreium, Anno M D XLIII. It is dedicated — Ad Sanctissimum Dominum Pavlym III. Pontificem Maximvm. And there is a laudatory letter from Nicolavs Schonbergivs, Cardinalis Capua- nus, Nicolaro Copernico, S. dated Rome, cal end. Novembris, anno M D XXXVI. It is a small folio of 196 pages, full of dia- grams, and well printed, at the expence of the Liberal Cardinal. John Field published, in London, a for- gotten work on the Copernican system in 1556, 13 years after. Tycho, Kepler, Galileo, Hevelius, Des- cartes, Gassendi, Newton, Huygens, Flam- stead, Hook, and Halley, distinguished the next century ; and though Bacon, &c. opposed Copernicus, the system finally triumphed. Cardinal de Cutta advanced the doctrine of the motion of the Earth in 1420, in his De Docta Ignorantia. In 1665, Newton, then in his 22d year, and a student at Cambridge, saw an apple fall from a tree, and speculating on the cause, conceived it arose from the Earth’s attrac- tion. He then imagined, that the Earth retained the Moon in its orbit by the same power, and the Sun the planets, and called it Universal Gravitation or weight. He then 370 supposed it to emanate like an odour, or heat inversely, as the square of the distance But as attraction causes the approach of bodies, and the moons do not fall to their primaries, nor the planets to the Sun, he ascribed to revolving bodies a projectile force to counteract the other at right angles. This is the Newtonian Philosophy, built step by step on gratuitous hypotheses. Flamstead House was an ancient tower, altered and fitted as a Royal Observatory, in 1676. Without instruments, and a salary of only £100 per annum, during the 45 years of Flamstead. Dailey then held the office 22 years ; Bradley 20 years ; Bliss 3 years ; Maskelyne 45 years ; Pond 28 years ; and in 1835, Airy, with a salary of £800 besides a pension of £300. There are regular Observatories at Abo, Altona, Bedford, Benares, Berlin, Bushey Heath, Calcutta, Cambridge, Cape of Good Hope, Dorpat, Dublin, Edinburgh, Geneva, Gotha, Gottingen, Greenwich, Kensington, Kew, Konigsberg, Lisbon, Manheim, Mar- seilles, Milan, Montauban, Oxford, Paler- mo, Paramatta, Paris, Pekin, Portsmouth, Slough, Tubingen, Uraniberg, Verona, Vienna, Viviers, and Woolwich. All Observatories are provided with a mural or fixed circle for the declination, and a meridian circle for transits, to record right ascensions. There are also, azimuth and altitude circles, superior telescopes, and. often an equatorial. Greenwich has a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit instrument of 8 feet by Bird; 2 mural quadrants of 8 feet, and Bradley’s zenith sector. The telescopes are 40 and 60-inch archromatics, and a six-feet reflector. The Paris Observatory was built in 1667, that of Berlin in 1711, that of Nuremberg in 1678, at Bologna in 1714, and at Pisa in 1730, at Utretcht in 1690, at Copenhagen in 1656, at Stockholm in 1746, and at Lisbon in 1728. Latterly, every uni- versity has had its observatory ; and there are also several private ones scattered over Europe and the United States, and one at the Cape, and New South Wales. The best known telescopes arc Fraun- hofer’s at Dorpat, 14 feet j Lord Ross’s m Ireland and South’s at Kensington, 20 feet. There is now a society, in .London, lor the improvement of instruments, and the pro- motion of observatories. Col. Lambton’s trigonometrical survey of India, carried through 23 degrees of latitude, was made with the instruments carried ©ut by Lord Macartney to the Emperor of China. Kater’s pocket altitude and azimuth circle, in a box 7 inches by \\ and 3, determines angles within 5". The level and the plumb- line are now superseded in Observatories by Kater’s floating collimeior. The Planets , or Solar System. All those who have seen Jupiter and his 4 satellites, have an accurate idea of the Solar System as it would appear sideways. The Planets are to the Sun just what Jupi- piter’s moons are to Jupiter. The Sun 371 mores through space in some more general but unknown connection, and carries with it the eleven Planets, and their satellites, acting and reacting as one system. There is the very same connection be- tween the Earth and its moon, Jupiter, Sa- turn, &c. and their moons, and the Sun and the Planets. They resemble exactly a large body, and a small one at the ends of a ba- lanced lever. They move contrary ways, the large body performing a small orbit, and the small bodies large orbits. If moving in parallel right lines, their matter into their velocities would exactly balance ; but, as the motion of each is pro- duced by the reaction of the other, and therefore at necessarily equal distances, so the motion becomes circular, and the circle absorbs part of the force. The square of the circle or any part of it is consequently equal to the sum of the squares of the two forces ; one producing the velocity, and the other the curvature. It is thus in the Earth and Moon, in other planets and their satellites, and in the Sun and his system of satellites. Each primary performs a small orbit, and each secondary a large one ; whether one or more, accord- ing to the preceding general principle. It is a principle never to be lost sight of, that circular motion is a necessary result of equal action and reaction in contrary direc- tions ; for the harmony would be disturbed by variation of distance, if the motions were rectilinear. The same distance, that is, the same action and reaction, are therefore only to be preserved by reciprocal circular mo- tions. No attraction and no projectile force are therefore necessary, and their invention must be regarded as blunders of a supersti- tious age. The bodies appear to have met while moving contrary ways in space ; and to have established their relative motions by their equal action and reaction through the intervening medium of space. Of that medium we know little, except its transparency and homogeneity, and its serving as a material conductor of motion between the distant bodies within it. In universal nature, where there is indifference as to direction of motion, and neither up nor down, great rarity would be efficient in transferring the motions of correlative bo- dies ; while great density would be no ob- struction, as itself is the cause of the motions. We call that rare, or dense, as it presses little or much towards the Earth’s centre ; but the medium of space is quite independent of any such local action or pressure. If the bodies came near while moving the tame way , there would be no mutual reac- tion , and they would go together for want of reaction, and not owing to that mecha- nical impossibility, called attraction. Necessary equality of distance with ori- ginal motion, and mutual reaction, would produce unceasing orbits at equal distances, except so far as disturbed by other bodies. There is but one Universal Law of all Nature, action in one direction of motion. 372 and reaction in the contrary direction. It however, supposes an intervening conduct/ of the momentum of each. Motion, generating succession and time, is the Order of the Universe ; and motion, generating relative power, is the Pheno- mena of the Universe, including the begin ning and end of all developements. A centre of a system like the Sun would operate like a great balanqp-wheel, and afford and receive compensation from all ordinary inequalities of action upon it. The Sun’s local orbit around his mechani- cal reaction to the system of planets, all in contrary motion, is about 1,660,000 miles from the centre of the system, and the plane of that local solar orbit is inclined 1° 34/ 15// from our ecliptic. The Earth’s local or terro-lunar orbit is about 4600 miles in diameter, equal to a menstrual equation of the Sun’s place, of 10 ,; nearly. This action and reaction is Universal Nature, and large and small orbits in con- trary directions is Universal Nature ! It is the only principle of planetary construc- tion and economy, which is universal. We find it in every thing, and all things must be considered in relation to action and reac- tion, and to the balance of orbits in con- trary motions. Circular motion is, in fact, necessary to the continuity of motion by re- ciprocity of action and reaction, at equaj distances. In Mercury , we can see with the best telescopes, only, that it is round, and exhi- bits phases. It is too much in the neigh- bourhood of the Sun. Venus offers nothing remarkable, and is difficult to define with telescopes. Its illu- minated part dazzles, and increases the im- perfection of the telescope ; yet it is not mottled like the Moon, and we perceive only a uniform brightness. Obscure portions are more fancied than real, and, in fact, we do not see the real surfaces, but only the at- mospheres filled with clouds. In Mars , we see distinctly continents of a ruddy colour, red and fiery, like red sand- stone. The seas appear greenish. Brilliant white spots mark its poles, conjectured to be snow ; for they disappear when emerging from the polar winter. Jupiter is always crossed by bands or belts. These bands vary in breadth and in situation. They have been distributed over the planet, and branches from them, and subdivisions, as well as dark spots, are un- common. It is the darker body of the planet which forms the belts. Saturn's body is striped with belts, broader than Jupiter’s. It has three rings throwing their shadow on Saturn, on the side next the Sun, and on the other side receiving the shadow of the planet. Extensive dusky spots on its surface are also seen The nodes of the rings lie in 170° and 340° 0 f longitude, and whenever the planet is in one or other of these longitudes, the Sun then illuminates only the edge of them. In Her sc he l, we see only a small round uniform disc, without rings, belts, or f^pota ASTRONOMY. — PLANETS. 373 We determine the angle which the Earth’s disc makes at each of the Planets, by ob- servations made by two observers on the same meridian, or by reducing their different meridians to the same. Then the angle of the Earth’s diameter being known, we ap- proximate the distance of the Sun. The angle of the Earth’s diameter at the Sun is about 17 seconds, at Mercury 28, at Venus 62, at Mars 42, at Jupiter 4, at Sa- turn 2, at Uranus 1, and at the Moon 6908 4, or 115 minutes. The angle under which the Planets are seen from the Earth is Mercury 12 seconds, Venus 61, Mars 18, Jupiter 46, Saturn 18, Uranus 4 , Sun 1923, Moon 2020 seconds. 206,265 (log. 5*314425) the ratio of one second, whose sine is 4*85, divided by the seconds subtended by each of the Planets, gives the number of semi-diameters of the Earth for each Planet. Thus, for the Moon , 206,265 by 6908 //- 4, gives 29 85/ diameters, or 236348*7 miles, as the mean distance. Then the bulks are as the cubes of the diameters, as reciprocally seen. Thus the cube of the Earth’s angle 4 at Jupiter is 64, and that of Jupiter 46 at the Earth, is 97,336, which is 1 to 1521, i. e. there are 1521 Earths in Jupiter. Their diameters are in the direct ratio of their angles, thus the Earth at Jupiter is 4, and Jupiter at the Earth 46, which is 1 to 11*5. Then, taking the Earth’s diameter at 7924 miles, that of Jupiter becomes 91,126 miles. The Earth and Mercury are as 28 and 1 2, or 2*333 to 1, and 7924 by 2 333 is 2698 miles for Mercury. Cubing we get 21,952 to 1728, or 12*7 to 1 in bulks, so that 12 7 Mercuries make 1 Earth. In the Sun it is 17 to 1923, so that the diameter of the Earth to the Sun is 113*1 to 1, and the Sun’s diameter 896,346 miles, and the Sun is equal to 1,477,400 Earths. Then, in the Moon , the mean angle of the Earth is 6908 seconds, and that of the Moon 1885, — hence their diameters are 3 66 to 1, and that of the Moon is 2165 miles. The bulks as 49*047 to 1. In the same way Uranus is 31,696 miles m diameter, and 64 times the bulk of the Earth. Venus, a trifle less than the Earth, about 125 miles. Mars 3396 miles in diameter, and 1-127 th The bulk. Saturn 71,316 miles, and 729 times the Earth’s bulk. — Herschel. The Sidereal periods of the planets in decimals are Daily Motions. Days. 0 / II $ .... 87*969258 4 5 32 6 2 .... 224*7007869 .... 1 36 7*8 ® .... 365 2563612 .... 0 59 8*3 $ .... 686*9796458 .... 0 31 26 7 % .... 4332 5848212.... 0 4 59 3 T? .... 10759*2198174 .. 0 2 06 ¥ .... 30686 8208296 .. 0 0 42*4 374 The four Asteroids vary from 1325 dayi to 1686. The daily velocities of the Planets in their orbits in miles are £ 2*649000 9 1 901500 @ 1 *602400 $ 1 317150 2f 615850 T? 526220 370010 The motion per 10th of a second of space is. Mercury 17*98 miles, of Venus 32*97, Earth 45 16, Mars 69 813, Jupiter 237*5, Saturn 436 3, and Herschel 872*66. The Earth moves in its orbit 65,578 miles an hour. Mercury 107,800 miles per hour. Venus 78,900 miles. $ 54,350. % 29,420. T? 22,240, and Herschel 15,320. The Moon, in her terrestrial orbit, moves 2275 miles an hour. The motion per day by the relative bulk or volume, indicating the orbit momentum, is in Mercury 1,054,302, in Venus 1,853,962* in the Earth 1,602,400, in Mars 1,830,8*28, in Jupiter 788,840,000, in Saturn 523,600,000 Herschel 297,800,000. We find the central and tangent forces of Mercury to be 745.500, Venus 1,311,000, the Earth (exc. moon) 1.126,900, Mars 1,294,600, Jupiter 557,800,000, (exc. moons), Saturn 370,230,000, and Herschel 21,060,000, which, as will be seen, exhibit no law what- ever, though the figures, moons excepted, express the ratio of the fall, or central force of each. In every year, or revolution of the Earth, ^ performs 4*152 revolutions, and 9 1*625. The Earth performs 1*881 revolu- tions in the period of $ ; 11*8617 in the period of % ; 29 46 of T? ; and 84 01 of ^ At Earth’s distance 93,340,000, every se- cond or degree in the orbit is 452 525 miles ; and every second of time equal to 18*583 miles. Every million or — is 4*85 miles, or 2000 feet. The inclinations of the Planet’s orbits to the plane of our ecliptic are — o 1 // Mercury 7 0 9 Venus 3 23 28 Moon .. 5 8 48 Mars 1 51 6 Vesta .. 7 8 9 Juno .. .. 13 4 9 Ceres 10 37 26 Pallas 34 34 55 Jupiter .. .. 1 18 51 Saturn 2 29 35 Herschel 0 46 28 Sun’s axis 82 44 0 Moon’s axis .. 88 17 0 The continental astronomers ; make the axis rotation of Mercury 1, the Sun 25*5, Venus *9/3, Earth 997, Mars 1*027, nearly alike Jupiter 414, and Saturn *428. A STRONOM Y.«— PL AN ETfc . ASTRONOMY. — PLANETS. 376 The rotation on the axis — Sun .. days 25 14 8 0 Mercury . . 0 24 5 0 Venus .. .. 0 23 29 59 Earth .. .. 0 23 56 4 Mars .. 0 24 39 22 Jupiter .. 0 9 56 0 Saturn .. 0 10 29 17 Of the Rotations our observations are very uncertain, but the four first are taken to be about 24 hours each, and Jupiter and Sa- turn about 10 hours each. The Sun is taken with more probability at 25 days, 12 months, and the Moon in a sidereal revolution, or 2 7 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes. The Nodes fall back in a century, on two authorities. 1 // 1 n Mercury 71 40 . . 72 10 Venus 60 51 40 Earth 83 49 . . 83 49 Mars 46 40 . . 46 40 Jupiter 60 .. 59 30 Saturn 53 20 . . 55 30 Herschel 26 40 26 74 The line of Apsides moves in 100 years — In Mercury 1 33 45 In Venus 1 21 0 Earth 1 43 108 Mars 1 51 40 Jupiter 1 34 33 Saturn 1 50 7 Herschel 1 29 2 The mean motions of the apsides of all the Planets, (if correctly taken) is 1° 3// 37", (the Earth being 1^ 43' 11") in 100 years. The difference between the greatest and least distances is twice the eccentricity. The eccentricity, half the major axis being 1, is Mercury, *2055 ; Venus, ‘00686 ; Earth, *016/8; Mars, ‘0933; Vesta, 0 89 ; Juno, *2578; Ceres, *07843; Pallas, ‘24538; Ju- piter, 048162 ; Saturn, ‘05615 ; Herschel, ‘04668. The relative distances, squares of the dis- ices, and inverse squares, are as under — Dist. Squares. In. Squares. $ *387 15 6 66 $ •723 *523 1-9 © 1000 1000 1000 $ 1 524 2 323 0-4304 % 5 2 27 0 037 b 9539 90 0 0111 ¥ 1918 368 0002717 The Sun is equal to 20,610,000 Mercur^s, to 1,520,000 Venuses, to 1,328,460 Earths, 9,394,000 Mars, 9/3 Jupiters, 1399 4 Saturns, and 1595 5 Herschels. A Sun, two feet in diameter, would cor- respond with Mercury as a mustard-seed, with the Earth and Venus as a pea, Mars as a pin’s head, the Asteroids as grains of sand, Jupiter as an orange, Saturn a small one, and Herschel as a plum ; their orbits vary- ing from 164 feet to 8000 feet. 376 The Sun is 65 million times larger than the least of Jupiter’s moons, and 1048 times larger than Jupiter, and 10477 larger than Jupiter and his 4 moons, so that the 4 moons are but the 3500th of Jupiter. The diameter of the satellites of Jupiter are 1"‘105; 0" 911 ; 1"‘488, and 1"‘273. Jupiter’s satellites are from 6 to 26 of his semi-diameters distant ; Saturn’s from 3 to 20, and 1 of 59 ; Herschel’s 13 to 45, and 1 of 91. The orbits of 6 of Saturn’s satellites are in the plane of the ring, but the 7th nearly coincides with the ecliptic. Herschel’s satellites are inclined 78° 58', and their motions retrograde. Jupiter’s satellites are from 2068 to 3377 miles in diameter. Saturn has three rings, and the second is three times as broad as the other, one being 20,000 miles broad, and the next 7200. The space between them is 2839 miles. The exterior ring is 205,000 miles in diameter. The inner ring is 33,000 miles from the body of Saturn. It is said to rotate in 11 hours 16 minutes, and the outer part in 17 hours 10 minutes. The ring is 1-1 18th of Saturn. Saturn flattens towards the Poles, and the longest diameter is at 43° 20/, to the equatorial as 36° to 35^, while the polar is but 32°. This vast Planet turns in 10 hours 16 minutes, and the ring seems like the middle parts, thrown off by its great centri- fugal force. The minor axis of Saturn’s ring was, in April, 1832, but 4"‘54, and on September 30 but 0"01, the major axis being 43" 2 and36" 92; and, in 1833, the minor, from March to July, is less than 1", and in April, May, and June 0", and invisible, the major being 45" to 40". Struve finds that the rings of Saturn are slightly eccentric. The plane of Saturn’s rings is that of his equator, a further proof that the ring is an effect of centrifugal force. If the Earth’s rotation was such that parts flew off in tan- gents, they would be likely, at a giver, distance, to produce the regular form of a ring. The difference of time between Jupiter’s eclipses at his greatest and least distance is 16 minutes 26 6 seconds ; and the aberration from the velocity of light is 20" ‘3 7 in peri- helion, and 20"‘5 in aphelion. Before the Opposition, or so long as Ju- piter passes the Meridian in the morning, the shadow of the satellites is to the west of the Planet, and the immersions on that side. But, after the Opposition, the emer- sions happen to the east. Airy makes the distances of Jupiter 487,491,000, and Saturn 893,955,01)0. He takes the Earth’s mean distance as 93.726,900 and period 3652564. The distance of Herschel from the Sun is 10,000 times the distance of Herschel from the mid-distance of the nearest fixed Star. The axes of Jupiter are as 107 to 100, an AST It wN OM Y. — PLANETS. 377 analogical proof of the spheroidal figure of the Earth. At Jupiter, the Earth emerges but 12° from the Sun, at Mars 17°, Venus 8°, and Mercury but 4°. Of course, all invisible at Jupiter. When the elongation of Venus is 39° 44* between its inferior conjunction and greatest elongation, it appears brightest ; for then, though its pliasis be but the 53-200ths of a circle, it is so much nearer the Earth than in its superior conjunction, when it appears with a perfect disc, that the want of surface is more than compensated by intense light. In that situation, Venus is often seen by the unassisted eye in broad day-light. When Venus is to the west of the Sun, it rises before the Sun, and is called a morning star, this appearance continuing about 290 days together. — When it is to the east of the Sun it sets after, and is called an even- ing star, for about the same period of 290 days. Spots have been said to be seen on Venus ; but Herschel saw only a dark and enlight- ened atmosphere. Schroeter saw a moun- tain 22 miles high, another 19, and two others 11, and he makes the rotation 23 h. 20* 54' 7 . Many have believed that they have seen a satellite, distant 66g semi-dia- meters. Venus never goes above 48° from the Sun. There will be no transit of Venus till Dec. 8, 1874 ; and no other till 2004. Venus and Mercury, in approaching the body of the Sun at distances from 65* to 46*, display no refraction of a local solar atmos- phere. So, also, Jupiter’s satellites have no refraction when close to his body. Mars often presents 1-1 0th of his dark side to the Earth, and Venus 9-10thsand more. But when Venus presents 9-10ths of her illumined surface she is very brilliant. Mercury never moves above 28° from the Sun, and therefore never rises or sets above 1 hour 50 min. before or after the Sun, and is seldom seen. If all the known Planets were assembled in one, it would be the 557th of the Sun; and with equal forces it would be 590 mil- lions of miles distant. The Planet Herschel was discovered with a five-foot achromatic telescope, on the 13th of March, 1781. Flamstead registered it as a fixed Star. Herschel is in Pisces, and will be in Aries from 1813 to 1850. The asteroid Pallas is but 79 miles in diameter, not 250 round. In 2500 B. C., all the Planets were in conjunction, by computation and Chinese Record ; and again, in 1186, in Libra. But including Uranus, &c. a general conjunction can occur only in 17 billions of years. A circle, whose diameter is a million of miles, -has nearly 5 miles in every second of its periphery, and 291 miles in every minute of its periphering. Then, as a minute is the least visual angle by the average of eyes, so at the distance of a million of miles any ob- ject less than 291 miles in diameter is invi- 378 sible. But if a telescope with light and power of 500 is used, then the eye sees equal to 500 minutes, and shews an object or the 0 58 of a mile. Ten millions is a tenth mpre throughout, and a telescope shews no object below 5 8 miles, and the naked eye discerns no object less than 2910 miles in diameter, the size of a minute. So at 100 millions, the times of Jupiter and Saturn are as 5 to 2, or 72 to 29, and the return to similar positions in 850 years. Thirteen periods of Venus is nearly equal to 8 of the Earth, and they return to similar positions in 239 years. Four of Mercury is about 1 of the Earth. 2 of Venus is equal to 5 of Mercury. 3 of Venus to 1 of Mars. 3 of Saturn is about 1 of Herschel. The 17 satellites revolve as under — First Second .... Third Fourth Fifth % h ti d. h. m. 1 18 28 3 13 14 7 3 43 16 16 32 d. h. w. 0 22 37 1 8 53 1 21 18 2 17 4"> 4 12 25 15 22 41 79 7 54 d. h. in. 5 21 25 8 17 1 1 10 23 4 13 11 5 38 1 49 107 16 40 Sixth Seventh .... The 4th satellite of Jupiter is 26-998 semi- diam. Jupiter from the centre. The 7th of Saturn is 64 359 semi-diam. And the 6th of Herschel is 91 008 semi-diam. The Elements of an orbit are, 1. the Major Axis; 2. The Eccentricity; 3. The longi- tude of the Perihelion ; 4. The inclination to the Ecliptic ; 5. The plane of the ascend- ing Node ; 6. The periods ; and 7. The lon- gitude at a fixed time. 275 Revolutions of Jupiter’s first satellite are finished in the time of 137 of the second, and 68 of the third, *. e. as 4, 2, 1, in 486 a days, invariably and constantly, and the effect is obviously mechanical and arithme- tical. The conjunctions of the second and third always take place on the side opposite those of the first and second ; for the differ- ence between the first and third is 2 days over, and the 1 day comes between. The time of the fourth is to the third as 7 to 3. The Planets are attached to the Sun ex- actly on the same principle of mechanism as a body on the Earth is attached to the Earth. 1. The Sun progresses through space, carrying with it the planetary system and the medium in which they are placed, just like Jupiter and his Moons in the solar system. 2. They are deflected into orbits by the Sun’s rotation on his axis, acting on the medium of space, and around the mechani- cal centre of the whole system, from the line of the solar motion. The two forces, therefore, the progressive force and the de- flecting force , generate a resultant diagonal force, by which each Planet in its orbit is still attached to the central Sun. The Sun is constantly and invariably isj 379 ASTRONOMY the exact centre of the whole solar system. The Planets vary their distance, by moving between the tangent force and the central force, but are every where governed by the Sun’s two motions, and some are in Perihe- lion, and others in Aphelion, as local results. As a Planet is not in two places at once, so orbit and foci are imaginary. Equality of distance would occasion the Planets, as seen at the Sun, to revolve in circles. Each Planet, from another Planet in motion, would perform a very perplexed course. Seen sideways, the Planets would move backward and forward in right lines. Seen from above or beneath, by an eye at rest, with a progressing Sun, they would present changing disorder, some before the Sun, some after, &c. &c. The courses of the Planets in their pro- gression with the Sun, are not, in fact, cir- cles, or regular curves, but wavy lines , such as our Moon describes in her orbit in pro- gression with the Earth, or as a nail in the tire of a wheel describes while the wheel is turning round, and also advancing. As seen from the moving Sun, they appear as though they performed orbits ; but, in space, each actually moves in its own wavy line , always at the same distance from the Sun, but the line never returns into itself. The orbit momentum is the hypotheneuse of two equal forces at right angles, and the square-root of half its square are the legs of the triangle and the measure of the forces j we thus approximate the forces of each. Irregularities in planetary motions correct themselves, because every motion, included in the motion of the Sun, is itself subordi- nate, and therefore must ultimately conform. The Planets being acted upon by the com- mon force of the Sun, they often interfere on the same side with the Sun’s force on that side, and this begets irregularity or disturb- ance, oddly called their own attractions. La Grange proved that the mass of each planet into the square-root of the line of apsides, and into the square of the eccen- tricity, give sums which are invariable. The change in the distances of the planets, producing a resultant ellipse, arises from varied reaction in the planets, and not from any varied action of. the Sun, seeing that their several Aphelia and Perihelia are in all parts of the heavens ; and the Sun as to each day’s motion may be considered as the true centre of the actions and reactions, the elliptical focus of an orbit being a picture rather than a reality. Every planetary orbit is the diagonal of the progressive motion of its primary, through space, creating a force towards the line of direction of the primary ; and of a force of mutual reaction through the medium of space which operates tangent-wise, con- trarily, and reciprocally, just like a large and small body revolving horizontally at the ends of a rod. The longitude of the Perihelion is the dis- tance of the perihelion from Aries. The eccentricity is the ratio of perihelion dis- tance to the mean distance, or half the . — PLANETS. 380 major axis. The true anomaly is the angle of the radius vector with the major axis. The greatest equation of the centre is the greatest difference between the mean motion and the true motion, and the measure of the eccentricity. The mean distance of a planet from the Sun is half the line of apsides or major axis. The ancient astronomers made as many spheres or heavens as planets and varieties in their motions. Eudoxus made 23, Aris- totle 47, and Ptolemy 9. The existence of a gaseous medium coex- tensively with space, renders the gratuitous hypothesis of gravity quite unnecessary, since it would be the effect of the reactions of such medium to make bodies of certain sizes and distances go round each other when moving contrary ways , and approxi- mate only when moving the same way. To accommodate the hypothetical law of Universal Gravitation to the phenomena of the Planets, astronomers have preferred to change the mean density of matter itself j and the Earth, for comparison, being taken at a density of 1000, to accommodate Mer- cury to the assumed law, it is taken as 2585 — Venus 1024— Mars 656 — Jupiter 201 — Saturn 103— and Herschel 218. Conse- quently, we have the paradox, that Jupiter, 1290 times larger than the Earth, contains but 323 times more atoms. Saturn 1107 times larger, but 114 times more atoms even the Sun, according to these theorists, is but one-fourth the density of the Earth t There may be differences, and larger Pla- nets may be denser, but chemistry, and all the laws that unite and compound atoms, are utterly at variance with so rash and wild an hypothesis. The law or means by which bodies recipro- cally move one another, is altogether out of question. It signifies not, whether the rod which connects two bodies turning on a pivot with equal momenta is gold, or steel, or fir. So any law between bodies in reci- procal motion and equal momenta is equally foreign to arithmetic and philosophy. The Earth and Moon, for example, move round a fulcrum with velocities inversely as their masses ; what, then, have we to do with the law of the supposed something that connects them, and that is the very same for both ? We believe that they move thus, because ori- ginally moving contrary ways, and that their masses then regulated their distance ; but if any law is imagined, it is the same for the Earth as for the Moon, and the same for the Moon as for the Earth, and of no relevancy. As there must be a medium in space, as a transmitter of forces, and as the producer of Uniform Phenomena in the Planets, &c. so it may be presumed to consist of the active elements of our own terrestrial system. As time and motion are convertible, and as, in a system of equal action and re-ac- tion, no motion is gained or lost, so no time is gained and lost, and time is, therefore, a local generation adapted to the circle of organizations in a system, (like a clock in its case, &c.) and is not duration in a general 381 ASTRONOMY. — ATTRACTION AND GRAVITATION. or absolute sense. It follows, also, that the God of all systems does not exist in the varied times of all, but is a genuine eternity, or absolute duration, quite independent of all pur Earth-born successions either of time or motion. We draw a Solar System as a series of concentric orbits, but this refers only to our vision as a mental centre. The planets move only in right lines deflected from their recti- linear direction by the Solar vortex, so as to keep, by equal action and reaction, the same distance from the Sun. A similar case is that of our Moon, which makes the shew of an orbit, by keeping at the same distance , but, in fact, describes in the Earth’s vortex, the Earth’s orbit in lines concave only to the Sun. It is the same with other satellites, and with all the planets, as Solar satellites. Elliptical orbits are necessary conse- quences of inclinations of their planes, to the mean plane of the Solar motion. In passing from one extreme declination to another, the mean distance will be as the radius, but the two points of the apsides will be as the cosine and secant, and these in the Earth, at a mean angle of 10° 26/, exactly accord with the near and remote distances in the perihe- lion and aphelion. There cannot be a reasonable doubt that all circular motion in nature is the effect of action and reaction. The only question be- tween the Schoolmen and the Editor of this Work, is, whether the action and reaction are purely mechanical, or whether they are effects of the gratuitous principle of recipro- cal attraction and projectile force. Rotation is caused by want of conformity of shape, or of uniformity in density. Addi- tional matter, or inequality in the size of a moving boat, causes impediment on that side, and a deviation in the line of progress. Rotation, indicates a medium, and that the shape or density is unequal. — Burney. Newton’s imaginary projectile force im- plies an impulse from no known general cause, and is understood to be neither conti- nued, repeated, or renewed. But the me- chanical effect of a single impulse is not suf- ficient for the purpose. — Ibid. Kepler rationally supposed the Sun to have a motion on its axis, and that its atmosphere made each planet revolve in the plane, or nearly so, of the Equator. No doubt such an atmosphere would act on the medium of space ; but Kepler did not sus- pect the progression, though Galileo had in his time discovered the Solar rotation. Space has its centre every where, and its periphery no where. Burney thinks that some Comets may rotate with an axis in the direction of its progress. The Planets and Satellites all move round the Sun from West to East, nearly in the same plane, a clear proof that all are subject to the same mechanical action and reaction, which even La Place, &c. considers as that of an extended fluid medium. Vesta is about 223 millions miles distant from the Sun. Juno and Ceres, 250; and Pallas, 260 j with periods of 3 and 4 years.. 382 Attraction and Gravitation. It is waste of time to break a butterfly on a wheel, but as astronomy and all science is beset with fancies about attraction and re- pulsion, it is necessary to eradicate them. aQe D If we suppose the little circle to represent a body at rest, it is evident that without some foreign force it can never move. But if acted on at A, it can be moved towards B ; or if at B, towards A. The force being on the side contrary to the resulting motion. So if any wind, or gaseous current, act at D, it is carried to C, or if any current at C, it is carried to D, the force being always on the side contrary to the resulting motion. a Q 1 O b But, if there are two bodies, and it is required to move A to C, (in like manner as above) the force moving A to C must proceed from the side A. Either some impact, or some involvement of a motion towards C, must act at A, to carry A to C. The modern schools, however, assert, that B may move A to C, and A move B to C, and this is mutual attraction ! Hence, it is necessary to believe that B acts on the side A, where B is not present ; and that A acts on B on the side B, where A is not present In other words, A is required to be where it is not, and also be in force at B, so as to move B to C. All which is absurd. If in any case A and B approach, it is not because A moves B towards itself, or B moves A towards itself, but owing to some causes which affect the space in which A and B are situated ; and which causes act on A at A, and on B at B. The determina- tion of these causes is knowledge, while the statement that A moves B, and B moves A, is ignorance, and is what is meant by attrac- tion. It is also worse than ignorance to justify idleness, by asserting that the true cause is indifferent ; or to justify ignorance, by asserting that it is’unknowable ! This reasoning applies to every species of Attraction, whatever may be the pomposity of equivocal terms in which it is described. Universally, bodies cannot push other bodies towards themselves. A B c O O D If A and B are said to repel one another, and that B makes A move to C, and A makes B move to D, we have to bear in mind, that while A is moving to C it is in force only in that direction, and cannot, therefore, be moving B towards D. In like manner, while B is moving to D, it is in force only in that direction, and cannot, therefore, be in force in the contrary direc. tion so as to move A to C. ASTROKOMY. — FIXED STARS. 383 Every species and variety of Attraction and Repulsion are therefore absurd. Matter is in all cases the conductor of motion. If a body moves, it is because it is the patient of some sufficient momentum of body or matter acting on the side from which the body moves, and only in force in £hat direction. Some adopters of attraction, &c. talk by false analogy, of drawing , others of pulling, lifting , &c. La Place invents gravitating atoms, and gives them a velocity of 6000 times that of light, which, in some way, (known only to himself) performs the work of bringing the body in ; others imagine lit- tle hooks! As to drawing, pulling, & c. it behoves them to shew the tackle, the levers, the ropes, &c. ! Once for all, it may now be observed, that the vacuum does not attract the mer- cury from the basin up the closed tube — that the glass does not attract liquids in open tubes — that bungs floating on water are not attracted by one another,/ (since if of treble the density in the water, or of beech, they do not go together)— that atoms are not attracted in crystallization — that sugar, sponge, &c. do not attract water — since in each, and all of these cases, the atmospheric pressure, intercepted on one side, is the pal- pable and sufficient cause. Nor in electri- city and magnetism, is there any attraction, because the force of elementary re- union be- tween the opposed sides of the excited plate is the sufficient cause. In no case does the body jump over the other body, to push it towards itself. So, in like manner, the experiments of Ca- vendish on lead balls, and of Maskelyne on a plummet at Schehallien, were ridiculous fallacies. They were simple cases of the mutual interception of elastic pressure, or, like ships, in each others’ wake, at sea. In spite of all the learning, ingenuity, and elaborations of men, confessedly very able, if there is not and cannot be any action of the nature of attraction, and if the pheno- mena ascribed to it are local effects of pal- pable local causes, and if all the phenomena and involvements may be clearly explained on different principles, then it may be to be lamented that so much ability and character should have been wasted, while a respect for truth and sound reasoning demands that the whole should be forgotten as a dream, or demolished as a card-house. The Stars. Space infinite, in which a million of million of miles is as a grain of sand to the Earth, presents to ihe human imagination over- whelming objects. But, as matter of fact, space is filled with clusters of stars, or systems, in some kind of mutual connection. To approximate the subject, a second of a degree, or the 1,29G, 000th of a great circle, at 50 billions of miles distant, is equal to 242,400,0(10 miles, and a minute equal to 14,544,000,000 miles. At 100 billions dis- tant is 484,800,000 miles in a second of a degree, or 29,088,000,000 in a minute i so 384 that at 200 billions distance, what appears to us but as a minute of a degree, is really about 60,000 millions of miles in diameter. 200 billions is, however, a small distance in space, and 200 times 200 is the probable distance of many visible objects; in that case, our 60,000 millions to a minute be- comes 2,000,000 millions, for the space which a minute subtends at the earth. Hence, at that distance, and even less, millions of objects of vast size must be alto- gether invisible, for the eye sees no object much below two minutes ; so that at the distance of 4000 billions of miles, all objects below 24,000,000 millions of miles in dia- meter, would be to us as though they did not exist ; while, at 50 billions distant, all objects below 29,100 millions in diameter, could never be suspected to exist. Yet what are the distances intimated, t.o the distances of nebulae from which light, according to Sir W. Herschel, is 48,000 years travelling I Light travels 6± trillions of miles per annum, then in 48,000 years this would be 304,000,000,000 of millions of millions of miles distant. If the cluster ceased to exist, we should not know it for 48,000 years. Hence, though millions of stars are visible with telescopes, yet, in the same extent of space, other millions must be unseen ! Hipparchus, in 128 B. C., made a cata- logue of 1022 Stars, all that can be seen with the naked eye. Flamstead, with teles- copes, made another of 5884. Bode, in 1800, of 27,000 ; and Laiande, same year, of 50,000. Herschel computed 50,000, in nearly 6 square degrees of the Milky Way. Kepler calculates that, in a spherical space, only 13 points can be equally dis- tant ; at twice the distance 52 ; and at thrice 117, which corresponds nearly with the number of Stars of first, second, and third magnitudes. Ptolemy’s constellations were 48. — Heve- lius added 12, and Halley 8. There are 34 northern constellations, 28 of which are ancient; and 45 southern, 14 of which were ancient. The Stars of the first magnitude are — Aldebaran in Taurus. Castor in Gemini, v Regulus in the Lio l. Spica in Virgo. ♦ Antares in Scorpio. Dubhee in the Great Bear. Capella in Auriga. A returns in Bootes. Vega in Lyra. Deneb in Cygnus. Achernar in Eridanus. Betelguese in Orion. Canopus in Argo. Sirius in. the Great Hog. Procyon • • • • in the Little Dog. Cor Hydrse ...... in Hydra. Fomelhaut in the Southern Fi.slu The British catalogue contains 17 Stars of the first magnitude, 79 of the second, 223 of the third, and 510 of the fourth mag- nitude, being those commonly discerned b* 885 ASTRONOMY. — FIXED STARS. 388 the naked eye. It gives 695 of the fifth magnitude, and 1604 of the sixth magni- tude ; in all 3128. The twelve Signs of the Zodiac, and the numbers of Stars recorded in them in the tables, are as follow — Capricornus 54 101 Aquarius.. 119 xl7 V Pisces .... 115 The Zodiac was a rude means of record- ing the succession of seasons, and invented in very early ages in Egypt, Ethiopia, or Chaldea. It is simply what it professes, a memento of seasons ; and its signs have no occult or recondite meaning. It seems probable, that Aristarchus re- adjusted the zodiacal signs, for the present advance of 29 degrees carries us back 2088 years, near the age of Aristarchus. The Balance and Virgo determine the equinox and harvest, and accord beyond all question. The Pleiades would be on the vernal equinoctial colure in 2338 B. C. Space seems to be occupied with clusters of Stars , each Star serving as a separate Sun to planets and systems. The clusters are of all forms. The Milky Way is like a tuning- fork, and all the visible single Stars belong to it, besides myriads invisible. In the Pleiades , telescopes show 50 or 60 large stars crowded together in a very mo- derate space, comparatively insulated. Co- ma Berenice forms another such group, more diffused, and consisting of larger stars. In the constellation Cancer is a multitude of stars. In the sword-handle of Perseus is another, crowded with stars. It is impos- sible to count the stars in one of these glo- bular clusters. Many must contain 10 or 20,000 stars, wedged together in a round space, not a 50th of the Moon. In Feb. 1814, Sir W. Herschel, the prince of astronomers, read to the Royal Society the results of thirty years’ observations on Nebulae. He conceived that the Stars form independent systems among themselves ; that our Sun is part of that shoal or system, which we call the Milky Way ; and that all the Stars of the first, second, and third mag- nitude belong to that vast cluster. The Stars, he remarks, are not spread in equal portions over the heavens, but are found in patches, each containing many thousands, and many more than the eye can separate from the mass of the Cluster. Herschel considered the milky way to be a nebulae or cluster of Stars, in nearly the middle of which is our Sun, all the separate visible Stars being part of it. He counted 2500 similar nebulae or clusters in the hea- vens, and the number has since been doubled. In the crowded part of the Milky Way, Herschel had fields of view containing no less than 588 Stars ; and these continued many minute*!, so that, in a quarter of an hour, he saw 116,000 Stars pass through the field of a telescope of only 15/ aperture* and at another time, in 41 minutes, he saw 258.000 Stars pass through the field. The Milky YV ay consists mostly of Stars of the 10th or 12th magnitude, but too nu merous to be seen by the eye. The naked eye can discriminate Stars to the 6th or 7th magnitude, but powerful telescopes reach even to a 16th magnitude. All above the 6th are telescopic, and, ex- cept in clear nights, few can be seen. Inghirami fixed the positions of 75,000 Stars in 15 degrees by 30 near the Equator. The North Polar Star , in the tail of the Little Bear, is distinguished by the Grqat Bear, remarkable for having four stars of the second magnitude, forming the square of the Great Bear. If a line be drawn northward through the two westernmost stars of the square, called the pointers , in will pass close to the Polar Star, and within one degree of the Pole itself. The Polar Star and Dubhe form, also, an equilateral triangle with the easternmost star in the tail of the Great Bear. Cassiopeia is a constellation directly op- posite to the Great Bear, with respect to the North, so that a line drawn from the centre of the Great Bear, by the Polar Star a, would pass through the middle of Cassiopeia, on the other side of the Pole. This constel- lation is formed by stars in form of a Y. The Little Bear is a constellation of nearly the same form as the Great Bear parallel to it, but reversed. The Polar Star, at the extremity of the tail, is of the third magnitude. Arcturus is the principal star in Bootee, and of the first magnitude ; it is distant from the tail of the Great Bear about 3 /J south-east.* The two last stars in the tail of the Great Bear form a line which passes near Arcturus. Lyra and Capella. When the constella- tion of the Great Bear is on the meridian, two bright stars of the first magnitude are observable ; that on the east side is named Lyra, or the bright star in the Harp ; and that on the west side is called Capella. A line westward, through the two northern stars of the Great Bear, leads to Capella. The Dragon is a constellation situated on a line drawn from the northernmost star of the square of the Great Bear, by the guards of the Little Bear, between Lyra and the Little Bear, where the four stars in the head form a kind of lozenge. Orion is a remarkable constellation, formed by three stars of the second magni- tude, situated close to each other in a right line. The three are called Orion’s Belt, and serve to point out the Great Dog Star, Sirius, to the south-east, and the Pleiades, or Seven Stars, to the north-west, in the neck of the Bull. To the south of the three stars in Orion’s Belt is a row of stars called his Sword, and the nebulous stars of Orion. Aldebaran is a bright star of the first magnitude, forming the south eye of the Bull. It is near the Pleiades, 14° S. E. Procyon y or the Little Dog, forms, with O ASTRONOMY. FIXED STARS. 387 Sirius and the Belt of Orion, nearly an equi- lateral triangle. Castor and Pollux are two stars of the second magnitude, situated near each other in rhe middle of the space between Orion and the Great Bear : the northern is Castor, the southern Pollux. A line drawn from Rigel, the south-east star of Orion, by the eastern star in his Belt, will pass between Castor and Pollux. Pollux is distant 45° E.N.E. from Aldebaran. The Lion is a constellation formed by a large trapezium, wherein is a star of the first magnitude named Regulus. A line drawn from Rigel in Orion, through Pro- cyon in the Little Dog, will lead to Regulus, which is about 3 7° from Procyon to the north-eastw ard, aud about the same distance E.S.E. half E. from Pollux. A line drawn from the northern Polar Star through its pointers, passes 12° of Regulus. Cancer , or the Crab, is a constellation formed of many small stars, whose nebulae are a cluster of stars less visible than the Pleiades : they are situated on a line drawn from the middle of the Twins by Regulus, or on a line drawn from Procyon to the tail of the Great Bear. The Bam ( Aries ,) is formed principally of two stars, one of the second, the other of the third magnitude. This constellation is pointed out by a line drawn from Procyon to Aldebaran ; which, continued, leads to the southward of Arietis, which is about 23^ to the west of the Pleiades. The middle of the constellation Perseus is formed by three stars, one of which is of the second magnitude ; they form the seg- ment of a circle turned towards the Great Bear. A line drawn from the North Polar star to the Pleiades, passes through the middle of Perseus ; a line drawn from the Belt of Orion by Aldebaran, passes through the head of Medusa, which Perseus holds in his hand, in which is a star of the second magnitude, named Algol, not always of the same brilliancy. The Swan is a remarkable constellation, that assumes nearly the form of a large cross, in which is a bright star of the second magnitude. A line drawn from the Twins by the North Polar star, leads to the Swan on the opposite side, at nearly the same distance from the Polar Star on the one side, as the Twins are on the other. The square of Pegasus is formed by four stars of the second magnitude ; the north- ernmost star of the square is in the head of Andromeda. A line drawn from the Belt of Orion through the star Arietis in the Ram, leads to the bright star in the head of Andromeda. A line drawn from the Plei- ades by the S. side of the star Arietis, leads to the star Algenib in the extremity of the Wing, which is one of the four stars that form the square ; the other two are to the westward ; the northernmost one is called SJcbeat, and the southernmost one Markab, or Pegasi, about E. by N. 48° from the star in the Eagle called Aquilae, and W. 44° from the star Arietis in the head of the Ram. 388 A line drawn through that diagonal of Pe- gasus, formed by the stars Algenib and Scheat, to the north-westward, leads to the bright star in the tail of the Swan. Another diagonal line, from Markab through the head of Andromeda, towards the N.E., passes near the bright star in the centre of Andromeda, and also near the star at the foot of Andromeda, dividing into three equal parts the space comprehended be- tween the head of Andromeda and the centre of Perseus. They are nearly in a line between the constellations of the Ram and Cassiopeia. In May, towards nine o’clock in the even- ing, when the middle star in the tail of the Great Bear is on the meridian, above the Pole, the bright star, Spica, is seen on the meridian to the south, about 28° of alti- tude. It is situated about 54° E.S.E. from Regulus, and forms an equilateral triangle with Arcturus in Bootes, and the bright star Deneb, distant 35°. At the same time, about 16^ S.W. of Spica, is a trapezium, formed by four principal stars in the con- stellation of the Crow ; a line drawn from Lyra, through Spica, leads directly to them. A line from the two stars in the square of the Great Bear, nearest the tail, by Regulus, leads to a star of the second magnitude, the Heart of Hydra, about 23° to the S. of Regulus. The head of Hydra is a little to the S. of Cancer, between the stars Procyon and Regulus. Crater , or the Cup , is situated between the Crow and Hydra. Lyra, the bright star in the Harp, and one of the most brilliant, forms nearly a right-angled triangle with Arcturus and the Polar Star, the right-angle being next Lyra. This is one of those stars that never set London. Corona Borealis, or Northern Crown , is a small constellation near Arcturus, on a line drawn from Arcturus to Lyra. It is seven stars in a semicircle. Aquila , or the Eagle, contains a bright star of the second magnitude, named Altair, situated about 34° S. by E. from Lyra, and 48° W. by S. from Pegasi, the south-western of the square of Pegasus. Altair is the centre of three stars. A line passing E. by Regulus and Spica, near the ecliptic, passes through Scorpio , in which is a star of the first magnitude, An. tares, about 46^ E.S.E. from Spica, with 26^ of south declination. It is red. In the constellation Libra are two stars of the second magnitude, one in each scale : the one in the northern scale is nearly in a line drawn from Arcturus in Bootes, to An- tares in Scorpio ; the southern scale is be- tween Spica and Antares, the three being near the ecliptic. Sagittarius contains many stars of the third magnitude, forming a large trapezium. This constellation is situated on a line drawn from the centre of the Swan through the middle of the Eagle, at about 35° to the S. of the Eagle. The Swan is about the same distance from the Eagle N. 389 ASTRONOMY. — FIXED STARS. 390 PLACES OF FORTY PRINCIPAL STARS, BY BRINKLEY. M. R. A. 1830. ^ An. Var. Dec. 1830. An. Var. ag. R. A. Dec. h. m. s. s. 0 / // 11 y Pegasi _ _ 2*3 0 4 29 29 +3-07 14 14 20 16 N +20 07 a Cassiopeiae . 3 0 30 54 54 +3-33 55 36 14-98 N + 1985 a Arietis - _ _ 3 1 57 36 29 +3-35 22 39 17 96 N + 17 37 a Ceti - - _ . 23 2 53 23 86 +312 3 25 5-51 N + 1452 a Tauri _ . 1 4 26 10 25 +3 42 16 9 37 56 N + 7 88 a Aurigae - . - 1 5 4 8-37 +4-41 45 48 55 30 N + 4 57 ft Orionis - _ _ 1 5 6 22 13 +2-87 8 24 15 27 S + 4-65 ft Tauri - - 2 5 15 32 88 +378 28 27 19 48 N + 374 a Orionis - _ 1 5 45 58 05 -1-3 -24 7 22 5 03 N + 1-24 a Canis Maj. - - 1 6 37 39 58 +2-64 16 29 19 55 S — 4 45 a Geminorum 3 7 23 44 30 + 3 84 32 15 1 1 08 N — 7 ‘20 a Canis Min. _ _ 1-2 7 30 23 81 + 3 14 5 39 16 07 N — 8-72 ft Geminorum 2 7 34 53 98 +3-68 28 25 46-38 N — 8 08 a Hvdrae - _ _ 2 9 19 1389 + 2-94 7 55 30 81 S —15-28 a Leonis _ _ 1 9 59 18 43 -(-3 20 12 47 42 27 N —1732 , ft Leonis - _ _ 2-3 11 40 22 79 +3 06 15 31 21 75 N — 2004 ft Virginis _ _ 3 4 11 41 50-33 +3 12 — — a Virginis _ _ 1 13 16 1465 +3 14 10 16 14 98 S —1900 a Bootis _ _ 1 14 7 54-42 +2-73 20 4 17 54 N — 18-98 a 1 Librae - - 6 14 41 17 68 +329 — — a 2 Librae 3 14 41 29 11 + 3-30 15 19 45-61 S —15-33 a Cor. Borealis - O 15 27 29-35 +2-53 27 17 32 62 N —1244 a Serpentis _ _ 23 15 35 53 82 +2 94 6 58 1 29 N —11-74 a Scorpii - _ 1 16 18 59 62 +3 65 26 2 44 16 S — 8 59 a Herculis _ _ 34 17 6 53 81 + 272 14 35 27-51 N — 4 57 a Ophiuchi _ . 2 17 2 7 261 +2-77 12 41 27 84 N — 3 08 a Lyrae - - _ _ 1 18 31 10 87 +202 38 37 50 20 N + 3 00 y Aquilae - _ _ 3 19 38 10 49 + 2-85 10 12 20-41 N + 8-32 a Aquilae - _ . 1*2 19 42 29‘12 +2-92 8 25 34-45 N + 9-04 ft Aquilae - - - 3-4 19 46 57 56 +2-94 5 59 21 02 N + 854 | a 1 Capricorni 4 20 8 13 00 +3-33 13 1 35-22 S +10-63 j a 2 Capricorni 3 20 8 36 81 +3 33 13 3 52 24 S + 10-66 . a Cygni _ _ 1 20 35 38 09 +203 44 40 36 13 N +1258 i a Aquarii - i. . 3 21 57 287 +3 08 1 8 29-55 S +17-23 t a Piscis Aust. _ 1 22 48 14 32 +3 33 — a Pegasi . _ 2 22 56 17 73 +297 14 17 33 66 N +19 27 a Andromedae 1 23 59 36 81 +307 28 9 751 N +1991 a Ursae Min. _ 23 0 59 35 36 + 15-50 88 24 8-54 N +19 37 a Ursae Maj. _ _ 1-2 10 53 9 66 +3 80 — y Draconis - - ~ 2 17 52 39 56 +1-39 51 30 44-94 N — 0 69 a and '5 UitsAS Minoris from Bessel ^ a Ursae Minoris,! 830 0 59 30 76 +15-48 +88 24 8-22 N + 19-37 or Polaris. 1840 1 2 10 32 +16-47 -1-88 27 22 43 N +19-30 1850 Z O 1 5 029 + 17-55 + 88 30 35-40 N + 19-24 1860 1 8 1 73 +18 78 +88 33 47 64 N +1916 d Ursae - - 1830 18 27 513 —1916 1+86 35 5-70 N + 2 36 Minoris. - 1840 18 23 53 03 —19 24 +86 35 27 93 N + 2-08 1850 o 18 20 40 21 —19 30 +86 35 47 36 N + 1-80 1 1860 18 17 26 77 —1936 +86 36 3 97 N + 152 Bessel, in 1837, makes Sirius R. A. 6° 37 ; 57 ,/- 8. Dec. 16^29/ 53 ?/ -9. Lyra 18^ 31/ 25' *2 and Dec. 38^ 38/ 8"*5. The Pole Star 1° 1/ 22"-4 and Dec. 88^ 26/ 24'/. 'd9l ASTRONOMY. — FIXED STARS 392 A line drawn from Antares northward to the Pole, crosses Ophiucus , or the Serpent Bearer , and Hercules. A line from An- tares to Lyra, passes through ihe head of the Serpent Bearer, near to Hercules. Capricornus is on a line drawn from Lyra through the Eagle. Fomalhaut, in the mouth of the Southern Fish, is a star of the first magnitude. It is about 60° S.E. from Aquilse, and 45° S. from Pegasi. It is of high southern declina- tion, its altitude never exceeding 20° in the latitude of 40°. The Dolphin is a small constellation about 15° to the E. of the Eagle, formed by a lo- zenge of four stars. Aquarius is distinguished by aline drawn from the bright star Lyra through the Dol- phin. A line drawn from the Dolphin to Fomalhaut, in the mouth of the Southern Fish, passes between two stars in the shoul- ders of Aquarius. Cetus, the Whale, is situated to the S. of Aries, or the Ram, below the space between the Pleiades and the square of Pegasus. A line drawn from the bright star in the head of Andromeda, between the tv\o stars in the head of the Ram, leads to a star in the Whale, at about 25° south-east from the Ram. Pisces, the Fishes , is composed of stars the least remarkable ; one of them is si- tuated to the south of the square of Pegasus, the other is more northerly and easterly, between the head of Andromeda and that of the Whale. The star in the knot of the line that unites the Fishes, the most remarkable of the constellation, is situated in a line drawn from the foot of Andromeda by the head of the Whale, and about 40° W. of Aldebaran, on a line drawn from the foot of the Twins, by Aldebaran. Lepus, or the Hare , is a constellation at the foot of Orion. Columba, or the Dove, is S. of the Hare. The Centaur is a constellation to the S. of the Virgin, on a line with the horizon. Lupus, or the Wolf, is S. of the {scorpion. Argo to the S. of Hydra. Antinous S. of the Eagle. Equuleus , or the Little Horse, between the Dolphin, Aquarius, and Pegasus. The Great and Little Triangle, with the Northern Fly, are in the centre, between a star of the second magnitude in Andro- meda, and the Pleiades. Eridanus, or the River, is between Rigel in the foot of Orion, and the Whale. Charles's Heart to the S. of the tail of the Great Bear. . Berenice's Hair between the Great Bear and the Lion. The Lynx between the Twins, the Great Bear, and the Waggoner. The Unicorn , to the S. of Procyon, between Orion and Hydra. Leo Minor to the N. of the Lion. The Sextant to the S. of the Lion, Lacerta, or the Lizard, between the Swan ar.d Andromeda. The Rein-deer, and the Cameleopardalus between the Great Bear and Cassiopeia. Canes Venatici , or the Greyhounds, be- tween the tail of the Great Bear and Bootes. Vulpes and Anser, or the Fox and Goose , and Sagitla, or the Arrow , to the S. o. Lyra and Swan, or N. of Eagle and Dolphin. Sir W. Kerschel observed 2400 double stars. South and J. Herschel 380. South, since, 458; and Herschel, since, 1000. Thu Dorpat catalogue gives 3063. Struve has catalogued 2/07 double stars in 8 classes, from less than l 7 distance to 32 7 . Pie found that Comae Berenices, 45., moves 130° in 6 years, that the period o' 7 Ophiuchi is under 40 years, and that p Coronae and w Leonis were, in 1838, at their nearest distance. Struve, South, and J. Herschel have in- creased Sir W. Herschel’s catalogue of dou- ble stars to above 3000 ; and 30 or 40 are binary systems of moving stars. Dunlop has observed 253 in the southern hemis- phere, and among them 6 Eridanus has an attendant, which moves with great velocity ! The 2 stars of Cygni moved in 50 years 4 7> 23. One in Cassiopeiae moves 3 //- 74 per annum. Among them are numbers in which the interval is less than a second, of which c Arietis, Atlas Pleiadum, 7 Coronae, rj Co- ronae, »j and £ Herculis, and r and X Ophiu- chi, may be cited as instances. They are classed according to distances, the nearest forming the first class. Systems are ima- gined, composed of two stars revolving about each other in regular orbits, and constitu- ting what are termed binary stars . Among the more conspicuous are — Castor, 7 Virgi- nis, | Ursae, 70 Ophiuchi, and its perihelion is within Mercury, and its aphelion beyond Jupiter. Biela’s Comet has a period of 2440 davs, or 6§ years. In its last appearance it was only teles- copic, very dull, and so rare, that small stars were seen through its centre. The Comet of 1811 was 10,900 miles in diameter, i. e. twice the bulk of the Earth, and its luminous projection 132 millions of miles. Lambert calculated that it was 17 time larger than Jupiter. Many Comets have no nucleus, and the smallest Stars have been seen through them. In those with a nucleus, the light nebulosity is not in contact with the nucleus. In the Comet of 1811, the nebulosity was 25,000 miles, and its interior surface was 30,000 miles from the centre of the nucleus. The tail is not to be distinguished from the nebu- losity on its side. The nucleus of the Comet of 1811 was 2700 miles in diameter; some are not 40 miles, and others not 500. The tail of the Comet of 1680 was 90 de- grees, or 1 00 millions of miles long. That of 1769, 97 degrees, and 42 millions of miles. One, in 1744, had five or six tails. No phases have been discovered in Comets. Arago thinks that not less than seven thousand Comets revolve in our system. The perihelion distance of the Comet of 1680 was but 150,000 miles from the Sun, with a velocity 880,000 miles an hour, while the aphelion is 2898 millions of miles, in 575 years ; others are estimated .to have aphelia distant from 15,000 to 66,000 millions of miles, as that of 1763, with a period of 7334 years ! Halley’s Comet, in 75 years, performs an orbit 3420 millions of miles long, and 850 millions broad. Its perihelion is but 57 millions from the Sun. It passed centrally over a star of the 9th magnitude without obscuring it. Its tail increased as it ap- proached the Sun to 30° or 4(P. In Au- gust, 1835, it appeared as a dim vapour without a tail, and it increased as it ap- proached. Luminous brushes appeared in October opposite the tail, like luminous gas. As Newton made no observations, he de- rived all that he used from Flamstead ; yet his behaviour to him led the latter to call him insidious, subtle, ambitious, excessively covetous of praise, and impatient of contra- diction ; again, Whiston says of Newton, that he was of the most fearful, cautious, and suspicious ^temper that he ever knew, and impatient of contradiction. Hutcheson concurs in the same opinion, and adds, over- bearing arrogance, in which other writers ASTRONOMY. — FALL OF BODIES. 397 398 of the time agree. When Flamstead pointed out some errors in Newton’s IVth Book, he asked rudely, why he did not hold his tongue ; and at another time, called Flam- stead a puppy, &c. &c. Owing to the ' treacherous conduct of Newton and Halley, the Government were obliged to cancel the 2d volume of the Historia Ccelestis, and a new edition was printed. Flamstead was no admirer of the gravitation system. The Comet, which returned in October 1835, was in 1531 of a bright gold colour ; 1607, dark and leaden; 1682, bright; and in 1759, dark and obscure. Newton, to the last, taught that Comets were fuel to the Sun! The Editor would rather teach that they are germs of future planets. The Fall of Bodies and Weight . The most remarkable of sensible pheno- mena is the apparently spontaneous motion of an unsustained body towards the centre of the Earth ; and the variations of the same principle when bodies are suspended on a balance, called weight. It is, at the same time, the force which obviously consolidates a planet into one mass. Vulgarly viewed, it was deemed, in dark ages, a law of nature, by which bodies fell downwards ; in monkish days, it was re- garded as a miracle ; but, in semi-dark and cloistered establishments, the names of at- traction and gravitation were given to it in the 16th century, but without advancing knowledge, since no one could explain the modus operandi of the words employed. In our own age, Vince, for a reward given by the Bench of Bishops, in 1786, proved in set terms , that no mechanical agency could produce it, and, therefore, that the cause was the immediate agency of the Deity. This, however, was a rather unphilosophical way of cutting the Gordian Knot ! In the mean time, it being imagined to be proved that this force acts as the reciprocal square of the distance, for in high numbers the ratio of approximate numbers and their squares, differing but slightly, the law was adopted without regard to its cause, which on all hands was pronounced to be unknow- able and inscrutable ! These difficulties, however, pervaded all books and schools before the two-fold mo- tions were generally recognized, and, as usual, book after book, for two centuries, has adopted the current opinions. About 1805, it occurred to Sir R. Phillips, that as the fall of bodies is a mere pheno- menon of motion on a moving globe, itself subject to two great motions ; so any variance in the direction of these would, as in all such cases, produce an increase of velocity in a body, surrendered to their free action ; and the direction to the centre would be .ikely to be the constant diagonal of both. It would fill a volume to describe the diffi- culties which attended the developement of this simple problem, and the opposition which the attempt raised in writers and teachers, who were committed to the pre- vious mysteries. No one had attended even to the quantities of these motions, and there was a complication in them, which, for years, baffled satisfactory conclusions. Even to this hour there is no precision in the data. The transit means of determining the parallax gave from 9 ,/ 342 to 8 ,/- .578, whose mean 8 96 gave a distance of only 91 millions, while some exaggerators, taking it at 8 578 and 8 6, claimed 95 millions. Nor, till Lamb ton’s measure, could we approximate the Earth’s size within 50 miles. Even the length of the second’s pendulum, and the fall of bodies, was undetermined. However, we now have these quantities very nearly, but they have not been investi- gated with any view to the major problem in question ! The motion of the fall of a body is not, in any school in 1 839, regarded as a sequence of the Earth’s two motions. The theory of the problem is this, that while the Earth, in small times, is describing a right line with great momentum in the orbit, every part of the Earth’s surface is by the rotation describing lines, which cut the orbit direction at right angles, and at every angle ; while the action and reac- tion of the opposite sides, or antipodes of a revolving sphere render every con- trary force, at every point, a common de- flective force of the whole. In fact, the centre alone moves uniformly, and every other point and part is subject to an extra motion in the rotation, at an angle rendered common by reaction, and it is as to the orbit line a deflection , whether, so to speak, it is ascending or descending. Then, the usual consequences, increase of velocity and no- velty of direction, attend a body subject to 2 motions in constant mean directions. It would be a point solvable by the usual problem of the parallelogram of forces, but in this case the rotatory motion is of its own kind, that is, in 180 degrees, and not w ithin any angle of a quadrant. If tried, it will be found to give an even 16 without the fraction, and in the last edition an example was given. The orbit force, applied to a mixed mass of varied density, would form a train, or con- dense it into its line of direction ; and it is the best short account of the operation, that each of these effects are corrected by the other, and the resultant is such a neu- tralization as corrects both, and carries the whole towards the common centre of motion. Then the circumference of the Earth 24897 Log. 4 396147 being known, and the period of rotation 86164 seconds, Log. 4‘935326, we determine its mean rotative velocity to be 1525 65, Log. 3 1 83451 feet at the Equator. This is necessarily adopted as a convenient fundamental measure, owing to its fixed re. lations to the whole sphere (also in simulta- neous rotation) and acting and reacting by its opposing hemispheres and quadrants. Now, in this display of force, the < tea of the rotated Equatorial plane is but as 1 to 4 of the whole rotated surface of the sphere, therefore, in numbers, we may express the whole inverse force of the sphere as 61026* Log. 3 785515. We can take it in squares. ;3U ( J AST 11 ON OMY, — DISTANCE OF THE SUN. 400 if we please, and get a square result, the root of which is the very same as the rela- tions of the lines. In comparing the area of the Equatorial plane with the area of the sphere, the object is to get a simple ratio of the linear measures. If 1525 65 feet ex- press the force at the Equator, 4 times the length is the numerical force of the sphere. It may be added from Archimedes, that the sphere, that is, 4 equators, are equal to the convex part of the circumscribing cylin- der ; consequently, 4 revolving equators are equal to a revolving equal cylinder, itself equal to the revolving sphere. Taking then the mean distance at 93,370,000 and deducting from the feet in orbit, Log. 12-490882, the Log. of seconds in a year — 7*499111, we get Log. 4 991909 = 98154 feet for the direct orbit velocity per second. Then 4-991909 — 3785515 =•• I 206394 = 16*084 feet, the fall in a second. Proceeding by squares gives the same result. Then ~ = F, or O X ^ = F. Thus the rotative is a proper inverse force, which may be expressed in relation to the l direct orbit force, as " 6l02 g = 0 0001638645. Then this fraction into the orbit force 98154, is the true velocity of fall for a second : Orbit Force. Inv. Rot. F. Fall per Sec. 98154 X 0001638645 = 16084 For two seconds : — (2 X 98154) * (2 X 0001638, &c.) =4 X 16 084 For, as twice the time gives twice the force, so each force requires to be multiplied by 2. But, on separating the factors, it becomes (2 X 2)* (98154 X 0 0001638, &c.) Then, as 98154 X 0 0001638, &c. is equal to 16 084, it becomes 4 X 16 084. For three seconds : — (3 X 98154) • (3 X 0001638, &c.) = 9 X 16 084 For a quarter of a second : — (iX 98154) * (i X 00016, &c.)= T ^ X 16 084 For five-twelfths of a second : — ( T 5 -Z X 98154) * ( t 5 t X 00016, &c.)= T \ 5 * X [16-0789 And so on, in any variety of whole num- bers or fractions. By adding Unity, as an increment of force, 6102-6 -f 1 to the rotative force, we get — — = 1 0001638645, which, with 98154, gives 98170 084, the whole diagonal, instead of the differences as above. We might take the mean perpendicular deflexion — 1525 - instead of the circle, but the 1*5708 perpendicular would be 971 126 into 6 2832; and 1525 X 4 = 971 X 6-2832. Figures have been preferred, but the prin- ciple is the same, if we take O X £ = F, then (2 O) * (2 X |) = 4F the F being as the squares of the times, because there are 2 factors, each a multiple by the times. Proving, rigorously, that the fall of bodies is owing entirely to the 2 motions ; and ex- emplifying Galileo’s principle of accelera- tion in the clearest manner. The perihelion and aphelion distances would vary weights, if not compensated, or nearly so, by varied velocity. No other proof resembles this in the whole circle of natural philosophy; and it is of ten-fold value, because it relates to a subject so interesting, and affecting so many points. For example, since it appears that the fall of bodies, and all the phenomena of weight and weighing arise from a local cause depending on the local motions of the Earth, those phenomena can be adduced as no evidence of universal gravitation ; and no phenomena, not involved in the Earth’s local motions, can be ascribed to the same cause as the cause of the fall of an apple. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that in the same sphere the same forces operate every where. The square of the sine and the cosine of any latitude give an inverse force equal to the square of the Radius or Equator; and the diagonal of every sine and cosine is a Radius directed from the cir- cumference to the centre. The inverse force is, however, less at the Poles of an oblate spheroid, because the square of the diminished sines is too little. Hence the results are greater, and 16 04 feet is more and more in proceeding from the Equator to the Poles. This is the rea- son of increased weight, increased pendu- lum, and increased fall at the Poles. Every thing harmonizes in a true theory, and nature is always simple and consistent. The obliquity does not affect the results, because in the rotation, opposite sides act and react, and if one is south the other is north, and their different forces neutralize each other. Distance of the Sun hy Motion . The distance of the Earth from the Sun, taking the mean fall of a body at 16,084 feet, as determined by pendulums is thus found : Log. of 1 6 084 fall 1 20639* Log. of 6102 6 (4 X 1525 65) i. e. 4 times Equ. Rot. per sec. 3 785515 =(Orbit velocity per sec. 4 991909) Seconds in a year 7 - 49911I *Feet in orbit = 12 491020 Feet in a mile.... 3722634 Circle to Radius.. 0.798180 4-520814 Dist. in miles 93 37 millions .. 7 970206 *Sec. in 360 deg. in orbit 6 1 12605 Feet in a sec. of deg 6 378415' Feet in Earth’s Radius 7 320549 Parallax 8"75234 = 0 942134 No unprejudiced person, who views the steps of these determinations, will hesi- tate to admit that this is the most simple 401 ASTRONOMY. — KEPI. £R*S LAW. 402 and satisfactory display of consecutive mo- tions, arriving at a desirable and sublime result, that ever was performed by arith- metic.- Nothing is forced, and all the num- bers are authorized by modern science. Then, as the only variable in the whole is the first line, and as there are different determinations of that quantity, we have taken it for various quantities from 16 0697 to 16 095, thus— 16 0697 = 1-206008 diff. 286— 16 07 = 1-206016 diff. 278- 16 075 = 1 206151 diff. 243— 16-08 = 1-206286 diff. 108 — 16 084 = 1-206394 diff. 0 16 0875 = 1-206489 diff. 95+ 16 09 = 1-206556 diff. 162+ 16 095 = 1-206691 diff. 2974- Then either of these diff. + or — 7 970206, or of 942134, gives the log. of the Sun’s distance, and parallax for that fall per sec. This, with the method of determining the fall of bodies by the two motions, renders the sublime system of consecutive motions complete. The Author bequeaths them as a legacy to posterity ! The observers of the transits at different places, make the Earth’s parallax from 8 ,,- 578 to 9 ,/ -343, a difference of 0 765, and every 10th of a second is 1,130,000 miles. Sundry authorities state that the fall of a body in a second, at the equator, is 16 0463 feet; in middle latitudes, 16084; at Lon- don, 16 0954; and in Spitzbergen, 16 1264; the mean of the 4 being 16 088. The respec.. tive pendulums are 39 02, 39 114, 39 13908, and 39-2164. The mechanical methods are proved by multiplying the Earth’s circumference into the number of rotations in a sidereal or complete revolution, into the ratio of the orbit and rotatory motions for the orbit, and dividing for the Radius. Log. circum. 24 897 miles.... 4 396147 Sidereal rotations 366 256.... 2 563/S5 98123 +- 1525 649 (£) 1 808454 Orbit in miles 8 /68386 Ratio to Radius 6 2832 0 798180 Distance 93,370,000 = 7 970206 Airey makes the parallax 8 ,/- 6919, which gives a mean distance of 93,937,000 miles. Kepler’s Law. The Distances of the Planets from the Sun are deduced from Kepler’s ratio, be- tween the Times and Distances. The Earth was taken as the standard, or T & D, and it was promulgated that As T2 : 4275 per sidereal lunation, and her major axis ad- vances 3° in 2/ '32 166 days. The revolutions of the Moon and the node are as 223 to 19, so that in every 19 years the Eclipses are repeated. The Earth and Moon are exact cases of reciprocal orbits, with equal matter and motion m each body. The Moon moves 3330 7 feet per second, in its orbit, with a mass as 1, and the Earth moves 66 9 feet in its terro-lunar orbit (parallax 10-67 sec.) with a mass as 49 6274. Then 3330‘7 X 1 = 66 9 X 49-6274. Again, the two sides of the diagonal, or Moon’s orbit, are 2355-2 each ; and the two sides of the Earth’s terro- lunar orbit (66 9) are 47 438. Then 2355 2 X 1 =47 438 X 49 274; demonstrative of a perfect equality of mutual action and re- action, and fatal to the subdup.licate law. The motions of the Earth and Moon ex- actly accord at equal density, and one would blush for any theory which sought to accom- modate itself by assuming a difference. La Place, in a false theory of the tides, ima- gined the density of the Earth to be to that of the Moon as 72 to 49 ! But the masses at equal density, 49 to 1, exactly accord with the reciprocal motions and forces. It is exactly the same as to the Earth and Moon, as in regard to the Earth and Sun in rotation and in precession and apsides. It gains one circumference by going, round the Earth, and the falling back of its nodes and the advance of its major axis exactly accord. The falling back of the. Moon’s nodes, or the advance of the ecliptic, with reference to the nodes l°-4275 per lunation, and the total advance of the ecliptic and apsides 3°, arise from the Moon turning one circumference w hile going round her orbit, equal to 1°*638 ; the first advance being relative to her nodes only- but the 1 4275 added to 1 638 make 3° 0655 of advance in the ecliptic, the '0655 being absorbed by obliquity. The Moon’s motions are accelerated 11 seconds in a century; and in remote centu- ries as 11 X by the square of the number. Hence, an eclipse 2000 years ago requires 20 X 20 X 11 seconds of time to be allowed or 1^ hour nearly. The inclination oi the Moon’s orbit is 5° 8 min. 47"9 sec. ; and its eccentricity 0 054844 — Her axis is inclined to her orbit 88° 17 m. The Chaldean period of 223 lunations, or 18 years 11 days 7 hours 42 minutes, brings the Moon within 28 min. 10 sec. of the same position again as to nodes and longi- tude ; but 6890, or 557 years, days, brings her within 1 min. 41 sec., and then all her phenomena, eclipses, &c. & f c. re-occur. The Moon’s nodes or equinoxes go round the ecliptic in 6793*39 days. The revolution of her line of apsides is in 3232 5/5 days. ASTRONOMY.- ■THE MOON. 411 The Moon is 24 minutes longer in per- forming her orbit, when the Earth is in its perihelion than its aphelion. In the Earth and Moon, one of the two forces, the central is the common progres- sion in the Earth’s orbit. The other force, the tangential, is the exact product of the Earth’s reciprocating motion in its terro- lunar orbit into its mass. The enlargement of the light part of the Moon, and the enlargement in the horizon, are optical illusions — one owing to bright objects enlarging pencils of light, and the other owing to the mind placing the Moon at a greater distance — angle the same. The Nutation is a nodding, or swinging, of the Poles, like that which takes place during the spinning of a top. It accords in time with the rotation of the Moon’s nodes, 19 years, and its quantity varies between 18"*5 and 1.3 "74. Herschel and Kater believed that they had discriminated volcanoes in the Moon ; and if so they indicate many circumstances relative to the internal structure, atmosphere, &c. Newton tried to prove his sub-duplicate law by asserting that the Moon falls 16 feet m a minute, but Sir Richard Phillips con- tends that the Moon falls equally from the tangent of her orbit, in all parts of it ; and that, in every quadrant, she falls from any tangent at an assumed apex, a quantity equal to the radius or distance, and a pro- portionate part in every minute of time. If she fell but 16 feet in a minute, a lunation would last 59/ years, since her mean motion is about 200,100 feet in a minute, or 40 miles. Dividing, however, the feet in the radius, or distance, by the minutes, during which the Moon falls equally from every point of her orbit, the mean fall, per minute, is 127,225 feet Log. of radius 5*374778 Feet in a mile 3 722634 Feet in distance, or fall . .9 *097382 Minutes in a quarter 3*992809 127225 feet per minute... .5 104573 The mistake appears to have arisen from taking on paper the crown of an arch where the curvature is rapidly vanishing. Even if relevant, the versed sine does not vary with the law of falling bodies, and, therefore, if it happened to agree for a minute, it would not agree for a second or for two minutes. And whether a degree of the Earth is 1 or 2 miles more or less, per Norwood or Picart, would not make a difference of the 100,000th part ! The Moon’s orbit is produced by the com- mon motion through space, and by re-ac- tion of the Earth on the medium of space. The Sun’s action on both is directed to the centre of their mutual momenta or fulcrum. When the new Moon is within 18° of the node, there is an eclipse of the Sun ; and when the full Moon is within 12^ of the node,, she will pass in the Earth’s shadow, and be eclipsed. According to Sejour, an eclipse of the Sun can never he annular 412 longer than 12 min. 24 sec., nor total longer than 7 min. 58 sec., and the duration cannot exceed two hours. The height of the Earth’s shadow is from 800.000 to more than a million of miles. The Moon’s shadow extends from 225 to 240.000 miles, and therefore does not always reach the Earth, and never exceeds 180 miles in diameter. But the lateral penumbra ex- tends partially to great distances. The Moon’s penumbra, in a -central eclipse, will not cover the Earth’s whole disc. The semi-diameter of the penumbra being equal to the sum of the apparent semi- diameters of the Sun and Moon, that is ? about 16 min. 23 sec. -f- 15 min. 37 sec., or 32 min. at the medium, its diameter is about 64 min., whereas the diameter of the Earth’s disc is about 120 min. The Moon’s shadow is 60^ semi-diameters of the Earth high. The semi-diameter of the Earth is to that c the Moon nearly as 100 to 28, and the height of the Earth’s shadow is about 217 semi- diameters of the Earth ; hence, the height o the Moon’s shadow is equal to about 604 semi-diameters of the Earth; for 100 : 23 : : 217 : 60^ nearly. The breadth of the Earth’s shadow, at the Moon, is about 3 times the Moon’s diameter. The Moon’s orbit in the plane of the eclip- tic, from conjunction to conjunction, is ex- actly equal to the orbit motion of the Earth for one solar day, or to 64*336 circumfe- rences of the Earth. The synodical orbit in her own plane, in- clined 5^ 8 min. 48 sec., is 1*609500 miles, which, by 1*00406 for inclination, is 1*602619, the daily orbit motion of the Earth. The Earth’s daily motion into 1*00406 for inclination directly, and 1 080847 for days inversely, is equal to the sidereal orbit 1,489,126 miles ; and 64*336 circumferences into 1*00406 directly, and 1*080847 inversely, is 59*83 circumferences ; and then, as radii are as circumferences, so 59*83 radii of the Earth (3962*8095) are equal to the orbit radius or distance of the Moon. The periodical time of the Moon, in a lunation, is directly as the diameter of the Earth into the Earth’s velocity ; and in- versely as the orbit of the Moon taken in the plane of the ecliptic, Diam. X O ', =. Moon’s Time. Moon’s orbit Owing to the Moon’s libration in latitude, we sometimes see one pole, and then the other. By the libration in longitude, more of the western limb is at times seen ; and, at other times, more of the eastern. The harvest Moon arises from the varied angle of the ecliptic with the horizon, so that the Moon rises several days within nearly an hour. In 1839 and 1857 there will be striking harvest Moons. The Moon’s inequalities are 6. The ellip- tic inequality — the annual equation — the parallactic inequality — the progression of the perigee-y-its irregularities — and the variation of the eccentricity. The velocity of the Moon is in the lunar 413 ASTRONOMY. EQUINOXES, &C. 414 orbit the T 9 's J th at °f ^ ie Earth and Moon m the solar orbit, increased by the inclina- tion, i. e. 3330 7 ; and the force of the Earth is to that of the Moon as 49*109 to 29 53 ; the solar orbit being common. The menstrual equation of the Earth, owing to its motion around the centre of motion of the Moon, is about 0 997. The ratio of the Moon’s right and oblique force is 100406 to 1. The evection is the action of the Sun on the Moon’s orbit, which lessens the eccen- tricity in the syzygyes, and increases it in the quarters. The annual equation is the increase of the Moon’s orbit and period when the Earth is in perihelion, and the decrease of orbit and period in aphelion. A lunar day is 24 hours 50 minutes 28 seconds, and in that time the Tides rise twice. The Equinoxes and Apsides. As the Earth, like every other revolving body, turns once on its axis while revolving round the Sun, (as the mechanical effect of the orbit,) and as this extra rotation is not lost, so it displays itself, first, by arriving at an orbit point too soon, and by a subsequent extension of the orbit. The Equinoctial year is 365 2422569 days, log. 2*562581. The Sidereal is 365*256384, log. 2*562598. The return to the Apses or anomolistic and physical year is 365*259703, log. 2*562602. These, as the last determina- tions, give 365d. 5h. 48m. 51 sec., 6h. 9m. 9*577 sec. and 6h. 14m. 16*34 sec. That is, 365 days, and 20931 seconds of time over, 22149 seconds over, and 22456 over. Or, as to space 8590*57, 9090*66, and 9220*22 over the tropical year. Taking the sidereal as the true orbit of 360°, the tropical orbit or re- turn, the point for the next year to the Sun is in 359° 59/ 90*91, and the orbit is in- creased as to the apsis to 360° 01 1 2 // *56. The Earth makes one silent rotation by going round in an orbit, and this is mea- sured by the difference between the sidereal and solar day. The diurnal rotations are produced by the orbit force, but this inci- dental rotation is merely a rotation from change of position as to the Sun, while as a rotation it has its own force, and this neces- sarily carries it onward a whole circumfer- ence in the orbit. This quantity, 24,897 miles, is therefore gained in the orbit, and the arrival at the former solar nodes or points are quickened ; hence the old node is anti- cipated by that quantity which, at 93 mil- lions distance, fs in the orbit an angle of 55*2237 seconds, and at 94 ^ as 54*647 se- conds. But, as* this last in the ecliptic is in the equator as 1*098 to 1, it becomes 50*098 seconds = 20 minutes 1 9*9 seconds, the exact precession of the equinoxes. In regard to its orbit, the Earth has two relations, one physical to the central Sun, and another visual to the external stars. In regard to time, its mean motions being equable, every gain in time is a loss of motion, and every loss of time is a gain of motion, or as time diminishes, motion in- creases, and as time increases, motion is decreased. So in regard to motions, every increase in the same distance is a decrease to time, and every decrease in motion is an increase of time. Then, in regard to the Sun and stars, every acceleration in the solar orbit is an acceleration of visible solar points, and an advance *of the stars as ta those points ; and every retardation in the orbit as to the central sun is a retardation of visible solar points, and a falling back as to the stars. The early approach of the point of the tropic might be taken at the solstices, or any other solar point, for it in no way varies, the real orbit not being itself any motion or measure. If in a road-book an inn were put down five miles farther off than it proved to be, the meeting it five miles sooner would not extend or shorten the length of the whole road. The sidereal year is, therefore, the true solar year, and the anomalistic the true physical year. The one is 36(P, and the other 3600 0 / 1 20*56. The tropical stop = 359° 59/ 9'/ *91. The sidereal circle = 360'\ The physical year = 360° 0/ 12" 56. The whole excess over the tropical 62" 65 (usually taken as 61*99) is quite neutral, but the tropic being made the standard, mea- sured from in all years, so 620*65 is a con- stant excess over the shortened tropical. Then, with reference to the extra circum- ference of the Earth, 24,899 miles, with 8*7 parallax, it is 54" 69 in the orbit ; with 8*75 parallax it is 5b" ; and with 8 8 paral- lax it is 55*318; while 500*098 in the Ecliptic is 54*613, being as exact a coincidence with the parallax 8*7 as could be expected. There- fore, the extra circumference, incidentally in operation, is the cause of that acceleration which carries the Earth to the Tropic or Equator before its sidereal period. The Sidereal or complete revolution of the Earth round the Sun, is performed ir. 365 days 6 hours 9 minutes 9*6 seconds, or 90*577 ; or 365*256384 days. Log. 2*562598. It commences from the last Tropic, and is measured to the return to a point which is 36(P from that last tropic. But before com . pleiing the 36(P or sidereal year, (the Earth being accelerated by an extra rotation from going round in an orbit) it arrives at the Tropic 500*098 of space, or 1219*9 seconds too soon. The point in the Equator which the Earth’s centre crosses in the Ecliptic being determined by the Stars, these as to the Tropic seem to advance ; and to com- plete the 360° the Earth has to move other 50 ,; *098 of space, or 1219*9 seconds of time. If we imagine two hoops crossing as Nodes at an angle of 23° *2 7 1 40" and one of them representing the orbit, it is evident that an increase of orbit motion, at the same mean distance from the prune mover, must occasion the Earth to arrive at the Nodes or Tropics sooner by a space equal to the increased motion. The tropical year, which determines 415 ASTRONOMY. — PRECESSION, &C. 418 our seasons, is 365 *5 *48*490*7, or 51 0 , or 365*2422569 days, log. 2*562531, seeming to fall back, as to the Stars, it occasions their apparent advance of a degree in 71 '86 years, or through 360° in 25,869 years. The sidereal year of 360° does not, how- ever, complete the revolution of the major axis of the Earth’s orbit, for this advances other 307 or 306*763 seconds of time, or 120*56 of space; and then this advance per- fects the orbital or anomalistic year of 365*259703 days, log. 2*562602. It consists of 365 days and 22456 seconds. These additions are, however, parts of the true orbit, and are not to be mixed in any ■way with relations of the measure to the tropic, and the apparent retreat of the kind of the mile-stone, called the tropic. The quantity of the precession, and the apsides’ overplus being performed beyond the Equinoctial, (as measured at those points,) it appears that the Equinoctial, from whence R. A. is reckoned, must constantly vary, and hence those northings and south- ings of which Pond complained, but which have never before been explained. Hence, if the whole quantity 10"*87 is taken, the Equinoctial would mo7e N. and S. round the heavens in 1,192,000 years. Extending this principle to Venus, we find the retreat of her node 310*4 as the first quantity, and the ecliptic advance of her apsides 470*4, making 780*8. Thus we get 720*3 as the measure of her circumference in her orbit. Then log. of 72*3 from log. of 1296000 seconds in orbit, gives log. 4*253467 for the number of circumferences, and the log. of Venus’s circumference in miles is 4*383643. Then 4*253347 -f 4383643 = 8*637110 Venus’s whole orbit in miles. From this take the log. of 6*2832, and we get log. of Venus’s distance 7*838930, and the log. of the agreed distance is 7*838849 This example, and those ot the Earth and Moon, prove the principle that the retreat of the nodes is truly an advance of the planets on the nodal points, and that the advance of the major axis is solely caused by the addition of a circumference to the orbit, subject, nevertheless, to modifications from satellites, &c. &c. Precession and Apsides. Astronomers mistake in deducting the re- trocession of the Nodes from the advance of the Apsides. The one is terrestrial only, and the other relates to the change of posi- tion of the orbit. The imaginary point of the Node does not move ; but only the Earth sooner crosses the Ecliptic, and this has no concern with the orbit and its motions by the advance of the major axis. The diffe- rence, if correct, would extend the revolu- tion of the Apsides to 109,830 years. As the force is alternately North and South of the Equator at each Node, the Nutation of the axis is a consequence, de- pendant on the lat. of the Moon, and this c#ain on the Moon’s Nodes, as is the fact. The solar parallax is varied by instru- ments, from S'/ *578 to 90*343, but the true mean parallax is the quantity 550*1335, which the Earth’s circumference measures in the orbit, divided by 6*2832, i. e. 80*7/5 ; which, by 12*5664, is equal to the joint angle of the precession, and the advance of the Apsides, with some very small allowance for obliquity, &c. As the radius and circle have similar ra- tios, the number of Earth’s circumferences in the orbit is also the number of semi-dia- meters in the distance. The former is at a mean about 23452 = 550*262 for a circum- ference ; and this, by 6*2832, gives a paral- lax = 80*7952, subject to reduction for the Moon. Then, 23452 X 2 and 55*262 X 2 = the joint periods and seconds of the pre- cession and Apsides. Small discrepancies grow out of data in- volved in other quantities, and it may be doubted, whether observations are correct within half a second, and also whether the present are mean measures; the mean pre- cession for 200 years, for example, was 500*3, but the last 4 make it only 50*098. So the Apsides is called 610*9, but the exact time makes it 610*583, or *56. We determine the position of the New Equinoxial, or its distance from the old one at the completion of the sid. orbit, thus. As Rad. to 500*09 1*699751 So Tang. 23 2737 9 637495 To New Dec. 210*74, or 1 i 100 87 for N. and S. j 1 The product of the sine of the Polar in- clination by its cosine, or the sine of the complement by the trigonometrical radius 10, is equal to the number of days and parts of a day in the revolution of the Earth round the Sun. Thus P. sine X P. cosine X 10 as Radius Days, &c. in a year. Sine 230 27 / 430*58 ...... = 0*600042 Cosine Ditto 0 962523 Radius 10 1 000000 365 d. 5 h. 28/ 53*760 . . = 2*562565 -f- 20 5*7 sidereal over tro- [picai 365 5 48 59 46 Von Zach makes it 365 days 5 hours 48/ 480*016, and Quetelet 5 hours 48/ 510. Cor. 1. As all history fixes the gross number of days, then if the angle of obliquity varies we may infer that the distance varies, so as to vary the Solar force acting as 10, the relative standard. Cor. 2. The coincidence shews the iden- tical connection of time and motion, for, in fact, the resulting expression may be called rotations and parts of a rotation, instead of days, hours, &c. Cor. 3. As the inclination varies a degree in 7500 years, so ‘11 that time the year would be 11 days longer, or the Earth would be nearly a million of miles nearer the Sun, which last is the more probable result. See Supplement, for new planetary bo- dies. * 4i7 CHEM CHEMISTRY. Chemistry is the science of atoms ; it de- tects their relative powers, their laws of combination, and their means of decomposi- tion. It enables us, in conventional lan- guage, to understand the construction of bodies, and is one of the most instructive and most useful studies. Beyond all question, the activity of atoms, their actions and reactions, and their asto- nishing excitements, are derived from the great motions of the Earth of 65,000 miles direct, and 1000 deflected and oblique in every hour. We see the effect of the action and reaction of the Moon in the waters, and we may infer, that the great motions have greater power on the divisible solid parts. The action, too, is constant, and has conti- nued for indefinite ages , so that order and system would now characterize every mo- tion and result ; and establish a succession of dependence and of activity with perfect harmony. To this primary cause we are also to ascribe correlative actions in the ef- fects which we call electricity, the laws of the diffusion of heat, evaporation, &c., also the definite proportion of kinds of atoms mingled in substances, governed as the whole are by the arithmetic of motion. To the same cause we are also to refer those rela- tive effects on one kind of matter or another, called their antagonist qualities, and all their decomposing and recomposing powers. The science of Chemistry assumed its mo- dern character in the hands of Beecher and Stahl, residents of Mentz. They first per- ceived the connection of the atmosphere and of gases, with the production of phenomena, and paved the way for the discoveries of Bergman and Schecle, two Swedes, who died in 1784 and 1786, and those of Priestley in England, and Lavoisier in France j while Berzelius, another Swede, Fourcroy, Ber- thollet, and GayLussac, in France; Higgins, Dalton, Thompson, YVollaston, Davy, and Faraday, in England, have conferred preci- sion on its pursuits. Cavendish, in 1766, discovered hydrogen. Priestley, between 1774 and 1779, discovered oxygen, azote, and nitrous gas. In 1784, Cavendish decomposed water. In 17/5, La- voisier analyzed atmospheric air, combustion, &c. In 1784, the New Nomenclature ap- peared, and conferred conventional language. The first object is the Nomenclature : Sulphur, by combining with oxygen, pro- duces an acid. But this acid is in two states of saturation, having different properties. It is then requisite to follow all the saline compounds of these two acids, and to attend to sulphur in its other direct combinations, with earths, alkalies, and metals. Five ter- minations distinguish these./foe states of the same principle. 1. Sulphur ic acid denotes sulphur in the utmost degree of saturation with oxygen. 2. Sulphur ous acid denotes sulphur united with a smaller proportion of oxygen. 3. Sulph ate is the generic name of all the salts formed by the sulphuric acid. I ST It Y. 418 4. Sulph ite is the name of the salts formed by the sulphurows acid. 5. Sulphur et is the name of all the com- binations of sulphur not acidulous. Combined with oxygen, Carbon is Car - bonic acid. The same in gas, is carbonic acid gas. Oxydized, and forming salts with bases of earth, alkali, or metal, it is called carbon . ate of lime, or potash, or iron. Combined without oxygen, it becomes with iron carbur et of iron, &c. Salts are distinguished by two names, one denoting the acid, the other the base. Thus, sulph ate of soda is a combination of sul- phur ic acid and soda ; sulph ate of iron is compounded of sulphur ic acid and iron ; muri ate of soda is a compound of muriat ic acid and soda. Salts composed of acids ending in ous, have the termination ite in- stead of ate. Example in Sulphur : Sulphur ic acid, a strong acid. Sulphur ous acid, a weak one. Sulphur et of iron, sulphur and iron. Protoxide of sulphur is the first degree. Deut- oxide the second degree. Trit-onide the third degree. Pcr-oxide many degrees. Sulph ate is the salt of sulphur ic acid. Sulph ite the salt of sulphur ous acid. Pi-sulphate the salt of a double dose. Ffypo-sulphurous acid, — less oxygen than sulphurous acid (1 to 2). PTi/po-sulphuricacid, — less than sulphuric. A Laboratory consists of a furnace, sand- baths, tables, filtering-stands, sink, cup- boards, shelves, crucibles, flasks, retorts, re- ceivers, bottles, a mortar, an anvil, and car- penters’ tools ; blow-pipe, spatulas, glass- tubes, lute-sand, charcoal, weights, scales, and measures ; an Argand lamp, thermo- meters, pyrometer, barometer, hygrometer, hydrometer, Wollaston’s scale, &c. &c. All compound bodies, even the smallest portions of them, are composed of the same constituents, united in fixed proportions This discovery was made by Higgins, Berg- man, Kirwan, and Weusel ; and perfected by Richter, Berthollet, Wollaston, and Dal- ton. Gay Lussac also shewed that one volume of any gas always combines with one, two, or three of another gas. Weusel, in 1777; Higgins, in 1789; and Richter, in 1792, announced the fact with full details, that atoms of different bodies unite only in definite proportions, or in even multiples of those proportions. In 1804, Dalton adopted the views of Weusel, Hig- gins, and Richter, and Thomson, Berzelius, and Wollaston, gave them currency. It is, in fact, now believed, that all the elements are exact multiples of the weight of atoms of hydrogen. Compounded bodies whose elements are gaseous, consist either of equal volumes of those elements, or, if one exceed the other, the excess is some multiple of the volume. This subservience to arithmetic, proves that the whole is mechanical, and at nc P *19 CHEMISTRY. 420 time is there any resultant of powers, per se t or sui generis. It was for ages well-known to every apo- thecary’s apprentice, that solutions took and take place only in known definite ratios, and it had been published in many books that 2$ lbs. of water would dissolve 1 lb. of com- mon salt, or 1 lb. of water oz. of salt. A lb. of water was then put into a long necked bottle, and marked with a file where it was inch wide, tapering upward to Then 220 grains of salt raised the water half an inch ; then 72 grains of sugar raised the half inch to § ; and afterwards 24 grains of alum raised it to a full inch ; and an additional 24 grains raised the water to 1| inch. — Higgins. In rendering these relations numerical, some body is taken as a standard, that which combines in the smallest proportions, and this being hydrogen, it is made the integer, or 1. The next is carbon, 6 ; the next is oxygen, 8 ; and the next nitrogen, 14. Whether two substances combine by weights or volumes, the proportions are the same ; the numbers, therefore, for the gases are the same as their base. Wollaston’s scale greatly simplifies this Atomic Theory. It gives the best determi- nations of numbers, and multiplies the con- stituents at sight. Some chemists consider the numbers as the weight of single atoms of the bodies, the ratios holding for any number. The weight of an atom of hydrogen is 0 132, but it is taken, on Wollaston’s scale, as one- eighth of an atom of oxygen at 1, or as 0-125 ; or oxygen being taken as 8, hy- drogen of course is 1. Brande makes oxygen 7 5, water 8 5, chlorine 33 5, nitrogen 13, sulphur 15. phos- phorous 11, and carbon 5 7. Then, as 8 parts by weight of oxygen, and one of hydrogen, form water , the equivalent numbers of the three are 8, 1, 9. If oxygen be taken as 10, then hydrogen is 1*25, and water 11 25. If oxygen be taken as 1, then hydrogen is 0125, and water 1*125. Berzelius makes oxygen 100, hydrogen 12 5, &c. But 8 for oxygen is generally used. An atom of carbon is 0*751 ; of sulphur 2 0434 ; of ammonia is 2*128 ; of magnesia 2*503 ; of lime 3 62 ; of barytes 9*7 ; of oxa- lic acid 4*625 ; of chlorine is 4*498. An atom of platinum is 12*161 ; of gold 24*838 ; of silver 13*714 ; ofiron7‘143; of copper 8 ; of antimony 11*249; of lead 25*974; of tin 14 705 ; of manganese 6*833. These are the standards for the equiva- lents of all other bodies. Bodies of two equivalents, or atoms, are binary , as water, 1 O -f 1 H, and carbonic oxide, 1 O + 1 C. Others of three, ternary , as deutoxide of hydrogen, 2 0 4- 1 H, and carbonic acid, 2 O 4" 1 C ; others quarter - nary , &c. Water is formed in bulk of one volume of oxygen, and two volumes of hydrogen ; for, when water is decomposed by electricity, the hydrogen at the negative pole is double the volume of the oxygen at the positive. A cubic foot of water is 1000 ounces of 437*5 grains each, i. e. 437,500 grains. Then a cubic foot of hydrogen weighs but 38 grains, so that water is to hydr. as 11,500 to 1. or their Bases, and the Principal Acids, are as under : — Peroxide of Hydrogen .. H. 1 4- O 16 = 17 Nitrous Oxide -- ... N. 14 4-0 8 = 22 Nitric Oxide . . N. 14 4- O 16 = 30 Hvponitrous Acid .. N. 14 + O 24 = 38 Nitrous Acid - . N. 14 4- O 32 46 Nitric Acid .. N. 14 4- O 40 = 54 Carbonic Acid .. C. 6 4- O 1.6 = 22 Carbonic Oxide . . C. 6 4-0 8 = 14 Hyposulphurous Acid . . s. 32 4-0 8 = 40 Sulphurous Acid .. s. 16 4- O 16 = 32 Sulphuric Acid . . s. 16 4- O 24 = 40 Hyposulphuric Acid 32 4- O 40 = 72 Phosphoric Acid Ph. 31*42 4- O 40 = 71*42 Muriatic Acid Gas .. .. Ch. 36 4- H 1 = 37 Protoxide of Chlorine 36 4-0 8 — 44 Peroxide ditto 36 4- O 32 68 Chloric Acid .. Ch. 36 4- O 40 — 76 Perchloric Acid .. Ch. 36 -f O 56 — 92 Perchloride of Carbon .. Ch. 108 4- C 12 = 120 Hydriodic Acid .. Iod. 126 + H 1 = 127 Ammoniacal Gas .. H. 3 -}- N 14 — 17 Carburetted Hydrogen .. H. 2 4- C 6 — 8 Olefiant Gas 2 4- C 12 = 14 Sulphuretted Hydrogen .. S. 16 + H 1 = 17 Phosphuretted Hydrogen Ph. 94*26 4- H 1 = 95 26 Prussic Acid 26 4- H 1 = 27 Cyanogen 12 4- N 14 = 26 For Specific Gravities, Sec former article. CHEMISTRY, 421 Taking hydrogen as 1, and oxygen as 8, the whole are as follows ; and, from them, the numbers for acids and salts may be easily formed by additions. Alumina .. .. «. 10 Al. Antimony . . .. .. 64 Sb. Arsenic . . .. .. 38 As. Barium .. 68 Ba. Bismuth .. 72 Bi. Boron .. 8 B. Bromine . . . . .. 80 Br. Cadmium .. 56 Cd. Calcium .. 20 Ca. Carbon . . .. 6 C. Cerium .. 44 Ce. Chlorine .. 36 Cl. Chromium .. 32 Cr. Cobalt .. 26 Co. Columbium (182) or .. 144 Cm Copper (32) or .. 64 Cu. Fluorine . . .. 10 F. Gold .. 100 Au Hydrogen . . . . .. 1 H. Iodine (125) or . . .. 126 I. Iridium (100) or .. 98 Ir. Iron m m m m .. 28 Fe. Lead .. 104 Pb. Lithium m m .. 6 L. Manganese .. .. 28 Mn. Mercury . . .. 100 Hg. Molybdenum . . .. 48 Mo. Nickel m m .. 26 Nk. Nitrogen m m . . . . 14 N. or Az. Osmium . . .. 100 Os. Oxygen .. 8 O. Palladium .. 54 Pd. Phosphorus .. 16 Ph. Platinum m . * m .. 96 Pt. Potassium .. 40 R. Rhodium _ . . . .. 54 R. Selenium .. 40 Se. Silica . . .. 16 SI. Silicium .. 8 Si. Silver .. 110 A g. Soda m m .. 32 Sd. Sodium .. 24 N. Strontium m m .. 44 Sr. Sulphur .. 16 S. Tellurium . . m m .. 32 Te. Tin . . .. 58 Sn. Titanium . . 26 Ti. Tungsten . . .. 100 Tg. XJranium U. Water . . .. 9 Aq. Yttrium .. 36 Y. Zinc m „ .. 26 Zn. Zirconium . . .. 22 Z. 100 parts of pure Water contain 88 9 of oxygen to 1 1*1 of hydrogen, or 8 to 1. A cubic inch of Water, ther. 60 deg. weighs 252-52 grains, and contains 28 06 grains of hydrogen and 224 46 oxygen. The maximum density of Water is at 39° 39/, and it expands as cooled to 32^, the freezing point. In freezing, it further ex- pands, so that a cubic inch of water has displayed a force of 27,000 lbs. If Water is saturated with a third of its weight of salt, it will still dissolve sugar ; saturated with carbonic acid it dissolves iron. 422 Aqueous vapour at 32° raises the mer- curv 0 2 ; at80°, an inch; at 163°, 10 inches; at 180°, 15 ; and at 212°, about 30. At 60° the aqueous vapour is l-6th; at 93°, 1 -20th. In Madeira, the quantities vary from l-35th to 1-1 00th. The difference between Thames and dis- tilled Water is as 1 0006 to 1. Rain-water is equivalent to distilled water. Water may be saturated with oxygen by the peroxide of barium. When at the specific gravity of T45 it acts as a caustic on the skin, and detonates on being thrown on finely-divided silver, and on some of the other metals in powder. — Tkenard. Oxygenated water, is a compound of I hydrogen, and 16 oxygen. Oxygenated water, or peroxide of hydro- gen, is easily restored into oxygen and water by mixing alkalies, or by introducing solid metals, which act just as alkalies, and with- out being changed. The effect is electrical between the uncombined oxygen and the alkaline base of the metal; and is a new form of galvanic action, proving that all metals are like potassium, &c. ; that is, alka- lies and earth, while crude ores, as generated by galvanic action in veins, are oxygen, hy- drogen, and aura of rocky matter. Water heated in a strong closed vessel has melted lead at 612 u . Perkins compressed water 1-1 2th with 2000 atmospheres. The air which rises from pure water, under an air-pump, contains 34 8 per cent, of oxygen, and, by boiling, 32 per cent Fish breathe this air. One carburetted hydrogen explodes with five oxygen. Atmospheric air is to water as 1 to 828. Gas, standing over water at 42^ Fah. imbibes 0 01 aqueous vapour, at 53° it is 0 015, at 60° it is 0 0186, at 70^ it is 0 0256, and 80° it is 0 0353. 100 measures of oxygen gas, at 1*111, and 200 of hydrogen, at 0 0694, form water. Water boils in the vacuum of a good pump at 70° of heat; with the barometer at 29 at 2100-19; at 30, 212°, and at 31, 2130-76. At 212°, its steam has 1000° of heat. A pound of water at 60°, and a pound of mercury at 212° give as the mean 64°9, or 71°’l too little, and add but 4 9 to the water. The specific heat of mercury to that of water is, therefore, considered 1 to 30. Si- milar variations appear in other bodies. The volume of 28 06 hydrogen in gas is 1325 cubic inches; and of 22446 grains of oxygen is 662 cubic inches ; consequently, the cubic inch is expanded T987 times. Air, in 100 volumes, consists of 79 9735 of nitrogen, and 20 0265 of oxygen ; 100 cubic inches at a mean is 30*8115 grains. When 100 volumes of air are mixed with 42 of hydrogen, and exploded, the volumes are reduced to 60. The 42 hydrogen and 21 oxygen are converted into water. A volume of air contains 0 000415 of car- bonic acid gas, or 0 000574 in frost, and 0 00031 3 in wet weather. This makes the nitrogen 80 and oxygen 20. P 2 CHEMISTRY. 423 424 100 cubic inches of air are equal to 30 5 grains, of oxygen 33 8, hydrogen 24, nitro- gen 29 7, chlorine 76 3. Coal gas, or Carburetted hydrogen , is formed by 1 weight of carbon, and 2 weights cf hydrogen. Then the number for carbon is 5 ‘7, and for hydrogen 1. Carbon 57 + hydrogen 2 = 7 '7. Olefiant gas is constituted of 1 propor- tional of carbon = 57 + hydrogen = 1, and its number is 67. Carbonic acid consists of 2 oxygen, and 1 carton ; and 2 oxygen being 16, and 1 car- bon 6, the number for carbonic acid is 16 + 6 = 22 . Ammonia consists of 1 nitrogen, and 3 hydrogen; i. e. 14 + 3 = 1 7- Four volumes of nitrogen, with one of oxygen, form atmospheric air in all situa- tions, high and low, hot and cold. A bulk of 1000 of air, at 32 degrees, be- comes 1152 at 100 degrees, 1376 at 212 degrees, and 2797 at 1000 degrees. It con- sists of 79 azote or nitrogen, and 21 of oxy- gen or vital air in bulk. And their specific gravities being 1 093 and ’978, so 100 parts in weight is 77’44 nitrogen and 22 57 oxygen. 100 measures of carbonic oxide, and 50 of oxygen, make 100 of carbonic acid. Metallic oxides are formed by one, two, or three equal doses of oxygen. The oxygen in the acid of a neutral salt is a multiple of the oxygen in the base by 2, 3, 4, &c. 100 cubic inches of oxygen, combined with burning charcoal, is 100 of carbonic acid gas, weighing 46 313 grains, of which the carbon weighs 12 641, and the original oxy- gen 33-672. 100 cubic inches of carburetted hydrogen weigh 296 grains, the carbon is 25 4. 100 cubic inches of hydrogen weigh 2 117 grains'; and the same, combined with 33 773 sulphur, make 100 of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, weighing 35 89. 100 measures of azote and 300 of hydro- gen, make 200 of ammoniacal gas. And so for other gases, in the exact pro- portion of their equivalents. 33 5 or 67 of chlorine form chlorides. 50 5 or 101 nitric acid form nitrates. 37 ‘5 or 75 sulphuric form sulphates. 207 of carbonic form carbonates. 25 of phosphoric form phosphates. 15 or 30 sulphur form sulphur ets. Copper filings and sulphur unite in the proportions of 80 copper to 20 sulphur, and also 64 of copper to 32 sulphur. On mixing oxygen and nitrogen, no con. densation takes places. The bulk is equal to the bulk of the two, and the specific gravity is the mean of both. But when 100 measures of carbonic oxide and 50 measures of oxygen gas are united, the compound is only 103 measures ; and when 100 measures of azote are mixed with 300 measures of hydrogen, they form only 200 measures of ammoniacal gas. In mixed gases, the particles of the same only act on each other. A division of all substances into electro- negative and electro-positive arises from the position they take when acted on by the poles of a voltaic battery. Those which go to the negative pole are called electro- positive , and those to the positive pole electro -negative. Oxygen and chlorine are electro-negative, and hydrogen and nitrogen are electro-positive. Davy considered the non-metallic ele- ments, oxygen, chlorine, bromine, and iodine as electro -negative ; and hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorous, selenium, carbon, silicon, and boron, as electro-positive. Their acid binary compounds are electro- negative , and the rest neutral, except am- monia, which alone is an alkaline base, or electro-positive. Then their unions with salifiable bases of the 22 acids are salts. The natural metals afford nine acids, all from 2 arsenic, 2 molybdenum, 2 antimony, 1 Columbian, 1 tungsten, and 1 chromium. 22 alkaline binary compounds, and 26 neu- tral. Their compounds, being reduced at the negative or alkaline side of the voltaic battery, are electro-negative. The oxides of mercury, silver, gold, plati- num, rhodium, iridium, osmium, nickel, paladium, and their binary compounds, are reduced by heat alone, and are called electro- positive. Lead, cobalt, copper, bismuth, arsenic, antimony, and eight others, retain and ab- sorb oxygen at high temperatures. Tin, iron, zinc, cadmium, manganese, and their binary compounds, retain oxygen, and decompose water, at high temperatures. Potassium, sodium, and other alkaline metals, decompose water at the common temperature, and absord oxygen at all tem- peratures. Silex is acidulous and electro-negative in its affinities. It renders bodies acidulous or electro-negative in various degrees, down to potash, the highest electric positive of alka- line substances. These terms, electro-positive and electro- negative, are equivalent to the acid and alkaline of the last generation. Dry alkalies, touched by metals, are po- sitive, and dry acids negative ; and dry acids and alkalies similarly affect each other. Davy, therefore, ascribes chemical affinity to opposite electrical states. Oxygen , the supporter of vitality and fire, was first discriminated as a distinct gas by Priestley, in 1774. Its existence was known to Scheele as empyrial air ; but, as the antagonist of combustible gas, or Stahl’s phlogiston, he called it dephlogisticated air. Oxygen gas is procured by heating to redness the per-oxide of manganese, which is 28 M + 16 O. One ounce yields 128 cubic inches, and the per-oxide becomes a prot-oxide, or 28 M + 8 O. It is also ob- tained from chlorate of potash, 124 grains of which yield 48 grains, or 141 cub. in. of oxygen. Also from nitre. Hydrogen, the phlogiston of Scheele and Priestley, is that gas which, when excited, immediately combines with oxygen, and produces flame, by which the oxygen dis* CHEMISTRY, 425 appears, and a new concentrated substance is produced. From this connexion with flame, Cavendish called it inflammable air, but it is now called hydrogen , because in bulk it is the chief constituent of water. It is in all bodies which burn with flame. Hydrogen gas is made by putting iron or zinc into sulphuric acid, diluted with four parts of water. The smell arises from car- buretted hydrogen. An oxide possesses no acid properties, and oxygen gas has neither acid nor alkaline properties; and hydrogen has neither co- lour, nor taste, nor odour. Neither oxygen, nor hydrogen, change vegetable colours. Hydrogen is exploded by a burning body, when two parts are mixed with 10 or 12 of air, or with one of oxygen. phosphuretted hydrogen is generated by the decomposition of animal bodies, and, hence, has produced phenomena in church- yards favourable to superstition. Hydrogen and oxygen do not combine at ordinary temperatures, but hydrogen burns, and combines with oxygen, when excited into more motion, or set on fire. A jet of it on spongy platinum takes fire. One lb. in burning, melts 320 lbs. of ice. Sulphuretted hydrogen is poisonous, and the 250th part of it in the atmosphere has killed a horse. It tarnishes metals ; and it gives the flavour of rotten eggs to w r ater. Sulphuretted hydrogen, 70 857 sulphur and 29'143 hydrogen, changes litmus and radish infusions to red, is soluble in water, and decomposes soap. It is in all respects like an acid, but it changes the syrup of violets green. Hydrogen gas may be taken into the lungs, but cannot be respired for more than a minute. Small animals die in it much sooner. Sounds in it become acute. Hydrogen gas may be obtained in marshes or stagnant waters, in hot weather. If a bottle be filled with water, and a funnel put in, and both held downward in a ditch, and the mud stirred at the bottom, the gas rises into the bottle, and displaces the water; lighted, it burns with a fine blue flame. An ounce of zinc, with water and acid, yields 676 cubic inches of hydrogen gas, and of iron 782. Priestley discovered Nitrogen to be the other component of the atmosphere ; and it is also called Azote. It is the gas that remains after atmospheric air has been deprived of its oxygen ; and it is found to be about four-fifths, 7 9 to 21, or 4 to 1. .Separation may be effected, by put ting sul- phur and iron filings into a close vessel ; they absorb oxygen, and leave hydrogen. Nitrogen may also be obtained by burning phosphorus under a close vessel, the oxygen being fixed by the combustion, and the residue nitrogen. It is colourless, and de- void of taste or smell, and has no effect on vegetable colours. Berzelius and Davy con- sider it a compound. When nitric-acid and oil of turpentine are mingled, and produce flame, it arises from the fixation of the oxygen in one by the 420 hydrogen of the other, as in all cases of ordinary ignition. The previous motion in the fluids is dispersed. In a mixture of lime, magnesia, and nitric-acid in equal weights, the first and last unite ; and if the two last have been united, and lime is presented, the magnesia is separated, and the nitric-acid unites with the lime. The flame which takes p’lace on mixing phosphuretted hydrogen and oxygen gases, arises from the fixation of the oxygen b} the hydrogen, and the radiation of its motion. Charcoal is a hard substance, unchange- able by heat, or acids, or alkalies, and a non-electric. It absorbs from an eighth to a fifth of its weight of gases, and gives them out again when heated ; and it abstracts the odour and colour from most substances. When duly heated, it is converted into carbonic acid gas ; and its pure kinds are Carbon , the purest being the diamond, which burnt, becomes carbonic acid. 100 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas , or oxide of carbon, weight 46 597 gr., consist- ing of 33'888 oxygen, and 12709 of carbon, equal to 22 grains, and have 1 277 specific gravity. Carbonic Acid gas is a product of fermen- tation, and, being heavier than air, it lies over all fermentive processes, puts out a candle, and produces suffocation. At the bottom of wells and coal-mines, it causes the choke-damp, in which a light will not burn, but w'hich may be dispersed by throw r - ing water into it. Water constantly absorbs it in the ratio of pressure, and parts with it when the pressure is removed, called effervescence m bottled liquors. It renders lime-water turbid, and combines with alkalies. Vast volumes of carbonic acid gas escape from pits and lakes. It abounds in marble and chalk ; and .may be separated by heat, or by any of the acids. In burning lime, the carbonic acid flies off in gas, leaving the calcareous earth pure. If we put pounded marble, or lime-stone, into a retort with sulphuric acid diluted with water, carbonic acid will be disengaged, and pure lime will combine with the acid, and form sulphate of lime, or gypsum. If we pour it into a wider-mouthed vessel, though invi- sible, it will pour out like water. 100 oz. of lime fix 78 5 of carbonic-acid, and this is chalk and marble. 100 of potash fixes 46 of carbonic-acid, and by pressure 92. Carbonic acid gas reddens litmus paper, and combines with alkalies, alkaline earths, and metallic oxides. The charred, or carbonized beams at Her- culaneum, have undergone no change in 1800 years. A compound of carbon and hydrogen, called carburetted hydrogen , is disengaged in certain natural operations, particularly in the decomposition of vegetables ; and it is the gas evolved in stagnant waters. It may be procured by distilling fcoal. It is also the gas which is evolved at the wick of a lamp or candle, when excited ; and by .fixing and CHEMISTRY. 427 continuing to fix the oxygen of the atmo- sphere, it creates great local heat, which protrudes the surrounding atoms as light. It is carburetted hydrogen which takes fire in coal-mines, and which, under the name of fire-damp, destroys so many miners. Silica is the basis of the mineral world, and Carbon of the organized. Pure silex or silicon is a dark brown solid without lustre, and infusible. Sulphur is found in conjunction with silver, copper, antimony, lead, and iron. It is a negative electric, specific gravity 199. It melts at 240°, and may be cast to 280°. It thickens by evaporation at 320°, and at 428° becomes a soft paste. At 550° it boils, evaporates, and produces flowers of sulphur. It has four combinations with oxygen ; two and one in hypo-sulphurous acid ; one and two in sulphurous acid ; one and three in sulphuric acid; and two and five in hypo- sulphuric. Sulphur is made from pyrites, and has 7 per cent, of orpiment earth ; but volcanic sulphur brought from Italy has but three per cent. 15,000 tons per annum are im- ported, to make gunpowder and sulph. acid. Phosphorus is the base of an acid found in urine and bones, and the oxygen is de- tached by charcoal at a red heat. Re-burnt, it forms flakes, and these absorbing vapour become liquid phosphoious acid. It also abstracts oxygen from nitric acid, and is very powerful, being two phosphorus, and five oxygen =71 '42. Phosphoric acid is a very abundant sub- stance, and composes mountains with lime in Spain, &c. It also abounds in ores and animal substances. Various preparations of Phosphorus are used to produce quick inflammation. One of the best is made by putting a piece of phosphorus, an inch long, into a small strong phial, and holding it near the candle, until it melts all over the inside of the glass. If it should inflame by the heat, it is to be immediately stopped. When a light is wanted, a common sulphur- match is to be dipped in the phial, and briskly rubbed against the inside. On withdrawing the match, it will generally be found to be inflamed ; or,, if not, this will be sure to take place by rubbing its point over the top of the cork. Chlorine , or green gas, properly oxy- muriatic acid , is considered as a simple substance, specific gravity 2 5 ; though it yields oxygen by supporting combustion, and combines with hydrogen greedily. It is produced from the action of muriatic acid (36 Ch. 4 Hyd.) on peroxide of manga- nese (28 M -f- 16 O). The results are water, 80+IH, and 36 Ch. ; with 28 M + 8 O. — Davy. Oxymuriatic acid is called chlorine , and assured to be an element; and muriatic acid is asserted to be chlorine and hydrogen, and, therefore, called hydro-chloric acid. But, the inference is questionable, in spite of forced analogies drawn from iodine, lluor, and bromic hydifacids. 424 Chlorine, or oxymuriatic acid, is the basis of salt, which consists of Ch. 36 Sodium 24 ; for, when sulphuric acid is added, its water is decomposed, the hydrogen unites with the Ch. 36, and forms muriatic acid gas 37 ; and the sodium becomes sulphate of soda. — Davy. The specific gravity of muriatic acid gas is T2847 ; and it consists of equal volumes of chlorine and hydrogen. It absorbs water so instantly as at once to melt ice. Water absorbs 480 times of its bulk of the gar, becoming T2109. Chlorine gas destroys the volatile effluvia of putrefaction and infection ; and a solution of the chloride of lime is bleaching powder, and employed in fabrics. A table-spoonful in a wine-glass of water, spread on a plate, destroys all infection, and purifies the air of sick chambers, infected houses, removes smells from drains, privies, &c. Chlorine combines with all metals, and with some in such intense force as to pro- duce flame, as in powdered zinc, arsenic, and antimony. Iodine , or violet gas, resembles chloride gas, and has some of its characters, besides being a product of sea-weeds. Its specific gravity 8 '7, and 100 cubic inches weigh 262 grains. It is a simple substance of the specific gravity of nearly 5. Its odour is like chlorine, and it is very active. It is of a violet colour, easily evaporates, and melts at 22(P. It changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yellow colour, and starch into purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of iodine form iodic acid. It is made from kelp ; is of a dark grey colour, and metallic lustre, and in its gaseous state is purple. It is a remedy in bronchocele. Iodine, whose vapour is violet-blue, with mercury is red, and with lead yellow. Brown oxide of copper produces green and blue salts. Yellow oxide of lead has colour- less salts. Starch and iodine are delicate tests of each other. Iodine, in strong ammonia, forms a highly-detonating powder, being iodide of nitrogen. Bromine is a product of sea-water. Naphtha , &c. are carburets of hydrogeD in equal proportions. Olefiant gas is six parts of alcohol, and 16 of strong sulphuric acid, gasified by heat. Its specific gravity 0 9722 ; and it is carbon 2x6 = 12, hydrogen 2x1 = 2.*'. e. 14. The deutoxide of lead and the peroxide of iron combine in -§ proportions of oxygen, and not evenly, as in other cases. Carbonic oxide gas isl C -f- 1 O = 14, and is inflammable, but arrests animal life « hence the carbon in it, as well as diamond, and all carbon must contain hydrogen ; and, in proof, burnt carbonic oxide is carbonic acid with another dose of oxygen. The vapour of water is equal to the vo. lume of hydrogen contained in it. Tiienard enumerates 28 gases at the CHEMISTRY. 429 freezing point of water; Chlorine and its compounds are green, and nitrous vapour red. Hydrochloric, fluoboric, fluosilicic, and hydriodic, produce white vapours. Inflammable gases are hydrogen, and its sulphurets, arsenurets, tellurets, selenurets, and potassurets ; also hydrurets of phos- phorus and of carbon, carbonic oxide, and cyanogen. Supporters of flame are oxygen, oxide of azote, and of chlorine. Acid gases, which redden litmus, are sulphurous, fluoboric, fluosilicic, hydriodic, hydro-chloric, car- bonic, and chloro-carbonic. Sulphurets and tellurets of hydrogen, and cyanogen, oxide of chlorine, destroy the red which they first produce. Oxygen, azote, hydrogen, hydruret of carbon, carbonic acid, and oxide of azote, have little odour compared with others. Those soluble in one-thirtieth of water are fluoboric, fluosilicic, hydro-chloric, hy- driodic, sulphurous acid, and ammonia. The acid gases, sulphurets, and tellurets of hydrogen, chlorine, cyanogen, and am- monia, are soluble in alkaline mixtures, and alkaline gas in ammonia. The specific gravity and weight of the principal gases are— Weight per cubic inch. Atmospheric air .1-0000.. 0 305 Oxygen .11 111.. 0*33888 Hydrogen .0 0745.. 0021 18 Nitrogen .0-9722.. 0-29652 Sulphurous acid gas 2-222 ..067776 Chlorine gas .2 496 ..0 7625 Muriatic acid gas .1 2847.. 0-39 184 Carburetted hydrogen. . . .0 5554.. 0 1 6939 Carbonic acid .1 5277* .0 46597 The five heaviest gases are- Chloric gas 2496 Nitric acid gas 2 427 Sulphurous acid gas . 2-222 Vapour of ether 2*25 Vapour of alcohol ... 2-1 The four lightest gases are- Carburetted hydrogen 0-555 Arseniacal hydrogen . 0-529 Phosphuretted hydrogen ..0 352 Hydrogen A careful comparison of determinations makes the specific gravities of certain gases 3 5 -LSI as follow : —nitrogen -j-g-, oxygen g , hy- drogen chlorine 2f, steam 0 6235, mu- riatic acid gas, 1-2843, cyanogen T8064, carbon vapour olefiant gas 0 9/09, sul- phuretted hydrogen sulphur vapour The specific gravity of all gaseous bodies is the product of the sum of the atomic weights of their single groupes into The whole are also given in a former table. Dr. Faraday, by decomposing hydrate of chlorine, produced chlorine itself, in a li- quid state, very volatile , with a specific gravity of 133. Davy, from muriate of ammonia and sulphuric acid, produced mu- 430 riatic acid gas as liquid; its explosive pressure at 50° was equal to 40 atmospheres Faraday has also produced liquid sulphurous acid from the gas. It did not freeze at zero, but rapidly evaporated, as the gas, and at 45° expanded as two atmospheres. Its spe- cific gravity is 142. He also produced liquid of sulphuretted hydrogen gas from muiiatic acid and sulphuret of iron ; compared with which, ether was tenacious and oily. It instantly dispersed with a force of 17 atmo- spheres at 50^, and its specific gravity was 0 9. And liquid carbonic acid from car- bonate of ammonia and concentrated sul- phuric acid. It volatizes from the freezing- point to zero, with a force of 36 atmospheres, and is dangerous. Euchlorine was also liquified ; but the tube burst before it could be examined. Nitrous oxide was also dis- tilled in a tube, by heat at one end and cold at the other, from nitrate of ammonia ; but it instantly exploded, with a force of 50 atmospheres. Carbonic acid gas requires the pressure of 60 atmospheres to reduce it to a liquid, and the pressure of the liquid is equal to this power, as long as any of the liquid continues. Cyanogen, from cyanuret of mercury, had a specific gravity of 0 9, and evaporated, with great cold, at 45° with a force of 37 atmospheres. Ammonia gave a liquid, specific gravity 0 76, with 6 5 atmospheres, at 50°. A French chemist has solidified sulphuric acid, and made an hydrate useful, at least, in carriage. Carbonic acid has been solidified and li- quified by Thilorier. The specific gravity of the liquid is 0 83. A jet of the liquid car- bonic acid, directed on the bulb of a spirit thermometer, made it fall to 194° below zero. A jet passed into a phial is expanded 400 times, and the cold solidifies it, as a white powder. Then, if the finger is placed on the powder, the expansion repels the finger, the cold being 231° below zero ! Liquid carbonic acid expands 20 and 29 times equal to 36 and 73 atmosphres, from 32 to 86. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, &c. Mixed with ether it congealed 772 grains of mercury in a few seconds. A jet of it o\ the finger almost destroys its vitality. Attempts to produce hydrogen, oxygen, &e. by generating them under the pressure of strong glass tubes, and condensing with cold, did not succeed. Oxygen gas is produced by heating to redness the peroxide of manganese in an iron retort. Oxygen gas in a small closed vessel, con- sumes charcoal half kindled ; phosphorus and watch-spring, or wire, heated at the end with astonishing intensity, proving that they contained hydrogen, and in the process the oxygen, as gas, disappears, and acids are the products. It equally sustains ani- mals, but is an over-stimulant. 480 grains of zinc slips, effervesced with dilute sulphuric acid, gives out 676 cubic inches of hydrogen. And 480 grains of iron-filings with the same, gives out 782 cubic inches of hydrogen. That from zinc CHEMISTRY. 431 432 is purified by passing It through a solution of caustic potash, and that from iron, by passing it through alcohol. Aqueous vapour, passed over red-hot iron in a glass tube, is recomposed into oxygen, which oxidates the metal, and pure hydrogen corresponding in weight. So oxygen and hydrogen burned in a glass vessel, produces water equal to their weight. The measures of exploding oXygen and hydrogen, are 1 of oxygen to 2 of hydrogen. And of air and hydrogen, is 5 or C of air to 2 of hydrogen. A burnt body is one that has lost its hy- drogen, while its weight is increased by the oxygen fixed in parting with its heat or motion. Mercury may be oxydized by oxy- gen, and the compound be equal to the weight of both ; and the oxygen may after- wards be expelled, and the weights be restored as at first. An hydrogen jet thrown on spongy pla- tina, makes it red-hot, and this fires the hydrogen. Acids are of four kinds, viz. the mineral acids, as the sulphuric acid ; the metallic acids , as the arsenious ; the vegetable acids , as the acetous, or malic; and the animal acids , as the phosphoric and lactic acids. Sixteen are from the mineral kingdom : 1. The sulphuric acid. 2. The sulphurous. 3. The nitric. 4. The muriatic. 5. The oxygenated muriatic. 6. The hyper-oxy- genated muriatic or chlorine. 7 - The car- bonic. 8. The phosphoric. 9. The phos- phorous. 10. The boracic. 1 1. The fluoric. 12. The arsenic. 13. The arsenious. 14. The molybdic. 15. The molybdenous. 16. The chronic. The vegetable kingdom furnishes 12. 1. The acetous. 2. The acetic. 3 The oxalic. 4 . The malic. 5. The citric. 6. The tar- tarous. 7 - The mucous. 8. The gallic. 9. The benzoic. 10. The succinic. 11. The camphoric. 12 The suberic. The animal kingdom supplies 5. 1. The prussic. 2. The lithic. 3. The sebacic. 4. Margaric. 5. Stearic. Besides these, there are, 1. The melitic. 2. The moroxylic. 3. The amniotic. 4. The bombic. 5. The laccic. 6. The rosacic. 7 . The fulmanic. Many of the Acids are found in great abundance in nature, but combined with other substances. Thus, the vast masses of limestone, chalk, and marble, found in every part of the world, are combinations of lime and carbonic acid ; gypsum, of which t-here is so much in different parts of the globe, is composed of lime and sulphuric acid. The most powerful knowm poison is . Prussic acid, called hydrocyanic, and formed from cyanogen, or carburet of nitrogen and hydrogen. The acid in vapour at a mode- rate heat fills the retort and condenses. A single drop put on the tongue of a large dog kills it instantly. It appears to destroy the nervous system. It reddens vegetables, and its constituents are two volumes of carbon, one of hydrogen, and one of nitrogen ; it may also be extracted from bitter almonds. Prussic acid is also obtained from green- tea, and souchong is as effectual in poisoning flies as arsenic. The antidotes mentioned should be imme- diately given in solution ; and the stomach- pump, or an emetic of white vitriol, blue vitriol, or ipecacuanha, employed to eva- cuate the stomach, and bring away the poison. Poisons. — Acid Sulphuric, or oil of vitriol. Acid Hydrochloric , or muriatic. Acid Nitric , or aqua-fortis. Acid Oxalic, (salt of lemons,) often mis- taken for Epsom Salts. Antidotes. — Chalk magnesia, or the plaster of the apartment made into a paste, with water. Solution of soap. Diluents before and after the administrations of the antidotes. Acid Hydrocyanic , or prussic ; laurel water and cyanuret of potassium Anti- dotes. — Cold affusion ; inhalation of diluted ammonia, or chlorine. Antimony , Tartar Emetic. — Antidote. Administer lafge doses of warm water to induce vomiting ; give the powder of Peru- vian bark ; and, as soon as it can be prepared, the infusion of bark, which decomposes the tartar emetic. Arsenic (,the white oxide). — Antidote . The hydrated tritoxide of iron in a dose thirty times greater than that of the poison. Baryta (the oxide, the muriate, and the carbonate). Antidotes. — Sulphate of mag nesia, (Epsom salts), sulphate of soda, (Glauber’s salts), or any alkaline or earthy sulphate. Cantharides. — Antidotes Emetics, if re- quired, demulcents, leeches, and bleeding. Where strangury was produced by a blister, gold beater’s-leaf laid on the plaster obviates this inconvenience, without preventing the usual action of the cantharides. Poisonous Fungi (mushrooms). Emetics. • Sulphuretted Hydrogen. — Carbonic Acid (in brewers’ vats, &c. Fumes of burning charcoal). Antidotes. Free exposure in the air, mo- derate blood-letting from the arm, or from the head. Copper. Blue vitriol and verdigris. (Sul- phate and acetates of copper). — Antidotes. White of eggs, iron-filings, and ferrocyanate of potassium in solution. Lead. Litharge, red lead, white lead, sugar of lead, and Goulard’s extract. — In the first stage, or the irritant form of injury, administer sulphate of magnesia, potash, or soda. The phosphate of soda is a good an- tidote. When palsy supervenes, the regi- men must be regulated carefully. Mercury , the bichloride. (Corrosive sub- limate.) Antidotes. — White of egg diluted in water; or milk, if eggs cannot be ob- tained. Strychnia. Nux Vomica. Evacuate the stomach with the stomach pump, or emetics No antidote is known. Opium ; Laudanum. Antidotes. — Erne, tics of the sulphate of zine, (half a dram, or two scruples,) the stomach pump : or iwjec. tions of tartar emetic must be employed tc CHEMISTRY. 434 433 bring away the poison. The patient should be constantly roused by dragging about the floor, throwing cold water in the face, and giving ammonia, assafcetida, &c. Bleeding sometimes. Zinc Sulphate (white vitriol). Antidotes. — Potass in syrup ; also cream, butter, and chalk. Acids change blue, purple, and green co- lours of vegetables into red ; and neutralize alkalies and earth. Their elementary prin- liple is oxygen. Aqua-fortis , or nitric acid , is, by volume, 100 nitrogen to 250 oxygen ; and, by weight, equivalent 14 of nitrogen to 5 of oxygen, 5 X 8 = 40. So that 14 -f- 40 = 54 is the equivalent or relative weight of an atom of aqua-fortis. It is colourless, and has a specific gravity of 1*51. If 58 of it and 42 of water are mixed, the volume is but 92 65, and the temperature rises from 60° to 140°. It rapidly liquifies snow, and generates great cold. It boils at -4- 248, and freezes — 50. Vitriol, or sulphuric acid , is 1 propor- tional of sulphur 16. 3 of oxygen 24. -f- 1 of water 9, = 49. The volumes are 100 S. and 150 O Its specific gravity is 1 '847, and it boils at 620° and freezes — 15°. Its oily character gave it the name of oil of vitriol. A.cetic acid, or distilled vinegar, is com- posed of oxygen 4414/; hydrogen 5 629; carbon 50 224. Oxalic acid is composed of oxygen 70 689 ; hydrogen 2 745 ; carbon 26 566. Tartaric acid consists of oxygen 69 321 ; hydrogen 6 629 ; carbon 24 05. Citric acid, or juice of lemons, consists of oxygen 59859; hydrogen 6 33; carbon 33811. Gallic acid is carbon 56 64; hydrogen 5; oxygen 38 36. Acids and alkalies are, to each other, like negative and positive ; and, when mixed in equal proportions, neutralize each other ; and, when neutralized, are in equal propor- tions saturated. The principal alkalies are Ammonia, and its carbonate, muriate, sulphate, and ace- tate. Potash, and its carbonate, sub- car- bonate, sulphate, bi-sulphate, nitrate, oxa- late, tartrate, prussiate, and chromate Soda its carbonate, sub and bi j sulphate, ni- trate, muriate, and borate. Alkalies have the power of changing the blue vegetable juices to green, the green to yellow, the yellow to orange, orange to red, and red to purple. Chlorine destroys vege- table colours. 100 of pure potash are equal to 70 of con- centrated sulphuric acid, and thus they are mutual tests. The volatile alkali found as sulphate and muriate exists, which, when separated, is a compound of hydrogen 1/6, and nitrogen 98-24. The only difference in the two alkalies is, that the fixed i§ a compound of oxygen and nitrogen ; and the volatile of hydrogen and nitrogen. When separated, the oxygen of the air burns them by a rapid union. Potash, or fixed vegetable alkali, is pro- cured from the ashes of vegetables exposed to the air ; it runs into liquid, and is very acrid and corrosive. Its specific gravitv is 1 *7. Potassium is formed by exposing an hy- drate of potash to a voltaic circle of 500 double plates of four inches, when the sub- stance appears at the negative pole, oxygen being developed at the positive pole. It is also made by melting potash with iron turn- ings in a gun-barrel. It is solid nitrogen oi hydrogen. Soda is a mineral alkali, but may be pro- cured, like potash, from ashes. Its specific gravity is 134. Lime, or limestone, usually exists in com- bination with carbonic acid, which may be expelled by heat in a kiln, and we then get pure, or quick-lime, which absorbs and fixes water 1*25 to 3 5 lime, with heat. Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is 33 lime, 44 8 sulphuric, and 21 water. It forms beds and strata in secondary formations. When used for casts, &c. it is called Plaster of Paris, large gypsum beds filled with fossil remains existing near Paris. Slaked lime, is called an hydrate of lime. If lime-powder, from which the carbonic acid has been expelled, be exposed to the intense heat of the union of oxygen and hy- drogen at the poles of a voltaic battery, or at the current of a blow-pipe, it is converted into calcium, and during the combustion gives out so much light that a small piece or pea of it may be used in light-houses, and in microscopes, instead of solar light. And fcr this last purpose, chalk exposed to the hydro- oxygen blow-pipe answers equally well. Lime-water renders vegetable blues, green ; yellows, brown ; and reds, purple. Pure lime mixed with sand and water, forms mortar ; which, imbibing carbonic acid from the atmosphere, becomes lime- stone again, and thereby cements walls of brick and stone. Combinations of lime with sulphur and phosphorus, are considered as combinations with the calcium, or base of the lime, and, hence, they are called sulphurets and phos- phurets of calcium. The chloride of lime, or oxymuriate of lime, is formed by passing chlorine over slacked lime, or by drying muriate of lime. It is the bleaching powder used to decom- pose colouring matter in fabrics, by absorb- ing the hydrogen. In manufactories the chlorine is produced by half a ton each c? salt and manganese, with 2-thirds sulphuric acid (1*65), and this saturates as much slacked lime as yields a ton and a half of bleaching-powder. An ounce in a gallon of water is also used as a means of absorbing the hydrogen in odours, and in infectious air by sprinkling. Sulphate of lime is gypsum, and phosphate of lime is 86 in 100, of all animal bones, and itself 55 lime, 45 phosphoric acid. The crystal of carbonate of lime is an obtuse rhomboid of 105° 5 and 74° 55 ; and there are 600 varieties of this rhomboid. CHEMISTRY. 4^5 Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, has its crystals 1 13° 8 and 65 52. 100 of Epsom salt, or sulphate of mag- nesia, yields 1 6 of pure magnesia when heated with 56 and 44 of the sub-carbonates of potash and soda. Carbonate of magnesia, calcined, is the pure earth anti-acid and cathartic. Salts are compounds of acids with alka- lies, earths, and metallic oxides. Thus, there are muriates from muriatic acid, fiuates from fluoric acid, borates from bo- racic acid, and phosphates from phosphoric acid, sulphates from sulphuric acid, car- bonates from carbonic acid, nitrates from nitric acid, oxymuriates from oxymuriatic acid, arceniales from arsenic acid, oxalates from oxalic acid, tartrates from tartaric acid, prussiates from prussic acid, &c. &c. besides phosphites, sulphites, and nitrites, from lower degrees of acidity. All salts consist of an acid and metallic oxide. Commonly, however, the protoxide is the salifiable base. Those oxides soluble in water give a brown stain to yellow tur- meric paper, and restore the blue of red* dened litmus. All the metals are formed into Salts. Thus, there is muriate of gold, which, with tin, makes the purple of Cassius. Nitrate of silver, called lunar caustic. Nitrate of copper, which detonates. Acetate of copper, called verdigris. Sulphate of zinc, called white vitriol. Tartrate of potash and antimony, called tartar-emetic. Muriate of cobalt, which is sympathetic ink, being without colour when cold, but turning green when held to the fire. Super-oxalate of potash and extract of sorrel is essential salt of lemons. Antimony and chloric gas form butter of antimony. Salt of sorrel, or super-oxalate of potash, is what is called Salt of lemons. It dissolves the oxide of iron in the ink. Salt of tartar remains dry at the top of very high mountains, though it liquifies at their base. Salt cracks in the fire, owing to water in it being vaporized. All cattle thrive best if supplied withSa^. Horses will consume 6 oz. daily, cows 4, and sheep and do not rot. Unknown Salts are determined to be ni- trates by mixing thorn with muriatic acid, when chlorine is evolved. Muriate of ammonia is Sal ammoniac. Carbonate of potash is Salt of worm- wood. Smelling Salts, or carbonate of ammonia, are formed by carbonic acid gas, mixed over mercury with gas from quick-lime and sal ammoniac. Combined with water, it is spi- rits of hartshorn. Lightning produces nitric acid. The facility with which nitric acid yields its oxygen, enables it to oxidate metals, especially tin, copper, and mercury, and it rapidly decomposes vegetable and animal substances. It parts with three of its doses, and becomes deutoxide of nitrogen, and 41V3 even light carries off one dose. As it loses its oxygen it changes colour, from light yel- low down to blue. Aqua regia is one measure of nitric acid and two of muriatic acid, and dissolves gol/ and platinum. Alcohol consists of oxygen 3/ 85 ; carbon 43 65 j hydrogen 14 94 ; azote 3 52; ashes 004. Sulphuric ether consists of carbon 58 2; hydrogen 2214 ; oxygen 19 66. Nitric ether consists of oxygen 48 52; carbon 28 45 ; azote 14 49 ; hydrogen 8 54. Muriatic ether consists of muriatic acid 29 44 ; carbon 36 61 ; oxygen 23 31 : hydro- gen 10 64. Carbonate of magnesia is 48 magnesia; 49 carbonic acid ; and 3 water. Sugar, 3 7\ to 43£ of carbon ; 6£ to 7 of hydrogen; 50£ to 55'§ of oxygen. Sugar crystallizes in rhomboid prisms. Starch boiled with much water, and some sulphuric acid, becomes sugar in some hours. Fermented sugar and water is 5/ parts alcohol and 43 carbonic acid. Sugar, per Berzelius, is 7 hydrogen ; 44 carbon ; and 49 oxygen. Olive, or table-oil, contains carbon 77' 213 ; oxygen 9 427; hydrogen 13 36. Wax consists of carbon 8 T784 ; hydroger 12 672 ; oxygen 5 -544. Rosin consists of carbon 76 ; oxygen 13 •, hydrogen 11. Copal consists of carbon 77 ; oxygen 11 ; hydrogen 12. Oak wood contains oxygen 42 ; carbon 52 . hydrogen 6. Beech contains oxygen 43; carbon 51; hydrogen 6. Tannin, per Berzelius, is carbon 52 65 ; hydrogen 3 85; oxygen 43 5; or 21 atoms carbon ; 9 hydrogen ; 13 oxygen. Indigo is 16 atoms carbon ; 4 hydrogen ; 1 azote ; and 2 oxygen. Lignum , or woody fibre, is carbon 50 ; hydrogen 5 55, and oxygen 4445. (The two last as in water.) Wool is 12 3 azote ; carbon 53 7 ; hydro- ged 2 8 ; oxygen 3T2. Yellow Silk consists of 53*37 of filament; 2066 of gelatine; 2443 of albumen; and White Silk, 1 less gelatine. There is also 125 cerine. Tin Pyrites contain sulphur 29 64 ; tin 25 55; copper 29*53; iron 12 44; zinc T77. Wheat and barley contain as under ; — wheat barley Silica 132 .. 66 7 Carbonate of lime 126 .. 24 8 Carbonate of magnesia 13 4 .. 25 3 Alumina 6 .. 4*2 Oxide of manganese 5 0 .. 6*7 Oxide of iron 2 5 .. 3 8 The quantity of each being 2 lbs. One-twelfth of wheat is gluten, which con- sists of oxygen, hydrogen, azote, and carbon. The gluten varies. Autumnal wheat contains 77 starch, 19 gluten. Spring wheat, 70 starch, 24 gluten. Oats contain 144 2 silica. Rye straw 152 silica. CHEMISTRY 437 43S Starch contains 38 £ to 45 of carbon j 6 to 7 of hydrogen ; 48£ to 55 of oxygen. Potato starch consists of 49 455 oxygen ; 13 481 carbon ; 7'064 hydrogen. This would make sugar at 3 d. per lb. — Day. Rochelle salts consist of 55 tartrate of pot- ash ; 45 tartrate of soda. Sea-water contains '135 of muriate of soda ; *004 of muriate of magnesia ; ‘0025 of Epsom salts ; *00125 of gypsum. It obstructs all light at 120 fathoms. Alcohol is the spirit of wine obtained from the distillation of fermented liquors, and from wine is called brandy ; from the sugar- cane, rum ; from malt or grain, whiskey and gin. The different flavours arise from the quantity of oil or resin, the bases being alcohol and water. Further distillation pro- duces rectified spirits, the specific gravity of which is about 85 ; but, by further rectifica- tion, it may be carried to 0 /95. Pure alcohol is quite colourless and trans- parent ; it never freezes, but evaporates spontaneously, boiling at 1734°. Proof spi- rits are 0 92. When the gravity is higher, they are under proof ; when lower, above proof. Perfectly pure alcohol is about 0 74. The flame is blue, and it leaves no residuum. The vapours consist of carbonic acid and water, and the bulk of water is greater than the alcohol. Brande’s analyses of the quantity per cent, of alcohol, or pure spirit, in the follow- ing liquors, give : — Scotch whiskey . . 54 32 Irish 53*9 Rum 53*68 Brandy 53 39 Gin 51 6 Port 22 9 Madeira 22 27 Currant 20 55 Teneriffe 19 79 Sherry 19*17 Claret Champagne 13*8 Gooseberry 1184 Elder 8*79 Ale 6*87 Porter 42 Cyder During the combustion of 16 oz. of alco- hol, water of greater weight is produced, and also carbonic acid. — Alcohol from 30° to 10(P expands a 25th, but water only the 145th. At 60°, standard alcohol is 825. Gilpin, secretary of the Royal Society, Doll- fius, and Blagdon, in 1789, performed a most elaborate series of 260 experiments, 3 times over, on the specific gravity of alcohol from 30° to 100°, with mixtures of 15 water from 5 to 100, in 100 quarts of spirit, and then 100 of water to 95, down to 5 of spirit. At 30°, the spirit was *83896 ; at 40°, *83445 ; at 50° *82997 ; at 60% *82500 ; at 75% *81780 j at 90% *81044; and at 100°, *80548; being a diffe- rence of 3348 in 70° of heat. At 60°, 25 of water raised the specific gravity to *86918; 50 of water to *89707; 75 to *91622; and 100, or equal spirit and water, to *93002, the true mean being *9125 At 30°, equal quan- tities gave *94222, and at 100°, they gave *91310, — 50 of spirit to 100 of water, at 60°, gave *95804 ; and 5 of spirit to 100 of water, at 80°, gave *98991. Burnt with care, the product of the alcohol was water, and an 8th more ; and in closed vessels, in oxygen, the product was water and carbonic acid ; proving that alcohol is carbon and hydrogen. 1000 grains of brandy, evaporated to dry- ness, gave 40 of residuum of foreign sub- stance, but in rum only 8£. Pyroxylic spirit is carbon 54 88; hydrogen 1 1 *27 ; oxygen 33*85. The vapour of naphtha is 10 carbon and 5 hydrogen, and its sp. gr. 4*528. — Laurent. 100 parts of cream, specific gravity 1*0244, contain 4 5 of butter ; caseous matter 3*5; whey 92. 1000 parts of milk , specific gravity 1 *033, contain water 928*75; caseous matter 28; sugar of milk 35. The remaining 8*25 acid, alkalies, and iron. Cream is the lighter unctuous part of milk, which rises to the top ; and, by churn- ing, it is further separated into butter and butter-milk. Milk, when sour, may be fer- mented ; and it will yield a vinous liquor ; and also take the acetous fermentation. Its constituents are water, oil, curd, gela- tine, sugar of milk, muriates of soda and potash, phosphate of lime and sulphur. The cream is thickest in the milk of the cow, goat, and ewe. In women and asses it is whiter and thinner, affording less cream and soft butter. Mares’ milk is like cows’, but it affords less cream and poor butter. The curd of cheese consists of 60 carbon ; 1 1 oxygen ; 7 hydrogen ; and 22 nitrogen. In an egg of 1000 grains, the shell is 106 9, the white 604*2, and the yolk 288 9. The shell is 97 carbonate of lime, and only 2 2 of animal matter. The blood of man contains (according to Berzelius) less than half saline ingredients ; yet it is neither darker nor more difficult of arterialization. The only difference between the blood of cholera and of health consists in a deficiency of water in the serum, and a consequent ex- cess of albumen. The saline ingredients of the serum are the same as in healthy blood ; and the want of fluidity in the blood, the darkness of its colour, and the bulk of the crassamentum, are simple effects of the increased viscidity of the serum. Particles of blood are considered to be two million times greater than particles of water. Gunpowder , as made by the English go- vernment, is 75 of nitre; 10 of sulphur; 15 of charcoal. In France, the proportions are, 77 of nitre ; 9 of sulphur ; 14 of charcoal. The solid contents are, 40 grains of sub- carbonate of potash ; 11 of sulphate of pot- ash ; 3 of charcoal ; a of sulphur. The charcoal used in gunpowder is dis- tilled in iron vessels, from willow, alder, and some other woods. 439 CHEMISTRY. 440 The gaseous products of 100 grains are 91 cubic inches, and the solid products 54 grains. The gases are, azote 42 inches ; carbonic acid 30 inches ; carburetted hy- drogen 9 ; sulphuretted hydrogen 4 ; nitrous gas 6 making 91. Original bulk to gase- ous. i to 364. 100 parts of oak make 22 of charcoal ; of beech, 20 ; of deal, 19, glossy black ; of elm, 19|, black ; of ash, 18, glossy black j birch, 17, rich black. 10 ) parts of shavings of dry wood produce one- fourth of charcoal by slow combustion. Glass is formed by combining, in a state of fusion, fixed alkalies with silica, and the occasional addition of litharge, oxide of iron, or manganese. That called flint glass is made of fixed alkalies, calcined flints, and litharge or oxide of lead. Ground-glass is made of fixed alkali, and siliceous sand, with oxide of iron for a green tinge, or oxide of manganese for a purple tinge. Bottle- glass consists of lime fused with silica and alumina, with iron and manganese. Flint-gtoss is generally made of 100 sand, 6 red-lead, and 3 pearl-ash, with some man- ganese to correct the green colour. Plate-g/ass is made of 43 sand, 26 5 sub- carbonate of soda, 4 quick-lime, T9 nitre, and 25 broken glass, which makes 75 of glass. Crown-g&m is made of 50 sand and 110 kelp. Bottle-g/ad. Gallic acid is an astringent principle. It is formed from nut-galls, the nidus of an insect on oak-trees. The small cavities of minerals contain ex- pansive gases. Extraneous Gases soon combine with the atmosphere. A volume of carbonic acid diffuses in a few minutes. It destroys life from the want of air. Gastric juice is imitated by digesting mucous membranes in dilute muriatic acid. Gin is malt spirits, flavoured with turpen- tine, <&c. &c. combined with various sub. stances. Geneva is made from wheat, and flavoured with juniper-berries. Glauber's salt may be resolved analyti- cally into sulphuric acid and soda, and may be made syr thetically from sulphuric acid and soda. Soluble Glass is a simple silicate of pot- assa, or soda, with boiling-water it forms a water-proof wash for cloths, is a cement of any required strength, and, as a varnish with clay, or ochre, it protects w r ooa from fire. Glue, size, and isinglass, are various forms of animal gelatine. Carpenter’s glue is made of the skins of animals ; and old ani- mals make the strongest glue. The violet rays of light tend to produce Green colour, by decomposing carbonic acid. The Chinese invented Gunpowder soon after the Christian era, and used it in com- mon. In 1249, an Arabic author describes its use in fireworks and shells. It seems to have been used in Europe in ordnance at the beginning of the 14th century. The Chinese use the same proportions as the English. Gunpowder expands to 4/2 times its bulk, with a velocity of 10,000 feet per second, and the force of 1000 atmospheres, or 15,000 lbs. per Hutton ; but, per Rum- ford, 10 times greater. It is ascribed to the sudden rarefication of condensed air, or to the nitre, taken as 236 times that of the atmosphere. Ten parts of tin and 100 of copper make Gun-metal , or brass guns. Black Hats turn rusty at the sea-side, owing to the muriatic acid from the sea dis- turbing the gallic acid in the black dye. Hat y's atomic theory explains, with clear- ness, all cases of combination, affinity, cohe- sion, &c. as well as the beautiful doctrine of definite proportions, which is a corollary. Hungary water is made by distilling 2 lbs. of rosemary with 2 quarts of spirits of wine. Hydrogen and carbonic oxide absorb half their volumes of oxygen. Sulphuretted Hydrogen is highly poison- ous. It escapes from lodes in some mines, and is generated by a tallow or wax caudle. Christison. Ben oxide of Hydrogen is converted into water by alkalies, and also by the presence of gold, silver, manganese, platina, &c. Hydruret of phosphorus inflames sponta- neously, and fixes much oxygen. Indigo is prepared from the leaves and small branches of an indigo-fera tinctoria , of which there are two varieties. It is also prepared in England from the nerium tincto- rium, and isatis or woad. It is the blue, or sulphate of indigo, of the dyers, and a very important article. The scales in hot Iron arise from the absorption of oxygen, called protoxide. Carbonate of Iron is a rust of iron. ICO grains of Iron, burnt in oxygen gas, increase to 130, with great heat and flame, proving the compound nature of the metal. Isinglass is made of the sounds of hetugas and sturgeons, which last is sometimes 18 feet long, and 700 lbs. weight. Jade is a species of talc, and used by the Hindoos, &c. for god-making. Lamp-black is prepared by burning resi- nous substances in close rooms, and collect- ing the smoke on woollen cloths, which are brushed , and, to expel the oil, this soot is heated to redness. Q CHEMISTRY. 451 459 White Lead is made by exposing sheets of the metal to fumes of vinegar. Arbor saturni is made by suspending a piece of zinc m acetate of lead. Solder is two of lead and one of tin. All preparations of lead are deleterious. When wine is sweet ened with litharge, it may be detected by sulphuretted hydrogen, in a black precipi- tate. Ores of lead in veins occur in silice- ous rocks, and sometimes in calcareous. Four pounds of oak-bark make 1 pound of Leather, but 1 pound of catechu-powder is equal to 8 pounds of oak-bark. Without water and air there is no Lije , either vegetable or animal, and water and air are states of atoms in motion. Thirty-four families of plants make a turn to the Light, every 24 hours, and close and open to the Sun. The best candles for Light are those made from vegetable tallow and wax, or cocoa- nut ; and the whitest light is produced from the last, or from vegetable oils, duly purified, as in France. Light arises from the heat of the carbon, &c. in connection with the combining gases, for these alone give little light ; but, by their condensation, afford the intense motion which protrudes the atoms as light. The pea of Lime, burnt in the hydro- oxygen blow-pipe, may be seen from moun- tains at the distance of 100 miles round. Lime-water doubles the bulk of oil for wool-combing, and all manufacturing pur- poses. Crystallized carbonate of Lime is rhom- boidal calcareous spar. One grain of sul- phate of Lime will render 2000 grains of soft water hard. Fluate of Lime is fluor spar. All Liquidity is the melting, or breaking up of solids, by atomic motion imparted and certain parts most easily fitted, for gas pre- serves. the liquid form of the mass ^s long as the heat, or motion, is sufficient. But a greater excitement converts more of the mass into gas, and its power of radiation overcoming the atmospheric pressure, it passes off 'as gas. Liquor of flints , or silicated alkali, is 3 parts of potash with one of silica. There are 3 liqueurs , ratafias, oils, and creams. Litmus is made from the archil lichen. Acids turn its purple to red, and alkalies the red into blue. Lunar caustic is nitrate of silver. The flashes of torches used on the stage are made by the pollen, or seeds of Lycopo- dium, or club-moss. Madder is the root of the rubra tinctorum, which grows in Europe. It gives a deep red dye, susceptible of changes by alkalies, &c. Magnesia is made from Epsom salts, by putting potash into a solution in water ; the precipitation is magnesia. Manganese is used for its bin oxyde in making chlorine. It is Composed of 68 49 ben-oxide, 11 85 of per-oxide of iron, water 5 6, and earthy matter 13 98 = 100. Manure owes its stimulating power to salts of ammonia, or volatile alkali. Human soil affords three times as much as that of any animal. True Marble effervesces with dilute nitric acid, is scratched with fluor spar, and scratches gypsum. It contains shells, and is formed of fragments, or breccia. Mercury imbibes one-fifth per cent, of oxygen, and becomes a black powder ; and, by further oxidation, it becomes a red preci- pitate; it then contains 10 per cent, of oxygen. The regulus of a Metal means the pure metals. Milk, boiled with fine sugar, will keep during a long voyage. Milk, by gentle heat, evaporates into paste, or dry cakes, which, with hot fluids, become milk for every pur- pose, and may be kept for years in close vessels. — Newton. Inflammable explosions in mines burn with a blue or green colour, and are silent to those involved in them. They prevail chiefly in the summer, and have the smell of peas’ bloom. Minimum, or red-lead, is a double or deutoxide of lead, made from the protoxide, or massicot. Specific gravity 8 9 ; and 90 lead with 8 oxygen. Lead ore generally contains silver. Two of copper and one of tin make con- cave Mirrors for telescopes. Morocco leather is goats’ skin. Mosaic gold is the peroxide of sulphur and tin. A Muffle is an oven of earthenware, which will bear great heat, fitted in a fur- nace for special processes. The Nails are coagulated albumen and phosphate of lime. Naphtha is fluid bitumen; petroleum viscid bitumen ; and asphaltum is hard bitumen. It is combined with vegetable substance in coals. The Narcotic principle in the white poppy produces opium, which is its concrete milky juice. The Nitrogen in animal substances dis- tinguishes them from vegetables. In de- composirg after death, vegetables display their oxygen by their acidity, and animals their nitrogen by their alkalinity in forming ammonia. Nitric Ether, diluted, is sweet. The breathing of Nitrous oxide gas pro- duces exhilevation and intoxication. Nitrous acid is aquafortis. Nitro -muria- tic acid is aqua-regia. Nitric oxide gas is made by putting cop- per clippings into a mixture of 2 parts water, and 1 of nitric acid. Nitrous is 6 or 8 times water with heat. — Nitrous acid is nitre and copperas. Oils are found in eighty or ninety plants or trees, as the olive, linseed, aloes, rape- seed, castor, and from the ricinus com- munis, &c. Wax is produced from the myrica cerifera, which flourishes in North America. It is green, burns with a white flame, and the shrubs yield from 5 to 7 lbs. Expressed Oils are animal and vegetable, CHEMISTRY. 453 and are called fixed oils; their specific gravity varies from 0 9 to 0 97 ; they boil at 600 degrees. Exposed to the air they absorb oxygen and become solid as transparent drying oils, or opaque fat oils. If burnt and rendered viscid, they make printer’s ink ; or, with fixed alkalies, fat oils. Volatile or Essential Oils are distilled with water from vegetable substances, of which they constitute the fragrance. The specific gravity of oil of turpentine is only 0792, while that of sassafras is nearly 1*1. They consist chiefly of carbon and hydrogen, and evaporate rapidly in open vessels. Perfumes of the Essential Oils prevent the growth of the vegetation of mouldiness, by which paste, ink, &c. may be long pre- served. Rancid Oils convert vegetable blues into red. If Oil is heated to 600 degrees, so as to be consumed in volume, the remains are water and carbonic acid. Water from the hydro- gen and oxygen, and carbonic acid from the carbon and oxygen. Four grains of Opium are equivalent to a tea-spoonfull, or to 100 drops of laudanum or tincture of opium. Opodeldoc is a solution of soap in alcohol, with camphor and volatile oil. Pakfong is a mixture of 118 zinc, 5 cop- per, and 13 nickel. Parchment is prepared skin of sheep or goats. The water in which Parsnips have been boiled, passed through a sieve, with 3 lbs. of loaf-sugar, and half an oz. of crude tartar, to a gallon, then fermented at 75° with some yeast for 4 days and tunned, is equal to Malmsey after a few months. Pearlash — potash, or subcarbonate of potash, is obtained from the ashes of burnt- wood or vegetables : thus, 1000 lbs. of wormwood ashes produce 748 lbs. of potash, stalks of sun-flower 349, fermitory 360, beech 219, &c. The ashes are boiled, and the ley evaporated in iron pans. Pearls consist of concentric layers of car- bonate of lime and membrane. Pearls and mother-of-pearl are procured from the mytilus margarittferus, a muscle of the Indian Seas, about 8 inches long. Fine pearls are also found at Llangollen. 39 out of 40 parts of Peruvian Bark are useless ; the 40th part, called Quinine , pos- sessing all the alkaline properties when ex- tracted by alcohol, and combined with sul- phuric acid, as sulphate of quinine. Petroleum fires are met with between Bologna and Florence. Pewter is tin alloyed with a 20th of cop- per, and generally with proportions of lead, zinc, bismuth, and antimony. Phosphoretted hydrogen owes its accen- sion to a small proportion of nitrous acid rapour, 1 - 1000th or less; but 100 to 1 is not accendable. Its inflammability ceases with 5 volumes of hydrogen. 2 of carbonic acid, 3 of nitrogen, or the smallest particle of potassium. Pinchbeck is 3 zinc and 4 copper. 454 Finely-divided Platina , moistened with alcohol, burns and forms acetic acid. Spongy platina burns on having a jet of hydrogen thrown on it — so also gold, silver, and glass, on being heated. While leaves exist on a Plant , it adds 18 per cent, to the oxygen of the air in ajar in which the plant is placed, fungi alone ex- cepted. Both exhalation and absorption are in proportion to the light of the most luminous rays. — D'Auben'ay. There appears round the eye of the Po- tato some of that substance called Diastase, which converts starch into sugar, and to this action Berzelius ascribes the soluble juices of the potato. Alum, Pyroligneous Acid, Salt of Amber, Borax, Nitre, and Salt are the best antisep- tics, or preservatives against putrefaction. One thousand parts of spirits of wine have, by mechanical force, been pressed into 934, olive-oil 952, rain-water to 954, and mercury to 99 7. Prussiate of Potash is made from the horny hoofs of horses and cattle. Prussiate of iron is Prussian blue. Immersion in sand, mud, or water, pre- serves wood for many centuries. Salt, corrosive sublimate, sulphate of iron or copperas, of alum, &c. arrest the putre- factive process of timber. Drying or sea- soning also is a security. Sir John Pringle determined the power of various salts, to arrest Putrefaction or decomposition, as under — Sea-salt 1 Vitriolated and soluble tartar, and"? 2 mindererus 3 3 Sal ammoniac and saline mixture. ... 4 Nitre, hartshorn, and wormwood .... 2 Borax 10 Salt of amber ... 20 Alum and myrrh 30 Bark 120 Camphor 300 Ratafia is spirits flavoured with kernels of different fruit. Realgar is a red combination of 80 arsenic and 20 sulphur. Crpiment is another com- bination. Rennet is the mucous membrane of the stomach of a young calf. It, by some un- known principle, coagulates 1800 times its weight of skimmed milk at 122 of Fahren- heit. Muriatic acid, and the flowers of Galium verum are substitutes for salted and dried rennet. In Respiration in Diving-bells, it is found that each person deteriorates 200 cubic inches per minute, and that above 300 must be allow’ed, or a cubic foot per 5 minutes. The elastic reaction of the air doubles at every 33 feet, so that a bell full at the sur- face, half fills at 33 feet depth. This in- creased compression causes pain in the ears. Fresh air is now communicated by pipes. Smeaton and Rennie laid foundations by diving-bells. Tartrate of potash and soda is called Rochelle salt. Sal ammoniac is fixed muriatic acid gas Q 2 CHEMISTRY. 455 456 and atnmoniacal gas. Sulphuric acid con- verts its powder into muriatic acid gas ; and slaked lime its powder into ammoniaca! gas. The 2 mixed reproduce the sal ammoniac. Saliva contains saline matter and albu- men, and gastric juice has the same consti- tuents. The chyme in the stomach is con- verted into chyle in the small intestines, by mixture with bile and pancreatic secretion. In some animals it has been examined, and is a white fluid, with a sweetish taste, and coagulates. Its principal component is albumen, and the cerous part is like sugar of milk. In animals that feed on vegeta- bles it is more transparent, and the coagulum is more albuminous. It is absorbed by the lacteals, and, mixed with lymph, is carried into the venous system. The quality of Saltpetre is inversely as the angle of refraction, and 5 deg. is called par. — 1 per cent, is allowed for every degree above. Saltpetre is nitrate of potash. Oil of Sassafras , in small quantity, ren- ders sulphuric acid crimson. — Hare. Seeds, during germination, are decom- posed into carbonic acid and olefiant gas. This last then produces germination by its action on oxygen through the plumula and rootlets. The action continues while there is farinaceous matter. Shagreen is the skin of the hound-fish, called the shagree. Shamoy leather is the skin of the chamois goat. Shells consist of carbonate of lime and animal gluten. Soap is chiefly made of kelp, or the ashes of sea- weeds, dried and burnt in pits. Its refuse is used in making glass-bottles. The best soap is made of olive-oil, in the south of Europe. In England it is made of whale- oil, or tallow, and to give it a yellow colour, rosin is added. Soft-soap is made with pot- ash, and hard with soda. Soap of ammonia is volatile liniment. Soap is composed of oil and soda. Hard- water is impregnated with sulphate of lime. When soap, therefore, is immersed in hard- water, the sulphuric acid, or sulphate in the water unites with the soda in the soap, and the oil of the soap and the lime of the water are left floating in clouds or flakes. Hence, soap is a perfect test of sulphate of lime in water, and such water is called hard. In salt-water the muriatic acid combines with the soda in the soap, and produces cloudi- ness for the same reason. Soda-water is made by combining eight times its bulk of carbonic acid gas, formed in the process, from chalk and dilute sul- phuric acid, to which is added carbonate of soda, under pressure. Muriate of Soda is table-salt. Variety in the constituents of Soil is essen- tial to fertility. It is barren when nineteen- twentieths are of one substance ; hence, lime or marl improves sand or clay. Five parts of tartaric acid and lfi of per- oxide of lead, (also minium and litharge) quite dry, produce spontaneous combustion, Oxalic acid and citric acids, well-dried, an- swer in other properties, instead of the tartaric. Spruce- beer is made of water, treacle, and the essence of spruce. Water passed over wheat-flour carries off all the Starch , which falls to the bottom, and leaves the tough substance called gluten* Starch is converted into sugar by boiling for 40 hours equal weights of starch and water with 1- 100th of sulphuric acid, water being re-supplied for evaporation. The acid is neutralized by lime, and the sugar crystallizes. 1 £ lb. of potato-starch pro- duces 1$ lb. of brown-sugar. Starch dissolved in dilute acid is con- verted at a certain temperature, first, into gum, and then into sugar of grapes. On abstracting the acid, only the sugar remains, rather heavier than the starch. Sugar is clarified by boiling it at a low heat in vacuo. So the essential oils are purified at a low heat, and odour preserved. Sugar can be made from linen rags, saw- dust, &c. by long boiling with dilute sulphu- ric acid, and absorbing the acid with char- coal and chalk. The liquor of burned Sulphur is sulphuric acid, and, when combined with soda, it forms Glauber’s salts ; with magnesia, Ep- som salts ; and, with copper and zinc, vitriol. They are all sulphates when the acid is strongest, or sulphwn'c; or sulphftes, when the acid is sulphurows, or weak. Sulphur , heated between two panes of glass, renders the expansion visible in trans- parent globules, which, of course, rise to the more distant glass, and settle on it like ne- bulae. Arsenic gives crystals instead of globules. Sulphate of soda is Glauber’s salts. Sulphate of magnesia is Epsom salts. Sulphate of alumina is alum. Sulphate of lime is plaster of Paris. Sulphur et of potash is liver of sulphur. Sulphate of iron is green copperas. Sulphate of copper is blue copperas, oi blue vitriol. Sulphate of barytes is ponderous spar. Sulphate of soda, or Glauber’s salts, are made in Oude, from earth called Khare Muttic , found abundantly at Onaoo. 100 parts yield 7 3 of sulphate of soda, 3 5 of muriate of soda, and 12 5 of alumina. Dilute and heated Sulphuric acid and alcohol produce ether. Super-acetate of lead, is sugar of lead and litharge. Oxide of lead is Goulard’s extract. Tar is made by making a pile of pine timber, covering it with turf, and then burn- ing it. The smoke, thus confined, descends as tar to a vessel beneath, which fills with tar, while the wood becomes charcoal. About 150,000 barrels, of 31 J gallons, are imported per annum, from Russia and Sweden. Tartar was so called from Tartarus by Paracelsus, because, said he, it contains the water, the salt, the oil and the acid, which burn as hell does. 457 heat. 458 Tannin, the principle of the substance used in the tanning of leather, is made from nut-galls, which are likewise a constituent of writing-ink 3 parts of nut-galls, 1 of logwood, and 1 of green vitriol, boiled in water, making the best ink. Tannin is found in nut-galls, bark, cate- chu, kino, sumach, and old fustic. A test of genuineness in Tea is a grain and a half of sulphate of iron. Genuine green tea gives a bluish tint ; bohea, a blackish blue. Adulterated, it is all colours. Tin- plates are made by cleaning iron- plates with acid, and then dipping them in melted tin. Tin, united with mercury, is the silvering of looking-glasses. Tin and antimony are pewter. Turpentine is the juice of the pinus syl- vestris . Venice turpentine of the larch. Canadian of the pinus balsamea. The oil is a distillation. Italian Varnish consists in saturating the smooth surface of wood with olive-oil, and then applying a solution of gum-arabic in hot spirits of wine. Acetic acid is distilled Vinegar. Sulphuric acid is oil of Vitriol. The elastic fluids which rise from Volca- noes are aqueous gas, carbonic acid, sulphu- retted hydrogen, and, occasionally, vapour of sulphur. Zinc and copper make brass, pinchbeck, Dutch gold, &c. Considering that the great motions of the earth are absorbed in and by the mass ; that oxygen is never found alone ; that in some circumstances it produces acidity, and, in others, heat or atomic motion ; — may it not, therefore, be questioned, whether it is itself other than the effect of great motions of invi- sible a toms, or of certain atoms of substances ? Would it not, then, be the exact equivalent of Black’s caloric, of Priestley’s vital gas, and of Lavoisier’s supporter of combustion, acidity, &c. ? The preceding question involves great principles. We know the motions of the earth (forty times greater than a cannon- ball), we know the re-action of the hetero- geneous mass, and yet we have never fol- lowed those motions into systems of atoms; we know the power of certain invisible agents, and yet we have preferred to ascribe them to powers per se, rather than examine their connection with more obvious sources. The time, however, may come, when the ascertained connection of the earth’s motions, and their necessary effect on atoms, may change the entire face of all the recondite experimental sciences! The idea is not more bold than that of Davy and Faraday, that all chemical affinity is owing to the positive and negative elec- tricity of the atoms of substances. Saline draughts are 30 grains of carbonate of soda, and 20 grains of citric acid (not tartaric acid). Butter is half, or two-thirds suet. Cream is 1-22 butter, l-28th cheese, and 9-10ths whey. Oils, with soda, make hard soap — with potash, soft soap. The skin of the grape gives the colour to wines. In white wines, the husks are sepa- rated before fermentation. In red, they remain. Champagne wines are those of Ay, Eper- nay, Sillery, &c. The pink is tinted with elder-berries and cream- of tartar. Bur- gundy are Chamberlin, Conti, Romane, &c. ; white, Chablis, &c. Hermitage is made at Tain, near Lyons. Languedoc are Fron- tignac, Lunel, &c. Bordelais , or Clarets , are Medoc (of several kinds), Grave, Palus, &e. ; the white are Barsac, Sauterne, &c. Spanish wines are Sherry, Malaga, and Tin. terella. Italian are Muscadel, Lachryma Christi, Marsala, &c. German are Tokay, Hochkeim, Berger, Schoss, Johannis, &c. It is doubted whether rock-salt is of ma- rine origin, because it contains none of the compounds found in sea-salt, and no fossil remains. Some salt-rocks, too, are 120 feet thick in insulated mountains, as at Cardona, and near Cracow. The Droitwich springs proceed from a river 2 feet deep, which runs over rock-salt 250 feet beneath the surface, and 1 -4th of the brine is salt. Other brines are but a ninth. Metals oxydate, but do not ignite in atmo- spheric air. The air requires an extra dose of oxygen before they become incandescent. The heat of the fixed oxygen is then suffi- cient to excite their proper hydrogen. Their carbon gives peculiar colour to the flames. Soda-water contains 8 times its own bulk, of carbonic acid gas, aud some soda. Forcing-pumps omit the soda. Potatoes, in the boilers of steam-engines,, prevent the cohesion of carbonate or selenite of lime. HEAT. There can be no reasonable doubt that Heat is a mere effect of atomic motion, and that various intensities by percussions, or motions applied, transferred to various atoms and to various combinations, is the cause of all the phenomena of heat. The sources of Heat, or atomic motion, are the great motions of the Earth, acting on its own parts ; and the solar heat acting on the surface, so as to convert fluids into gas, and assist the evolution of germs. The three states of matter are immediately connected with degrees of Heat. 1. The solid state supposes no heat, or only such a degree as excites atoms in the pores, and coincides with the general internal heat. 2. The fluid state is an effect of great excite- ment, by which the atoms in the pores break up crystalline structures, and produce the middle state of fluidity. 3. The fluid state would, however, become at once gaseous , but for the elasticity of previously.created gas, which obstructs the radiation of the fluid atoms, till acted upon by artificial heat up to 212°, or naturally by the reiteration of solar heat. The fluid atoms, in rising into space, are so re-acted upon by the gas in the 459 IIEAT. 460 pace, that they are turned into circular orbits, extending great motion through the atmosphere, which motion, absorbed and re- fixed in respiration, &c. is the source of all organic life and power. The knowledge of heat, its causes and ac- cidents, is essential to the study of chemistry or the science of atoms, for we have no access '0 atoms except by heat in some of its forms. he leverage of sharp tools is not fine enough : dut in moving atoms by heat, or heating them by motion, for the terms are equiva- lent, we disturb their relations, separate or decompose them, and thus are enabled to form new combinations. The fundamental principles of all phy- sical philosophy are correct conceptions of the construction of gas, of heat, and of the motions which produce the relative affec- tions of bodies, neither of which is embraced by the scholastic philosophy. Cold is the mere absence of the motion of the atoms called heat, or the abstraction of it by the evaporation of atoms, so as to convey away the motion, or by the juxta- position of bodies susceptible of motion. Cold and heat are mere relations of fixity and motion in the atoms of bodies. Heat is repulsive, because it' is the motion of atoms, and opposed to their rest or co- hesion. Their motion demands space, and hence expansion. Heat is found in all bodies whose atoms can be moved, or ex- cited by percussion or ‘friction. It is simply motion applied to any atoms, directly, or by transfer. Black advanced an odd hypothesis, that heat was a ’property of certain atoms called caloric, which moved from one body to another; and, when not in motion, was latent in the bodies. The immediate cause of the phenomena of heat is motion, and its laws are precisely the same as those of the communication of •motion. — Davy. The demands for motion or heat from surrounding - dies during all expansions ; and its radiations, during condensations , are illustrations of the principle. Expansion, universally, is evidence of the accession of heat in the expanded body, and of its departure from other bodies. On the contrary, contraction is evidence of the departure of heat from a body, and its ac- quisition by other proximate bodies. The diminution of specific gravity by the expansion of heat, and the contrary, prove that heat is merely an affection of the ex- isting atoms of the substance. No heat is ever created. It is always a transfer of the motions of gases as in fires, and of the motions of gases in the inter- stices of other bodies. No heat is ever lost. In all cases it is only a transfer. In winter, more is trans- ferred than received, and in summer more received than parted with. If one hemis- phere is cold, the other is so much hotter. Blacksmiths commonly light their matches by giving a nail five or six quick strokes with a hammer. Most savage nations pro- duce fire by rubbing two dry sticks toge- -ther. Pieces of ice rubbed together melt ; pieces of brass rubbed together in an air-pump, become hot ; and a vacuum transmits heat, owing to the radiation of the atoms of the substance which forms it. Count Rumford, by boring a cannon with- in water, so heated it by the friction that he made it boil, and actually boiled a piece of beef in it. The temperature of nine quarts was raised from 60 to 170 degrees in an hour, and in two hours and a half the water boiled, the whole heat being equal to what would have been produced by nine wax-candles burning the same time. In strong percussions, the first blow pro- duces the greatest heat, and the greatest change in density ; thus, in coining copper of 8 85, the first stroke renders it 8 89, with an increase of heat of 10 deg. ; but the se- cond stroke makes it only 8 91, with 4 deg. The coarse mechanical methods of ex- citing heat are called percussion and fric- tion ; thus, a hammer struck on metal, or any hard body, makes it hot ; but if struck on a friable non-cohering body, which yields to the velocity and disperses by the blow, no heat is produced. The heat produced by friction is well- known to all mechanics, and is diminished either by making the surfaces smooth with unctuous substances or by water, wdiich eva- porating carries off the excitement. Gas, or aqueous vapour, may be formed by striking a piece of iron some quick blows with a hammer. The momentum of the hammer is thus transferred to the atoms of iron, which, by reaction from their sub- parts, radiate invisibly, and the iron affords as a result the sensation of heat, which continues till the momentum imparted is radiated. If some water, which radiates visibly , is put on the iron, the water is dis- persed in steam or separated atoms. These emerge into a space filled with serial atoms, and suffer constant deflections in every di- rection, which ultimately produce small circular orbits ef each atom in intense velo- city. The aggregate then produces a cloud of steam, which continues till the motions have been parted with, when it is precipi- tated as water. The motions of the ham- mer are, therefore, in the steam. All other gas is virtually or actually made in the same way, and the size of the orbits depends on the excitement, and on the bulk and form of the atoms affected. Some misapplications of mathematics have been made by the French analysts, based on the false theory that heat is, as heat, a fluid, and not the mere motions of atoms which indicate heat in the atoms of other bodies when it has been imparted to them. La Place, Fourier, and Poisson, have distinguished themselves in these en- quiries. They infer, 1. That the range of the oscillations becomes less as we recede from their origin. 2. That oscillations for the longest of two periods, are sensible to the furthest distance. 3. That the diminu. HEAT. — COMBUSTION. 4G1 4G2 tion of the range is less rapid as the con. ducting power increases. 4. That the max- imum dispersion is, at successive times, at different distances. All very trite. The motion of heat does not pass through bodies till it has put their atoms in uniform motion. Some bodies are more susceptible, or contain more susceptible atoms than others. Silver and gold, copper and tin, are among bodies the most susceptible of atomic excitement, and conduct heat the best ; other metals have less facility, stones less than metals ; brick, glass, dried woods, and charcoal less still ; feathers, silk, wool, and hair, least of all bodies. Conducting-power is an effect of the con- tinuity of the matter, and is less as the interstices between the atoms are greater Liquids are vapourized by heat, and, there- fore, are bad conductors. Gases are en- larged by it ; and, therefore, it is exhausted within themselves. When heat, or atomic motion, is not sen- sible to the thermometer, it is because the atoms of the body are better fitted to receive and exhaust the action than the fluid in the thermometer. In the experiment of melting ice in heated mercury, the suscepti- bility of the ice to become water, and the conversion absorbs all the motion till the liquifaction is perfect, and it has nothing to do with the nonsense about latent heat, free heat, or matter of heat. Heat-making rays are subject to the laws and accidents of light, but they pass only through short distances ; while light pro- trudes the atoms of space to infinite distances. Heat is less refrangible than light ; that is, its waves are of greater length. That fluidity and gasification are caused by motion, is evident from the effects of an- tagonist elements, which, as solids, have no action, but only as fluids or gases. The heat which accompanies voltaic and electrical restoration, is a proof that heat is mere motion. As water, in heating, does not completely overcome atmospheric pressure till 212°, and the radiation is then in gas, or circular orbits, or 6 2832 times the previous direct radia- tion, so 212 by 6 2832 determines the begin- ning of the direct action, which, by re-action, 2 i 2 ends in a circular orbit. Then -g -yZ — 33° 74'. Hence, it would appear, that, at 33° 74/, radiation commences, and goes on till at 212°, when it is sufficient to produce gas with the requisite velocity of 6 2832. There is no acceleration, because each radiated atom stands alone. It would thus appear that atmospheric pressure overcomes radia- tion, till the radiated atoms have a velocity equal to the perfection of a circle, and then it is aqueous gas. The speculation is at least curious. — Phillips. Animal heat and animal energy are im- mediate sequences of the respiration of aerial gas. Thus, a man consumes 33 cubic inches of air in his 20 ordinary respirations per minute ; and the 28 cubic inches of its oxy- gen become? carbonic acid gas, whose speci- fic heat is reduced as 1 to 0 286. This is 1728 inches in 61 minutes, containing 876 c of absolute heat, and an absorption of 8/6 — 195 ss 681° of absolute heat, or motion, is therefore fixed in the system, in about an hour. In exertions, it is doubled or trebled in quantity. — Ibid. Combustion. Combustion is the destruction of a body by the union of its hydrogen with oxygen, and the simultaneous dispersion of its car- bon in smoke and flame. The three ele- ments are necessary, and always present. The heat arises from the fixation of the oxygen gas, or its condensation from its gaseous to a condensed fluid or solid form. We create a flame, or light a candle, by exciting its hydrogen by another flame. Oxygen in the air then combines with heat , this excites more hydrogen, and the flame continues as long as hydrogen and oxygen are present. In combustion, 1 lb. of hydrogen con- sumes 6 lbs. of oxygen ; 1 lb. of carburetted hydrogen 4 lbs. of oxygen ; 1 lb. of olifiant gas, of olive-oil, of wax, and of tallow 3 5 lbs. of oxygen; 1 lb. of phosphorus T5 ; of char- coal 2’8; and of sulphur T36 of oxygen. One lb. of hydrogen and 6 of oxygen melt about 350 lbs. of ice ; 1 lb. of rape-oil and 3 5 of oxygen, 124 of ice ; 1 lb. of car- buretted hydrogen and 4 of oxygen, 85 of ice ; 1 of charcoal and 2 8 of oxygen, 50 of ice ; and 1 lb. of caoutchouc, 42 lbs. of ice. Steam at 212^ condensed to ice, gives out 95(P heat to an equal quantity of water. A pound of Coal melts 90 pounds of ice. Coke 94 Wood.... Charcoal 95 Peat 19 Oxygen is called the supporter of com- bustion ; and other bodies are so called, owing to the atoms which they contain being fixed in like manner by hydrogen. The products cf this union, or combustion, are w ater, carbonic acid, and vapour. When metals are consumed, the calx, or oxyde, is heavier than the metal, by the quantity of oxygen, which has been fixed and combined. The hydrogen evolved by the first, and the continued excitement, is called the inflammable gas ; and no com- bustion takes place without it, in greater or less proportion. Bodies which do not con- tain it, as stones, bricks, &c. are incom- bustible. Flame, fire, &c. are, therefore, mere effects of the union of two gases, one of which fixes the other, and subdivides and explodes the carbon. All bodies contain hydrogen, which be- come incandescent, or which create an oxide during heating and melting. Prometheus brought fire from Baku, or other burning exhalations, in the dry mar- row or pith of the ferula or northica to Greece. Poets made the Fable, and Priest- craft consecrated both it and fire. They little imagined that fire is the mere fixation of the oxygen of the atmosphere by union 403 with excited hydrogen and carbon, which all inflammable substances evolve. Newton considered flame as red-hot smoke ; but modern science regards it as the place where oxygen unites with hydro- gen and carbon, and the diminution of vo- lume transfers an atomic excitement to the carbon, which protrudes as light. Combustible nodies will not burn if dipped in a solution of potash, or phosphate of lime, or muriate, sulphate, or phosphate of am- monia, with borax. AlkaMne substances arrest the hydrogen, or prevent its combi- nation with oxygen. Argand’s lamp carries a current of air through the wick, by which more oxygen is fixed ; so with bellows. Keiby’s gas burner, of very small holes in a circle, (the ascending air preserving an upright cylinder! gives equal light, with 30 per cent, less gas. Solids become incandescent in the dark, at 6000 or 700°, but not in day light till 800° or 1000o. Iron- works save two-thirds of their coals by using heated air for blasting , instead of cold air. Heat is the fixation of excited oxygen, and the excitement is accelerated. The vapour of tar ignites at 200°. Lamps were used by the ancients, and candles were an invention of the middle ages. At first, wicks were made of hemp, papyrus, and the pith of rushes. The safety-lamp is founded on the princi- ple that flame, in passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat, as not to be capable of igniting inflammable sub- stances around, (flame alone igniting gas.) There ought to be above 625 apertures to the square inch. A pin stuck in a rush- light extinguishes it on the same principle of conveying heat from the wick. A pint of good oil burns above eleven hours in an Argand lamp, with a light three to one greater than a six mould-candle ; but a pint of the purified colza oil, burnt in Paris, lasts thirteen hours, and gives light four to one greater than a six mould, and perfectly white. A lamp with eight threads of cotton burns 0'325 oz. of oil in an hour ; one with four threads 0d664 oz. The heating power of combustibles is nearly in the ratio of their carbon. Much British coal contains from 90 to 95 per cent, of carbon. A gas-light equal to one good candle con- sumes 143 of cubic feet of gas per hour ; to four candles T96 per hour ; six candles 2 4 ; eight candles 2 95 j and to ten candles 3 cubic feet. In flint and steel, the intense excitement of the steel occasions the parts to take fire. Mollet’s Condenser consists of a cylin- der and solid piston ; closely fitted, and the cylinder containing air, the piston is forced into it, so as to drive the air into less space. Then, as the quantity of motion which sus- tained the first bulk of the air, is less in less bulk, it is parted with to the cylinder, which becomes intensely hot. But, if an orifice is 464 opened at the side by a small cock, the heated air rushes out, and sets fire to a piece of tinder, or to the smoke of a candle just extinguished. It is a beautiful exemplifica- tion of the theory of gaseous construction. Deal wood, injected with alumine, is partly incombustible. Intensity of Heat. Relative intensity of heat is shewn by the thermometer, an instrument consisting of mercury, or spirits, in the bulb of a tube. As the heat, or atomic motion, increases, the mercury, or spirits, in the bulb swells and raises the connected thread of the fluids in the tube. The heighth, then, at which water freezes, is called by Fahrenheit 32°, and at which it boils 212° ; and the interme- diate 180°, parts down to 0°, or Zero, are marked as a scale. The Centigrade begins with 0° at the freezing point, and divides up to 2120 of Fahrenheit into 100 parts. Reaumur's is another division into 80 parts, in which 24° of Reaumur are equal to 30 Centigrade, and to 86 of Fahrenheit ; and 20 of Reaumur are equal to 25 Centigrade , and 77 of Fahrenheit. The Thermometers of Fahrenheit and Centigrade. Fahr. j 1 Centigr. Fah. Centi. Fah. ' Centi —40 — 20°00 33° 0°56 70o 21011 — 3 — 19,44 34 1,11 71 21,67 • — 2 — 18.89 35 1,67 72 22,22 — 1 —18.33 36 2,22 73 22,78 Zer.O — 17,78 37 2,78 74 23,33 1 — 17,22 38 3,33 75 23,89 2 —16,67 39 3,89 76 24,44 3 —16,11 40 4,44 77 25,00 4 — 15,56 41 5,00 78 25,56 5 — 15,00 42 5,56 79 26,11 6 —14.44 43 6,11 80 26,6 7 7 —13.89 44 6,67 81 27,22 8 -1333 45 7,22 82 2 7.78 9 — 12 78 46 7.78 83 28,33 10 — 12,22 47 8.33 84 28,89 11 —11,67 48 8,89 85 29,44 12 -11,11 49 9.44 86 30,00 13 -10,56 50 10,00 87 30,56 14 —10 00 51 10.56 88 31,11 15 - 9 44 52 11,11 89 31.67 16 — 8.89 53 1167 90 32,22 17 — 8.33 54 12,22 91 32.78 18 - 7.78 55 12.78 92 33,33 19 - 7,22 56 13.33 93 33 89 20 — 6,67 57 13 89 94 34,44 21 — 6,11 58 14.44 95 35,00 22 — 5,56 59 15,00 96 35,56 23 — 5,00 60 15,56 97 36,11 24 — 4 44 61 16,11 98 36,6/ 25 — 3 89 62 16.67 99 37,22 26 — 3,33 63 17,22 100 37 78 27 — 2 78 64 17.78 101 38,33 28 — 2.22 65 18.33 102 38,80 29 - 1,67 66 18,89 103 39,44 30 — 1,11 67 19,44 104 40,00 31 — 0,56 68 20.00 105 40.56 F.P32 — 0,00 69 20,56 106 41,11 The Centigrade thermometer divides th<* HEAT. — INTENSITY OF. 465 HEAT. — INTENSITY OP. 460 1S(P of Fahrenheit , i. e. from 32^ to 212^, into 100 degrees; and Reaumur divides the same space into 80°. Hence, the 32° of Fahrenheit is the 0 of Reaumur and the Centigrade. The ihermomultiplier measures heat the 1500th of a degree of Fahrenheit. The mean temperature of man is 98° 6 > ; of mammifera, in general, 98 to 104° ; of dogs, 103° ; of cats, 163° hi j of birds, about 104°, but pigeons are 107°; fishes are from 500 to 640 Fah. Wate* boils, bar. 30 inches, at 212 Fahr., 80 Reaumur, and 100 Centigrade. Tallow melts 127 Fahr. Fever heat, 112 Fahr.; blood-heat 98° Fahr. Temperature of spring water 50°. Water freezes 32° Fahr. ; 0 Centigrade, 0 Reaumur. 0 Fah., is 14| Reaumur below Zero, and 18 Centigrade below Zero, or — 140-5, and — 18°. Ether boils at 104 degs. Alcohol 1735 Nitric acid 210 Oil of turpentine 304 Sulphuric acid — 18.... 4/2 Phosphorus 554 Sulphur 570 Linseed-oil 640 Mercury 656 That is, they cannot be made hotter, and their steam, which equalizes their heat, then balances the atmospheric pressure at 30 inches. Wedgwood’s Pyrometers consist of small cylinders of porcelain clay, which perma- nently contract at great heats, but uncer- tainly. His* scale commences at 1077° of Fahrenheit. Eggs are hatched at 104^ of heat. Guyton Morveau makes, mercury boil at two degrees of Wedgwood, or 64275 of Fahrenheit. Silver melts at 22 W., 1822 67 F. Gold 32 W., and 2517 63 F. Cast-iron 130 W., and 8696 24 F. Nickel, platina, and malleable iron 175 W., and 11454 56 F. He makes Wedgwood commence at 517 F., instead of the usual 1077 5. Daniel makes the boiling point of mercury 644. Polished steel is a blue colour at 58(P, and straw colour at 460°. Daniell makes brass melt at 1869; silver 2233 ; copper 2548 ; gold 2590 ; and cast- iron ?4“9, which last Wedgwood made 205/7. A platinum pyrometer gives different re- sults ; by it Silver melts 1823 Fah. Gold 2518 Cast-iron 8696 By the platina scale, mercury boils at 643 ; zinc melts 705 ; copper 2205 ; platina 1 1454. Daniell makes the heat in a common parlour-fire 1 141°. The best heat of family sitting-rooms is 70°, and of sleeping-rooms from 5(P to 60°. The metals which retain heat the longest are brass and copper, then iron and tin, and lastly lead. As heat rises with the rarefied air. Count Rumford taught to place grates low, to make chimnies small, and mantle-pieces low. Pressure by the hand on gas, in a glass cylinder will raise it to 400°, the heat which sets fire to various Dodies. Man, and warm-blooded animals, under the influence of excessive heat in dry air, cannot, during life, sustain an elevation of vital temperature beyond 12° or 13^. In cold-blooded animals, 105° is the greatest degree of heat which these could bear. Sea-water is seldom below 40°; springs about 45° ; and pools arid small rivers are as the atmosphere. The mean heat of the human body is 98°, and of the skin 90°. A slight breeze at 70°, cools at 80° in 3 minutes, a pair of bellows in 1 minute, water in 24 seconds, agitated water in 15 seconds, and lamp-cotton in 3 minutes. Artificial hot-baths are generally 6^ or 7° higher. The king’s bath, at Bath, is 116°; the hot-bath 117°; at Vichy 12(P ; at Barege 122^; Borset 132°; Aix la-Cha- pelle 140° ; Carsbad 165^ ; Baden and Pisey 104° ; Buxton 82^ ; Bristol 74° ; Mat- lock 66°. A bath at 150° scalds, but air heated to 260° is not painful. The lowest heat for fermentation is 57"5 ; the highest 77°. The lowest, for drying herbs, &c. 77°. and the highest 122°. The greatest which the feet will bear in water 100°5. The usual heat at which tea and coffee are drank 11(P. Water simmers at 178°. Pure water boils at 212° j but, with one-fifth salt, not till 218 75 ; and as syrup, not till 221. Water, which boils at 21^ at the foot of Mont Blanc, boils at 187° at the top ; while the barometer at bottom was 30 534, and at top 171 36. Then the elevation being 15,000 feet in 25° of Fahr., every 600 feet of eleva- tion lowers the boiling point 1° of heat. In a vacuum, all liquids boil at 124° less than in the open air. Hence, water boils at 88°, alcohol at 49°, and ether, which boils at 96°, is already vapour. If, by means of the air-pump, the pressure of air be reduced to one-half, water will boil at nearly 180°. The same heat which raises water 1° raises oil 2°, owing to the evaporation of the water. The heat required to raise water, oil, and mercury 1° is 28, 14, and 1. Hemp, cotton, matting, &c. w ith oil and lamp-black, generate heat, and finally ignita spontaneously, when exposed to air. Every effect of the most violent heat of furnaces may also be produced by the flame of a candle or lamp, urged upon a small particle of any substance, by the common blow-pipe. This instrument consists merely of a brass pipe, about one-eighth of an inch diameter at one end, and the other tapering to a much less size, bent, and having a very small perforation for the breath to escape. In the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, 2 volume? of hydrogen to 1 of pure oxygen produce the greatest heat and light ever produced. Every hard and untractable substance u fused, melted, and dispersed immediately. HEAT. — EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. 467 468 Rock crystal and quartz are converted into glass. Opal and flint into enamel. Blue sapphire, talc, emerald, lapis lazuli, are con- verted into glass. Gold and diamond are volatilized. Platina and brass wire burn with a green flame. Copper melts without burning ; but iron burns with brilliant light. Iceland spar and strontian, and pure lime, give out an amethyst flame. — See Optics. When oxygen and hydrogen are burnt, the heat is 2578° ; but the same oxygen and charcoal give 2967° ; and with iron, zinc, and tin, 5825° Despretz. Tallow melts at 92°, spermaceti at 133°, and bleached wax at 155° Expansion and Contraction. Solids slightly dilate by enlarging the orbits of the gases in their pores. Further enlargement, by more heat, breaks up their structure, and ultimately renders the whole fluid as a volume of excited atoms. The degree of excitement, to effect this, varies with the structure. Mercury, alcohol, ether, &c. have feeble structures ; and platinum, gold, iron, &c. impregnable structures. Daniell has recently determined the ex- pansion of the following bodies, from 1 in length at 62^, to be at 212° and at 662° : — 212° 662° Black lead 1 000244—1 000703 Platinum 1 000735—1 002995 Wrought iron 1 000984—1 004483 Cast ditto 1 000893—1 003943 Gold 1 001025—1 004238 Copper 1-001432— F006347 Silver 1 -001626—1 -006886 Zinc 1-002483—1-008527 Lead 1 002323 Tin 1 001472 The linear dilatations of bodies, from 32° to 212°, is as under, by La Place, &c. Silver 0 0019097 = Copper 0-0017173 = "5'^'Z Cornish Tin.. 04)021730 = 4 :^ 2 : Forged Iron,. 0-0012205 = ^7-9 Flint-glass 04)0081 17 = TjjVs Gold 0 0014661 = Platinum ; 0 0008565 = YTS J Lead 0 0028484 = yj-g- Glass of St. Gobain .. 0 0008909 = xr’22' Mercury, in volume, .. 0 018018 = ITTo Water 0 0433 = yj Alcohol 0 11 = -g All the Gases 0 3/5 = 4 8 7 ' Hoy determined the expansion of brass from 32^ to 212° on a foot, to be 0227 of an inch; on steel to be 0137; on cast-iron •0133 ; and on a glass rod 0097. Roy made a glass-tube in 10 millionths of an inch, which, on afoot length, expanded 46,569 ; a glass-rod 96,944 ; cast-iron 133,126 ; Steel-rod 137,368 ; brass rod 227,136. Granite, at dull-red heat, expands a 0 02 or 0 0166. At full red heat it decomposes, and at a white-heat vitrifies. Porphyritic felspar expands 0 019 and 0 018. Clay-slate 0 0158 and 00135. Green-stone 0 0125. Serpentine no expansion. Steel and zinc expand as 2 to 5, and they are used by Ure as a Thermostat. Lead expands but a 350th between 32° and 212^; iron but the 800th, and glass the 1000th in round numbers ; but the expan- sion is in the three dimensions, and three for the whole times that of either. Heating and cooling, at the same degrees, give the same results. 1000 inches of air, or any gas, raised from 32° to 212°, expands to 1375 inches uni- formly through the 180°— so that, ■fl'O = 2-0833 inches, is the increase per 1000 inches for every degree, with invariable exactness in all. Mercury dilates more rapidly, as it rises towards its own boiling point. Other me- tals and bodies also vary their rate of expansion. Taking air at 32° as 1 , then, at 33 below Zero, it is 0 865 ; at 212° above it is 1 375 : at 392°, 1-7389 ; at 572^, 2 0976; and at 680°, when mercury boils, air is 23125. Hydrogen, and all the gases, expand in the same proportion, t. c. l-480th to a degree of heat. Downwards they decrease a 480th for every degree of abstraction of heat. At 512°, they are double in bulk, and, at 448° below Zero, are half their bulk at 32°. At 60° the bulk is 28-480ths larger than at 32° or 508, and the density the 508th, in- stead of the 480th. The decimal of 4-fg is 0 00208, which is the constant multiplier for any difference of degrees. Thus, at 60°, or 28° above 32^, the expansion is as 0 00208 X 28, or 0-05724, and any bulk at 32°, increased by this 0-05724, its quantity is the bulk at 60^. If 100 cubic inches, at 32°, it is 105 724 at 60°; and if 100, at 60°, it is the 0 05724 less at 320. The increase of 2-0833 in every 1000 cubic inches, is the 480th of the bulks for every degree, and no doubt it must arise from the enlargement of the orbits of the atoms which constitute the activity and form of the gaseous state; 480 inches thus become 481 for every degree of heat or motion. The intense motions which exist in atoms, when gaseous, is proved by their re-conden- sation. In this way, the condensation of muriatic acid gas has transferred its own motions, so as to make mercury boil at656^. Liquids expand, by heat, in various in- creasing ratios. The greatest density of water is 39 39. Mercury expands between 32° and 212° 0 02 to 0 018. Water 0 0433. Fixed oils 0 08. Alcohol 0-11. 100 parts of air at 32° expand at 40^ to 101| ; at 50°, to 103f; at 60°, to 105 8; at 70°, to 108 ; at 80^, to 1 10 ; at 100^, to 1 1 4 ; at 120°, to 118; at 150^, to 124£; at 200^, to 135 ; and at 212°, to 13/ 4. The seconds’ pendulum, of 39*139 inches. 4C>9 HEAT. — RAH is lengthened by 30° of temperature 128th of an inch, or 8 vibrations in 24 hours. Liquids vary much in their rate of expan- sion when the temperature approaches their boiling, or solidifying points. The maximum density of water is about 7 or 8 degrees above the freezing point. Some fix it at 31P, others at about 40°. and for 2 or 3° it is about the same. Below this point water sinks to the bottom. The force of dilatation in solids is equal to that with which they resist compression ; and that of contraction is equal to the re- sistance to extension. The force of dilatation in liquids is equal to .the great force with which they resist compression. Beaume’s hydrometer floats in distilled water for heavy fluids, or, for light fluids, in water with 1 oz. of dry salt. The temp, is supposed from 56 to 60. and the sp. gr. of water 1, and brine 1 0/5. The scale for heavy fluids runs from 1 to 75, or from sp. gr. 100/ to 2087. 13 gives sp.gr. IT; 26 is 1 2; 48 is 15; and 64 is 1*8. For light fluids, the range is from 59 to 10 ; 50 shew- ing sp. gr 0 /82 ; 46 being 0‘8, and 26 being 0 9. It makes the lightest fluid, the hydro- cyanic acid. 0*7 ; and the heaviest, sulp. acid, 1 85. At IT the wort of strong ale exactly floats a new-laid egg. Babbage maintains that solid rocks ex- pand by heat, and that clay only contracts. Also, that different strata conduct heat dif- ferently, and that the surface radiates dif- ferently. Heat, or atomic motion, added to water above 212°, carries it off in gas or steam ; but, by compression in strong vessels, Per kins has made water red-hot. Wheels and casks, bound by hoops, swell by heat, and the contraction renders them more binding. When a bulk of lime and water are com- bined, the heat is caused by a condensation equal to the bulk of lime, for the mixture is the same bulk as at first. Acids combining with water condense it, and produce heat. The compression of water, by thirty atmos- pheres, gives out the sixty-sixth of a degree of heat. Conducting Powers of Bodies. Taking the heat-conducting power of water at 10, ash has 91, elm 32, oak 33, and fir 39. The densest woods are the best con- ductors of heat. Hornbeam (4 inches 10 lines long and 1 inch thick) conducts 54° ; oak 50*5, chesnut 537, fir 47*91, poplar 47*59, and cork only 17*5. •The relative conducting powers of heat, through the following bodies in second*, are air 576, lint 1032, wool 1118, raw sit:, 1284, beaver’s fur 1296, eider-down 1305, and hare’s fur 1315. Hare’s fur, eider-down, caoutchouc, wool, and silk, are the worst conductors. Cork and wood from boiling water may be handled, but not metals, though both affect the thermometer equally. CATION OF. 470 The heat-conducting powers of metals, &c. are Gold Platinum 981 Silver 9/3 Copper 398-2 Iron 374 3 Zinc 363 Tin 303 9 Lead 179*6 Marble 23 6 Porcelain .... 122 Fine clay . . . 1 1*4 To economize heat, Forbes used very thin plates of mica, since glass, like alum, trans- mits little heat. He found, too, that his thin mica-plate interposed between crystals, and turned *45°, augments both the refracted light and heat. Rock salt transmits the whole of all heat, making rays. — Melloni. Itadiation of Heat. All hot bodies distribute their heat, or atomic motion, to other atoms around, and this depends on the roughness of the surface, as exposing the greatest number of points to surrounding atoms. Metals radiate the least, and lamp-black paper, and glass, the most. A thermometer fell from 190 to 68°, in a vacuum, in 10 minutes; but, in air, in 6 minutes. Two tin globes, one painted lamp- black and the other bright, the first lost half its heat in 35 minutes, and the other in 44 minutes. If the surface of the metals is scratched or roughed, the radiation, of course, is in- creased, because the excited atoms which cause the heat have more points for distri- bution to the atoms around. Lamp-black vessels radiate motion as 100. glass as 90, tarnished lead 45, bright lead 19, and tin, gold, silver, and copper, as 12. It is more rapid in a vacuum. The absorbing power is directly as the radiating, and the conducting and reflecting power is the reverse. The visible radiations from heated bodies are reflected like light, but they do not pass through transparent bodies. A naked body, in air, cools in 576 seconds in wool in 1118 seconds, in cotton in 1046 seconds, in hare’s fur 1315 seconds, in raw silk 1284 seconds, and in eider down 1305 seconds. The heat-making atoms which evolve from an iron stove at a black heat, are visible in a sun-beam in a dark room. A thermometer, at a certain elevation, was cooled in air (azote and oxygen) in 100 seconds, in hydrogen in 40, in coal-gas in 70, and in carbonic acid in 112 seconds. Heat is emitted from every point of a hot body in all directions, and the intensity of the moving atoms, from any surface, is as the sine of the angle which the radiating atom makes with the surface. The radiation and reflection of heat and cold was known in Italy in the 17th century. A radiating surface, covered with black Japan varnish, has twelve times more power HEAT. — SPECIFIC. 471 479 than a metallic surface. If a canister, var- nished and metallic, be heated, a thermo- meter of ether and dragon’s-blood rises to the varnished side as 12 to 1 on the metallic side. But, if the canister is cooled, the var- nished side lowers the thermometer as 12 to 1 on the metallic. Heat, at a certain distance, equal to 9g° is 6| passed through rock salt, 1£° through rock crystal, and 1° through alum. Dulong and Petit have established that the quickness of cooling is not constant, but in geometrical progression, while the sur- rounding space is in arithmetical progression. Experiments of Melloni lead to the belief that hot bodies radiate two kinds of atoms. Specific Heat. The specific heat, or inherent mobility, has been determined for every kind of body. Water is taken as 1; then hy drogen gas is 21 by Crawford, and 9 4 by DaEon ; oxygen at 4 / by Crawford, and 13 by Dalton; air 18; azote 0 8 by Crawford, and T8 by Dalton ; aqueous steam T55 by Crawford, and 11/ by Dalton; alcohol, by several averages, 0 8 ; linseed and whale- oil 0 5; arterial .blood 103, and venous blood 0 89; farinaceous substances 0 5 and 0 4; pit-coal 028; cinders 019; glass 19; iron 012; silrer 0 08; gold and lead 0 05. The varied susceptibility is proved by mixing the same quantity of fluids at the same temperature; thus, if oil at 50 be mixed with water at 100, the result in heat is 83i, and not the mean 75°. If oil, at 100, is mixed with water at 50, the result is 66^. Though lead melts at 594 by itself, bis- muth at 460, and tin at 408 degrees of Fah. ; yet, if mixed in the proportions of 5, 8 and 3, they melt at 20(E>. Water, in passing to vapour, expands 1696 times, alcohol 659 times, ether 443 times. One. lb. of mercury at 185°, and one lb. of water at 40°, give a temperature of 45°, but reversed it is 180°. Three parts of snow ana four of potash, or two parts of snow and three of crystallized muriate of lime, produce 83° of cold. Two parts of common salt, mixed with two of ice or snow, produce a degree of cold five degrees below the Zero of Fahrenheit. One of sal ammoniac, and two of common salt, with five of snow, make it seven de- grees colder. And equal parts of nitrate of ammonia and common salt, with two and a half of snow, reduce it 25 deg. below Zero. Five parts of muriate of lime and four parts of snow freeze mercury. If the muriate of lime be crystallized, or four parts of dry caustic potash be added to three of snow, 50 deg. below Zero may be acquired. Walker, of Oxford, produced 91 deg. below Zero, by applying two parts of sul- phuric acid to snow. Salts, in water, lower the freezing point. Thus, 25 per cent, of common salt, in water, lowers its freezing point from 32 deg. to 4 deg. but other salts less. Hence, water frozen at 32 deg, is liquified by 25 per cent. salt, till the thermometer falls to 4 deg. and in proportion for other quantities of salt. Acids and salts absorb moisture, and as they and the water freeze at different de- grees, freezing decomposes them, while the temperature in connection occasions the water not to freeze at 32 deg. Sea-water, therefore, does not freeze so soon as fresh- water. 25 per cent, of sulphuric and nitric acid lowers the freezing point of the mix- ture to 7'5 and 7. When snow or pounded ice are mixed with salt, or the acids, these dissolve the solid crystals into fluids, and in converting solidity into fluidity withdraw motion from surrounding bodies, so as to be capable of producing a cold of 70 deg. below Zero. Solid carbonic acid sinks the spirit ther- mometer to 162 Fah. below Zero, in two minutes. 180 grains of mercury, poured into a concavity of it, are solidified in a few seconds. Water, saturated with nitre, loses 17 deg. of heat, and with nitrate of ammonia 46 deg of heat. The varied heat of saline bodies in water depends on their fixed water of crystalliza- tion, which in becoming liquid absorbs the heat. 300 grains of carbonate of soda con- tain 137 5 of water of crystallization, and the solution lowers temp, from 16° to 20°. As much atomic motion is imbibed by a pound of ice in melting, as would raise a pound of water to 135 degrees.* Black made it 140 degrees, which, multiplied by ten, as the whole heat in water, at 32°, gives 1400° .as positive zero , when no heat would re- main in water. Crawford made it 1532° ; Gadolin made it 1432°; and La Place 3460°; while Desormes makes it only 448°. Apjohn determines the specific heats, per equal volume (air being 1) of nitrogen, 09613; of hydrogen, 01315; and of car- bonic acid gas, 1 6677. Water requires the same heat to be con- tinued the time into 32, to raise it from 50° to 60° that mercury requires, owing to its facility of evaporation. This is ambiguousiy called specific heat ; but it merely expresses the facility of being excited. Mercury, in this case, is said to have a specific heat of a 32d that of water. So iron is 110, silver 80, and tin 70. Freezing and Crystallization. Solids, which are capable of becoming fluid, are those only tvhich form crystals when returning to the solid state. They often unite much of the water, called the water of crystallization. Metals, or glass, rendered fluid by heat, crystallize on cool- ing. Flat glass, or porcelain vessels, are best, and to grow the crystals must be turned, and the solution renewed. Some are formed by the cooling of the solution ; others by evaporation, in one case by abating the intestine motion or fluidity — in the other by diminishing the volume and bringing the fitting atoms nearer. Their primitive, or real, and secondary forms are always to be distinguished in examining the structure o; 673 HEAT. — FREEZING AND CRYSTALLIZATION. 471 layers of their particles with the microscope. In all crystallization, repose and pressure of the atmosphere are necessary. The details of crystallization, like those of Chemistry, are of indefinite numbers ; but all in subordination to general laws, applied to a few forms; and the details, though curious and amusing, are merely trifling. Alum, dissolved in water, crystallizes as octahedrons ou evaporating. Seleniate of zinc unites with three portions of water, and assumes three forms, accord- ing to temperature. Sulphate of soda at 90° crsytallizes without water, and at 60° with water in a different form. Heat, in general, much varies crystallization. When water freezes, it forms itself into crystals, with interstices, and expands : hence, ice swims, and is eight parts in 100 lighter than water. Some metals and sul- phur expand, when crystallizing, while other bodies contract. Ice, in melting, absorbs as much heat from surrounding bodies as would raise the same bulk of water to 140°. And water, in pass- ing from 32 into steam, absorbs as much heat as would raise the same bulk to 1000°. Hence, there is above seven times the atomic motion in steam that there is in water. Tiles, stones, &c. break by water in them freezing and expanding. Water in freezing, evaporates as much as by direct heat, and ice evaporates largely. As evaporation carries off the most mobile atoms, or heat, it produces coldness in the body. Fordyce, Morveau, and Rumford, proved, that when the atoms of fluids become fixed by freezing, they increase in weight; since lateral motions of fluidity diminish weight. Davy and Berzelius state that the weight of an atom of azote is twice its specific gravity, as gas. When the atmospheric pressure is re- moved under an air-pump, the rapid evapo- ration will freeze mercury, but the vapour must be absorbed by sulphuric acid, or some pulverized rock. This is Leslie’s experi- ment, and it has been used to freeze water, cool wine, &c. &c. Salt renders snow liquid, and the liquidity absorbs motion from surrounding bodies, so as to freeze them. Snow and nitric-acid do the same ; and in mixture of lead 51 . tin 30, bismuth 7 L and mercury 404, lowers tem- perature considerably by their liquefaction. In slaking lime, the water becomes fixed by combination, and the atoms exhibit their lost motion in the heat of the lime. Metals solidify at higher heat than water, water than oil, oil than spirits and mercury, and, to become fluid, they require more heat respectively. The evaporation of ether from the bulb of a thermometer will lower it from 40 to 25. A phial of water wrapped m cotton, and frequently wet with ether, will freeze, by the motion transferred to the vapour. Water forms no crystals till far below 32° if kept very still. Nine cubic inches of water become 10 by freezing, and hence its powers of bursting vessels, rocks, &c. in freezing. Leslie’s method of freezing water by the air-pump, consisted in absorbing the mois- ture by a saucer-full of oil. of vitriol, and thereby having the expansion without the moisture. W hen the air is rarefied 250 times, water, under the receiver, is cooled down 120°. In this experiment, the motion which kept the water liquid is transferred to the sulphuric acid, and the water then fixe? or crystallizes, but, if left in the rarefied air, it entirely evaporates after it has become ice. The water should be freed from air, or its more mobile atoms by boiling. The sul- phuric acid, or parched oatmeal, is capable of congealing forty tim^s its weight of water, with rarefaction from 20 to 40. Mercury may be solidified in the same manner, so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. Leslie’s experiment explains the principle of fluidity, and of freezing and gaseous con- struction. As the air is exhausted, the gaseous atoms have more room for their orbits, and, in consequence, the gases 'in the water expand, find room in the receiver, and leave the water. Then, as the water becomes ice, it is evident that its fluidity arose from the gas in its interstices, and that freezing is the departure of those gaseous orbits. Water increases its bulk in freez- ing, because the atoms, in separation, fill up the cubic space ; but, when uniting in lines or superfices, they occupy more space ; therefore, ice is lighter than water as 92 to 100. The porous vessels, used for cooling wine, are of African origin, made in Spain, and called Alcarrazas. The atomic motion, or heat, in the water, is diminished by evapo- ration at the pores. Another method of crystallizing is to ex- pose powders to the atomic action, or motion, of positive and negative electricity (t. e. of oxygen and hydrogen in separation and restoration), and then, on the excitement abating, the atoms adjust themselves in regular figures, determined by their own forms and the atmospheric pressure, which in every case packs them. It is merely a case of the subordination of all matter to the relations arid conflicts of the elements disturbed by motion (whether the mode of motion be called heat or electricity), followed by the surrender of the atoms to other powers, as that of relative form and atmo- spheric pressure. The power of salt to lower the freezing point of water, is directly as to the quantity, and 1-1 0th lowers it 10°. Alcohol has been exposed to 90, 110, and 120° below zero without freezing. Sea-water freezes at 28°'3. In freezing water the crystals join at an angle of 60°. A cylinder full of water may be con- verted into ice, by placing it in 5 lbs. of sul- phate of soda, and 4 lbs. of sulphuric acid, at 36 deg. well mixed. The ice is extracted for use by putting the cylinder in hot water. 475 In Bengal, the Hindoos make ice by eva- poration, and ice-pits for use in hot weather. The Hindoos also cool water by mixing one part of nitre with two of water. Melted snow produces about one-eighth of its bulk of water ; hence, snow, two feet deep, produces three inches of water. Quicksilver melts 39° below Zero. Ether freezes 47° below Zero. Wine freezes at 20°. Extreme cold produces the same percep- tion on the skin as great heat. When mer- cury is frozen at 4(P below Zero, the sensa- tion of the skin is the same as that of touch- ing red-hot iron. The greatest natural cold known, is 50° below zero. If ice requires more motion to liquify it than the apparent increase of the resulting fluid, it is because the structure of ice de- mands a force greater than the simple ratio of heat. The breaking up of the crystalline structure, and converting it into fluid, may well require 140° of heat for an increased temperature of only 17°, or from 20 to 37°. The difference is no basis for a gratuitous theory, but is a proof that to overcome a force of structure, a force of atoms in motion was necessary. A hammer would at one blow dash a pound of water on every side, but it would require twenty or thirty blows to pulverize as much ice. On cooling heated gas in a close receiver, it still fills the receiver, for the motion was in excess ; and, if the receiver were not full, a vacuum would result, while a vacuum facilitates expansion and atomic motion. This fact, alone, proves that gases are created by orbits of atoms. That the whole is an affair of structure to be overcome, and of power distinct from heat, is evident from the fact, that if 2 lbs. of water at 89° and 32° are mixed, the result will be a mean fluid at 56^. But make the lb. at 32° ice, and the extra 48° would not break up the structure, and cool down the whole to 32°. Nor does 32° produce a mass of ice, but from flakes at 32°, it is probable that the congelation involves cold below zero. Liquids cr ystallize by cooling and freezing, because cooling and freezing imply the deprivation of that intestine motion which rendered the atoms a liquid ; so vapours crystallize by their sublimation and fixation on quiescent surfaces, with which they come into contact, because at those surfaces they part with their intestine motion. Every fluid compound, susceptible of the solid state, crystallizes, in exact geometrical forms, as results of equal actions and re- actions. Heat as a Machine Power. On going to the top of a high mountain, where the weight of the air is diminished one-tenth, the boiling point of water is some- what less than 207°. On going to the bot- tom of a deep mine, where the weight of the air is increased one-thirtieth, the boiling point of water is nearly 214^. In a steam-engine, every nineteen cubic 476 inches of water produces twenty feet of steam, or 1 to 1800 nearly ; and this is equal to one horse, and produced by a quarter of a pound of coals. In general, a chaldron of coals works a hundred-horse power for four hours. A committee, appointed by the French Academy to determine the elastic power or volume of steam at high temperatures, gave the following results : — Elasticity of Steam. Farenlieit. Elasticity of Steam. Farenlieit. 1 ...21200 8 .341 78 I l I I • • • ...233 96 9 -3f 078 2 10 2| ... ...263-84 15 .392-86 3 ...275-18 20 .41846 4 ...293-72 25 .43934 5 30 .457 16 6 40 .486-59 7 50 .500 60 One cubic foot of boiler :n steam-pipes heats 2000 feet of air to 70° ; and one square- foot of pipe will warm 200 feet of air. In Cornwall, certain steam-engines have lifted 40 million pounds one foot, with one bushel of coals ; and one at Wheel Towan 62 millions with an 80-inch cylinder. The advancp on the power of Cornish steam- engines is chiefly owing to covers of slowly- conducting substances to the steam-vessels. Watt’s improvement of the steam-engine consisted in his discovery of the power of cold water to condense steam ; and he ap- plied this means in a separate vessel. Four ounces of water will, in a second, condense 200 feet of steam, and reduce their expan- sive force to one fifth. Scotch cannel coal produces the greatest proportion of illuminating gas; then Wigan, Wakefield, Staffordshire, Dean Forest, and Newcastle. A ton of coals yields 8 or 9000 cubic feet of gas. Street-lamps consume 5 feet per hour, and Argand lamps 4 feet. 10 000 cubic feet of gas is obtained from a chaldron of Newcastle coals, or 500 per cwt. 11,000 cubic feet is produced by a chaldron of Staffordshire coals, or 550 per cwt. Gas-pipes of half an inch in diameter supply a light equal to 20 candles, one inch 100, two inches 450, three inches 1000. The gas which lights London is made by companies, who consume 50.000 tons of coal per annum, which make 400 millions of cubic feet of gas, lighting 62,000 in door, and 7500 street-lamps. Various establish- ments make one-eighth more. The gasometers of the London gas com- panies contain each nearly 20,000 cubic feet of gas, and some have 47 of them ; and al- together 1315 retorts. The coals make one- fourth more in bulk of coke, which sells at about 16^ the ton. Sixteen retorts will produce daily 50,000 cubic feet of gas, consuming five tons of coal in the retorts, and costing above five farthings for every ten cubic feet of gas while it is computed that this will give as much light as half a pound of candles. The HEAT. — AS A MACHINE POWER. 477 HEAT. — AS A MACHINE POWER. 478 name quantity of oil-gas would cost 2 ; while the refuse in making the coal-gas is Worth a fifth. In burning anthracite, or hard coal, the furnace or chamber should be brick or stone, and not red-hot. In 1830, the gas-pipes in and round Lon- don were above 1000 miles. The degree of light in carburetted hydro- gen depends on a due proportion of carbon, for pure hydrogen and oxygen give a very feeble light. When steam is first generated from water at 212 deg. its force is that of one atmos- phere, its density 1, and its specific gravity 126 ; but at 320 deg. its force is equal to six atmospheres ; at 358 deg. to ten ; at 416 deg. to twenty ; and at 590 deg. to one hun- dred atmospheres. Steam at 212 degrees, according to Count Rum ford, is 3000 times rarer than watpr, or 3.^ times rarer than air; but great heat will raise it to 14,000 times the bulk of water, equal to five atmospheres. Taking 212 as 1, its force at 100 is 962 ; at 260, is 2 ; at 290, 3; at 300, 3 33 7; at 330, 4 6; and at 350 is 8. Steam at 343° of Fahr., equal to 8 atmos- pheres, raises the mercury 20 feet. A fifth increase of heat doubles elastic force. Fifty atmospheres is produced by 51 0° 6. Mercury rises as atmospheres, so that as 1 atmosphere gives 30 inches, 10 atmospheres give 300 inches, and a half but 15. A bushel of coals will convert into steam 14 cubic feet of water, occupying 1330 times that space e see it in links of chains, or in broken points of continuity all round, while the generation of the contrary element proceeds. The flow of each element is caused by the first excitement in the centre. The sphere affected is great or small, in proportion to the excitement, and its continuance. We rub a glass plate or cylinder against a cushion of silk, and we increase the action by an amalgam, which, in oxydating, gene- rates one of the elements. Points, by their susceptibility of acquiring the contrary state, then receive the contrary element; and, striking it, seek more general diffusion in the conductor. This again affects all sur- rounding bodies, and a balance is produced by general induction. In fact, a plate of 482 air is charged, one side of which is tho surface of the conductor, and the other side the walls and furniture of the room. If seeks those objects with force, and they seek it with force, as means of restoration; but, on the conductor, it is insulated. It is placed on bodies which- are electrics, there- fore susceptible of the action, and not its conductors ; for perfect conductors are only those bodies which receive none of the ac- tion, and diffuse or spread it correlatively with other surfaces in the opposite state. It is then made to pass into glass-jars, but these expend it in their substance, and bring the induction nearer on the other side. At length, a neutral diffuser, or discharging- rod is applied to both sides, and in the dark we see the returning, or induced flashes at every interval of continuity. The whole has been an action of oxygen and hydrogen, the generation of one de- manding the other instanter, on the spot, and then around in concentric circles. The mutual and reciprocal excitement com- mences in a germ, perhaps, of the 10th of an inch radius, and expands around till the action is too much dilated to be sensible. There is a fitness in their union which can be understood only by seeing them, but it would not be difficult to hypothecate if hypotheses were allowable. Thus far facts and the strongest analogies justify, at every point, the theory adduced, viz. that electrical action is the mere action of oxygen and hydrogen in separation, re- union, and restoration ; that voltaism is merely a case where the generation of the two elements is in a narrow space, and the restoration immediate by the wires proceed- ing from the evolved elements, and that the jets of the hydro-oxygen blow-pipe are per- fectly in point as to effect and analogy. In fine, that the three are direct means of ge- nerating such light and heat as identifies a common source in the agency, or action and re-action of oxygen and hydrogen. What a jumble would nature be, if there were co- extensive fluids for all its pur- poses and phenomena! We appear to understand the union ct gases ; at least, we may do so by considering that the hydrogen fixes the oxygen, and that the heat is the motion parted with by the oxygen atoms ; but, in electricity, we seem at a loss to understand how hydrogen and oxygen, as constituents of other bodies, are acted upon simultaneously at a distance. There is, it is true, a medium between, but how that is acted on, or how it acts, is not easy to conceive. But that a force is gene- rated and acting, is evident from the passing and re-passing of bodies moveable w ith less force. We may also conclude, that the affi- nity for the substances opposed alters the effect ; though, beyond question, some es- sence of hydrogen unites with some essence of oxygen, when the light and heat of the spark are generated ; and, at the same time, the quantity is restored by the juxta- position of other bodies and sparks from them all' round. If there is no such power R ELECTRICITY, 483 of restoration, the substance permits no escape, unless the connection is loose, or the element in superfluity. Faraday, who adopts the Editor’s theory in the main, may not be wrong when he supposed that the atoms in the space are oppositely polarized from each surface. The Editor had sup- posed strata on strata meeting, but polariza- tion is a mor e fashionable phrase. Many collateral proofs might be adduced in proof of the intimate connection of oxy- gen and hydrogen with electricity ; for ex- ample, when the Poles of positive or negative evaporate into coloured fluids, they effect the same conversions and re-conversions of colours, &c. &c. as the gaseous elements. But how they affect many odd purposes and singular phenomena, it is as difficult to de- termine as to understand the theory of atoms. Hitherto, attention has not been rationally directed to the subject, and false theories, out of number, have misled all experimenters. Galvanism is considered the same as elec- tricity, but it resembles it only in a few circumstances. It produces great heat at the Poles, and little light without carbona- ceous adjuucts. It appears, in fact, to be the concentration without the surplusage. It is generated, plus and minus, at minute distances, therefore gives no sparks or flashes, and it appears to be the concentration, which, preferring the belter conductor of the wires, re-combines only, or chiefly, at the Poles. The same concentration fits it for the lateral action in its double current, which generates laminar electricity in iron and steel, called magnetism, in a circle plus and minus. Every machine at work generates either oxygen positive, or hydrogen negative. If oxygen, then hydrogen accumulates on the opposed surfaces of all bodies around, and inductive action ; and, striking by sparks is the consequence, and this is the light on all sides in the dark. The machine, however, is insulated, and induction alone exists as to it, till a perfect conductor is made to connect the acting and re-acting surfaces, and the effect is then destroyed by an ex plosion. When hydrogen, or negative, is generated, the oxygen flows in and produces the same circumambient induction, till a perfect conductor restores the two sides. The sources of the contrary element are the walls of a room, and all the objects around to an indefinite distance ; for these elements exist in every thing, and respect should be had to the surrounding bodies and their connections, when electricity is desired. The case of galvanic excitement is dif- ferent. The two elements are simultane- ously generated, and in such proximity as adds to their force, like the proximity of the two surfaces of glass ; but, at the moment of generation, a perfect*' conductor is pre- sented to each, and, preferring this to the imperfect fluid, they make its circuit or union. But, if this circuit be broken, and each wire made to lead only to the other we then get a condensed double explosion, and all the energetic action of voltaic Poles. 484 The conti ary action which exists in the two wires thus broken, of which each part performs a double office, positive to nega- tive, and negative to positive, affects every conducting body around, and actually charges the laminae of iron, when within a given distance from the wires, and also con- fers a directive force or polarity on the atoms of air, &c. within the sphere of action. Such is machine- electricity, galvanic and magnetic. We must, in these reasonings, guard against the error of assuming either of the forms in which the power of these elements is displayed, as the standard form. Neither the flow from the jets of the blow pipe, the noisy combustible form of the shaft of light- ning, nor the silent action of the voltaic Poles, are other forms than what peculiar re-actions severally produce. There is a sort of kernel, a central, or focal point, which assembles the force, and acts on other bodies. The blow-pipe has its central point of action, the shaft of lightning creates but a very small hole, and the double burr, in a perforated card, has but a small orifice, though an apparent volume passes. In the blow-pipe, and the machine-accu- mulations, we have less difficulty ; but are not the same elements as palpably generated by the plates and fluids in the voltaic com- bination ? Why those elements, and those only, if not to the purpose ? Why the wires in each cell, so distinctive, if the elements in each were foreign to the result? It is uniform cause and effect. The very differ, ence between it and machine-electricity ex- plains other differences. The superfluous electricity around the voltaic apparatus, proves that both are the same ; but the nar row space of generation, and the wires in immediate contact, give us the essence only, while the radiance is wasted, and the restoration or re-union by the Poles, or place of separation, decomposes, &c. &c. whatever intervenes. The -f- and — then pursue their circuit, and return to the troughs where fresh evolutions renew the effect. We do not see the passage and action, but we know, by many circumstances, that the power acts around the conducting wires. It is this which moves lateral wires, and this which acts by radii in a circuit on the laminated or torpedo-like structure of iron and steel. The difference in the energy of the effect of mechanically mixing prepared oxygen and hydrogen, and re combining them elec- trically, appears to arise from their indif- ference in one case, and in the other from their generating one another, and separating one another from a state of equilibrium, in preserving and restoring which all the power of space, in an indefinite circuit, was a guarantee. It is a disturbance of natural dispositions, to restore which, all the equi- valent powers of nature are exerted. The objects of the preceding observations are to shew, that there is no electrical fluid, and that what has been so called is always the effect of the separation by ex- ELECTRICITY. 485 citement, and the re-union by re-action of two well-known elements, always intimately connected with the bodies or substances which become ignitable or electrical. In a word, it is intended to prove that there is no electricity as an ens , or being, but only as an effect of the action and re-action of elements excited into opposition, and then seeking re-union. The common effects, heat and light, and the admitted identity of certain of them with oxygen and hydrogen, lead, therefore, to the conclusion, that all combustion and all electricity, are only dif- ferent modes in which those universal ele- ments act and re-act. Nor is this doctrine contrary to that of Davy, who, in ascribing affinity to different electrical powers in the substance, does but describe the affinity of universal oxygen and hydrogen, as positive and negative electricity, whose separation and whose re-union beget all the phenomena. In all electrical reasonings, the corrella- tive simultaneous action, positive and nega- tive, should never be lost sight of. If we say any body or space is positive, we should bear in mind, that some other body or space is necessarily negative, and that both are acting in a sphere. All the confusion of electrical science has arisen from considering the cause as an entity, and not as an effect ; and not merely an effect, but a relative effect ; and, in fact, as two effects, always simultaneous, and absolutely necessary one to the other, like light and shade. The taste of positive electricity is acid — of negative, alkaline. When a compound of either oxygen, iodine, or fluorine, and another element is exposed to volatic action, the active ele- ment appears at the positive pole, and the other at the negative. The acid to the positive, and the alkaline to the negative. Chemical affinity is governed by the posi- tive and negative electric states of the bodies. The theory of iEpinus and Cavendish re- cognizes principles of attraction and repul- sion always impossible, and imagines cir- cumstances, whose contrary is true. Never was mathematical science so abused, as in its application to these false and absurd data. There have been overpowering mystifica- tions on this subject, in the terms caloric, electrical fluid, &c. &c. Hitherto, Chemistry has admitted but one compound of oxygen and hydrogen, as 8 to 1 by weight, and 2 to 1 by volume, for water, while the nitrogen of the atmosphere is raised, in sensible pro- ducts, by successive doses of oxygen, into the potent nitric acid ; but, as oxygen and hydrogen are the parents of incandescence and heat, it seems not improbable that if 8 oxygen to 1 hydrogen, by weight, produces combustion and water, so an extra dose of oxygen, as 16 to 1, may produce Machine Electricity, and 32 to 1 Voltaic Electricity ; the fluids being dispersed by the great heat, and the dispersion being the phenomena. Both hydrogen and oxygen are the most abundant elements in nature. Hydrogen is 6-9ths of all forms of water ; it is, with oxy- gen and carbon, part of all vegetables ; and, 486 with those of nitrogen, part of all animals ; and that it is part of all metals is proved by their incandescence. Oxygen is still more abundant, being l 5th of air, 8-9ths by weight of water, the component of earths, acids, salts, and of animals, vegetables, and metals \ and its energy and activity equal its univer- sality. What other substances then are so likely to be the components of combustion, and its protean forms of electrical display and voltaic power ? The electric spark which detonates two volumes of hydrogen to one of oxygen, loses its power when there is combined 12 volumes of air, 14 of oxygen or 9 of hydrogen, or when the atmospheric pressure is reduced 16 times. In fact, the spark acts like any other flame. If an electric and a conducting substance are brought within a few feet of a positive prime conductor, the electric becomes nega- tive on the near side, and positive on the off side, the influence penetrating its mass ; but the conductor becomes negative on both sides, whether solid or hollow. If the elec- tric is dipped in water or coated, both sides then become negative, like a conductor, pro- ving that the influence penetrates electrics, and not conductors ; and, also, that the air, positive on one side, and negative on the other, is an electric; and that, in effect, every conductor is a mere coating to an equal surface of the electric. A non-electric, or conductor, is a physical surface in which the elements of oxygen and hydrogen are so intimately combined as not to be separable. An electric, or non- conductor, is a body in which the combina- tion of the same elements are easily disturbed, and placed in correllative action and re-ac- tion on surfaces of adjoining non-electrics. An electric does not conduct, because it receives, suffers, and exhausts the action and re-action. — Phillips. A non-electric conducts or spreads the affection of the electric, because it receives and partakes of none of the action. — Ibid. Of course, as no body is perfectly one or the other, so all bodies, in degrees, are elec- tric or non-electric. Electrics are like water-pipes with holes ; and Conductors like perfect pipes, which permit no penetration. ■iWe seem at no loss to explain the Light of Electricity, because, in the explosive mixture of 1 oxygen and 2 hydrogen, sud- den compression produces incandescence as well as a flame applied, or red-hot body ; and we may give credit to that compression, when the over charged cf two surfaces meet with electrical rapidity. Heat, or decom- posing motion, of course increases with oxygen, on theory of increased proportions or doses. The charcoal points give off carbon and hydrogen, and these, subject to the heat of the fixed oxygen, cause the great light. When we speak of the velocity of a spark, we are incongruous. No spark proceeds, or can proceed, from one surface more than from the other. It is the power of mutual approach that creates the spark, and the R 2 ELECTRICITY, 487 negative and the positive become luminous when they unite, and each restores, at the same time, the opposed surface. This si- multaneous condition is unavoidable, and is like the up and down of a balanced lever. To measure its velocity, is like weighing caloric, or raking for the moon in a pond. The difference between the action of the oxygen and hydrogen, mixed in a blow-pipe, and the re-union in electricity, arises from the different circumstances under which they are separated. For the blow-pipe, we make them from zinc and manganese ; but electri- cal excitement is separation of the co-mix- ture, by which they are united, with the force of space in space. The force of space then acts on each in the re-union, and this peculiar action and effect we call electrical. All combustion is electrical, because it is the re-union of excited hydrogen in the combustible, with the oxygen in the circum- ambient atmosphere ; and this, virtually, is all Electricity. The negative and positive, or oxygen and hydrogen currents, unite at the 'point of union in sparks, whose colour and intensity is influenced by the bodies at the point, or by their atmospheres. Wood and ivory pro- duce a spectrum crimson ; silver leather green ; powdered charcoal yellow ; rare air green * condensed air blue, violet, and purple. These local atmospheres change the result, but the light is like other light. A vacuum opposes no resistance , unlike all solids, and the supporter and inflammable principle unite in a scattered flame ; but, in the discharge of a jar, a ball of intense light proceeds through the vacuum. The ignition and explosion of a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, on the application of flame, or red heat, exactly resembles an electrical spark, with this difference, that the rapidity stands in place of the flame. Electric excitements are silently destroyed by various causes. 1. The degree of mois- ture in the atmosphere. 2. The angular points in the machine, or the apartment ; and 3, the imperfect insulation. It lasts from half-an-hour to two hours, but a charged jar often retains dangerous force for some days. The conducting power of a damp atmos- phere to a dry one, is as three to one. Points concentrate the action of large sur- faces or volumes. A conductor of coated paper is as power- ful as one of solid metal ; and hollow tubes pass charges as well as solid rods. A thread of gum-lac has ten times the power of insulation of a dry silk-thread, and two and a half times more than a silk- thread covered with sealing-wax. The brush and the star on points illustrate many electrical principles. The brush is the positive, or oxygen electricity, seeking equilibrium with activity through the induc- tive space ; and in a dark room, from a fine point, it is a splendid phenomenon. The star is the negative or hydrogen electricity, receiving the oxygen, and effecting a neu. totalization or equilibrium. The light arises 488 from the union with intensity of action, and the oxygen brush generates a force and current, which, in toys, amuse the vulgar. Induction is between two opposed sides, and is most distant when air is the electric. But, in a Leyden phial, the inductive energy is within the solidity of the glass, which, ir. this case, is like the air. So, in galvanism, the inductive distance is a fraction of the distance of the exciting plates, owing to the intervening liquid being itself an imperfect conductor. The intensity is inversely as the inductive distance, therefore greater through glass the Sth of an inch, than through air at 10 inches, or as 80 to 1. If any body, capable of being moved with less force than the force of re-action, is placed on either surface of a stratum of air, it is carried to the other surface, and said to be attracted; and, if the parallel plate of air is narrowed in any part by a projection of any kind from either surface, the entire force of action and re-action in the sphere is concentrated in that projecting part, and this concentrated force begets a sudden re- union of the sides, accompanied by heat, flame, &c. If, after separation, the spheres are undis- turbed, a silent restoration takes place, as the air is dry or damp, in ten or twenty minutes. Restoration, therefore, consists in giving back to each sphere, through the centre, its abstracted oxygen and hydrogen. And, when the restoration is made at points, or poles, through long wires, the wires neces- sarily extend the action through their whole length, generating a similar opposite sphere in the space around each wire, /or without such correllative action and such spheres there can be no excitement. Hot glass is a conductor, since the atomic motion, or heat, mingles its sides and pre- vents a negative and positive side. So, also, thick glass is a conductor, the obstructing substance preventing the formation of a ne- gative and positive side. A coated bottle, containing boiling water, cannot be charged, till the water is cold or frozen Chics of conducting metals, and ashes of conducting vegetables, are non-conductors, or electrics, owing to the weak affinity of the elements. The passage of the spheres of action around the wires, in discharging a battery, produces a lateral effect on surrounding bodies, and puts light ones in motion. Positive central action begets a negative sphere ; and negative central action begets a positive sphere ; and distant conductors, within the negative sphere, opposed to the positive 'entre, endeavour to become nega- tive ; and, within the positive, endeavour to become positive. A conducting surface admits no excite- ment, and, therefore, extends or bounds the spheres of the first excitement. 'The insu- lated conductor of a machine, on its positive side, enlarges the negative sphere on its side . and if extended to the coated surface of glass, plane or jar-formed, the other sids ELECTRICITT, 489 becomes negative, as part of the first nega- tive sphere. Electricity of induction means merely the negation of one side of an electric stratum, or sphere, and of the bodies in it, when the other side is positive and the bodies in it, or the contrary. In machine electricity, we have recourse to friction on the surface of a stratum per- petually renewed on the rubbed electric, and we provide an amalgam to be oxydated, thereby accumulated oxygen compels the hydrogen to flow in, to restore the equi- librium. All excitement is by motion in some of its forms as by friction, blows, heat, expan- sion, contraction, fermentation, or oxydation. Smooth glass, rubbed against woollen cloth, becomes positive, and the cloth nega- tive ; and so in regard to all the bodies, just as they follow and precede in the adjoining list — Smooth glass, woollen cloth, quills, baked wood, paper, sealing-wax, rough- glass, lead, sulphur, and metals. The varied effect of smooth and rough glass proves that the effect is not in the substance ; and the equal power of solid and superficial conductors proves the same. In fact, all electrical effects consist of disturb- ances of the adjoining electric, as the air, and in the fluid in galvanism, it serving as a less perfect non-electric than the metal slips which connect the plates. Peroxide of lead is found to be the best non-electric. Poggendorf, who publishes the fact, by the common confusion of ideas, con- ceives that it contains more negative elec- tricity than any other substance ; but this is absurd ; there is no negative, per se, and it is merely correlative to positive. Davy, Fa- raday, Delarive, &c. &c. make this mistake in every step. All electrical action is a se- paration within the electric space, and what are called conductors are boundary surfaces, more or less perfect. The action of the torpedo has decomposed water, and made a magnet. The under surface is like the negative pole, or positive electricity ; the upper like the positive pole of a battery, or negative electricity. In the torpedo, the apparatus is near the stomach, and consists of a multitude of parallel tubes filled with a liquid. It can, at will, communicate real shocks. iEpinus made a conductor of coated boards to charge a plate of air ; but, in fact, all charges are charges of plates of air in effect, and powerful as the plate is more or less perfect. Round conductors produce but a minimum effect. The body whose excited portion is of the least extent is generally negative. In other words, the body that is most affected by rubbing becomes positive, and that least affected negative. The harder of two rubbed electrics always acquires positive electricity. In all electricity, the positive, or oxygen, Is the active power, and this is confirmed by many experiments. Coulomb proves that electrical action is inversely as the square of the distance, or, 490 in other words, diffused or radiated. He determined clearly that the distribution of electricity on conductors depends on the surface and shape , and that the force never entered the body. When spheres are in sur- face, as 1,4, 16, 64, or infinite, the force of action is as 1, T08, T3, 1 65, and never quite 2. And in 2 equal -spheres in contact, the force varies from 30° to 1 8(P, or as 0, 1 , 4, 5, 6. Coulomb determined the relative electri- cal force of twelve globes in line, and found the first to the second as 15 to 10 : and of the first, to the sixth or middle, as 17 to 10. And, in twenty-four, he found the first and second as 156 to 100, and the first and twelfth as 1/5 to 100. Cavendish calculated that iron -wire con- ducts electricity 400 millions times better than fresh water, and four millions times better than sea- water. That machine electricity is so popular in its displays, arises from the breadth of its aerial stratum. That voltaic electricity dis- plays so little, arises from its compact mode of generation. And that magnetic electri- city acts only on iron, is because it is a power of the mere structure, and the same degree of power can act only on a similar structure. The poles of the three are alike ; thus, a prime conductor is negative near the exciting cylinder, and positive at its extre- mity, where it is rendering all around it ne- gative ; a voltaic arrangement has also its polar ends; and so likewise a magnet; and in both cases, the same elements are opera- ting, fixing, and exploding. The only diffe- rence is, that the voltaic elements were abstracted from elements previously in the natural force of union, and each by that force seeking re-union ; and, in the latter, they were separately evolved from manga- nese and zinc, without previous relation, and brought together by mechanical agency. The excitement of all electrical action being the generation of two specific sphe- roidal atmospheres, the restoration is also specific, and no other body or substance takes part in the restoration. Hence it is, that restoration is so indifferent to other bodies, unless they obstruct it, and then the affection is not elementary, but mechanical. A vacuum opposes no obstruction, and the restoration is the union of the inflammable with the supporter of combustion. Nor does any gas, or any state of air in the receiver, partake of the action, except as obstructors, or as patients of the intense action, by which they become heated, melted, &c. It is an act of mutual protrusion, in which other bodies are not connected in an electrical sense. The experiments at the Royal Institution of London, and at the Institute of France on these subjects, are far less satisfactory than they might be, if they were rot made in subservience to theories about fluids per se, which have, and can have no exist- ence but in imagination. We read, with reasonable doubt, accounts of experiments, in which these imaginary fluids are said to run through wires and masses of metal, in- stead of on or over their surface ; since we ELECTRICITY. 491 492 know, that if the said solids were straws covered with gold-leaf, or pasteboard boxes so covered, the effect would be the same. If the coatings are taken off jars or plates when charged, they only affect light bodies ; but the renewal of the coatings gives the usual shock. When we want negative or hydrogen electricity, we cut off the communication of the rubber with surrounding bodies, and give them a positive induction as to the in- sulated rubber, its conductor, &c. so that the rubber, &c. become negative by the positive induction all round. The phenomena, in the dark, resemble the other; but the action and re action all round are positive, flowing inwards ; and negative, re-acting by induc- tion, sparks, &c. The slight electrical flashes, often visible in a summer evening, are produced by storms at great distances, as 200 or 300 miles, and exactly correspond with the col- lateral sparks on all sides of the machine, whose distance is inappreciable. The burr on both sides a card is occasioned by the opposite currents of oxygen and hy- drogen. A pound of red lead and a pound of sul- phur, mixed together, are instantly sepa- rated by an electric current. A clean plate of platina, immersed in a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportion of water, concentrates them into water ; and the motions of the gas, trans- ferred to the platina, makes it red-hot. Common, or aerial electricity, acts through ice by the body of air ; but voltaic not till it has melted the ice. The following are the results of M. Poul- let’s researches on the re-acting power of metals to electricity : — Silver of 98 6 860 Red copper 738 Silver of 94 8 656 Fine gold 623 Silver of 80 569 Copper 224 Brass 194 Iron 121 Gold of 18 car. 109 Platina 100 The power is, also, in the inverse ratio of the length of the wires. The re-action of different fluids, as to vol- taic electricity, is exhibited in the following table, drawn up from experiments of Foers- temann. The first column indicates the quantity conducted by the substances in equal times ; and the second the time, or seconds, for conducting equal quantities : — Muriatic acid 2 464 0 410 Acetic acid 2 398 0423 Nitric acid 2-283 0 438 Ammonia 2-177 0 459 Sol. muriate of ammonia. . 1-972 0 509 Sulphuric acid 1737 0-575 Sol. potash 1 709 0 585 Sol. common salt 1 672 0 598 Sol. acetate of lead 1 560 0632 Distilled water 1-000 1000 Mr. Snow Harris, by delicate and perfect apparatus, determines that the impelling force on non-electric bodies, by the distur- bance of an excited electric, is inversely as the square of the distance. Wollaston induced positive sparks on a card coloured with litmus ; and redness, as by an acid, was produced. But a negative wire soon reproduced the blue colour. Water, coloured with litmus, is changed in like manner. The electrophorus arrangement is em- ployed in Volta’s Lamp, to light a jet of hydrogen, generated by a bar of zinc, with sulphuric acid 1, and water 7- A cubic inch lights a taper ten times, and gas from iron filings does not escape so readily as that from zinc. The electric current acts laterally, so as to thicken and shorten bodies along which it passes, an 8th or 9th. The heat which a discharge along copper and silver gives, is as 6, in gold as 9, in zinc 18, in platinum and iron 30, in tin 36, and lead 72. Hence, a discharge which fuzes 12C feet of lead and tin, will fuze only 3 inches of gold, and a quarter of an inch of silver, brass, and copper. The human body, and all animal bodies, are electrical or galvanic combinations, and the excitement is the principle of vitality and energy. The surfaces oppositely ex- cited are those of the lungs and the skin. The lungs fix oxygen, and are positive; while the skin fixes an equivalent, and is negative. The circulations, secretions, &c. are intermediate results, and the action of the heart arises from the proximity of the positive arterial blood with the negative ve- nous blood. The action exhausts itself as it ought in the system. In 2422 observations, different persons were 252 times externally positive, 771 were negative, and 339 imperceptible. In sitting at rest, Hemmir found himself 332 times positive, 14 negative, and 10 times imperceptible. Rest and action produce changes, owing to the varied effect of the lungs and skin, and the nervous system appears to act by a similar action. Respiration renders the air of rooms ne- gative when persons are at rest, owing to the lungs being in action while the skin is quiescent. School-rooms and sleeping- rooms become negative, while the external air is positive. Closed windows are dangerous during lightning, because the inner side of the panes acquire an opposite electricity to the outside, and then any conducting body is likely to concentrate the action on the in- side. Metallic bodies, picture-frames, coated mirrors, bell-wires, &c. display electricity, by induction, during a storm. The best lightning conductor is lead or copper, on the ridge of the roof, with perfect continuation of metal pipes into the ground. Read, in 1790, found the atmosphere 241 times positive, and 156 negative, and, in 1791, 423 times positive, and 157 negative In every 24 hours the strengtn increases and decrease* 493 ELECTRICITY. 494 twice and is weakest between 12 and 4, — and negative in the other. So with talc and but always varied by heat and cold. The atmosphere is always positive in calm weather, but an electroscope in a wood is inactive, and out of it exhibits electrical action, the leaves and conducting vegetation operating to destroy the atmospheric electri- city- . .... Crosse gives the circumstances which in- crease atmospherical electricity : — 1. Regular thunder-clouds. 2. A driving fog and small rain. 3. Snow, or brisk hail. 4. A shower in a hot day. [dry. 5. Hot weather after wet ; and wet after 6. Clear weather, hot or frosty. 7. A cloudy sky. 8. A mottled sky. 9. Sultry and hazy weather. 10. A cold damp night. 11. North-east winds. The torpedo, the electrical eel, and some other fishes of the ray genus, communicate shocks on being touched by the hand, or by electrical conductors. The membranous organs, which produce this effect, are like the cells of a galvanic trough, or of a bee-hive, and very distinctly marked. The laminae of muscles, and the fatty cells between them, are of similar kinds. The shock of the torpedo seldom extends above the touching finger, and never above the elbow, but it can give 20 in a minute. The apparatus has a surface of 15 or 16 square feet, and the force so distributed is that of a very small Leyden phial. The fish is about 14 inches long and 10 broad, and it gives shocks only when irritated. One gave Spallanzani 316 shocks in 7 min. A torpedo, 4f feet long, had 1182 plates or columns. Dr. Hunter reports on another with 470. The electrical eel possesses a more powerful electrical apparatus, and gives a decided shock, killing other fish by its power, and even creating a spark between metals which touch it. They are from 4 feet to 1 5 or 20 feet long. — Phil. Trans. In bright lead and iron, the lead is positive to the iron; dull, the lead is negative to the iron and copper. Solid and fluid bodies, passing into the gaseous state, produce negative and positive electricity as effects of motion. Black and white silk stockings and ribbons, in contact, generate great electricity. The former require 1 lb. to 15 lbs. to separate them under different circumstances. Both exhibit very striking phenomena. — Symmer. There are various methods of exciting electricity, as by turning a plate with great velocity ; by heating different metals in con- tact, or by heating the same metal or sub- stance differently. This last is called Thermo- Electricity. It has given rise to the Thermo- Multiplier, which, measuring minute quan- tities of electricity, in combinations of bismuth and antimony, estimates the heat that produces them. Breaking certain electrics, as a stick of Bealing-wax, produces positive in one end, dry wood. Dropping powdered electrics on insulated bodies, produces excitement. As powdered rosin renders a plate negative, so, when the spoon is insulated, the plate is positive. Sulphur, glass, iron-filings, gunpowder, chalk, flour, &c. produced the same effect, apparently from mere friction with the air. Haiiy discovered that mesotype, boraeite, calamine, prehnite, tourmaline, and topaz, become electrical by heat — boraeite having 8 poles. The cause, the irregular forms of their crystals. When melted sulphur is poured into an insulated metal cup, on cooling, the sulphur is positive, and the cup negative, for the sul- phur has been oxydated by the air, and the cup is within its sphere, and negative. So a metal cup will acquire electricity from having a red-hot cinder dropped into it, because it is then fixing oxygen. And a platina cup, in which an effervescence of acid and chalk takes place, will display electricity by having involved in their electricity, the union of the principles of acids and alkalies, or oxygen and hydrogen, being electrical restorations. Heating and cooling, melting and concre- ting, evaporating and condensing, expanding and contracting, dissolving and effervescing, propinquity with difference of heat or motion conducting power, so air, or acids, or alka- lies, or water, lying between the surface — generate electrical disturbances. Melted wax, rosin, sulphur, &c. display no electricity while heating and hot, but much when cold. Heated, a spark sets fire to them . — Gray and Winckler. The spark from a kite is never above the quarter of an inch, and acute like the phial or galvanic charge ; and, for like reasons, the proximity of the surfaces (earth and air) excited. — A kite is always dangerous, and should not be held by the hand. The sound of thunder may be heard for 20 or 25 miles, or, with the ear to the ground, much more. Lightning is reflected 150 or 200 miles. There is no thunder and lightning within the Arctic Circle. In May, 1752, Buffon and Dalibard ascer- tained the identity of electricity and light- ning by insulated rods ; and, in June of the same year, Franklin made the same deter- mination by a kite. In July, 1752, Romas, of Bourdeaux, also constructed a kite for the same purpose, and made splendid discoveries w ith it, before the experiment of Franklin was heard of. Wall, Gray, Nollet, and others, had for years pro- claimed the identity, but without experi- ment. During thunder-storms, Romas ob- tained sparks like flashes of 9 or 10 feet long, from the string, around which meta* wire was wound, to the height of 10(J0 feet. In a thunder-storm the clouds are mere non-electrics, or conducting surfaces, posi- tive with a negative sphere extending to the earth ; and the discharge at a point from one large surface to the other is the light- ning; or the earth is negative, and the clouds ELECTRICITY, 495 correlatively positive. All bodies in the sphere of action are affected, and the stroke produces an extensive lateral action in all conductors, and affects all combinations of oxygen, &c. with weak affinities, as beer, wine, &c. which require the protection of conductors. The cloud, the air, and the earth, resemble the zinc, fluid, and copper, in a galvanic combination. Flames of pure hydrogen, wax, oil, and alcohol, conduct positive electricity. The flame of a candle placed between two balls, negative and positive, surrounds the negative ball, and makes it hot. The flame seems, therefore, to be positiv ely elec- trified. The flame of carbonic oxide and of phos- phorous go to the positive ball, and are negative; but others go to the negative, and are positive. Charges sent through a chain or wire shorten it, and thicken it by lateral expan- sion. They clean a chain or wire from electric substances, explode water, make a depression in soft substances, and an impres- sion on hard ones— all the effect of the lateral hemispheres which accompany the two cur- rents. Star-like figures of exquisite beauty are made by sprinkling rosin on electrified plates, and are varied by giving to any part an opposite electricity. The plates are 5 lbs. of rosin, 8 oz. of bees’-wax, and 2 oz. of lamp-black, melted and spread on a flat surface. All the metals in fine wires may be oxy- dated by high charges passed through them in a close vessel. 'The air loses its oxygen, but if hydrogen or nitrogen is substituted, no oxydation takes place, but only separa- tion of parts, proving that the currents themselves are neutral in chemical action, and that the oxygen is derived from the air by the great heat of the wires, produced by the mere mechanical action of the wires. In like manner ores may be de-oxydated, quicksilver produced from cinnabar, and quicksilver and sulphur from their Vermil- lion. This, too, must be the effect of me- chanical heat, for the constituents of the current must maintain their identity in all cases. Water is decomposed on the very same principle. Cavendish passed sparks through 500,000 grains of hydrogen, with 1,250,000 grains of air, and obtained 135 grains of water. He then exploded 19,500 grains of oxygen with 37,000 hydrogen, and obtained but 30 grains of acid liquor. Singer, by exploding oxygen and hydrogen, produced water; with air and hydrogen, water and nitrogen. With chlorine and hydrogen, muriatic acid. With this last and oxygen, chlorine, &c. &c. Then, by exploding muriatic acid, he obtained hydro- gen and fluoric acid. Many bodies retain for different times phosphorescent light, by charges through them, as spar, chalk, lime, ambei;, crystals, &c. Eggs, exposed to an electric current, may 490 be hatched in a few hours, and pure rain- water may, by the same means, be filled with insects. Watson fired inflammable air and spirits of wine by the spark. The smoke and flame of electrics he found to be conductors. In 1747, he produced a shock by making the breadth of the Thames part of the line of communication, and afterwards this was ex- tended to 8000 feet of the New River, and 2800 feet by wire on land. The distances were afterwards increased to 12,276 feet, with perfect and instantaneous results. Not wonderful, because the true distance was but that from the inside to the outside of the glass, and the length of the communica- tion was indifferent. The excited glass ge- nerated two proximate hemispheres, which the wires merely extended, and the junction destroyed the hemispheres, while the elec- trical action passed only through a distance equal to the distance of their diameters. An insulated cat loses 65 or 70 grains in 5 or 6 hours, a pigeon 35 or 38 grains, and a sparrow, 7 or 8 grains. — Nollet. In 1753, Professor Richman, of Peters- burgh, was killed by a stroke of lightning, while superintending some observations on the effects of a storm on some elevated con- ductors. The great battery at Haerlem consists of 100 jars, with 550 feet of coating. The best preserver against lightning is a lead or copper ridge, instead of tiles on a house, and a perfect union of it with lead or metal spouts down the ground. Rods raised above a building are altogether dangerous, especially if oxydated. Ruppel. a late travelier, asserts that the violent effects of the Kamsin wind are elec- trical. He also asserts that the accounts of caravans being destroyed by them are alto- gether fabulous. In the Deserts all electric substances crackle on the least excitement. Horses* tails, in beating off flies, become electrical. Electricity, in excess or deficiency, dis- turbs the formation of crystals ; and a thun- der-storm has accelerated tardy crystalliza- tion. — Paris. M. Pontus, of Cahors, in freezing a phial of water, with a small tube joined to it, by ether, under an exhausted receiver, found that at the moment of congelation a spark of light proceeded from the small tube. Thfc principle explains some polar and other phenomena. When a capillary tube of water is fitted into a phial of water, and both are frozen, a flash of light proceeds from the capillary tube. When crystals are formed, flashes in like manner proceed from them. When water is frozen into hail in the atmosphere great electrical phenomena take place, and the hail is usually accompanied by flashes of lightning. It has been considered probable, by Sir H. Davy, that the power of electrical attrac- tion and repulsion is identical with chemical affinity. If this be true, we can explain the action of the electric and galvanic fluids, in GALVANISM. 497 493 disuniting the elements of chemical combi- nations ; for it is evident, that, if two bodies be held together by virtue of their electrical states, by changing their electricity we dis- unite them. But, in this view of the subject, every substance is supposed to have its own inherent electricity, some being positive, others negative, which is true only in a cer- tain sense. The perfectness of the chemical affinities, or union in exact definite proportions, seems to constitute the class of non-electrics ; and electrics appear to be bodies of various de- grees of loose affinity, or those in which bodies of loose affinity combine. Hence, there is no electric action, or elemental separation, in the best conductors or ob- structors. Berzelius says, that the heat and light of powerful combinations, are consequences of the simultaneous electrical discharge. The bodies susceptible of electrical decom- position, are binary compounds in single proportions of their elements ; for, as the con- trary forces are equal, they effect only equals in composition. In fact, electrical decom- position is a test of chemical equivalents in single proportions. In explaining electrical action, Faraday introduces a mysterious power as acting on oxygen and hydrogen, and does not ascribe the secondary action to them, and the pri- mary to motion ; but this change is no ad- vantage to his theory. Faraday promulgates, in 1837, that in all electrical actions the proportions of oxygen and hydrogen are the same as in water. The substance of what is expressed above has, in sundry forms, been published full 30 years, though pains are taken to refer it to some obscure publication of one Grotthas, in 1804. The author of this British Theory, however, utterly disclaims a theory founded on attractive and repulsive poles, as repug- nant to natural action. The flash of light which accompanies congelation, crystalliza- tion, and the lightning of hail-storms, are a train of facts, which, as well as induction, are not met by Dr. Faraday’s theory. All the attractions and repulses of electri- city, and its modes in galvanism and magne- tism, arise from the solicited re-union of the elements, whose separation produced the electrical state. An appeal to these, in proof of attraction or repulsion, is a wilful fraud on common credulity. Of course, as the bare idea of attraction and repulsion is absurd, so the theory of Boscovitch and all other theories are idle fancies. Since non-electrics are mere obstructors, it does not signify what they are covered with, whether varnish, wax, &c. MM. Henry and Ten Ey'ck have made an electro- magnet, with copper wire and cotton thread round iron, so as, with a bat- tery of 48 feet, to raise nearly a ton weight.. Decisive experiments prove that electri- city is developed by contact alone of different metals, without chemical action. The great problem of Electrical Philosophy will be so to arrange the action of the Ele- ments, as to produce a steady light for gene- ral purposes, without the use of any combus- tible material. Galvanism. As Machine Electricity derives its powet from the flow of hydrogen towards an oxygen excitement, or of oxygen’ to a hydrogen ex- citement, and depends for its supply on the variable character and connection of sur- rounding bodies, so voltaic or galvanic action is maintained by the proximate or assisted evolution of the oxygen and hydrogen, on the spot, so as to assure an immediate reci- procal supply, in fit proportions. An acidulous fluid is placed between two plates of differently oxydating metals, by which it is decomposed into its constituents of oxygen and hydrogen, in proximity, each in its fit proportions. The acting and im- perfectly-conducting fluid might, in time, restore, but perfect conducting wires are connected at once with the evolution ; and, through them, complete restoration is ef- fected. But, for experimental display, the wires do not run round from plate to plate, but are too short, and then are united near their ends. The intermediate space, there- fore, displays the energies of the double current, and that intensity of action, on inter- posed resisting bodies, for which this species of electricity is so remarkable. As the generation is in so narrow a space with a power of restoration through the fluid, but instantly divided by better conductors, the power is intense, just like common elec- tricity, when brought near by thin glass, as compared with a plate of air. It conse- quently gives no spark, has no points, does not act on light bodies, has no distant induc- tion, but is mere local elemental power seeking its usual re-union or union. There are those who ascribe all this energy to an unknown substratum of power, or sort of essence of the oxygen and hydrogen ; but science has not reached it, and it is a subject not adapted for discussion in this place. Many plates, acting ultimately through one conducting wire, of course multiply the force at the poles, and, by the energy of the motion of the combining elements, decom- pose and disperse every refractory or oppo- sing substance placed between the poles. If the union is made over charcoal, the incandes- cence, aided by the carbon, produces the most intense heat yet known. If the double current is made to pass over magnets, it changes their direction ; and, if near unmag- netized needles, it renders them magnetic. This is Galvanism, or Voltaism. It is impossible to praise too highly the great merit of Dr. Faraday, in his elaborate experiments on the several branches of Elec- trical Science. But it is impossible to detail his curious manipulations in fewer words than he has done, and these would extend to a bulky volume. If we understand him rightly, his general conclusions, in 1838, are very similar to those of the Editor so long since as 1/88, when he felt assured that the whole was the correllative play c f the univer- GALYANI8M. 499 sal elements of inflammability, and the sup. porter of combustion. This theory has been published in many popular works, during the last 30 years, and it seems now to be con- firmed by the ablest course of experiments ever made, and by which Dr. F. has made the theory all his own. There were no want of facts in proof, but they were isolated, and mystery still, however, hangs over the cause of the force of re-union. At present, how- ever, we must receive it as a fact, that un- combined oxygen and hydrogen always excite each others activity, and unite with the force and heat of the hydro-oxygen blow-pipe. The electro-chemical theory is a mistake, because there is no electricity per se , either positive or negative. Electricity is always a relative excitement of two non-electric surfaces, in an intervening electric, and either surface may be negative or positive. Faraday likens voltaic action to an axis of power, having equal and opposite forces, and the force which effects decomposition is in the body, and not in the poles. The action he represents by a double circle, the two forces moving contrary-wise, and carrying with them the parts of bodies through which they move. The constituents of metals so vary, that *inc combines with oxygen more rapidly than copper ; and, hence, if zinc be immersed in water, the fluid is decomposed ; for the oxygen in the water being fixed by the sur- face of the zinc, the hydrogen in union with that oxygen is extricated, and it escapes in bubbles. This, then, gives rise to voltaic action, which is the mere effect of this action of an oxydating metal on a fluid in juxta- position ; for, as inert or fixed elements do not act on one another, but only on the ga- seous or fluid states, so in this case of cor- rellative action, there is no action in the dry zinc on the dry copper, or in the dry copper on the dry zinc ; but the energies displayed arise entirely from the active state of the elements, in the intervening medium, as fluid or as gaseous. Chemical and electrical affinities are now regarded as the same. The absolutely insensible transfer of the two elements, in decomposing water, or its appearance by the galvanic circuit, when the poles are even 46 inches asunder, arises from the fact that positive electricity is oxygen, and negative hydrogen, separated, in the wires, in the fundamental proportions of water. For this inference, no other experi- ment can be requisite. To understand voltaic excitement, we must attend to the connection made by slips of metal, from the copper of one pair to the zinc of the next. It is obvious, that if the zinc and copper, in one cell, acquired oppo- site electricities, a restoration would take place through the fluid ; but, as metal con- nectors are better conductors than the fluid, so the difference of the excited electricity is conveyed, by the metal slip, from the copper to the next zinc. By this means the next fluid oxydates the zinc more rapidly, and more hydrogen is detached to the second 600 copper. This, again, is connected with the third zinc by a metal slip, which renders the next zinc more oxydable, by the difference between what is carried back by the liquid, and forward by the metal. Combustible substances, metals, and alka- lies, go to the negative wire, i. e. to the proper zinc end ; and acids and oxygen go to the positive wire, i. e. the proper copper end, and thereby restore the desired equili. brium. Of course, as the force of a battery is in- creased by acceleration, the intensity in- creases with the number of repetitions, and the quantity is as the size of the plates. The experiments with the Royal Institu- tion galvanic battery, prove that oxygen may be detached from the alkaline earths, and a pure alkali be the result. When voltaic currents pass through wires in the same direction, it is as though each current was the same ; and, in seeking to unite, the wires merely obey the similar ten- dency of the currents. When in opposite directions, the phenomena are contrary and the wires separate. There is a rapid absorption of the oxygen of the air, around every galvanic apparatus, as appears by immersing a glass jar over a pile, and the air so disappears that the water rises, and the oxygen in it is gone. Also, if a pile is placed in an atmosphere of oxygen, it absorbs the whole and the action stops, but may be revived by admitting oxygen. In this respect it resembles combustion and animal respiration. If kept close, with poles united, for some days, the chemical action re-acts, and particles of the copper and zinc are reciprocally carried through the cloth to each other, and the whole is almost insepa- rable ; but, if the poles are not united, the copper is clean, and the zinc only blackened. A Leyden phial may be charged by gal- vanic electricity, because the thickness of the glass is not greater than the distance of the plates in the trough. Charged glass approx- imates galvanism in intensity. The galvanic discharge will force water through a membrane, from one part of a vessel to another. — Porrett. The respective powers of metals, in form- ing a galvanic circle, are, — zinc, tin, iron, lead, copper, silver, gold and platina. That is, zinc oxydates and decomposes the interve- ning fluid and its elements sooner than tin, tin than iron, and platina is the slowest in receiving oxydation from the acidulous fluid. Amalgam of zinc, t. e. zinc and mercury, used in electrical excitement, is more readily oxydated than zinc. And cadmium follows tin, bismuth iron, palladium and tellurium silver, and charcoal stands between gold and platina. Galvanism is a universal effect of all bodies in apposition, both of which have different affinities for heat, or for oxygen. Hence what is called thermo-electricity, and all the phenomena of lesinous and other plates, when approached or super-heated. Hence the galvanic action of the earth, from the heat of general pressure, and the GALYANI8M. galvanism:. 501 galvanism of rocks which generates the ores and fibres of metals in countless ages. The force is accelerated, if a second cop- per-plate be joined to the zinc, and a second zinc plate opposed to that — the indefinite repetition creating a voltaic battery, whose power depends on the number of alterna- tions ; and the zinc end, as flowing from , is as to the arrangement the positive pole , and the copper end, as receiving, the negative. Different acids or fluids vary the powers. Iron in acids is positive in regard to lead, copper, &c. but negative if alkali is used. One metal, with two fluids of different strength, gives out positive electricity to the fluid which oxydates it the quickest. Other bodies besides metals also form weak circles; and muscle and brain, or muscle and nerve, form effective circles. That galvanic as well as electro! trans- mission is in the space without the CSE^lact- ing.wire, is evident from wire carrying with it to the pole elements through which it passes, and which do not penetrate the wire. The pieces of charcoal on which the wires or poles are twisted for light, should be 2\ inches long, and be box- wood charcoal, a good conductor, and kept in a stopper-bottle. The wires of copper. The junction of the poles is exactly similar to the discharge of a Leyden phial. The electricity is in exactly the same state in a voltaic battery, and in a charged jar ; but in the battery it is generated by the fluid, and continuous in its action. The positive pole of a voltaic battery is that end which the zinc plates face ; and the negative pole is that which the copper or silver plates face. A large battery is 100 pairs of plates four inches square, but one trough of 10 such pairs, or 40 of one square inch, effects most purposes. Poles of 20 zinc and copper with moistened flannel are very powerful. The zinc is the positive and the copper the nega- tive pole, taken any where in the trough or pile. The agent is the fluid in the troughs or flannel. To increase force, a copper-plate is often opposed to each side of the zinc, and the battery consists of one of zinc and two of copper ; and sometimes several zinc plates or copper are united. Voltaic heat and fusion is quite indepen- dent, because the force is that of the oxygen and hydrogen, generated in and by the appa- ratus itself Galvanic effects are more sensible on vi- gorous small plates than on large ones. In common electricity, oxygen always attaches itself to the surfaces vitreously electrified, and the oxygen moves to the vitreous pole when substances with which it has been united, as in oxides, &c. are car* ried io the resinous pole. Thus Davy pro- duced the alkali potassium at the resinous pole, and oxygen gas at the vitreous ; just as Gay Lussac and Thenard have since done the same chemically. — Biot. When the zinc and copper are united as a double plate, with fluid on each side, the im wires begin and end the series and the fluid, makes the zinc side positive, and the copper side negative. In a battery of 40 pairs of 3-inch plates, charged with 200 water, 9 oil of vitriol, the battery lost 186 4 equivalents of zinc for the equivalent of water, decomposed in the Volta electrometer. With 200 water and 16 mu- riatic acid 152. 200 and 8 nitric acid, only 74 16. The two first evolved much hydro- gen at the trough — the nitric none. 9 sul- phuric and 4 nitric gave ill 5 j and 9 and 8 gave 90 4. But 16 muriatic and 6 nitric gave 84 4. Faraday prefers 200 water, 4 5 sulphuric, and 4 nitric. No copper is dissolved. Zinc should give no gas, and new plates be preferred. Chemical action between a fluid and a solid, is always connected with the disturb- ance of electrical equilibrium, or of oxygen and hydrogen. W T hen zinc is oxydated, the metal becomes negative, and the fluid posi- tive. It continues, of course, only while the oxydation is proceeding ; galvanic action depends, therefore, on the chemical power. Every oxydable metal, or metal acted on, is positive with regard to the metal which is oxydable, or acted on, in a less degree. Silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, zinc, be- come positive by contact, the latter with the former j and negative in the order of prece- dence. All non-electrics have the same properties, but it does not prevail between them and liquids ; and, hence, the circuit. Among the fluids for galvanic excitement, equal parts of sulphuric and nitric acids to 24 times their weight of water, is recom- mended by Young ; but, by De la Rue, sul- phate of copper only. But the best acid solution, for the excitement of zinc and cop- per plates, is 100 water to 2 sulphuric and 1 nitric acid. That of two metals which transmits elec- tricity with the least loss of intensity, is positive with respect to the other. The best test of conducting-power is a piece of zinc and silver, laid above and under the tongue. Contact at the edges gives a taste, and then, if a conductor is interposed, the taste is renewed ; but, if a bad or non- conductor, there is no taste. When tapered pieces of charcoal are fixed to the poles of a powerful battery, and brought near, the light is so intense that all the elementary atoms in the air seem to be excited as by solar light, and bodies placed in the stream are instantly melted, vitrified, dispersed, or decomposed. The stream, being quite independent of other bodies in lateral proximity, takes place in a good vacuum in azote, chlorine, &c. in water, alcohol, oils, &c. Atomic motion, or heat, is another conse- quence. A wire joining the poles will boil water. The troughs become heated from the negative to the positive pole. Iron and steel wires are fused, and that of platina heated to red or white heat. Thin leave* of metal burn with colours, as gold, bluish, white, and a brow n oxide ; silver, emerald- green, and dark grey oxide ; copper and tia GALVANISM. 503 like gold with red sparks ; lead, purple ; zinc, white with a red fringe; and mercury emits sparks. Oils, alcohol, &c. are set on fire, and gunpowder exploded. Water in a tube is decomposed into oxy- gen and hydrogen by the poles ; and in wires of oxydable metals the positive pole becomes oxydated, while the negative gives out hydrogen. Owing to the limited sphere of induction in the cells, 1000 pair of plates are requisite to make pith balls diverge, and affect an electrometer. Neutral salts are also decomposed in two connected cups by the poles, in each the acid going to the positive cup, and the earthy alkaline or metallic bases to the ne- gative cup. - Davy. If three cups are connected by moistened asbestos, the middle one filled with sul- phate of potash, and a blue infusion of potash in the others, then, on the positive pole being put into one cup, the acid from the centre will pass into it, and render the blue infusion red, and the alkali passing into the other will render it green. In metallic solutions the metal passes to the negative wire in crystals, and the acid into the positive cup. In a solution of nitrate of silver in the positive cup, and water in the other, a film of silver appears on the connecting asbestos. If the first (positive) and second be blue infusion, and the other sulphate of soda (negative), the acid passes through the mid- dle cup, and reddens the first cup, rendering it acid. And, by reversing the poles in such cups, the alkali will pass through the middle cup, and render the first green. All these phenomena are to be ascribed to the lateral action of the currents, which extend the direct action, and give a current of motion to all the similar elements in the course of the travelling sphere round each wire. In some of the instances the poles concur, and in the middle cups the discharge meets. The transmission of elements through one another is similar to a ball passing through a door without moving it. Sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, ammonia, oils, alcohol. &c. have also by like means been resolved into their constituents ; but it merits notice that all the effects relate en- tirely to oxygen and hydrogen, serving as a proof that oxygen and hydrogen are the two elements of all electric action. The muscles of an animal may be excited after death in a surprising manner by gal- vanism, proving that muscular motion in life is produced by similar natural excitement. Thus, the wires of a battery inserted in the ears of an animal will produce motions of the eye-lids, mouth, &c. The muscles of the whole of a dead body may be made to con. tract in like manner. Linari, by a helix, has obtained a spark from the torpedo. Sparks have also been obtained from Nobili’s thermo-electric pile of 25 elements. The helix was 505 feet. In 1800, Nicholson and Carlisle decom- 501 posed water, by the action of the Voltaic trough, with its poles in water. Cruikshank and others, in operating on other substances, shewed that the alkali always was found at the negative, and the acid at the positive pole. Wheatsone with a pile of 33 elements of bismuth and antimony, in a cylinder of $ inch diam. and T2 long, two thick wires with a spiral of copper ribbon 50 feet, and one face heated with red-hot iron, and the other cooled with ice, produced distant sparks. Botts and Artinori had done the same. Binks proves that the maximum power of a voltaic arrangement, is either when the copper surface is to the zinc, at 1 inch apart, as 16 to 1, or the zinc to the copper as 7 to 1. Equal copper and zinc is a standard 1 ; but copper 2, and zinc gives T3, and copper 16, zinc 1 gives 4 6. More copper causes de- crease. So zinc increased from equality 1 to 7, gives a force of 3, and further increases of zinc diminish. Both surfaces were exposed to dilute sulphuric acid, but 1 zinc opposed to the copper is the same. It is 1 by weight of oxygen to 2 by weight of hydrogen. That elaborate electrical philosopher, Mr. Crosse, of Broomfield, in his experiments with voltaic poles in sundry fluids, has deve- loped on the wires in the fluids, even when one of the poles is in a porous vessel, a very active acarus resembling a porcupine in miniature. He first produced them on red volcanic porous oxide of iron, which he sub- jected to droppings of silicate of potass, (2 oz. of powdered flint, and 6 of carbonate of potass, intensely mixed, and heated in a black lead crucible, in an air-furnace) mixed with boiling-water, and fixed on each of the sides of the porous stone, the positive and negative poles of a water battery of 19 pairs of 5 inch zinc and copper plates. His object was to form crystals of silica on one of the wires, but on the 14th day he saw projec- tions on the volcanic porous stone, and on the 26th these became perfect insects, stand- ing erect on their tails near where fell the drops of the silicate, and on the 28th they moved about on 6 and 8 legs. 100 were afterwards generated. The silicate and porous brick also produced them. He after- wards produced them in long time, in glass cylinders, at the edges, in nitrate of copper, sulphates of copper, iron and zinc, and dilute hydro-chloric acid. Their numbers were great, and covered his apparatus. They shunned light, and winter killed them. No subject ever excited greater general interest, and Mr. Crosse varied his materials, &c. to satisfy incredulity. When the Editor viewed Mr. Crosse’s ap- paratus in September, 1836, he had 2500 pairs of voltaic plates, in 12 or 15 several working arrangements, all excited by water, and acting for months and years. Becquerel uses a balance in electricity, which measures less than 0 015 grain. Water, in two plates of 1 6 inch, gives 0 385 grain. A drop of sulphuric acid gave 0 546 grain. A pile of 40, with the usual solution, gave 9*471 grains. b 05 GALVANISM. 506 By the slow, constant action of a pair of plates, Mr. Bird has obtained beautiful crys- tals of copper from the sulphate ; also of bismuth, lead, and silver, the latter white as snow, in needles. The most refractory me- tallic oxides, as silica, were also reduced by this simple apparatus. Mr. Crosse, in his own original way, at his vast laboratory on the Quantock Hills, has latterly superadded great heat to his oxides, and thereby has increased the quantity and size of his crystals in an astonishing manner. Becquerel and Crosse have independently proved, that slow voltaic action will produce metallic sulphurets and compound metallic crystals; also quartz crystals, so as to place, beyond doubt, the theory which the Editor promulgated in former editions of this work, that metallic ores are electrical products. The subscription voltaic battery of the Royal Institution, with which Davy operated, consisted of 2000 pairs of plates, each 32 square inches. Children’s battery was 20 pairs of copper and zinc, 6 feet long and 2 feet 6 inches wide. Hare made coils of 70 and 100 feet of each metal. Schoenbein, in some excellent experi- ments, shews that nitric acid 135 (unless much diluted with water) does not affect iron wires, which have been heated at one end, and that end immersed. The neu- trality is also communicable to other wires touched with the first, except when much diluted. And if a wire, not thus protected, is partly immersed, and the acid begins to act, the action is arrested if the ends of the two wires, out of the acid, are made to touch, and any other metal employed to join them effects the same purpose. So, also, a platina or gold wire ; and, also, an iron wire used as a positive pole is protected. The same wire, in contact with the negative pole, is no longer protected. No facts more clearly prove that electrical action is chemical, as far as re- gards oxygen and hydrogen, or nitrogen ; and farther, that nitric acid is at once a chemical and electrical combination. Faraday has kept iron wire, thus protected in nitric acid, for 30 days, without any effect. When in the neutral state it does not precipitate cop- per and other metals. Schoenbein appears to have opened a new field in this science. Hatchette’s dry pile consists of pairs of plates, separated by a farinaceous paste and salt. It acts for years, but gives no shock or taste, or chemical action. Zamboni’s discs of gilt-paper and a layer of powdered oxide of manganese, are as inefficient as Hat- chette’s. Biot attempted another, but failed, since chemical action only takes place be- tween fluids and gases. De Luc’s electrical column, made of discs of zinc and gilt paper, is a variety of the galvanic arrangement ; but, for want of acid or water, it produces, in a series of 1000, no higher degree of electricity than to vibrate a clapper between two bells ; but, it proves that all surfaces having different degrees of conducting-heat, decompose the atmosphere, and become excited by a delicate and minute separation of its oxygen and hy- drogen. This action lasts for years. Hare’s calorimotor consists of coils of zinc, 9 inches by 6, within coils of copper, 14 by 6, and a quarter inch apart, 80 in number, let into glass jars 2f inches in dia- meter and 8 high, filled, with dilute acid. Another, at the London Institution, consists of coils of copper and zinc, 60 feet long and 2 broad in a tub of dilute acid. Mullins and Daniell produce a voltaic current by placing a membrane between the plates, and separating the dilute sulphuric and nitric acids of the zinc from the sul- phate of copper on the copper side. Also, by bringing the membrane into contact with the zinc, and using only the sulphate. This principle is now generally adopted. Daniell and Mullins have applied a calf’s bladder to the great battery at the Roya. Institution, and produced permanent action. They also proved that the nearer the sur- faces of the metals, the greater is the power The best fluid they found to be 5 of sulphu- ric acid to 100 of water. Dr. Philip divides the distinct vital powers into the muscular, the nervous, the senso- rial, and the living blood. Three are pecu- liar to animals, but the nervous (in the brain and spinal cord) can be imitated and per- formed by voltaic electricity, and is, there- fore, not a vital power. He further considers the body as two systems, one for mainte- nance, and the other for intercourse. Metals may be considered as so intimate a union of oxygen and alkali, as to defy the power of galvanic action to separate them, for they appear to have been generated in veins by slow galvanic action, and, there- fore, are not separable by the same agency. Veins and lodes are filled with metallic substances and crystals, whenever the local rocks are mixed, and in local confusion. But, in this case (as in that of stalactites) the product is not only in cavities, but may arise in the very substance of the strata; and, hence, those metallic stones, or solid masses, as iron-stone, part earth, part metal, in which the metallic particles may be re- garded as products of silent electrical resto- ration. In this view, definite proportions and different multiples of oxygen, hydrogen, and the aura of the Earths, may produce all the metals. The theory of terrestrial currents of elec- tricity, derived from the production of me- tallic crystals in lodes and veins, is un- founded ; since these metallic products are generated only where mingled rocks are themselves sufficient, and there is absence of the effect where local causes do not exist. Terrestrial electrical currents, says Fox, would act on saline substances in fissures in the magnetic east and west, and decompose them, carrying the metal or base to the ne- gative side, and the acid towards the positive side. T he general contents of veins would then depend on the rocks which they tra- verse, and he insists that it is so. In an empty vein, or lode, the electric would be the air, and the walls the termini 507 MAGNETISM. 500 tions of the plate, which, if different rocks, or the same dry or moist, would re- act on the intermediate electric, and produce a com- mixture of the aura, which aura, combined and condensed, would, in countless ages, be- come crystals and ores. For this action and result, no incomprehensible terrestrial cur- rent would be necessary. The sulphurets would also act as electrics and vary the results. Since all electricity consists of two ele- ments, seeking equality of distribution in space, it is not easy to imagine that any currents pass round the Earth, such as the illustrators of the cause of magnetism would teach. All such currents require locality, starting points, and other essential circum- stances in the mode of operation. In 1790, Galvani accidentally discovered that the principle of animal action and elec- tricity were the same, and step by step he and Volta arrived at the voltaic battery. Iron is dissolved bv nitric acid, though diluted with 480 or 960 times its volume of water, and when diluted iron cannot be pro- tected either by itself, or by platinum, or gold wire. Some English writers who claimed Schoenbein’s discovery, happened not to know this. In exciting plates for voltaic electricity, a weak mixture of sulphuric acid and water within the membrane, wherein the zinc plate is contained, or a solution of salt in water or sal-ammoniac, will do as well. And a satu- rated solution of sulphate of copper to fill the box. The ivory trough usually connected, must have some mercury put into it, for the convenience of making the communication with the zinc, i. e. the north or positive side, and the copper or opposite side. A fter use, the plates should be removed, and washed and dried, to prevent spoiling. MAGNETISM. Magnetism is the directive power of an ore or preparation of iron towards the polar regions, which varies consecutively, but re- gularly, at the same place, both in dip and polar declination. The two similar ends of needles increase each others distance, and the two dissimilar ends cause approach, just as in positive and negative electricity. The affection is created by the double current in the wires, which connect and restore the po- sitive and negative sides of an electric or voltaic excitement, and the direction, with reference to the current, is that of the tan- gent of a circle round the wires. The end of a needle, as it is above or below the wires, is N. or S. It is therefore believed, that, as iron and steel are laminar or scaly in their structure, like the plates and cells of a voltaic arrangement, or the membranes of a torpedo, that the iron is charged by the lateral action of the current on the sur- rounding space just as in all electricity. The directive power has been ascribed to currents of electricity passing round the Earth. But the word electricity is used in a false sense, for there is no electricity 'per se, and it is only action and re action, dis. turbance, and double and opposite restora- tion. Further, this does not accord with variation, and cycles of variations. Rather, is it not a lever definite, poised with equal action and re-action from end to end, and therefore subject to the motions of the Earth ; and are not its cycles those of the Earth’s combined motion ? In confirmation, we find no variation beyond the extreme declination of the Moon ; and that the mag- netic Poles are within the angle of the Equator and Ecliptic. Is not the magnetic Equator a mean of all the motions, and is not the dip an effect of the preponderating orbit motion ? Nevertheless, Barlow imi- tated the phenomena by a globe with cur- rents, and the funds of the Royal Institu- tion have recently been applied to an analo- gous construction. It is a condition of the theories, that, in artificial magnetism, the effect is as the sur- face, and just as in electrical conductors, a hollow magnet and a solid one of equal sur- face has equal power of lifting other iron, &c. Nor is it to be overlooked as a remark- able feature, that at the depth of only 20 or 30 feet, there is no variation, and that other variations cease even at less depths. We seem, therefore, obliged to refer something to the medium of space, and to its re-actions on a moving earth ; and it seems to be rather a mathematical problem, than a chemical or experimental one. Magnetism is a diminutive of electricity. If the cells of the galvanic arrangement afford no space for display, far less are the cells or laminae of iron adapted to display. We therefore get no spark, &c. from a magnet, and only know of the existence of the force by the excitement of iron ore, or iron and steel in continuity. The sparks obtain- ed are by the re-action on electrics, which give sparks by the reflex excitement of magnets. In fact, the laminated space is too short for the evolution of light. Mr. T. S. Davies has elaborately investi- gated the History of the Compass, and he determines, beyond all question, that it was used by the Chinese, under the name of the Tche-chy (directing-stone) about 2604 years B. C. It passed from them through the Arabs, and was first used in Europe after the Crusades. The power of the loadstone to act on iron, not the polarity, was known to the Greeks. Sanchoniatho ascribes to Chronus the in- vention of “ Batulia, or Stones , that moved as having life;” Chronus lived about 2800 B. C. ; and, if so, the discovery passed from Western Asia into China. CErsted, at Copenhagen, in 1813, discovered that a galvanic wire, forming the circuit of the Poles, exerts an influence on the magnetic needle inversely as the distance ; and that if a circle be described round the wire, through the centre of a needle, it will be- come a tangent to the circle, or stand at right angles to a radius of the circle. When the wire was placed directly over the needle, that next the negative side of the battery, MAGNETISM, 509 towards which tne positive current was flowing, turned to the west ; but, when placed under the direction of the Poles, the needle was reversed, and turned to the east. Again, if the wire was placed at right angles, the nearest pole was depressed or raised, as the current in the wire proved east or west. And, if the wire is vertical, the needle deviates east or west, according to the current ; the whole proving that the wire is like another magnet, which acts on the same pole, and re-acts on the contrary pole, and that electricity and magnetism have the same cause. The experiments of Ampere, Arago, Davy, Faraday, &c. made since 1815, have proved that a current of galvanic action changes the position of the magnetic needle from north and south, to east and west, or, in other words, that the force of a galvanic current, and that in the magnet, are tan. gential to each other, and at right angles. This was explained on the principle, that as each pole had its own determined electricity, so a current of common electrical action would accord with neither, and the conse- quent re-action would place the two poles at a right angle to the current. Polarity is, therefore, inferred by them to be the effect of an electric current following the heat of the Sun, and directing the natural arrange- ment of the loadstone into a direction at right angles, or towards the poles — Roget. M. Ampere, Vanden Bos, and De la Rive, followed the facts of CErsted, so as by deli- cate arrangements to connect the magnetism of the Earth with the galvanic current, and they opened the road to the late successful course of experiments of Dr. Faraday, at the Royal Institution. All doubts of the electrical character of the magnet or loadstone have, however, in 1831 — 2, been removed by Dr. Faraday, who, in a series of very curious experiments, has succeeded in identifying magnetism and galvanism, by directing galvanic currents at right angles to the direction of powerful magnets ; and has produced the galvanic currents from terrestrial magnetism, and thus proved that the same causes or ele- mentary disturbances produce the directive character of both. The conducting-wire of the galvanic poles is impelled to move in the tangent of a circle, whose centre is in the axis of the magnet prolonged; and whose radius is a mean proportional of the distances of the centre from the two poles. — Ampere. M. Ampere has made electro-dynamic cylinders, which, in force and action, exactly represent magnets, and may be substituted in place of them. That end in which a cur- rent of positive electricity is moving, in a direction like the hands of a watch, is the south pole of a magnet, and the other end has northern polarity. From the nature of the hemispherical induction, magnetic needles are similarly electrified in their whole length, positive and negative, or the contrary. Hence, if broken, every part has its own north and 510 south pole. The excitement, too seems to be accelerated like the cells of a voltaic trough, from end to end. A needle on one side of the wire is ex- posed to the negative hemisphere, and turned one way ; and a needle on the other side is exposed to the positive hemisphere, and then is turned contrary wise. So the wire above and below presents an action compounded of both, and the result is ob- lique but congenial. There is a sphere of action, and the needle is a constant tangent of all the radii. Owing to the tangential action of a con- necting wire on a magnet, and of a magnet on a wire, Faraday, Barlow, Watkins, and Griffiths, have made a variety of ingenious toys to evince this action and re-action. Scoresby announces that a magnet indi- cates the precise thickness of a rock, by the intensity of its action on a magnetic needle. The magnetic needle, acted upon by the wire of a current, places itself in a- direc- tion intermediate to the magnetic meridian, and to the tangent to a circle round the electric current as it is more or less intense. In electro-magnetism, a magnetised needle always places itself at right angles, or tan- gent-wise, to a galvanised wire, so that the poles of each are at right angles to those of the other. The tangent of the needle’s deviation, according to angular distance., is the measure of the galvanic power. To produce magnetic electricity, pass a long helix of copper round a pasteboard cylinder, in which insert a bar of soft iron ; then, with the two ends, join the poles of a powerful horse-shoe magnet. The effect may also be produced on the galvanometer, by passing a copper plate round the bar, instead of the helix. Iron and copper are essential to the effect of magneto-electric induction, though copper helixes and wires indicate a current. — Faraday. The magnetising effect of the current be- tween the poles results from the commence- ment of the current, and is not produced when the current is established. It appears as though one of two principles was fore- most. Iron filings attach themselves in masses to the connecting- wire of the poles, but they fall off on breaking contact. Needles placed transversely are perma- nently magnetized; those under the wire, with the positive end to the right, have north poles to the operator, and those above the wire, south poles. A Leyden phial or battery does the same. A copper helix improves the force, and it may receive the bar or be wound round it. A horse-shoe magnet has thus been made to raise from 150 lbs. to above 2000 lbs. A current round a needle, viewed endwise, in the direction of the hands of a watch, or a working-screw, would make the needle into such a magnet as the dipping-needle. A returned current would produce contrary results. —Faraday. A galvanometer is a magnetic needk placed between the two directing- wirec of a magnetism 511 galvanic arrangement, and the deflection measures the strength. A cylinder of soft iron, 18 inches long, and one diameter, bent horse-shoe form, galvanised in a helix of copper, will lift, for a verv short time, from 50 to 150 lbs. The poles of the magnet, used in gene- rating electricity at right angles, govern it as positive and negative , and clearly prove the identity of the two. Knight’s compound magnet, belonging to the Royal Society, consists of 450 bar mag- nets, 15 inches long, one wide, and half thick. A soft cylinder put across the poles requires a force of separation of nearly 100 lbs. Some German magnets are 2000 lbs. Lifting power arises from the iron lifted becoming part of the magnet. The limbs of a frog are affected by a magnet which lifts 30 lbs. — Faraday. It is usual to consider the end of a mag- net, which points towards the north of the Earth, as the south pole of the magnet itself ; since it is inferred that the end points northward, because its magnetism is of a different kind. The magnetic force, like others, is ex- pressed by the square of number of oscilla- tions of a needle in the same time. It increases from the Equator to the Poles, being double in Baffin’s Bay, and it varies in the same places annually, and even daily. Fox’s magnetic balance determines less than the 10-thousandth of a grain. M. Arago found, that if a plate of copper and a magnet be suspended in parallel planes, and the plate be rotated, the magnet follows it ; or, if the magnet rotates, the plates rotate with it. But Dr. Faraday shews that the cause is electrical, and, more- over, an example of magnetic electricity, and he used it as means of obtaining positive and negative electricity at pleasure. The rotation of plates is one case of elec- trical excitement, in which we have a gene- ration of the electrical intensity, somewhat similar to that by the voltaic arrangement. In sympathetic revolving plates, the sym- pathy is destroyed by interposing plates of copper, silver, and zinc, and a thick plate of lead. Faraday has conclusively demonstrated, that in every case where a magnetic current is created, a momentary electric current is induced, at right angles, to the magnetic current ; and he proves it, either by me- chanically causing a magnetic bar to tra- verse the axis of a helix of copper-wire of considerable length,— or, by causing a piece of soft iron, placed in the axis of such a helix, to connect the poles of a horse shoe magnet, and thus acquire polarity. Barlow determined the relative powers of iron as under : — Malleable iron 100 Soft cast steel 74 Soft blist. steel 67 Soft sheer steel 66 Hard steel 53 Cast-iron and steel 48 More in each when hot than cold 512 The force of magnets diminishes as the inverse distance. They have the force of contact at the distance of the 2000th of an inch. At a quarter of an inch a 1200th. At a white heat it has no intensity, but at red, some, but contrary to cold, and then lower when returned to its cold state. Soft iron loses its magnetic power, when separated from a magnet, but steel retains it, and forms magnets equal to loadstone. Magnetic action passes through all sub- stances that have been tried, and even through iron, by rendering it magnetic. A natural magnet is a grey ore of iron in octahedron crystals, composed of from 75 to 85 of iron, and 25 to 15 of oxygen. It ac- quires its magnetic power after exposure to the air, and then lifts from 40 to 50 times its own weight, but different parts have various power, and two opposite points have most power. Barlow determined that magnetic power of an iron sphere is entirely on the surface, whatever be the thickness of the metal, and if a shell is above the 30th of an inch thick, it is equal to a solid ball. A hollow sphere of 4 lbs. acts as powerfully as a ball of 200 lbs. ; and hence, in steel-making, iron bars are ce- mented in charcoal at a while heat tor many days ; and after this the iron forms, as steel, permanent magnets. It may hence be sup- posed, that carbon confers that uniformity on the laminae, which is necessary to their perfect action, when excited into magnets. On the contrary, in soft iron we may assume that the laminae are less perfect, like broken plates in a trough, and lose the excitement as soon as the action ceases. A metal will display magnetism, if it con- tains but the 130- thousandth of iron Faraday thinks all metals are magnetic at a certain low temperature. Iron, he says, is non- magnetic up to an orange heat, and nickel at 63(P. A magnet loses its own power at the boiling point of almond oil, and then loses the power of soft iron at an orange heat. Loadstone preserves its power up to a dull ignition. Pouillet says, that cobalt retains its power up to a bright white heat, chrome up to a dark blood heat, nickel to the melting pcint of zinc, and manganese up to 20 or 25 below zero. Differences which he ascribes to the proximity of, and approach to, the atoms of the bodies. Needles of nickel have polarity, and pro- duce half the oscillations of steel ones, i. e. 10 in 87 seconds to 10 in 45 seconds. Hammered brass affects the magnetic needle, and cobalt, ziric, copper, bismuth, and their ores, do the same. Antimony, combined with iron, destroys its magnetic properties ; 4 antimony to 1 of iron is non-magnetic. So arsenic, nickel, copper and nickel, are non magnetic. Carbon, sulphur, and phosphorus in excess destroy the magnetise of iron, but have no effect to a certain point. Basalt affects the needle fron its quantity of iron. There are other irregularities, tern* porary and local. 513 MAGNETISM. 514 Iron filings are separated from those of brass and copper, by magnets. Lebaillif determines that all bodies have *ome influence on the needle, and antimony .and bismuth a repelling force. Harris considers steel-wire the best for compass needles. Cast-iron is said, by Cunningham, to retain the magnetic power as powerfully as steel ; others prefer steel at the blue or spring temper, or, with Scoresby, ladies’ busks. A lifting power of 300 or 500 lbs. is con- ferred by galvanic pi ites of the dimensions of a pint. The power is nearly as the dis- tance at which the magnet acts on needles. When a piece of unmagnetized iron is brought near the pole of a rmignet, it is magnetized, and the part next the pole be- comes a contrary pole. But, if contact is made, then the two become as one magnet, and the poles are extended from end to end as one. The power exerted is the lifting power, or that of the first magnet. If an electro-magnet is overloaded, or too far extended, it loses power ; but the power is restored by breaking contact, and renew- ing it again, or, it is not disturbed, if paper be glued on the poles. If the excitement be divided between several parts, the force is nearly in the inverse ratio of the number. As iron re.acts on a magnet, the power is increased by annexing a bar of iron to the poles, and slowly adding more iron than it would at first carry. Conducting-wires, to give them force through the length of a magnet, are coiled like corkscrews, and then a magnet being placed within the coils, is raised, or lifted into the centre of the coils, and upheld by the electricity. The helix itself becomes a magnet, while the electrical restoration is passing through it. The coil or helix of wire, insulated by silk, and wound round a bar of soft iron, causes the galvanic currents from copper, and from zinc plates in dilute acid, to pass both ways through it at right angles to the axis of the bar of iron ; and then this direction of the current confers polarity on the bar, and, for the time, gives it all the properties of the loadstone. The horse-shoe form renders it more powerful and convenient by the juxta-position of the contrary poles ; the bar then renders any iron connected with it equally magnetic, and, by this extension of its power, will affect, attach, and bear up vast weights. One in America, of 2^ lbs. weight, thus identifies itself with a ton of annexed iron ; and others, which bear up several hundred weight, are common. The separation of the two ends of the helix or coil, from the zinc and copper plates, instantly destroys the effect. And if the direction of the current or copper and zinc sides be changed, the poles are in- stantly reversed N. and S. to S. and N. If we place a bar of iron near an electrical current, we get a feeble or partial mag- netism ; but if we resort to the helix or the wire-coils, we increase tne effect all round. Then, to get electricity from magnetic ac- tion, we use similar coils on the principle of re-action, and get an electrical spark. Gauss finally determines magnetic force to be as the inverse square of the distance. In Sept. 1832, he found the horizontal intensity at Gottingen, T/821 ; and in relation to gra- vity, 0 0039131. Then this, by secant of the dip, (68° 22I-52U) is the intensity of terres- trial magnetism. His bars weigh 25 lbs. each. Barlow’s magnetic compensations consist of two parallel iron plates, 12 or 13 inches, in diameter, placed between the compass and the body of the ship. It then doubles the error from the local action of the iron in the ship ; and, hence, the true direction is de- termined. Ships’ iron varies the direction from 4^ to 14°. Mullins prefers magnets at arcs of 60° to the horse-shoe form. O’Slaughnessy found, that, for magnetic force, the intensity of many small plates is superior to quantity from two large plates. Twisted magnetic wire loses its power by being twisted in the contrary direction. Tomlinson asserts, that fine iron-wire, in an empty glass, turns, on the glass being vibrated with the finger, into the magnetic meridian. A straw on a cup of water points the same way while carried round the room. Tangentially, magnetism and electricity, or voltaism, are reciprocal of each other. Elec- trical action diffused from an excited point, extends to an obstructor, and then is diffused in a tangential plane on the side of the electric, next the conducting surface. As an effect of form, there is a pole at each end of a wire or magnet : but as every two points becomes two poles when severed, so the action is a totality from each end to each end. It is scarcely safe to adopt even the hypothesis of a current, for, if so, it applies alike to electrical and magnetic action, and in the last does not appear, ex- cept as to iron. As the steel or iron is affected lengthways, so the double action produces a neutral centre, while the strength of magnets will often depend on the direction of the laminae, as lengthways, or oblique. In a steel wire, 24 inches long, the poles are 1 5 inch from its extremity. Every particle of a magnet in every line of direction, is like the length positive and ne- gative ; hence, as all these lines of action are on each side, and all round, directed in surplus to the centre of the magnetized mass, so every part thus concurs to generate the centre ; and this being thus fixed, by the general action of the two ends of the length, are determined, and their distinct and con- trary force cannot be restored, without de- stroying the magnetism of every part. The magnet, lengthwise, in one state at one end, and the opposite at the other end, exactly resembles every case of electrical excitement, positive on one side or surface, and negative on the other. Then, if we consider the electrified sides, as joined by a line, that line would exactly accord with the axis of a magnet, and be at each end in an S 515 MAGNETISM. 510 upposite state. Nevertheless, m the magnet the effect is permanent ; but, in the electri- fied line, the two ends may be combined. It is fatal to all projects about power from magnets, that soft steel only indicates power to actual contact, when it also loses it ; so that there is no power of solicitation ; and, hence, the mechanical transfer of motion has proved impracticable ! Iron bars, rendered magnetic, affect other iron at an extremely small distance. Two excited iron bars act on their contrary poles farther ; but steel bars, which maintain a permanent excitement, act at greater dis- i ance. That is, they render iron, brought i ear them, of the contrary pole, (by acting 1 hrough the air) as in the case of needles ; nd iron-filings. The whole is an effort of the two lengths, even to the two ends or poles to \inite ; and whether lengthened by additions, or shortened by severation, the same effect between the ends, or from end to end, continues. A long bar of iron produces a succession of poles, N. and S., N. and S. A magnet will induce the contrary mag- netism in the middle of a bar, and make both the ends either N. or S. ; so, if a bar be placed between two opposite poles, each end will be contrary, and the same, and the middle be a pole to each. The centre of discs are thus made a contrary pole to the circumference all round. The approximating force of dissimilar poles, is greater than the repulsive force of similar ones ; one increasing the other, and diminishing the other. Bars of 30 times their diameter have but one magnetic centre, and that in the middle. When of greater length, there are 3 poles, 1 in the middle, and 1 on each side, where, and at the ends, it takes up steel-filings, and position varies with the temper. Iron acts on the magnet, as well as the magnet on iron, as appears by fixing them alternately. Iron, connected with a magnet, acts in continuity, like the magnet; and, iron approximated, reduces the power of the magnet. Figures traced on steel by the pole of a magnet, are exhibited by siftings of filings. The Aurora Borealis appears, by repeated observations, to affect the variation of the needle from 1° to 5°. It also much affects the dipping-needle, and the effects are si- multaneous at distances of 1500 miles in longitude. Near the magnetic pole, the Aurora affects the needle 8°, unless it is a very elevated and diffused Aurora. The successive steps of the blow-pipe, the machine electricity, the voltaic combi- nation, magnetic powers of iron, seem to prove, beyond doubt, that in each we get the same elements more and more concen- trated, while the mode of exhibition de- pends on the excitement, and on the struc- ture or re-action of the bodies affected. Barlow’s theory, which refers the whole to electric currents, is the most rational ; put he is at a loss for a generator of his electricity ; and Hanstein makes a good approximation, though bewildered about the Sun and planets! The most absurd theories are those of Halley, and his internal magnetic globes; and that of Brewster, about his poles of maximum cold ! We infer much from the creation of mag- netism ; and we may infer something from its destruction. Thus, great heat destroys it, apparently, from its effect on the laminae of the iron ; so, also, violent blows destroy it ; and we are to bear in mind, that heat and blows are only different modes by which great atomic motion is excited. Snow Harris reduces inductive power to distance, when the intensities are equal ; but the force from the centre to the pole, he determined to be as the square. M. Ampere explains magnetism on the gratuitous supposition, that electrical cur- rents are constantly passing round them at right angles to their axes ; and, on this sup- position, he founds an elaborate theory. CErsted, Barlow, and Faraday, have ena- bled us to reason correctly about magnetism. The first, in proving that iron becomes a magnet, by the projectile action of a voltaic current ; the second, that the action is ex- terior to the iron, by proving that magnetic force depends on the mere surface, just as in superficial electric conductors ; and the third, by generating from the re-action of the magnet an electric spark, and evolving from the Earth both magnetism and electri- city, so as to produce either from the other. The figures formed by a magnet on a steel plate, and formed by the dust of iron-filings, last for months, and the plate must be heated to the melting-point of tin to de-magnetize it. A magnet even draws the figures on the steel through a card or other substance. Barlow’s revolving iron sphere produced all the effects on wires conducting the gal- vanic intensity. If, as may be assumed, the rotation of the earth produces similar longi- tudinal currents, there can be no difficulty in referring polar direction to such currents as their tangent. No man who looks at the isochinal mag- netic lines of the two hemispheres, can doubt that they are necessary resultants of simul- taneous motions, adverse and oblique, and are displays of the action of the moving mass, on the medium in which it moves. When a bar of iron is in the magnetic equator, it loses all power on a needle. Horary variations are universal, and coin., cide at distances of 100 miles. A bar of hard iron or steel becomes a magnet, if held in the direction of the dip, or magnetic axis, on receiving a vibration of its atoms from a few blows of a hammer, or heat followed by cold or electricity ; and Hanstein asserts that every substance held in that direction is magnetic. Kraffp discovered that the tangent of the dip, in any magnetic latitude, is equal t<» double the tangent of the latitude. Barlow discovered that round every globe and mass of iron there is a circle, inclined to the horizon at the complement of the dip, and MAGNETISM. 517 that the plane of this circle displays no inten- sity on a needle whose centre is in that plane. Then, regarding this circle as a magnetic tsquator, the tangent of the variation will be as the product of the sine of double the latitude, and the cosine of the longitude ; and, also, that the tangents of variation are as the cubes of the diameters of the shells. Terrestrial magnetism also produces elec- tric currents, by connecting a helix, placed in the magnetic meridian, with a cylinder of soft iron, which becomes a temporary mag- net, owing to the electricity passing through the helix. A copper plate, in consequence, revolved at right angles to the dip, ejects abundant electricity, and the current is out- ward or inward as the rotation is to the right or left. It has also the heating power of voltaic electricity, and has been used to decompose water. A copper wire bent as a rectangle, and a current of electricity passed through it, ranges itself at right angles to the magnetic meridian ; and a similar rectangle, on an horizontal axis, ranges itself on the plane of the dip, both by the action of terrestrial magnetism. Faraday observes, that such is the facility with which the terrestrial magnetism evolves electricity, that scarcely any pieces of metal can be moved without its developement. The least intensity of the needle is at half-past 10 in the morning, and then it in- creases till half-past 7 in the evening, and becomes T0024 of the minimum taken as 1, but varying with the season. Even the same needle, at the same place and temp., varies from 1136" to 1 1 39 //- 5 for 200 vibrations. At 10 in the morning: and evening, the needle is in a mean position. In the morn- ing it moves W., and in the evening E. At 28 feet depth in the ground, the varia- tion is but 1/5° at the mean of 6 parts of Europe. At 55 feet, but the 15th of a de- gree ; and, at 80 feet, but the hundredth of a degree. In higher latitudes, the mean is at less depth. — Quetelet. At 4 feet depth, the diurnal variations become insensible. At depths in the earth, of 3 and 6 feet, the fluctuations follow those of the surface j but at 12 feet, there is a sensible abatement ; while at 24 feet, the variations are slight, and nearly contrary to those at the surface. Every change of 12/ in the dip varies the horizontal force ‘01 , when the dip is about 70°. The declination was observed to be about 5° to the East, in 1350, and Columbus no- ticed the variation in situ. In 1580, at 11 4° at Paris, and at Lime- house 11° 19/. Norman, in 1576, discovered the dip, then 71° 50/. Gilbert and Bond published, at large, on the subject in 1600 and 1650. Hooke proved the connection of the mag- netic meridian with the formation of artifi- cial magnets in 1684. In 1663, Halley pub- lished some idle theories, which mystified the schools for a century. But, in a voyage, he made a chart of variations. Graham, in 1722, discovered the daily va- 518 riation of 35' to 55/ increase in the morning, and decrease in the evening ; and Canton shewed, that it was least from Nov. to Feb., and greatest from May to Sept. Coulomb proved that the force decreased, like heat, inversely, as the square of the distance ; also, that the effect from the pole towards the centre of a 27-inch magnet, was as 165 at the poles, 90 at 1 inch, 48 at 2, 23 at 3 inches, and only 6 at 5 inches of a 13£. He found the same law in electricity, and that all bodies are affected by magnetic action ,* but he ascribed it to the iron which they contained. Barlow’s rule for the variation at London, taking 1660 as 0, and the difference 414 in 10 years, is to take the co-tangent of the polar angle of the magnetic pole with Lon- don, add log 1 65642, and find the angle, of which the sum is the tangent. Then to the same co-tangent add log. 0 03987, and find the arc, of which the sum is the tangent. Then the first, deducted from the last, is the variation. This agrees very nearly, and may be extended to all places. From Jan. to April, the variation in- creases ; and from April to July it dimi- nishes. In October it is the same as in May, that is, for 3 months it recedes easterly, and for 9 months westerly. The maxima are in June and August, and the minima in Dec. and July. There are daily variations, which, at a mean, are about 11 minutes ; greater when the Earth is in aphelion, and least in peri- helion. In 1658, the line of no variation passed at London, but it is now at New York. In N. lat. 70° 5/ 11", andW. Ion. 96^ 46/55", Ross found that the needle dipt 89^ 59/. Another pole is believed to exist in 65° N. lat. and 102^ E. Ion. The magnetic equator is where the dip- ping-needle is horizontal. It has about 12° of inclination, and crosses the equator at 2 points, one in the Atlantic, and the other in the Pacific. The dip has decreased about 3 minutes per annum, and the equator is said to move from E. to \V. Wilcke and Hanstein establish the fact of 2 southern magnetic poles, a strong one near Van Diemen’s Land,136o 15/ E. 69^ 2 7' S., and a weak one near Terra del Fuego, 123° 56/ W. and 77 ° 17 / S. The northern hemisphere has, also, a strong onb in Baffin’s Bay, 100° 2/ W. and 70° 17/ N., and a weaker one in Siberia, 101^ 29/ E. and 85^43/ N. These double poles, of course, indicate 2 magnetic axes, and the poles are points of conver- gences. Observations in 1586, 1594, 1642, 1670, 1725, and 1805, shew, that these points are not stationery, for early obser- vations shew that the northern points were then more westward, and the southern more eastward. The strong poles, too, re cede, from the terrestrial poles, and the weak ones approach them. The two north magnetic poles revolve from W. to E. in different periods, accord ing to Hanstein, one in 1740 years, and the other in 860 years. The two southern, on? S 2 MAGNETISM. 519 in 4009 years, and the other in 1304 years. He places the strongest N. pole in 1840 in 85° 15/ W. Ion. and 690 22/ N. i a t., and the weakest in 1480 18/ E. Ion. and 850 N. Iat. The strongest S. P. in 1310 1 / E. Ion. and 68 ° 3/1 S. Iat. and the other in 140° 31/ W. Ion. and 78° 41/ W. Ion. and 78° 54/ S. Iat. The number divisible by the four periods is very nearly that of the precession of the equinoxes, and in their lowest terms they are 2, 3, 4, and 10. Hanstein considers the two strongest poles as terminations of one magnetic axis, and the two weakest of the other axis. In 1813, observation in Hudson’s Bay gave 67° 10/ for the lat. and 92° 24/, differ- ing slightly from Hanstein. And different observations prove the motion to be 11 / 4" •23, being a revolution in 1890 years, or 50 more than Hanstein. Observation, too, as. signs to 4 / 67" for the annual motion of the strongest south pole, or 4605 years. * The weakest, or Siberian N. P. moves 35/ 128^ per annum, and the weakest S. 16/ b7". Barlow tried and calculated the place of the North M. Pole by the actual dip and va- riation at different places, but the results did not agree, and he concluded that every place makes its own pole in the Arctic regions. The dip at Trinidad is but 10 o, and var. 5, but at Regent’s Inlet, the dip is 88 ° 26/, and the var. 118° 16/ W. if measurable. At Melville Island, the dip was 88 ° 43/, and the var. (27) 127° 46/ E. . The mean inclination of the magnetic equator to the terrestrial, is 12 °, and its major intersections are in 113° 14/ West long., and 66 ° 46/ East long. But there is an inflexion in the Pacific, and beyond the Western point it recrosses the terrestrial equator, about 1 £ degrees, and returns again. In the Arabian sea, in 62° E., its most N. lat. is 12°, and it keeps N. to 174 E. or 187 E. It passes N. of Comorin, and in Siam is 8 ° N., and at the Philippines is again 90 N. It then crosses the Carolines. At the magnetic equator in Peru there is no dip, and the intensity is there taken as 1 . At Lima, the dip is 9° 59/ S., and the inten- sity 1 0773. At Port du Sud, the intensity is 16 133 the greatest South, and at Port du Nor the dip is 75° 50'. and intensity L5773. In N. lat. at Quito, the dip is 130 22/, and intensity 1 0675. Both then increase to the North Polar Sea. At Mexico, dip 42° 10/, intensity 1 3155. At Rome, 6 P 5/1, inten- sity 1 2642 At Pekin, 54° 52' At Mount Cenis. 66 ° 42', intensity 1 3441. Paris, 69° 12', intensity 1 3482. Gottingen, 68 ° 23', intensity L3485. London, 69° 5 7', intensity L3742. Petersburg, 71° 7'- Tobolsk, 70° 56/. Bergen, 74° 3 /, intensity 1 422. Edinburgh, 710 $ 7 '. Davis’ Straits, 83° 8 ', intensity 1-6365 Montreal, 87° 45/ N. Magnetic pole, lat. 70° 5/ 1 7 /7 , long. 96° 46/ W. Dip, 89° 59/, or perpendicular. The Dip has decreased at Paris from 75°, Jn 16/1. to 67°41/in 1834, and in London from 740 42', in 1720. to 690 17 / 3" in 1833. At Bruxelles, it is 68 ° 32'; at Gottingen, 580 13/ ; and, at Berlin, 68 ° 16/. 520 Twice the co-tangent of the magnetic latitude, ought to be equal to the tangent of the dip every where. The annual diminu- tion, owing to change in the position of the poles, is about 3' 5". The sooner a needle ceases to oscillate, the greater the force of the terrestrial mag- netism, that is, it is as the square of the number of oscillations in the same time. At London, 300 oscillations are performed in 77 5 seconds; at Paris, in 753; and at Edinburgh, in 820; at Oxford, /80; at Berlin, 760 ; and at Bergen, 850. The in- tensity increases from the equator, the poles with the dip. Taking 0 dip as 1, when 45° the intensity is L 2 , and when 81°, is 16. In this century, the Variation was at.: Christiana .. O 20 / 3 Copenhagen 18 0 Fredericsborg 18 50 Kullens 21 0 w. Awatscha Bay m m 5 39 E. Catharinenburg m m 5 27 — Car chow 5 17 w. Irkutsk m m 0 32 E. Nizni-Udinsk m m 2 40 — Petersburgh 7 27 w. Petropaulowska m . 5 20 E. Berlin . . 17 40 Dantzic 13 48 W Leipsic . . 17 45 — Tankermund . . 19 0 Bushey-heath 24 35 W. Hyderabad . . Vo 16/ 39" E. Ascension 15 40 W. Madeira „ * . . 20 21 Teneriffe . . 16 1 St. Catharine’s 7 51 E. Abo . . 11 20 W. Tornio 12 7 - Uleaburg . . 9 32 — Archangel . . 2 7 F. Brest • . 25 7 W Hammerfest 11 26 — Moscow 5 24 — Benthem «. m . 19 41 — Wittmund . . 20 46 — Paris 1800 22 12 — “ 1816 m m 22 25 — “ 1819 22 29 — “ 1829 22 12 — Edinburgh 1808 . . 27 32 — “ 1809 _ . 27 35 — “ 1812 28 8 — “ 1823 27 48 — Leith, 1823 . _ 27 0 — Falmouth 25 30 — London, 1806 24 9 — “ 1812 . m m m 24 17 — “ 1815 mm 24 47 - “ 1816 24 18 — “ 1823 „ . 24 10 — 1831 24 0 _ Bruxelles 22 7 - Port Jackson „ m 8 56 E. Manilla m m . . 0 17 - Amboyna 0 28 - Gallipagos m . 8 20 _ Otaheite .. . . 6 40 New Zealand « . 13 21 — 521 MAG? O / Paramatta 0 50 — Pekin 1° 42/ 57" W. Wardoe 5 57 — Udinkz .. 2 40 E. Embden 20 42 W. Cherbourg 26 47 — Toulon 19 10 — Ushant 26 45 — Corunna 20 47 — Stromness 27 50 — Leghorn .. 19 20 — Minorca . . 19 30 — Palermo 18 30 — Corfu 14 31 — Dardanelles 12 32 — Trebisonde 8 14 — Comorin . . 2 9 E. Trincomale I 9 — Batavia 0 17 — Macoa 1 12 — Madras 3 0 — Prince’s Island 27 0 w. Achen 2 25 E. Alexandria 10 58 W. Funchal J m 25 58 — Porto Praya 13 30 _ Mauritius 13 40 — Cape Town 27 30 — Goree 19 35 — St. Helena 17 30 — Prince Wales Island 22 30 — Tripoli 16 35 — St. Thomas’s 22 48 — Arica 10 25 E. St. Bias 8 40 — Barbadoes 4 30 — Curaqoa 2 1 — Havanna . . 7 0 — Coquembo 14 0 — Calao 9 30 — Fort Erie . . 1 42 — Bogota 7 30 — Guayra 4 53 — Port Royal 4 10 — Lima 9 50 — Mexico 6 30 — Niagara 1 27 - Panama 8 0 — Rio Janeiro 3 21 — Vera Cruz 10 37 — Valparaiso 14 43 — Fort York 6 0 — In 15/6, it was at London, 11° 15/ East. In 1622, but 6° 12'. From 1657 to 1662, due- north In 1666, (P 34' West. In 16/2, 2^ 30'. In 1700.

below the point of freezing water, for 0 or zero ; and setting 32 at the freezing point, he ascends to 212, the heat of boiling water; taking 98 as blood-heat, and 176 as the heat at which alcohol boils; 55 as temperate, and 76 as summer heat. A thermometer, for intense cold, is of alcohol. Mercury expands, between 32° and 212°, about a 55th, or a ten thousandth of its bulk. The mean of freezing and boiling is 110°, not 122°, because the expansion increases with temperature. The mean annual temperature of the whole Earth, at the level of the sea, is 50°. For different latitudes it is as under ; the third column showing the height in feet of constant freezing in those latitudes : — Equator . . . ..15,000 feet. lat 10 ... 82-6...... 20 ... 78-1 ...13,300 30 ... 71 1 ...11,500 40 ... 62-6 ... 9,000 50 ... 53 6 .... ... 6,300 60 ... 45 ... 3,800 70 ... 381 ... 1,700 80 ... 33 6 ... 450 The mean daily course of the tempera- ture of the atmosphere is the same at all hours. According to a yearly mean, the coldest hour of the day, in Europe, is 5 o’clock in the morning. The warmest hour 533 METEOROLOGY. — THERMOMETER. 534 of the day is from 2 to 3 in the afternoon, in the tropics, and thence is dispersed through The rise is most considerable some hours the mass. after the minimum, the fall some hours The mean temperature for a year is found after the maximum. The heat increases by multiplying the square of the cosine of for 9-10 hours, decreases for 14-15 hours. The greatest daily range of temperature in Europe is about 13^> Fahr. The greatest daily range in Europe, is in July, and the least in December. Of 10,000 rays falling perpendicularly, 8100 reach the Earth ; 7000 at 50 deg., 2800 at 7 deg., and 5 at 0 deg. Water seldom freezes till the meridian altitude of the Sun is less than 40^. In latitude 75 degrees, where the mean temperature is only 37 degrees, only moss, lichen, grass, dwarf-willow, and sorrel grow. The Earth, from the equator to the poles, resembles mountains in their kinds of vege- tation, from the base to the summit. Hum- boldt says, the proportions in variety are, in the tropics 12, temperate zones 1, and frigid 01. Elevation above the level of the sea, or the general level of a country, makes a re- gular variation of temperature. The first 309 feet make a difference of a degree, almost as truly as though the height were measured. This arises from the diminution of reflected heat from surrounding objects. After ascending 300 feet, the thermometer falls a degree at 295 feet, then a degree at 277, 252, 223, and 192 feet ; so that at 1539 feet, it falls 6 deg. in a general way, but 300 feet, per degree, is the common rule. The cold and heat of climates depend, also, on the vicinage of seas. At Moscow, the thermometer ranges from 6^ to 70°, but at Copenhagen, in the same latitude, only from 27^ to 65° ; so, at Vienna, it ranges from 26° to 70°, but, on the French coast, in the same latitude, only from 41^ to 6 7°. The west side of the oid, and the east side of the new continents, present in the same latitudes different mean temperatures, as under : — Old Con. New Con. 300 .... 70° 5 .... 66^*9 40 .... 63*1 .... 54 5 50 50 9 38 60 40-6 222 The western shores of both continents are milder than the eastern. In lat. 46, 47, and 48, the heat at sun-set is the mean of the day. When the Sun is in Aries or Libra, the relative heat of the equator, according to Humboldt, is taken at 1000; at 20. deg. is 940 ; at 40 deg. 750 ; and at 60 deg. 500. But, when in Cancer, or Capricorn, it is, for the same hemisphere, at 0 deg. 9117 ; at 20 deg. 1008 ; at 40 and 50 deg. 1150 ; at 70 deg. 1175 ; and at 80 and 90 deg., owing to sun-shine for six months, 1250. Between the tropics, the variation from latitude is but 8 deg. ; lat. 23 deg. 8 min. being 76. In lat. 45, the average heat in summer to that in winter, is as 120 to 42, but the arctic circle as 102 to 12. The heat, in a general way, may be sup- posed to arise from the verticity of the Sun the latitude by 29. If, at the equator, the annual heat is taken at 232, at the tropics it is 214, at 45°, 162, and at the arctic circle, 114. The heat, at different altitudes of the Sun, is as the square of the radius to the square of the angle. Thus, at 30° high, the sine is 0 5, and, hence, the heat is but a fourth. This arises from the same cylinder of rays being diffused at 30° over four times the surface. Taken in thickness of atmosphere, it is but two to one. So, at 45^, it is the square of 0 70 7, or 1 to 2, but the atmos- phere is 1*4 to 1. While air above snow is 70 degrees below the freezing point, the surface of the ground below the snow is only 32 degrees. Sudden changes of temperature prevail in Africa. Della lella records one of 2 7 deg. in 24 hours. Temperature is so variable in South Ca- rolina, that the thermometer sometimes varies 50 degrees in 24 hours ; it ranges no less than 83 degrees in the year. The rain averages 50 inches. 0 00375 is the expansion of air and gases, for every degree of heat on the centigrade thermometer; by Fahrenheit, it is the 4S0lh. At 40, 50, and 60 feet deep, in different places, we have an invariable stratum of mean heat. At less depth, the distribution accords with theory. From the equator to the poles, the theoretical rule is, that the temperature in every latitude is as the square of its cosine. January, in London, averages 38° 52', and in the rural vicinity 34° 16'. — Howard. By several years’ observations at Ply- mouth, it appears that at 5 in the morning, the temperature is constantly lowest. After which it gradually rises to 8° or 9°, in 8 hours, before 1 o’clock, and then falls 16 hours, till 4 and 5 the next morning. At 6 it rises half a degree. It falls, between mid- night and 5 in the morning, about 2°. At Leith, the ascent from 5 is 9f hours. The mean temperature of the year at Ply- mouth, is 52° 9. The highest 80°, and lowest 30°. At Plymouth and Paris, 9 A. M. and 9 P. M., and at Leith 4 and 4, give the mean of the day. In Europe, the mean isothermal line of 59°, is in lat. 43 ; but in North America, in lat. 36. That of 50o ? in lat. 51 ; but in North America 42^. That of 41°, in Europe, is in lat. 59^, but in America, in lat. 48. And that of 32° Fahrenheit is in 66°, in Europe ; in America, 54°. Under the line, the mean of Africa is 83°, and America 81 §°. In China and Africa, the thermometer rises to 110 and 113, and even to 125 deg. in the sandy deserts ; while, in Hudson’s Bay, it falls to 50 and 55 deg. below zero. Gay Lussac ascended in a balloon 22,890 feet, and at the earth the thermometer was 87°'4, and at his elevation but 14° 9. Op METEOROLOGY. — THERMOMETER. 535 the top of Mont Blanc, 12,210 feet, when the heat at bottom was 73°’4, at top it was 26° 8. At Teneriffe, at the same height, it is 76° 8, and 47°1. The mean variation at the equa- tor is 1° for every 341 feet. In the tempe- rate zone, it is 1° for every 317 feet, or 12° to 3000 feet. Generally, there is constant snow on mountains near the equator, at 15.700 feet; at 20’ lat., 15,000 feet; at 45°, 8.300 feet; and, at 66’, at 4,900 feet. — Humboldt. De Candolle considers the element of heat as depending on the mean of the year and the extremes. The solar heat, in a year, is sufficient to melt a coating of ice spread over the globe 46 feet thick. In London, the mean annual temperature is 50 39 deg. At Edinburgh, 47 deg. At Dublin, 49 4 degrees. The mean temperature of the four seasons in England, Scotland, and Ireland, is, in the middle of each, England. Scotland. Ireland. Spring .. 50 2 deg. 44 2 deg. 45 5 deg. Summer 643 .... 56 4 .... 62 Autumn 51 .... 47'7 53 Winter .. 40 6 37 42 The average heat at London, in the first sixteen years of this century, was 50 93 deg. The hottest day, from 1774 to 1817, was in July, 1808, being 93 5 deg., and the coldest, Dec. 25, 1796, 2 deg. below zero. The highest temperature, in the Sun’s rays, at London, is 154 deg. Fahrenheit, 54*2 deg. Reaumur, 68 deg. Centigrade. The highest of the air, in the shade, 90 deg. Fahrenheit, 26 deg. Reaumur, 325 deg. Centigrade. The mean temperature of the air is 49£ deg. Fahrenheit, lowest 11 deg. Fahrenheit, and on the Earth’s surface 5 degrees. In the counties round London, the mean temperature and rain, in every month, is as under : — January inches 1 ‘483 February 38 . 746 March 439. 1 44 April 49 9. 1786 May 54 . 1 853 June 587- 1 83 July 61 . 2-516 August 61-6. 1-453 September ... 578. 2 193 October 48*9. 2 073 November . , . 42 9. 24 December ... 39*3. 2 426 ~48~5 22T99 In London, the mean of January is 37 36 deg. ; of July and August 63 5 deg. In Devonshire, the mean of the year is 52*5 deg. and of the winter 44 5 deg. In Nor- thumberland, 4 7 7 deg. is the mean of the year, and of winter 37'5 deg. In Shetland, the mean of the year is 45£ deg. The average temperature of the winter months, in England, is about 40 deg., and of the summer months 65 deg. ; De : 'onsnire and Cornwall are about 4 deg. warmer than London. 536 The annual average of the thermometer, at the north and south points of England, Carlisle, and Sandwich, is 48 deg. and 50 deg.; the maximum, in 1820, 78 and 83; and the minimum was 12 and 27. The mean temperature of Ireland varies from 47 to 53. At Kinfaun’s Castle, N. B. lat. 56 deg. 23 min. the mean temperature, for 1830, was 47 626 The rain 30 85 inches. Coldesf day 10 deg., and hottest 79 deg. Barometer from 30 53 to 28*73 inches. The thermometer ranges between 11 deg. and 80 deg. ; the average being 46 6, in lat. 55 deg. 45 min. in Scotland. The 14th of January, on an average of years, is the coldest in the year. At Chiswick, near London, the mean heat and dryness in the Horticultural Gardens, have been as under in 6 years : — 1828 51-6 3° 0 1829 478 , 2-6 1830 49-3 , 3 4 1831 51 6 . 27 1832 508 . 27 1833 50 9 , 3*1 Mean 50 3 . 29 he mean heat of the year at o / Petersburgh . . 38 84 Drontheim . . 39 92 Moscow 40 10 Stockholm m m 42 26 Quebec 42 8 Copenhagen . . 45 68 Kendal . „ 46 4 Edinburgh . . 47 84 Boston 47 3 Detroit 47 4 Philadelphia . . 53 7 Richmond . . 56 1 Washington . m 58 1 Charlestown _ m 58 5 Dublin m m 49 10 London m m 50 36 Geneva . „ 49 28 Vienna 50 14 Bruxelles .. 51 Paris m m 51 08 Amsterdam . . 51 62 Brussels 51 8 New York . . 53 78 Philadelphia . . 53 42 Milan . . 55 76 Bourdeaux 56 48 Rome m m 60 44 Cerigo 65 3 Algiers 69 98 Cairo 72 33 Cumana 81 86 Vera Cruz . . 77 72 In the latitude of London, America is 13^ colder than Europe, and in 40 latitude, is 8 6° colder than Europe. In Massacbusets, the hottest years of 42, were — 1793, ftiean 50 96 ; 1820, mean 50 99 , and 1828, mean 51 35 Coldest year, 1812, mean 44 28. The hottest month was July 1825. 77° 74; the coldest, January 1792, 19°17. The hottest days, 101°, on June 53/ METEOROLOGY. — THERMOMETER. 038 23, 1816; and July 21, 1825. The greatest cold was— 13°, January 25, 1821 ; January 17, 1786; January 23, 1792; February 14, 1817; and January 13, 1818—11°. Near Boston, the greatest cold during 10 years was on the 1st of February, 1826, 18° below zero ; and the greatest heat, on the 11th of July 1825, 99°. From 1821 to 1830, *:here were, on an average, 219 days of fair , and 146 of cloudy weather : rain fell, more or less, on 57 days ; and the annual average quantity of snow was about 3 feet. The Aurora Borealis illuminated 17 nights, in 1831, and thunder and lightning on 21 days. At the volcanic islands of the Gallipagos, naif a degree north of the equator, the daily temperature is from 74 to 91°. The Red Sea is as hot as any part of the world. The thermometer ranges, in 14 nours, from 94 to 112. From Babelmandel Jo Suez, the coast, for 40 miles inland, is a dry sand, without a blade of grass or drop nf water. The cold at Tabreez, in Persia, is so in- tense in February, that persons are con- stantly frozen to death. — Porter. In New South Wales, the coldest month averages 54° ; and the hottest 75°. It rains 100 days in the year. The north-west wind is a scorching sirocco. The air is generally dry, but the night-dews are heavy. The thermometer, in Italy, ranges between 75 and 96° ; and in winter seldom descends below 40°, except in the Appenines, where it falls to 20° In the Gulf of Guinea, the thermometer rises to 130°; but Humboldt thinks that in the air it can never rise above 140 ; at sea, it never rises above 85 or 88. In the Eastern Archipelago, the thermo- meter is 88° to 91°, so that decks are not used till evening, and then the damps are very great. In June, at Socotra, the extremes of the thermometer were 88 and 91. Belzoni considered the tract between the first and second cataracts of the Nile to be the hottest on the Globe, owing to there being no rain. At Thebes, he says, it rains about three times a year, about half an hour each time. At Bagdad, in summer, the thermometei is from 112 to 122. The extreme temperatures of India at the level of the sea, for its most N. and S. parts, are 66° and 83°. The thermometer ranges at Calcutta from 70° to 95° ; at Madras from 704° to 916, with 110° often in the interior. In Australasia, Ihe thermometer, in sum- mer, ranges from 102° to 54°; and in win- ter, from 66° to 42°. There is no snow, and very slight moving frost. The temperature, in equal latitudes, is "rom 4 to 8° lower in the southern hemisphere. It is supposed to arise from the extended surfaces of water, and from the Sun passing through the southern signs in 7f days less than the northern. The climate of the southern hemisphere is more equable than the north. In May, at Cape Horn, lat. 56, equal to our Novem- ber ; vegetation is flourishing. The sea is colder in the south, and ice extends 4 or 500 miles further from the South Pole than the North. There are cur- rents from the poles towards the tropics, and then from east to west, in conjunction with the trade-winds. The southern hemisphere is even so much colder than the North in Europe, that Sand- wich Land, in the lat. of Scotland, is covered with snow through the year; and icebergs descend 10° nearer the equator than in the North Atlantic. At 30° of lat. on the Old Continent, the mean heat is 7 0°/, but on the New Conti- nent only 67° 1. At 40 lat. 63° 5 and 54° 5. At 50 lat. 50° 9 and 38°3 ; and at 60° lat. 41° and 25°. The cause is, the masses of the Old Continent, which revolve nearer the axis, while the comparative strip of America revolves, perhaps, 2 or 3000 feet higher. The mean annual temperature at Mon- treal, lat. 45° 31/, varies from 47° to 42°. The spring from 58° to 50° ; the summer from 78° to 69° ; the autumn from 44° to 33° ; and the winter from 15° to 23°. In 1835, the highest was 98°, and the lowest 25°. The mean 61 4. The mean temperature, per Parry, for the 6 winter months, was at Winter Island, lat. 66° 30/ — 1 1°*7 Igloolik ... 69° 20/ — 18° 3 Melville Island . 74° 45/ — 24° No snow fell at Melville Island, and only 8 inches at Winter Island. An iceberg, seen by Parry, was above 250 feet out of the water, and, therefore, 1800 feet thick. The mean temperature of the North Pole is estimated at 4° or 5° ; but others take it a mean of 1°, and even at 3 5°. At Bear Lake, Captain Franklin, on Feb. 7, found the thermometer at 58° below zero, and for two days it had been 57‘5°. In Sibeiia and Hudson’s Bay, ‘mercury sometimes becomes solid, proving the cold to be 39° below zero. Weak wine and spirits become a spongy mass. Spring, summer, and autumn, last but 3 months in the lat. of 70°, and corn and fruit cease in lat. 65°. Icebergs have descended to the Azores, and to Cape Horn, and permanent ice exists 10° further from the South Pole than the North. Spring is the most rapid in the Arctic regions. The snow disappears, and birds of passage re-appear. Then, within a few days, the trees burst into foliage, the ground is covered with flowers, and mosquitoes are thawed in millions, which, with horse-flies, sand-flies, &c. &c. render summer less com- fortable than winter. Spiders, frogs, fish, &c. frozen, and as brittle as ice, revive with the thaw. The frozen ground in Siberia is permanent to the depth of 400 feet. In many districts of Siberia, the thermo- meter, when the days are but I4 hour, stands at 33° below zero. i>39 METEOROLOGY.- In Northern Siberia, the ground is frozen to the depth of a furlong, and the summer sun thaws it but 3 or 4 feet. Below the fur- long, however, internal heat commences, and, at the depth of 4 miles, it is believed that the heat equals that of melted lead. At Yakuzk, in Siberia, mercury is always solid 2 months in the year, and often for 3 months. The mean temperature is — 6° R. and the ground is constantly frozen to the depth of 400 feet, indicating that 400 feet is equal to 6^ R., since at 400 feet it thaws. Beaumont and Brogniart determine that the mean heat at Paris must, in the early part of the tertiary period, have been -about 72° ; that of modern Cairo, which bespeaks an expansion of the Tropic, 18° or 18x7500 years, or 135,000 years. Coral reefs existed at Kirkdale, (54^>) in the preceding car- boniferous period. The breadth of the Tropics then destroyed polar ice, a great cause of the cold of high latitudes. The central heat must have been, as now, 32 yds. to a degree. In the past century, the severe frosts in England were in the winters of 1/08, 1/15, 1739, called the hard frost. 1/42, 1754, 1776, 1788, 1796, and 1813 The mean heat at Bruxelles, 51°, was lowered at 40 inches depth, but at 80 inches it stood at 52° 4 /, from 13 to 25 feet at 33° 40/. At 25 feet depth the difference for the year was but 1° 51/, while at half a foot it was 12^ 1/. At Jarrow colliery, depth 900 feet, when water at the surface is 49°, at the bottom it is 68°. Air is 49£° and 70°. At White- haven, air at surface 55° is 63° at 480 feet, and 66° at 600 feet deep. At the Percy main, 900 feet, air is 42° and 70°, and water 490 and 680 At one foot deep in 2 years, a thermo- meter at a mean for each, was 43° 8', and 440 9'. At 2 feet 44° 1/ and 450 9 /. At 4 feet 450 1/ a nd 460 21. At 8 feet 460 and 46° S'. The deepest coal-mine in England is at Killingworth, near Newcastle, and the mean annual temperature, at 400 yards below the surface, is 77 deg., and at 300 yards, 70 deg. ; while at the surface it is but 48 deg., being about 1 deg. of increase for every 15 yards. This explains the origin of hot- springs, for, at 3300 yards, the heat would be equal to boiling-water, taking 20 yards to a degree. The heat of the Bath waters is 1 16 deg., hence they would appear to rise 1320 yards. By experiments made at the Observatory of Paris, 51 feet depth corresponds to the increase of 1 deg. Fahr. Hence, the tempe- rature of boiling-water would be at 8212 feet, or about 1 £ miles English, under Paris. In lat. 56° 10/, by keeping thermometers fixed in the ground at various depths, it ap- pears that frost does not penetrate so deep in the earth as a foot. At the depths of one, two, and three feet, the lowest temperature, during two years, was, at 1 foot, 33 deg. ; at two feet, 36 deg. j and at three feet, 39 deg. ; THERMOMETER. 54(J while the highest was, at one foot, 35 deg. ; two, 52 5 deg. ; and three, 52 degrees. By other observations, at one foot, it varies 25 deg. in the year ; at 2 feet, 20 deg. , at 4 feet, 15 deg. ; at 8 feet, 9° 5 ; and at 31 feet, 2'>7. At 40 or 50 feet, there is no va- riation. The Earth is believed to increase, in heat, a degree in every 15 or 20 yards depth. In the catacombs at Paris, the thermo- meter through the year is between 52 to 54 degrees, while on the surface it varies from 90 degrees to 0 deg. In Mexican mines, it stands constantly at 74 degrees. The temperature of the bottom of a Cornish mine is 3 deg. above that of the sur- face. Granite is colder than killas. The internal heat may be taken about 1 deg. of R. or 2 25 of Fahr. for every 100 feet of depth. Fourier estimates, that if below 180 miles the interior was incandescent, it would raise the surface but the 10th of a degree ; and, if 100 times hotter than iron at a red- heat, it would, in 200,000 years, raise the surface but 1 degree. But at 40 or 50 miles it would be 1 degree in 2000 years. The present central heat (if any) would, says Fourier, only melt an inch of ice per an- num. He and Swemberg calculate the heat of the celestial spaces at 50 deg. centigrade below freezing. The winter temperature of the Atlantic is about 54 deg., of the Irish Sea 51 deg., and of the German Ocean, flowing from the North, 43 deg. in winter, and 53 deg. in summer. At great depths in the sea, as 4000 feet, the difference is from 15 to 22 degrees be- tween the air and the water at that depth ; and, at 4680 feet, the water is 26 degrees, while the air is 48£ degrees. Sabine, near Cuba, in lat. 20| north, sank register thermometers above 6000 feet, and found in the depth of the sea 45° 5 and 49° 5, the surface being 82° 5 to 83°. The lake of Geneva, at the depth of 1000 feet, is always 42 deg., and no variation takes place below 160 feet. In a lake near Rome, at 490 feet depth, the thermometer is 44 0, 5, though at the surface it is 77°. Variation does not take place in water below 120 feet. In Scotland, on the surface of Loch Lo- mond, the thermometer stood at 593, but at 90 feet it fell to 437, and at 240 was 413; and at 690 was 41 1. The German Ocean is 3 deg. colder in winter, and 5 deg. warmer in summer than the Atlantic. The temperature of perennial springs is identical with the mean of the atmosphere. But in warm countries, the temperature of springs is some degrees below that of the atmosphere. Peron relates, that, at the depth of 2144 feet in the sea, the thermometer falls to 45 deg., when it is 86 deg. at the surface. The thermometer, in sea-water, falls from 4 to 6 deg. on approaching land. 541 meteorology. — pluviometer. 542 In 8(30, the Rhone was frozen ; in 1133, the Po ; in 1305, all the rivers in France ; in 1334, a frost, of 2 months and 20 days, froze all the rivers of Provence and Italy. In 1594 the sea was frozen at Marseilles and Venice. In 1657 and 1667, the Seine was frozen 33 days. . On July 8, 1793, at Paris, the Centigrade thermometer stood at 3S°*4 (101 Fahrenheit). And on Jan. 14, 1747, and 71, a t 13°'6 (74 Fahrenheit). A great snow, in 1614, lasted from Jan. 15 to March 12. Pluviometer and Pain . A cube of air at 68 Fah. contains 252 grains water; and the whole atmosphere, com- pressed from 100 deg. to the freezing point, would deposit but five inches depth of water on the surface of the whole Earth ; though in currents of air it might deposit more in a single district. But if the entire atmosphere, twilight height of 44 miles, were condensed into the density of water at the surface, the depth would be about 36 feet, and concentrated on the seas about 54 feet. The bulk, and specific gravity of rain- water is taken at 60 deg. as 1. Less heat diminishes its bulk, and increases its specific gravity. At 40 deg. bulk is *9907, and sp. gr. 1 00094. But, at 80 deg., the bulk is 1 00242, and the sp. gr. -99759; and at 100 deg. is 1 006 and 99402. Drops of rain vary from l-25th to 1.4th of an inch in diameter. They fall till re- sistance renders their velocity uniform, and increasing as they fall, they fall according to size, with the final velocity of a falling stone. There are 72 drops to an inch in the rain of rain- bows, and 200 to 1000 in other cases. Rain-guages determined the fall of rain at the top of York Minster, in a year, to be but 8 294 inches ; and on the ground to be 15 939, and at an intermediate elevation, 12135. In 3 years, the ratios were 5915, 7914, and 100. Crossley’s Rain Guage consists of a funnel of the usual form, through which the rain passes to a vibrating trough, when, after a sufficient quantity has fallen into its higher side, it preponderates, and discharges the rain, which escapes by a tube, and at the same time, by its vibratory action, moves a train of wheel-work and indexes, to record upon a dial-plate the quantity of rain fallen. The heighth of humidity is 2 miles in the Arctic Regions, and 4£ at the Equator. The air is capable of absorbing the 160th part of its weight in aqueous vapour at 32 deg., an 80th at 59 deg., and half more at every 27 deg. of its heat. So that in sum- mer-heat at 86 deg. it absorbs a 40th, and in the torrid zone at 113 deg. a 20th. So far Leslie, but there is an equivoque, since water itself evaporates as steam, as tempe- rature varies. The air dissolves and receives fluids at all temperatures ; but the fluids are converted into gas, only when the excitement over- comes the atmospheric pressure. In the temperate zone, the annual evapo- ration is 37 inches, but in the tropics from 90 to 100 ; and the mean quantity of rain is in the same proportion. A still surface of water would, in this cli- mate, in winter, lose but the 0 018 of an inch, but in summer 0 048. Evaporation is as the surface of water, and as the temperature. The mean quantity of water held in a cubic foot of air, in this climate, is 3789 grains. There would be no interval between the solid and vaporous states, but for the pres- sure of the atmosphere. All liquidity is the effect of atmospheric re-action, and this is overcome when the force of the atomic motion of heat exceeds the compressive of 15 lbs. to the square inch. Hence it is, that water fills the receiver of an air-pump with steam, and that it boils at such low tempe- rature in elevations where the barometer falls considerably. The boiling point would, therefore, be the measure of the relative force of the atoms of bodies, if their levity or their weight were the same. Thus, ether rises against the 15 lbs. at 98 deg., water at 212 deg., and mercury at 650 deg. The re- lative forces must, therefore, be as 650, 212, and 98, or, the forces being the same, 15 lbs. ; the weight of the atoms to be moved must be inversely as the same numbers. The evaporation of water, owing to changes of temperature in a year, near London, is 23 974 inches, making about 100th of a grain per square inch per minute, and the average quantity in a cubic foot of air is 3 789 grains less in the 4 winter months, and more in the 4 sumrher, or as 1 to 8 and 9 in January and June. Clouds are the moisture of a cold region of air condensed in small globules. Clouds gather about the tops of mountains because the currents of vapour dash against the sides, and collect at the top, and not owing to any attraction. Dense clouds float, because the air in their interstices are warmed by the Sun. But, as air is hotter near the Earth, there are con- stantly ascending currents. There are seven classes of clouds : — 1. Like a lock of hair, or a feather, called Cirrus. 2. A cloud in conical round heaps, called Cumulus. 3. A level sheet, called Stratus. 4. A system of small round clouds, called Cirro- cumulus. 5. The concave or undulated stratus, called Cirr or -stratus. 6. The cumulus and cirro-stratus mixed, called Cumula-stratus. 7. A cumulus, spreading out in cirrus, and raining beneath, called Nimbus. The cirrus is the most elevated — some- times as a gauze veil— or parallel threads. Its heighth is from 3 to 5 miles. When its streamers point upwards it is falling, and indicates rain ; when downwards, no rain. 643 METEOROLOGY*- Clouds and fogs are the same thing. We see the whole as a cloud, at a distance in the atmosphere, but when the vapour sinks to the eaith, or will not rise, we are im- mersed in it, and call it a fog. Dew fogs, which hang over fields, are stratus clouds ; but fogs which involve elevated objects, are cumulus clouds. Most atmospheric phenomena take place within the heighth of3i miles, though cirrus clouds were seen many miles above the 4-mile tops of the Andes. Cirrus clouds are seen over-head, on the tops of the highest Andes, and on looking over the sea, at the heighth of 10 or 11,000 feet, a stratum of mist is visible. Here, however, the sky is clearest, but it loses part of this clearness in passing from the high lands in the Torrid Zone, north or south. The Cirrus , or curling cloud, is always uppermost, and often 5 or 6 miles high. It portends rain and wind. The cumulus , or stacked cloud, low and massive. The cirro- stratus is long and flat, or in wavy bars, and often in broken patches like a mackarel’s back. Clouds, in heavy weather, are seldom above half a mile high ; but, in clear wea- ther, from 2 to 5 miles, and cirrus from 5 to 7. They are often of enormous size, 10 miles each way, and 2 thick, containing 200 cubic miles of vapour. A cloud is a congeries of little bladders of water, at small distances from each other, usually not the 1000th part of an inch in diameter, but very different. It is believed that they rotate, and hence their distance and force as steam. In the 5 summer months 219 clouds passed above 1050 yards high, and 5 winter months only 126. The vapour plane is, therefore, taken in London to be in Jan. 900 feet high, and in July 3270. The air is, therefore, more densely charged with vapour near the ground, and rain-drops augment in falling. Another set of observations 6 feet, 134 feet, and 81 feet high, gave 19 41 inches, 18-81, and 16 53. When rain takes place, the nimbus cloud is formed. A cumulus becomes at rest, and a cirrus, or cirro-stratus settles on it, and the whole change to cumulo-stratus, first black, and then grey. The fall of rain forms cirrus- fibres, which afterwards float in small cumuli, and the nimbus rises, and is separated. Air cooled below the dew point, or the temperature of saturation, deposits mois- ture or rain, which is displayed as fog, sleet, tnow, or hail. Hutton ascribes rain to the mixture of 2 volumes of air of different temperature and saturation. Howard to the electrical action of the clouds on one another. Dew is tne condensation of aqueous va- lour by a body, which has radiated its atomic motion of heat below the atmospheric temperature. Clouds radiate heat, and re- store to bodies what they radiate, and hence, are unfavorable to dew. A white or hoar- -PLEV IO METER. 544 frost, is the ice of dew. Filaments, grass, leaves, hair, glass, &c. receive most dew. The chief metals none, nor rocks and bare earths. The dew, per annum, is 5 inches. Atmospheric air, at the freezing tempe- rature, contains from a 200th to 160th of its weight of water, and double at every 22d or 27th degree. At 52 deg. it contains 100th. at 74 a 50th, and at 98 a 25th. Hence, as cooled, it deposits the excess, and this is the Dew of clear and calm nights. The Earth is more heated by the solar rays than the air, and by night the Earth parts with more heat than the air, so as to become lower than the air. In light substances, in contact with the Earth, it is often from 15 to 20 deg. Hence, 10 grains of wool, on a grass-plot, in anight, gave 16 grains of dew, 9 on a gravel walk, and 8 on mould. Hoar- frost is frozen dew. Grass is often but 30 deg. when the air is 39, and hence early freezing. — Wells. Crystals of snow are from 0123 to 0 03 of an inch in diameter. Their figures are di- versified stars. The red colour of some snovf is ascribed to a fungus which grows on the snow. The chemical difference between rain and snow-water was determined by Margraaf to be very slight. Hail-stones fall with a velocity of 60 or 70 feet per second. Rain from 10 to 30 feet. From 3 to 400 tuns of rain fall annually on every acre in England. Two strata of clouds and 2 of wind are necessary to the production of hail. The clouds are in opposite electricity, and the restoration, by a flash, precipitates the lower to the Earth, itself always negative. The mean dr yness is taken by Daniell at 5. The average fall of rain, in the United Kingdom, is about 34 inches; but, in the western and hilly counties, it is 48 or 50 inches. Humboldt assigns 96 inches of annual rain to the equatorial zone, 80 to lat. 20, 29 to lat. 45, and 17 to lat. 60. From three to four times as much rain falls in a year between the tropics as in higher latitudes ; yet the number of days on which it rains generally increases as the latitude. The mean fall of rain in Middlesex is 231 inches, least in February and most in July. It is 1£ in January, March, and August; fin February; If in April, May, and June ; 2£ in July ; 2 in September and October; and nearly 2£ in November and December. At Lyndon, in Rutland, there were in the four years 1740 to 1743, 66 361 inches of rain, mean 16 59 per annum. From 1741 to 1750, the mean was 18^; from 1751 to 1760, mean 22 125. From 1761 to 1770, 23 25. From 1770 to 1780, mean 26 inches. In the four years from 1772 to 1774, the mean was 31 239 inches. This indicates a cycle of weather or a change of climate. Kendal is the wettest place in Europe, its annual fall of rain being 54 inches, and at Lancaster, South, it is 39f, and Dumfries, North, but 37. The average rain in London for 40 years. METEOROLOGY. — PLUVIOMETER. 545 546 between 1/77 and 1817, was 20-686 inches. At Paris, in 15 years, 18 649. At Glasgow, in 17. was 21033; and at Manchester, in 33, was 30 104. At Kendal, 1830, 58 03 Paris has 18| inches nearly. Liverpool, called a wet place, has 34|. In 1800, the quantity of rain at Cam- bridge was 25 62 ; West Riding of Yorkshire 26 9; Lincoln 2411; Chatsworth 26/3; Lancaster 35 93; Kendal 48 2; Exeter 24 5 ; Plymouth 35 5. At Eimonton, in 1831, the highest ther. was 82 deg., and lowest 10 deg. ; bar. 30 5, and 289. Rain 268. Winds 232 days westerly, 8 north, 6 south. At Cheltenham, 1831, ther. highest 77'5, lowest 25 ; bar. 30 26, and 2852. Rain 34 6. Winds 166 days westerly, 36 north, and 55 south. At Dublin, about 26 inches, and at Cork 36 inches rain. On May 20, 1827, 6 inches of rain fell at Geneva, in 3 hours. From September 23 to 27, there fell at Montpell» ov '5 inches 8 lines of rain. In 48 hours, from the 24th to the 26th, 11 inches 10 lines of rain fell near Montpellier. At Jogeuse, near the Rhone, on the 9th of August, 1807, it was 9 inches 3 lines. On the 9th of October, 1827, there fell 29 inches 3 lines of rain , in 22 hours ; and 11 days, gave 36 inches. The rainy season between the tropics is when the Sun is in vertical signs ; and at other times there is not a cloud for months. North, the rainy months are between April to October ; and south, from October to April. Rain, within the tropics, is not of the drizzling character of rain in the temperate zone, but generally falls in such torrents, as, in other zones, would be called water-spouts ; and they produce greater floods in a single day than in Europe in six days. Winter is distinguished from summer, chiefly by the quantity of rain, which is often constant for many days together, and lasts a certain number of hours per day, through 6 months. The rivers, in consequence, overflow ; and, on drying off, make the atmosphere un- wholesome. In middle and lower Egypt it never rains, and the excessive fertility arises from the flood of the Nile. The natives do not credit the phenomenon of water falling from above. Hence it is, that all monuments are so nicely preserved. Buckingham found a building, left unfinished 3 or 4000 years since, and the ochrous marks of the work- men still perfect. Nothing abrades, nothing corrodes. A fog hangs for six months over Peru. Rain so seldom takes place, that a shower is a great calamity, since nothing is provided against one. At Bombay, in 10 years, 78 inches per annum fell; in 1822, 113 inches; and, in 1824, but 34. In the Brazils, in 1821, 280 inches fell ; and in Cayenne, 160 inches in February only. At Cumana, it is but 8 inches in the year. But in Peru and Egyp^ it seldom rains. The fall of rain on the Malabar coast often exceeds 120 inches per annum, and a( Madras but 50 2. Far more rain falls in the western than our eastern counties. The mean is about 30 inches, and near London 231, equal to 3000 tons to an acre. More by night than by day. Kirwan endeavoured to calculate the pro- babilities that particular seasons were fol- lowed by others. In forty-one years there were 6 Wet Springs, 22 dry, and 13 variable ; 20 Wet Summers, 16 dry, and 5 variable ; 11 Wet Autumns , 11 dry, and 19 variable. A season is accounted wet , when it con- tains two wet months. The quantity of rain, in dry seasons, is less than 5 inches. In variable seasons there falls between 30 lbs. and 36 lbs., each equal to *157039 of an inch. A dry Spring was followed by a dry Summer 1 1 times a wet 8 a variable 3 A wet Spring was followed by a dry Summer 0 times a wet 5 a variable 1 A variable Spring was followed by a dry Summer 5 times a wet 7 a variable 1 A dry Summer was followed by a dry Autumn 5 times a wet 5 a variable 6 A wet Summer was followed by a dry Autumn 5 times a wet 3 a variable 12 A variable Summer was followed by a dry Autumn 1 a wet 3 a variable 1 Kirwan then deduced tne probability o the kind of seasons that would succeed by the numbers, in 41 years of observations. In the beginning of any year, . The probability of a dry Spring, is as 22 to 41 of a wet as 6 to 4 1 of a variable as 13 to 41 of a dry Summer is as 16 to 41 of a wet as 20 to 4' of a variable as 5 to 4. of a dry Autumn is as 1 1 to 41 of a wet as 1 1 to 41 of a variable as 19 to 41 After a dry Spring, of a dry Summer, is as 1 to 22 a wet as 8 to 22 a variable as 3 to 22 After a wet Spring, of a dry Summer, is as 0 a wet as a variable as After a variable Spring, of a dry Summer, is as a wet as a variable as 5 to 1 to 5 to 13 7 to 13 1 to 13 547 After a dry Summer , of a dry Autumn, is a wet a variable After a wet Summer , of a dry Autumn, is a wet a variable After a variable Summer , of a dry Autumn, is as 1 to 5 a wet as 3 to 5 a variable as 1 to 5 The probability of the Autumnal weather Will be attained much more perfectly, by taking into consideration the preceding Spring. After a dry Spriny and dry Summer, the probability of a dry Autumn, is as 3 to 1 1 wet as 4 to 11 variable as 4 to 1 1 After a dry Spring and wet Summer, of a dry Autumn, is as 2 to 8 wet as 0 to 11 variable as 6 to 8 After a dry Spring and variable Summer , of a dry Autumn, is as 0 to 0 wet as 2 to 3 variable as 1 to 2 After a ivet Spring and dry Summer, of a dry Autumn, is as 0 to 41 wet as 0 to 41 variable as 0 to 41 After a wet Spring and wet Summer, of a dry Autumn, is as 2 to 5 wet as 1 to 5 variable as 2 to 5 After a wet Spring and variable Summer, of a dry Autumn, is as 1 to 41 wet as 0 to 41 variable as 0 to 41 After a variable Spring and dry Summer , of a dry Autumn, is as 2 to 4 wet as 0 to 11 variable as 2 to 4 After a variable Spring and wet Summer, of a dry Autumn, is as 1 to 7 wet as 1 to 7 variable as 5 to 7 After a variable Spring and a variable Summer , of a dry Autumn, is as 0 to 41 wet as 0 to 41 variable as 0 to 41 Winds. On the westerly and S. W. winds of Eu- rope depend its rains and fertility, but the rains fall as the clouds from the Atlantic advance from west to east. Thus Ireland and the western coasts of England have more rain by 10 or 15 inches than the east of England, and from 15 to 20 more than Ger- many. The north and easterly winds pro- ceed from tracts of land, cold, and devoid of moisture. Our northerly and easterly winds are, to 548 our southerly and westerly winds, as 142 to 223. In England, in a mean of years, we have north wind 30£ days ; N. E. 45£ ; East 26A ; S. E. 39; 8. 23| ; S. W. 73|; W. 70 J ; N. W. 55f. No cycle of winds and weather has yet been determined, though mean periods have been approximated. A rarefaction and ascent of air takes place in the tropics beneath the Sun, and a re. condensation at the heighth of 5 or 6000 feet ; in that region, the effect is a current following the solar vertical, and directed to- wards it from the N. E. and S. E. at lower heighths, varied by sea and land, by moun- tains, &c. &c. even to the poles. — Lind. In Ohio, south-west winds are to north- east as 221 to 106, and to north-west as 221 to 136. When a wind, usually warm, is cold, it is the descent of a cold upper current; or, if after a change, from the return of a cold wind that has passed. Easterly winds, so pernicious to the human constitution, in England are highly benefi- cial to agriculture, by drying the soil and breaking the clods of heavy soils and fitting them for crops. As the sea forms a moving base to the atmosphere, its tides and currents, and the currents of rivers, produce winds and some fluctuations in connection with the ages of the moon. Professor Schubber, by twenty-eight years* observations, concludes that south and west winds prevail mostly from the new moon to the second octant (the middle of the first and second quarters), and that east and north winds are more common in the last quarter. Colonel Reed maintains, by laborious ob- servations, that in hurricanes the wind is carried in a vortex, and hence is in contrary direction, in opposite parts of the circle. But Mr. Espy, of Philadelphia, by another series of observations, determines that the wind in hurricanes proceeds as from the periphery of a circle to its centre. Both theories point to some more general dis- turbance than the theory of rarefaction can account for. Even common storms seem to have connection with some disturbance in the equilibrium of the Earth’s motions, which disturbance first shews itself in the parts most sensible of motion, and the ad- justment is effected by the storm or hurri- cane. A velocity of 18£ miles, per second, in so heterogeneous a mass as the Earth, cannot fail to produce at times such forces as those in hurricanes, for which the visible agents often appear to be inadequate. The West India hurricanes are vortexes, as appear by the varied direction of the trees which they prostrate. A West India hurricane has blown heavy cannon out of a battery, and carried a child over a 9. feet wall. — Halliday. A West India hurricane reached New- foundland, 3000 miles, in 6 days ; another, 2300 miles, in 6 days. They affect at once. METEOROLOGY. — WINDS. as 5 to 16 as 5 to 16 .as 6 to 1 6 as 5 to 20 as 3 to 20 as 12 to 20 METEOROLOGY.— WINDS, £ 4P 550 us an immense whirlwind, a space of from 100 to 500 miles in diameter, and progress northward from 12 to 30 miles an hour, but their force is not in the direction of their progress. They commence with wind from the south and south east, and end from the north and north-west, at places in the centre or axis of the hurricane or whirlwind. The barometer sinks at the commencement, and rises at the close. The sea swells around the track of tl. e centre. In the Indian ocean, the trade-winds are disturbed by the mountains and the large tracts of land presented by Africa and Asia ; lienee, in maintaining the equilibrium of the atmosphere, the wind, instead of blow- ing from east to west, takes opposite cur- rents for six months , and, at the times of change, produce tornados and storms by what are called ;he breaking up of the Mon- soons , which is the name of the six months’ wind. To the south, from 10 deg. to 23 deg., the wind blows constantly from the east and south-east, because lands do not much in- terfere ; but from 10 deg. northward to the equator, north-west winds blow from Octo- ber to April, and south-west from April to October : and north of the equator to the Tropic of Cancer south-west winds prevail from April to October , and north-east winds from October to April. The Samiel is a hot noxious electrical wind, which passes over the sandy deserts of Arabia and Africa. It moves with the quickness of lightnmg, and passes in narrow currents for a few minutes. It occasions, as is reported, instant death to every man or beast happening to face it ; and, it is said, that it so decomposes them that their limbs fall asunder. The approach of it is indicated by a thick haze in the horizon ; and travel- lers, if they have time, throw themselves on their faces with their feet towards it till it has passed. Hewlett thinks that it was a Samiel that destroyed the army of Senna- cherib, and Manetho concurs. The sirocco is a blighting hot wind, which prevails in Italy, &c. about April. Wind is determined by the anemometer, by Lind, Daniel, and others, to move with velocity and force as under : — Gentle miles per hour. ... 4 5.. Pleasant . . . ... 8-0.. Brisk Gale . ...160. . High Storm ...620.. Hurricane . ...880.. Great Hur-" [ 120 0.. ricane J force in lhs. per sq. foot. .. 0 079 .. 0 260 .. 1107 .. 5-208 ..15-625 ..31-25 ..580 It is, however, impossible to reconcile the force of winds in storms, and, in truth, to account for storms, &c. &c. on the theory which refers every thing to mere rarefaction. A sensible current of air is about 3 feet 3 inches per second ; a gentle wind, double ; a brisk wind, 16£ feet; a strong wind, 33 ffeet ; and a violent wind from 66 to 80 feet; a storm which overturns trees, &c. 150 feet per second, or 540,000 in an hour, i. e. 110 miles. The force of wind is, as the square of the velocity by the density. Winds increase in force with elevation, or non-interruption. Wind moving 100 miles an hour, or 147 feet per second, in a hurricane, acts on a square foot with a force of 49 lbs. At 50 miles, or half, with only a fourth of the force 121 lbs. At 25 miles, with only a 16th, or 3^ lbs. The same law of the inverse square of the velocity gives a force of 1 lb. at 14 feet, or very nearly, and so on. Windmills are used for grinding corn, and dressing flour for the baker, by the force of wind, and the sails often move 30 miles an hour. From the experiments of Smeaton, it appears that the following posi- tions are the best. Suppose the radius to be divided into six equal parts, and call the first part, beginning from the centre, one, the second two, and so on, the extreme part being six ; — No. Angle with Axis. Angle with the Plane of Motion. 1 .. 2.. ....71 3.. 72 4.. 74 16 5.. 121 6.. 83 0 33 of the wind acts on a good sailing- vessel, and 0 4 on a fast-sailer. So that the rate of the vessel divided, 0 33 or 0 4, gives, as quotient, the velocity of the wind, allow- ing for traverses, &c. Air is rendered very deleterious by gases and vapours generated in the earth. In a certain valley, in the island of Java, carbonic acid is thrown out in such quantities, that no animal can there exist, and birds flying low drop dead. At Fahlan, in Sweden, noted for copper mines, the mineral exhalations so affect the air, that silver in the purse be- comes discoloured. In Carniola and Cam- pania, the air is impregnated with sulphur, and it has also been found to contain arsenic. That such potson arises from subterranean action, may be inferred from the destruction of millions of fishes. Depths of undisturbed air are like water. In a silver mine in Norway, 309 feet deep, the bottom is covered with snow, and so in other deep caves. The resistance of the air to a cannon-ball of 2 lbs. weight, with a velocity of 2000 feet per second, is more than exceeds 60 times the weight of the ball. Hutton says, such is the air’s resistance, that an iron ball 3 lbs. weight, diameter 278 inches, thrown with a velocity of 1800 feet, is resisted by a force equal to 176 lbs., above 58 times its own weight. And a ball of 105 lbs., discharged with a velocity of 2000 feet, will ascend only 2920 feet, little above half a mile ; whereas, in vacuo, it would have ascended 1175 miles. The super-incumbent pressure so drives water into the pores of wood, at great depths T 2 METEOROLOGY. WIN JDS. 651 552 in the sea, as in an hour to increase its weight 21-25ths, and its bulk 1.10th. — Scoresby. Diving has lately been facilitated by the use of an air-pump to force air, for respira- tion, into an enclosure for the head of the diver, fitted with glasses. The dress is caout- chouc. In this way a diver may walk at the bottom of the sea. Meteorologists, for comparison, observe at 8, morning and evening, and at 2 in the afternoon. The instruments are the ther- mometer, barometer, hygrometer, rain- guage, and anemometer. Prognostics of weather are mingled with all kinds of superstition and quackery. The barometer rising (with a convex surface) is a legitimate sign of fair weather ; and, sink- ing (with a concave surface) a sign of wet. The only correct prognostic is an average of 2 or 3 years, and a register of the past ; since the average will arrive. Thus, we know that London averages nearly 21 inches of rain, and if 20 have fallen before Michael- mas, there is a high chance the next 3 months will be dry. Astrologers and almanac-makers have long asserted that the phenomena of the weather, as well as the eclipses, &c. recur every 19 years ; but as the effect of the apsides is greater than the syzygies, the re- volution of the apsides in 8 years 10 months cannot be neglected. They coincide in 15 revolutions of one to seven of the other, i. e. nearly every 133 years ; hence, if the moon govern the weather, the year 1838 ought to have corresponded pretty nearly with 1705, and 1839 with 1706. At and near the equator is found the general easterly wind, which we call the General Trade Wind. It blows regularly and constantly, with small exception, in the South Sea, where there is a large expanse of surface clear of lands, small islands ex- cepted ; also, in the middle of the equa- torial part of the Atlantic the trade-wind is not less regular and constant. The rotatory motion of the Earth carrying the surface continually from west to east, and its great- est velocity being at the equator, the equa- torial stream of atmosphere (where not interrupted! is drawn after the Earth’s sur- face in the same direction ; that is to say, from west to east ; but its not keeping pace with the surface, makes the relative current of air, experienced in our tropical regions, to be from the east towards the west. The rapid progress of the Earth’s surface to the east at the equator, seems as natural and obvious a cause for producing the general easterly wind, as a flag or streamer, carried swiftly through the air in a calm, would be for producing an effect on the streamer similar and equivalent to a current of the air : but, out of the tropical latitudes, the circles of rotation becoming smaller, and the atmosphere rising in an oblique direc- tion to the plane of the diurnal motion, more and more as the poles are approached, the velocity and force of the rotatory motion is there diminished, and obliquity given to the direction of the superincumbent atmo- sphere. Accordingly, the motions of the atmosphere have not the like regular and orderly direction near or towards the poles, as in the tropical latitudes. It is argued that the easterly trade-wind is caused by the temperature, and the alte- rations to which it is subject, travelling from the east towards the west, occasioned by the Sun passing over the meridians from east to west; and the' effect of temperature upon the direction of the winds, is most regularly instanced in the trade-wind being from the northward of east in north latitude, and from the southward of east in south latitude ; in the periodical winds called Monsoons ; and in the alternate sea and land breezes near coasts of any considerable extent in warm latitudes : and, indeed, in every latitude, the general temperature be- tween midnight and noon, is cooler than the temperature from noon to midnight. Towards sun-rise it is a cooler time than any other part of the 24 hours; and taking equal distances from the meridian over which the Sun is passing, the, parts over which the Sun has passed are more heated than those towards which the Sun is travelling, and from which it has been longest absent. If, to restore the equilibrium where the air is r arified by heat, the supply is to come from where the air is most cool and dense, the meridian, where it is early morning, should certainly contribute. The greatest rush should be from the unheated west, to meet the Sun, rather than from the heated east. Noon should travel against the western breeze, and be followed by the eastern. — Burney .. By these changes, the different parts of the atmosphere are mixed, cold is subdued by heat, moist air from the sea is mixed with dry air from the land, and the great mass of elastic fluid surrounding the globe, is preserved in a state fit for vegetable and 1 animal life. In the atmosphere, heated air is con- stantly rising, and colder air rushes in to supply its place, and this is the principal cause of winds. The air that flows from the poles towards the equator, in consequence of the rotation of the Earth, having less mo- tion than the atmosphere into which it passes, occasions an easterly current. The air passing from the equator towards the poles, having more motion, occasions a southern current. Winds are varied by the greater heat from the reflection of land, and ; u particular by large extents of land ; also by mountains and by rain, and by the alternate heat and cold of seasons. Below latitude 30 deg. there is a general tendency of the wind to blow from the east and south-east ; and there is always an upper current blowing contrary to the trade-winds. Westerly winds prevail from 30° to 40*. In hot climates, the wind sets from tb* sea to the land during the day, and the con- trary by night. Rain seldom occurs in the constant trade, winds. 553 METEOROLOGY. MISCELLANEOUS PHENOMENA. In the polar regions the winds are more Irregular than in lower latitudes. The west winds are more frequent than *he east in Europe. But the west winds diminish more and more in proportion as the centre of the old continent is approached. They are more frequent in England, Hol- land, and France, than in Denmark, and in the greater part of Germany : and they are more frequent in the last than in Sweden and Russia. In London, the east winds, (N.E., E., S.E.,) are to the west winds (N.W., W., S. W.) as l is to 17; at Amsterdam, as 1 to 1 * 6 ; at Copenhagen as 1 to T5j at Stock- holm as 1 to 1*4; at Petersburg as 1 to 13. The west winds blow from the direction of the south point in proportion as the Atlantic Sea is approached : towards the middle of the continent they blow more from the direct west, or from N. W. The north winds appear to increase as we go eastward. Miscellaneous Phenomena. The first notice of Aurora Borealis , in England, was on March 6, 1/16. Why then, and since, seems inexplicable. No doubt, however, it was one of the natural pheno- mena by which Priestcraft played on Super- stition, and constituted the fiery swords and signs in the heavens, which often led to loss of battles, and revolutions among the Greeks, Romans, and Asiatics. The Aurora Borealis, though seldom seen in middle Europe, is almost constant in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, covering the whole heavens, and eclipsing, by its splen- dour, the stars and planets. It is accom- panied by a rustling, snapping noise j and, taken altogether, is often terrific. The height of the Aurora Borealis is un- determined— some say 7, others 100 miles. At Paris, a late Aurora Borealis varied the needle in declination and dip, but at Woolwich no such effect took place. In Shetland, the Northern Lights, or “ merry dancers,” are constant attendants of clear winter evenings. They are also common in all the Arctic regions. When they approach the zenith, they disturb the magnetic needle about 45 // . Luminous arches from 1 to 5 are also common, and partly respect the magnetic meridian. They glow and flutter, and seem to ignite some interior vapour. The Autoca is a product of the arches, and flashes from them. These phenomena, likewise, distinguish the An- tarctic regions. The colours are various, and often blood-red. In lat. 74—75, the Aurora was called, by Parry, Australis , since it generally appeared southward. It made no noise, and it ap- peared to be more common from 54 deg. to 60 deg., and more vivid. Franklin, by doubt- ful observations, determined the height to be 6, 7. and 8 miles. The greatest light was from east to west, and the corruscations darted from south to north. No indication ©I atmospheric electricity was traced during the winter, and Aurora Australis did not afiect the needle. 126 appearances of Aurora Borealis took place in 7 years, at Bruxelles, 47 in spring, and 35 in summer. Professor Olmsted, of Yule College, has published accounts of 3 great displays of Aurora Borealis, on Nov. 17, 1835, April 22, 1836, and Jan. 25, 1837. Also, clear accounts of the meteors which, for several years, have appeared in the mornings of November. In 1813, with a strong moon- light, he counted 226. At Spring Vale 253 were counted, at New York 300, and at Ran- dolph, Macon College 500. More southward, the numbers were greater. Sir John Ross, who saw the Aurora Borealis rise between distant objects and his eye, gives it as his opinion, that it is occasioned by the action of the Sun’s rays on the vast fields of snow and ice near the poles- Luminous bands, at vast heights, are often seen stretching from east or west to the zenith and beyond, and about three or four degrees wide. What they are is un- known. Phosphorescent clouds are often seen, but the origin unknown. Dalton calculates an arch of 100 miles height. The Editor saw an arch, in rolling luminous clouds, from east to west, for above an hour, in 1/91, and, judging from its crackling rustling noise, and distinctness, he referred its height to a few miles. Ri- chardson, Biot, Franklin, and Parry, refer them to the region of cirro-stratus. The cause is unknown. The bright clouds that appear in the night are sometimes very mischievous. One in 1772, at Java, destroyed a district 20 miles round, and killed above 2000 persons, and one in 1757, at Malta, did immense damage. Their origin is unknown. The ignis fatuus , and other such lumi- nous meteors, is the combustion of phos- phuretted hydrogen, on its ascension into the air, from putrid and fermenting vege- tation or soils. Luminous clouds and thf Aurora Borealis are supposed to be of the same nature, the gases in polar regions being evolved by freezing, and burning in contact with hydrogen in the upper atmo- sphere. A water -spout works like a cork-screw, and moves along like an eddy in agitated water, till its force is scattered, and its contents fall : it commonly begins by in- volving the bottom of a cloud, which de- scends in it. Showers of frogs, fishes, &c. arise from water-spouts, or spiral eddies in the air, from the meeting of contrary currents, by which a vacuum is created, and masses of the waves of the sea, and ponds of water, I with their contents, forced to an elevation ; and thus, being transported to a distance, and there falling, they produce these strange precipitations. Capillary action, on which so much la- bour has been wasted and reason carica- tured, is the simple effect of the intercep- 555 METEOROLOGY. — LUNAR INFLUENCE. 550 tion of the atmospheric pressure by the glass as to a rarer fluid, and by the mercury as to the rarer glass. Th3 fluid, as most patient of the pressure, risps as to the glass, and the glass, for like reason, rises as to the mercury. In fact, 2 equal tubes, inmer- cury and water, approximate mean propor- tionals of depressions, multiplied by the density of each. The effect is increased in- versely as the angle which the surface of the fluid within the tube presents to atmospheric pressure, which angle diminishes as the length and the bore. A half-inch bore sinks mercury, or, in other words, mercury raises a tube of glass (which we know would swim on it) the 125th of an inch; a quarter- inch bore the 25th ; a 10-inch bore the 7th. Of all silly and irrelevant proofs of an assumed, but impossible principle of action, the lead, or metal, or wood ball experiments of Cavendish, are the most tritely puerile. Bungs and corks, floating with slight resist- ance on water, display the same principle (that of intercepted atmospheric pressure) in a way most satisfactory to every tyro, while, if loaded, so as to be immersed, they display no mutual action. The elastic force of air raises water, in an exhausted tube, 33 to 35 feet, and quick- silver from 28 to 31 inches, a force equal to 15 lbs. to the square inch, or 2160 lbs. to the square foot. Viscidity varies the ascent, and also den- sity ; but, in general, the diameter of a tube multiplied by the height is a constant quan- tity. It is this important principle of inter- cepted pressure which occasions a plumb- line to incline towards a mountain, and boats to congregate about a ship, and small corks about a bung ; but, if the bung is as dense as the water , and floats below the water, the corks are not acted upon. In a capillary tube, 100th of an inch in diameter, different experimentalists have found water rises in such tube 2, 3, 4, and 5 inches ; but, this depends on the length of the tube, because the angle of downward pressure from the top would be inversely as the length, from the fluid to the top. With a tube, 1 25 th of an inch diameter, Martin found that spring-water rose T2 ; vinegar, 95; milk, 0 8 ; oil, 06; rum and brandy, 05; depending, of course, on the viscidness. Mercury is depressed 0 295 of an inch in a glass tube, the 20th of an inch in diameter; and 0 04 when the 4th of an inch ; but only 0 0012 when 8-l0th of an inch. It is the reverse of ascent in a fluid lighter than glass, •where the air presses its surface more on the outside than the inside. In this case, the exterior mercury presses up the glass, or seeks to do so, which leaves the included column relatively behind. When a capillary tube is tlie 50th of an inch, water rises in it 2± inches ; when the 100th, 5 inches ; and when the 200th, 10 inches. When two plates of glass are placed at an angle in water it rises 2^ inches, where the plates are the 100th of an inch asunder, and 5 inches where the 200th, or half the heighth which it rises, where the pressure of the air is closed all round, as in a capillary tube. The rise in both cases being entirely owing to the intercepted pressure of the atmo- sphere by the glass, and depending on the angle which the top of the tube forms with the water, being less and less as the bore or angle is diminished. Water will not rise between cakes of wax or grease, and oil of turpentine rises but one-fourth, but spirits of wine rise two-fifths. Mercury sinks round glass, or any sub- stances lighter than itself, and water sinks when the tubes are made of lighter sub- stances ; the experiment, in those cases, being reversed, or at right angles to the former. Lunar Influence . Much anxious enquiry has been made as to the alleged connection of the moon with the weather. Very accurate observations for 20 years, at Viviers, give the mean of the barometer, in millimetres of 0 03937, or one 26th, nearly our inch, as under ; — New moon .. 755 48 First octant .. 755 44 First quarter .. 755 40 Second octant .. 754 79 lowest. Full moon .. 755 30 3d octant .. 755*69 3d quarter .. 756 23 highest. 4th octant .. 755 50 In the peregee .. 754 53 In the apogee „ a 75573 At the Paris Observatory, The quarters give 756 59 The syzygys (new & full) 755 90 The highest and lowest at Viviers differed, it appears, 144 millimetre, that is, about one 20th of an inch, and at Paris but one 40th in the quarters and syzygys, almost in insensible quantities. These small results, deduced from the barometer, are, of course, unerring, and throw doubts on all the vague observations about rain, &c. which fond theorists have stretched over days before and after, to accommodate their fancies. The aerial tides indicate, it appears, in maxima and minima; but the difference of the 20th and 40th of an inch, or only the 600th or 1200th of the whole mean pressure. The cause of the tides (the mechanical re-action of the Earth and Moon) would, no doubt, cause aerial tides in some ratio of the relative density, which is about 830 to 1, and the mean of 600 and 1200, i. e. 900 to 1, is in fact, a rough approximation ! Nevertheless, as is known to every observer of the barometer, the 20th or 40th of an inch is little indication of change. These double aerial tides would, of course, act at 9 in the morning, and it appears, by 12 years’ observations at Paris, per Arago, that the difference between the barometer at 9 and at noon is 0 35 millimetre, or about the 75 of an inch, but totally different from the previous effect of the pnases. /57 METEOROLOGY. — BALLOONS. 7*58 Other assumptions, says Arago, merit notice. After 223 lunations, the Moon’s nodes return to the same point, and certain lunar phenomena recur in the next 223, or 19 years, called a Saros, with the exception of those connected with the apogee and perigee, which revolve in only 8 years and 10 months. This discordance changes the tides in their heighths, and, of course, inter- feres with other effects. In fact, in 1701, the mean heat, at Paris, was 89 deg. 4 min. and the minimum 27 deg. 5 min., and the rain 577 ; while, in 1739, the heat was 92 deg. 5 min., and the cold 30 deg., and so in 20 instances quoted by Arago ; and yet, their assumption of re-currence of weather, as well as general lunar phenomena, is the basis of most of our weather predictions ! Nor does the period of 9 years answer better, for, in a series of terms of 9 years, Arago shews that the rain varies from 262 to 333 inches. The mistake, however, go- verns the farmers of France, who take leases for 9 years ! The follies of the ancients on these sub- jects are identical with the follies of astro- logy. Gardeners and farmers have their favourite moons and favourite phases ; so, also, physicians and quacks, and madmen called lunatics, in accordance wdth vulgar superstition ! Arago has aiknirably exposed all these criminal charges against the inno- cent moon ! Its effects are simple action and re-action; and when Arago himself speaks of its attraction, he falls in with the follies which he exposes. We have now to consider whether the transition from moon to moon produces any change, for all that has been stated refers only to the same moon. The barometer indicates between the last octant and the new moon, but 0 02 millimetre, or the 1300th of an inch, and between the last and first octants of only 0 06, or the 420th of an inch, unless the perigee or apogee inter- pose its millimetre, so that the alleged changes cannot be caused by the moon, but must be only a coincidence, sometimes ob- served and mistakenly inferred as a law. By observations at Vienna, it appears that in every 100 phases, there occur 58 changes of weather at new moon, 63 at full moon, and each quarter ; so that, if at the time of new moon, there is in course above 1 change of weather, for 2 changes of phases : but, if 2 days be taken instead of 1, then there will be change for change by mere coinci- dence, not as cause and effect. If taken a day before and after, there will be 3 changes of weather against one of phase, and so on ! The observed changes, too, at the full and quarters, are more than at the new. Horsley, in 1774 and 1775, states, in 13 new moons in 1774, there were but 2 changes of wea- ther, and none at the full ; and, in 1773, in 12 moons, but 4 changes of weather at the new, and 3 at the full— mere chances. Balloons . Wilkins and Lana first suggested ascent in the atmosphere by rarefied air, and G alien, of Avignon, in 1755, wrote a pamphlet on Aerostation. The first balloon of Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier was a silk bag containing 40 feet, which burning paper raised 70 feet. Their next was a bag of 650 feet, which rose 600 feet. Their third was 35 feet in diame- ter, and w’as capable of raising 500 pounds. It ascended before the public June 5, 1783. On the 21st of Nov. Pilatre de Rosier and the Marquis d’Arlandes ascended at Paris, and afterwards others, with air rarefied in the car by heat. In December, 1783, Messrs. Roberts and Charles ascended in a balloon inflated with hydrogen gas, and after them Blanchard, Morveau, the Due d’Orleans, and others. In September, 1784, I.unardi made the first human ascent in England. In January, 1785, Blanchard and Jeffries passed from Dovor to Calais, and soon after Rosier and Romain perished in an attempted voyage from Bou- logne to England. In Sept. 1802, Garnerin descended from a parachute near London. On the 6th of Sept. 1804, Gay Lussac as- cended, at Paris, to the heighth of 23,400 feet. The superficies of a balloon are computed by multiplying the square of its diameter by 3 14 16, or the cubic contents is the cube by 0 5236. Taking atmospheric air at 12 oz. to the cubic foot, we have the weight in air ; and then, as carburetted hydrogen gas weighs 0*2, the weight of air, multiplied by 0 2, gives the power of ascension. The air collected by Gay Lussac, at the heighth of 6636 metres, was found to have exactly the same proportion of constituents as on the ground. He made this voyage from Paris to near Rouen, on Sept. 15, 1804, and was 5£ hours in the air, ascending 6977 metres, 23,400 feet, or 4 4 miles, without any inconvenience but from the dryness of the air. Even there he saw clouds consi- derably above him. In August, 1807, Garnerin passed7^ hours of the night in the air, and at 18,000 feet 0 / elevation, in an illuminated balloon, without any personal inconvenience or remarkable phenomena. He saw the sun rise, and in darkness saw little meteors near him. In a second night ascent, in a gale of wind, he was carried above 260 miles in 7g hours. In another night excursion, Madame Blan- chard was 20 hours in the air. The extroardinary velocity of balloons is to be ascribed to the greater force of unin- terrupted air, at great elevations ; and, per- haps, somewhat to the velocity of diagonal ascent. The ordinary rate is from 25 to 35 miles, but Sadler went 74 miles an hour ; and Green, on one occasion, no less than 98. Green states, after 140 voyages, that from 5000 to 14,000 feet, there is over England a constant N. W. current of 6 miles an hour while S. W. sub-currents move from 30 to 80 In a late voyage of Green, he rose to 19,335 feet when the barometer fell from 30 to 147 and thermometer from 66 to 25. But nei- ther he nor his companions experienced any effect on their respiration. One current was 559 METEOROLOGY, SO miles, but his mean rate was 32 miles. At 2000 feet, he passed through clouds of snow. The Great Vauxhall Balloon is 157 feet in circumference; and the height, when in- flated, and the car attached, is 8U feet. It is formed of 2000 yards -of crimson and white silk. The method of uniting the gores is by a cement, so tenacious that, when dry, the joint is the strongest part. It contains 70,000 cubic feet of gas. The weight of atmospheric air, sufficient to inflate it, is about 5343 lbs. ; and that of the same quan- tity of pure hydrogen gas, about 364 lbs. ; the machine would, consequently, if inflated with that gas, have an ascending power of 4982 lbs. ; and allowing 700 lbs. for silk and apparatus, and 362 lbs. for ballast, would be capable of ascending with 28 persons of 140 lbs. each. But, as coal-gas is 6 times less expence than hydrogen, while its spe- cific gravity varies from 340 to 700, or above 8 times that of hydrogen, so the power of ascent is reduced in proportion. In the ascent of Green’s balloon, Sept. 10, 1838;— the balloon, &c. weighed 782 lbs., the ballast 1500 lbs., the 2 aeronauts 290 lbs. The power of ascent was 4056 lbs. They proceeded from Vauxhall to Lewes, 45 miles, in li hour, and rose 27,150 feet, or 5 miles 750 feet. The bar. fell from 30 5 to 11, or 10 83 inches, and the ther. from 61 to 5, but the aeronauts suffered no difficulty of breathing, and no personal inconvenience, either in this voyage, or in others by Green, of very great elevation. The ascending power of a balloon with hydrogen gas, to one filled with coal gas, is as 15 to 11 nearly. Mr. George Pocock, of Bristol, has per- fected the application of large kites for rapid travelling by land, for navigation, and other useful purposes. A twelve-foot kite, in a moderate gale of wind, has a force equal to the pull of a man ; and, with a brisk gale, to 200 lbs. The force is then as the squares of the lengths ; and two kites, one fastened above the other, of 15 and 12 feet, will, in a gale, draw a carriage, and 4 or 5 passengers, nearly 20 miles an hour. An extra line enables the operator to di- minish the power by varying the angle of the surface with the horizon, and side-lines enable him to vary its azimuth, and the direction of the pull, nearly at right angles to that of the wind. Mr. P., in 1827, tra- velled in this way from Bristol to London, distancing every other conveyance on the road. They are made of varnished linen, and so contrived, as to fold into a small space. In addition to the original experi- ments of Pocock, Captain Dansey has made some decisive ones in proof of the facility ef gaining a lee-shore in a stranded vessel. Plis kite is light canvas, and was constructed with double lines of string, on Pocock’s principle. Meteors and Aerolites. The ^records of stones falling in all ages and countries, are at least 300 in number j , — AEROLITES. 500 and recent instances are well- authenticated. They fall by the explosion of a mass, which probably acquires increase of heat as it ap- proaches to the Earth. The most probable theory respecting them is, that they are in- dependent masses , floating in space, and encountered by the Earth and atmosphere in the annual orbit ; or they may be gene^ rated by the condensation of those self-lumi- nous and rustling clouds which often appear single, or in continued chains, and whose origin and nature are at present so little understood. Their condensation may gene- rate these hard substances with a force of projection, and also “ the shooting stars.” They fall in all latitudes, and, therefore, not from the Moon ; and their substance has a crystalline character, regular and sudden, not volcanic. The meteoric stones which fell at L’Aigle, in France, in 1803, contained Silica 54 Oxide of iron 36 Magnesia 9 Oxide of nickel 3 Sulphur 2 Lime 1 Specific gravity is 3 4. One, which fell in Yorkshire, consisted of 75 silica, 48 oxide of iron, 3 7 magnesia, and 2 oxide of nickel. A meteor, observed by Halley, was 72 miles high, and its velocity 350 miles per minute. That of 1783, was 90 miles and 1000 miles. Yet they flamed as in a dense atmosphere, with no lack of oxygen. A meteor as large as the Moon, from the south-east to south, was seen in the western counties of England, on June 29, 1832, at eleven at night. Its light was blinding for a few seconds. Of the origin and nature of the fiery meteors, which often visit our atmosphere, nothing is known but the fact. The meteor of 1783 was believed to be as large as Great Britain, and 120 miles high, and was seen nearly at the same moment all over Europe. Aerolites are among the greatest wonders of nature. Above 200 instances are now recorded by Chladni and others, and unre- corded instances must be common. Iron, (malleable and oxide) and nickel, with silica, magnesia, and sulphur, are found in all. In others, alumina and lime, carbon and soda, with manganese, crome, and cobalt, appear. They vary from £ oz. weight to 300 lbs. and upwards. Silica and iron is their chief component. Among the an. cients they were portents and held sacred. Others are found as detached masses of iron and the usual compounds, of vast weight, 1 of 1400 lbs., another of 13 tons, another of 14,000 lbs. &c. &c. Red dust, or red snow, also falls, as the apparent explo- sion of the others from the heat of atmos- pheric resistance. They are not volcanic, and not formed in the air ; we may, there- fore, suppose them bodies floating through space, and encountered by the Earth in its orbit. They then get involved in the two-fold motions, fall towards the centre. LIGHT. 661 and are ignited by their own great velocity through the atmosphere. Fire-balls and shooting meteors are of the same class, and when they do not fall it is owing to their oblique course. The report they give ariies from the collapsing of the air. That they are connected with motions of the Earth, is evident from the same being often visible all over Europe at the same instant. It appears, also, that there is a great concourse of them about the 12th of November, as though the Earth, in Taurus, were passing through a dense stream of them. On the 12th of November, 1800, between 2 and 3 o’clock in the morning, in the Ca- raccas, Humboldt saw thousands of fire-balls and falling stars, for four hours, passing from north to south. They were also seen 12 deg. south, and, as he learnt, over Europe, even to Greenland and Labrador, distant 5000 miles. The same concourse of local atmospheric meteors, 3 or 400 in number, was seen in Middlesex, on November 13 1838, between 3 and 4 o’clock in the morning. They pro- ceeded from the E. N. E. and N. E. and illumined the atmosphere. Some had trains and others none. Nothing but their number distinguished their appearance from other shooting stars. At that time the Northern Crown and Hercules were in the N. E., and Cancer on the meridian ; but such meteors could have no connection with them. Why on that night and at that hour, year after year, is incomprehensible ! Arago and his pupils counted 170 shooting stars on the night of Nov. 12, 1836. 650 were seen at Breslau, in 50 hours, in 1823, in April, May, August, September, and Octo- ber. At Bruxelles, in 1824, 155 were seen 10J hours. There are ancient notices of multitudes of shooting meteors, in August, and the com- mencement of November. On October 8, 1827, a shower of aerolites fell near Belostok, between 9 and 10 in the morning. An extraordinary noise, which pioceeded from a large black cloud, and continued for 3 or 6 minutes, resembling a running fire of musketry, was succeeded by a shower of stones, of which only 4 were picked up; the largest weighed 4 lbs., the smallest three quarters. Mr. John Treat states, that, on the night previous to the battle of Brandy-wine, as he was standing sentinel, a shooting star fell within a few yards of him. He instantly went to the spot, and found a gelatinous mass, still sparkling, and he had kept his eye on it from its fall. A lady relates, that, as she was walking in the evening, a similar meteor fell, and the late General Griswold informs us, that a shooting star once fell near him upon a piece of ice, like that of Treat. — Silliman. Shooting stars vary much in heighth ; of 130 observed in Germany, 41 were from 35 to 50 English miles ; 25, from 25 to 40. Only 5, so low as 5 or 10 miles ; and 3 above 200 miles. Of 36, 26 were descending, 9 ascending, and 1 horizontal ; or 13 were above 45 or 50 deg.; 22 were between 45 deg. and the horizon ; 23 passed the south- ward, and 11 to northward; 21 westward, aud 13 eastward. Their velocity is from IS to 35 miles per second. Quetelet thinks that definite spaces exhibit 8 per hour, and that simple observers may, in the whole ex- panse, see 16. They 1 are numerous in the first half of August, and appear as a shoal on the 13th of November. Berzelius has applied his acknowledged skill to meteoric stones. He concludes they are projections from the Moon or other planets ; but he forgets that such projections could only fall near the plane of the equa- tor. Their constituents are anhydrous, and then he refers to the dry moon. The Editor continues of opinion, that they are forma- tions in the medium of space, met or over- taken by the Earth, and that their sphericity, heat, and some of their constituents, arise from falling through the atmosphere. He infers, from their annual appearance, when the Earth is in Taurus, and the Sun in Scorpio, that there are currents of them in space. (If this is not their anhydrous origin, then it is worth while to examine those rocket-like explosions which take place in the western Pyrennees and in the Rocky mountains, which, at indefinite elevations, might produce ranges of 1000 or 1500 miles.) The mean constituents are silica, magnesia, and prot-oxide of iron, forming from 86 to 95 of the mass. The 5 or 6 other constituents are small fractions. The structure of one of 2 lbs., in the possession of the Editor, is in exact radii, and the fracture lustrous. The report which they create is merely the closing of the vacuum after their passage. Their horizontal route, and their ubiquity in such large tracts, as all Europe, exactly accords with what might be expected from a relation with the Earth’s orbit motion of 18£ miles per second, so that one would traverse the United Kingdom in 32 or 33 seconds, which accords with observation. Greater obscurity appertains to many phe- nomena in meteorology than to other sub- jects of enquiry, owing to the influence of vulgar superstitions, w’hich on subjects so near and striking interposes miracle for na- tural causes, and the necessary succession of their effects. Comets and meteors have in all ages been portents, as fiery swords, &c. Thunder and lightning have been the audible and visible Deity. Too much or too little rain, &c. are signs of divine vengeance. Earthquakes, floods, volcanoes, &c. are to be appeased in sack-cloth and ashes, — and many other instances might be added. LIGHT, AND ITS PHENOMENA. In treating about Light, we must consider it as a fixed means towards a definite end, and not neglect the final cause. The end is to enable animals to feel beyond the extent of their limbs ; and the means are the ex- citement of the universal medium in which the eye and optic nerves are situated. Any LIGHT, 6f>8 f>64 fancies or mysteries beyond this, merit but secondary consideration. We find, universally, a convex eye for convergence and increase of action on the nerve, which communicates with the brain. We discover an arrangement of media and forms, which permits concentrated reflec- tions from this outer surface to the retina. And we perceive, that parallel rays fall with different incidence on every part, so that the continuous convexity being parallel to itself, the ray proceeds perpendicularly, and meets the other in a focus common to the whole. This is nature’s own adaptation, and it teaches and proscribes our specula- tions. We have the excited medium, the eye in that medium, and the arrangement to concentrate and multiply the force of the action on the retina, in all eyes of all ani- mated nature ; in all which requires feeling or discernment at a distance. We learn, in infancy, to use the eye just as we do the hands and legs. We have a conventional nomenclature for the shades of its impressions, which we call colours ; and we learn to distinguish distances, to discri- minate forms, and estimate bulks. All these are acquired powers, as much so as the power of playing the violin with the hands. Beyond light in the abstract, all the rest is art, in which we deal with the most subtle of agencies, — first, that of light, and second, the refined discrimination of the nerves. The science of optics treats of the excite- ment and its causes, of the powers, proper- ties, and accidents of light, and of the in- struments by which we analyse it, and aid the eye in performing more than unassisted nature. In all this we must reason as on other subjects. There is no miracle in the operations ; and however subtle, nothing, in point of fact, distinct from matter and mo- tion, and their laws. As the only use of light is to employ the instrument of animal vision, the eye, and as the only use of the eye is to concentrate the delicate momenta of light, so we have, in this exclusive fitness cf each for the other, the most unquestionable proof of design in one or both, though nature, in many other instances, affords other proofs as conclusive. Newton supposed light to be a concourse of projectiles, proceeding from the lumi- nous body to that which is illuminated : but, this was a mistake of the infancy of enquiry, like many other mistakes of that age. According to Huygens, light consists in the undulations of a highly elastic and subtle fluid pervading all bodies, and propagated round the luminous centre in spherical waves. Each point propagates a series of concentric waves, which intersect one ano- ther without confusion. In these undula- tions, the particles, though in continual mo- tion, are not themselves carried along, but receive only such an impulse as they com- municate to others, just as sound is propa- gated through air. But while each particle in which a luminous wave is propagated, communicates its motion to the next particle in a straight line, it also communicates a portion of its motion to other particles, so as to create a new spherical undulation, of which it is still the general centre ; of course, also, it assumes t hat the same medium per- meates all bodies, and that their phenomeni is their re-action. Huygens then treats, severally, in a geo- metrical manner, of the phenomena of Re- flection, Inflection, double Refraction, &c. ; and, in the main, his theory is now adopted by the most distinguished opticians of the age. It should never be forgotten, that all light arises from mere combustion or combination of gases. The solar light, in all its proper- ties, so much accords with our lights, that there can be little doubt but the origin of ail light is the same. Light, in general, originates in heat, and heat is the first display, while heat is the motion of the radiation cf atoms; and, when stopt, heat is created by the transfer of their momenta. When the intensity and flow increases, the radiation affects the me- dium of space, or substratum of gases; and it then becomes light, and heat and light mingled. In our terrestrial lights, we observe the inflammable principle, hydrogen, combined with some form of carbon, and then the excite- ment or lighting of this mixture, is imme- diately followed by the fixation of oxygen, and its great heat. The process is accom- panied by an extended excitement of the medium in the space, which we call light. The flames of a lamp, candle, coal-gas, &c. are exactly of this description. Generally speaking, the colour varies with the carbon, the degree of incandescence with the hydrogen, and the intensity with the oxygen. The proportions are definite, for too much or too little of either, renders the result less perfect. Light-making is, in other words, the union of excited hydrogen and oxygen, for the production of intense heat, and of the sub- division of connected carbon into atoms of all sizes. These are then driven off by the excitement, as the only means of its escape ; for if any other conductor is presented, as a metal wire, or even a pin, the excitement thereby escapes, and the flame is lessened or extinguished; and we know well the effect, in this respect, of a long wick. Eor the time, the flame is a furnace, and the finely-divided carbon receives and represents its great atomic motion, and is its patient. The coarser atoms convey the heat, and the fine, or indefinitely small ones, perform the parts of light, protruding, by their great ve- locity, all kindred atoms through space. The flame of a candle constantly presents all the prismatic colours, and the flames of oil and carburetted hydrogen are whiter and more intense, because the carbon is better prepared. All the subsequent phe- nomena are affairs of various re-actions and reflections, by various forms and structures of body.— Editor. If Newton or Huygens had lived after Priestley, they could not have failed to mo- LIGHT. 565 568 dify their theories as above. In other in- stances, as well as this, old theories are not modified by new discoveries, till some gene- rations have passed away. Theories, ad- mitted into the monkish establishments and close corporations of universities, have the same tenacity of life as the germ of a toad in a stone. An experimentum crucis is afforded by the iron door of a large furnace. As it heats, the flow of heating atoms is at first large, and may be felt as separate blows on the face within 2 or 3 feet. This proceeds till the excitement of the plate creates sub- division enough for red rays, and the door soon becomes red; but before it becomes red all over, the centre being most excited, and producing greater subdivision, passes ra- pidly through orange and yellow, while the parts around are either red or dark. The yellow, however, spreads, and by the time the whole is red, the centre is white, with a rude display of all the prismatic colours in different parts, till the centre is glowing white, and the whole acquires a colour ap- proaching to white. Herschel gave us an experimentum crucis when he shewed, that beyond the red breadth there was a dark heating space less refrangible than the red. Forbes and others shew, that the dark space is really a deep invisible red, with most of the usual pro- perties of light. Melloni, by highly curious experiments, seeks to prove, that light and heat are not the same modification of matter, but the furnace-door explains and answers him. He and others, also, perplex themselves about the undulations of both ; but it will be seen, that undulation has no connection with heat. Sir W. R. Hamilton, M. Cauchy, Profes- sor Powell, M. Fresnel, Professor Lloyd, Sir David Brewster, Dr. Young, M. Fraun- hofer, M. Malus, M. Berard, M. Rudberg, Professor Wheatstone, Mr. Talbot, Profes- sor Forbes, and M. Melloni, have been most laborious investigators of light and colours in this age. They generally agree in adopt- ing the theory of Huygens and Young, which ascribes light to a disturbance in waves of an elastic medium that occupies space, and restores its own position as soon as the wave has passed. The repetitions, or reiterations, of light beget motion or heat on surfaces ; and, hence, the heating effects of light by ab- sorption on the surfaces of bodies. Euler determined the direct light of the Sun to be equal to 6500 candles, a foot dis- tant ; that of the Moon, to 1 candle 7 \ feet, or 300,000 times less. That of Jupiter, 1 at 1320 feet; and Venus, 1 at 421 feet. The light of the Sun to Sirius is as 11 or 12 millions to 1, and to the Moon as 800,000. Herschel thought that the Sun’s luminous atmosphere is 2500 miles from its surface. The principle of the light of the Sun is great gaseous excitement, or atomic mo- tion; and consequent radiation with undu- lations propagated through space. The motion arrested on any surface is stout and reception of it is heat in the body. The best gross representation is the surface of water in a vibrated musical glass. There is no power per se in light, mor » than in any other agent, and it is subject to action and re-action, like all other matter. After all, though we may understand many of the accidents and mechanical pro- perties of light, yet its power of conveying the exact images of objects into the focus of a lens, or the eye, even after the light has undergone various accidents of reflection and refraction — that is, the continuing of the object within the pencil, with power to impress it on the retina— is the greatest- wonder with which the study of nature ren- ders us acquainted. In contemplating an incandescent body, we see in this light no vibrations or undu- lations. All we see is the atomic excite- ment of certain principles, which create great excitement around in the way of pro- trusion, expanded, till too diffuse for effect. A taper protrudes its excitement from atom to atom, but does not vibrate an extensive space, nor explode rays which travel 200,000 miles in a second. The unequalled light produced at voltaic poles, by charcoal points, confirms the idea, that carbon is intimately connected with light. In fact, the same appears in the light of all compounds of hydrogen and carbon — as carburetted hydrogen, &c. The theory of undulations requires the condition of 458 billions of vibrations in a second of time, and 37,640 undulations in an inch for extreme red rays, and 727 billions and 59,750 for extreme violet. These are inconceivable consequences of the theory. If, says Young, two equal rays of red light from different sources fall on the same white paper, they will produce a red spot of dou- ble the intensity of either, separately, pro- vided their origin be some multiples of 0 0000258th of an inch ; but, if the differ- ence of their lengths is equal to one-half the 0 0000258th, and is a multiple by 15, 2 5, &c. ; then one ray will extinguish the other, and darkness will result. Again, if the differences are one quarter and 125, 2 25, &c., then the spot will shew but one beam. The same applies to violet in multi- ples of 0 00001 57th of an inch, and to the intermediate colours for other numbers. These, then, are taken to be the length of the waves, or vibrations, of the several colours, like the nodal points of no sound in har- monics. The intervals or distances of the waves of red light from one another, in the succession which they follow one another to produce extreme red , are such that there are 37,640 in an inch. Of yellow, 42,550; of green, 47,460 ; blue, 52,910 ; extreme violet, 59,750; mixed, or white light waves, 44,440. Young first promulgated the law, that wherever two portions of the same light arrive by different routes, either exactly, or nearly in the same direction, the light be- comes most intense when the difference of the route is any multiple of a certain 607 length ; and least intense, in the interme- diate state of the interfering portions, which length is different, for light of different co- lours. In this respect, light partly resem- Dies the waves of Water, when excited by a falling body ; and, when waves of different falling bodies interfere, they neutralize, and augment one another, just like those of water or undulations. Two luminous rays may be made to produce darkness. Fraunhofer determined the breadth of waves of light to be as under, in parts of an inch : — Red .... 000002582 Orange .... 0 00002319 Green . . . . 0 00002073 Blue 0 00001912 Indigo 000001692 Violet The intermediate spaces are black, or, when the waves mingle, they are light. In various colours, therefore, no microscope can exhibit an object less than half those measures. The velocity is equivalent to protrusion, if elasticity be considered, for undulations demand 70 * billions of them in a second. An ignited body protrudes, displaces, and replaces, according to its magnitude. Herschel verified these results, and de- termined that the red rays make 39,180 waves in an inch, and 477 billions in a se- cond ; green 47,460 in an inch, and 577 billions in a second ; and violet 57,490 in an inch, and 699 billions in a second. Hence it is inferred, that light is merely the excitement of a medium of atoms uni- versally diffused in space, and not the pro- jection of travelling atoms, as imagined by Newton, whose coloured rings are now as- cribed to the interference of waves, vibra- tions, or oscillations. The matter of light may, on the contrary, be imagined to be finely-divided carbon in combination with hydrogen, while all the heat, excitement, and radiance is de- rived from the fixed oxygen. The wavy or pulsative character of its protrusions arise from a returning or re-adjusting stroke. But extended protrusions from every point of an incandescent taper, and the returning stroke of re- adjustment, would be equivalent to a vibration or undulation, and the idea of atomic protrusion accords, therefore, with the theory of undulation. Light is also an effect of various excite- ments. Friction produces it, and phosphori produce it; snow, diamond, and the Bo- logna stone appear to absorb and radiate it ; some combinations evolve it, and some plants give flashes. Rubbing the eyes in the dark, and also their inflammation, pro- duce flashes of light. Slacking lime pro- duces light, as well as heat ; and crystalli- zation is accompanied by flashes of light. When the Earth is exactly between Ju- piter and the Sun, the eclipses of Jupiter’s moons occur minutes sooner than the mean time of the tables; but, when the Earth is within half a sign of the Sun, on she opposite side of the orbit, the eclipses 568 are 8| minutes earlier. The difference, 1 64 minutes, is the time which is spent, while the light is traversing the Earth’s orbit This being about 187 millions of miles, givey nearly 200,000 miles per second for the velocity of light. This velocity may appear great, but it relates to an infinite last term of matter, and is subject to no obstructions. It is a continuous protrusion without lateral fric- tion ; and, but for the indefinitely small spaces between the atoms, might have an unlimited velocity. By its means, we see the starry nebulae, at a million times the Earth’s distance from the Sun, so that light is the union of the Universe; and we ac- quire an additional idea ol its wonderful agency, when we consider that the moved atoms so completely fill space on every side, as to render a million of such distant objects visible on every square-inch. Reflection and Refraction . Reflection, or rebound, seems to be the only accident of light in connection with other matter. It is an effect analogous to all that we see in other bodies. It is com- mon experience and common sense. Of course, when ray B of light impinge on sur- faces, their roughness and the comparative coarseness of their particles entangle the rays, and every variety of absorption and reflection results, particular classes of atoms being more absorbed and reflected, accords ing to the surface and its atmosphere. But, if the surfaces and the structures are regular with regular interstices, and the angle of incidence accords, then the atoms of the body permit continued .reflections, till the ray issues on the contrary side. There is no difficulty about light, (dreams and fancies apart) but in the fact that it produces its visual effects through some bo- dies, and not through others; but this is owing to their own structure, and no affair of light. So, also, surfaces inclined to its course turn it aside ; but this is a mere effect of such surfaces. That the action of the local atmosphere, at the first surface, is the cause of the de- composition into colours, is evident from the natural colours of bodies, produced by reflection from the first surface, when the bodies are opaque and coloured : the chief part of the impinging light is buried, lost, and absorbed, in the pores and inequalities of the surface, and only one colour, or a mixture, is reflected. If the body were transparent, and the sides oblique, like a prism, so as to vary the re-action of the local atmosphere, at going out, we should have the light emerge in all the colours created on the opposite side : but, if parallel sides, then the re-action would balance the first action which generated the colours, and the light would emerge colourless. In pass- ing through we see no colours, because the whole are then mingled by the conflicting reflections. Easy reflection depends on a direction of the rays nearly parallel to the reflecting LIGHT. — REFLECTION AND REFRACTION. 6(>9 LIGHT. — REFLECTION AND REFRACTION. 570 surface ; and easy transmission on a direc- tion nearly perpendicular to the receiving surface. The most difficult problem connected with so delicate an agent as light, is its power of penetrating solid diaphanous bodies. Some suppose the medium of light exists in them, and is affected by vibrations out of them, when the vibrations reach the surface. The difference, however, between opaque and transparent bodies, is in the structure of their own parts. The opaque are irregu- larly and variously granular ; the transparent are regular or chrystalline; and, though the chrystals are varied in form in different bodies, and some give an extra ray, yet they are constant, and descend in size in that form to molicules. Universally, what is called refraction is merely a modification of reflection. The deviation from the right line or bend- ing towards the perpendicular, when a ray falls obliquely on glass, or any transparent medium, is an effect of the local atmosphere of the medium, while this is the cause usually assigned, when theory calls in the unnecessary second power of refraction. That it is so, is obvious from the considera- tion, that if a thin slice of the medium were cut, vertically, at the impinging point, and its edge were employed to intercept rays, it would produce all the phenomena of inflec- tion, by means of that local atmosphere. Water reflects at 89|^ from the perpendi- cular 721 rays of TOGO ; at 80^, 333 ; at 75°, 211; at 660 , 100; at 50o, 34; at 400, 22; and from 200 to 0°, 18. Plate-glass at 874°, 584; at 80°, 412; at 70°, 222; at GOO, 112 ; at 560, 85; at 50°, 57; at 400, 34 ; and at 20° to 0o, 25. Window-glass 0 °, incidence transmits 0 8737 of the whole light, at f ths. If plate- glass, it was only 0 8027, or 4-5ths. A plain glass mirror reflects 5352 of 1000 rays. The quicksilver reflects 2-3ds. Telescope specula reflect about 2-3ds, but after two reflections, but 9-20ths. Mercury , at 894°, reflects 721 ; at 400, 704 ; and atO, or perpendicular, 2-3ds. Perpendicular rays, on water, reflect but 18 rays of 1000, and on glass, but 18. At 8 74 °, or 2 |° from the horizontal, water re- flects 614, and glass 584. Polish of surfaces renders the local atmosphere of the surface more uniform. Only 45 of 100 rays reach the eye pure after two reflections by a telescope, and these by the eye-glass are reduced as 100 to 95, or to 42. Reflection is, in intensity, as difference of refractive power in the media. Bodies which refract most reflect most, or are more splendid. The local atmosphere which increases one increases the other. In water, the angle of total reflection is *8 deg. 28 min. In glass, 41 deg. 49 min.,
7 reflection, and the principal ray is the condensation of the direct light around its axis. In every case of reflection whatever, by the angles of incidence and reflection, the pencil is t’irned round, and its red rays on the right hand become left after the reflection. 90 deg., or right angles, is not essential to this turning of the pencil. Reflection is, in intensity, as difference of refractive power in the media. Bodies which refract most, reflect most, or are more splendid. These truths imply an identity of reflection and refraction, and, therefore, merit notice. They strongly justify the Edi- tor’s suspicion, that all refraction is really but a name for the necessary resultant of modified reflection. When light is turned by reflection at so sharp an angle as 80 deg., 85 deg., or more, while its velocity is taken to be 195,006 miles per second, we cannot wonder at the heat which it generates ; nor at a certain scattering of the atoms, which ends in a polarized ray ; nor in a conflict, whether the turned rays should proceed, or not, as Malus describes it. It follows, that as the second rainbow is the effect of reflection, so must be the first ; and we arrive at the result, that all passage of rays through diaphonous bodies is the effect of Reflection , to which, by mistake of the cause, the name of Refraction has been given. It follows, as a corrollary from all known facts, that as the change in doubly-refracting crystals is entirely owing to the inconforma- ble direction of the surfaces of reflection in the second crystal, so refraction is only a variety of reflection. In glass, water, and other uniform bodies, the parts afford a common ray by common reflections, out when the reflecting surfaces, as in certain crystals, can be changed in direction, then we get two rays, and in them a conclusive proof that all refraction is reflection from atom to atom within the substance. The angle of refraction of a body is, therefore, the angle of reflection of the atoms. The refraction, or deviation of light from its right line towards the perpendicular, is a certain measure on water, greater when salt is added, greater when alcohol is substituted for the water, and still greater when oil is substituted. It increases as substances con- tain more hydrogen. And, in passing the contrary way, the deviation is an equal mea- sure from the perpendicular. A ray cannot pass out of water into air at a greater angle of incidence than 48 deg. 36 minutes ; nor out of glass into air at a greater angle than 40 deg. 1 1 minutes. And when within those angles, instead of being refracted, it is reflected. Refracting planes do not produce colours when the entering and emerging surfaces are parallel. The local atmospheres at each surface then act and re.act equally. But when surfaces are not parallel, and the limits of surfaces actively present different angles, as in the prism, convex lenses, kc, then colours arise 571 LIGHT. — PRISM. 572 In air and water, when the sine of the angle of incidence with the perpendicular is l 336, that of the angle of refraction is 1, or as 4 to 3 nearly. • For other bodies, the angle of refraction is as under : — Diamond 2439 Glass, 3 lead, 1 flint 2 028 Glass, 2 lead, 1 flint 1 83 Garnet 1815 Oil of cassia 1*641 Quartz 1548 Rock-salt 1557 Amber 1547 Plate-glass 1542 Crown-glass 1 534 Castor-oil 1 49 Olive-oil 1 47 Alum 1457 Fluor spar and sulphuric acid . . 1434 Nitric and muriatic acids 1 41 Alcohol 1372 Water 1 336 Ice 1*309 Ether 1358 Chlorine 1 000772 Carbonic acid gas 1 000449 A zote 1 0003 Oxygen 1 000272 Hydrogen - 1 000138 The inflected, deflected, or refracted angle for every degree of incidence, is then found by dividing the natural sine of the angle of incidence by the number against each sub- stance, and the quotient is the sine of the new direction of the ray in that substance. But if the passage is from a denser to a rarer medium, then divide the number against each, and multiply the sine of inci- dence by the quotient. The product is the sine of the enlarged angle. Thus in water, if the angle of the inci- dence is 32 deg. is 53 nearly, which, by 1336, gives 40 for the sine of the inflected or reflected angle, and 40 is the sine of 24 deg., so that the two angles are as 32 to 24, or 4 to 3. Of course we should multiply, instead of dividing, if we had 24 deg. given as the incidence from water to air .— See Mathe- MATics/or a table of Sines. Atmospheric refractions of the heavenly bodies, for various degrees of altitude, ex- pressing the quantity which is to be deducted from the apparent altitude, bar. 30°, and ther. 50°. It is also 74" more, when bar. 31° and 8"-i less, for every deg. of increase in thermometer. o / it o / it 0 .... 33 51 30 .... 1 40 0 5 . . 28 37 35 .... 1 23 1 .... 24 21 40 . . . 1 9 2 .... 18 29 44 .... 1 0 3 .... 14 35 50 .... 0 49 4 .... 11 52 60 .... 0 37 5 .... 9 58 70 .... 0 21 10 .... 5 20 80 .... 0 10-2 15 .... 3 34 88 .... 0 2 20 .... 2 39 89 .... 0 1 25 .... 2 4 The refraction of air to water is as 36 to 34,400. Horizontal refractions vary from a 7tb to an 18th, but Nixon determines the mean at a 15 6 of the angle from the Earth’s centre between the objects. Thus, if the distance is 69 miles, it is a degree and 60 minutes, by 15 6 gives 3 min. 85 sec. for their elevation by horizontal refraction. Inflammable bodies have higher refractive powers ; thus, when air is taken as 4530, and water at 7846, hydrogen is 31,000. Fluor spar, in bodies, lowers their refraction. Carburet of sulphur has the highest re- fractive power, and in dispersion of colours, or length of speculum, it is superseded only by oil of cassia. The Prism. In Newton’s prism, the image was at 18£ feet from the hole, 2| broad, and 10| long. Its refracting angle 64 degrees, and the hole § inch. It gave seven colours, but a prism of flint-glass with a hole but the 1-20 inch, at 10 or 12 feet, it is now found gives only four colours, red, yellowish-green, blue, and violet. Wollaston and Young concluded that the yellow was a compound of red and green, but Brewster thinks yellow a distinct colour. Newton called the prismatic colours seven ; and mistook their proportions, by using only plate or crown-glass, (made of mineral alkali and silex,) whereas flint- glass, (made of oxide of lead and silex,) alters his proportions. No person who re- peats the experiment will find more than four or five prominent colours, and the other shades are so intermingled as to defy speci- fication or measure. In fact, it now appears, that every different diaphonous medium has its own law of refrangibility and dispersion. The colours, in fact, depend on the size of the hole ; thus Drs. Young, Brewster, and others, find that a hole the 20th of an inch gives but four colours, red 16 parts, light green 23, blue 36, and violet 25 of 100 parts, with a stripe of yellow equal only to 1. Newton and Frainhofer with a large hole, or ray, and Wollaston with a small one, gave the following degrees for each colour in the spectrum of a glass prism : — N. F. Wollaston. Red . . .. 45 567 * tm Orange .. 27 .... 27$ D/ 7 Yellow .. 40 .... 277 82-3 Green .. 60 46 S Blue . . .. 60 .... 48 130 0 Indigo .. 48 ....4/7 900 Violet .. SO .. 1095 360 *360* 360 0 Brewster made the red and yellow, the yellowish and blue, and bluish 120 deg. each. He also found that water alone gives 11G red, 28 yellow, 82 green, 82 blue, and 64 violet. Water and sulphuric acid, 120 red, some yellow, 90 green, 90 blue, and 6^ violet. Oil of cassia, or sulphur, gives 2 parts reo- a line of yellow, 3 green, 4 blue, and 3 violet-, while sulphuric acid, or water, gives 4 red, a line of yellow, 3 green, 3 blue, and 2 violet. Hence, Newton’s proportions and colours LIGHT. — PRISM. 573 are wrong, and the analogy to the diatonic scale is erroneous. The yellow is a compound of red and green ; and blue a mixture of green and violet; hence there are only three primitive colours, RED, GREEN, and,viOLET.— Brewster. As to proportions, the mean ray in crown- glass divides the green and the blue. In flint-glass the mean is much nearer the red. In rock crystal it is much nearer the violet. In oil of cassia much nearer the red than in flint-glass. Fraunhofer’s red results, in 5 prisms, of different substances, were 2503, and his five dispersions were 11,298, about 1 to ; but, m flint and crown-glass, the reds were 798, and the dispersions 3860, 1 to 4 837. Violet was wanting in one. Other Disper- sed cols. sion. Crown-glass 361.. 1336 = 1697 Flint ditto 437.. 1726 = 2163 Water 305.. 1 398 = 1703 Oil turpentine, no violet 625.. 2060 = 2685 Alcohol, ditto 395.. 11 25 = 1520 Sulp. ether, ditto ... .380. .1150 = 1530 He found five colours, but only four in the last bodies ; but he discovered that the en- tire spectrum was crossed by black lines , of which he counted 590 from the extreme red to the violet. Brewster determined that the prismatic experiment of Newton was an illusion. The colours may be changed in character and in- tensity by media in the prism, and be de- composed by absorption. In fine, he con- cluded that the true spectrum has equal breadths of red , yellow , and blue. These colours are predominant ki every part, and the local colour is merely an excess of it over white light, and over local yellow and blue. After all, the rainbow is the test, and it justifies Newton about seven colours. Wollaston, with a fine pencil of light, and with his usual accuracy, resolved the spec- trum into four colours ; red 16, yellowish- green 23, blue 36, and violet 25, in 100. By extending the length of the prismatic spectrum to 15 5 inches, Fraunhofer so at- tenuated the light as to discriminate the definite refrangibility of the parts of each colour, by which it left 590 spaces without colour, as black lines or colourless breaks. But Young, by adopting a very small aper- ture, produced a spectrum which had only seven black lines, or vacant spaces. Brew- ster since, by extending the spectrum to 17 inches, and further attenuating the light by passing it through an artificial atmosphere of nitrous acid gas, exhibited 2000 lines or breaks in the whole of the colours. It would hence appear, that not only has each colour its specific refrangibility, but parts of the same colour have their own definite angle. The effect depends altogether on the dimi- nution of glare , for the lines increase when the Sun is in the horizon, and are as the attenuation under all circumstances. By these points, like lines of longitude, it is found that the refractive powers of all the colours vary in ten different substances. 574 The greatest light in the spectrum, is be- tween the yellow and green, called 1. In the last half of the red 021. In the orange •3. The green 0328. Indigo 0 185, and violet 035. The prism shows colours, because the entering surface is not at the same angle as the emerging surface ; and, therefore, the affection on the ray by the local atmosphere of the entering surface, is not balanced by the equal re-action of the local atmosphere at the emerging surface. When the two surfaces are parallel, as in a plate of glass, the actions and re-actions at both surfaces balance, and the ray emerges of the same colour that it enters. But it is evident from this, that it is not the medium which changes the white into coloured light, but the inclined surfaces, or something connected with the surfaces which re-act differently. This some, thing is believed to be the local atmosphere, which varies with the varied constituents of the body. Polarized light, from a prism of Iceland spar, give the same spectra, proportions, &c. as the ordinary ray. In experiments of matchless accuracy with eleven different kinds of prisms, Fraun- hofer found no less than 590 black lines dividing the spectrum in every case, while the same black lines appear in the fringes by inflection. The indigo and violet have 275 of them, and the yellow 84. The greatest intensity of light was in the yellow, as 1, and the red 0 021, the orange 0 3, the green 0328, the indigo 0 185, and the violet 0*035. He made seven colours, and in this respect confirmed Newton, but his propor- tions differ. The dispersion of the colours is taken at a 27th of the deviation, or refraction, of the mean ray, so that the green being 27, the red is 26*30, and the violet 27*30. But dif- ferent bodies possess different powers of dis- persion, and Brewster has measured above 100. It appears that dispersive and refrac- tive powers have no relation. He makes the dispersive power of flint-glass *05. Crown-glass *033. Diamond *038. Rock salt *033. Water *035. Alcohol *029. Fluor spar *022. Rock crystal and calcareous spar *026. Nitric acid *045. Chromate of lead *4. Amber *041. Descending for *4 to *022 differing from Newton, who imagined there was but one degree of dispersion. The dispersive power depends on the sub- stance of which the prism is made. In a prism of flint-glass it is 0*48 ; of crown 0*33 ; chromate of lead *4 j oil of cassia 139 ; fluor spar and crysolite 322- water *335; and sulphuric acid 0*31. Flint-glass gives the greatest heat beyond the red, and crown-glass just within the red. There has been much controversy about the coincidence of the proportions in the spectrum, and the Diatonic scale. But, as it is unlikely that there are two sets of co-ex- isting atoms in space, different in kind, and as the dark space beyond the red of the spectrum has been decomposed like the spectrum, we may infer, both from light and LIGHT. — INFLECTION. — POLARIZATION. 575 colours, that space is occupied with atoms in .sets of sizes, something like octaves. It is, therefore, no objection that a small hole produces but three or four colours, if any hole produces seven, or a division like the Diatonic scale. We might as well infer that, because Apollo’s harp had but three strings, therefore, Linus could not produce harmony with seven; and, if so, that the two harmonies were not the same in kind. As the spectrum varies with the form and substance of the prism, and with the size of the pencil of light, it would be possible to produce a standard spectrum in exact ac- cordance with the Diatonic scale. Inflection. Besides Grimaldi’s fine experiments on the prism, seven or ten years before New- ton, he discovered the inflection of light and colours, or the power of local atmospheres ; and, also, the interference by means of two 'Jones of light, whose edges he made to in- terfere. Newton repeated, varied, and improved on all Grimaldi’s experiments. The last experimentors on these subjects were Dr. Young, M. Fresnel, and Fraunhofer. In his experiments, Young proved his law of the interference of waves, by which it ap- peared, that when light with similar waves interfere, they increase the intensity; but when dissimilar waves they produce dark- ness, not dissimilar to the interferences of tones in music ; but he illustrates it by waves of tides, as concurring or not. A prism resembles a fringe, owing to its oblique side ; the light thus comes into con- tact with the oblique local atmosphere of that side, just as in the case of a wire or edge of a knife ; and the spectrum is the product of this local atmosphere. It has been a mistake that the passage through the diaphonous substance of the prism, or the substance itself, had any concern with the colours. The local atmosphere of every body is in effect a prism, or an inflecting edge, if laid obliquely to emerging rays, or if the. entering surface is oblique, to the other. If the Sun’s spectrum be admitted through a pin-hole, and a fine wire be placed in the light, the shadow will be fringed by coloured stripes intermixed with dark lines. This is ascribed to interferences , or nodal points, where the waves concur or destroy one ano- ther by contrary motions, according as the distance is a multiple, or otherwise, for each colour. On the inflection of light, Fraunhofer transcends all others. He placed an helios- tat in the aperture, and employed a teles- cope to view the results. In consequence, from simple inflection, he got breadths of colour like the prism itself trom single wires, and varieties most interesting from sets of wires. His apertures varied from the 9th of an inch to the 150th, and even the 900th. He then tried 150 wires, or threads, in an inch, and the results were beautifully-co- loured images, in regular formations. When Newton experimented on the effects 576 of the local atmospheres of bodies which produce reflection without the rays touch- ing the body, he used two knives and brought their edges within the 400th of an inch, and produced three colours at an angle of 12°, with a dark space in the middle. Since that time, Young, Fraunhofer, Brewster, &c. have used fine wires, fine edges, &c. with the most striking results, superseding even the prism. Then, as every reflecting surface may be cut into such edges, we are at no loss to understand reflection, the origin of the deviation of r efraction, &c. & c. Polarization. Polarization, or division of a pencil of white light into two unconformable pencils, is an accident which the pencil suffers by passing through certain crystalline media, or by being reflected from a surface at cer- tain determined angles of transmission and reflection. The extra ray is composed of light turned by transmission or internal reflection into a new direction, generally at 90° from the direction of the rest of the pencil. Of course, such a change in the direction of the velocity, changes all the powers as to the other part of the same pencil. Moving thus in direction across the other, one is reflected where the other penetrates, or it penetrates where the other is deflected, and the visual order of its colours are also reversed. It is, however, still the very same light as the other light, and whichever of them we make the standard, one may be regarded as the polarized ray as much as the other. The cause is very simple— a crystallized body is made up of minute crystals, whose aggregate constitutes the body. These small crystals lie in juxtaposition at certain regu- lar angles, and they receive and transmit by the mean reflections of their infinitessimals the main ray, but their figure prevails in the larger, and these confer an additional re- flection which produces the extra ray. Reflections of light alternate the direc- tion right into left, and left into right, and reverse the visual phenomena — all promoted by the necessary fixed angle. We then have polarity by reflection, also at a fixed angle, such that, as resultants, the first pencil and the polarized light are, or tend to be, at 90°, in direction different from one another. Of course, as in the other case, all the phenomena, &c. are reversed in the incident and resulting rays. For, in every case of reflection (as is well-known to every one who looks into a plain mirror) the sides change hands, and though there is not a crossing of rays like a common focus, yet it is a demi-focus in one plane, sui generis. Then, at the impinging point, the local atmosphere in its limit of activity de- composes and recomposes part of the light before reflection, just as the whole in refrac- tion, so that we have part in accordance with the usual reaction of reflection, and part as though it were refracted at the fixed angle, which last is the extra ray with powers 90° from the reflected part, and 577 LIGHT. — POLARISATION, 578 rontrary phenomena of colours, transmis- sion, &c. The curve made by the extra ray in crys- tals led Huygens to consider the waves or undulations as elliptical, but the considera- tion that the surfaces of the crystals by re- flection produce the same effect when turned round, render this elliptical theory unneces- sary. Huygens was not in possession of the theory of Haiiy about crystalline struc- tures, and their regular forms and angles. Malus observed that when light falls on glass, at 35°-35, all, i. e. 29 in 1000 rays, are reflected and polarized ; the light refracted, consists of polarized light, opposite and pro- portional, and of the remainder not polar- ized but direct light. If by proportional he means equal, only 58 in 1000 would be affected. In truth, the only change is the 2 9 novelty of direction given to these i 00 o rays, while as many directed the other way implies mutual reaction at the impinging point. Crystals, composed of cubes or octahe- drons, give no extra ray, owing, no doubt, to the conformity of their surfaces to the plane of the external figure. Iceland spar, a crystallized carbonate of lime, is most characteristic in this respect. The rainbow is an exact exemplification of the whole system of polarization. The ¥ 'nner bow gives the light and colours of only 1 reflection— but the outer bow gives the light and colours of 2 reflections; and the second reflection directs the emitted light differently from that which produces the colours of the inner bow ; and, of course, to the eye this reflection reverses the colours. We might then call the light of the second bow polar- ized, lay the 2 sets on each other, interpose a counter crystalline plate, and play various juggling tricks with the light singly and doubly reflected. When light has been turned into a new direction, by reflection, it is, of course, not reflected at the same angles as other light, moving at right angles to it. Yet, this is the history of the mystery of polarization. Of course, it applies equally to the dark radiations of heat, provided the first divi- sion and reflection do not too much attenuate the heat. Polarization is merely an exam- ple of the fact, that light and heat may be specially directed. Forbes, by using an apparatus which deducts the 1500th of a degree of heat, readily displayed its polari- sation &c. Polarization is a mere affair of relation and direction among the rays. Thus, rays proceeding one way, are re-acted upon in one way ; but, if others are moving in other directions, they, as to the others, produce a contrary effect and order of colours ; or, if others are moving at other angles, as is always the fact, we have mixed results. The effect of reflection is evident, when a ray is passed through bodies, whether crystalline or not. It illumines the whole mass, and disperses part of the ray j and, in a certain thickness, disperses the whole. Transmission in one spot is, therefore, the united effect in the axis of the prin- cipal ray, when there are no crystalline surfaces to give peculiar or extra reflection. But, when there are such surfaces, they produce a direction at 90° from the other and this has been called polarized. But, that it is nothing but an extra reflection, is evident, from the changes which take place when the crystal is turned round, the effect of which is to vary the angles of the cry- stalline surfaces to the impinging light. When modern, opticians speak of any light being polarized, they mean, that it is not moving in the same direction as solar light, direct from the Sun ; and, therefore, not such light as would be transmitted or refracted along with direct solar light through transparent bodies. Of course, owing to many reflections and deviations of light in impinging upon a planet, there must always be such light moving like cross cur- rents of air or water. Unconformable or unaccordant light would be a more rational name for such light than polarized — a term without analogy. All light, not in the same direction as the Sun’s light, is that light which the spirit of mystication has called polarized. According to Bouguer and others, at 52 45, the polarizing angle by reflection from water , only 40 rays are actually reflected out of 1000 ; so that Malus’s double pencil must itself have been very faint, and the polar- ized portion be reduced almost to a mental creation! Again, on plate-glass, at 54*45, the reflected pencil would be but 77 out of 1000. In every sense, therefore, polarity is “ much ado about nothing and, at most, is an odd corner of a subject, which philosophy ought not to waste time upon. Universally, therefore, when a pencil of light has, by reflection and refraction, been divided into two pencils, their subsequent directions of motion render them uncon- formable to each other, and incapable or producing similar phenomena ; and this con- stitutes the sole cause of what is called polarity. It developes no new property of light, for polarized light, or the extra ray, when bodies are presented to it in accordance with its novel direction, after a reflection, is in all respects the very same as ordinary light. It is coy as to other crystals, which receive ordinary light till they are turned 90°, in accordance with its direction of mo- tion, while no other proof is necessary of the causes of all the phenomena. All that polarization has really taught us are as follow : — 1. That what we have called refraction is, in all cases, mere reflection from atom to atom, within a transparent body. 2. That the powers of inflection, deflection, or refraction, exist at the sur- faces of bodies ; and 3. That light, in being reflected through bodies, is subject to the accidents and re-actions of their internal structure. Thin crystalline plates, exposed to the extra ray, or malus-light from reflection, U LIGHT. — COLOURS. 5:0 called polarized, exhibit various colours, which Biot proves to arise from two regular tints. By different refractions of the polarized light (as accordant or otherwise, in direc- tion, and in contrast with light in its ordi- nary direction) the colours and combination change the forms like the kaleidoscope. Thin plates of mica and topaz produce complimentary colours ; like the second rain- bow, when lightly passing through the drops, suffers a second reflection. Topaz, also, at different angles, forms elliptical coloured rin gs. — B rewster. Malus concluded, that all light that had suffered reflection or refraction, contains po- larized rays, whose poles have relation to the planes of action on it. He also found, that the rays separated by Iceland Spar, by a second reflection at the other surface, are divided into 4, except when the ray is in the plane of its section. Multiplied and co- loured images he ascribed to faults and spaces within the crystal, but Brewster has since proved, that they arise from veins of foreign substances, and that most doubly- refracting crystals have two axes. Brewster, with great labour, has deter- mined the crystals which have 1, 2, and 3 axes of double refraction, coincident with the crystallographic axes of each. All these have extra rays, besides the ordinary ray, which is produced by reflec- tion from atom to atom through substances, whose molicules are uniform, like water or annealed glass. The extra ray deviates from the ordinary 6/ 40^, and it falls on the principal section of the crystal, proving that it is the result of the reflections of the crystal. The polarizing angles of incidence are for air 45°, water 52°'45, glass 56°'45, rock crystal, 57°‘22, Iceland spar, 58 0- 23, chro- mate of lead 67°'42. — Brewster. When a pencil is polarized by reflection, the sum of the angles of incidence and re- fraction is 90°; and the reflected ray is 90° from the refracted ray. — Brewster. Every pencil of light is acted upon by the refracting force before it suffers reflection. Quartz and beryls have peculiar rays, and the phenomena are as various as the angles of the planes which reflect the light in its passage through the crystal. Heat, imparted to glass, so excites its atoms, as to produce an extra polarized ray. Colours . Colours of bodies, for the most part, are determined in the fluid or gaseous state of the body ; for then only chemical combina- tions can take place between the atoms of the body and the colorific corpuscles of light. Bodies, even in a dry state, have gaseous local atmospheres which combine with light. But, in all cases, there is reflection with refraction at the surface, to produce colours. The expansive character of colours, whe- ther originating in deflection, or proceeding from an object which developes any .parti- cular colour, proves that they are attenuated light, and modified impressions of abstract 580 light on the eye. Thus, a pencil of light, but the 20th of an inch in diameter, is spread in colours over a space of 7 or 8 inches by 2 or 3, and we then get colours. Again, each colour evidently arises from the reflection of atoms of various size, beginning with the red, an approximation to heat, making atoms and ending with violet, which ap- proximates blackness or negation. The colour of bodies is palpably occa- sioned by the relation, in size, of the atoms of a surface to that of the atoms of the colour ; and learning to distinguish them by their conventional name, is an affair of in- fantine experience. Meteors produce light in the abstract, not colours, and, also, fixed angles of reflec- tion from atomic surfaces of different atoms ; and it is the action on the eye of these atoms at those angles, which create the sense of colours. Certain imperfections of the optic nerve prevent many persons from discriminating colours. Some see by it 2 or 3, and others confuse one with another, instances of which afford many amusing anecdotes. Hence we infer, that variation of colour is mere variation of mechanical action, and that each variation produces our sense of colours. Green is the centre or medium action, midway between the red and violet, and therefore the most agreeable. Newton imagined that thin plates of air facilitated the production of colours, and by pressing together two lenses of 14 and 50 feet curvature, he made an aerial space, which increased from 0 to £ an inch. He thus got 5 or 6 circular systems of coloured rings, contrasted on both sides from black and white in the centre, to red and blue at the extremities. He calculated the succes- sive thicknesses of the air to be the § power of the eight strings of an octave. In mil- lionths of an inch, he found the thicknesses in air were 1 for black reflected, and white transmitted ; and 9 for the first red reflected, and blue transmitted. In his second series, for violet and white 11 parts, and for red and blue 18. In the third, for purple apd green 21, and red and bluish green 29. The other four series were less perfect. It hence ap- pears, that the local atmosphere of glass produces all the colours between the 9 and 29 millionth of an inch, and other colours so long as 3 millionths, and so high at 71 mil- lionths ; and a breadth like this is the limit of activity, which produces all the pheno- mena of the transmission, reflection, and inflection of light. Brewster, among his numerous valuable experiments on light, has laboriously ex- amined Newton’s analogy between the co- lour of bodies and his thin plates or rings. Newton’s example of Green is proved to be a mistake in every instance. Brewster in- fers, however, with Newton, that the colour of bodies arises from the absorption of some rays of the spectrum, and the reflection of the others. A round pencil of sun-shine, admitted through a small hole, is expanded by the 581 LIGHT. — CHEMICAL POWERS. 582 oblique surfaces in length, and coloured in shades, so as to appear decomposed. When the surfaces are glass and water, and 7 colours appear, the deflection for red at one end is 1331, and for violet at the other end is 1*3442. The intermediate colours are orange at 1 *331 7, yellow 13336, green 1*3358, blue 13378, and indigo 1*3413. Each colour is permanent in further ap- plications of it, and the re-union of the whole is white, as at first. Taking every other one to be a mixture of the shades of the 2 adjoining, the whole are but 3, red, yellbw, and blue. In the prismatic spectrum, violet rays in- dicate heat as 1, green as 4, yellow as 8, and red as 16. Beyond the red, no peculiar action exists. Some pnnosopners ascribe the colours to this difference of intensity ; and, hence, painters call blue cold, green soft, yellow rich, and red warm. Musicians have similar notions. Stark has found that colours possess dif- ferent powers of imbibing odours. Thus, black absorbs far more than white, and other colours various degrees. To exhibit colours from minute reflections. Barton cut grooves in metal from 2 to 10,000 to the inch, which gave beautiful series of colours. The rays called heating, which Herschel observed without the spectrum, prove now to be very deep red rays. Delaval concludes, 1. That the colouring particles do not reflect any light. 2. That a medium, or local atmosphere, is diffused over the anterior and further surfaces of the plates, whereby objects are reflected equally and regularly, as in a mirror. 3. All the coloured liquors appear such only by trans- mitted light ; and, 4. These liquors, spread thin upon a white ground, exhibited their respective colours ; 5. All coloured bodies, not transparent, consist of a sub-stratum of some white substance, thinly covered with the colouring particles. Transformations of visual colours are as follow : a square of red, long viewed, pro- duces a light green border, and afterwards a square of light green — White produces black, and black white Red, blue purple, green Blue, yellow green, red The accidental colour of any object, is the colour which is half the length of the spec- trum from the true colour. A wheel, painted in prismatic proportion, requires 80° violet, 40° indigo, 60° blue, 60° green, 48° yellow, 2 7° orange, 45° red ; and if any colour is taken out, and the wheel turned, the remaining colour is a transformed colour as above. It is as- cribed to the subsequent sensibility of the nerves first affected, by which they, as it were, take no cognizance of the same co- lour, when mixed with others. In general, the new colour is removed halfway in the spectrum, as though there were two spectra, one beginning at the middle of the other. Fraunhofer, in his optical experiments, made a machine in which he could draw 32,900 lines in an inch breadth. There are 7700 veins in an inch of coloured mother-of- pearl. Iris ornaments, of all colours, are now made by lines on steel, from 2000 to the 10,000th part of an inch. Chemical Powers of Light. The most marked chemical effect of solar light is its power of darkening the white muriate of silver ; and, if tried in the spec- trum, the greatest effect is in the dark' part, just beyond the violet ; and it diminishes through the indigo and blue till lost in the green. Rays, passed through the coloured glasses from violet to blue, equally darken the muriate ; but, through red glass, the change is to red. Artificial lights, and that of the moon, do not produce the changes ; but the light of charcoal, at the poles of a voltaic battery, have the effect. M. Daguerre, a painter of great merit, and inventor of the Diorama, has, by a long course of experiments, reduced to practice the means of fixing the images of objects produced by the Camera Obscura, or Solar Microscope. The means are a skilful modi- fication of nitrate of silver to the surface. It appears that he uses sheets of prepared paper, and that the action of the foci of the pencils of rays produces permanent and very minute delineations. Of course, in moving objects where the foci vibrate, the impression is confused ; and it appears, that greens are less determined than red. The moon, as an object in motion, extends its picture ; but, the sun and planets may be expected to be well defined. Anatomical subjects, statues, portraits, machinery, and still-life will be as true as nature, and all microscopic subjects be as minute as their images. Talbot and others had conceived the same idea, but the perfection of the discovery is entirely due to M. Daguerre. Vegetables and animals are affected in constituents and colour, by the absence or presence of light. These effects, and many others, have lee to the conclusion, that the prism and the inflection of wires and edges really decom- poses the elements existing in the atmo- sphere, so that the red is an oxygenous, the green a nitrogenous part, and the violet hy- drogenous ; while other colours and shades are mixtures, as inclined to either end. It may, probably, be concluded that the medium, which, when substantially acted on at any point in light, is itself a mixture of those atoms which constitute the elements of oxygen, hydrogen, &c. j hence the pro- trusion includes all these ; then, in them we have the colours ; and also the different refrangibility, as it is called, when they fall on an oblique surface. The different co- lours of very renfbte stars prove that the causes of colour are universal. In shop-windows, muriates of soda give yellow — of potash, violet — of lime, deep red U 2 583 LIGHT. — THE EYE. — of strontla, crimson — of lithia, red — of baryta, apple-green — of copper, green. Late experiments of Ellis and others prove, that the green colour of plants arises from the nitrogen character, that red colours arise from oxygen, and indigo and violet from hydrogen. Cameleon mineral, made from potash and oxide of manganese, when dissolved in warm water, changes to green, blue, and purple. Oil of almonds with soap and sulphuric acid is yellow, orange, red, and violet. Such is the power of colour upon matter, that one grain of blue vitriol, or carmine, tinges an entire gallon of water. Herschel ascertained that the extreme heat of the spectrum was 1| inch beyond the red end, but others say at the red end. Ritter and Wollaston found that the violet end, and beyond, blackened muriate of silver ; and, a little beyond, and when blackened at the end, it was restored at the red end. Phosphorus emits white fumes in the red, which are arrested in the violet. Morichini magnetized needles in the violet rays. Wollaston proved the deoxydating power of the violet end, andtheoxydating of the red. A chemical fact now applied in the useful arts. The intensity of light is in the red 2, in the orange 30, in the yellow and green 100, in the blue 32, in the indigo 18, and violet 3. The heating atoms of light are less re- frangible than red rays, and this is a key to many of their phenomena. All metallic oxides, especially those of mercury, lead, silver, and gold, become of a deeper colour by exposure to the Sun’s rays. Green precipitate, from a solution of iron, exposed to the rays of the Sun, becomes blue ; and words written with a colourless solution of nitrate of silver, become quite black when exposed to the light. The invisible violet turns guaiacum to green, which the red rays restore. Many flowers follow the Sun’s course, and plants reared in houses extend themselves towards the light. Plants that grow in the shade, or in darkness, are pale, and without colour ; and, the more plants are exposed to the light, the more colour they acquire. The effect of light, in promoting inter- mixture and explosions, as well as many chemical phenomena, is complete evidence of its atomic action, and of its similarity to all other atomic phenomena. The change of colours, in mixing fluids, arises from changes of bulk and density in the atoms. Coloured flames resemble the solar spec- trum, when viewed through coloured glasses. The flame of oil-lamps contains rays not in the solar light. Crown and plate-glass make the greatest heat in the red, flint beyond, and water and alcohoi in the yellow. The heating power of the red rays in the spectrum, to green is 55 to 26, and to violet R5 to 16. 58-1 Many salts will crystallize only when ex. posed to the light ; and some bodies, if ex- posed to light, combine with it, and, under certain circumstances, emit lit again. Black has small atoms, and absorbs light — white large, and reflects it. Reds are of oxygen character, according to Ellis ; greens nitrogen, and violets hydrogen. Their mi- nute parts decompose incident light, and absorb some and reflect others. An oxygen body combines with hydrogen, and reflects red, and the contrary with others. Thus, a hydrogen atmosphere absorbs red, &c. and reflects blue, indigo, &c..j and a nitroge* absorbs red and violet, and reflects greei\ or white, orange or blue. Wollaston’s prismatic proportions give exactly the atmospheric proportions of oxy- gen and nitrogen. Taking the red as oxy- gen, and the blue and violet as nitrogen, we have 16 to 61, to 1 to 3i3 for the yel- lowish green, which, added to the 16, is 19 t^ and 80x3\ In like manner, the violet end might be taken as hydrogen, and 2^. taken from the blue, would make the spec- trum 19x^ oxygen, 52-rg- nitrogen, and 10 7Te> hydrogen. Rock salt entirely obstructs the passage of the heat in a pencil of rays, and light passed through it does not affect the most sensible thermometer. Light hinders germination in mature seeds, with sufficient heat, moisture, and air. The Eye. In the human eye, Young made the op. tical axis 91 — 100th of an inch. Aperture of the pupil from 27 to 13— 100th. Radii of the two surfaces of the crystalline lens 30 and 22. Focal distance of the lens 173 inch. Visual range of the eye 110°. The spherical aberration of the crystal- line is corrected by increased density at the centre. The crystalline lens in the human eye is composed of thin laminae. At 25, the edges begin to be yellow, and at 80, the whole is like amber. The optic nerve enters the eye •11 of an inch from the axis of the eye on the nasal side. The axis is 91. The pupil varies with light, from ’13 to -2 7. Focus of the cornea and chrystalline, '69. Angle of vision, taken in by the fixed eye, 110°. The diameter of a female crystalline. taken by Dr. Brewster. 0378 j thickness 0 1/2, refractive power 1’384. Refractive vitreous humour 134, aqueous 1336. The following are other dimensions of the parts of the human eye, in inches : Diameter, from the cornea to the7 n.ne choroides j ^ Radius of the cornea 0 335 Distance of the cornea, from the first! n.i a<» surface of the crystalline 3 Radius of the first surface of the! a 001 crystalline S U Radius of the back surface of the! n.91; crystalline 3 * Thickness of the crystalline. ..... 0 3/3 LIGHT. VISUAL PHENOMENA. 585 586 A good eve can see distinctly at the dis. lance of 6 or 7 inches. The smallest visual angle is half a minute, or 30 seconds, and its size on the retina the 8000th of an inch. The eye detects differences in light up to a 66th. Both eyes make an object 1- 13th brighter than 1 eye. Objects are single to both eyes, because each eye refers them to the very same place. Plateau determined the time during which the impression of luminous rays upon the eyes remains ; and has given the following results in fractions of a second : Flame 0 242 Ignited charcoal 0 229 White 0182 Blue 0 186 Yellow 0 173 Red 0184 The effect of light on the eye continues 8-3ds, or the 450th of a minute. If an object be more distant from either of two stations than 100,000 times the base, the angle at one station being 90°, that at the other will be 89° 59' b/ 11 9, the differ- ence of which, and 90^, being but 2" 1, is too small for sensible observation. Thus it is with the Earth’s orbit at the fixed stars. If the eye were microscopic, we could not see prospects. Harris thinks the least angle for any ob- ject is about 40 seconds j and at a mean of eyes not less than 2 minutes. To most eyes, the nearest distinct vision is about 7 or 8 inches. Taking 8 inches for that distance, and 2 minutes for the least visible angle, a globular object of less than the 300th part of an inch would not be seen. An object in motion will appear to be at rest, when its motion in a second is to its distance as 1 to 1400. The variation of the pupil adjusts the eye to near and remote objects ; and the most perfect vision is from those rays that pass nearest the axis of the pupil, and pass straight to the retina, without refraction. The blind youth, who was couched by Chesselden in his thirteenth year, thought scarlet the most beautiful of all colours; but black was painful. He fancied every object touched him. He could not distin- guish, by sight, objects which he knew by feeling ; and was some time learning to dis- tinguish, by his new sense, between the cat and the dog. Those things which he had liked best were not equally agreeable to his sight ; and he had to learn, by sight, the name of every thing he saw. Sir F.verard Home couched some young persons with results exactly similar to those of Chesselden. They could not tell the name of any object till they were told what it was, or till they felt it, and had no idea of distances. The blind make up for defect of sight by the accuracy and sensibility of their touch, and by habits of association between the touch, memory, and judgment. Stanley, the organist, and many blind musicians. have been the best performers of their time; and the blind discriminate sounds at a dis. tance with infinitely greater precision than persons who depend on their visual organs. Miss Chambers, a schoolmistress at Notting- ham, could discern that two boys were play- ing in a distant part .of the room, instead of studying their books, though a person who saw them, and made no use of his ears could not perceive that they made thesmalll est noise ; and in this way she kept a most orderly school. So Professor Sanderson could, in a few moments, tell how many persons were in a mixed company, and pre- sently discriminate their sexes by the mere rustling of their clothes. Stanley, and other blind persons, played at cards by delicately pricking them with a pin. A French lady could dance in figure- dances, sew tambour, and thread her needle. The ear, too, guides as to distance, by reflection of sound, and within these few years a blind man, from his infancy, was a surveyor and planner of roads in Derbyshire. When a sense is wanted, the others are cultivated with care. Some blind persons say they can discri- minate colours : others deny the power. Miss M‘Evoy, of Liverpool, could read, says Dr. Renwick, by laying glass over a book, and distinguish objects in the street, by feel- ing on the glass of the window. The late blind Justice Fielding walked in my room, for the first time, when he once visited me, and, after speaking a few words, said, “ This room is about 22 feet long, 18 wide, and 12 high;” all which he guessed with accuracy by the ear. — Darwin. Brewster shews, that the spheroidal lenses of fishes and birds are composed of cores, like meridional lines on a globe, united at the surface by teeth. At the equator there are 2500 fibres, and 12,500 teeth to each, while the fibres in the lens are 5 millions ; the radius of the lens is 2-10ths of an inch. Some vary in form and structure. An oxy-oil lamp has been invented by Gurney, with nearly the same intensity of light as the oxy-hydrogen lamp, and with actual economy in the consumption of oil. It is said to be equal to 20, 30, or even 50 argand lamps, and therefore admirably adapted to maritime and street purposes, and for the illumination of roads and parish steeples. It is a further proof of these theories. Visual Phenomena. Twilight ends and begins when the Sun is 106 degrees from the zenith, usually called 108 degrees, or 18 degrees after sun-set. Of 10,000 rays of light, only 8123 reach the Earth when the Sun is vertical. 8,000 at 70° high ; 7624, at 50^ ; 7237, at 40° ; 5474, at 209; 3149,atl0o ; 1201, at 5°; and 47 at P. In the inner rainbow the emergent ray will be the mean of the most or least ro 422 4- 4017 frangible, or • ■ ^ = 4P 95/ the dispersion or breadth beirg P 45', after two refractions and one reflection, the red LIGHT. — OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, 587 emerging uppermost, and the violet lowest. In the outer bow the ray will emerge at -t- -* ? = 52° 34', the dispersion or breadth being 10', but suffering two re- fractions and two reflections — the extra reflection will reverse the colours or image just like all mirrors when rays are turned by them in the same plane. The line of Sun’s direct rays are the centre of the bow ; hence, when the Sun is above 42° 2' high, the inner bow cannot be seen, and when it exceeds 54^ 9f, the outer bow is invisible. In the inner bow we get all the colours in Newton’s spectrum, violet to red, and in the other, all from red to violet, a reasonable justification of his classification of colours. In fact, a prism and aperture, which gave exactly the same subdivision, might be deemed standard. The angle of the inner bow, per Potter, is 42 deg. 18 min., and that of the extreme red of the secondary bow is 50 deg. 20 min. Supernumerary bows, within the inner bow of red and green, seem to be generated by another octave of atoms, (so to speak) which are reflected at less angles. In this case, the primary bow gives seven colours, and is -that standard which is demanded in our experiments. Halos and parhelia are caused also by the refraction of crystals of snow at angles of 22^ and 46^ from the Sun or Moon, which 22° exactly correspond with prisms of ice at 60°; and the external circle is the effect of two refractions. By interposing a crystal, so as by its re- flections (or refractions) to bring the colours of one bow on the other, we should produce, of course, all the metamorphic light of the various polaritizing apparatus. When the Sun, &c. are in the horizon, the light has to pass an horizontal length through the atmosphere, and the smaller rays of violet and blue being absorbed, the objects appear red, orange, and yellow. So, likewise, in deep water, the day-light appears red be- cause other rays are absorbed. It often happens also, that when the horizon is red, the atmosphere about it reflects orange, yel- low, green, &c., each more refrangible than the other. Biot says, that 5° of Fahrenheit difference will produce a mirage over a smooth sur- face, and he ascribes them to a curve of light which renders objects simple, double, or inverted. Phenomena of unequal refraction, as ele- vated coasts, reversed ships, fata morgana, mirage, loaming, &c. arise from unequal re- fractions in strata of air of unequal density, as has been proved by fluids in bottles. Reflection from mists and dense strata also produce striking appearances. Coronas, or halos, round the Sun, Moon, Stars, or even a terrestrial light, especially in fog or vapour, like the rainbow, are re- flections, or reflections and refractions from the vesicles which compose vapour ; and, as all those at equal angl ;s give the same co- 588 lour, so they appear in coloured circles. Their size depends on the intensity of the light, and the density of the vapour, some- times but 3^ or 4°, and, at others, from 30° to 90°. When made by frozen particles, their colours are very vivid. Their fre- quency proves that aqueous vapour abounds in the lower atmosphere, about 44 miles high. The apparent distance of the horizon is three or four times greater than the zenith. Hence, the mental mistake of horizontal size, for the angular dimensions, are equal. The first 5 deg. is apparently to the eye equal to 10 or 15, at 50 or 60 deg. of ele- vation, and the first 15 deg. fill a space to the eye equal to a third of the quadrant. This is evidently owing to the habit of sight, for, with an accurate instrument, the measure of 5 deg. near the horizon is equal to 5 deg. in the zenith, and if the angle of the Sun or Moon be taken, either with a tube or micro- meter, when they appear to the eye so large in the horizon, the measure is identical when they are in the meridian, and appear to the eye and mind to be but half the size. Taking the light of the Moon at 66° high to be 1000, at 20° it is 666, and in the hori- zon but 1. Optical Instruments. The principle of magnifying power, ef- fected by convex and concave crystal sur- faces, arise from the indefinite multiplica- tion of images, by surfaces at different angles. A lens with three surfaces of 60° gives three images, one with 180 of 1° each, 180 figures, scarcely separable ; but one with 10,800 surfaces, of 1 one-minute each, gives 10,800 images, still less separable. When, however, the curved form is given, and the sides become infinite, the images are infi- nite; and, being no longer separable, are seen as one image under one enlarged angle. — Phillips. Dollond’s discovery of the achromatic lens of crown-glass and flint-glass was not accidental ; but the result of a long series of experiments begun with a view to sustain Newton’s error about equal refrangibility and dispersion, which had been disputed by Euler. It was an English manufacture till the French began also to make flint-glass. In Achromatic telescopes, the colours of refraction, through any single glass, are cor- rected by combining glass lenses of different dispersive powers, as crown-glass and flint- glass. They were first made by More Hall, about 1723, and for sale by Dollond in 175/. The object-glass is composed of two convex lenses of crown-glass, and one concave of flint-glass ; or sometimes of one of each. The curvature, to be multiplied by the focal length of the whole, should be as follows : — 1st lens, convex crown 0 6087 0 8696 2d lens, concave flint. .0’4544 0 6087 3d lens, convex crown 0 6087. ...... .0 6087 With two glasses — 1st lens, convex crown 0 293 0 353 2d lens, concave flint.. 0 345 1 148 or, for 30 inches, 8 inches and 14 3 for the 589 LIGHT. — BURNING MIRRORS. 590 first ; and 12 11 and 28-5 for the second lens, taking the specific gravity of the flint-glass at 3 354, and the ratio of refraction in the two, as 1 to 1-656. In eye-glasses, the con- cave should be crown and the convex flint ; the 'first 0 64, the second 0 529, and the third 0 64, multiplied by the focal length : and, in double eye-glasses, 0 32 and 0 529. Taking the dispersive power, or prismatic spectrum, of crown-glass at 1, that of flint- glass with lead 3, is 4 8 ; with lead 2 is 3 5 ; with lead equal 3 26; and with half is 18. The index refraction varies from 2‘028 to T7. A colourless telescope of a foot is a crown-glass convex lens of 4 33 focus, with a concave one of flint-glass of 766, with eye- glasses of 2 inches. An achromatic object lens should have the radii of the crown or outer glass lens, as 6 75and4’28, and of the flint as 14 4 and 3 39, giving a focal length of 10, and the re- fractive indexes being T524 and T5S5. One eye-glass transmits 09; 2, 09; 3, 0 85. — Herschel. Mr. Barlow has made an instrument with a plate-glass object-glass, and corrected the colours, by interposing a lens filled with sul- phuret of carbon, whose refraction is that of flint-glass, while it is perfectly tranparent. The second lens, of course, enlarges the angle, and increases the magnifying power. A 7'66 feet instrument, therefore, magnifies 700 times, but with less light than Sir James South’s. Rogers has proposed to interpose flint-glass of smaller size. Barlow’s telescope has a 7 8 inch object crown-glass, with focus 65 feet. At 40 inches is a concave lens, to correct the different refrangibility of fluid sulphuret of carbon, focus 6 feet, which at the same time extends the first focus to 12 feet. It bears a power of 700, and up to 300 shows no colour. The great difficulty in improving teles- copes has been the manufacture of flint-glass lenses of sufficient size. Fraunhofer made two object-glasses, 9 9 and 12 inches. The 9 9 is in the 25- feet telescope at Dorpat. Its powers are from 1 75 to 700. Sir James South has two French object-glasses, 12 and 13 inches diameter. A reflector of 24- feet focus requires a speculum of 24 inches diameter, and with an eye-glass of 0 28 magnifies 1000 times. One of 12 feet, 14 5 inches, an eye-glass 0 24, 600 times. A 6-foot 8 6, an eye glass 0 2, 360 times. Herschel used eye-glasses 0‘02 focus. Herschel’s 40 foot was in Newton’s form, with a tube of sheet-iron. The eye-glasses, with which it magnified 6400 times, was one- fiftieth of an inch focus. The great specu- lum was 48 inches diameter, 3£ inches thick, and 2118 lbs. weight, and it magnified 6400 times. His discoveries were, however, made with five-feet achromatics, . and his great telescope was a toy : the mirror would not keep its figure. The speculums of reflecting telescopes are 82 copper, 15 grain tin, 1 arsenic, 1 brass, and 1 silver. The Cassigram telescope has its small speculum convex. The Gregorian concave. The Newtonian flat, and placed at 45^, re- flecting the image to an eye-glass in* the side; but the loss of light is 45 in the 100. Brewster proposes to substitute an achro- matic prism of crown and flint-glass, so as to refract the image to the eye-glass in the side. The Cassigram gives more light than the Gregorian, as 7 to 3, and magnifies as 1 5 to 1. A 3-feet Gregorian will magnify 40 times, and a 5- feet 85 times, a 12- foot from 300 to 1200. The Cassigram telescope is superior to the Gregorian, as 20 to 1 1 , and its illuminating power as 5 to 2 —Kater. Sir J. Herschel’s telescope is 20-feet focus, with an 18-inch speculum. The Greenwich telescope is 25 feet, and 15-inch speculum. Night-glasses, called space-penetrating, have larger object-glasses. The magnifying power of a telescope is the quotient of the focal length of the ob- ject-glass, by the eye-glass, or one of the eye-glasses. Priestley says, the easiest me- thod to find the magnifying power of any telescope is to observe the distance you can read a book with the naked eye ; removing it to the farthest distance at whicn you can distinctly read it by the telescope ; and, the greater distance, divided by the less, gives the power of the telescope. A common refractor of 4-feet magnifies in line 40 times, of 10-feet 63 times. A 30-feet requires an object-glass, with an eye- glass of 3 3, and magnifies 109 times. As the size of every object is the angle which its diameter subtends, so the true power of a microscope or telescope is the increase of that line ; but, to augment the wonder, many square the line for the super- fices, and others cube it for the solid. Thus a power of 20 is often called 400 or 8000. The aberration of glasses, from spherica. figures, is in a plane convex 4£ times its thickness. A convex lens, whose sides are 1 and 6, is 1 08 its thickness. An equal double lens is 1 57 its thickness. The best form of a lens is a double convex, whose radii are l and 6. Spherical aberration is avoided by an ellipsoid lens, whose greater axis is the index of refraction, and the distance of the foci 1. The aberration of an eye is 4 2, with tho plane side first, and only 1 081 with concave or convex surface first. Double convex or concave is 15672, plane-convex reduces it to 0 6. The spherical aberration is to that from colour as 1 to 1200. The surface of a true concave mirror is a paraboloid. In reflecting-telescopes the mirror is an ellipsoid. Burning Mirrors. One of the most curious speculations is that of concentrating, or multiplying the heat of the Sun, by plain mirrors,* concave mirrors, or convex lenses. As one plain 591 LIGHT. — BURNING MIRRORS. 592 mirror reflects the heat of the Sun, so the reflection of two, three, or more, augments the heat. In this way, Archimedes burnt the Roman fleet at Syracuse ; and Antheo- nius, an architect at Constantinople, de- scribed the method, and so does Leonard Digges, who wrote on it in the reign of Elizabeth, and asserts that he fired bodies half a mile distant. Burning-mirrors and lenses are also noticed by the Greeks. BufFon combined plane glass-mirrors only 6 inches by 8 ; and, with 40, set on fire a tarred beech-plank 66 feet distant. With 98 at 126 feet; with 112 at 138 feet; with 154 at 150 feet; with 168 at 200 feet ; and he melted all the metals at 30 or 40 feet. Concave burning-mirrors have been made of great size and power. They concentrate the Sun’s image at half the focal length. Qne of 4-feet diameter, made of copper and tin, melted iron ore in 24 seconds, a sixpence in 7\ seconds, a halfpenny in 20 seconds, tin in 3 seconds, cast-iron in 16 seconds, and slate in 3 seconds. Water boils imme- diately and evaporates, wood flames in a moment, pummice-stone becomes glass, earth yellow or green glass. Concave wood or pasteboard, gilt and nolished, makes as good a focus as metal. Parker made a glass lens 3 feet in dia- meter, with 6 feet 8 inches focus, and H inches thick at the centre. It fused slate in JL seconds, pure gold, platina, nickel, and ' cast-iron, in 3 seconds, pure silver in 4 seconds, pebble, barytes, and lava, in 7 .se- conds, steel and bar-iron in 12 seconds, lime- stone in 55 seconds, volcanic clay, Cornish moor-stone, and rhomboidal spar, in a minute. Gold retained its metallic state though exposed for hours. Wedgwood’s pyrome- trical clay ran into white enamel in a few seconds. The lunar rays gave no heat. The rays were concentrated about 4000 times, if the focus was the quarter of an inch in diameter. Trudaine made another, which in the focus, 11 feet, melted steel in 5 minutes, and silver coins in a few seconds. To find the focus of a concave mirror, multiply the distance of the object by the radius, and divide by twice the distance added to the radius. In parallel rays, or infinite distance, it is half the radius. The size of the image is inversely as the two dis- tances. A concave mirror makes a focus of cold from ice, but the focus is negation, like its source, and there is no cold per se more than heat per se. Young’s Eriometer is an application of those coloured rings which appear on glass covered with vapour or dust, when applied ■ to a candle. He found the seeds of lycopo- dium were the 8500th of an inch, and also 3$ on his inch scale of coloured rings, and this he makes his standard, viz. the 30,000th of an inch. In parts then of 30,000ths of an inch, he found the atoms of milk 3, or the i 10,000 of an inch ; of bullock’s blood 4£, or the 6666th of an inch ; human blood 3750th ; silk 2500th ; beaver wool (jointed) 2400th ; mole’s fur 1850th ; goats wool and cotton the 1600th; Saxony wool 1500th ; Spanish wool 1200 ; South Down wool 1000th ; coarse long wool 500th of an inch in diameter. Impressions on the eye are permanently continuous, which are repeated seven times in a second. On this is founded the toy called the Thaumatrope. The Photometer determines the quantity of sun-shine, at noon, to be from 90° to 10(P at mid-summer, and in mid-winter 25° to 28°. A northern aspect at noon, in summer, is from 30° to 40° ; and in winter from 10° to 15°. In gloomy summer weather it is from 10° to 15°, and in winter only 1°. A multiplying-glass is merely a transpa- rent substance, with several plane surfaces towards tKe object. 10 sides give 10 images up as many angles. 1000 give 1000 ; and an infinitely-sided glass (as a lens) gives an infinite number, seen then as one in an enlarged angle ; and this is the fundamental principle of the magnifying power of all circular or curved surfaces. Colour arises as in the prism from the inclined sides, and aberration from figure from the varied re- fractions at the angles of the planes. — Editor . The Camera Lucida is a contrivance by which, in drawing, the reflection and trans- parency of a plate of glass are made avail- able. On this principle, the objects in the field of a telescope may be so projected from the eye-glass as to be readily drawn. The magic lantern and phantasmagoria is the same thing ; the slides in the last being opaque, except where the figures appear. Spectacles enlarge the field which are concave towards the eye, and convex to the object; the concavity or convexity being varied. A sphere of plate-glass gives a focus at half the radius beyond the sphere. One of diamond is half the focus, half way within the sphere, and one of sapphire carries it to the opposite surface. A plano-convex lens has the greatest field of view ; double and equal convex the least ; the side of least convexity should be nearest the object. A convex lens has its focus in the radius, or mean of two ; a plane convex twice the radius. Concave is the same. The aberration from figure of a plano- convex lens, is, with plane side to the object, 4 5 its thickness, and with convex side, is but 11 7. The lens of least aberration is convex 1 to 6, the 1 outwards. A plain mirror half the size reflects the whole superfices, the angle being doubled by the reflection. Only 45 of 100 rays reach the eye after 2 reflections. Mirrors are silvered by mercury, heated with half the weight of tin. Concave mirrors present an image just as it would be seen before the mirror at half its radius, but reversed. On the contrary, con- vex mirrors preset • upright images, just as they would be see., in the imaginary focus of the rays from behind. The reason is this, all the rays fall on tangents of the con- LIGHT. — BURNING MIRRORS. 593 594 vexity or concavity, and these tangents are oblique to the perpendicular ray, so as to give to each ray a different angle of inci- dence, according to the curvature of the surface. Microscopes are made with specula of 0 3 inch focus and aperture. They are used by the observer on his back, with light through a small aperture. Garnet, ruby, sapphire, and diamond, constitute the best lenses for single micro- scopes, with focal length the 30th or 50th of an inch. — Goring. The microscope detects globules with im» portant functions in the blood, the chyme, the chyle, the lymph, the milk, the pus, &c. It also displays globules equally active in vegetable organs. Animation appears to begin with a globule, called the monas termo , a transparent point visible with the microscope, and found among infusorii. The best compound microscopes magnify the diameter from 4 to 500 times. The ma- thematical power is directly as the distance of the image from the object lines into the distance of distinct vision by the naked eye ; and inversely as distance of the object from the object glass into the focal length of the eye-glass. When a lens is introduced, to enlarge the field, the power is diminished. The best microscopes have 2 plano-convex lenses with their plane sides next the object, and at a distance equal to the difference of their focal lengths. — Pritchard. A microscope, like a telescope, has a de- fining power, when free from aberrations of colour and figure ; and a penetrating power when it has a large angle of aperture. Object-glasses in microscopes admit 68° of light, free from colour or aberration. A microscope of 300 linear power, is best adapted to view the 300 species of infusoria discovered by Ehrenberg. Lenses of jewels require less convexity than glass, and therefore give less aberra- tion from figure. They also disperse less than glass. The curvature of glass to sap- phire is as 5 to 3. The hydro-oxygen microscope, with light from a pea of lime, is one of the greatest modern improvements. A ball of lime ignited affords a very strong light, equal, in the focus of a mirror, to nu- merous argand lamps. Marble, at 750°, gives a brilliant white light. The most in- tense known light is that produced by gal- vanic poles, under an exhausted receiver, where nothing but oxygen and hydrogen are present. An ignited pea of lime has also been used in light-houses, when only 3- 8th of an inch in diameter, yet its light is equal to 13 ar- gand lamp§, or 120 wax-candles. With a reflector, it casts a shadow at 10 miles’ dis- tance. If the pea of lime is turned during its illumination by the flame of the hydro- oxygen current, it will last for 3 or 4 hours. Ehrenberg discovers with the microscope, in Soft earths, &c., that chalk consists of small elliptical bodies formed of concentric articulated rings, and are in size from the 2500th to the 6000th of an inch ; that cal- careous incrustations consist of small arti- culated needles, with a tendency to a spiral; that porcelain, earth, or kaolin, is com- posed of round bodies the 400th of an inch that mixed earths, as potters’ clay, and sile- ceous and argillaceous substances, afford facts of like kind. The microscope has also enabled Ehren- berg to discover, that the tripolis of Bilin and St. Fiora are constituted entirely of the bodies of infusoria, of the family bacillariee, and certain genera, readily distinguished. The tripolis originated in lakes, or in the sea. Lonsdale has discovered, wi«h the micro- scope, that corallines and iliinute shells compose white chalk. Microscopes shew no surrounding current, or concentrating motions, while crystals are forming. A point is formed, and it aug- ments rapidly without agitation. In this way atmospheric clouds are formed. Mr. Craig, with a powerful microscope, observed the union of carbonate of copper and nitric acid. The carbonic acid was seen to evolve quickly in beautiful globules, which, mingled as the nitrate of copper, was formed. Massy crystals of deep blue re- mained, while multitudes of rhombic tabu- lar crystals were deposited. A drop of am- monia instantly dissolved the crystals of the nitrate, and nitrate of ammonia with groupes of prisms spread over the glass. He also observed some other unions and changes in other mixtures, and very active currents. Ehrenberg calculates 41 millions of indi- viduals in a cubic inch of tripoli. Fragments of insects, leaves of fuci, sea- weed, woods, &c. are shown upon an ex aggerated scale. Hairs of an infant appear like tubes two inches in diameter. A small portion of the fine skin of the human peri- cardium, exhibits the courses of the arteries and veins. It reveals the interior conforma- tion of fleas and spiders. The sting of a bee is a monstrous barbed weapon, 4 feet long. The lancets of the horse-fly are sabres about 2 feet in length. Small ani- malculae, in a drop of water, are seen prey- ing on each other. Skeleton larvae are beau- tifully developed, exhibiting even the vesicle of air which enables them to rise or descend in water. Worms found in stagnant ditches, the natural size of a thread, appear like a boa-constrictor. The instrument was first constructed by Cooper, and Carey the opti- cian. It is open to exhibition. A sphere of plate-glass gives a focus at half the radius beyond the sphere One of diamond is half the focus, half way within the sphere, and one ol sapphire carries it to the opposite surface. The shortest double convex glass lenscc have the 60th of an inch focus, i. e. 60 X 10 = 600 power. But the field is painfully limited. Sapphire has been made of the 100th or 1000th power, and, as a single lens, is the best microscope for very small objects or carts. The solar microscope and the SOUND AND MUSIC. 695 hydro-oxygen may have the power of 1000 in line, or 1 million in area, with ample field of view . — See Wonders of Microscope. The test- objects for microscopes are the wing of the menelaus, and the hairs of the bat and mouse. The highest lenses of Lewenhoeck’s mi- croscopes were but the 20th of an inch. They magnified the diameter 100 times, and the surface 10,000 times. The 59th of an inch magnifies the same 500 and 250,000. An inch focus magnifies but 5 and 25, and a half inch 10 and 100. The lenses in the eye of the house-fly Dave the 100th of an inch focus. In other insects the entire cornea is composed of dis- tinct lenses and a tube, and a second lens renders them perfect round microscopes ! A micrometer is a simple arrangement of cross hairs, or fine fibres, in the anterior focus of the eye-glass of a telescope or mi- croscope ; and when its measures are deter- mined for one object, it applies to all. They have been made to the 10,000th of an inch. The screws that move them have from 100 to 300 threads to an inch, with divisions for parts of a revolution. Spiders’ webs the 96, OOflth of an inch, gold wire less than the 5000th, glass threads the 1200th, and fibres of asbestos 4000th, have all been used for cross threads. SOUND AND MUSIC. Sound arises from vibrations of the air, as may be seen by the vibrations in the water of a musical glass, and by the affec- tions of light bodies, laid on strings in con- cord ; and they may be felt by the vibra- tions of all instruments. The delicacy and intensity with which they reach the ear, proves the extreme full- ness of space in aerial atoms. We distin- guish tones when the vibrations are 7000 in a second, and therefore the particles must be less than the 56,000th of an inch asun- der, considering the gravest tone as the eighth of an inch. This coincides, too, with waves of light, which appear, in red, to be the 40,000th of an inch asunder, and in violet the 64,000th. The lowest tone which the ear can discri- minate is, according to some, 12£ undula- tions in a second, and, to others, 30 ; and, the most acute, above 6000. Every sound is a mixture of 3 tones, just as a ray of light is of 3 colours. The union of the key-note with the 5th and 10th, is the common chord. The diatonic scale is the prism of sound. Sound and light, or tones and colours, are produced by two different affections of the very same medium. White light may be decomposed into three colours, and every sound is a compound of three tones. Atoms of oxygen and nitrogen, in conjunc- tion, may produce one, oxygon another, and nitrogen a third, both in light and in sound. One is the excitement of propulsion of atoms, called light, and the other the propulsion of a gross volume, called sound. 598 Every propulsion of the aerial elements, called light, includes, in analysis, the pris- matic scale, and every vibration in the same elements, in analysis, produces tk*e diatonic scale. Both scales, too, are chemical, and are produced by the very atoms which pro- duce all our chemical and electrical pheno- mena. The scales, too, are similar, because they are the measures of the effects on the same sensorium. The numbers agree, since a volume of five parts of atmospheric air is four measures of nitrogen and one oxygen, and every sound is composed of the funda- mental note, its fifth and tenth, whose square, or force, is 25 and 100, or 1 to 4. In the spectrum, Young determines the red to be 16, yellow 1, and light blue 23, blue 36, and violet 25, in 100; which, for red only, would be about 20 to 100, and, for the rest, 80 to 100 ; i. e. 1 to 4, the exact proportions of oxygen and nitrogen in volume, or 20 and 80 to 100 by weight, and also of tones in a sound. Mere vibration of air would be productive of no variety of tone, if the primary vibra- tions were not various, and were not ac- cordant, or the contrary. The diatonic scale merely reduces this accordance to the ratio of numbers. Of course, double velo- cities produce octaves of greater intensity, aud then in these we have a second scale, and so on, upward and downward. It is arithmetic applied to vibrations and their effects on the sense. Primary colours, red, yellow, and blue, correspond to the primary sounds C, E, and G. The proportions in the spectrum are 5, 3, and 8. Every 2 produce a colour, and the 3 produce white, making 7, just as in the diatonic scale. The secondaries are orange, of red and yellow, 5 and 3. Purple , of red and blue, 5 and 8. Green , of yellow and blue, 3 and 8. The whole white. The red and yellow 5 + 3 are equal to the blue 8. The vibrations of C are 480, of E 300, and of G 360, i. e. 8, 5, 6, the length of the string by the vibrations being 40 ir each. The artificial commas begin at 612, and diminish to 0, or 51 on each note. Euler makes A 6000, F 7500, and E 8000 ; and their commas 451, 254, and 197. A string or rod struck in the middle vi- brates in nodes or portions, and these are to the vibrations of the whole string, as the N + 1 squared to 1. All undulations of sound resolve them- selves into nodes, or definite parts, as halves, thirds, fourths, &c., and these are rendered sensible to the eye by sand placed on plates, which are vibrated by the bow of a violin. The forms produced by the nodal points of rest are most curious ; and, illustrated by Chladni, and explained by Wheatstone, are among the most striking novelties of science. In every string, fastened at both ends, there is a continuous set of intermediate notes, reflected as it were, along it in subor- dination to the resultant effect. The nodal divisions of the vibrations are formed by laying fine copper-wire across the glass, or by four little wire, hooks suspended 597 on the edge. Sympathy gives fixed nodes, the violin bow determines a middle point, and the finger gives variable nodes. Ether on the surface of water is star-like. The lowest note, says Mr. Tomlinson, is produced by 4 vibratory arcs ; the next higher by 6 arcs ; and other higher ones by 2 more ; 5 or more notes can be produced from one glass, and each a different octave. Savart made wheels with teeth, to mea- sure intervals of tones. With one of 360 teeth, he varied the velocity, and the tones in bodies, struck by the teeth, were pure at 3000 or 4000 per second. With a wheel having 720 teeth, at 12,000 strokes in a se- cond, the separate tones were discriminated by himself and others, though double that number of vibrations. With a revolving bar of iron, he produced low notes at only 8 to the second, or 16 vibrations. Nodal points are created by oscillations in contrary directions, by which a state of local rest arises ; and vibration itself arises from the disturbance of the fibres, or con- necting parts of the body, when the action of the other parts are to be brought back. These, then, excite the air in juxtaposition, and create in it vibrations or sounds. All sound appears to be echo or reflec- tion ; and if not a distinct echo, it is only for want of distance. In a real echo, the first sound is from near surfaces ; the second, or echo, from the distant surface. Sounds, in liquids and solids, are more •efficient and more rapid than in air. Two stones, rubbed in water, may be heard in water at half a mile. Cast-iron conducts sound with ten and a half times the velocity of air. A string, or piece of deal, held to the ear, or between the teeth, gives a vast increase of effect. And pipes convey sounds to vast distances. Sound is lost in passing from one medium to another, and hence, as we produce sounds by vibrating solids, the effect in air is less. At the temperature of freezing, 33°, the velocity of sound in air is 1 100 feet per second. For lower temperatures deduct") ^ For higher temperatures add $ * a 00 ' Thus, at the temperature of 50°, the velo- city of sound is 1 1 00 -f- \ (50 — 33) = 11 08£ feet. At temperature 60°, it is 1100 + k (60 — 33) = 1113£ feet. In dry air at 32°, sound travels 1090 feet per second, and one foot more for every degree of the thermometer, so that at 82, it travels 1140, or 77 5 miles an hour. The ac- tion of sound so diminishes the orbit velo- city of atoms of serial gas, as to occasion them to communicate part of their motion in very small degrees of heat. Sounds are distinct at twice the distance on water that they are on land. Parry’s experiments, at — 1 7° 2 /I F., was 1035° 19/ ; and of Franklin’s, at — 9° 14/ F., was 1069° 28/. In a balloon, the barking of dogs on the ground may be heard at an elevation of 3 or 4 miles. On Table Mountain, a mile above Cape Town, every noise in it, and #ven words, may be heard distinctly. 59S The velocity of waves of sound, in au elastic medium, is equ«4 to the velocity of a body falling through the half atmosphere or heights of the modulus of elasticity, of half 27,800 feet. The fire of the English, on landing in Egypt, was distinctly heard 130 miles. Dr. Jamieson says,' in calm weather he heard every word of a sermon at the dis- tance of 2 miles. Sounds are more intense as the air is denser. In the Arctic regions, persons can con- verse at more than a mile distant, when the thermometer is below zero. The report of a distant gun is heard before the word fire, which directs the dis- charge. Water is a better conductor of sound than air. Wood, also, is a Dowerful conductor of sound, and so is metal. The sound of a bell dies away as the ex- haustion by an air-pump proceeds ; but sound continues, since the exhaustion can- not be perfect. A bell not only does not sound in an ex- hausted receiver, but if in a receiver not exhausted and covered by another, and the intervening space exhausted, that void space will not conduct the sound. Sound affects particles of dust in a sun- beam ; cobwebs and water in musical glasses ; it shakes small pieces of paper off a string in concord. Deaf persons may con- verse through deal rods held between the teeth, or held to their throat or breast. A bell does not in water produce a tone, but a short noise, like two knives struck together. The agitation of the water pro- duces no change. In the water, a large bell is heard 45,000 feet ; but in the air, out of the water, but 656 feet. In sound, as in light, the angle of inci- dence is equal to the angle of reflection. The laws of catoptrics apply to sound. Echoes are distinguished, when the time between delivering a sound, to its return, is more than 1-1 2t.h of a second, and as the sound goes and returns, so, to the speaker, there can be no echo in less than — — , or *4 47 feet ; and syllables cannot be repeated in less than 1 -7th of a second more, or 16V feet for each syllable. The distance to produce an echo between the foci must be equal to the distance which sounds travel in distinct succession. The eye and ear appear to be capable of receiv- ing about 8 or 9 impressions in a second. Then, as the reflected sound must travel over the extra distance of the foci, these ) | IQ points must be — - — asunder, or 127 feet asunder, or as many times 127 feet as we hear, or desire to hear, distinct sounds. An echo depends, therefore, on the existence of a sufficient number of surfaces to form ellipses, which should admit of 2 foci, of 127 feet or upwards, or for different sounds, of multiples of 127 feet, and then, as the sur- faces in accordance are more extended, tha SOUND AND MUSIC. 699 SOUND AND MUSIC. 600 first, second, &c. echoes will be more or less perfect. If we desire to hear 4 sounds of 9 per second, we must be distant from the 1142 X 4 object jj = 508 feet, and this is a general rule. We may hear a whole sylla. ble of 9 per second, at 127 feet, and half a syllable at 64 feet. The common method of drawing an ellipse, by a piece of thread fixed to pins in the foci, will illustrate the entire theory, the lines being to be considered as sounds going and returning. A cannon-ball, issuing from a full charge , moves with the velocity of sound, i. e. nearly 400 yards per second ; a mile in 4^ seconds. Sound travels, in air, about 900 feet for every pulsation of a healthy person, at 75 in a minute. The velocity of sounds are equal at every pitch. The closer contact of the molecules of water enables it to conduct sound created in it 4708 feet per second, or with above 4 times the velocity of air. In the lake of Geneva, the sound of a bell was conveyed 9 miles in 10 seconds ; but, owing to the less elasticity, it does not go round obstructions like sound in air. In passing from water, &c. into air, sound appears to be reflected inwardly at low angles. In sound, light, &c. the molecules, or atoms of tne medium, merely oscillate or vibrate, and are not carried out of their relative places. Solid bodies transmit sounds to great lengths. The scratch of a pin at one end of a beam is heard at the other end ; and it is believed that a bar of iron 10 miles long, would transmit sounds in no sensible time. The ear is not fitted to receive two loud sounds in succession. In verses for music, the syllables should follow in the same order of accents as the sounds. Wolcot and Moore have this excellence. These beautiful experiments have been varied in striking ways. Paper or parch, ment, fixed over a glass vessel, and strewed with sand, may be made to imitate all the nodal lines on sand produced, sounding a plate of glass held over it. Even the nodal lines in a room, produced by a continuous tone, may be discriminated in the air within it and beyond it. All are so many proofs of the absolute plenum of matter in motion, and of the con- nection of force with force, however appa- rently disunited. How palpably absurd to separate the sun and planets, and connect them again by such fancies of human crea- tion, as attraction and gravitation ! Nor is there any wonder in the whole, for it is a necessary consequence of .the subservience of matter to motion, and of the similarity of the mechanism of atomic and massive phenomena. The effect of vibrations on sand is shewn by Chladni, and the figures are regular, and extremely curious, such as waving cir- cles with eccentric lines, regular figures, &c. &c. A sounding-board communicates the vi- bration near it to the whole mass of air, and best when perpendicular, to the vibra. tions. A sounding-board placed near an instrument, or an orchestra, and connected by a metallic with a sounding-board in a distant apartment, will convey every tone in miniature like the figure of a landscape in the focus of a lens. In wind instruments, a biast of air puts the internal volume into longitudinal vibra- tions ; and these generate nodal points or harmonics, which vibrate in accord, and pro- duce a resultant tone by waves the same length as the pipe. If the pipe is closed at one end, its note will be an octave lower, or reflected back of double length. A steady blast produces the fundamental tone, and, by increasing it, the vibrations are re- turned, and nodal points generated sponta- neously, between which the vibrations are reflected, or contrary. When the action of the molecules cannot diverge, as in pipes, whispers may be heard at the distance of a mile, with a velocity of 1120 feet per second. Sound is interrupted, or stayed, when any other molecular action is taking place in its conductor, and hence is more intense by night than by day. So sounds interfere with one another, just like the light of the sun in obscuring the stars. Sympathetic sounds are created in strings, or volumes of air in unison. A string 2 or 3 limes the length of an excited one will adopt the tones of the shorter. A tuning-fork will excite every unison, or possible unison, by contact with a harp or piano. And the ac- cordant pipes in an organ will sound ia sympathy with an unison. In a tuning-fork, the vibrations so inter- fere as to produce one tone. The vibrations of air, in sound, have been aptly likened to the action of wind on the heads of a field of corn with their elastic stalks. When strings are not in perfect unison, they produce, by interference of oscillations, beats, or silent vibrations ; and augmented ones, in every second, creating a rattling on the tone, called discord. The human ear recognizes 9 octaves, *. e. the lowest on the organ to the squeak of the Grylli. Other animals may have audible perceptions, both lower and higher. And it is supposed that the human ear might dis- criminate above 9 octaves, if the magnitude of impulses were increased. The sense of hearing arises from an ex- pansion of nerves into the inner chamber of the ear, and these receive the vibrations of the tympanum, a strained membrane. This elastic membrane is damped, by a small bone, called the mallet , but, like a drum, it will not transmit to the brain two loud sounds in immediate succession. The notes of the musical scale are formed by the contraction or enlargement of the rima glotidis , an aperture in the larynx over the windpipe. It is like the reed in wind instruments, but susceptible of the most delicate variations. 601 SOUND AND MUSIC. 602 The point of action in the voice is in the throat, and level with the hair in the back of the neck. As singers raise or lower this point, the tone is harsh, hard, thick, throaty, and gutteral. — Gardiner. High notes are produced by lessening the aperture, and increasing the velocity of the breath. If the lowest notes would permit the passage of a billiard ball, the highest should permit but a pea. — Ibid. Miners distinguish the substance bored by the sound ; and physicians distinguish the action of the heart by a listening tube. Gamblers and pie-men can distinguish, in tossing money, which side is undermost, though covered by the hand. — Gardiner. The nose and roof of the mouth are the sounding-board of the voice ; the teeth, the bridge of the lips and tongue, on whose activity, form, and skilful use depend the modulations of tone. The speaking voice is a machine, whose use children should be taught . — Music of Nature. M. Kempelon, an Hungarian, lately made a speaking-machine. It consisted of a reed, or glottis, of air-chest with valves, bellows for lungs, a mouth and jaws, and nostrils. It pronounced most letters per- fectly, but D, K, G, and T, imperfectly; and even long words and sentences with great facility. Willis, availing himself of the study of the larynx, has applied tubes to a reed, so as to pronounce all the vowels in two orders, according to the change of direction in the vibration on each side the nodal points of his tube. Hearing requires an impulse during the 10th of a second. The buzzing of insects does not proceed from the wings, but from organs in the thorax. Tones may, it is said, be discriminated up to 14,000 vibrations per second. Hence, as a string in C gives 480 vibrations, sound is capable of expressing 9 octaves between SO vibrations, 3 lower than the staff, and 4 above it. Adagio is slow time; andante , middle time ; allegro , quick time. In adagio, the crotchet accords with a pulsation ; in an- dante, the quaver with the trotting of a horse. Allegro is double-adagio Gardiner. The lengths of string, and the vibrations per second, for the eight possible octaves, are as under ; — Ledger below C staff. Ledger above { Length. Vibrations. 800U0 30 40000 60 20000 .... 120 10000 210 5000 480 2500 960 1250 .... 1920 625 .... 3840 312-5 .... 7680 The lowest note of 30 vibrations would, therefore, be expressed by a string eight times the length of the lowest note of the C Beale on the staff ; and the highest note of the highest octave by a string but one 16th of the string which expresses the highest note of the octave C on the staff. Of course, as twice 7680 vibrations is 15,360 vibrations, and this is above the power of the ear, so above 7680 would be merely a shriek. According to the accurate calculations of Farey, the following are the length of the strings, and the number of vibrations of each in a second of time, in the octave of eight notes, three sharps, and two flats : — Length. Vibrations C natural 5000 .... 480 B natural 5297 .... 453 B flat 5612 .... 428 A natural. 5946 .... 404 G sharp 6300 .... 381 G natural 6674 .... 360 F sharp 7071 339 F natural 7491 . 320 E natural 7937 302 E flat 8409 .... 285 D natural 8909 .... 269 C sharp 9439 , . . . 254 c, lower octave .. 10000 .... 240 The vibrations for the same note, what- ever the instrument, must be alike. The quality of the note depends on the instru- ment, and on the perfection of the vibra- tion. Difficulties may arise, but the notes and octaves are a fact. A musical glass maintains its tone till water has been poured in 13 of 31 parts of the heighth, which 13 is the axis ; the same for the same glass and same fluid, but dif- ferent for different glasses and fluids. If 13 of 31 in water produce C, it requires 14 to produce B ; 21 to produce A ; 29 F, and 30 E, or fullness, nearly. But if mercury is used instead of water for the axis, then 6 5 of 31 produces C ; and 8 B ; 10 B flat ; F sharp 14 ; F 15 ; E 15 5; D 17- For linseed oil, the axis of 31 parts is C 14\5 ; B 1 6 ; A 22 ; G 27 ; F 30. In olive oil C is 12 5 ; B 17*5 ; and G 2 7 5. Musical glasses are tuned by sounding the notes on a flute, so as to produce the sympathetic note on the glass. Oils and acids do not vibrate unless heat- ed ; oil vibrates as freely as water at 340° linseed at 367°, and sulphuric acid at 239°. Mercury, by itself, and in combination, produces stars of various figures. Light bo- dies laid on mercury revolve contrary ways, but on water, &c. as the finger. When a string in C is divided in the mid- dle by a bridge, the 2 sides vibrate an oc- tave higher, and in contrary directions. A 4th gives a double octave, and a 3d of the length gives the 12th above C. Pipes of the same size, whatever the ma- terial, give the same tone. Pythagoras is said to have invented har- monic strings, in consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in harmony, whose weights he found to be 6 8, 9, and 12; or rather, by squares, as 36, 64, 81, and 144. De Guignes and Wain concur in pro- nouncing Chinese music a mass of detestable discord. 1 ,arge wooden drums, bells of cast- iron, hollow copper, or brazen bowls, pieces 603 SOUND AND MUSIC 604 of hard wood, struck one against the other, or with small rods, cymbals, flutes, trum. pets, brass bells, small drums, guitars, &c., are the instruments. Several kinds of trum - pet are used, some of them very long and thin, having sliding joints to render them more portable. In addition, there is a spe- cies of harmomca ; which has a delightful tone, and a kind of harp or lute, which is played in a horizontal position. Few bar- barous instruments are more celebrated than the gong. Military gongs are distin- guished by being deeper and heavier. Civil gongs are quite shallow, and appear like a circular sheet of metal simply turned up two inches all round. All ancient music was in the minor key, without harmony or counterpoint, and en- tirely vocal and rhythmical, like our recita- tive. — Burney. Prudentius, in the fourth century, set notes to the Romish breviary ; and Flavia- nus established the first choir at Antioch. Melody is formed of the same sounds as harmony; but the notes, instead of being struck together, are made to follow in suc- cession. Melody is the result of harmony. Instrumental music is deemed the basis of the art, and vocal a branch. In its combi- nations from the duo to the symphony, the quartette is most refined. The chief plea- sure is in the taste of the performers, and in the expression with which the second, the tenor, and the 'bass, answer the imagina- tion of the first violin. The study of harmony, and the laws of counterpoint, confer a new pleasure and new sense — E. Taylor. The Gamut is so called from gamma , the third letter of the Greek alphabet, used by Guido for his lowest note. It consists of 20 notes, two octaves, and a major sixth. The first expressed by capitals, the second by small letters, and the rest by double small letters, as G, A, B, &c. g, a, b, &c. and g g, a a, &c. It is now extended to an entire scale of five or six octaves. The quality of a musical tone depends on its suddenness and singleness, and the intensity of the effect on the force and magnitude of the impulse. The pitch which varies with the intensity of vibration determines har- mony. In octaves, the vibrations are as 2 to 1, and they coincide every alternate vibration. But when the strings are as 2 to 3, every third vibration of one corresponds only with every second of the other, and they are called fifths. Complication, in music, advances with the musical education of the ear. The breve, now so long as not to be used, was so called from its once-esteemed brevity. The grave and sober Corelli and Arne gave way to Haydn and Mozart, who, in turn, give way to Beethoven and Rossini. The sound called the breve, in ancient music, is now divided into 64 demi-semi- quavers, and sometimes in 128 notes of slow movements. The division is into 2 semi- breves, 4 minims, 8 crotchets, 16 quavers. 32 semi-quavers, and 64 demi-semi-quavers; or half, if the semi-breve is fundamental. The most perfect musical composers are Handel, Jomelli, Cimarosa, Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, Rossini, and Spohr. Modern composers use nearly 50 marks of expression. Handel and Correlli had but 5 or 6. Beethoven, in one of his compositions for piano-effect, has marked 200 notes to be played in one bow ; and, in another, he as- signed 43 bars to one bow of the viola. Ferlandi played on an oboe with one lea- ther joint, by twisting which, he imitated the tones of the human wind-pipe. Mozart excelled in operas and airs, and the adaptation of accompaniments. Haydn excelled in symphonies and quartetts ; but, even in these, Mozart excelled. Both of them declared Handel their superior. Beet- hoven and Weber were other master-go* niuses. Beethoven was deaf in his last 10 years, and in that time produced his best compositions. — Gardiner. Paganini was, from his early youth, a mu- sical prodigy ; his fame at 14 or 15 drawing large audiences in every city of Italy, and serving to enrich his parents. At Lucca, he played a love-scene between a lady with the 1st string and a gentleman with the 4th string with such effect, that the Duchess Eliza Bonaparte suggested a trial with one string , and he produced a sonato with the 4th string, which had a compass of 3 oc- taves complete. At Florence, Turin, Milan, &c., by indefatigable exercises, he madden, ed the public by his performances. He then visited Vienna, Prague, Dresden, and Berlin, astonishing all performers, and overwhelm- ing all amateurs ; and, finally, he fascinated Paris and London, in 1831, and the large towns of England. The modern Egyptians play on a single string, but with no other resemblance of Paganini. Rossini is the greatest living composer, not merely in quantity, but originality and sublimity. Corelli is the head of the old school of performers, and Viotti of the modern. Co- relli died in 1713, aged 60 ; and Viotti in 1824, aged 69. The works of Corelli may be performed without touching the 4th string of the tenor or riolincello. The qualifications, says Gardiner, for a prima donna, are power, beauty, and cor- rectness, with taste and expression ; and for the theatre, action and a dramatic mind. A conductor, distinct from the first violin, is essential to the success of every public performance. Church music was first systematized on the practices at Antioch, by St. Ambrose, and, afterwards improved by the chant of Pope Gregory the First, or Great, about 690. The notes were letters over the sylla- bles: but Guido d’ Arezzo, in 1100, invented the gamut, and musical notation. Pales- trina, about 1560, was another great im- SOUND AND MUSIC. 005 60 6 prover. Marbeck, of Windsor, arranged tbe reformed service, in 1550. Others say, that Pope Gregory invented chanting He also repeated the same seven letters for successive octaves, previously designated by fifteen letters. Points were placed in lines over the letters, which Guido, in 1022, simplified by rejecting the letters, and expressed the notes by the points only, and superadded the system of solmisation, instead of the Greek ta, te, the, tho. Luther was the inventor of metrical psalmodv, about 1517, and it spread with the Reformation. The first tunes were the popular airs and dances. The old hun- dredth was a love-ditty; Rebuke me not , was a jig ; and Stand up , 0 Lord , was a Poitou- dance. Gardiner, under the sanction of George IV. and Archbishop Manners, adapted 220 strains of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, to as many of the best versions of the psalms. Madrigals, for four or five voices, were very fashionable in the seventeenth century, when Marinzio, Este, Morley, and Wilbye, composed the still favourite ones. Catches are of the same age. Scotch music is referred to their James I. The tunes, in which the 4th and 7th are omitted, seem to be formed from the Greek lyre, of 6 or 7 strings. They were first per- formed in a London concert, in 1722. The Scalds were poets and priests of Ice- land, whose rhapsodies form the Edda, and other poems. The same instrument governs all its own relations. If an organ pipe of 16 feet sounds the lowest note 3 octaves below the line, the exact relation is preserved ; if the next oc- taves above have pipes of 8 feet, 2 and 1 feet, then 6 inches, 3 and 1£ in 7 octaves. The harp rises through 6 octaves, the piano through 5, 3 above and 3 below the line. The violin, 2 above and \ below ; the violin- cello, 2 below and 2 notes above. The cla- rionet, 2 above and ^-ths below ; the flute, 2 above and Xths below. The treble voice has 2 octaves above the line. The mezzo has 1 5 th above and 4- below. The counter 7 7 tenor is 1 *th above and -^ths below ; tne tenor ^.ths above and below. The bass is l^ths below aud ^ths above. The English excel in anthems, and Tallis, Birde, Farrant, Gibbons, Blow, Purcell, Wise, Clarke, Croft, Green, Boyce, and Nares, are celebrated. Musically speaking, Gardiner observes, that England has not produced an original idea. He ascribes the thoughts of Purcell and Arne to Italians, and our grave Church music to the Flemings. Carissimi wrote the first air for a single voice. Previously they were mataltos, ma- drigals, &c. In music, excellence arises from melody, harmony, and expression ; and in painting, from design, colouring, and expression. Quartetts produce all the chords, and most of the accents connected with expres. sion. Counter-point, or melody with harmony, as treble and bass, was invented by Guido, about 1022; and the time-table by Frameo. in 1080. The modern system gives 24 notes to the octave. B sharp C natural C sharp D flat C double sharp D natural D sharp E flat E natural F flat E sharp F natural F sharp G flat F double sharp G natural G sharp A flat A natural B double flat A sharp B flat B natural C flat These can be performed only with the voice or stringed-instruments. The common scale has 12 notes, and in- cludes 3 sharps and 2 flats ; but exact inter- vals demand 6 other sharps and 6 other flats in a perfectly-divided octave. C to D, D to E, F to G, G to A, and A to B are tones. E to F and B to C are semitones. The strings are 1 for C, 8-9ths for D, 4-5ths for E, 3 4ths for F, 2-3ds for G, 3-5ths for A, 5-15ths for B, | for C. Every string when struck produces, be- sides its own note, three sounds easily dis- tinguished : 1 an octave higher, a 12th, and a double octave, called acute harmonics. When a string is vibrated, the ear discri- minates the principal sound and its octave, and also two high sounds, one a twelfth, or octave, to the fifth, or two-thirds the string, and the other the 17 th major, or double octave of its third major, or four-fifths 0 f the string. So that we get (1) the sound of the whole string, (2) of half the string, (3) of | of § = §, and (4) £ of ^ths, or -jth. That is, 1+4 + 1 + or I + |5 + |o -f- and + -j-q, or 1 -j- 1 -j^th. This is the result of the sum of all the vibrations of all the parts of the string; for the centre has one vibration, and the end, from the centre to the fixed points at both ends, have their own vibrations, which on both sides are doubled. The unison octave is the major fifth, and major and minor thirds, and the major and minor sixths are concords ; the three first are perfect, and the two last imperfect Common chords are a key-note, with its third and fifth, and major or minor, just as the third is major or minor. There are 4 or 5 clefs or keys. The G, or treble key, on the second line. The F, or bass key, on the fourth line. The C, or tenor clef, on the fourth line. The counter- tenor clef on the third line. And the so- prano clef on the first line. The key is the ground-work of any system of notes, and gives character to the compos.ition. Old songs were in G minor. A third note, made by two whole tones. SOUND AND MUSIC. 607 608 is called a major third ; but if made by a tone and semi tone, it is a minor third. The perfect fifth consists of a major third and minor third, or two major tones, one minor, and a semi-tone. That from D to A is 1 major, 2 minor, and 1 semi-tone, and is flatter than the true fifth. On account of the imperfection of instru- ments with 12 or even 24 notes, the tuner adopts a temperament by taking the fifths too flat ; by which the errors are masked or compensated in ascending and descending. In tuning by fifths, from C to G, and G to d, and from d to D, C D is a major in- terval. But, tuning A as fifth to D, and e as fifth to A, then E downward, as octave to e, would be major to D, and the inter- vals C E by two major tones, and E much too sharp. If, however, E be tuned as major third to C, the interval D E is less than the former D E, and, therefore, the minor tone. Then the difference between the first and second D E is the comma. The exact natural divisions are not tones and semi-tones, for the longer intervals of semi-tones are greater than half. C to D is, therefore, called a tone major, D to E a tone minor, E to F a semi-tone, F to G tone major , G to A tone minor , A to B tone major, and B to C semi-tone ; that is, three major tones, two minors, and two diatonic semi-tones. Three chords, the tonic , or key-note, third and fifth, the dominant , the second and se- venth, and the sub-dominant , the fourth and sixth, are the radical parts of every scale, minor and major ; and all melodies have the perfect concords of these keys for their fundamental bases. — Callcott. The Liston, or enharmonic system, adds 29 notes to the 24, making 53 ; and an organ has been set up with 39 notes in the octave. Thorough bass is the art of expressing, by musical characters, the harmonic com- bination of notes, which are to be struck with the right-hand upon the piano- forte, in accordance with any given note in the bass, which is struck with the left-hand .—Gardiner. Melody belongs to the imagination, and not to science. It is the gift of rude inven- tion, and, like feeling and sentiment, be- longs to nature. But harmony is a work of art, and, in combining simultaneous sounds, affords the intellectual enjoyment of a suc- cession of proper chords, only to be felt by the instructed. Modulation is an effect of the principal key, to which the melody returns after any transitions, and in which it concludes. The cadence, or conclusion of every com- position, is a change in the harmony, from the dominant to the tonic, or the tonic to the dominant. It is a progression from the harrpony of the fifth of the key to the key itself, and is called the perfect cadence. — Callcott. Melody is the system of sounds, which follow each other at diatonic distances, or intervals ; and when they do not so follow, ■ounds are mere noise. When F is made the key or base of any melody, the effect is rich and grave j but its relative, D minor, is more sombre. C is bold and energetic; and its relative, A minor, is similar, but plaintive. G is gay and lively ; but its relative, E minor, soft and tender. D is grand and lofty ; but its relative, B minor, complaining. A is glowing ; but F sharp , minor, mournful. The sharps of E are brilliant and sparkling. The sharps of B are piercing. B flat is dull, and G minor, melancholy. E flat is mellow and soft, and C minor, complaining. Aflat is delicate and tender ; but its rela- tive, F minor, gloomy. D flat, major, is solemn and awful. Assimilating tones to colours, Gardiner considers the trombone as deep red; the trumpet, scarlet ; the damnet^oraugej .the oboe, yellow ; the bassoon, deep yellow ; the diapason, green ; the flute, blue ; the horn, violet ; the violin, pink ; the violincello, red. Gardiner, in his Music of Nature, has put into notes the songs of 24 birds, and 20 animals. Also, about 20 expressions of human passion and feeling, and tones of 8 or 10 insects. The gnat gives the note A on the second space. The death-ivatch calls in B flat, and answers in G. The three notes of the cricket are in B. The buz of a bee-hive is in F. The wings of the house-fly are F in the first space. The humble-bee is an octave lower. The cock-chafer is F be- low the line. The art of singing is new, and, till the last century, was the mere result of good voice. Female performers were not em- ployed till the Restoration ; and the first Italian lady appeared in London, in 1692. Mrs. Tofts, Mrs. Anastasia Robinson, Miss Brent, and Miss Young, were the precursors of Mara, Billington, Salmon, Catalani, Gras- sini, Pasta, Sontag, Ronzi, Malibran, P/Uon Wood, Stephens, &c. &c. Since singing be- came a science, male singers have been more rare ; and Farinelli was the wonder of one age, as Braham has been of our own. Farinelli could sing 300 notes without drawing breath; while 50 exhausts most singers. The vocal tone extends wider than the speaking; and, hence, the advantage of chaunting in all religious assemblies, and of tones in street-cries. The Italians call the lower notes the voce de petto, the voice of the breast ; and the higher notes, the voce de testa , or voice of the head. The former is what is called the language of the heart; the latter, in men, is called falsetto Gardiner. All voyces, great and small, base and shrill, weak or soft, may be holpen, and brought to a good point, by learning to singe — Ascham. A firm and decided tone is produced by quick opening of the mouth. The groat bell of St. Paul’s is 8400 lbs. • 609 SOUND AND MUSIC. 610 of Lincoln, 9394 lbs. ; of Oxford, 17,000 lbs. ; of Florence, 17,000 lbs. ; of St. Peter’s, 18,607 lbs. ; of Erfurth, 28,224 lbs.; of Rouen, 43,000 lbs. ; of Moscow, 160,000 lbs. ; one unhung at Moscow, 440.000 lbs. ; and there is one in China of 120,000 lbs. A bell produces 4 or 5 distinct notes ; the predominating depending on the part struck. The large bell of St. Paul’s has a fundamen- tal A, and secondary D, F sharp and A. All other vessels give a fundamental note, and often many secondary ones. Large bells are 1 - 15th of the diameter thick, and 1-1 2th of the height. Bell-metal is made of copper and tin. Small bells, made of tin, silver, copper, or gold, give sounds in acuteness, as 253, 260, 282, 294, respectively. Bells were used in English churches about 700 ; and, for that purpose, consecrated , some say, baptized, with proper names given them. Popes themselves as- sisted. They were then supposed to put demons to flight, and were rung during eclipses, to drive away the dragon, which astrologers still recognize, by calling the northing node the dragon’s head, and the southing node the dragon’s tail ; to which they ascribe potent effects. On St. John’s Day, they were rung furiously, to put his devils to flight, and prevent storms. A Popish council, by formal decree, directed that bells should be blessed, to affright de- mons and witches, avert lightnings and whirlwinds, and baffle the spirits of the storm. For the benefit of departed souls, bells were also to be tolled ; nine knells given for a man, six for a woman, and three for a child; a custom which still continues. The cathedral at Antwerp has a musical combination of 33 bells, the largest 7 feet wide, and 8 feet high. Peals of five and six bells are plaintive and melancholy. Those of eight and ten, lively and joyful. The trebles of York Minster and Bow Church are 8f cwts., and the tenors 53cwt,s. Bell-ringing, as a system, is altogether English. A peal of 8 bells is the diatonic scale. In Church bells no tunes can be played but such as are free from flats or sharps, or such as can be played on the white keys of the piano. Church organs are in two parts, the main, and the little organ before the other. The largest pipe expresses the size, as 8, 16, or 32 feet organs. That at Ulm is 93 feet nigh, and 28 broad; its largest pipes, 13 inches bore, with 16 pair of bellows. The organ at Haerlem is 108 feet high, and 50 feet broad, with 5000 pipes, resembling columns of sil- ver, from the ground to the roof. It pro- duces a tone of thunder. The organ in the new church at Amsterdam has 52 whole stops, besides half-stops, and two rows of keys for the feet, and three for the hands ; and a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of Human voices. The famous Temple organ, in London, was erected by competition of Schmidt and Harris, two famous builders ; and, after long.protracted disputes about their merits, the question was referred to Mr. Jeffries, afterwards Chief-Justice, and he decided in favour of .Schmidt. The flute, pipe, flageolet, and boy’s whis- tle, were originally in the same form. The side flute was a German invention of the past century. Cremona violins of 1660 are pure tone, and superior to all others : not so loud, but more effective in an orchestra. — Gardiner. The pianoforte was invented, in London, about 1766, by Zumpi, a German. The trombone is the sackbut of the an- cients, and it vras revived about 1790, after a model found in Pompeii. They produce every semi-tone, by sliding out and in, like a telescope tube. The horn or trumpet has been played in a concert of two hundred trumpeters, from the size of a penny trumpet to those twenty feet long. — Baillot. The compass of the harp extends through six octaves, from five lines below the bass clef, to six lines above the treble. The piano through five octaves, and with extra keys to six. The guitar through two and a quarter. The clarionet three and a half. The horn three. The bassoon three. The flute three. The violin two and a half. The violincello two and a quarter. Human voices two ; the Soprano, two notes below the treble, to three above ; the Tenor, middle-line of bass to middle of treble ; the Bass, note below line of bass clef, to second line of treble. In an organ of eight octaves, the pipes of the lowest are thirty-two feet, and of the highest one inch and a half. The violin is the form of instrument which all men would adopt when seeking to produce vibrations. Its forms would vary, but the principle would be constant. The harp, guitar, viola, &c. are variations, and brief experience would suggest tbe belly or sounding-board. The bow of horse-hair may have been more modern, but the ne- cessity of passing one elastic material over another would be of early invention. The roof of Peterborough cathedral and Strutt’s Pastimes, shew that the instrument was in use, at least, 500 years since, and, of course, not then invented. The cremona fiddles were made 250 years since, and they must be regarded as the perfection of an instru- ment of early antiquity. Taautus, Linus, and Orpheus, beyond question, used an in- strument of the kind, and the lyre is one of the varieties. The most effective aud exhilirating of all wind instruments, is the “trompette a la piston,” used in the village dances of France. A complete violin is constructed of 58 different parts: sycamore is used for the back, neck, &c. ; soft red deal for the belly ; and ebony for the finger-board and tail- piece. There were three Amatis successor* in the seventeenth century. Other cremona- X 011 PHILOLOGY. 612 makers, of celebrity, were Straduarius and Guarnarius, an age later. Musical boxes, &c. produce their tones by metal springs, which vibrate in their return to rest. In other cases, currents of air are made to act on them ; and, hence, Wheat- stone’s symphonion, &c. The lyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns; and the viol and vielle of the middle ages is the modern violin. The lyre was invented by Taautus, and improved by Orpheus, Linus, and Thamy- ras. It had 11 strings, and was played on by a stick or the fingers. Linus was the first lyric poet, and he added a string to the lyre. Harps on the walls of the Egyptian tombs have 1 1 strings. The ancients adopted three strings in their lyre, because every tone on one string is three tones ; and then the three strings were of such lengths, that two of them perfected the two concealed or faint tones of the prin- cipal string. Then, as the two generated four concealed tones, so other four strings perfected these four tones, making seven strings. The octave string was added, as a sort of harmonic result to the seventh, and served to join the tones of the first and eighth in unison. Greek instruments had no neck for shor- tening the strings. — MontfauQon. A harp of the eleventh century is pre- served in Trinity College, Dublin. A lyre was found in a tomb at Athens, like that of Apollo, with eight strings. The bag-pipe, a Celtic musical instrument, much used in the Highlands and Ireland, is composed of a leathern bag ; connected is a pipe or chanter, with a reed, and the passage of the air from the bag produces the tones. These are all drones, two in unison with D on the chanter, and a long drone an octave lower. The organ was invented by one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 B. C. The Hon. Robert Boyle gravely published, that the sound of a drum, made of wolf's skin, would break another made of sheep’s skin ; and that a harp, strung with fox gut- strings, would make hens fly away. His philosophical writings, as well as those of Lord Bacon, abound in gross superstitions. Emasculation for soprano voices took place at Rome, owing to female voices not being permitted in the churches or theatres. But, an opinion prevails, that when the operation is performed in bad weather, the voice is out of tune ; hence, numbers of cas- tratos are employed in menial offices both at Rome and Naples. At the Reformation, organs were identi- fied with the Catholic Religion, taken down, and their pipes sold for old metal. They were re-erected after the Restoration. The best form of a concert-room is the double cube with a flat roof. The Beggar’s Opeta travesties 69 ballads and country dances. At the Musical Festival, in commemora- tion of Handel, in Westminster Abbey, 1784, and at that of 1834, the number of Instrumental and Vocal Performers were 1784 1834 Violins 101 j 80 Tenors 32 32 Violincellos ... m m 30 18 Double Basses 18 18 Flutes 7 10 Oboes mm 26 12 Clarionets 8 Bassoons 27 12 Horns 12 10 Trumpets 14 8 Trombones 3 8 Ophicleides .. # , 2 Serpents 2 Drums 4 3 Great Drum . . -- 1 — 2 75 223 Cantos m m 221 145 Altos . . 51 74 Tenors 66 1 70 Basses - 69 | 108 208 397 Instruments.. ..275 223 483 620 4. perfect orchestra, as arranged by Gar- diner at two late oratorios, consisted of 82 stringed instruments, 22 wind, and 146 voices ; in all 250, with an organ. A late French orchestra consisted of 134 stringed instruments, 35 wind, and 178 voices ; in all 346. Latin prosody is false in principle. Words are of all lengths, not merely long or short. The Trochee and Iambic move in triple time, and the Dactyl and Sponde in com- mon time, but the syllables are of every measure of length . — Music of Nature. The words and syllables of language are like notes in music, of all lengths, and this is the rhythm of language. The adagios of Haydn and Beethoven consist of sounds of all lengths ; and passages of Shakspeare and Milton are also combined of words slow and rapid. — Ibid. For sound and music, words in the English language are not well assorted. It is pow- erful but rough, and though so copious, it is deficient in delicacy and flexibility. The French speak in the nose, the Ger- mans in the throat, and the English through the teeth. PHILOLOGY. It is estimated that there are 587 lan- guages and general dialects in Europe, 937 in Asia, 226 in Africa, and 1264 in America; in all nearly 3000. We are obliged to refer the transition of languages either to an indefinite antiquity of nations, or to distinct races of men. The principle is the same in all — names of things and names of actions, with qualities of things, modes of action, and relations of place. Powers of voice are as natural to 313 PHILOLOGY. man as to animals and birds, and border tribes were likely to interchange their sounds. Monosyllables were the primitive sounds, and syllabic compounds would be results. Hence, all the fundamental tongues are mo- nosyllabic as to generic ideas, and com- pounds species and varieties. The Sanscrit, Chinese, Welsh, Greek, Hebrew, German, &c. are formed on this principle. Man appears to have vocal organs of great flexibility, and these, in every family, cave, or union of caves, would be the bases of a dialect. Two or more families would, of course, by association, club their stock of words, and fortuitous circumstances would expand the dominion of some one, and ge- nerate in time a nearly common language within physical boundaries. Vocal sounds are the natural utterance of the human voice, similar in man to the sounds uttered by birds and animals, and by which they express a few generic ideas, without the complication and composition effected by human reason and greater com- pass of utterance. Primitive sounds, or monosyllables, are, therefore, a-kin to each other in all the elder languages, as in Sanscrit, Chinese, Welsh, &c. ; and all their words are com- posite, i. e. consist of the genus united to another, or to two or three to discriminate the species of the idea. Other languages are dialects compounded out of these, as Englisn, French, Spanish, Italian, &c. and further complicated by words derived from one another. The Chinese have 214 radical words and signs of them, the Welsh about as many ; and out of these by synthesis other words are formed, to the number of fifty or sixty thousand. Differences arise from the structure of the vocal organs, or from imi- tation of parents, or at present from cor- ruptions, or as written from different powers of letters. There are 20,000 words in Spanish ; 25,000 in Latin ; from 22 to 25,000 in English ; 30,000 in French ; 45,000 in Italian ; 50,000 in Greek; and 80,000 in German. There are 1/00 radical words in Hebrew, and 360 Chaldaic words in the Bible. The first languages would consist of open vow'el sounds, and their stops or consonants to discriminate the sense of the vowel sounds. Once formed, the Pedagogue would introduce rules, and give to a language its scholastic forms. Accident would give the first links. The use of one part of the glottis, the preference of teeth, lips, nose, tongue, &c. would afford the key, and the rest would be radiation from that key. Usage would make one form of utterance as easy as another, and, hence, the strange diversity in which every animal sound is adopted and systematized. The first voice is noise similar in princi- ple to the drone of bagpipes, and the words and language are inflections and modula- tions. Even the vowel sounds vary with the larts employed in producing first sounds. It is an epoch when contemplative man first began to represent ideas and sounds by 614 drawings, and a greater epoch when these hieroglyphics were abbreviated into current written characters. These discoveries were, however, simultaneous, since different peo pie made different abbreviations. tain the following letters : English 26 Latin , 22 French 23 Greek 24 Italian 20 Hebrew, &c. ....22 Spanish • 27 Arabic German .26 Persian 32 Sclavonic .27 Sanscrit Russian .41 Chinese . , ....214 Thoth, the Egyptian, who invented cur- rent writing, lived between the years 2800 or 3000 B. C. But, Josephus says, he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ! The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was Aleph, which the Greeks called Alpha ; and the moderns, by abbreviation, A. They also used letters to count ; and tau , for 100, is, in the games of school-boys, the name of a white marble, worth many common ones. The word Alphabet is the letters Alpha , Beta , just as we say the A. B. C. The Hebrew language and letters are believed to be derived from the Phoenician, since Tyre, Sidon, &c. were distinguished cities in the age of Abra- ham, Moses, and Joshua. Paper was made of the Papyrus shrub till 700 A. C., when cotton and silk paper came into use. Linen rags were not used till 1200 A. C. MSS. were either rolls or volumes of parchment, &c., or stitched books called Codices. The oldest known MS. is part of the Iliad found in Upper Egypt. There is a copy of the Gospels in the British Museum of the 8th century, by Ead- frid, Bishop of Durham, with additions by three other Bishops. Sanscrit, the basis of Hindoo learning, is said in the east to be the first character. It is taught at Benares by pundits, or doctors : and the pupils there read the Puranas, or abridgments of the law, and study abstract philosophy, very like that of the Greek schools. The alphabet of the Sanskrita is called the Devanagari. Chaldee, Phoenician, or Syriac, ascribed to Adam, Enoch, Noah, Abraham, and Moses, is nearly the same as the Hebrew. The Sanscrit contains 16 vowels and 34 consonants, and is probably the parent of most of the Oriental alphabets, even of the Greek. Cadmus, the Phoenician, introduced the first Greek alphabet into Bceotia, where he settled, B. C. 1500 ; though Diodorus says the Pelasgian letters were prior to the Cad- mean. But it is evident that the Cadmean and Pelasgic, and Phoenician, had the same origin. The Irish Alphabet is the Phoe- nician. Scaliger supposes the Phoenician to have been the original Hebrew character, other- wise the Samaritan. It is that which was used by the Jews from Motes to the Captivity. X 2 G15 PHILOLOGY. 616 The Oriental Alphabets are Hebrew, an- cient, modern, and rabbinical. Samaritan, ancient and modern. Phoenician. Syriac, ancient and modern. Egyptian hierogly- phic, and Chinese characters. The Greek Alphabets were Cadmean, Pelasgian, Sigean, Nemean, Delian. Athe- nian, and Teian. Also Ionic, or the alpha- bet of Simonides. The Alphabets derived from, or allied to, the Oriental Alphabets are, Cufic, Arabic, Persian, Saracen, Ethiopic, Mendean, Mala- baric, Mantchou Tartar, Sanscrit, Japanese, Thibetan, and Rejang. The Alphabets derived from the Oriental or Greek Alphabets are, Ancient Irish, P»obeloth and Pethluisnon. Ogums, namely, Croabh and O’Sullivan’s. Coptic, Arme- nian, Georgian, Dalmatian, and Russian. The Northern Alphabets are, Gothic, ancient, modern, and Maeso- Gothic. Runic. Welch. Deutsch, ancient and modern. Teutonic. German, printed and current. Flemish. French, ancient and current. Norman and Anglo-Norman. Bastard, an- cient and round. Lombard. Charlemagne. Black Letter. Chancery, round and run- ning. Court Text. Church Text. The Chinese receive it as an undoubted fact, that, in high antiquity, knotted cords were made use of to signify the intention of the rulers, and to be, to a certain extent, the signs of ideas. It is said, that in the reign of Hwang-te, the third from Fuh-he, a person called Ts'hang-H'ee, observing the appearance of a certain constellation, the marks on the shell of a turtle, and the im- pression of a horse’s foot, first conceived the idea of forming letters. There are strong resemblances between the Egyptian art of writing and the Chi- nese, but the latter is more artful than the former. Both, in effect, have an ideal and syllabic power, and also a phonetic or alpha- betic power. This last seems to be the ap- plication of a principle which they deve- loped to other nations, who sought only to assimilate sounds, and hence arrived at the alphabet without its hieroglyphic or ideotic, and its syllabic machinery. Every age has had its peculiar style of penmanship, so that the age of any MS. may be assigned within half a century. Champollion determined the meaning of about 140 hieroglyphic characters by his phonetic system, out of the 800 on the mo- numents. His theory, and that of Young, are germs for the future. The decyphering of hieroglyphics is not admitted to be successful beyond proper names ; but in these we arrive at certainty, and much knowledge. In Sanscrit there are 52 letters, and 800 contractions. The arrow-headed, or Zend characters, are alphabetical, and have been analyzed by Grotefend. The Zend was the ancient language of Bactriana, of Zoroaster, and the fire wor- shippers, who preceded the Greek Prome- theus. It has preserved one book, the Zenda-Vesta, the earliest record of Asiatic traditions. The Pari and modern Persian superceded it. It was the language o! Babylonian bricks, and of the earliest cunic- form and arrow-headed inscriptions, now unintelligible. Antiquaries may long dispute whether the Sanscrit, the Zend, the Chinese, or the Alphabet of Taautus, derived from the Hieroglyphics, were the most ancient. The most abstract was the Zend, like our short- hands or digits, the others were derived from sensible objects. Arrow-headed characters, in which the Zend was written, like hieroglyphics have lost their meaning. They abound as in- scriptions at Babylon and Nineveh, and as stamps on bricks in the ruins of Babylon ; indeed, they are found in many parts of Western Asia. They are about 40 in num- ber. They were beyond question the written- language of Babylonia and Nineveh. They resemble at the first glance Chinese, and there is little doubt that Phoenician and Hebrew were imitations of them. The Egyptian hieroglyphics were pictures or symbols, their hieratic language was an alphabet derived from the other in relation to the sounds of certain popular objects ; therefore. Phonetic and the Demotic was the rude running-hand of the hieratic alpha- betical, or 29 phonetic letters. Hence, as the Hieratic alphabet was derived from the hieroglyphic, it becomes a key. There appear, when they are classed, to be only 864 separate hieroglyphic characters, of which 150 were tools, 180 the human figure and limbs, 100 furniture, 60 vegeta- bles, 50 birds, 40 fishes and reptiles, 80 dress, 56 animals, 10 celestial, 20 geome- trical figures. Heads are always placed to- wards the beginning. About 40 or 50 ob- jects are figured. Gods are represented by the animals, or parts of them, sacred to them, or over a man — and. abstract ideas by composition of objects and allegories. Ammon was a man with a ram’s head; Phre with the head of a hawk ; Anubis with the head of a jackal ; Cnuphis with a circle or ram with a feather ; an eye, also, represented Osiris ; an obelisk, Ammon; or a Nilometer, Phtha. All characteristic to rude analogies. Hieroglyphics were pictures, and the en- chorial (country or popular) mode of wri- ting were brief or rapid marks, generally deduced from the hieroglyphics, and intend- ed to express sounds. Morrison gives preference to the Chinese characters, as more impressive than alpha- betic characters, and refutes the objections raised by the scholars of the west. The Keys of the language are 214, the charac- ters by which others are formed are 3867, or in fact 1903; and from these, by adding an element, the body of the language is formed. 846 mono-syllables form the ver- nacular tongue. The modern characters of the Chinese are 30,000 ; but the works of Confucius con. PHILOLOGY, 617 tain but 3000. Their great dictionary con- tains 43,496. — Marshman. Their verbal language is, in principle, like the Welsh, and consists of 330 mono- syllables, which, by accent, are extended to 1300 sounds. The composition of these makes up the colloquial language with a sort of philosophical precision. Its attain- ment by foreigners is, therefore, not diffi- cult ; and though their standard dictionary contains 36,000 words, yet our Todd and Johnson contain 80,000 ; the Scapula, 44,000 Greek words; and Ainsworth, 45,000 Latin words ; independent of inflexions. The Editor of this volume, in 1804, pub- lished a showy edition of the Keys, with an English Commentary by Hager. It led the way to other works, and Chinese is now as accessible as German. The standard dictionary of the Chinese language, according to Morrison, contains 214 classes; 150 of which include the more important words, and 60 of them about 25,000. The whole was arranged and per- fected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 years B. C. Most of the characters are hieroglyphic, or rude representations, like our signs of the zodiac. At present, they are divided into 17 classes, beginning with that formed by 1 stroke, and ending with those formed by 17. The Chinese is an original language, wholly unlike the Sanscrit or the Hebrew. And the Chinese, in manners, customs, and religion, have no resemblance to any other people. The Chinese, in their Imperial His- tory, refer the invention of fire to the reign of Swee-gtn-shee, and of iron to the reign of Fohee, claiming both as Chinese disco- veries. Most of the Greek fables are refer- able to those oriental discoverers. They were a nation of moralists, and of inventors in all the arts, while Europe was steeped in barbarism. The Welsh language, always regular and significant in its mono-syllables, consisted of the primitive or radical characters, and 24 secondary ones, formed by cutting letters on a stick in a triangular or square form. There are 3 primitive languages in Hin- doostan, the Sanscrit, Pracrit, and Magadhi. The Sanscrit is the fundamental language, and that of the Vedas. The Pracrit, the vernacular language in many dialects. The Magadhi, or Misra, is that of Ceylon and the Islands. The current native language of Ireland is t verbatim ct literatim, that of Carthage, a colony of Phoenicia. Plautus makes Hanno speak in Carthaginian, and “ Hann done filli hanum bene filli in mustine,” is to a letter Irish, Carthaginian, or Phoeni- cian. All Plautus’s other passages corres- pond also, except in slight variations of some letters in the orthography. The ancient language of Asia Minor was Phrygian, or Semitic, of which Chaldean, Syriac, Hebrew, Phoenician, and Arabic, were dialects. Beyond the rivers, towards the Indu, dialects of the Sancrit and Zend appeared 613 The Coptic is an alphabet so called from Coptos, in Egypt, a mixture of Greek and Egyptian. Hebrew, Chaldaic, Phoenician, Arabic, and Ethiopic, are one family of languages. The Hebrew written character was the Phoenician ; but in the captivity, they ac- quired the square Chaldaic character, and lost the former. Moses is believed to have written only on stone or brass. Papyrus and cloth were not used till after Samuel. To write, was a rare qualification but 500 years ago. Ethiopic, or Abyssinian, is derived from the Samaritan or Phoenician. The Etruscan was the first alphabet used in Italy, so called from the Etrusci, the most ancient inhabitants. The most ancient characters, under the name of Gothic, are attributed to Ulphilas. Adelung considered the language of Mis- nia as the standard German. The most ancient Arabic, called the Kufic, was so named from Kufa, on the Euphrates. The modern Arabic was invented by Mo- lach, A. D. 933, in which he wrote the Koran three times. Every thing in Europe is modern and imi- tative, in relation to the history, science, and literature of the Arabians, and the na- tions that wrote and spoke in Arabic. The Greeks were their servile imitators, and the study of Greece was to visit those countries, and borrow from them. Pythagoras even served in the Chaldaic armies, and Solon, Plato, Anaxagoras, &c. travelled in Ara- bian countries before they professed wisdom. We also might drink at the fountain, but, by a strange fatuity, we have preferred the muddy stream of Greek and Roman deriva- tion. Scarcely 50 persons in all Europe un- derstand Arabic, but 5000 Greek, and a mil- lion Latin, though the Romans merely co- pied the Greeks, who had mutilated their own eastern originals. Armenian, used in Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria, Tartary, &c. approaches the Syriac and Greek. The Malay language, common to all the Oriental islands and coasts, and, in dialects, to the Isles of the Pacific, is softer than the Italian, and totally unlike any other lan- guage. Its written character is the Arabic. The spread of the Arts of Life, of Reli- gion, &c. has assimilated languages. The inventors of gunpowder and the steam-en- gine transfused new words into every other language. So it has been with writing, me- tallurgy, printing, horticulture, &c. Two languages are spoken in Germany, one called Low Deutsch, and the other High German. The former prevails in Westphalia, and on the coasts ; the other is spoken in Saxony, Bavaria, &c. and, gene- rally, on the Rhine and Danube. The Low German, or that of the coasts of Friesland, &c., is what has been mis-called Saxon in England, but the language of Saxony al- ways was High German. The Saxon of our scholars is the Teutonic, Teut, Teutsch, Deutsch, or primitive Dutch, not Saxon, PHILOLOGY. 619 Tor this Dutch is in no respect Saxon. Lan- guage thus corrects a vulgar error. No Saxons came to England ! Hengist ancl Horsa came with bands of Friscians, who used Saxon swords, called Saxes, and spoke that low Deutsch, which gross ignorance in the age of Vortigern called Saxon ; and which, credulity and sycophancy call Saxon, oveu to this day j many Groningen works on this subject are curious, and expose the quackeries of 1000 years. A Cherokee, named Sus gue-jah, about 1820, invented an alphabet of the Cherokee language ; and also digits for numbers, to effect the purposes of “ the speaking leaf but without any knowledge of other charac- ters or digits. ( Musicians consider Italian as the verna- cular tongue of Etruria and Italy; and La- tin as the language of the literati ; and they draw the inference from the impossibility of accommodating Latin to music. — Gar- diner. Latin smothered the ancient Greek in the middle ages, and produced the Romaic dia- lect or modern Greek. Greek is to Romaic what Latin is to Italian. Demetrius Chalcondyles, Emmanuel Mos- chopulus, Johannes Argyropulus, Theodo- rus Gaza, and Constantius Lasoaris, were the Greeks who fled from Constantinople to Italy and France, in 1452, where Aurispa, Filelfo, and Chrvsoloras had already cre- ated a taste for Greek literature. Professor Mezzofanti, of Bologna, living in 1825, spoke 32 living and dead languages. In 1832, he became insane, and mingled all his languages in confusion. Among others, he spoke the Zigan, or Gypsy Tongue, which he described as a dialect of the Pariahs of Jlindostan. In 83 American languages only 170 roots of words are common to both Continents, and three in five of these have Tartar affinity. The languages of South America have become different, by giving for name to the son, a new word for the name of the object after which his father was called. The ob- ject and all its derivations are thus changed in each tribe, and in a few generations the language. — Dobrizhoffer. Smart calculated 20,410 noun substantives in Johnson’s Dictionary, 9053 adjectives, 7880 verbs, and 2592 adverbs. Todd and Taylor have increased these full half, making about 60,000 words. Sheridan reckoned 28 simple sounds, and proposed a new alphabet of 9 vowels and 19 consonants. An alphabet of 13 letters has also been proposed, — the five vowels and the •consonants b, g, d, 1, m, n, r, s. Consonants are the beginning or the end of vowel sounds. These are made with the lips open, and the former commence with the opening of the lips, or end with the closing of them. A bass voice extends from F or G to C or D. A tenor from C to A. The counter- tenor from E to C. The mezzo-soprano from A to F. The soprano from C to C in alt . — Gardiner. A dozen English words end with a ; two dozen with o ; and nearly 5000 with y ; ough has 8 sounds, as up , on , o, ojf^ uff, oo % and aut. During six or seven centuries the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings, from the Tweed to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas ; and the lan- guage of the rapacious Roman conquerors has been more or less retained by the ser- vile or monkish classes even to this day. Adelung, the celebrated German philo- loger, was born in 1734, and died at Dres- den, in 1806. His German Dictionary is the standard of th«e language. In his ge- neral history of languages, he gives speci- mens of the Lord’s Prayer in 500 languages and dialects. The first writers were the Phoenicians and Egyptians. Taautus, who wrote 8 books of laws, and books of natural philosophy and medicine, lived nearly 2000 years before the Greeks were distinguished. Sanchoniatho must have written before Moses, for he no- tices nothing Jewish, unless the allies ofllus or Chronus, whom he called Elohim, after Ilus, were Jews ; and we collect from him nothing later than the Titan war, which took place about 2800 B. C. The Books of Moses were written about 1740 B. C., and other early Jewish books before the year 1200. The earliest Chinese histories claim the year 2200 B. C. The Irish chronicles of O’Connor must have been written about 1500 or 1600 B. C. Confucius, the founder of the religious Deism of Chioa, still professed by the au- thorities and the literati, was contemporary with Pythagoras, and died at 72. His prin- ciples are the Tayhio, the School of Adults ; 2, the Chong-yong ; 3, the Lung-yu ; 4, the Meng-tsi; 5, the Hyankingj and 6, the byan-hyo, or book for children. Orion was not meant by Job or Amos. The translators so rendered the word Kesil, but without warrantry. The Kimah of Job means the Pleiades. Pen means high, and Og means chief, in many early languages. The words of Frisic origin in modern English are about 8000 out of 40,000. Language is first pictorially complete, then symbolical, and then abstract. Horne Tooke wrote an elaborate work, to prove that our conjunctions are imperatives of Saxon verbs. If from Giffan give An from Anan grant Eke from Eacan add , Yet from Getan get Still from Stellan put Else from Alessan dismiss Though . . from Thaffigan .... allow But from Botan boot Without from Worthan-utan be out And from Anandat Serve .... from Seon see Lest from Lessan dismiss A Welsh etymologist would greatly vary these forced constructions. PHILOLOGY, 621 Koreish Arabic was that used in the Ko- ran, and is the theological language of all Mahometans ; but there is also a vernacular Arabic spoken through Asia, with nouns and verbs the same, but differing in con- struction in 9 or 1 0 dialects. The Arabic numerals were of Hindoo origin. A Phonetic alphabet refers to the sounds, and was a conversion, by Taautus, of the picture and symbol. Hebrew letters, at first, represented familiar objects, and then analogous sounds for other objects of like sound. Our letters are Phonetic, or the language of the ear. The Chinese is that of the eye. But we, by 30 or 40 sounds, express every idea, and combinations are 10,000, addressed to the eye. Our words suggest sounds by habit, but language ad- dressed to the eye is far more vivid and impressive. Kings and Emperors, in Eastern Africa, are called Ras, a variation of Rajah, Rey, Rex, &c. The Bedouins and all Levantines use the word forty as an indefinite, just like the Hebrews, for many. The Sanscrit devi or devia, and tri, 2 and 3, is the Welsh dau or dwy, and tri or tair, and the Russian deva and tri. It is nearly the same in other numbers. So the Sans. Pitr becomes pater in Latin, vater in Ger- man, vader in Frisic, and father in English. And the Sans matre, in Welsh, is mathair j in Frisic, moeder; and in English, mother. In Hebrew, the same word expresses blessing or cursing. To call by names, was to have dominion. Hebrew is mistaken by those ignorant of oriental and national ideas. — W ar bur ton. The Egyptian A is derived from Ahom, an Eagle, whose symbol was A. The Chi- nese express all manual arts with the symbol for hand, and add a modification. A1 or Allah is Hebrew and Arabic for the Deity. Meus and Deus are Sanscrit. Tooa is used in the South Sea Islands. Mor, mort, of mut, for death, are Phoenician, Sanscrit, Persian, and Otaheitian. F, V, and W, are convertible in all lan- guages. Latin construction is as unmusical as it is unnatural, and contrary to nature. Italian was always the vernacular language, and Latin the written and learned language. Its artificial structure proves that it never was a common speech. Saxon is in every respect its superior for every musical pur- pose . — Music and Friends. The ancients wrote without stops, or even separation of words ! A universal language has been planned, by using the same numbers for the same words in all languages. The Greek letters, inverted from left to right, are almost identical with the Phoeni- cian or Hebrew. In early ages, writing and composition were so rare, that vulgar Asiatic feelings attached the notion of sanctity to all that was written. 622 We are proud, in 1839, of the colonial and commercial diffusion of the English language. But the States of America are already as dia- lectish as Lancashire or Yorkshire; and, judging from analogy, in 2 or 300 years, either will require aglossary. In 7 or 800 years, both will be as distinct as the language of Alfred from that of the Guelphs. The deviations will be reciprocal. Then, with reference to commerce, we introduce words , not our idiom, and do not supplant the language of natives, as old and rooted as the race of man. The human voice is an instrument which unites the powers of the flute, the violin, and the organ. The lungs are its bellows, the throat and nostrils the pipes, the cavity of the cheeks is the wind-chest, and the flexible parts are the stops. It produces tune, and all the modifications of vowels and consonants. The trachea, or wind-pipe, branches at bottom to the two lobes of the lungs, and at top ends in the larynx, or rings of cartilages, which are flexible in the glottis or aperture, and thereby vary tones, which the tongue, mouth, and wind-chest articulate. The zeta, eta, theta, xi, phi, chi, psi, and omega, were added to the first Greek alphabet. Consonants are stops to the vowels in cer- tain tones. The invention of conventional signs, cha- racters, or letters, was the first step to that accumulated knowledge, which we now find in the world. The first examples were re- cords of regal vanity on stone ; then a simi- lar celebration in verse. The next, the regulation of reasoning in logic. The next, the observed motions of the heavenly bo- dies. The next, arithmetic and geometry. The next, geography, chronology, and his- tory. The next, observations of nature, and the investigation of causes. The German is the richest, in words, o» ' any European language, owing to the num- ber and power of its roots or mono-syllables. The Cymri preserve their original lan- guage in the Welsh and the Erse dialects; but their followers spread over the conti- nent, even in the tracts now covered by the Baltic, which separated their language into the Germanic and Scandinavian, the first being teutonic, and the latter a derivative. The Germanic is divided between that of the most western settlers who mingled with the Cymri, called Low German, as Dutch, Belgic, and Frisic, and the uncorrupted language called High German. Rapid speakers pronounce from 7000 to 7500 words per hour, or about 2 words per second. The Geez, spoken in Abyssinia, &c , is described as a more perfect language than the Arabic. It is usually called Ethiopic, and the Amharic is the modern Abyssinian, and Habbash, the Amharic name of the country. The Aramean language was that which supplanted the Hebrew and Phoenician, called Syriac and Chaldaic. It was the lan- FINE ARTS 623 guage of Jesus and the apostles. Jesus, on the cross, used the Aramaic version in his exclamation from the beginning of the 22d Psalm, and not the Hebrew original. The Chinese read in columns from top to bottom of the page, and begin at the right- hand column. Hebrew and Arabic read from right to left. Some Greek inscriptions turn at the end of a line, and the lines al- ternate from right to left, and left to right. The Europeans read from left to right. The Turkish is the softest of modern lan- guages for conversation, and adaptation to vocal music. In German and Spanish, every letter in every word is pronounced uniformly. The Phoenician, early Greek, Irish, and Icelandic, or Runic, has but 16 letters; others were added for provincial tones. The Irish alphabet is named after the trees in a wood, as A for Ailm (Elm), B for Beth (Birch), C for Col (Hazel), &c., though perhaps, the trees are only associated for children. Caesar’s editor says, the Druids wrote in the Greek character; no doubt the Phoenician. Accent, in words, is believed to arise from emphasis in sentences, compounded into single words. — Booth. The language of the Cape Bushman is a snapping, hissing, grunting, nasal sound. The German language has 8 vowels, ours 5 ; and a e for long a, oe for oo, and ue for short i. Changes of orthography in kindred lan- guage arise from the interchange of the Labials p, b, f, v, w, and m, or of the Den- tals, or the Palatals, or Gutterals, by diffe- rent nations. The languages of Asia have for roots the Hindoo, Hebrew, and Tartarian.— Jones. Sanscrit, the ancient but now learned lan- guage of the Bramins, contains very ancient books, called vidas ; also, the laws of Me- nu, and much poetry, particularly 2 epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Pali, or Magada, is the learned language of the Boodists, nearly coeval with Sanscrit, and spread theologically through India, China, and Japan. The Pracrit, or living languages of India, consist of the Hindoostanee, and 7 or 8 other dialects, partly derived from the others. The Malayan language of the coasts and islands of India, is a perfectly original lan- guage, and a key to all intercourse in the Asiatic Seas. The Tartar languages are the Manshoo, spoken at the Tartar Court of China, and the Mongul and Calmuc, in the dialects of Siberia and Tartary ; but without books or learning. Chinese might be adopted as a universal language, speaking to the eye of all nations like our notes in music, or figures in arith- metic. But, in the notation of number, they preserve forms as impracticable as the Greek and Roman — thus our 22 has = for 3, + for ten, and is = -f- =. Certain records may have been inscrip- 624 tions on stones ; but the mummies prove, that the art of writing is far more ancient than the age of Memnon. The use of pig- ments would be a simple transition from carving, in all countries. Sanchoniatho calls Taautus the secretary of Chronus, who must have lived 3000 years before the Chris- tian era. The Vidas are most contemptible produc- tions, with nothing to recommend them but their antiquity. Three exhibit all the ab- surdities of Hindoo paganism, and the 4th is an elementary treatise on astrology, ma- gic, and incantations. The Phoenician language was that of Car- thage, and carried to Ireland by commercial settlers ; and the Erse and Manx are dialects. Hebrew ceased to be vernacular at the Babylonish Captivity ; but it was preserved in the books of the Bible, though now a lost tongue. The Jews then spoke Chaldaic and Syriac. Daniel and the Targums of Onkelos, Jonathan and Jerusalem, were written in this dialect. The modern lan- guage of the Jews is called Rabbinical He- brew, and is a compound of Chaldaic and Hebrew, with some Greek and Latin words adopted in Spain about 1100. Hebrew is like our Welsh, first converted into Frisic and Neustrian French, and then into mo- dern English. Modern Hebrew is a com- pound as unlike ancient Hebrew, as English is unlike Welsh. Thirty-five radically-distinct tongues are spoken by Mexican Aborigines, but the most ancient is the Hyang-hyung of the Ot'homi , who lived in the N. of the great table-land, and built Tolyan and Khilotepek. It is mono-syllatic, and wants our F and L, but it has gutterals in Kh, Ch, N’H, P’H, and K’h. It has no inflections, but by par- ticles, and is as inartificial as the Chinese, which, in all respects, it resembles. — Vater. THE FINE ARTS. The Egyptians, as appears by the engra- vings of Denon, Rossalini, and others, ex- celled in graphic delineations, and even in colouring. They were mannerists, but their outline was grand. Their works, of course, long preceded the Greeks, who imitated and improved. They engraved too, as appears by the metal tablets found in mummies ; and the engraving of hieroglyphics on their gra- nite monuments could not now be imitated. The earliest recorded Greek painters were Cleanthes and Ardices of Corinth, and they were earlier than Homer. BuJarchias, Eu- maras, Charmades, Dinias, and Hygiemon, were very early. In the middle period were Apelles, Parrhasius, Zeuxis, Panaeus, Polyg. notus, Protogenes, Antiphilus, Nicophanes, Nicomachus, Micon, Dionysius, Timanthes, Aristides, and Apollodorus. The Greeks excelled in sculpture more than in painting, at least we possess their matchless statuary, and it never can be ri- valled in every requisite of art. The sculp- tors met with a patron worthy of themselves VINE ARTS, 625 626 in Pericles; and, in the attainment of all excellence, patronage and genius must go hand in hand. The most transcendant genius of the middle ages was Michael Angelo Buonarotti, both as painter, sculptor, and architect. In truth, the Italians for many conturies were the artists of all Europe, and they planned and executed every great design. In our own age, Italy again claimed the palm in Canova, whose works equal those ol the classic ages of Greece. The earliest known painters are Cimabue, Ghirlandao, Massacio, Quintin Matys, and Albert Durer. The greatest Painters, in order, were Raphael, Michael Angelo, Correggio, Leo- nardo da Vinci, Titian, Guido, Rubens, Rembrandt, Vandyke, Teniers, Murillo, Car- racci, Claude, N. Poussin, and Carlo Dolce. The principal Painters of the. Venetian School were Titian, Giorgione, Paulo Ve- ronese, Tintoret, and Bassano. The Bolognese School consisted of the Carraccis, Domenichino, and disciples. The chief Flemish Painters were Rubens, Vandyke, Rembrandt, Teniers, Vangoyen, Ruysdael, and Vanderneer. The chief Artists of the French School have been Poussin, Claude Lorraine, Le Brun, Vernet, Blondel, and David. The Founders of the British School were Thornhill, Richardson, Hogarth, Wilson, Gainsborough, Reynolds, Barry, and West. The English Painters, in the order of genius, are Hogarth, Wilson, Gainsborough, Lawrence, West, Reynolds, Martin, Turner, and Wilkie. The two great Painters of the Spanish School are Murillo and Velasquez. The Dutch Painters are Rubens, Van Dyk. Rembrandt, Mierevelt, the Teniers, the Van de Veldes, Jordaans, Cuyp, the Ostades, Gerard Douw, Mieris, the Wou- vermans, Metsu, Berehem, Potter, Pynaker, the Ruysdaels, Van Huysem, Wynants, and Steen, all first-rate and unmatched. The British School has arrived at the highest perfection in every branch of art that is duly patronized. It fails in history, because we have no establishments like Catholic churches, and because Italian pic- tures may be purchased for private collec- tions at lower prices. The Italian masters of the 15th and 16th centuries seem to have exhausted the art of expression, and all the first qualities of painting. Vandyke and Lawrence, in Por- trait, have maintained the character of the art, and Claude, Poussin, Cuyp, and Ruys- dael, in Landscape ; but, since their epoch, we have had no M. Angelo, Raffaelie, Cor- reggio, Titian, or Carlo Dolce, unless we except Murillo and Gainsborough. The Italian Schools of Florence, Rome, Venice, and Lombardy, are the most emi- nent. The Florentine is characterized by severe and gigantic grandeur. The Roman School is after the antique. The Venetian for its colouring ; and the Lombard for its grace, taste, and delicacy. Michael Angelo, in painting, was an Ode writer or Epic painter ; his expression, in every thing, was sublime. The Dutch School is epi-grammatic. The Flemish School is distinguished by its knowledge of design and brilliancy of colour- ing. The Dutch School possessed great harmony of colouring and chiaro-scuro, but lost on low and offensive subjects. The German School has been blended in others, since the age of hardness and dry matter of fact. The grandest attempt ever made to raise the arts to a pinnacle of perfection, was Na- poleon’s project to assemble all the scattered master-pieces of painting and sculpture in one collection. This he actually effected, and, for ten or twelve years, the Napoleon Museum, in the Louvre at Paris, was the wonder and admiration of the world. There might be freely seen and studied every famous production of every school, under the liberal direction of that enthusiast in the arts, Denon. The owners of these works had made wanton war on France, and they were made their easy ransom. The British Government, in imitation of the same idea, and as a School of Art, are, however, proceeding gradually to effect the same object in London. Some fine produc- tions have been liberally purchased, and a superb National Gallery is built for the re- ception of these, and others that may be procured. Some bequests have been made of great value ; and, as the finest works are scattered in English galleries, there is no doubt but another generation will profit by this design. Penaenas, contemporary of Phidias, was the first recorded Greek painter of eminence. He painted the walls of the temples with historical subjects. In sculpture, the statues of Phidias, Mycon, Zeuxis, Polygnotus, Par- rhasius, Timanthes, Apollodorus, and Apel- les, were executed between 500 and 250 B. C. The Romans did as little for painting as other arts ; their remains are frescoes and mosaics, chiefly by Greek artists. Till about 1400, all painting was in caustic or in water-colours. Cimabue was the first painter in oil-colours ; but previously-finished water-colour pictures were washed with oil, and the incorporation gives them the mature appearance of colours first worked in oils. Some arts of former ages have been lost, as that of engraving on crystal stones and granite, practised by the Ethiopians, Egyp- tians, &c. ; and the art of painting on glass, practised in the monkish ages. Different directions too have been given to the arts, though each is perfect in its way. Chinese art, Japanese art, Hindoo art, are each diffe- rent from European, which follows the Greek standards in sculpture, and the Italian in painting. The Egyptians carried the art of matter- of-fact painting, without tints or shades, to the highest perfection. Painting in fresco, is in water, colours on walls. Poussin, a devotee of the arts through a FINE ARTS. 627 long life, was at once superior as painter and author. He defines painting to be an imi- tation, in lines and colours, on some super- fices of every thing visible, with a view to preserve and please. Light, form, colours, distance, are qualities of objects; and pro- priety, grace, harmony of colouring, and judgment, belong to the composition and execution. The Egyptian, Hindoo, and Chinese tem- ples, prove the great antiquity of sculpture ; and the rude images found among all unci- vilized tribes, prove that the power of sculp- turing and carving is universal. Brazen statues, cast from models, were common in all ages. Daedalus was the first Greek sculptor, and after him sculptors were called Daedalides. The patronage of Pericles raised a Phidias and his sublime school. Polycletus, Myron, Scopas, Praxiteles, and Lysippus, followed, and they and others produced those miracles of art, for which princes and wealthy men give more than their weight in gold. Sculpture revived, in Italy, in the fancy of decorated plate ; and Cellini and others so excelled, that their carvings and castings created artists who restored the art of sculp- turing marble. Buono and Pisano flourished in the 13th century, and Robboe and Ghi- berti in the 15th, preceded by Donatelli the Venetian, Michael Angelo the Roman, and Leonardo da Vinci. From that time Italy became as famous for sculpture as for painting. The mere names, from that time to Canova, cannot be reprinted ; but Canova rivalled even the ancients, and, under the munificent patronage of Napoleon, produced works which never can be surpassed. Sculptures are produced by mechanical measurements, from models, in any plastic material, by the artist. The reducing the block to a statue is the business of men practised in the use of mallets and chisels. Sometimes, for durable and exposed works, the artist’s model is cast in bronze ; ordinary busts are cast from the model in plaster of Paris. Successful landscape includes the perspec- tive of colouring and the perspective of geo- metry. The latter was little understood till the 17th century, and each were united by Bassano, Claude, Both, and Poussin, and by our Wilson and Turner. A landscape in perspective should not include more than an angle of 60 degrees, or one-sixth of the horizon. All lines per- pendicular to the picture, or perspective plane, vanish in the point of sight, and the size of objects is, therefore, inversely as their distance. In perspective, we seek to represent the objects on the perspective plane, which plane cuts a cone extending to the objects, of which cone the eye is the vertex. The positions on the plane are, therefore,' the tangents of the angles of the objects from the point of sight, or centre, on the perspec- tive plane. Of course, the distance of the eye from the plane determines the length of the tangents j and, if we work by a common 628 scale of tangents, we must vary them as the radius of the scale is to the radius or distance of the eye from the plane. But angles of altitude, when the base is fixed in azimuth, must have the radius of the eye multiplied by the secant of the azimuth, and the length set off 1 in the proportion of one radius to the other. The system of decorating tombs, and or. namenting churches and altars with paint- ings, kept the art alive, in the dark ages, till the days of the Italian School. The oldest known painting, since the ancients, is a Madonna and Child, in 886. The oldest known paintings, in England, are the portrait of Chaucer, painted on pannel about 1380, belonging to the Editor, and that of Henry IV. in 1405. A Cartoon is a pattern for tapestry, &c. painted or drawn upon large paper. There are thirteen by Raffaelle, wonders of art, in our royal collections ; and another, the Mur- der of the Innocents, in the national gallery. Salvator’s Pythagoras is at Cobham Han, bought at a great price, with an annuity of £500 to the seller. Salvator’s Death of Regulus was painted for 100 piastres. Raffaelle’s pictures, in their colouring and atmospheric relief, so much resemble nature, that they do not strike in a gallery like others with more glare and relief. It is the same with Correggio, and is the same with all perfect compositions in language ; beau- ties are only discovered by those who know the difficulty of being perfectly natural. In the Stafford Gallery is a Correggio painted for the sign of an inn. He, and many painters, paid trifling debts with pic- tures, which the creditor often sold for fifty times the debt. The Elgin marbles were the sculptures of the Minerva Parthenon and other edifices of the Propolis of Athens, removed by Lord Elgin at his own cost, and now the property of the British Museum. It was justifiable sacrilege, since the Turks were appropriating them, piecemeal, for building purposes ; what could not be brought away entire, were taken in casts and correct drawings. The Portland Vase, now in the British Museum, cost 1000 guineas. It is Greek, but was found, about 1560, in a sepulchre near Rome. It is 10 inches by 6, and is of glass, with figures in relief, in opaque white, and the ground is dark blue. The figures, as well as those on cameos, were formed by cutting away a crust of white opaque glass. The design is taken from the Eleusinian Mysteries. The copying and close imitation of the old masters, and the arts so various for giving them the characteristics of age, that seven out of eight pictures are copies. At the same time, artists themselves multiply favo- rite designs, and one original copy is as good as the first. To meet orders from princes, great painters copied pictures of others, often superior to originals. President West told the Editor that he had, to order, made seven copies of his death of Wolfe, any one of which was equal to his first copy ; and so, PINE ARTS, 029 said he, it is with all painters. Most pain- ters work second-hand in the masses and grounds ; they finish only the delicate parts, chalk out the draperies, and leave the rest to pupils, merely harmonizing the whole. In ancient statues, the figures are the length of eight or seven heads, or ten faces, and the arms stretched are the same, but half a face less when not stretched. The head, from the top to the chin, is four equal parts : to the forehead, to the eye-brows, to the tip of the nose, and to the tip of the chin. The body is three faces : one to the bottom of the breast, one to the navel, and one to the genitals. The thigh two, and the knee and leg three. Till a recent period, all sculptures were painted in their natural colours, with gilt ornaments. The Memnonium was destroyed 1 by Cam- byses before it was finished. The statue of MemnQn was 64 feet high, and its granitic ruins cover 40 feet around. Giorgione, in the 16th century, was the first landscape painter. Albert Durer was, in the arts, a universal genius. He was the best engraver, and a popular author, besides the best painter of his age. Correggio’s master-piece, painted for the Franciscan convent of Correggio, was stolen, in 1638, by a Spanish painter allowed to copy it, and never since heard of; Correggio’s price was only 100 ducats. Teniers is always bright and clear, Hob- bima is real day-light, and Cuyp is soft and brilliant. Albert Durer etched some of his engra- vings on steel. A soft steel plate will take 50,000 good impressions, and a hard steel plate 1,000,000. The plates in Blair’s Pre- ceptor, and Goldsmith’s Grammar, have produced above 100,000 impressions, and are still fresh. Painting in oil, distemper, or water, is when the colours are mixed with oil, size, or water. Fresco is on a newly-plastered wall. Encaustic is with wax ; and enamel, with mineral colours, on metal. Varnish , for oil-painting, is mastich, dis- solved in spirits of wine. The Panorama, invented by Barker, is generally about 60 feet in diameter. Salvator, disdaining those intrigues by which inferior persons get admitted into all societies, was, when at the heighth of his genius, rejected as a candidate for the Aca- demia at Rome. The Apollo Belvidere, the master-piece of sculpture, was found in a temple at An- tium, and for 300 years has stood in the Belvidere of the Vatican. The Apollo Mu. sagetes was found at Tivoli, in 1774. There are above-ground, at Rome, 10,600 pieces of ancient sculpture, and 6300 ancient columns. In 1500 years, full ten times the number have been destroyed or carried away. Hogarth’s Strolling Actress was bought for 26 guineas, by Beckford, and returned as too dear The Harlot’s Progress, the Rake’s 630 Progress, and Four Times a Day, were sold for 22/. each. The six of the Marriage a-la« Mode were sold, in 1750, at a public Auction , at which only two persons attended, for i 10 guineas.; but, in 179/, they fetched 1381/. ; and any single picture of Hogarth’s is now worth from 300/. to 5.00/. Miss Linwood’s worsted pictures are copies, by the needle, in tints of worsted, of the best known pictures, and are inimitabla in effect and accuracy. In England there are fine works of Canova, at Chatsworth, Grosvenor House, Holland House, &c. ; and the Editor possesses his bust of Napoleon, cast in bronze, which formerly adorned the Tuileries. Michael Angelo was painter, sculptor, and architect. Asa painter, he appears in the cieling of the Sistine Chapel, at Rome ; his David, Moses, &c. display his sculpture ; and the church of St. Peter’s his architecture. Other nations have learnt the art of sculp- turing in the Italian School ; and Denmark has produced a Thorwaldsen ; Wurtemberg a Danneckar ; France a Houdon ; and Eng- land a Bacon, Flaxman, and Chantrey. The Greek vases have Centaurs of both sexes, and some are depicted in Hercula- neum. Phidias sculptured them, and Zeuxis painted them ; Hesiod records them*. If fabulous, monuments and poetry are worse than useless. Vandyke usually finished a portrait in the evening of the day he commenced, requiring along morning and afternoon sitting. The cupola, at Parma, is Correggio’s mas- ter-piece. Age improves, mellows, and harmonizes the tints of pictures, so that they can be fairly compared only after 100 years. Cop- ley, West, and David, will be a school in 1950. The Italian painters chiefly painted from models in clay, and most of them were at once sculptors and engravers. The Bayeux tapestry is 442 feet long and 2 broad, representing the invasion and con- quest of England. The Long Parliament ordered all such pictures in the king’s collection, as repre- sented the Holy Ghost or the Virgin Mary, to be burnt. The fine Woodstock copy of the Madonna de la Seggia was saved by Col. Fleetwood, the king’s secretary, and is now in the possession of Sir Richard Phillips. Gerard Douw was so attentive to minutiae, that he employed five days in finishing a hand, and three days on a broom. Propertia da Rossi, and the Princess Mary daughter of Louis Philippe, were female sculptors of the first rank. The Hon. Mrs. Damer professed, but never excelled. Torregiano, the sculptor, was exposed in the Inquisition for destroying a Madonna and Child which he had himself produced, but which, as such, were deemed sacred. Segato, of Florence, reduces to the consis- tency of stone all kinds of bodies, as bird* limbs, wood, &c. &c. by a process not yet public, but well certified. The royal portraits the most multiplied, FINE ARTS. 631 axe those of the vain Elizabeth, Charles I., and Louis XIV. They are incorporated by flattery as saints, angels, gods, and goddesses. The artist rivals were Michael Angelo and Raffaelle, Titian and Pordenone, Agos- tino and Annibal Carracci, and Domenichino and Guido. Carlo Dolci’s Madonnas were all portraits of his mistress Maria Baldinucci. Rubens’ Allegories, on the cieling of Whitehall, are considered his master-pieces in colouring, light, and shade. Roman statues were classed according to their drapery. The original of Correggio’s St. Catharine, with a missal, was bought, in 1801, by the Editor of this Volume, at a sale under an extent. In France, drawing is a branch of popular education, at very easy cost, and it is deemed necessary to every working artizan. In England there are books calculated to make it general, and it Is now generally demanded in elementary schools. The art of Engraving originated in some experiments of Maso Finiguerra, a Floren- tine, in the first half of the 15th century. He was an artist who engraved on silver plate ; and, being desirous of preserving impressions of his engravings, he took casts in clay, and produced impressions of these, by a roller, in liquid sulphur, and sometimes on damp paper. Then, by engraving in reverse, in the manner of broad seals, he got impres- sions on paper the right way of the original. The art of block-printing came before the world in the same age, and much resembled the contrivance of the Florentine ; for the pages were cut in wood, and then impressed on paper, in the same manner. Steel engraving is effected by first soften- ing a steel-plate by depriving it of its car- bon, — then engraving it, — and finally re- hardening the plate byrestoring the carbon. A steel- plate will then take 2 or 300,000 good impressions, while a copper-plate only 12 or 1500. The charge is only 10 per cent, higher. The Milanese excel in engraving, and next to them the British artists are unri- valled, especially in book ornaments. In large, no engravings equal those of Woollet. Latterly, a division of labour produces more perfect works, 8 or 10 hands for diffe- rent parts being employed, so as to confer perfection on each part. In etching, Albert Durer has left us one of the earliest specimens, dated 1518, and another dated 1524. That species of engraving which unites etching with the use of the graver, was, no doubt, adopted immediately after the inven- tion of etching, but Audran was the first who carried it to perfection. J C. Le Blox, of Frankfort, pupil of Carlo Maratti, applied mezzotinto engra- vings to printing with different colours, so as to produce the resemblance of paintings. He considered all colours as composed of three primitive ones ; and the combination ©f two of these, he asserted, would produce 632 a third, such as their compound mast neces- sarily give, and the two primitive colours would preserve their original colour. But, if transparent colours are mixed, and three primitive ones combined together, they destroy each other, and produce a black, or a colour approaching to black. The earliest prints that are known, are a set of the seven planets, in an almanack, by way of frontispiece. Our ordinary English Galleries are sup- plied by four foreigners, Holbein, Vandyke, Lely, and Kneller ; and our walls are co- vered by Verrio, La Guerre, and Thornhill. The Royal Academy was established in 1/68, and consists of a president, 5 professors, 3 secretaries, 37 academicians, 17 associates, and 6 associate engravers. Their annual exhibition contains about 1300 subjects, and yields about £2000 or £2500. There are Royal Academies at Dublin and Edinburgh ; and Associations for Exhi- bitions at Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, &c. The British Institution for the Fine Arts, in Pall-Mall, was established in 1805. There are two funds for British artists. The Academies of Arts are that of Paris, founded in 1663; that of Vienna, 1705; that of Stockholm, 1733; that of Peters- burg, 1754 ; that of London, 1768; that of Turin, 1778; and Madrid, in 1/79. In 1824, the British Government bought the Angerstein Collection for £57,000 ; in- cluding a Sebastiano del Piombo, which cost him £4500, two Claudes £6000, and Van- dyke’s Theodosius £1600. Sir Joshua Reynolds’ pictures, on the death of his niece, fetched £15,000 by auc- tion. Walpole enumerates 255 painters in Eng- land before George I., of whom 103 were native ; none are remembered, except Oli- ver, Dobson, and Riley. There were in London, in 1818, painters, 532 ; sculptors, 45 ; architects, 149 ; engravers, 2060: and they are, in 1839, 20 per cent, more. In 1/79, the Empress of Russia gave, by valuation, £40,555 for 232 pictures of the Houghton Gallery; among which Guido’s Consultation of the Doctors was valued at £3500, and a Holy Family of Vandyke and a Magdalene of Reubens, at £1600 each. In 1798, the Orleans Collection was sold for £43,500. Thornhill had 40s. per square yard for the cupola of St. Paul’s. Charles I. paid Mittens £100 for three portraits, Vandyke £20 and £25 each for several, £100 for a large one, and £444 for nine. He gave £3000 to Rubens for a lot of several. Nero gave £6800 for Cato’s purple robe ; Cicero’s citron table was sold for £75 0 ; the habit which Charles XII. wore at Pultowa was sold for £22,000 ; the cup of Napoleon was sold for 37 guineas ; his Egyptian sabre fetched 15 guineas ; and the hat which he wore at Eylau was sold, against 32 bidders for £75. G33 LITERATURE. 634 This nation is indebted to Slaney, for a plan to form public walks in and near large towns, few of which now possess this cheap luxury. In France, every town has its open boulevard, or broad walk round it, planted with trees ; and, in fine evenings, it is pro- vided with the seduction of a local band of music. Michael Angelo’s Moses, Algardi’s Attola, Fiamingo’s Susanna, and Bernini’s Bibbi- ana, are the best sculptures in Rome ; and Raphael’s Transfiguration, Volterra’s Des- cent, Dominichino’s Jerome, and Sacchi’s Romualdo, the best pictures. There are, also, above 10,000 pieces of ancient sculp- ture, and above 6000 marble columns. The busts of Romans have no beards. Most ancient nations allowed their beards to grow only as a sign of mourning. They were generally disused in Christian Europe towards the end of the 17th century. The Regent of France expended a million of louis-d’ors on his picture gallery. He gave 500/. for a picture painted for a sign, by Correggio. The Tabula Isiaca, 4 ft. 2 in. long, and 2 ft. 6 in. wide, is one of the Egyptian curi- osities of Turin. The recumbent posture of opulent Greeks and Romans at dinner, was called Accuba- tion. They laid 2 or 3 on couches, and fed with their right hand. LITERATURE. Literature grows out of the art of compo- sition, in the forms of prose and verse, adopted by writers, and in the subjects treated of. Narrative and argument are its ordinary forms in prose ; and metre, and the regular succession of long and short syllables, with or without rhyme, its ordi- nary forms in poetry. The earliest lan- guages give examples ; but, as poetry is best retained, so the oldest preserved com- positions are in that form. In prose, the tone is adapted to the subject ; but, in poe- try, pomposity of diction is preferred, and figures of rhetoric are used to raise the style and imagination. The literature of all nations is, however, evanescent, and de- pends on the perpetuity of language ; con- sequently, the rise and fall of these arts is generally comprised in 200 or 300 years ; after which, authors become intelligible only by glossaries and translations. The first Greek writers were Homer and Hesiod, 1000 B. C. ; and Tyrtaeus and Ar- chilocus, in 700 ; and Alcaeus, Sappho, and Anacreon, in 600. The first Latin writers were Plautus, En- nius, and Terentius, in 200 B. C. The first British, Gildas, Nennius, and Bede, in 600 and 700 A. C. The first German, Eginhard, Wallafrid, and Rabanus, in 800 A. C. The first French, Fort, Gregory, and Maralfe, in 500 A. C. The first Spanish, Anian, Fulgentius, and Martin, in 500. The first Polish, Yaraslof and Nestor, in 1000. The first Italian, Gratian, Falcand, and Campanus, in 1100. The frogs and mice, the hymns and epi- grams, often ascribed to Homer, are not his, and doubts are entertained as to the Odys- sey ; and even the Iliad begins to be consi- dered as an assemblage of fragments or odes, by Homer and other writers. They were, at first, oral and traditional, and not collected till one, two, or three centuries after the alleged age of Homer. They were Ionian, and pictures of action without opi- nion or sentiment. Pope is a paraphrase; Cowper a translation. Schlegel considers Solon as giving the first start to Grecian literature. Thales founded the Ionic school, and his successors were the ever-memorable Anaxi- mander, Anaximenes, and Anaxagoras. Early Chinese literature suffered a simi- lar misfortune to that of the West, in the destruction of the Alexandrian Library ; for their Emperor, Cheewhang-tee, ordered all writings to be destroyed, that every thing might begin anew as from his reign ; and their books and records were afterwards recovered with great difficulty. So the Musselmen, conquerors of Hindoostan, de- stroyed the chief part of the ancient writings. Antar, an Arabian hero of the sixth cen- tury, celebrated for his heroism and romantic love for Ibla, is a poem as much esteemed in Arabia and Egypt as any poem ever was in Europe. The works of Greek genius descended to us through the Romans, who added them- selves so little to human improvement. All the arts and mysteries of the Chaldeans and Egyptians have reached us through the Sa- racens, to whom we owe our mathematics, arithmetic, medicine, astronomy, chemistry, poetry, &c. These bases have been ex- tended, till our Cyclopaedias now baffle the closest labours of the longest life ; and yet, such is the vast maze presented to us by nature, that we, of 1839, shall in other centuries be regarded as standing only at the threshold of their Temple of Knowledge. Books were originally metal plates and boards, or the inner bark of trees, the word being derived from Bench , a Beech- Tree. The Horn- Book, now used in nurseries, is a primitive book. Bark is still used by some nations, and skins are also used, for which parchment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that country, and became an article of commerce ; thin plates of brass were also used for church service. Papyrus and Parchment volumes were commonly rolled on a round stick, with a ball at each end, and the composition began at the centre. These were called volumes, and the outsides were inscribed just as we now letter books. The Greek MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled, charred, and matted to- gether by the fire, and are about 9 inches long, and 1,2, or 3 inches in diameter, each being a volume or separate treatise. 035 LITERATURE. 636 Of course, when books were scarce, and the art of reading uncommon, they were very dear. The bequest of one to a reli- gious house entitled the donor to masses for his soul, and they were commonly chained to their station; while, in some ancient libraries, the books are chained to this day. As examples of the prices of books, the Roman de la Rose was sold for above 30/. ; and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and 5 quarters of wheat ; and they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. Then, as books were chiefly religious, so the vulgar annexed ideas of piety to all who read books ; those not religious were considered as engendered by the devil, or by an intercourse with evil spirits. In the east, it is believed that there are not a dozen copies of the Shastah, Vedah, and Zenda Vesta. In 1400, there was scarcely a book in Rome but missals. A perfect Livy was in the Grand Seignior’s Library, in 1615. High prices were offered for it by ambassadors, but the book soon after disappeared. Clarke found a MS. copy of Flato in a neglected library of Patmos. When the passion for reading increased, the business of copying became considerable, and copyers enjoyed reputation, according to their learning and accuracy. Hence they took it on themselves to purge and improve authors ; and to this cause may be ascribed the precision and mechanical perfection of the classic authors, for the copyers plumed themselves on not transcribing any imper- fections. This advantage was, however, counteracted by the principles which go- verned them. The first printers were there- fore critics, like the copyers. All rising nations have had a passion for imitating previous ones. Thus Egypt copied Phoenicia ; Greece copied Egypt ; Rome co- pied Greek ; and modern Europe has copied Rome. In a few hundred years, however, nations set up for themselves, and discard the leading-strings of obsolete languages. The English language is now at maturity ; and, hencej Latin and Greek are properly ejected from modern schools, and preserved only by salaries and ancient endowments for teaching them. Besides the loss of ancient literature by the burning of the Alexandrian Library, by the Christians in 391, and by the Saracens in 640 ; a nearly equal loss was suffered in the conflagration of the Basilican Library of 36,000 MSS. at Constantinople, in 850. 120,000 Greek MSS. were also burnt at the sacking of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1452. None are now to be traced in the Greek convents. But there can be no doubt that ancient MSS. mav yet be found in Eastern countries. Ruppel has lately brought from Nubia a MS. of the Jewish scriptures, with many important additions. Before the revival of letters, the monks used to sell the parchments on which Greek and Latin works were written, to book- binders and racket-makers. Some eminent works were rescued by scholars in this way, and others were found rotting in lumber- rooms of monasteries and abbeys. The Popes and Clergy waged war on historians and poets, as profane. The monks and calligraphists were in the practice of obliterating the previous wri- ting, by a chemical preparation, or of erasing it from silk or flaxen paper, and in this way thousands of valuable MSS. have been lost. Greek dramas, works of Cicero, &c. &c. have been traced under the new writing ; and Abbe Mai has collected va- luable fragments from Bobbio. Under a trumpery poem he traced three orations of Cicero. Under some acts of a Romish Council, he traced three others, with an ancient commentary ; also, eight speeches of Symmachus, and the works of Pronto. Under another, he found fragments of Plautus, and commentaries on Terence; also an oration of lsaeus. Finally, he re- stored a work of Dionysius Halicarnassus, and found 800 lines of a very ancient Iliad. We are indebted to the Arabians and Saracens for romances and tales, for the numerical character, for astrology and astro- nomy, for medicine, for chemistry, for com- merce, for a language the most copious in the world, and lor the religions that divide the Western world ; yet in all ages, except the Saracenic, they have lived in small communities, and have scarcely presented the aspect of civilization. The first recorded novels are the Milesian Tales of Aristides, which were translated from Greek into Latin by Sisenna, about 60 B. C. They are lost. Nicenus was the next, and forty of his sketches exist. He wrote in the age of Virgil. The lives of the 3 great Fabulists, Bilpai Lokman, and j£sop, are involved in equal obscurity as to time and country. The Romance of Amadis de Gaul was written by Loberia in 1380, and is a romantic poem interesting to our own times. Du Bartas’s Poem on the Creation, writ- ten late in the 1 6th century, and called the Divine Week, was as popular a poem as ever appeared. It ran through 30 French editions, in 5 or 6 months, and was trans- lated into every language. Bolingbroke was one of the greatest men, aud soundest writers. — Pope. Middleton wrote the purest and most ele- gant English that appeared. — Wakefield. Addison was smooth, but without spirit. Johnson was verbose and pompous. Burke rhetorical, but unequal. Robertson was clear and correct. Gibbon was florid and studied. Hawkesworth, Goldsmith, and Knox, are among the most elegant modern writers. Cobbett was the strongest argu- mentative writer of any age ; and Paine was another example, less varied than Cobbett. Poetry is the regulated effervescence of the brain. It is part of the excitement which takes place beyond the demands for natural wants, and thus displays itself in flights called imagination, and in eccentricities often productive of personal inconvenience LITERATURE. 637 G38 in the intercourse of life. Good poetry is the able display of feeling ; and good prose the able display of fact, correct reasoning, and acquired knowledge. Bards, among the Druids, were profes- sional poets ; and, among all ancient people, such employments were recognized, and connected with religion, rhapsody, pro- phecy, and music. Among the Jews this class were called Prophets, and their com- positions Prophecyings. The Greeks called them Ubates ; the Romans, Vates ; and the Britons, Bards. Ossian speaks of a prince who kept 1 00 bards. Chief-bards wore sky- blue garments ; and, the most distinguished, a silver chain. Even Alexander the Great was accompanied by a bard named Cherylus, who was to have a piece of gold for every good verse, and a blow for every bad one. Edrisi, the Arabian, who lived about 1100, called his geography, The going out of a curious man. Walter Scott’s novels uniformly exhibit a passive hero, who is to marry the heroine ; a fierce hero, who is to die a violent death ; and a fool, or bore, who is to exhaust his fund of humour. His characters are supe- rior to his plots, .his humble to his high life, his Scotland to his England, &c. ; his tra- gedy to his comedy, and his early to his latter works. Novelty among readers, by emphasis called novel readers, is so essen- tial, and the supply of new novels, so abun- dant, that Scott with all his adventitious fame, is already little read, and in half a generation must be nearly forgotten. There is a cold mannerism in his works, a want of abstract truth, and a total want of utility, which destroy their literary importance. The world never beheld such literary gam- bling, by which a million was got, and a million and a half lost in the short space of 15 years, by Author, Printer, and Publisher. His co-meteor was Lord Byron, with less factitious display ; but, to live among poets, his works must be reduced. A fourth is inimitable, and resembles lightning rather than bursts of mere human power. Nor will posterity fail to remember, that Scott was the pander of courts, while Byron was always constant in his devotion to truth and civil liberty. The English, and even the improved French versions of The Arabian Nights, are miserably defective. A complete version from oriental MSS. has, however, appeared at Breslau, by Habicht, Hagen, and Schall, in 15 vols. 12mo. with new information about their origin. They are referred to the Sultana Sheherazade, who told them, as related, to Sultan Shahriar; and, after two years and nine months, led him to withdraw his anathema against his wives. The Per- sians have an imitation in 1001 days, but very inferior. Mahomed Ali has Arabic editions for all the schools in Egypt. As the first literature .of all barbarians are the flights of imagination, called poetry, so The Edda is a rhapsody of this kind, in three parts. One called the Havamaal, or «ublime discourse, is a series of proverbs by Woden, who, with his wife Frea , are specially consecrated as agents of the Su- preme Father, and opposed to Loke , the devil, or evil genius, who resides in Hela and Niffheim. From Woden and Frea come our Wednesday and Friday; from Loke our ill-luck ; and from Hela , our HelL The third book of this barbarous trash is t system of magic and charms. Phrenology is not a modern science. A work called Margarita Philosophica, pub- lished at Friburg, in 1503, contains a skull marked and divided nearly as Gall’s. Phy siognomy, &c. were subjects treated much at large in the 16th and 17th centuries. Lope de Vega printed 21 millions of lines, and 800 of his dramas were performed ; while he wrote 1800, besides 400 for reli- gious ceremonies. If Lord Holland’s beau- tiful specimens are not improvements, he was the best , as well as the most voluminous of poets. His plays make 21 volumes 4to., and his other works 21 volumes. The first tasteful Russian writer was Lo- mondsoff, who died in 1/65, in distinction. Chaucer had for contemporary poets, Ro- bert of Gloucester, Robert of Brunne, and Piers Plowman, believed to be a fictitious name. Their predecessors were Kendale, and Thomas of Erceldown. Hobbes expressed a barbarous wish that all the books in the world were assembled in a ship, and that he might have the op- portunity of boring a hole to sink it. Per- haps he would have excepted his own stupid Leviathan, just as the Mahomedan Omar, in his destruction at Alexandria, excepted the rhapsodic Koran. At the same time, it must be confessed, that if we divide books into 10 classes, not more than 1 in 3 or 4 contains an original idea ; 5 or 6 are mere appropriations of the ideas of others ; and full half are on temporary topics and party questions; while 99 out of 100 are servile panders of received opinions, in which truth, if understood, is compromised to gratify the predilections and prejudices of the age. In large books which involve much capital, the first object, and anxious care, are to please, and avoid offence to small thinkers, so as to secure a return with profit. Our Alfred was an Author, and left some books of useful information in the barbarous Frisic (called Saxon) which as yet have been imperfectly edited. Henry the Vlllth. was another Royal Author, but on the heated theological questions of the day, and de- servedly forgotten. Elizabeth wrote some poetry and short pieces. James I. was a superstitious pedant who wrote 2 folios in defence of the reality of witches, demon- ology, &c., and against the use of tobacco The Royalists, after the Restoration, tried to prove that Charles I. wrote Bishop Gau- don’s ingenious Forgery of Icon Basilike. James wrote on kingly rights; and George III. wrote many essays and pamphlets ; one published for him by the Editor of this vo- lume, was on the fulfilment of the Revela- tions. George IV. also published, through the Editor, a folio on the Herculaneum MS&, 039 LITERATURE. G40 Akenside, our classical British poet, left the world the following analysis of the merit* and qualities of great poets : — Critical Ordonnance. Pathetic Ordonnance. Dramatic Expression. Incidental Expression. Taste. Colouring. > Versification. Moral. Final Estimate. Ariosto _ 15 10 15 14 15 | 16 10 13 1 Boileau 18 16 12 14 17 14 13 16 12 Cervantes 17 17 15 17 12 16 — 16 14 Corneille 15 16 16 16 16 14 12 16 14 Dante 12 15 8 17 12 15 14 14 13 Euripides 15 16 14 17 13 14 — 15 12 Homer 18 17 18 15 16 16 18 17 IS Horace 12 12 10 16 17 17 16 14 13 Lucretius 14 5 17 17 14 16 io ; Milton 17 15 15 17 18 IS 17 18 17 I Moliere 15 17 17 17 15 16 — 16 14 Pindar 10 10 17 17 16 — 17 13 i Pope 16 17 12 17 16 15 15 17 13 Racine 17 16 15 15 17 13 12 15 13 Shakspeare .... 18 18 18 10 17 10 18 18 Sophocles 18 16 15 15 16 14 — 16 13 Spenser 8 15 10 16 17 17 17 17 14 Tasso 17 14 14 13 12 13 16 13 12 Terence 18 12 10 12 17 14 16 10 Virgil 17 10 17 17 18 17 17 17 16 The estimates stand thus : — CRITICAL ORDONNANCE. First Class. Second. Third. Fourth. Fifth. Sixth. Seventh. Eighth. Homer, Sophocles, Terence, Boileau. Virgil, Tasso, Milton, Ra- cine. Pope. Euripides, Corneille. Lucretius. Horace, Dante. Pindar. Spenser. PATHETIC ORDONNANCE. First Class. Second. Third. Fourth. Fifth. Sixth. Seventh. Shakspeare. Homer. Sophocles, Euripedes, Cor- neille, Racine. Dante, Ariosto, Spenser, Milton. Tasso. Terence, Horace. Pindar, Virgil. DRAMATIC EXPRESSION. First Class. Second. Third. Fourth. Fifth. Sixth. Seventh. Homer and Shakspeare. Virgil. Corneille. Sophocles, Milton, Racine. Euripides, Tasso. Boileau, Pope. Terence, Horace, Ariosto, Spenser. INCIDENTAL EXPRESSION. First Class. Second. Third. Shakspeare. Euripides, Pindar, Lucretius, Virgil, Dante, Milton, Pope. Horace, Spenser, Corneille. Fourth Class. Homer, Sophocles* Ariosto, Racine. Fifth. Boileau. Sixth. Tasso. Seventh. Terence. TASTE. First Class. Virgil, Milton. Second. Pindar, Terence, Lucretius Horace, Spenser, Boi- leau, Racine. Third. Homer, Sephocles, Corneille Pope. Fourth. Ariosto. Fifth. Euripides. Sixth. Dante and Tasso. Seventh. Shakspeare. COLOURING. First Class. Milton. Second. Virgil, Horace, Shakspeare, Spenser. Third. Homer, Pindar. Fourth. Dante, Ariosto, Pope. Euripides, Sophocles, Te- rence, Lucretius, Cor- neille, Boileau. Fifth. Sixth. Tasso, Racine. VERSIFICATION. First Class. Homer. Second. Virgil, Spenser, Milton. Third. Lucretius, Horace, Tassc, Ariosto. Fourth. Pope. Fifth. Dante. Sixth. Boileau. Seventh. Corneille, Racine. Eiehlh. Shakspeare. Sophocles, Euripides, Pindar, and Terence* are not numbered. j641 LITERATURE. 642 First Class MORAL. Shakspeare, Milton. First Class. FINAL ESTIMATE. Homer, Shakspeare. Second. Homer, Pindar, Virgil, Second. Milton. Third. Spenser, Pope. Sophocles, Terence, Cor- Third. Fourth. Virgil. Corneille, Spenser. Pindar, Sophocles, neille, Boileau. Fifth. Horace, Fourth. Euripides, Racine. Dante, Ariosto, Racine. Fifth. Sixth. Horace, Dante. Tasso. Sixth. Pope. Euripides, Tasso, Boileau. 'Seventh. Ariosto. Seventh. Terence, Lucretius. Galileo used to say, that reading Tasso after Ariosto, was like eating cucumbers after melon. Since Akenside we have had Burns, Byron, Cowper, Wolcot, Crabbe, Moore, and Words- worth, to add to the previous analysis. France and Germany have also made ad- ditions in Delille, Goethe, Klopstock, and Schiller, &c. &c. Pope was 6 years translating the Iliad, by which he got 6000/. ; *. e. 200/. per vol. from Lintot, and the proceeds from 575 subscri- bers. Lintot then gave him 600/. for the Odyssey, and the subscriptions. Dryden was 3 years on the JEnead, and got 1200/. for it — Spence. Monti and Pindemonti have been the best Italian poets of the last age, and are com- pared to Dante and Petrarch. Maffei and Visconti, fine writers ; Galvani and Volta, their philosophers ; and Canova, their master sculptor. The Provenqal poets were Chaucer’s ori- ginals. — Pope. Dryden and the Wits met at Will’s, at the corner of Bow and Russell-streets ; and, after his death, Addison established Button’s, at the opposite corner of Charles- street. Politian was the best modern Latin poet. Aperient medicines, as salts, improve the fancy and vigour of mind. Tasso and Ariosto are equally popular in Italy. Dante is the Italian Homer. His work was called Comedia, in contrast with Virgil. Petrarca and Chiabrera are the best lyric poets of Italy. Boileau was, and perhaps is, the first French poet. Voltaire and Delille next. Pope Nicholas the Fifth was the patron of the Greeks, who revived learning. Shakspeare’s is a stiff, and Milton’s an unnatural exotic style. — Pope. The power of improvisioning in Tuscany is an intellectual miracle. — Spence. Sir Isaac Newton, on being asked his opi- nion of poetry, replied, that it was a kind of ingenious nonsense. — Spence. Pope and Boileau are deemed the best modern poets, but Pope will live the longest. Chaucer, Spenser, Milton, Dryden, and Pope, are the recognized poets of Britain. Byron might be added. Butler, Donne, Churchill, and Wolcot, are our best sa- tirists. The golden era of Turkish poetry was the reign of Bajazet the First. All the early sultans were patrons of literature, and Mahomet II was an accomplished scholai. The Janizaries alone were the enemies of learning; but, since their extinction, the printing-press has been introduced. Spenser was born in East Smithfield, Pope in Lombard-street, Gray in Cornhill, Chaucer and Milton in Bread-street. Pope translated the Iliad in a tower at Stanton Harcourt, near Oxford. His Essay on Man, he wrote in a little room adjoining the Thames, at the back of Lord Boling- broke’s, at Battersea. Professor Babbage has published an af- fecting volume, on the Decline of Science in England, and the fact is undoubted. All study has reference, he says, to commercial profit, or mere show ; while increasing so- cieties are sustained by subscribers and amateurs, not by philosophers, the ratio varying from 50 and 30 to 1. Students in mathematics, the bases of all exact know- ledge, have diminished within a century from thousands to tens. In regard to socie- ties, the system of ballot excludes original thinkers and improvers of knowledge, and reduces the new members to obscure con- formists and genteel adulators. Since the general spread of education, light reading has swamped sound literature by the high profits and patronage of one, and the low patronage of the other. A successful novel or eccentric work is, there- fore, a fortune to its author, while sound literature seldom payfc the expense of print- ing. The result is a general preference of the more profitable, and a supply of va- riety, which begets a seeming public taste. Light reading sustains, also, about 2500 cir- culating libraries. Royal societies, and associations of aris- tocratic amateurs , have as pernicious an influence on the advance of improvement almost as the schools of the middle ages. They countenance no originality, and origi- nality never seeks them. They parrot within them what is discovered without them ; and they recognise improvements only after the second or third generation. Professor Cooper, in speaking of the very low state of knowledge in America, ob- serves, “ that silly poetry, novels, romances, and newspapers, with theological tracts, manufactured to impose on credulity, are plentifully distributed ; while law and me- dical books, as tools of trade, are often reprinted ; but there is no knowledge for its own sake, and education and study have every where a pecuniary reference. Even in seminaries of education, appointments too often depend on the struggles of the arabL Y 640 LITERATURE. 644 tious bigots of contending sects, and all colleges, except one or two, are sectarian. Congress, by heavily taxing foreign books, have exposed the people to reprints of By- ron’s poems and Scott’s novels ; but, in this law, the ignorance of the community has been faithfully represented.” England is the only country in which books are advertised, and this expense adds 30 per cent, to the price. In France, two copies are sent to about 20 journals, and their notice is the sole advertisement, be- sides the public voice. In England, the public voice is surrendered to advertise- ments and puffs in every form, aided by mock corrupt criticisms. Colonists are grossly abused by the ex- porters of books, and the ignorance of mer- chants ; and they get few books but such as are mere waste paper in England. The merchant usually orders a case of books , of 100/. or 500/. value, forgetting that there are books of every variety of intrinsic worth ; and then the dealer avails himself of this inadvertency, and fills the case or cases with none but such books as few ever saw in England, and which can generally be bought at the price of waste paper. Fine binding is the chief feature of books thus sent abroad. The decline of literature, in England, has been accelerated, or caused by a passion for novel reading, which, by absorbing patro- nage, deprives all other studies of their reward. It resembles the Roman literature in the decline of the empire ; and, for some years past, few books but novels have paid their expenses. A good novel yields its au- thor from 300/. to 1500/. ; while Dr. Johnson’s high price for his Dictionary was but 1575/. A novel, written in two months, will yield its author 300/. or 500/. as a current specu- lation. The fame of most writers is very epheme- ral, chiefly owing to their choice of subjects of the day, or of the age or nation. Eng- lish literature does not preserve above 8 or 10 authors before the age of Shakspeare; not above 20 from Shakspeare to Addison, and scarcely 50 from the age of Addison to the year 1839. Since the days of Elizabeth, one or two books, or pamphlets, per day, have been printed ; but the subjects were obsolete theology, forgotten politics, or su- perseded philosophy, and the majority in bad method or bad taste. It has been the same in France, Germany, Italy, and Hol- land ; and, doubtless, was the same among the ancients, though we so often lament the loss of ancient works. It is subject matter only, and original ideas, independent of theories and fancies, that assures fame, not flippant time-serving works, or such as humour the taste of the day. The only permanent associations are those connected with nature, not in specu- lations, but in novel facts. On this account, Aristotle and the ancient astronomers live with their subjects. Nothing has a chance of permanent fame, which does not gratify human nature, whether Chinese, Hindoo, Turkish, Russian, &c. &c., for every nation passes through the mental phases of all. In fact, all literary idolatry is very unfa- vourable to emulation and improvement. Great geniuses, in any line, swamp others for a century. Authors are commonly in distress, because they begin without capital, and are obliged to anticipate the results. The slavish admiration and imitation of the ancients, and of all predecessors, is un- favourable to future exertions, and injurious to succeeding ages. — Schlegel. Since the Hanoverian succession, litera- ture and literary men have been cruelly neglected; and, since the establishment of the very useless eleemosynary Literary Fund, the nobility have entirely withdrawn their once-efficient support from men of letters. The penny and twopenny publica- tions of scraps and extracts have also left original authors without hope. Reviews of books, under the false pre- tence and colour of criticism, are usually written by the friends or enemies of authors, or of the publishers of the works, and are trading frauds, which delude the ignorant. No such opinions ought to have any autho- rity, without the known name of a respon- sible critic. Nevertheless, a malignant spirit in readers, who often delight in slan- der, occasions the most vituperative anony- mous criticisms to be the most read and patronized. Owing to the difficulty of finding critics on special subjects, it often happens that the same person writes critiques on the same book for many reviews, and a single writer has been known to write seven or more at a profit of 50/. or 60/. So also a critic who obtains possession of an expensive book, earns ten times its price by variation in cri- ticisms for many reviews. Newspaper cri- tiques are always paid for, and then quoted as real characters of the work. Commonly, on very peculiar subjects, the author is so- licited to become his own reviewer, or he prepares reviews, and offers them, free of charge, to different reviewers. Frequently, the book is never seen, but a common-place article is written on the subject from the advertisement. At least a hundred writers subsist, in London, by jobbing for reviews, and by bribery arising out of their influence on ignorant readers and a deluded public. The literary education of women began to prevail in the early part of the 17th century. Till then, few were taught more than to read, but writing was then superadded with music, dancing, and French. In 1620, nei- ther of Shakspeare ’s daughters could write. The change wrought changes in literature. To provide books for female readers, novels were contrived ; and, owing to women having leisure, they were multiplied ; and, since 1780, have so grown in number, and commercial importance, as almost to super- cede all other books, and render them but secondary, in profit, to authors or publishers. The Bibliomania , like the Tulip-mania in Holland, became too ridiculous to last. LITERATURE. 64r» Mfl It was finally written down by Dibdin. They valued books in the inverse ratio of their intrinsic worth, and any peculiarity, even a printer’s blunder in a copy, raised its value 600 per cent. First editions, with all their imperfections, were often worth a freehold estate, and a dealer was in danger of ruin if a second copy, by chance, came into the market; and all this took place while cur- rent literature languished, and hundreds of able writers were starving. London reading may be judged by the fact, that, in 3 parishes of Westminster, of 101,000 inhabitants, there are 38 small li- braries, containing each about 550 volumes of novels, romances, and other trash, and 15 large ones, stocked in nearly the same manner. The current amusements of Lon- don and large cities are fatal to extensive intellectuality. The Shah Nameh, an heroic poem, by Abul Kasim Ferdousi, consists of 60,000 verses of great force and matchless beauty, written between the years 960 and 1000. It comprises Persian history from Kaiomurs, the first sovereign, to Yesdigerd the Third, when Persia, in 641, was overrun by the Arabs or Saracens. He wrote it by desire of Sultan Mahmood, who was to give him a piece of gold for every verse, and then sent him with true royal honesty 60,000 pieces of silver , and persecuted him to death for re- senting the fraud. His poem begins with Kaiomers, the Adam of the Magi, and the Alorus or Orion of the Chaldeans. It is not to be dissembled that Milton’s Paradise Lost, with all his absurd machinery of devils, angels, &c., yields in our days to common sense, and though his admirers are many, his readers are few. The Greek anthology of epigram, epi- taphs, and light pieces, even in elegant English, is very trifling and pointless, and, at best, only pretty. They are far excelled by fugitive modern verse, though Sappho, Anacreon, Alcaeus, Menander, Meleager, &c. have a factitious fame, maintained by pedants and critics. Even Merivale’s taste will not raise them, and they could have been admired only when books were rare. We learn from Bland, that even genius did not protect the Greek and Latin poets from violent or premature deaths ; as in the instances of Sappho, Anacreon, Theocritus, Euripides, Heraclitus, Hesiod, iEschylus, JEsop, Lucretius, Seneca, Lucan, Menander, Terence, Cratinus, Petronius, Socrates, De- mosthenes, and, finally, Cicero. Reinaert de Vos, or Reynard the Fox, a satirical poem, written about 1250, by Willem Van Utenhoven, a priest of Aer- denburg, was for centuries the most popular work ever written. It was translated into many languages, and into English by JChaucer. As there is no excellence without emula- tion, and no emulation without reward and distinction, so in the Arabs’ courts of criti- cism, the best poem of the year was written in letters of gold and suspended in the tem- ple of the Caaba. These works of the ages, when the northern nations were devastating Europe, are distinguished by the purity and eloquence characteristic of Arabic. The Caliph Al-Mansur set an example or literary patronage, which, to his glory, wa carried to the highest pitch by his successor Al-Mamun, whose reign was the triumph of literature and philosophy,’ and the golden age of their professors. Painters, poets, and dramatists, have done as much as priests, to give currency to gross superstitions. Poets and painters want sub- jects beyond nature, to strike the imagina- tion and satisfy their flights of power, and dramatists seek to attract by the terrible and incomprehensible. Who can doubt that there are demons, who behold Michael Angelo’s Last Judgment, or read Paradise Lost, or Dante’s Inferno, and see Shaks- peare’s Macbeth or Hamlet ? Pankouke’s Encyclopedic Methodique was in 255 quarto volumes, of which 36 were plates only. Every subject was separate. The Nautical Almanac, the Connaissance des Temps , and the Astronomishes Iahr- buch of Berlin, have all the same objects. Regiomontanus made the first Almanack, in 1474. The largest impressions of any single book were those of Moore’s Almanack ; a proof of the prevalence of superstition. For many years, during the late wars, when political excitement was excessive, the Stationers’ Company sold from 420 to 480 thousand copies per annum, of Moore’s Astrological Prophecying Almanack. About 50 years since, the Company resolved no longer to administer to this gross credulity, and, for two or three years, omitted the predictions, when the sale fell off one half. Gilles de Retz, or Laval, was the original Blue Beard of Perault. He resided at Ma- checoul in Brittany, and was a marshal of France. He was charged with murdering several wives, and above 100 children, and with sorcery, and was burnt at Nantes, Dec. 1440. The term Blue Stocking , applied to lite- rary ladies, was conferred on a society which was called the Blue Stocking Club, in which females were admitted ; and so called, owing to a Mr. Benjamin Still ingfleet, one of its acting members, wearing blue stockings. The first edition of Paradise Lost, in 4to., was sold at 3s. in plain binding. The sale of the Spectator was above 3000 per day ; Tickell says, sometimes 20,000. It was ruined by a half-penny stamp, which raised the price from Id. to 2d. The Tatler was commenced in 1709, the Spectator in 1/11, the Guardian and English man in 1713, the Freeholder in 1715, the Rambler in 1750, the Adventurer in 1752, the World 1753, the Connoisseur 1754, the Idler 1758, the Observer 1786. They ap- peared two or three times a week, in fools- cap folio. Dillitanti are a species of small literati , who speculate on small points of taste and criticism. They write Essays, Sonnets, and Novels, and are a sort of literary gossips. Y 2 647 LITERATURE. 648 Nme.tenths of what are called men of let- ters and genius are of this class. Cyclopaedias are national and temporary works, adapted to the faith, self-love, and prejudices of the nation and age for which they are written and manufactured. Thus, an English Cyclopaedia is science Anglicized, a Scotch one subjects all knowledge to a Scottish standard, and a French one refers all wisdom to Frenchmen. In all such works every nation sees itself under an angle of 180°, its military and intellectual heroes fill 100°, its local objects 50°, and all the world only the other 3(P. Ana are maxims, anecdotes, and original fragments of eminent men. The French have a multitude of such works, of which specimens were translated by the Rev. Ph. Smith. In England we have Walpoliana, by Pinkerton; Addisonia, Swiftiana, and Brookiana, by Wilson ; besides Oxoniana, by Walker; and Londiniana, by Brayley ; all original and curious. The idols, or false divinities, exposed by Bacon, he called Idola Tribus, Idola Specus, Idola Fori, Idola Theatri, and they are as much worshipped at this day in the Univer- sities and Royal Societies of Europe as in the days of Bacon ; while they are zealously upheld by the servility of the press. The Scotch are industrious collectors, but nationality so blinds them, that they refer most improvements and inventions to Scotch- men. In 2 modern Scotch works in names quoted, there are 18/6 references to Scotch- men, 324 to Englishmen, 7 to Irishmen, 104 to Frenchmen, and 125 to Germans, Italians, &c. The French Romance of Jehan de Saintre, written in 1459, contains the most accurate •picture of the absurdities of chivalry in the -cause of religion, the female sex, and a morbid sense of honour. Shakspeare’s Romeo was Romeo Montec- cheo, and Juliet was Juliet Capello. Ban- ■dello gives the story as true ; and, till lately, their tomb was shewn at Verona. The Contes des Fees , in 50 or 60 vols., were the production of the Countess D’ An- noy, who lived from 1650 to 1/05. Few of them have appeared in English. The Vedas, or Laws of Menu, addressed to a civilized people, were edited by Kull- nea, about 880 B. C. The hero Rama lived between 1176 and 940 B. C. The war be- tween the Pandoos and the Kooroos was in 580 B. C. Alexander defeated Porus in 317 B. C., and, from that time till 1000 A. C., little is recorded of Hindoo history. The brain has no innate or pre-existing ideas, but it has powers which limit its own energies and laws, by which it acts, in the use of its experience and fixed sensations. Logicians teach five rules of conception, or perfect reflection, as follows : — 1. Conceive of things clearly and distinctly in their own natures. 2. Conceive of things completely in all their parts. 3. Conceive of things comprehensively , in all their properties and relations. 4. Conceive of things extensively in all their kinds. 5. Conceive of things orderly , or in a cor- rect method. Hence every perfect idea includes clear- ness, completeness, comprehensiveness, ex- tent, and system or order. Prose style is merely a picture of an author’s tone of thinking. In general, it is the succession of ideas as they progress in the brain ; and the best words are those which, in their usual sense, exactly express the idea, and no other. Logic was the chief study of the middle ages, but its abuse led to its neglect, and it is now abandoned, to the prejudice of sound learning. Euclid is preferred as a praxis, but being a dry pursuit, both logic and Eu- clid are improperly abandoned. The moderns are superior to the ancients, only in living later, and in having accumu- lated more facts. Aristotle and all the Greeks insisted on the importance of collecting Facts, and from them forming general inductions and axioms. The ancients divided knowledge into Arithmetic, Geometry, and Dialectics. To these the moderns have added Experi- ment ; but our public schools retain the ancient division, and instead of Experiment, the real modern improvement, have added the dead languages, in which two-thirds of all studious time is wasted. The developement of talent takes place from 30 to 45. Aristotle’s philosophical works were his 8 books of Lectures, his 4 on the Heavens, and his 2 on Production and Destruction. He also wrote on Meteorology and Mecha- nics, on Natural History, Colours, and Sound. The most eminent Arabic philosophers have been A1 Farabi, Ben Sina or Avicenna, Al Gazali, Ben Baja or Avenplace, Ben Roshd or Averroes. They had, also, 8 or 10 great mathematicians, and 40 or 50 eminent historians, whose mere names are scarcely known in Europe. In fact, under suitable patronage, they had able writers on every subject, many of which require translation. Scott’s Waverley was offered, anony- mously, to the Editor of this Volume. The price asked for it was refused. It then appeared as W. Scott's ; but in a few days the name and placards were withdrawn, and the author said to be unknovm. Junius was the production of the two brothers Maclean, and Eden, afterwards Lord Auckland. All the elementary books under the name.® of Blair, Goldsmith, Barrow, Pelham, and Bossut, were the productions of the Editor of this Volume, between 1798 and 1815. A self-student reads only for sense, a student under a master only for words. Esculapius, according to Sanchoniatho, was the father of medicine ; while Thoth, his contemporary, had great celebrity for his knowledge of the secret virtues of herbs. The second Pharoah had also great reputa- tion in this way. Medicine, at first, was intimately mingled LITERATURE. 649 659 with astrology ; the horoscope of the time of consultation indicated the disease, and the antidotes were herbs, whose qualities were also indicated by the moon and planets. All this was Phoenician and Asiatic ; also Egyptian, Chaldaic, and probably still more eastern. The Greeks, 1500 years after, affected the same knowledge, but mingled it with fables and absurdities. To this day the astrological physician sets a figure or horoscope, to determine whether the patient will recover, and the remedies. Dr. Royle shews that medicine, as a science, was of extreme antiquity in India. The Ayur Veda, in Sanscrit, gives details which leave littie o‘ discovery to the moderns. Their anatomy, in all its branches, is perfect, and they seem to have been familiar with our latest discoveries in surgery and phar- macy, and even to have had 127 surgical instruments ; yet the Ayur Veda was com- posed in unknown time, before Budha, Zo- roaster, and Confucius. The Egyptians, Arabs, Greeks, and Romans, were right, therefore, in their homage to the East. Dr. Royle finds, too, in their early Geometry, the 47th Prop, of I. Euclid, and other theo- rems, long supposed to be Greek or modern. Astrology is an error, because it connects certainties with mere probabilities. For example, no astrologer views the heavens in making predictions, but merely consults an ephemeris, for it seldom happens that half the planets are above the horizon, and. if so, no eye could fix their positions. Nor is the erection of an horoscope of the twelve hours, or equal divisions, an affair*of calcu- lation, but it is formed in a few minutes, by brief tables. The line of demarcation, in the History of Philosophy, is drawn by the belief in gratui- tous and fanciful causes. Paracelsus, Von Helmet, Dee, Kepler, Brahe, Bacon, &c. believed in witchcraft, demonology, and astrology, and form one obsolete set ; while their successors, Newton, Halley, Cavallo, Cavendish, &c. &c. believed in the mutual attractions and repulsions of inert matter, a faith which governs all their reasonings, and vitiates all their writings. The next age, we may hope, will investigate all the proxi- mate means by which the motions of atoms and bodies produce phenomena, and we may then hope that Philosophy will become a ra- tional study, and supersede literary trifling. Metaphysics fail, because they assume re- sults and relative effects as absolute principles of nature. They reason about educated man, instead of referring to the infant man ; and then adopt, as natural principles, all that has been superadded by the constant ener- gies of his own microcosm, and the re-actions of external objects. Gassendi, Locke, &c. alone are right, in maintaining that there are no innate ideas ; and the novel doctrine that lime is the succession of motion, and is merely our perception of the succession, is fatal to full half of metaphysical philosophy. A mode of action, which cannot be ex- plained, is a visionary basis of any theory ; and an assertion that it is inscrutable, is as impudent as it is ignorant. What is assumed, without proof, may not be true, and then all the inferences arfe false. Thus, unavowed intentions, or assumed conse- quences, ought not to be ascribed to any antagonist. *It is a bad use of the argumen - turn ad hominum. The progress of medical science is best proved by the epochs of certain professors. Esculapius was of the consecrated family of the age of Taautus, about 2800 B. C. Hippocrates flourished in the 4th and 5th centuries B. C., and had Eudoxus for con- temporary. Asclepiades, Dioscorides. and Euphorbus, were of the century B. C. Galen died at 70, in 200 A. C. Avicenna died in the 10th century, in the reign of Canute. Linacre, Glauber, Paracelsus, and Nos- trodamus, in the 15th century. Harvey, Sanctorius, Caesalpinus, Eutsa- ius, Fallopius, &c. in thel6th century. Willis, Sydenham, Malpighi, Ruch, Bar- tholin, J. Gregory, Cavalieris, in the 17th. Mead, Hoffman, Ellmuller, Friend, Pit- cairne, Boerhaave, Hales, and Sloane. be- tween the 17th and 18th. W. Hunter, J. Hunter, Cullen, Fothergill, Brown, Cheyne, Pott, Whytt, Bell, and Bonnet, in the 18th. Jenner, Withering, Home, Cline, Currie, Petit, Desault, Vaughan, and Halford, in the 19th. The Dutch Heins is known as Heinsius, Schryver as Schriverius, Gronof as Grono- vius, and Vos as Vossius. To protect author* the act of Anne per- mitted them to assign leases of only 14 years, when their property, for their future provi- sion, reverted to them. But, by a gross blunder of legislation, they were, in 1814, empowered to grant leases for 28 years, by which the entire object of copyright law, as to authors, was totally defeated. The first was a law passed under the influence of an administration of men of genius ; the last under the Goths and Vandals, who misruled from 1765 to 1830. The relations of an author and publisher are exactly those of a proprietor, who grants a lease for a fine. The shorter the lease the oftener the fine is receivable. The law for the encouragement of learning, passed by the sages in the age of Anne, provided, therefore, as a security to authors against themselves, a short lease of 14 years, and “ no longer but, by a climax of absur- dity, the Boeotian parliament of 1814 ex. tended the term to 28 years. The acts relating to copyrights are : — Books , 54th George III. c. 156. Assign- ment 28 years, and if the author survive, during his life. Engravings, 7th Geo. III. c. 38, for 28 years. Sculpture , 54th Geo. III. c. 56, for 14 years. A new copyright act now gives a national character to literary property. Five copies of new works are, by 6 and 7 William IV., to be delivered to public li- braries. 651 PRINTING. 652 The first printing characters were Gothic ; PRINTING. but Roman type was used in 1467. The first printed sheets were produced by The art of Printing has changed the mind a plane and mallet. The old ordinary of man and the face of society. MSS., till printing-press was first made by Bleau, at its general usage, were scarce, dear, and Amsterdam. inacessible to 999 in every thousand; and, In thirty years after the invention of print- those in existence, taught very little. In ing, about 1450, the popes took alarm, and fact, learning to read was very useless, ex- printed lists of forbidden works, and required cept to the professions ; and learning to write others to be licensed, by three friars, under was still more useless. Such was the state pain of excommunication, fine, &c. Till of man till after the year 1450 ; but the then, writing and printing were free. The printing-press created new and unforeseen presses of Cologne, Mentz, Treves, and excitement, and, towards 1500, schools were Magdeburg, were specially interdicted, everywhere established to read the printed Copying was, in ancient Greece and Rome books. Intellectual pursuits and improve- a productive employment ; but it afterwards ments of all kind followed ; the man of the fell into the hands of the monks, wno copied 17th century was as much advanced over chiefly theology. A good copy of the Bible, the man of the 14th, as this latter was supe- on vellum, employed two years ; and the rior to ordinary animals. Printing, in fact, works of either of the Fathers still more generated a sixth sense, and raised man and time. Jerome states, that he had ruined society above half in the scale of intellect. himself in buying a copy of the Works of Without printing there could have been Origen. Of course, copiers altered and no Reformation. It was this art that gave vitiated, corrected the language, interpo- wings to the doctrines of the Reformers, lated, &c. according to their honesty, taste. Fifty Luthers, before Martin, had been ex- faith, or party ; and hence the endless con- tinguished by fire and faggot, but these could troversies, among critics and theologians, not overtake the radiation of the printing, about words, phrases, and paragraphs. It press. It was a new power conferred on thus appeared, that, at the Council of Nice, human nature, to check the insolence of in 325, there were 200 varied versions of kingcraft and priestcraft. This great contest the adopted Evangelists, and 54 several in 400 years has effected much, but the Gospels. struggle may last 200 years longer. Whether we have reached the ne plus We are grossly deceived if the same art ultra of the art cannot be determined ; but had not been practised, by the Chinese, 1000 what has been done has filled the world with years previously. They did not, however, books, journals, and newspapers, and every change blocks into types. It is possible that head with more knowledge than was pos- some eastern traveller may have made the sessed by whole colleges of learning 4 or 500 suggestion to Roster and Guttenburgh. years ago ! Of this the Million of Facts, About the same time the Portuguese were and all its power of spreading, at a low cost, exploring the East, and this Chinese art, every kind of knowledge, is a notable ex- through them, might have reached Holland, ample. The MS. of such a volume would. The Germans assign the invention of in 1440, have cost 500/. currency ; and the printing to Gensfleisch, our Guttenburgh, of work in 1839 is offered to the public for a Mentz. The Dutch are equally tenacious few shillings of modern currency, about Roster, of Haarlem. Caxton was the first English printer, and Roster, Laurens Janszoon, born in 1370, his printing-office was in the Chapter-house was a citizen and the treasurer of Haarlem, of Westminster Abbey. He learnt the art where he invented printing, and, about 1422, in Germany, and was liberally patronized in produced a book called Spiegel onser Behou- England. The first book printed by Caxton lenesse , or Mirrror of our Redemption. It was in 1471, and bore for its title “ Willyam is a quarto, in old German character, printed Caxton' s Recuyel of the History cs of Troye , on one side, and the blank sides pasted to- by Raoul le Feure." While the Bibliomania gether. The pages are without folios, and prevailed, a copy was sold by auction for many of the letters do not range in line. Its 1060/. 18 n. object was to illustrate Scripture by wood- After Caxton’s death, printing was prac- cuts. — Bosworth. tised by his foreign assistants, Wynkin de The first printed books were trifling Worde, Richard Pynson, John Lettoic, and Hymns and Psalters, with images of saints; William Machlinia, whose worthless books and, being printed only on one side, the sell, as curiosities, at high prices, leaves were pasted back to back. One of In England, the first types were cast by the first was the Biblia Pauperum, of 40 Caslon, in 1720. The printing-machine was leaves, which, pasted together, made 20. suggested by Nicholson, in 1/90, and per- An entire Psalter was printed, in 1457, by fected by Roenig. Faust and Schoeffer ; and a Bible, in 637 Stereotype-printing was used in Holland, leaves, in moveable types , was printed at early in the last century. The rollers for Mentz, between 1450 and 1455. inking the types were the suggestion also of Of course, moveable types were invented Nicholson. Stereotype- printing was intro- between 1422 and 1450, but by whom is not duced into London, by Wilson, in 1804. The ascertained, though the only original part of last-adopted improvements have been the the invention. Stanhope press, the Columbian press, and PRINTING, 653 the printing-machine, worked either by steam or hand. Stereotype forms of a Bible, in 4to., exist at Leyden, from which impressions have oeen taken since 1711. At Haarlem, also, is another stereotype form of a Dutch Bible, which dates in 1705. John Muller, minister of a German church at Leyden, contrived, about 1701, this method of printing. Printing was distinguished by little taste or susceptibility of improvement, till Bas- kerville and Bell, about 1776, who were followed by B ulmer, Bensl^y, Savage, &c. In the English alphabet, 22 of the capitals are perfect squares. I and J are upright parallelograms, and M and W are one-third wider than the heighth. The hair strokes at the tops and bottoms progress equal to the thick line. The small letters are half the heighth of the capitals. The tails of p, q, &c. descend as much as d, b. & c. ascend. A sheet of type employs about 120 lbs. weight, or 60 lbs. to a form. The propor- tions in founts, as of 100,000 letters, in Eng- lish, would be 5000 a; 3000 c; 11,000 e; €000 i ; 2000 m ; and of k, q, x, and z, not above 30. Antimony, alloyed with lead, makes types. The French reckon 2000 to an edition, the English and Germans 750, and the United States 1000. If 750 of a new book in Eng- land cost 250/., the same in France would cost but 120/., and in Germany and the United States but 100/. In England, advertizing is 20 per cent, of the cost ; in France, &c. but 5 per cent. A volume of 20 sheets costs, in Germany, for 1000, or two reams, per sheet, 16/. 10s. for paper, and 13/. 10s. for printing ; other expences various. The same volume in England would cost 42/. for paper, and 42/. for printing, besides advertising 25/. *. e. 110/. instead of30/., taking engraving, author, &c. as equal in each country. The modern names of sizes of books are derived from the folding of paper ; when the sheet is not folded it is called a folio, and Small Pica 83 Pica 71| 1 English 64 Pressmen are usually paid from 9 d. to Is. id. for every 250 impressions, according to the size of the paper, and the care required. PUBLIC SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. Italy had, in the 15th century, so many associations, like our societies, called Aca- demies, that there were 550 for general o particular pursuits. The French imitated the Italians in the 16th and 17th centuries ; and, in the 17th and 18th, the English imi- tated both, in the Royal and other Societies ; and of late they have been so extended, as, perhaps, to equal the Italian societies in number. They spread knowledge, but they subdue original thinking by deference to existing authorities. In Italy, therefore, no new discoveries are traceable to them; and, in England, distinction in our numerous ones consists in merely knowing the current knowledge repeated in books. In general, literary and philosophical so- cieties are mere close corporations, and very unfavourable to originality and the advance of knowledge, beyond a prescribed beaten track. They are usually governed by the prejudices of the education of the senior members ; and, hence, having a certain weight with the vulgar, they always impede the march of discovery. They help to spread what was known when they were founded ; but they look with stern jealousy on all in- novations. There are Royal Academies of History, Antiquities, Belles Lettres, and Language in Italy, France, and Austria. France has also an Academy of Architecture and Dan- cing. It is, however, a very striking fact, that every great discovery has been made by solitary persons, who usually have been opposed, and often persecuted, by academies and associations. SITES OF LONDON SOCIETIES. Royal Society, Somerset House. Antiquaries Society, Somerset House. Geological Society, Somerset House. Linnaean Society, Soho Square. Horticultural Society, 21, Regent Street. Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society; 53, Berner’s Street- Civil Engineers’ Society, 1, Cannon Row Society of Arts, Adelphi. Graphic, Thatched House, St. James St Royal Society, Literature, St. Martin’s-Pl. Zoological Society, 28, Leicester Square. Royal Institution, Albemarle Street. Royal Asiatic Society, 14, Grafton Street Royal Geographical Society, 21, Regent Street. British Architects' Society, 16, Lower Grosvenor Street. Entomological Society, 17, Old Bond St. Statistical Society, 4, St. Martin’s Place. Royal Astronomical Society, Somerset House. Medico-Botanical Society, 32, Sackville St. Numismatic Society, 24, Dover St. Picca. Ornithological Society, 57, Pall Mall. London Institution, Finsbury Circus. The following is a list of the principal Literary Societies in the United Kingdom, with the fee on admission, according to Bab. bage, and the initial letters distinguishing the members 657 PUBLIC SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 658 Royal Society, 50/., F.R.S. Royal Society of Edinburgh, 25/. 4s., F.R.S.E. Royal Academy of Dublin, 26/. 55., M.R.I.A. Royal Society, Literary, 36/. 155., F.R.L. Antiquarian Society, 50/. 85., F.A.S. Linnaean Society, 36/., F.L.S. Geological Society, 34/. 13s., F.G.S. Astronomical Society, 25/. 45., M.A.S. Zoological Society, 26/. 55., F.Z.S. Roval Institution, 50/., M.R.S. Royal Asiatic Society, 31/. 105., F.R.A.S. Horticultural Society, 48/. 65., F.H.S. Medico Botanical, 21/., F.M B.S. In 1827, only 109 of the 1150 F.R.S. had contributed to the Transactions; and, of these, 1 1 only had titles of rank. Among the 1000 or 1100 men, who, by fashion, or vanity, are fellows of the London Royal Society, there seldom are above a dozen to whom science is a pursuit, and not more than 1 or 2 that affect originality. The greatest Public Libraries contain as under : — Name. Bib. Royal e, Paris Vatican, Rome Ditto, Munich - ■ Bib. Im., Petersb. - Bib. Roy., Copen. - Bib. Imp., Vienna - Bib. Roy., Berlin . Bib. Imp., Pekin • Bib. Roy., Dresden Brit. Mus., London Bodleian, Oxford University, Gottin. Bib. Ducal, Wolfen- buttel - Bib. Roy., Madrid - Vols. MSS. | 630.000 600.000 540.000 432.000 410.000 284.000 280.000 280,000 260,000 280,000 250.000 240.000 80,000 40.000 16.000 12,000 15.000 16.000 5.000 Unk. 3.000 25,000 25,000 5.000 Prints. 1,400,000 500.000 300.000 250.000 80,000 300.000 180.000 250,000 85.000 40.000 200,000 4,500 200,000 18,000 80,000 100,000 Libraries of above 100,000 volumes are those of the Arsenal at Paris, the Royal Stuttgart, Milan, Naples, Florence (two Libraries), Breslau, University of Munich, the Advocates at Edinburgh, Venice, Turin, Sion College, London University, Cam- bridge, Trinity College, Oxford Colleges, Dublin, Amsterdam, and Bologna. Each of them, besides, contains thousands of unbound tracts ; some half a million. The 3 or 4 American Libraries do uot yet exceed 50,000 volumes. There are, in the United Kingdom, 112 public libraries, or collections of books and records. All the first and second-rate towns of the United Kingdom have fixed libraries, sus- tained by 50, 100, or 300 subscribers, at one or two pounds per annum, with a premium on admission. London has seven or eight, with from 300 to 600 subscribers. They buy the new books and journals, and usually have newspapers. When not governed by theological or political partizans, they are eminently useful and agreeable. The first were formed in the great towns, about 60 years ago, and there are now at least 500. Another species of convenient literary establishment, a century old, is the drew, lating Book Society, formed by 20, 30, or 40 subscribers, who, after a fixed number of days, forward the books from one to ano- ther, in a rota, fixed by their facility of communication. A secretary, usually a bookseller, puts them in circulation, and receives them again, and once a year they are sold at a dinner of the members, and the produce expended in new books. The sub^ scriptions vary from 155. to 305., and of such associations there are at least 1000. There are also some minor associations, for theological and professional books. No- vels, tales, &c. are chiefly read through about 1500 circulating libraries, by the vo- lume or year. In the Southern counties of Scotland, there are itinerating libraries, invented by Samuel Brown. When a library has been read by a village, it is exchanged with that of another village, and their variety of books given to both. There is a head station to a given number of libraries thus circulated, and to which each returns every two years for reparation, &c. Each library is about 50 volumes, and with its case costs 12/. It is all these institutions, and the circu- lation of newspapers and journals, that has created the new and useful power in society, which our statesmen call the spirit of the age, and to which, legislation and public policy are obliged to succomb. The British Association is a practical means of bringing the science of universities and societies before the public. But, as the committees of management consist exclu- sively of professors, and. men of orthodox opinions, so there cannot be, and is not, that free display of opinions which is essen- tial to the republic of letters. A daily pro- gramme of each class fixes the proceedings, and spontaneous displays are far from being encouraged. The system is, no doubt, use- fal to a certain extent, and perhaps it could not be better. The Paris cabinet of maps contains 1$ million, and those of Vienna, Munich, and Dresden, about 300,000 each. The British Museum above 10,000. The Editor of this volume suggested the first idea of the Diffusion Society to Dr. Birkbeck, and then, by his advice, to Lord Brougham, early in 1825. His idea was that of a fund, for vending or giving away books and tracts, like the Religious Tract Society ; and not to set up a commercial chartered company for literary monopoly. The British Museum, now of free accesr to the public, contains the greatest assem. blage of natural specimens, geographica, curiosities, ancient works of art, books, and MSS., ever assembled in any country. The species of animals of the three kingdoms, and of minerals, are classed systematically, and labelled ; and, in like manner, works of art, of Egypt, Persia, Asia Minor, Greece, Rome, ancient Britain, &c. &c. There are 16 rooms on the ground-floor, filled with books and MSS., besides the Royal Library of 659 PUBLIC SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 660 George III., in a noble room built for its reception. There are 13 rooms on the upper floor, for sundry curiosities in art and natu- ral history, besides the long gallery, con- taining 70 glazed cases of specimens of mi- nerals and fossils. There are 12 rooms for archaeological curiosities and ancient sculp- ture, besides 4 saloons for special collections. And there is a medal room for numismatic curiosities, and a room for costly and rare engravings. Nothing of its kind can be more complete, and for public gratification better managed. There are, besides, spa- cious reading rooms, with easy access, and every facility afforded for the inspection of every literary curiosity. A cheap general catalogue is a guide, and there are enlarged catalogues by able men of every department, for the use of students and scholars. The Library of the British Museum is one of the most extensive in Europe, both in printed books, MSS., and prints. Among the MSS. is a copy of the Old and New Testament, in four volumes, written by a lady of the name of Thecla, at Alexandria, in the fourth or fifth century. Also, a Latin copy of the Gospels of the eighth century. The Antiques and Egyptian Reliques are splendid. R. P. Knight gave 5205 valuable Greek coins lately to the British Museum. The Rev. W. H. Carr 35 ancient pictures. And — White, Esq. 30,000/. to build a library. The Royal Library, presented in 1822 to the British Museum, consisted of 65,250 books, besides pamphlets. The previous Museum Library was 110,000 volumes, con- sisting of Sloane’s, Harley’s, Hargrave’s, Burney’s, and Banks’s Libraries, besides Lansdowne MSS. &c. The British Museum, in 1852, expended 51,386/. in purchases and various expenses. The Vatican Library was founded by Nicholas V., and rebuilt by Sixtus V. in 1588. Christiana, Queen of Sweden, en- riched it with 1900 MSS., among which were the Theodosian Code, and 18 folios of her letters. It contains 2 ancient MS. Codices of Virgil, 1 of the third century, also a Te- rence. Petrarch’s Epigrams in his MS. It is 1000 feet long, with one Gallery of 800, and one of 200. The Laurentian Library, at Florence, was founded by Cosmo de Medici, and con- tains 10,000 curious MSS. The Ambrosian Library, at Milan, con- tains 40,000 MSS., among which are a Jose- phus of the fourth century. Manuscripts of Thomas Aquinas, Leonardo da Vinci, Pe- trarch’s copy of Virgil, &c. &c. The St. Mark Library, at Venice, was founded in 1306. It contains Petrarch’s Greek MSS. and Library, andPinelli’s MSS. The Bibliotheque Royale , at Paris, was founded with only 20 books, in 1340. It has since been increased to 80,000 MSS., (many most curious) above half a million of volumes, besides 5000 volumes of engravings. The Imperial Library, at Vienna, contains 300,000 books, 12,000 MSS., and half a mil- lion of engravings j among which are MSS. of the fifth century, and copies of most of the first printed books. The Vienna Library contains 12,000 Incu. nables, or Books, printed before 1500. The Escurial Library is rich in Hebrew and Arabic MSS., among which are the Co- dex Aureus. The titles are on the edges. The Stutgard Library is chiefly remark- able for editions of the Jewish Histories, of which there are full 7000, in 50 languages. The Copenhagen library is very extensive, containing many MSS., and those of Tycho Brahe. The Bodleian Library, at Oxford, was founded by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, about 1435, but afterwards dispersed. It was restored in 1597, by Sir Thomas Bod- ley, at his own cost, and has been enriched by splendid donations. It now contains 250,000 printed volumes, and 25,000 MSS. The Lambeth Library has many rare books of divinity, and contains a fine copy of the Koran. Bennet College Library, Cambridge, con- tains the MSS. &c. found in the monasteries at the Reformation, and extremely curious, and in Teutonic or Deutsh. Other libraries at Cambridge abound in curiosities, as MSS. of Newton, Milton, &c. The Codex Beza of the fifth century. All the College libraries at Oxford, Cam- bridge, Dublin, Glasgow, &c., abound in reliques and curiosities. The Chapter House , Westminster, contains the original Domesday Book. Lord Spencer at Althorp, the Marquis of Stafford, the Duke of Marl- borough, and others of the English and Eu- ropean nobility, also have extensive collec- tions, and many rare books and MSS. The Advocates’ library, at Edinburgh, contains 100,000 volumes, besides ancient MSS., and a cabinet of scarce medals. We call the Mahomedans barbarous, but the Caliphs patronized the Arts and Sciences as much as Pericles. The Fatamite Sultans collected 2,600,000 books, which were re- spected by Saladin. The late Sultan was a fine writer and patron of letters. Lord Auckland, the Governor General, hi^ established a concourse of men of science su Calcutta, on the plan of the British Associa- tion. At the first meeting, on Nov. 8, 1836, Dr. O’Shaughnessy exhibited his invention of a machine to travel by electro-magnetic excitement. Mr. Prinsep also exhibited new magnetic phenomena. Jeddo and Miako, in Japan, have, accord- ing to Balbi, Libraries of 150,000 volumes,- and he estimates the ancient Libraries of Alexandria, Trajan, Tripoli, Cairo, and Cordova, at 110 000 or 100 000 rolls or books each. 1250 new books, in 1500 volumes, appear- ed in Great Britain in 1838. Of 100 new books printed, 70 do not pay the expences of printing, paper, and adver- tizing. Of the remaining 30, not more than 15 realize a fair profit. Of these, 5 are re-printed, and 2 or 3 maintain a d emann for a few years. About 1 in 200 are in de- mand for 14 years, 1 in 500 for 28 years. 661 JOURNALS, NEWSPAPERS, &C. 663 and 1 in 1000 live to tho next generation. Not above a score survive of the 50,000 printed in the 17th century ; nor above 80 or 100 of the 70,000 printed in the 18th century. The loss on 8 or 900 books printed in the United Kingdom in a year, is not less than 40,000/., and the first cost is about 120,000/. Vanity in authors, and ambition in publishers, are leaders of false speculation. The book trade in England has suffered in its returns from cheap publications and com- pilations ; and from associations which dis- regard the profits which were heretofore re- disbursed to authors of original works, by speculating publishers. 100 new books, per annum, were printed between the Restoration and Revolution. About 60 new works, per month, have ap- peared within a century in the United King- dom, one half theology and romances. The record commissioners, for reprinting ancient MSS., records, &c. in the public offices, have expended in 20 years 546,000/. in printing 1,000 copies of sundry works, for which the demand is so little, that scarcely the odd 6,000/. has been received for sales. Books are a lottery, with three or four blanks to a small prize, and 500 blanks to a capital prize. Hence a publisher labours like Sysiphus. The 18th century enabled few publishers, in England, to realize. The Tonson family became opulent through a patent for 100 years, to supply the public offices with stationery! Miller left 20,000/., Lintot, 6,000/., Cadell, 30,000/., chiefly de- rived from other sources. Dodsley, 7,000/. in 50 years ; Dilly, 30,000/. in 50 years ; John- son, 25,000/. in 45 years. But Hodges, Coote, Harrison, Crowther, Evans, Robinson, &c. Ac. died insolvent. English literature enjoys an immense ad- vantage in its monthly fair or magazine day. Parcels of these and other books are then sent from Paternoster- Row, &c. to full 3000 trading correspondents, each of them in- voiced from 5/. to 10/. In France, journals and new books are sent by post, at one penny per journal, and a few pence per 100 miles for new books, but this deprives the local trade of the circulation, and literature of the incidental advantages of the monthly market. 1260 trade-tickets, for legitimate book- sellers in London, were issued from 1830; and it is believed there are not less than 1 600 dealers in books in and round London. There are also about 25 in every English county, and 12 in every Welsh, Scotch, and Irish. In all, about 2500 out of London. It is difficult, in any country, to discrimi- nate the really new works, owing to their mixture with new editions, their re-an- nouncements, &c. In France, above 150 new works appear per month ; and in Germany, about 300. 'The French publishers have the benefit of their universal language, and the German of the 2 Leipsic fairs, where editions are carried off by exchanges among printers from all the States. The United States produce about 100 new works and re-prints per month, and the numbers increase. Not aDove 1 in 100 reach Europe, nor above one in 500 is re-printed. The various papers and returns printed annually for Parliament, are nearly a mil- lion copies, and about a fifth are sold. France produced 5500 new works in 1836, of which 1800 were on science and art. Between Caxton 1471 and 1600, about 10,000 books, pamphlets, and single sheets, were printed in England, and not a dozeu are known to the year 1840. 20,000 religious and political tracts were published between 1640 and 1660. In France, the copy-right of an author lasts for his life, and to his family ten years after his death. In the United States, it is fourteen years, and then reverts to the au- thor for a second fourteen, as it ought. In Germany, there are 1094 booksellers, with sales of a million sterling. Three thousand new works, in five mil- lions of volumes, are brought forth at each of the two Leipsic fairs, in editions from 1000 to 3000. The new authors are 1000 at each. In the year 1814, the number of new works was but 2500 ; but, in 1834, it exceed- ed 6000. The stocks on hand are enormous. An annual Book-fair, in London, would greatly benefit the booksellers of the United Kingdom, and our literature generally. The whole book trade in Germany centres at Leipsic, and all writing and publications have reference to its Easter fair, for there and then the whole trade is supplied by an agent. John Otto, of Narnberg, was the first speculator in copywrights, and soon after he had two imitators at Leipsic. The first Easter catalogue was published in 1600, and regularly since. It is now a large closely-printed volume of new books, and new editions. Copyright does not extend to all the States, and therefore original German books are cheaply printed to pre- vent piracies, while copy money is low, since all superior works are pirated. Every MS. in Austria is submitted to 2 censors, and sometimes 3, before it can be printed. The history of China to the conquest of the Mongols in 1644, forms 300 volumes. They have a biography in 120 volumes, a Cyclopaedia in 240 volumes, a dramatic col- lection in 200 volumes, and a civil code in 261 volumes. An imperial edition of stan- dard works extend to 168,000 volumes in the time of Kien-lung. Between them and Europeans there are wonderful differences, but no general inferiority ! JOURNALS, NEWSPAPERS, &c. Periodical distribution of newspapers and journals is differently managed in England and on the Continent. In England there are intermediate dealers, who distribute and give credit; but, on the Continent, owing to free distribution by post, the purchaser and pub- lisher are in contact, and hence, for want of intermediate capital, the former pays in ad- vance, as a subscriber for a term. In Eng- land, one or any number of a work can be G03 NEWSPAPERS, JOURNALS, &C. 66i bought ; but, on the Continent, the publisher prints only for subscribers. Freedom in this, as in all things, answers best. Post-office distribution in England is plausible, but it would greatly interfere with those useful local marts , the shops of country booksellers . Single volumes are now conveyed by the Post Office at a cost of Sixpence each parcel . In 1712, the annual number of British newspapers was 15,000,000 ; but in 1753, owing to stamp duties, they fell to 7,500,000 ; in 1760, they were 9,500,000 ; in 1790, were 14,000,000 ; and, in 1792, 15,000,000. In 1840, they approximate 100 millions. The Gentleman’s Magazine, at first, was a mere reprint of essays from the newspapers. The Monthly Magazine, in 1796, was the first original expansion of the plan of magazines. Since then, they have degenerated into squibs and tales. Reviews are mere adver- tisements of the books of their proprietors, in the plausible form of pretended criticisms. The first regular one appeared in 1749, and was imitated from the French Journal des Sgavans , but always corrupt in management. In 1782, England had but 79 newspapers. It now has 439. North America, in the year 1720, possessed no more than seven newspapers ; but, in 1839, the United States had 800; 250 twice a week, and 75 daily. A London morning paper employs from 60 to 80 persons. Their machines perfect 2000 papers per hour, i. e. eight tokens, or ordinary hours’ work at the usual printing- press. Eight or ten reporters relieve each other, every hour, during parliamentary de- bates ; and 24 to 30 compositers set slip by slip, as copy arrives, and the papers are on sale often within two hours after speeches have been delivered. A large paper contains about 360,000 distinct letters and spaces. An expert compositor picks up 1200 letters in an hour. The 80,000,000 of newspapers, sold an- nually in England, consume 162,000 reams of paper. These 439 several publications give constant employment to ten persons on each, as editors, printers, publishers, &c. &c. In the Times Printing Office the new machinery will produce above 10,000 impressions in a single hour. The largest Sunday papers contain seven columns per page, and are 24| inches long, ny 19£ wide, containing 480 square inches per page. The four pages contain, there- fore, 1920 square inches, and every square inch, on the average, 32 words ! Hence, this surprising sheet contains above 60,000 words, sold for 5d., or 3000 words for every far- thing. The word Gazette was derived from the name of the small Venetian coin, which was the price of the first newspaper. The Lon- don Gazette was commenced at Oxford, on November 7, 1665 ; the Court then residing there on account of the plague. There are, in Paris, above 152 journals, literary and religious, and 17 political. One hundred and fifty are liberal, having 197 000 subscribers ; and the other 18 have 21,000 There are 75 provincial journals, with 99,000 subscribers. In all 244, with 317,000 sub- scribers. Owing to subscriptions being an nual, the numbers do not vary much. Besides its intolerant censorship of books and writings, only two newspapers are printed in German at Vienna, one the Observer, the State Journal, and the Gazette, the Com- mercial and Official Advertizer. The police is a prying personal Inquisition. The bribery of the press, in this country, is extensive, and very systematic. In papers of large circulation, a considerable portion is paid for, to serve particular interests. Articles in chief places, and identified with editor’s matter, command very high prices ; and an administration, seeking to puff its measures, pays as much as a guinea per line, and often 1 00/. for a single article. The Journal des Sgavans was the original of works of periodical criticism. It was imj tated in all countries ; and the Monthly Re, view took the lead in England, and had its rivals ; but the activity of literature, early in this century, demanded Weekly Reviews, and we now have the Athenaeum, the Lite- rary Gazette, &c. The first, in England, was called the Waies of Literature, which commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1 722. The present state of the Republic of Let- ters began in 1719. Various periodical miscellanies were commenced in the reign of Anne, and continued for various periods. Cave took up an old title in the Gentleman’s Magazine, in 1731 ; in 1732, the London Magazine was begun ; and, in 1795-6, the Monthly Magazine, which was conducted for 30 years by the Editor of this Volume. In certain parishes of Westminster, the coffee-houses, public-houses, and eating- houses, take in 264 Morning Advertiser, 228 Weekly Dispatch, 85 Bell’s Life in London, 110 Morning Chronicle, 81 Times, 64 Morn- ing Herald, 39 Globe. 13 Standard, 54 Sun- day Times, 82 Sun, 28 Chambers, 21 Mirror, 16 Saturday Magazine, only 10 Penny Ma- gazine, 29 Satirist, 29 Era, and 5 and 10 of other works. In the United Kingdom there is one news- paper to every 47,000 inhabitants. In Russia but one to 670,000. In France one to 50,000, and in Belgium one to 40,000. Previous to the printing of newspaper? London had its letter writers, who se# written news for a subscription of 31. or Kl. per annum. L’Estrange, in 1663, com- menced his meagre Intelligencer once a week; and, in 1665, the London Gazette twice a week. In 1701, London had 1 daily paper, 15 thrice a week, and 2 twice. A delightful Miscellany has been pub- lished at Hobart’s Town, Van Diemen’s Land, by Mr. James Ross, equal in interest and good taste to any of the London Miscel- lanies. It adopts the title of Monthly Ma- gazine, originated in London in 1795. Newspapers and periodicals are circulated in the United States, at 1 and 1£ centimes each; and pamphlets per sheet, at 4 and C flfio NEWSPAPERS, JOURNALS, &C. (JUb centimes. In 1831, 237 papers were pub- lished in the State of Nevr York, 16 of them daily. There were 54 in New York, which in the year produced 9,536,000 sheets. The subscribers to the Paris journals, in June, 1837, were, — La Presse 14,333 LeSiecle 12,100 Les Debats 8,333 Le Constitutionnel 7,005 The Courier, and Gazette de 1 5 qqq France, each j ’ Le Temps 4,350 La Quotidienne 4,200 L’Estafette 4,000 La Tribunaux 3,866 Le National 3,333 Le Monachique, Journal de^ France, and Journal de Paris, £ 2,500 each J Le Messager, & Moniteur, each 2,000 There are 10 or 12 others, down to 700 or 500. There are but 4 newspapers, 3 weekly and 3 monthly miscellanies, at Hamburgh ; and those under a censor, himself a tool of the Diet of Ratisbon. Balbi, a very eminent statician, in 1832, attempted to enumerate the newspapers and journals of all nations. He reckoned 2141 in all Europe, 978 in America, 36 in Asia and islands, and 12 in Africa. He assigns 870 to the United States, but a late Ameri- can Editor says there are nearly 1200 several newspapers : there being 65 in New York, 43 in Boston, and in the province of New York 263, besides 38 magazines and journals ! Balbi assigns 490 to France, 483 to the British islands, to Austria 80, Prussia 288, Germany 305, Russia 84, Netherlands 150, Sweden 82, Denmark 80, Italy 63, &c. &c. Such w T orks form a great feature of modern society, and must be productive of immense ^benefits. They emancipate mankind from the insulting thraldom of the schools, and the obsequious conformity of arrogant societies ; but their benefits depend on their honesty, and the public spirit of their Editors. The most memorable instance of celerity, in English typography, was that of Dam- berger’s Travels through Africa, effected by the Editor of this volume. He received the German volume of the original on a Wed- nesday morning, at 11 o’clock. Before 12, 36 sheets were divided among 6 active and able translators. Before 1, the map for finish, and the 3 engravings, were in the hands of engravers. By 6, English MS. was at the Printer’s, and, from that time, a regular supply was kept up to above 20 pair of cases of Pica type. On Thursday even- ing, 1500 of several sheets were worked at proofs, and proofs revised of the engravings, which on Friday morning were in the hands of colourers. On Friday, at 2, the 34th and last sheet was in chase ; and, at 8, the whole was rapidly drying. On Friday morning was written a translator’s critical preface of 12 pages. At 2 o’clock, on Saturday morning, the binders brought in perfect vo- lumes. At £ past 2, the Editor’s clerks were subscribing the volume through the trade; and, on Saturday evening, at | past 6, not one copy remained on hand. The 1500 were all sold, and so well distributed, that, from that day to this, the Editor has never, even by chance, seen a single copy. Number of Newspaper advertisements in 1830 and 1838, the duty being reduced, in 1833, from 3s. 6d. to Is. 6d. 1830 1838 England 777,445 1,315,580 Scotland 100,527 176,411 Ireland 119,885 178.200 In the first year of the penny stamp, news- papers rose from 35| to 53 a millions. One of the peculiar powers of printing has been that combination of editors and printers which produces daily and weekly news- papers. They are, in England, a fourth estate, with influences equal to the 3 others. Their collisions are some guard of the truth ; but, as profit is their main object, and bribery an open system, so they require to be read with caution and mutual comparison. In other countries, except the American Republics, they are under control of the police, and less influential, because less free. The perfection of Printing has, in fact, been effected by composition in stereotype, and the taking impressions by machines, often work- ed by steam. Stereotyping is a return to solid page or block-printing, but with this difference, that the mould is prepared on moveable types. The best use is thus made of them, and the mould for casting is pre- pared in the most economical manner. The solid plates are not incompatible with corrections of letters or words, or even sen- tences; and we thereby have to work off only what are likely to be sold in reasonable time, so that the solid pages remain for cor- rection when a new edition is wanted, and even whole new pages may be added or substituted. A printing-machine disposes the pages on a table, under a cylinder, which, when car- ried round, are brought in contact with the inking-rollers, evenly inked, and then con- veyed to the wet paper, and impressed either on one side or both As a machine for va- ried purposes, it is very ingenious and econo- mical, for it requires only two boys, one to lay down the paper, and another to remove the last impression. In this way 2000 sheets are printed cn both sides in an hour, while the old hand-press, with two men, perfects but 250. It is such means that enables the Times newspaper to perfect nearly 12,000 impressions in publication-hours, and the machine-printers to tuin out even work at half the price of the hand-press, though, for fine work, and short numbers, the hand- press is much to be preferred. Stereotype-printing was introduced in London early in this century, by Earl Stanhope, through a clever printing-agent, Andrew Wilson, who brought to bear on the process about 40,000/. of the capital of Mr. Mowbray and Captain Price, two East Indian fortunes, but who lost the whole before the method became popular. 667 LIST OP LITERARY PERIODICALS, &C. 668 Permlical Magazines , Reviews , Sfc. weekly, monthly, and quartei'ly , in the United Kingdom . WEEKLY AND MONTHLY. Aldine Magazine Annals of Natural History Anthropological Magazine Army List Asiatic Journal Athenaeum Beau Monde Bell’s Gentleman’s Fashions Reptiles Bentley’s Miscellany Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine Lady’s Magazine Botanical Magazine — — Register Botanic Garden (Maund’s) . . Botanist British Magazine Brown’s Natural History .. Chambers’s Journal Court and Lady’s Magazine Domestic Economy Dublin Medical Journal University Magazine East-India Magazine Ecclesiastical and Legal Guide Eclectic Review Edinburgh Cabinet Library Educational Magazine Engineers’ and Architects’ Journal Farmers’ Magazine Floricultural Cabinet Magazine Fraser’s Magazine Gentleman’s Magazine Guy’s Hospital Reports Hood’s Own Horticultural Journal Inquirer Jones’s Outlines of Natural History Journal of the Statistical Society . . Lady’s Pocket Magazine Ladies’ Cabinet Literary Gazette World London Journal of Science .. and Paris - — Miscellany Loudon’s Gardener’s Magazine Ladies’ Flower- Garden . . Naturalist M‘Intosh’s Fruit Garden . . Practical Gardener Mechanic’s Magazine Medical Portrait Gallery . . Memorials of Cambridge Metropolitan Magazine Mirror Monthly and European Magazine ■ Review — — Belle Assemble .. Law Magazine — - ■■ ■ Chronicle Naturalist Nautical Magazine .. New Monthly Magazine — Sporting Magazine s. d. 1 0 2 6 0 6 1 6 3 6 0 4 2 0 1 0 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 0 3 6 3 6 1 0 1 6 2 6 1 0 0 6 3 6 2 6 2 6 1 0 2 6 5 0 0 6 1 0 1 6 0 6 0 6 2 6 2 6 6 0 1 0 1 6 0 6 2 6 1 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 2 2 6 1 0 1 6 1 6 2 6 2 0 1 0 2 0 0 2 3 0 1 0 3 6 0 2 2 6 3 6 1 0 3 6 2 6 2 0 1 0 3 6 2 6 s. 0 Many more are published, consisting chiefly of fanatical trash, addressed by illiterate edi- tors to the lowest degrees of intelligence. There are also 10 or 12 Penny Works, bufc of declining circulation. 669 RETURNS OF NEWSPAPER STAMPS, 670 Official Returns of Newspaper Stamps used by the Papers of the United Kingdom , with a determination of their average Sale, per publication , in October, November, and December 1838. 80 LONDON PAPERS. Stamps, Stamps, Stamps, Sale per Publication of each Paper , from Oct. 1, to October. November. December Dec. 31, 1838. Sale. Ape - 2,539 9,000 12,000 12,000 Atlas - - 3,308 10,000 13,500 19,500 Athenaeum - _ . _ . 1,393 4,500 6,500 4,500 Bent’s Literary Advertiser _ _ _ 251 1,000 1,000 1,250 Bell’s Life in London _ _ 20,385 130,000 100,000 35,000 Bell’s New Weekly Messenger _ _ 2,847 13,000 11,000 13,000 Bell’s Weekly Messenger (2 editions) - 8,700 84,000 70,000 72,000 British Emancipator _ _ 924 4,000 4,000 4,000 Courier - _ _ _ 1,256 35,000 29,000 34,000 County Chronicle _ _ _ - 1,651 7,000 8,500 6,000 County Herald • _ _ - 847 3,000 4,000 4,000 Champion _ . _ _ 809 3,500 4,000 3,000 Court Journal - _ _ _ 1,848 7,000 7,000 10,000 Christian Advocate - _ _ _ 882 3,425 4,600 3,377 Circular to Bankers _ _ _ 385 2,000 2,000 1,000 Commercial Daily List _ . _ . 172 700 Court Gazette . _ . 2,195 8,000 6,000 14,500 Commercial Gazette _ _ _ 693 2,000 4,000 3,000 Crown ... _ _ _ . 1,232 5,000 6,750 4,850 Cinque Ports Chronicle _ - - _ 539 2,500 2,500 2,000 Colonial Gazette - _ - _ _ 963 5,500 7,000 Christian Spectator _ - _ 1,154 15,000 Englishman - _ _ - 231 1,000 1,000 1,000 Evening Chronicle (3 per week) . _ . 1,500 22,000 20,000 16,000 Examiner - _ 5,137 20,050 25,900 21,100 English Chronicle (3 per week) _ _ _ 834 12,000 6,000 15,000 Evening Mail - - ditto _ _ _ 1,800 45,000 25,000 23,500 Ecclesiastical Gazette - _ _ _ _ 3,520 11,250 23,000 11,500 Era - 8,231 30,000 30,000 47,000 Globe - 2,770 90,000 54,000 72,000 Gardener’s Gazette _ _ _ _ 3,000 15,000 12,000 12,000 John Bull - _ _ _ _ 4,308 21,000 17,000 18,000 Jurist - _ _ _ _ 2,154 10,000 8,000 10,000 Justice of Peace Recorder _ _ _ _ 1,504 7,500 6,000 6,000 London Mercantile Journal _ _ _ 462 1,500 3,000 1,500 London Dispatch . _ . „ 4,282 25,600 15,000 15,000 Literary Gazette - - - . 578 2,500 2,000 3,012 Law Chronicle _ _ _ 80 540 540 London Gazette (2 per week) _ . _ 1,540 20,000 20,000 13,400 London Price Current _ _ _ 39 Morning Chronicle _ _ . 6,300 169,000 154,000 168,000 Morning Post _ _ - 2,560 69,000 68,000 62,500 Morning Herald _ _ 5,833 160,000 130,000 165,000 Mining Journal . . . 1,271 5,500 5,500 5,500 Metropolitan Conservative _ _ _ _ 2,886 9,000 10,500 18,000 Morning Advertiser _ _ 5,000 120,000 150,000 120,000 Mark Lane Express _ _ _ _ 4,000 15,000 16,000 21,000 Magnet ... _ . 4,462 20,500 16,500 21,000 Naval and Military Gazette „ _ 1,470 7,150 6,000 6,000 News and Sunday Globe _ _ _ 1,848 10,000 7,500 6,500 Observer - _ . _ 7,693 50,000 50,000 33,500 Operative - - - _ _ _ _ 1,812 13,400 10,000 Perry’s Bankrupt Gazette _ _ _ 390 1,149 1,915 2,006 Patriot - _ _ _ „ 3,195 25,000 15,000 11,500 Public Ledger _ . _ _ 380 10,000 9,000 10,000 Publisher’s Circular - _ _ 1,660 7,100 7,500 7,000 Planet - _ _ _ 4,733 19,000 15,500 27,000 Police Recorder - _ . _ 1,380 6,000 4,500 7,200 Pawnbroker’s Gazette . _ _ 221 450 2,400 Racing Calendar - . 385 2,250 1,375 1,375 Record (2 per week) - - - - 2,077 27,500 23,000 23,500 f>71 RETURNS OF NEWSPAPER STAMPS, 672 LONDON PAPERS — continued. Railway Times - Sunday Times - Standard - St James’s Chronicle (3 per week) Shipping Gazette - Sun ------ Spectator - Satirist - Social Gazette - £outh Australian Record Sunbeam - Spirit of the Times - Stranger’s Guide - Times - United Service Gazette Universal Corn Reporter Weekly Chronicle - Weekly Dispatch - Weekly True Sun - Watchman - Stamps, October. Stamps, November. Stamps, December. Sale. 1,848 8,000 8,000 8,000 13,460 60,000 50,000 65,000 3 270 75,000 80,000 100,000 4,666 65,000 52,000 65,000 624 30,000 24,000 27,000 3,462 96,000 90,000 90,000 2,772 15,000 9,000 12,000 2,772 10,500 13,500 12,000 770 — 10,000 481 2,000 2,250 2,000 96 550 300 375 97 302 302 414 117 — 500 11,800 280,000 350,000 290,000 1,386 6,500 5 500 6,000 115 — 700 485 35,000 128,000 117,000 210,000 49,230 200,000 200,000 240,000 4,500 22.500 21,000 15,000 3,117 9,000 14,500 17,150 M. B. Several of the London publications sell a larger impression of Unstamped than Stamped copies. 217 ENGLISH PROVINCIAL PAPERS, Cheltenham Journal _ . 770 With the average Weekly Sale of each. Cumberland Pacquet Cheltenham Looker-on - - 385 770 Aylesbury News - •- 1,200 Cheltenham Free Press _ _ 923 Bristol Mirror - _ 2,620 Chester Gazette _ 1,000 Bury and Norwich Post _ - 1,625 Carlisle Journal _ _ 2,000 Bath Herald _ _ 1,077 Chester Chronicle _ _ 1,848 Bath Chronicle _ . 1,347 Cheshire Reformer _ _ 924 Brighton Gazette - . - 1,154 Carlisle Patriot _ _ 924 Brighton Guardian . . 1,385 Chard Union Gazette _ _ 117 Bucks Gazette - - 154 Cambridge Advertiser - _ 250 Bury Herald - - 617 Durham Chronicle _ _ 1,077 Brighton Patriot - . - 760 Devonport Telegraph _ _ 770 Birmingham Journal - - 2,500 Devonshire Chronicle - _ 265 Brighton Herald - - - 1,231 Dorset County Chronicle - _ 1,617 Bath Journal - - 1,000 Devonport Independent _ _ 1,000 Birmingham Gazette _ - 2,305 Derby Mercury . _ 1,346 Bucks Herald - - 461 Dover Telegraph _ _ 500 Bath and Devizes Guardian - - 700 Derbyshire Courier _ _ 462 Bristol Gazette _ _ 961 Doncaster Gazette _ _ 1,848 Bath and Cheltenham Gazette - 1,231 Devizes and Wiltshire Gazette _ 1,154 Boston Herald - - 231 Dover Chronicle _ - 308 Bradford Observer - - 625 Derby Reporter _ - 1,004 Berkshire Chronicle _ . 539 Doncaster Chronicle _ _ 693 Bedford Mercury - - 923 Durham Advertiser _ _ 730 Birmingham Advertiser - - 1,154 Exeter Flying Post - _ 1,923 Blackburn Gazette - - 231 Exeter and Plymouth Gazette . 2,310 Blackburn Standard - - 462 Essex Standard . - 1,288 Bolton Free Press . - 462 Essex, Herts, and Kent Mercury _ 1,540 Bolton Chronicle . - 1,000 Essex and Suffolk Times _ _ 693 Bristol Mercury _ - 2.305 Eastern Counties Herald 1,848 Britannia - _ - 290 Falmouth Packet • . _ 616 Berwick Advertiser _ . 500 Felix Farley’s Bristol Journal _ 1,848 Berwick Warder - - 385 Falmouth Express - _ 578 Bath Post - . . 693 Gloucester Journal _ _ 1,740 Bengal Hurkaru Extra - . 231 Greenwich Gazette _ _ 847 Chester Courant - - 924 Gloucestershire Chronicle - . 1,540 Cambridge Chronicle _ - 1,368 Gateshead Observer . 2,310 Chelmsford Chronicle _ . 1,770 Hereford Journal - _ 1,400 Coventry Standard - - 770 Hampshire Chronicle - _ 1,426 Cornwall Royal Gazette . - 616 Hampshire Telegraph - - . 2,308 Cheltenham Chronicle - _ 923 Herts Reformer - 461 Coventry Herald - - 1077 Huntingdon Gazette - - 1,961 073 RETURNS OP NEWSPAPER STAMPS. 0 74 Hampshire Advertiser 3,234 Newcastle Chronicle 3,i 90 Halifax Express 117 Northern Liberator 1,154 Hull Advertiser 1,232 Oxford Journal 1 .926 Hampshire Independent 1,348 Oxford Chronicle 1,386* Hull Packet 385 Oxford Herald 924 Hull Rockingham . 770 Plymouth Herald . 774 Hertford County Press . 462 Plymouth and Devonport 573 Halifax Guardian 425 Preston Pilot 539 Harrovvgate Advertiser 177 Preston Chronicle 1,154 Hereford County Press 1,232 Preston Observer 308 Hull Times 981 Reading Mercury 2,890 Ipswich Journal 1,961 Shei bourne Journal 1,400 Kentish Gazette 924 Stamford Mercury 7,580 Kent Herald 1,271 Star in the East 1,100 Kentish Chronicle . 39 Somerset County Gazette 575 Kentish Observer 924 Sussex Advertiser . 1,077 Kendal Mercury 770 Sheffield Independent 1,585 Kidderminster Messenger 847 Staffordshire Advertiser 3,462 Kent and Surrey Patriot 453 Shrewsbury Chronicle 1,617 Leeds Intelligencer 3,462 Staffordshire Examiner . 924 Lincoln Gazette 1,309 Sheffield Iris . 924 Leicester Journal 1.848 Sheffield Mercury . 1.733 Liverpool Courier 1,490 Suffolk Chronicle 2,308 Leicestershire Mercury 1,463 Sherbourne Mercury 655 Leamington Spa Courier 924 Salisbury and Wiltshire 924 Leicester Herald 231 Surrey Standard 462 Leamington Chronicle 231 Sunderland Herald 578 Leicester Chronicle 1,232 Sussex Express 1,617 Lancaster Gazette 693 Salisbury Journal . 3.080 Lincolnshire Chronicle 1,540 Sheffield Chronicle 450 Lincoln Standard 308 Staffordshire Mercury 1,502 Leeds Mercury 9,240 Salopian Journal 1,600 Leeds Times . 1.848 Scarborough Herald 142 Liverpool Mail 2,500 Stockport Advertiser 578 Liverpool Standard 2,000 Sunderland Beacon 462 Liverpool Mercury 6,460 Shrewsbury Reporter 1,348 Liverpool Times 924 Sheffield Patriot 1.500 Liverpool Chronicle 1,843 Staffordshire Gazette 1,250 Liverpool Journal 924 Taunton Courier 616 Liverpool Albion 3,427 Tyne Mercury 231 Lancaster Guardian 850 Western Times 1,848 Leicestershire Telegraph 250 Wolverhampton Chronicle 1.072 Liverpool Advertiser 1,309 Worcestershire Guardian 1,077 Lancashire Herald 924 Warwick Advertiser 1,154 Monmouthshire Merlin . 2,117 West Kent Guardian J54 Maidstone Journal 1.232 Western Luminary * 616 Maidstone Gazette 1.386 Whitehaven Herald 578 Myer’s Mercantile Advertiser l’077 West Riding Herald 693 Macclesfield Courier 1,077 West Briton and Cornwall Advertiser 2,000 Manchester Guardian 11,150 Windsor and Eton Express 924 Manchester Times # * ' 2,654 Wiltshire Independent 1,000 Manchester Courier 2.57 7 Worcester Herald 2,200 Manchester Chronicle 1,690 Wilts and Gloucestershire Standard 485 Manchester and Salford . 4,000 Worcester Journal 2,193 Monmouthshire Beacon 1,000 West of England Conservative 924 Midland Counties Herald 5,385 Wigan Gazette 77 Manchester Journal 2,077 Westmoreland Gazette . 924 Norfolk Chronicle 2,618 Worcestershire Chronicle 462 Northampton Mercury . 1,848 Yorkshire Gazette . 2,539 Nottingham and Newark 1,816 York Chronicle 539 North Devon Journal 500 York Courant , 2,000 Newcastle Journal 3.462 York Herald . 3,534 Northampton Herald 2,300 Yorkshireman 1,980 Norwich Mercury . Nottingham Review 1,848 2,000 62 SCOTCH PAPERS. North Devon Advertiser 308 Aberdeen Herald . 2,480 North Derby Chronicle . 924 Aberdeen Journal . 2,849 . Nottingham Journal 1,386 Aberdeen Constitutional 1,232 North British Advertiser 8,600 Ayr Advertiser 1,309 Northern Star 10,048 Ayr Observer 705 Newcastle Courant , £> 4,130 Ayr Examiner 693 Z 675 RETURNS OF NEWSPAPER STAMPS. 676 Arbroath Journal . 348 Morning Herald 320 Arbroath Herald . 370 Evening Mail . . . . 1,615 Dumfries Times 1,232 Evening Post . 1,600 Dumfries Courier . 2,308 Evening Packet 840 Dumfries Herald . 964 Evening Pilot 416 Dumfries Galloway 693 Dublin Statesman and Record . 4*20 Dundee Advertiser 4G2 Weekly Register . 2,460 Dundee Chronicle 462 Weekly Freeman . . 2,618 Dundee Courier 370 Weekly Warder . . . . 1,843 Edinburgh Courant 5,077 General Advertiser * . 6,346 Edinburgh Mercury 1.840 Temperance Gazette 924 Edinburgh Advertiser 2,772 Mercantile Advertiser . 385 Edinburgh Gazette 137 Protestant Guardian . 1,154 Edinburgh Journal Edinburgh Chronicle 1,579 924 54 IRISH COUNTRY NEWSPAPERS. Edinburgh Observer 770 Belfast Commercial Chronicle . 2,154 Edinburgh Saturday 1,015 Belfast News Letter . 2,154 Elgin Courant 616 Belfast Christian Patriot . 1,000 Fife Herald . . . 1,000 Belfast Reformer 231 Fife Journal 616 Northern Whig . 2,310 Forres Gazette 154 Ulster Times .... . 3,234 17.4 Glasgow Courier 3,080 Westmeath Guardian Glasgow Journal 270 Cork Constitution . . 2,772 Glasgow Chronicle 1,436 Cork Standard . 1,154 . 3,850 Glasgow Herald 5,544 Southern Reporter Glasgow Saturday . 1,271 Ballyshannon Herald 270 Glasgow Argus 2,117 Newry Telegraph . . 2,310 Glasgow Constitutional . 462 Newry Examiner 924 Greenock Advertiser 1,154 Downpatrick Recorder . 77 0 Gray’s Weekly Record 5,050 Drogheda Journal . 693 Inverness Courier . 1,386 Drogheda Conservative . 385 Inverness Herald 770 Drogheda Argus 388 John O’Groat’s Journal . 924 Fermanagh Impartial Reporter 383 Kelso Mail 1,000 Enniskillen Chronicle 308 Kelso Chronicle 616 Galway Weekly Advertiser . 231 Kilmarnock Journal 539 Galway Patriot 195 Moutrose Review . 1,386 Tuam Herald 385 Montrose Standard 308 Kerry Evening Post 385 Northern Star . 195 Tralee Mercury 770 Paisley Advertiser 462 Leinster Express 775 Perthshire Courier 231 Leinster Independent 385 Perthshire Advertiser 1,039 Kilkenny Journal . 305 Perthshire Constitutional 1,154 Kilkenny Moderator 385 Perthshire Chronicle 308 Carlow Sentinel 193 Scotsman 5,390 Limerick Chronicle . 5,390 Scottish Jurist 38 Limerick Star and Evening Post . 1 ,309 Scottish Pilot 1,117 Limerick Standard 462 Scots Times 924 Clare Journal 462 Scottish Guardian . 2,464 Londonderry Journal . 1,077 Scotch Reformers’ Gazette 2,154 Londonderry Sentinel 195 Stirling Journal 847 Londonderry Standard . 195 Stirling Observer 886 Roscommon Gazette 117 Scottish Advertiser 964 Roscommon Journal 620 True Scotsman 2,539 Mayo Constitution 620 10 WELSH PAPERS. Mayo Telegraph Nenagh Guardian . 578 578 Carmarthen Journal 1,154 Achill Missionary Herald 385 Cambrian 1,926 Northern Standard . 385 Carnarvon and Denbigh . 867 Sligo Journal 450 Cronicl yr Oes 535 Sligo Champion . . . 462 Merthyr Guardian . 1,309 Tipperary Free Press 616 North Wales Chronicle 462 Tipperary Constitution . 616 Silurian .... 500 Waterford Weekly Chronicle 480 Welshman 770 Waterford Mirror 770 Y Brytwn 154 Waterford Mail . 192 Cornubian 39 Waterford News Letter . 192 16 DUBLIN NEWSPAPERS. Wexford Independent . Wexford Conservative . • 770 385 Saunders’s News Letter 1,900 Morning Register . 500 The largest daily Sales are those ei the Freeman’s Journal . 577 Times, 1 1,800 per day. The Morning Chro. THE DRAMA. 677 678 nicle is 6 300. The Morning Herald, 5,853 ; and (he Morning Advertiser, 5,000. The createst Sales of the daily Evening Papers are the Sun, 3,462 ; the Standard, 3,270 ; and the Globe, 2,7/0. Of the 3 times a week papers, the St. James’s Chronicle is 4,666; and the Even- ing Mail, 1.800. Of the Sunday Papers, the Dispatch ex- hibits the astonishing number of 49,230; and the Weekly Chronicle, 35,000. The Sunday Times follows at 13,460. Among the Provincial Papers, a Man- chester Paper transcends all others in a weekly sale of 11,150. The Leeds Mercury rises to 9,240; the Stamford Mercury 7,580; and the Liverpool Mercury to 6,400. The North British Advertiser is 8,600, and the Northern Star 10,018. Of the Scotch Papers, 4 rise above 5,000. Only the Dublin General Advertiser, (if weekly) rises to 6,346 ; the Limerick Chro- nicle is 5,390; and the Southern Reporter is 3,850. On the 5th of November, 1831, a Turkish newspaper, called Taakvini Veekai , or the “ Tablet of Events,” first appeared in the Turkish capital. In order to give it more extensive circulation, every Pasha in the empire is obliged to subscribe for a cer- tain number of copies, for the information of the people of his Pashalik. An Armenian newspaper is published at a monastery near Venice, and much read through the Levant. For the present circulation of the prin- cipal London and Provincial Papers, See Supplement. THE DRAMA. The dramatic Arts, like other favourite social pursuits, have been modern creations. Our immediate ancestors had no recreation but the vulgar, savage pursuits of the field, followed by gross nightly drunkenness ; while the women were the habitual dupes of every form of priestcraft. The ancients had no drama in our sense, but spouting, chorus, and, lastly, set dialogues of two, constituted their dull drama. The Catholic priests then forced their blasphemous mysteries on the people. The results, in the age of Elizabeth, were the invention of scenes and dialogues in cha- racter ; in fine, our Tragedy, Comedy, and Farce. These, again, promoted orchestral bands, and led to all the forms of musical composition, singing, &c. &c. The absurd exclusiveness of a frivolous aristocracy has, however, tended to promote performances in foreign languages ; royal licences, too, have checked competition, while late dinner-hours, as in despite of social order, have injured our national thea- tre in town and country. We, nevertheless, have 15 or 16 London theatres, open 200 nights in the year, with varied success ; and there are 30 or 40 provincial theatres, mo- derately well supported. In France, every thing yields to the thea- tre; and the Parisian population, as one family, regularly fill its 30 theatres everr night in the year. Neither drunkenness nor vulgar sports interfere with the general pas- sion for every form of the Drama. Christian Mysteries, or Sacred Dramas, were contrived 1000 years ago by the clergy, to supersede the pageantry of Pagan Fes- tivals. The Chester Mysteries, or Whitsun plays, were in 1268. The Moralities suc- ceeded, and then Historical Dramas. The first comedy. La Calandra, was per- formed in Italy, in 1490, and Sophonisba, in 1515. Lopez de Vega, and Calderon, fol- lowed in Spain. Corneille flourished in France, from 1640 to 1684 ; and Shakspeare, in England, from 1590 to 1612. The first patent for a theatre was to Kil- ligrew for Drury-lane, the next to Davenant for Lincoln’s- Inn- Fields, called the Duke’s since Covent-garden. In 1551, Bishop Still wrote the first English dialogue drama, called the Search after Gam- mer Gurton’s Needle, when needles were more costly than at present. The first tragedy, in English, was Gorba- duc, or Ferrex and Perrex, in 1561 ; and the first comedy, the Supposes, in 1566. In 1581 Marlowe began to write; and, in 1589, Shakspeare who wrote 36 plays, contain- ing 103,972 lines. The longest, Hamlet, 4058 lines, and the shortest, the Comedy of Errors, 1807. His first play was Pericles, acted in 1590 ; he then wrote one or two per annum till the Twelfth Night, in 1613. Some of the de- scendants of his sister Joan still reside at and near Stratford, in indigence. The Editor and the late Mr. Charles Mathews attempted public subscriptions but they failed, though millions have been realized by his works, in theatres and various editions! By a late Act, authors are entitled to a gratuity on every performance of their pieces. Since Shakspeare’s age there have been Dryden, Wycherley, Otway, Farquhar, Cent- livre, Rowe, Congreve, Addison, Steele, Vanbrugh, Cibber, Young, Murphy, Foote, Cumberland, Holcroft, O’Keefe, Inchbald, Cowley, Morton, Colman, Sheridan, Kenny, Knowles, &c. In 1589, there were The Globe, the Cur- tain, The Theatre, The Red Bull, The For- tune, The Blackfriars, The Phoenix, The Whitefriars, The Swan, The Rose, and The Hope ; in all, 11 ; and a proof of public attention and favour. James I. licensed Shakspeare’s company at the Globe, &c. in 1603. In 1613, the Globe was burnt; but, in 1614, rebuilt, on part of the site of Barclay’s Brewery.' In 1647, the puritan priests suppressed the theatres and persecuted the players. In 1659, the Restoration party re-opened the theatres, when Betterton and Kynaston first appeared. Drury-lane, the Duke’s, and other theatre* opened. In 1672, Drury-lane was burnt. The 18tn century opened with Mrs. Barry, Oldfield, Bracegirdle, Booth, and Wilkes, oa Z 2 THE DRAMA. 679 680 the stage ; and, as authors, Centlivre, Far. quhar, Howe, Addison, Steele, Congreve, Vanbrugh. Cato was performed in 1/11, and the Beg. gar’s Opera in 1/27. Quin, Fenton, Clive, Cibber, Pritchard, Woffington, Macklin, Garrick, Foote, Barry, and King, all appeared before 1750. In 1705, the Haymarket was built ; and, in 1733, Covent-garden. In the next half century appeared Mrs. Yates, Abingdon, Catley, Siddons, Farren, Jordan, O’Neil, &c. ; and Messrs. Braham, Munden, Henderson, Kemble, Betty, Cooke, Kean, Macready, &c. Garrick retired June 10, 1776, and his Stratford Jubilee was in 1769. The Opera-house was burnt in 1789; Covent.garden, Sept. 1808 ; and Drury-lane, Feb. 1809. These theatres have since been re-built, in a style and solidity of architecture which renders them ornaments of the metropolis, with capacity for holding as many spectators as yield from 600/. to 1000/. a night. Their properties, scenery, machinery, &c. &c. are on an astonishing scale, and imply the ab- sorption of great capital. They are courted by the first talent, and pay munificent sa- laries. They have become, in fact, a great social engine, both for instruction, rational amusement, and the reform of manners. Their abuses are no features of their system. Tfre great London theatres of Drury-lane and Covent-garden, with the Italian Opera, are surpassed, in general conduct and public respect, by none in Europe. The Haymar- ket, the English Opera, and the St. James’s Theatre, are also very creditable establish- ments. The Vestris, or Olympic Theatre, the Adelphi, the Victoria, the Surrey, the Equestrian, Sadler’s Wells, the Tottenham Court, &c. & c. are also well supported by the public, and possess powerful attractions. The competition, vast expences, and in- crease of salaries to favourite performers, have not, however, rendered the great thea- tres profitable speculations for some years. Even in France support from the state is necessary, but the proposition could not be entertained in England while they continue the open market for courtezans. In the provinces of England there are well-built theatres in all great towns, but the indiscriminate admission of women causes them to be considered as schools of vice rather than of morals and manners, which, under other conduct, they would be. In consequence, they are often thwarted by the narrow spirit of Methodist and sectarian prejudices, and the people are left with no amusements but what are afforded by taverns and public-houses. The boxes of Drury-lane Theatre hold 1200 auditors; the pit, 860; the first gal- lery, 480 ; and the second, 280 ; making, with performers, &c. 3000 in a full theatre. The Italian Opera-house, London, will hold 1500/. Drury-lane and Covent-garden Theatres, previously to 1790, held 400/. Since then they have been enlarged, so as to hold from 550/. to 600/. A third of the box- audience consists of free admission or orders. Pan- tomime and show-pieces, in the time of Garrick and Rich, cost from 2 to 3000/. and latterly, they have cost more, but pay best. London patentees charge 160/. a night as the current cost of the expences. A century ago it was 80/. Distinctions of rank in the auditory pre- vailed in the seats of the Greek and Roman theatres nearly as in our provincial towns. In the Opera Season, 1832, the expences of the Lessee were, — Italian and French Performers £17,660 German 6,358 Ballet 8,270 Orchestra 6,448 Rent 16,050 Printing, lighting, &c 11,470 Total £66,256 Receipts : — Italian Opera 38,584 French 3,522 German 10.556 Concerts, &c/ 2,778 Total £55,440 Loss on the season. 10,71 6/. Such, in fact, since the panic of 1825, has been the annual condition of nearly all the showy establish- ments of London ; and, in fact, of almost every establishment in the whole Empire. There are 15 regular theatres open all the year in Paris, besides 10 or 12 occasional, the prices to the audience in which vary from 10 francs to 2. In aid of them, the government grants 60,000/. per annum, and about 10,000 visit them every evening in the year. Authors of pieces get 1-lSth of the gross receipts, and for 1 acta 36th, wherever it is performed, till ten years after death. 1.10th of all the receipts at theatres and exhibitions is given to the poor. The Theatre Franf the Established Church. 22 Chapels for Foreigners. 364 Chapels for various Dissenters, Catho- lics, and Jews. 689 Religious Places. 150 Various Institutions. 250 Public Schools. 150 Hospitals, Infirmaries, &c. 156 Alms-houses, Work-houses, &c. 550 Public Offices, &c. 22 Courts of Justice; among which, *3 find the Star Chamber. 6 Courts of Request. 16 Police-offices. 729 MODERN CAPITALS OF NATIONS. 30 14 Prisons. 31 Exhibitions, &c. 22 Theatres. 26 Club-houses. 12 Barracks. 46 Livery-companies’ Halls. 3 Other Companies. 24 Markets. There appear to be no less than 13,936 separate streets, squares, courts, alleys, &c. having distinct names. The most striking circumstance in the list of employments, is the number of 2280 at- torneys, and 1176 barristers and special pleaders, besides 105 conveyancers. The next prominent numbers are 4368 public- houses, besides 380 hotels and inns, 4/0 There are, also, — Boys’ Schools 567 Girls’ Schools 992 Architects 270 Artists 400 Bakers 1948 Banks 71 Bookbinders 340 Booksellers 716 Boot and Shoe Makers .. 1856 Master Bricklayers 704 Stock Brokers 320 Builders .. 340 Cabinet Makers and Upholsterers 768 Carpenters (Master) 1472 Chemists and Druggists 440 Circulating Libraries 188 Coach Makers, &c. 512 Engineers 132 Engravers 576 Furniture Brokers 704 General Shopkeepers 2349 Grocers 1600 Goldsmiths and Jewellers 896 Linen Drapers 704 Merchants 1800 Music Sellers 350 Opticians 104 Pawnbrokers 288 Physicians 280 Printers and Printers’ Joiners 490 Stationers, wholesale and retail 630 Surgeons, &c 1411 Tailors (Master) 2508 Tobacco and Snuff Dealers 704 Wine and Spirit Dealers 960 Watch Trades 864 Boyle’s Court Guide for the current year gives a list of about 10,000 private families resident in the squares and fashionable streets. The 185,000 houses in London expend, one with another, a pound per day, or 6/5 millions per annum, one. third of the na- tional income. There are 1342 chambers in the Inns of lourt, in London. The religions of London may be partly estimated by the numbers of buildings de- voted to each, — 343 Church of England, 6 French, 7 German, 2 Swiss, 2 Dutch, 7 Welsh, 1 Bavarian, Armenian, Irish, Rus- sian. and Swedish. There are also 3 Arians, 15 Unitarians, 77 Baptists, 124 Independents, &c., 6 Lady Huntingdon’s, 06 Methodists, 14 Scotch Presbyterians, 4 Swedenborgians, 8 Quakers, 29 Catholic, 11 Synagogues, 2 Moravians, 2 Free-thinkers, 2 Deists, 3 Huntingtonians, 3 Bethel Unions, 1 New Jerusalem. In all, 700 churches and chapels ; and if we assign to each at twice per day 400, we get 400 -f 700 = 280,000, who are religious, out of a population of a million, above six years of age. In age and sex, they may be divided into 100,000 children, 120,000 fe- males, and about 60,000 men. About 100,000 may, too, be considered as attached to the 343 Church of England, and 180,000 to the others. The population of London consume 1 1 0,000 bullocks, 776,000 sheep, 250,000 lambs, 250,000 calves, and 2/0,000 old and young pigs. Besides 900,000 quarters of wheat, and 1,000,000 chaldrons of coals, or 6 to a house ; and all necessaries and luxuries, equal to an expenditure of 3 or 400/. a year to every house. Oxford-street, the longest in London, is 2304 yards, and numbers 225 houses on each side ; 21 cross-streets, of 20 yards, occupy 450 yards, and leave 24 feet 10 inches on the average to each house. Regent-street, the handsomest in London, 1732 yards. Pic- cadilly, 1732. London presents two grand lines from east to west, never half a mile apart ; Oxford-street, St. Giles’s, Holborn, Newgate-street, Cheapside, Cornhill, Lea- denhall-street, Aldgate, and Whitechapel. The southern line is Piccadilly, Regent- street, Charing- Cross, the Strand, Fleet- street, Ludgate Hill, St. Paul’s, Cheapside, Lombard-street, Fenchurch-street, Aldgate, and Whitechapel. The City, under the Lord Mayor, is the centre, extending from Temple-bar to Aid- gate, and from the river to Moorgate, con- taining but 17,170 houses, and 125,434 inha- bitants. It is divided into 26 wards, each with an alderman for life, and common- council elected annually ; the executive officers being the Lord Mayor, and two sheriffs for city and county. The livery of London are freemen, who are members of companies on taking an oath, paying fees, and being invested with a livery-gown of purple silk and fur. In these 12 or 15,000 persons are vested the corporate duties in common-halls, &c. The purchase of the freedom costs about 30/., and the livery from 35/. to 200/. or 300/. The local revenues of the City of London, in 1831, were 152,000/., and the expenditure 150,000/. In London, there are two new colleges, the king's college, at Somerset-house, specially patronized by the l/fgh Church ; university college, near Tavistock-square, chiefly patronized by the dissenters. They have professors and lecturers in all branches of study. There are, in London, 28 hospitals, infir- maries, and asylums, mostly on a large scale. There are 37 societies in London, devoted to various literary and scientific objects. MODERN CAPITALS OF NATIONS, 731 732 There are 30 societies in London, for various charitable and useful objects. There are 40 institutions for special dis- eases in London. Christ Hospital, in London and Hertford, boards, cloaths, and educates 1300 children. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, in 1833, cured or relieved 5164 in-patients, and 12,977 out- patients, and constantly accommodates 480 in, and 700 out-patients. St. Thomas’s 2866 in-patients, and 25,430 out, having 400 in, and 1800 out. In connection with education in London, there are, at least, 30 royal endowed schools, 100 considerable charity-schools, the British and Foreign School Society, (Lancaster’s), the National Society, (Bell’s), the Society of School-masters, the St. Anne’s Schools, the Welsh School, the Hibernian School, &c. &c. The Editor of this volume may name his own institution of the Sheriff’s Fund, which he instituted in 1807, for the relief of desti- tute prisoners and their families, and for temporary provision, on their discharge from custody. Its capital is now nearly £9000. Three of the London theatres hold 2500 persons each, three others 1800, and ten others about 800 each, in all nearly 20,000 ; but those open at one time are equal only to 10 or 12,000. In 60 years, the Magdalen H®spital re- ceived 4594 females; of whom, 3012 were restored to their families. The following are the dimensions of the London Bridges : Length. Arches. Width. London feet 930 5 55 Southwark .... .... 708 3 40 Blackfriars .... .... 1100 9 41 Strand .... 9 42 Westminster . . .... 1223 13 44 Vauxhall 9 40 By far the most superb bridge in the ■world is the new London Bridge. It crosses the Thames in only 5 arches ; the centre 152 feet, and the others 140 and 130. It con- tains 120,000 tons of granite with solid piers. The passage is 53 feet, or foot-ways 9 each, and 35 for carriages. Next to London Bridge, the Southwark, of iron, claims attention, with its centre arch of 240 feet, and its side ones 210. The cen- tre rises 24 feet, and weighs 3046 tons of iron, and the others 2600 tons each. The Strand bridge has 9 elliptical arches, 120 feet span, and 35 feet rise. The piers 20 feet, and road 28 feet. There is also a valuable suspension bridge, formed of iron ■chains, at Hungerford Market. The Dock Companies are, tne London, the East India, West India, Commercial, Grand Surrey, and the St. Katharine’s. The docks of London, in imitation of those of Liverpool, but of greater magnitude, are in order from West to East: St. Katha- rine’s near the Tower, 1823 ; the London docks adjoining, 1805; the West India docks, across the Isle of Dogs, 1802; the East India, at Limehouse, 1806 ; and on the Surrey side the extensive Commercial docks, and Surrey docks, 1827. The West India docks cover 62 acres, and accommodate above 500 ships. The London 23 acres ; the East India 30 acres. The St. Katha. rine’s cover 24 acres, and accommodate 1400 vessels. 2000 ships are commonly in the river and docks, and 3000 barges. About 2300 barges ascend the river and canals for inland trade. And these and 3000 boats employ 8000 watermen ; and, in the docks, &c. 4000 labourers. The annual supply of sacks of flour to Mark-lane is from 4 to 500,000. In 1828-9, it was 523,106 ; in 1S29-30, 368,888 ; and, in 1830-31, 412,876. The oats brought to market, in the same years, were 1,530,425, 1,145 754, and 901,440 quarters. The malt 246,905, 219,478, and 234,137 quarters. London consumes 65,000 pipes of wine, 100,000 gallons of spirits, and 2 millions of barrels of porter and ale. The consumption of London, taking the population at 1,400,000, is as under : — Smithfield Market The out-parishes ..... 27 Pigs, fish, and poultry 160 The out- parishes .... 27 Butter, cheese, and eggs .... 100 Milk 29 million quarts '.. Bread I.. Other flour 80 Other grain for man 100 Potatoes, vegetables, &c. .... 400 Sugar, coffee, &c 160 Total per annum 1592 millions Which, divided by 365 X 1'4 millions, is ex- actly 3 pounds and 2 ounces per individual per day ; which may be taken at 10 ounces for breakfast, 24 ounces for dinner, and 16 ounces for tea and supper. All independent of wine, spirits, drugs, horse-keep, &c. &c. In the provinces, the quantity is not less per diem ; but the proportions vary, and 23 millions in the United Kingdom demand an average 450 pounds annually of various food per acre, from the 56 millions of cultivated acres, for the ordinary sustenance of the population. The gas-lights of London consume 55,000 tons of coals. There are about 66,000 in- door lights, and 8600 out-door, on the ave- rage equal to 50 candles per light. Half- inch pipes are estimated equal to 20 candles ; 1-inch to 100, and 2-inch to 420 candles. About 25 mining companies were formed in London, for South America, in 1825, and 6 or 7 still exist. London was not paved at the Conquest. The first toll for repairing a road was from Temple Bar to Saint Giles’s, the place o' execution in the reign of Edward III. Hol- born was paved in 1417. The first, or Westminster Paving Act, passed in 1762. London was first lighted in 1414, with pri- vate lanterns. In 1736, they were increased from 1000 to 5000. In 1744, the first light, ing act passed. In 1820, gas was generally substituted for oil. MODERN CAPITALS OF NATIONS. 733 734 Coaches were introduced about 1510. In 1550, there were but three in Paris. They were first let to hire at the Hotel St. Fiacre, under the name of cabriolet, or cabs, with one horse ; they were first used in Paris, and about 1824, in London. In 1840, there were 500 coaches and chariots, and 1500 cabriolets. 80 Omnibuses run between the Bank and Paddington, and 75 from the Bank to the Edgeware Road. 280 pass daily through the Strand. London is built on a bed of gravel ; be- neath which is a stratum of blue clay, 200 or 300 feet thick ; below this, sand ; and then a stratum of chalk, which bassets in Bedfordshire and Oxfordshire, and conveys, on its hard surface, the water under the clay and sand. Hence, the gravel supplies some water ; but, for a constant supply, it is necessary to penetrate through the blue clay, to the sand and chalk. It is then so abundant as to flow up like a fountain, and ivhere bored only, to a height of 15 or 20 feet . — M iddleton. London is so vast, because it is not merely the capital of the United Kingdom, but of the colonies and colonists, in all parts of the world. The mean heighth of high-water at the London Docks varies from 22 feet 10 inches to 19-5. Lombard-street is 34 feet above high- water level. The New Post-Office 46 feet. Drury-lane 65. Holles-street. 70. Hyde Park corner 78 feet. The highest ground, near London, is the top of Hampstead heath, 445 feet above the level of the Thames, at mean high-water. Highgate church is 438, Shooter’s hill 430, and the top of St. Paul’s 420. Large parts of London are not 10 feet, and three-fourths not 30 feet above the Thames. Lincoln’s Inn Square is 7/0 feet per side, or 13^ acres. Russell 670, or 10 acres. There are 40 good squares in London, from 3 to 8 acres. The enormous wealth of London appears in the returned rentals of several parishes : — thus, Mary-le-bone 678,808/. ; St. George, Hanover square, 485,576/. ; Sc. Pancras 357,820/. ; St. James’s 222,616 ; St. Giles’s 265,548/. &c. and real rents are always higher. In 1832, London imported 2,139,078 tons of coals, and, in 1831, 2,045,292 tons, i.e. about 12 tons to a house, at about 28s'. per ton. There are 60 serious fires per annum in London, on the average, and one alarm per day. Plagues and contagious diseases have been fatal to London. In 1348 100,000 died 1407 30.000 1472 40,000 1500 20,000 1518 23,000 1528 25,000 1603 30,5/8 1625 35,417 1665 68,596 Thames Tunnel.— This vast undertaking, forming a communication under the River Thames, between Rotherhithe and Wap- ping, was, after numerous difficulties, finally accomplished and opened on the 25th of March, 1843. This master-piece of science was commenced by Sir J. S. Brunei in 1824. The length of the Tunnel is 1200 feet. The width 38 feet, affording room for carriage and foot passengers. The total cost of the work completed to the present time, is ^446,000. MADRAS is the capital of the Carnatic coast, and that of the British possessions on the eastern coast. The choice, as in many other countries, has not been so happy as that made by the French j Pondicherry being every way a finer and more convenient sta- tion. Madras has no harbour, but a mere road, through which runs a strong current, and which is often exposed to dangerous winds. Fort St. George, planned by Robins, and placed at a small distance from the sea, is a strong and handsome fortress, not on so great a scale as Fort William at Calcutta, but more advantageously situated. The public offices and storehouses form a range of handsome buildings along the beach, their upper stories being adorned by colonnades resting on arched bases. With this excep- tion, European Madras is merely an assem- blage of country-houses situated in the midst of gardens, and scattered over an extent of several miles. The houses consist usually only of one story, and are of a light and ele- gant structure, having porticos and verandas supported by columns, covered with chunam. The Black Town is extensive, and the scene which it presents of minarets and pa- godas, mixed with trees and gardens, is striking ; but the interior, like that of most Asiatic towns, consists of poor bamboo cot- tages thatched with leaves. There are, how- ever, some great native merchants, who have splendid mansions in the oriental style. MADRID, the Capital of Castile, and of “ all the Spains,” stands on several low hills on the immense Castilian plain, which on the North appears bounded by the high distant range of the Guadarama, but on every other side has no visible termination. A small rivulet, the Mangaranes, flows past the city and falls into the Tagus. Madrid is a superb, but somewhat gloomy capital; the houses are high, well-built of good stone, not defaced by smoke ; the streets are well- paved, and have broad footpaths. The main street of Alcala, long, spacious, and border- ed on eactvside by a row of princely houses, attracts particular admiration. The Prado, a wide public walk, bordered by trees, and connected with gardens, all open to the public, is equally conducive to ornament and pleasure. There are many public foun- tains, supplied with pure, light, and salu- brious water, filtered through beds of gravel and sand, from a distance of 7 or 8 leagues. The gates, built by Charles III., are uncom- monly beautitul, particularly that of Al- cala. The royal palace, built by Philip V. 735 is a spacious and magnificent structure, and contains numerous fine paintings. The Re- tiro, with its fine gardens, was defaced by the French, who made it a military post; the museum of statuary and painting, a new and elegant building, has recently been en- riched with some of the finest pictures from the royal palaces. The cabinet of natural history, supported by the government, is also a handsome structure, and its contents va- luable. The environs of Madrid are not remarkable for beauty ; they are much broken into hills and hollows; so that, of the 200 villages situated in them, only 3 or 4 can be seen at once. MECCA — Is a considerable city, one of the handsomest in the East. It stands in a narrow valley, enclosed between rocky hills, following their sinuosities, and partly built on their declivities ; the fronts of the houses ?re of stone, raised to the beighth of three or four stories, and ornamented with columns and architectural ornaments. The resort oh devotees of so many nations, from the ex- tremities of Tartary to the banks of the Senegal, render Mecca a very flourishing city ; and it has been supposed to contain 100,000 inhabitants. Burckhardt reckons only 30,000. The Wahabite war, from which it suffered deeply, rendered the ave- nues to it no longer secure, especially as the Wahabites, though they themselves reve- renced the holy places, shut them against the approach of those whom they deemed here- tics ; but since they came into the possession of Mohammed Ali, they have been thrown open to the Mahometan world, and pilgrims are protected. The temple of Mecca forms a very spacious square, about a quarter of a mile in each direction, with a triple or qua- druple row of columns. A number of steps lead down into the interior, containing the object sacred to a Mahometan eye, the Kaaba or house of the prophet, and within it is the black stone brought by the angel Gabriel to form its foundation. To kiss this sacred stone, to go round it seven times, re- citing appropriate hymns, form the comple- tion of that religious service for which thou- sands of miles are travelled. The last cere- monial is ablution in the well of Zemzem, which, though itself not the purest water, is supposed to cleanse the votary from all sin. A pilgrimage, often tumultuary, to Mount Arafat, completes the round of observance. MEXICO stands in the centre of a valley ; the ancient Mexico, or Tenochtitlan, having been built in the middle of a lake, and con- nected with the continent by extensive causeways or dikes. The new Mexico is three miles from the lake of Tezcuco, and nearly six from that of Chaleo; yet Hurn- ooldt considers it certain, from the remains of the ancient teocalli , or temples, that it occupies the identical position of the former city, and that a great part of the waters of the valley have been dried up. Mexico was long considered the largest oily of America; but it is now surpassed by 730 New York, perhaps even by Rio Janeiro. Some estimates have raised its population to 200,000, but it may, on good grounds, be fixed at from 120,000 to 140,000. It is be- yond dispute the most splendid of its rivals. The architecture is generally in a very pure style, and there are edifices of very beauti- ful structure. The palace of the late vice- roys, the cathedral built in what is termed the gothic style, several of the convents, and some private palaces, reared upon plans furnished by the pupils of the Academy of the Fine Arts, are of great extent and magnificence ; yet, upon the whole, it is rather the arrange, ment, regularity, and general effect of the city, which render it so admirable. Nothing can be more enchanting than the view of the city and valley from the surrounding heights. The eye sweeps over a vast extent of culti- vated fields, to the very base of the colossai mountains covered with perpetual snow. The city appears as if watered by the waters of the lake of Tezcuco, which, surrounded by villages and hamlets, resembles the most beautiful of the Swiss lakes, and the rich cultivation of the vicinity forms a striking contrast with the naked mountains. Among these rise the famous volcano Fopo-Cate- pelt, and the mountains of Iztaccihualt, of which the first, an enormous cone, burns occasionally, throwing up smoke and ashes in the midst of eternal snows. The police of the city is excellent ; most of the streets are handsomely paved, lighted, and cleansed. The markets are remarkably well supplied with animal and vegetable productions, brought by crowds of canoes along the lake of Chaleo, and the canal leading to it. Most of the flowers and roots have been raised in chinampas or floating gardens, an invention peculiar to the New World. They consist of rafts formed of reeds, roots, and bushes, and covered with black saline mould, which, being irrigated by the water of the lake, be- comes exceedingly fertile. The construc- tion of a desague , or canal to carry off the waters of the lake Zumpango, and of the principal river by which it is fed, has pre- vented any very desolating floods. The desague cost £1,040,000, and is one of the most stupendous works ever executed. MILAN is a noble city, which ranks almost as the modern Capital of Italy. Its situation, in the middle of a superlative^ rich and beautiful plain, watered by the Po, at a point where all the great canals meet, and on the high-road from Germany by the lakes Maggiore and Como, render it a sort of key to Northern Italy. Its greatest splen- dour was attained under the regime of France, when it became the capital, first of the Italian republic, and then of the king- dom of Italy. Napoleon spared no expence in erecting edifices. The Duomo, begun in the 15th century, under the Viscontis, and slowly carried on by successive benefactions had been left more than half unfinished; so that the French had the greater part of its magnificent front to execute. It is the only very superb edifice of this description which MODER ^AriTALS OF NATIONS. MODERN CAPITALS OP NATIONS. 737 belongs to the present age. In extent and pomp it ranks second to St. Peter’s. It is 454 feet long by 2/0 feet wide ; the heighth of the cupola is 232, and that of the tower 335 feet. The French also erected a very magnificent amphitheatre, in which from 30,000 to 40,000 spectators can be accom- modated, and chariot races and national games have been repeatedly performed. A superb triumphal arch was commenced on the Simplon road, in commemoration of the stupendous labours by which that passage over the Alps was formed ; but, since the sacrifice of Napoleon, no progress has been made. The theatre, Della Scala, is the only very fine one in Italy. Here the French deposited the finest paintings which could be procured by purchase, or otherwise, from every part of Italy, including the brilliant productions of the Bolognese schools. The Ambrosian library, formed by Cardinal Frederic Borromeo, on the basis of the Be- nedictine collection, consists of 90,000 vo- lumes, and 15,000 manuscripts. Milan has an infirmary for 3600 sick, and a foundling hospital for 4000 children. It covers a great space of ground, and has some very spacious squares ; but the streets, in general, are narrow and crooked. MOROCCO.— This capital is situated on a very extensive and naturally-fruitful plain, above which rises abruptly, covered with perpetual snow, one of the loftiest ranges of Atlas. The mosques are numerous, and several of them present striking specimens of Arabian architecture, particularly that called El Koutouber, the tower of which is 220 feet high. Of the eleven gates, one is richly sculptured in the Moorish style. The palace forms an oblong of 1500 yards by 600 yards, divided into enclosures, where, sur- rounded by gardens, are the pavilions and treasury of 15 millions, of the sovereign, his principal officers, and ladies. The floors are tessellated with variously-coloured tiles ; but a mat, a small carpet and cushions, com- pose the entire furniture. Beautiful gardens surround the city, and spacious aqueducts, conveying water from the Atlas, twenty miles distant, bear testimony to a superior state of the arts in former times. MOSCOW, the ancient Capital of Mos- cow, was, perhaps, the most extraordinary city that existed either in Europe or Asia. It surpassed, in splendour, the greatest ca- pitals of Europe, and in poverty its poorest villages. “ One might imagine,” says Dr. Clarke, “ that all the states of Europe and Asia had sent a building, by way of repre- sentative to Moscow : timber-huts from re- gions beyond the Arctic ; plastered palaces from Sweden and Denmark , painted walls from the T yrol ; mosques from Constanti- nople ; Tartar temples from Bucharia; pagodas, pavilions, verandas, from China ; caberets from Spain ; dungeons, prisons, and public offices from France; architec. tural ruins from Rome j terraces and trel- lices from Naples j and ware-houses from 738 Wapping.” Among the wonders of Mos- cow is the greatest bell in the world ; 67 feet in circumference, weighing more than 22,000 tons. Napoleon, when he entered Moscow in 1812, did not find it burning; but the flames of Rostopchin soon appeared ; and, aided by strong winds, gained hourly new strength, till they wrapped the vast capital in one blaze of fire, When Mr. Jones vi- sited the city in 1814, the whole space of 25 miles circumference presented the most gloomy aspect of desolation. In 1823, how- ever, Lyall and Cochrane found the work of reparation far advanced ; and the new streets and edifices were constructed in a more regular style ; 6341 houses had been burned, aad 8027 had been re-built. On Sparrow- hill, Alexander, in 1817, laid the founda- tion of “ a Temple of our Saviour,” which, if completed, will be 7/0 feet high (the great pyramid is only 630 feet), having three successive churches rising above each other, the lowest of which was to be fronted by a colonnade 2100 feet long. 24,000 peasants were provided, of whom 6000 were to work at the building, and the rest to till the ground for their support. MUNICH. — This capital lies in an exten. sive plain, on the Iser ; and though it cannot boast any thing which suggests ideas of un- usual grandeur, either ancient or modern, it is very handsome, and full of well-built modern houses ; the streets are broad and well paved. Hassel ranks it among the handsomest cities in Germany. But the cathedral of Notre Dame, though of vast extent, and with towers 350 feet high, is declared by Dibdin to be frightful in the extreme, built of red brick, without orna- ment, design, or expression, and not of ear- lier date than the 15th century. The church of St. Michael, in which the public library is deposited, is more elegant, and its inte- rior is one of the finest in Europe. The palace has also been considered a good spe- cimen of modern architecture. The six suburbs comprise nearly half the town, con- taining 1419 out of 3613 houses. NANKIN, the ancient capital of China, is, in extent, superior to Pekin. The exterior wall, enclosing the suburbs, resembles rather the boundary of a province than of a city. Since the government and tribunals, how- ever, were, transferred to Pekin, it has greatly declined, and about a third part ot its area is now uninhabited. It still conti- nues to be the greatest manufacturing city of China. Its silks, its paper, the cottons bearing its name, are preferred over the empire to those made elsewhere. Learning, also, continues to flourish in an unrivalled degree ; the booksellers’ shops are no where so amply furnished ; and a greater number of doctors are sent forth from it than from any other city. Nankin contains, also, in its pagoda, or porcelain tower, the hhief archi- tectural monument of the empire. NAPLES— is th* largest city in Ite: y B B MODERN CAPITALS OF NATIONS, 733 740 and the most beautiful of European capitals. The edifices are lofty and solid, and the streets tolerably wide, particularly the Strada de Toledo, which is a mile in length. Taken collectively, Naples presents to the sea an immense line of lofty edifices, pro- ducing a general pomp of effect, and forming a commanding feature in a matchless land- scape. Its bay occupies a wide circuit of 16 miles, every where bounded with vineyards, hills, woods, convents, and villages ; the golden shores of Baiae, the beautiful varie- gated islands of Ischia and Procida, with the verdant sides and lofty cone of Vesuvius : all these, viewed under a bright sun, have been considered as composing the most splendid picture which nature and art pre- sents to the human eye. The interior of Naples exhibits a most singular living scene ; every trade and every amusement being carried on in the open air. “ The crowd of London,” says Forsyth, “ is a double line in quick motion ; but the crowd of Naples con- sists in a general tide rolling up and down, and in the middle of this tide an hundred ed- dies of men. You are stopped by a carpenter’s bench ; you are lost among shoe-makers’ stools ; you dash among the pots of a mac- caroni stall. Every bargain sounds like a battle : the popular exhibitions are full of grotesque ; they consist of Punch, held up as the representative of the nation ; of preach- ing ; dancing to the guitar ; or listening to old tales.” A literary spirit prevails, and the Neapo- litans boast, that as many books are pub- lished at Naples as at Paris; and that, if the world would judge impartially, they would find the one as good as the other. Most ample opportunities of study are cer- tainly afforded by 4 libraries, open to the public; one of which, compounded of the Farnese and other libraries transported from Rome, comprises many curious and valu- able works. With these were conveyed some of the finest specimens of ancient sculpture, the Torso, the Hercules, the Ura- nia ; and some fine specimens have been ap- pended from the greatest Italian schools. One bright redeeming quality in the Neapolitans is charity : their hospitals are numerous, riqhly endowed, and supported by ample benefactions ; and persons of the first rank, assuming the dress of religious fraternities, not only superintend these establishments, but watch the sick bed of the patient. The Neapolitans set an example which seems worthy of imitation, in having a rural hos- pital for recovering the health of invalids. They have also conservatorii , or schools, where the children of the lower ranks are initiated in trades. A great part of these is devoted to the teaching of music, for Naples may be considered as the musical capital of Itaiy : the greatest composers have been its citizens, and its Opera is unrivalled. NEW YORK, though not the seat of the principal government, may be considered, in many respects, as the capital of the Ameri- can Union. It is the largest, the most wealthy, the most flourishing, and the gayest of all its cities. It is situated on the island of Manhattan, at the mouth of the Hudson, looking towards two channels formed by Long Island, one with the coast of Connec- ticut, called the Sound, or East River, the other with the coast of New Jersey. In these channels, and in the harbour, which admits vessels of 90 guns, the united navies of the world might lie in safety. New York is the greatest commercial emporium in America, and, next to London, the greatest in the world. In it, centre almost all the shipping and trade. The old part, indeed, where the great stir and business is still carried on, appears confused, crowded, and incommodious. But there are two streets, called the Broadway and the Bowery-road, which are long, spacious, and filled with handsome houses and shops. The Broadway is continued for upwards of two miles through the centre and highest part of the city, and contains many handsome houses, built of red-brick. For a certain space, it consists of private mansions ; after these, appear a range of shops, which are said to vie in magnificence with those of London. The city hall is considered to have scarcely a rival in the Union. It is 216 feet long, 105 broad, and 51 high, built mostly of white marble, and with good taste. The benevolent institutions of New York are very numerous ; and the state prison and penitentiary are constructed on a large scale, supplied with working implements, as conducive to the reform of the criminals. The society in New York is numerous and gay, bejng composed of a great number of wealthy individuals. The upper class con- sists of rich merchants, leading professional men, and public functionaries ; the second class, of shop-keepers, clerks, and subordi- nate officers of government. There are two or three colleges and public libraries, though not on any great scale ; but literary taste, and the desire of information, are rapidly spreading. PARIS, the Capital of France, has made pretensions to be considered the general capital of the civilized world. London can, in fact, alone dispute its claim, being more extensive, more wealthy, and the seat of a much more extended commerce ; yet, the central situation of Paris, the peculiar at- tractions rendering it the crowded resort of strangers, and its brilliant and polished so- ciety give to this City a gayer aspect, and render it a more conspicuous object in the eyes of Europe. Paris, as a whole, is not only less populous than London, as 1,000,000 to 2,250,000, but, in proportion to its popu- lation, it covers less ground. It forms, on both banks of the Seine, an ellipse of about 4 miles in length and 3 in breadth. The principal streets are long, narrow, bordered by high houses, which are each occupied by several families. The most distinguished of the palaces is the Louvre, finished with splendour, in the style that distinguished the age of MODERN CAPITALS OF NATIONS. 741 Louis XIV. Its front, 525 feet long, is a model of symmetry The Louvre is not now occupied as a palace, but as a grand depot of the objects of taste and art. The gallery, which is more than a quarter of a mile long, and the walls of which are en- tirely crowded with paintings, forms a mag- nificent coup-d’ceil. The hall of statues is also adorned with some of the finest speci- mens of ancient sculpture. The Tuileries, which has been the late royal residence, was begun at an earlier period than the Louvre, and carried on at successive times, is, on the whole, a noble edifice, surrounded with fine gardens and avenues. The palace of the Luxembourg on the south of Paris, and the Palais Bourbon on the west, are edifices of great taste and beauty. The former, now stripped of the famous paintings by Rubens, which have been transferred to the Louvre gallery, affords, in one part, a place of as- sembly for the Chamber of Peers, and, in another, apartments for the exhibition of paintings by living artists ; while the Palais Bourbon is, in part, occupied by the Cham- ber of Deputies. The Palais Royal is no longer exclusively a palace, but is in part leased out to sundry persons for purposes of business and pleasure, and filled with shops, coffee-houses, taverns, gaming-tables, and every form of gaiety and dissipation, which can find acceptance in such a city. Notre Dame, the ancient cathedral of Paris, is somewhat heavy and massive. The mo- dern church of St. Genevieve, called, during the Revolution, the Pantheon, w r as destined to eclipse both St. Peter’s and Si. Paul’s. St. Sulpice is also a modern structure. Paris has few fine streets. It boasts of its places, which, without having the regular form or dimensions of a square, command admira- tion by the ranges of noble buildings that surround them. In particular, the place Louis Quinze, standing in a central situa- tion among the palaces, presents one of the most brilliant points of view to be found in any city. This capital possesses also great advantages in the wide ornamented open spaces, which lie in the very heart of the city. The Boulevards, the ancient rampart of Paris, when it was circumscribed within a much narrower compass, are now converted into walks, adorned with rows of trees, and filled with numerous exhibitors, and ven- dors of every thing that can conduce to pub- lic amusement. The gardens of the Tuile- ries, and the embellished spot called the Champs Elysees, are sources of enjoyment. Under Napoleon, Paris was so much im- proved and embellished, that it deserves to be called the City of Napoleon , and his statue properly stands on a column in the highest elevation of the city, as a testimony of national gratitude. There are 14 hospitals for the sick, and 8 hospices for the infirm. The former receive annually 42,500, of whom about 40,000 go out cured. The latter 18,500. The annual expence is about 280,000/. There is, besides, an office of charity in each of the 12 arron- dissemens, the aids of which are adminis- 742 tered by “ sisters of charity,” who divide tho poor among themselves, make regular lists of them, and pay frequent visits. They make an annual collection in their district, the produce of which is transmitted to the office. The annual distribution made by the offices of charity amount to 50,000/. in mo- ney, 717,000 quartern loaves, 270,000 lbs of meat, 19,000 ells of cloth, &c. The manu- factures of Paris are principally works in gold and silver, which employ 7000 or 8000 workmen, and yield a value above 5,000,000/. sterling. There are manufactured, also, by 2000 workmen, 80,000 gold and 40,000 silver watches, with 15,000 clocks, which maybe worth 750,000/. Sugar refinery is also sup- posed to produce 20,000,000 lbs., worth 1,300,000/. There are 80 printing-offices, employing 600 presses, and 3000 workmen, and using annually 280,000 reams of paper, supposed value 350,000/. Of the various articles above enumerated, there are ex- ported nearly 2,000,000/. sterling. The most superb palace in Europe is that of Versailles, about 12 miles from Paris, built by Louis XIV., and enlarged and ex- tended by Louis Philippe, so as to present a gallery of works of art, several miles long; in fact, the wonder of all Europe. Paris, in 1831, consumed 16| millions of gallons of wine, 600,000 gallons of brandy, 250,000 gallons of beer, 2£ millions lbs. of grapes, 76,000 oxen and cows, 62,867 calves, 288,203 sheep, 76,743 pigs. 2± millions lbs. cheese, 10 millions lbs. of batter. 1500 or 1600 sacks per day of flour, weighing 334 lbs. each. Besides 150,000/. worth of fish, and 260,000/. worth of fowls and game. PEKIN. — This celebrated capital of a great empire stands almost in a corner of it, only 40 miles from the great wall. It consists of two very distinct parts, the Chinese and the Tartar cities, of which the former is the most elegant and populous, but the latter is adorned by the imperial palace and gardens. The united city is about twelve" miles in cir- cumference, surrounded by walls, like every other in China ; but those of Pekin are pe- culiarly lofty, and completely hide the city from those who are without. The popula- tion has been a subject of controversy. The English embassy calculated it at 3,000,000. The Russian embassy judged it only double the size of Moscow, and as containing nearly as much unoccupied ground; which would infer only 600,000 or 700,000. The estimate of Le Comte is 2,000,000. Pekin is divided into regular streets, the principal one of which crosses the whole city, and is about 120 feet wide. It consists chiefly of shops, which, though, like every other edifice in the empire, seldom exceed one story in heighth, but are adorned with flags, varnish, paint- ing, and lanterns of peculiar and elegant construction. The streets are immensely crowded, as the Chinese spend much time it. the open air. PETERSBURG. — The entire creation of its great founder, Peter 1., and built upon B B 2 MODERN CAPITALS OF NATIONS. 743 a plain, is the most regular, and, in ap- pearance, the most splendid Capital in the world. It has no old, dirty, irregular quar- ter abandoned to traffic, and shunned by the opulent and fashionable ; and there are no straggling suburbs. It is “ a city of new palaces;” wanting thus, however, the so- lemn and venerable effect produced by struc- tures that belong to a former age. A few of the palaces and public edifices are of marble and granite, but the city is built of brick covered with plaster resembling stone. Petersburgh is Built entirely amid the wa- ters ; it occupies the South and North banks of the Neva, comprising several large is- lands enclosed by its channel. The ground on which it stands being almost on a level with the river, it is exposed to dreadful inundations. When a strong and continued west-wind blows in the waters of the gulf of Finland, the Neva rises sometimes eight feet, and overflows the whole city. It took place in 1824, on a very awful scale ; for two days, Petersburgh and its neighbourhood were covered as with a sea, in which wag- gons, furniture, boats, provisions, even wooden houses and coffins, floated in con- fused masses. Eight thousand people were supposed to have perished, and the destruc- tion of property was immense. The streets and edifices are divided into several compartments, separated from each other by the interposed channels of the Neva. The principal is what is called the Admi- ralty quarter. It is situated along the South bank of the Neva. It is faced towards the river by a magnificent granite quay, extend- ing 3 miles in length ; and here are grouped all the most magnificent structures of Pe- tersburg, which resemble a vast range of fine palaces. The Admiralty itself, a quar- ter of a mile in length, presents, perhaps, the longest faqade in Europe, richly orna- mented. Three broad and fine streets, about two miles long, branch from this cen- tral edifice, which terminates the vista of each. The grandest structure, however, is the Imperial winter palace, 450 feet long, 380 broad, and which, with an adjoining wing, called the Hermitage, contains the most valuable of the imperial collections. On a smaller scale, but of still richer mate- rials, is the marble palace, resting on a basement of granite, and roofed with copper. The new Bank is also considered one of the chief ornaments of Petersburgh. But the greatest of all is the cathedral church of Kasan, in the second Admiralty quarter, one of the most splendid structures that modern * art has produced. It was begun in 1800, and finished in 15 years, at an expence of 15,000,000 rubles. It was executed entirely by Russian workmen, and of materials, which, though of the richest description, were all furnished within the empire. In the same quarter is the colossal equestrian statue of Peter the Great, chiefly remarkable for the mass of black marble on which it is placed, weighing 1500 tons, and in this respect in- comparable. The Vasili Ostrov (Basil’s Island! is the chief insular compartment, 744 containing the custom-house, exchange, and other establishments for commerce ; and the academies of science and art. The is- land which bears the name of St. Peters, burgh, and the quarter of Wiborg, on the northern bank, include the remains of what was the original city, or rather village with large additions, but still retaining more of a rural character than the rest. The foun- dry quarter is distinguished by the large es- tablishments bearing its name, but still more by a very superb structure of Catherine, called the Taurida palace. At the end of a vestibule and hall, both of immense ex tent, and adorned with vast ranges of co« lumns, statues, and vases, appear gardens, which, in winter, while all the world with- out is buried in ice and snow, present the most brilliant hues of summer. Being en- closed in a spacious saloon, they may be considered as a vast conservatory. The is- lands and opposite banks of the Neva are connected only by pontoons, or bridges of boats, which, on the approach of ice, are removed in 2 or 3 hours ; and the ice then supersedes every other bridge. The ground in the vicinity being barren, the city is sup- plied from a great distance with cattle from the Ukraine ; grain, and even timber fuel, from the provinces on the Volga ; yet, tho sure demand produces a steady supply. The country residence of the Russian sovereigns is 22 wersts on the road to No- vogorod, and is called the Czarskoselo. It is a large and very splendid palace, where the imperial family have resided for 70 years. PHILADELPHIA, the Capital of Penn- sylvania, is one of the most interesting, cities of the Union. It occupies an oblong space, enclosed by the confluence of the rivers Delaware and Schuylkill. It was laid out on a regular plan, the streets being straight, and crossing each other at right angles. They are well-paved, and kept clean ; so that it is a neat, commodious, and elegant city. The literary establishments of Philadelphia are the most respectable of the new continent. The library now com- prises 24,000 volumes of valuable works. There is a museum, containing many inte- resting curiosities, particularly the entire skeleton of a mammoth. The seminary founded by Franklin, as an academy and charity-school, is now called the University of Pennsylvania, and, in -medical science especially, has no rival in any of the States. The academy of fine arts possesses an exten- sive collection of casts, and of ancient and modern paintings. The American Philoso- phical Society has made some important con- tributions to science. Printing is carried on upon a greater scale, and more elegantly,, than in any other trans-Atlantic city. There were, in 1819, fifty-one offices, employing 153 presses, partly in newspapers, and partly in reprinting popular British works. It is celebrated by its philanthropic exertions. The attempt to m.tigate t-he severih of the penal laws, by the penitentiary system, has been diligently attempted, though here, as 745 MODERN CAPITALS OF NATIONS. 746 elsewhere, it has partly failed. The best edifice in Philadelphia is the United States Bank, of white marble, in a style of pure Grecian architecture. The Bank of Penn- sylvania is also a handsome marble edifice, marble being the chief material of which the city is built. ROME— The residence of the popes, and for centuries the Capital of Christendom, is also, at present, the Capital of the world of the arts (4P 53' 45'/ N. lat. ; 12° 28/ E. Ion). It is about 13 miles in circuit, and divided by the Tiber into two parts. The churches, palaces, villas, squares, streets, fountains, aqueducts, antiquities, ruins, — in short, every thing proclaims an- cient majesty and present greatness. Among the churches, St. Peter’s is the most conspicuous, and is, perhaps, the most beautiful building in the world. Michael Angelo, who erected its immense dome, which is 450 feet high to the top of the cross, designed the greatest part. The erec- tion of this edifice, from 1506 to 1614, cost 45,000,000 Roman crowns. The immense canopy of the high altar, supported by four bronze pillars, of 120 feet in heighth, parti- cularly attracts attention. The two most beautiful churches in Rome, next to St. Peter’s, are the St. John’s of the Lateran, and the Santa Maria Maggiore. The former is the parochial church of the pope. It contains several pillars of granite, verde antico , and gilt bronze ; the twelve apostles, by Rusconi and Legros ; and the beautiful chapel of Corsini. The nave of the church of Santa Maria Maggiore is sup- ported by 40 Ionic pillars of Grecian marble, which were taken from a temple of Juno Lucina. The other 364 churches of Rome contain monuments of art or antiquity. Among the palaces, the principal is the Vatican, an immense pile, in which the most valuable monuments of antiquity, and the works of the greatest modern masters, are preserved. Here are the museum Pio-Cle- mentinum, and the celebrated library of the Vatican. The popes have chosen the palace of Monte Cavallo, or the Quirinal palace, with its extensive and beautiful gardens, for their usual residence, on account of its healthy air and fine prospect. Besides these, the following are celebrated : the palace della Cancelleria, the palace de’ Conserva- tori, the palace of St. Mark, the buildings of the academy, &c. Among the private palaces, the Barberini is the largest. The library contains 60,000 printed books and 9000 manuscripts ; a ca- binet of medals, bronzes, and precious stones. The Borghese palace, erected by Bramante, is extensive, and in a beautiful style ; the colonnade of the court is splendid. The palace Albani, the situation of which is remarkably fine, possesses a valuable li- brary, and a great number of paintings. The palace Altieri, one of the largest in Borne, contains rare manuscripts, medals, paintings, &c., and valuable furniture. In the palace Colonna there is a rich collection of paintings by the first masters. The AI- dobrandini palace contains the finest monu- ment of ancient painting — the Aldobrandine Wedding. The great Farnese palace, be- gun from designs of Sangallo, and completed under the direction of Michael Angelo, is celebrated both for its beauty and its trea- sures of art. In the palace Spada is the statue of Pompey, at the foot of which Caesar fell. The palace Costaguti has fine frescoes ; Chigi, beautiful architecture ; Mattei, numerous statues, reliefs, and an- cient inscriptions ; the palace of Pamfili has splendid paintings and internal magnifi- cence ; Rospigliosi, upon the Quirinal hill, &c. are other fine palaces. Of ancient monuments, the following yet remain : the Pantheon, the Coliseum, the column of Trajan, that of Antonine, the amphitheatre of Vespasian ; the mausoleum of Augustus, the mausoleum of Adrian (now the fortress of St. Angelo) j the triumphal arches of Severus, Titus, Constantine, Janus, Nero, and Drusus ; the ruins of the temple of Jupiter Stator, of Jupiter Tonans, of Con- cordia, of Pax, of Antoninus and Faustina, of the Sun and Moon, of Romulus, of Ro- mulus and Remus, of Pallas, of Fortuna Virilis, of Fortuna Muliebris, of Virtue, of Bacchus, of Vesta, of Minerva Medica, and of Venus and Cupid; the remains of the baths of Dioclesian, of Caracalla and Titus, &c. ; the ruins of the theatre of Pompey, and those of the theatre of Marcellus ; the ruins of the old forum ; the remains of the old bridges ; the circus Maximus ; the circus of Caracalla ; the house of Cicero ; the Curia Hostilia ; the trophies of Marius; the portico of Philip and Octavius; the country-house and tower of Maecenas ; the Claudian aqueduct; the monuments of the family of Aruns, of the Scipios, of Metella (called Capo di Bove) ; the prison of Jugur- tha ; the monument of Caius Cestius, which is entirely uninjured, in form of a pyramid, near which the Protestants are buried j the Cloaca Maxima, built by Tarquin, &c. Bramalite, in 1513, designed and began the erection of St. Peter’s at Rome, conti- nued by Rafaelle the painter, Peruzzi, San Gallo, Michael Angelo, Carlo Maderno, and Bernini. STOCKHOLM is finely situated, at the junction of the lake of Malar with the sea. It stands partly on some small islands, and two peninsulas, presenting a view as beau- tiful and diversified as imagination can con- ceive. From one point of view it seems a Cyclopean heap of noble structures; pa- laces and churches piled one above another, and the whole floating. When the lake and sea are frozen, they are covered with sledges of all kinds. Except the great square oi Norden Malm, the streets, though o' consi- derable length, are neither broad nor hand- some. There is no foot-pavement; the houses are lofty, all white-washed, but the shops are extremely poor. The different families reside in separate floors, or stories, one above another The royal palace, finish- MODERN CAPITALS OF NATIONS. 747 f all the marriages in the past generation, by the average number of children 3 7 or 38, produced by a marriage. Therefore, the number of marriages in any year, by the ratio of children, is the number for every year of the next generation, and this annual number, into the years in a generation, is the whole population of the next generation. The length of a generation is now deter- mined to be 41 years from the actual enu- meration, for it has been variously esti- mated. The French used to call it 2875, and they no,w extend it to 32-2, by increased public health, vaccination, &c. The population of England and Wales, in the mean period of the generation before 1831, was about 12 millions, including defi- cient returns ; and, in 1831, was 13,897,000, the increase being about 19 million. Then the mean number of marriages per annum was 86,000, which, by 37, is 318,200 births per annum ; to which, adding 21,800 illegitimate, we get 340,000 births per an- num, and this, in 13,900,000, the presumed population, gives 41 years nearly, for the mean term of life, or a generation, which accords with the Carlisle tables. — Phillips. Knowing the population at any time, the mean number of marriages, and the average children to a marriage, we may anticipate the future population. In England and Wales the marriages have been a 1- 139th of the population per annum : but, if the marriages had been 79,750 instead of 86,000, or the l-152d instead of the l-139th, the population would have been stationary. For 152 is the product of 41 into 3 7 ; conse- quently, if the marriages were less than the 1- 152d of the existing numbers, the popula- tion would decrease. An increase is* how- ever, necessary, to guard against contingen- cies, for, as the 41 varies, the ratio of mar- riages must be increased or decreased to preserve the same number. Whatever be the law of births , must within the generation be the law of deaths. Taking the mean population at 12$ mil- lions, and the married of both sexes at 2,111,470, the marriages include one-sixth. So that five-sixths do not marry ; and, of these, nearly three-sixths die under 20 ; so that two-sixths never marry, i. e. two do not marry for one that does marry. The marriages in England and Wales were — In 1800 69,851 1 In 1829 96,833 In 1810 84,470 | In 1831 105,573 • The Baptisms — In 1800 .... 254,870 In 1820 .... 343,660 In 1810 298,853 | In 1831 .... 392,013 The Burials — In 1800 208,0631 In 1820 .... 208,349 In 1810 .... 208,184 | In 1831 .... 245,770 The twin births are 1 to 65. The male births to females 96 to 95. The fecundity of marriages in England, at this time, is 3 77- In Prussia, 4 23. In France, 3 79. In Belgium, 4 72. It varies with the age. It was 4 5 in England. There is a marriage in England for every 128 of population. In Prussia, for 102. In France, for 131 4, and in Belgium for 144. Nature variously restrains numbers, thus : 2- 5ths of all females die before 16, and from 16 to 46 there are only l-5th, and 2-5t.hs above 46. That is, there are 1,200,000 mar- riageable, on a gross population of 12 millions. But, as 2-3ds never marry, from various V~ POPULATION. FOREIGN DETERMINATIONS. 758 causes, so the number of marriages is limited to 400,000 of those who, in every 4 or 5 years, live beyond the age of puberty. This number, on the whole population of England and Wales, taking 41 as a generation, would be about 1/0,000; but the 4-lOths who die before 16 reduce the number to 102,000. The number of children per marriage, by recent returns, is found to be 3 8, and this into 41 gives the 1558 for .the ratio of equa- lity : so that, on 14 millions, 90,000 mar- riages per annum would just preserve the numbers; but, between 1821 and 1831, they actually averaged 105,209 per annum, which by 3 8 is 401,177 per annum, and this by 41 wiil raise the population of England and Wales in 1850 to 16,448,257. Such is the law, and its simplicity! The 1558 of marriage is the zero of population, and all proportions higher give increases, and all lower decrease as the numbers. — Phillips. Human population depends on several female circumstances, proper to be consi- dered. 1. The ova, 23 or 24 in number, limits the procreative period to that num- ber of years at most. 2. The menstrual period is a further limitation in late mar- riages. 3. These combined circumstances and sundry accidents, therefore, limit the progeny per marriage, as matter of fact, to an average of 3 8, or 37, about 11 to every 3 marriages. Of course, these determined periods are quite independent of duration of life in either sex ; and, while thus fixed by nature, population could not vary, whether mean longevity were 40 or 100. All past theories on this subject are essentially false and absurd. There is, also, a further limi- tation in the equality of the sexes, deter- mined by the natural chance that every birth is either male or female. — Phillips. Owing to each of 2 parents having 2 pa- rents, these 2, and so on, every living person is descended from millions in past genera- tions, and every parent must be the ancestor of millions in future generations. The num- bers increase as the power of 2, taken re- trospectively or prospectively. Taking 3 successions in a century, it is in the first cen- iury 2,4,8. In the second, 16, 32,64; in the third, 128, 256, 512; in the fourth, 1024, 2048, 4096. In the fifth, 8192, 16,384, 32,768 ; that is, a man born in 1800, had 32,768 an- cestors living in 1300. In 1000 years, it would have been 1074 millions ; so that the human race are truly one family. The mean term of life seems to have in- creased within half a century from 33 to 41, serving, at present , to diminish the burials. But the limit lies in the unchanged term of female parturition, from 18 to 45, and the number of births to a marriage. Thus, if, owing to any mortality, the mean erm were decreased from 41 to 35, then 3 7 into 35 gives 129 5, and a 129*5th of the population must marry, to maintain the numbers in the next generation. In regard to the physical bulk of the con- temporary population, since 9 middle-sized persons can stand within a square yard, or a string 4 yards long w ill encompass them, so a single square mile of 3,097,600 square yards, 27,878,400 feet, would hold a greater number than live in the United Kingdom . A nd if there are 36 times this number on the globe, the whole would occupy an area but 6 miles each way ! Then, as there are 50 millions of square miles of land, or 8,333,333 times 6 miles, so 200 generations of men. reduced to dust and pressed to the density of soil, would be but 18 inches of coating to the 36 miles, and, of course, but the 450,000 th of an inch scattered over the whole surface. But, if a man’s body is renewed 50 times during life, even then it would form soil but the 9000th of an inch ; so that the remnant of the species Homo have afforded in reality but little manure to the Earth’s surface. If it be asked whether the human race, and the present system of animal economy, will endure as long as the globe and its solar re- actions, we have no data but references to the past. We see races, kinds, and forms, once covering the surface, now no more. We find ages of shelly beings, of reptiles, of pachaderma, of gigantic crea- tures, &c. &c. We now find races re-acting on an atmosphere as 79 to 21, and sustained by water 11 to 79. Will these proportions last ? Does not oxygen increase and hasten life, and does not water dessicate ? We see the human race flowing from the exhausted East to the W est, portentous of results when the tour is completed. We see species dis- appear, and behold every proof that the circle of existence resembles an endless spiral, changing forms in fitness at every deflection of its solemn course ! Wallace, in 1760, in a work on the num- bers of mankind, developed the principle o» increase of numbers, being in higher ratio than increase of food, which was adopted and copied by Malthus. While, however, the surface of the earth is so inadequately inhabited, and there are 50,000 millions of acres of land, 40,000 millions of which are capable of production, all such speculations are as idle and contemptible as the reveries of the monks in the age of St. Jerome. Foreign Determinations. A generation, or age, is taken, by French economists, to be 33£ years, or 3 to a cen- tury, and the determination is made on re- gisters of joint ages at marriage, and of mean age at the birth of children. In the Hotel Dieu, at Paris, a fifth of the patients die, a tenth in the London hospi- tals, and a fifteenth in country ones. The deaths in France, in 1820, were 770,706; in Great Britain, 208,314 ; and of births 958,933 to 343,360; indicating a pro- portion of 3| to 1. In France, 10,000 born are reduced to 5000 at 25£, to 2813 at 41, to 353 at 69, to 5 L at 90, and 1£ at 100. 49 men and 36 women, out of 10,000 of each, live to 90 in the cities of Belgium, and 67 men and 71 women in the country where the women are slaves. In the cities, but l woman attains 100, and in the country 1 man and 1 woman. 5000 men attain 20, and 759 POPULATION. — RATIO OF DISEA ES. 769 £000 women 28 ; but, in the country, 5000 men attain 23, and 5000 women, for the same reason, but 27. In the first 5 years, the 20,000 are reduced to 12,500, and at 63, the 12,500 is 5000 ; so that the deaths in the 5 years is equal to those in the next follow- ing 50 years. At 76, only 1 in 10 survives. In Belgium, the deaths in January to those m July are as 1212 to 809. 328 clergy attain 63 to 72, and 257 from 73 to 82, out of 1000; and only 228 and 141 medical men. The Pays Bas is the most populous of all countries, having 1829 inhabitants to a square league, 25 to a degree. Lombardy, 1711 ; Wurtemberg, 1502; and England, 1457. Spain and Turkey have but 641 and 324. In the Pays Bas, of 1000 men and women, two- thirds of each are unmarried. The widows are double the widowers. The population of Belgium is 4,165,953, of whom i are in towns. The births are 143,000, the marriages 32,680, and deaths 101,200. 23 is the mean period of life in males, and 27 of females. 100,000 born, are 70,500 in 2 years, 50,000 at 25, 40,000 at 41, 25.000 at 62, 17,000 at 70, 5000 at 81, 500 at 91, and 10 at 100. In Belgium, the mean of men’s ages in towns is 29-24, and in country 3T97; and, of women’s, 33 28 and 32 95. The population of Italy, in 1837, was 21^ millions. 7| Naples ; Church 2£ ; Sardi- nia 44; Lombardy 44; Tuscany 1±; Parma, &c. 1. Switzerland 2,179,632. In Italy, of 100 infants, born in Decem- ber, January, and February, 66 die in the first month, 15 more in the course of the year, and 19 survive ; of 100 born in spring, 48 survive the first year ; of 100 born in summer, 83 survive the first year; of 100 born in autumn, 58 survive the same period. In 1834, the male births in Prussia were 283,495, and the female 269,787. The deaths in the same year were 218,108 males, and 205,081 females. The total population was 13,256,867 as the mean of 1832, 3, and 4. In 10 years it increased 1| million. In 44 cases there were 4 at a birth in 10 years; and, in 2000, 3 at a birth. Of the deaths, 1.915.000 died under 3 years, and 26,576 above 90 ; 1 in 68 of small-pox. The sui- cides in 15 years were 16,680, of whom 3000 were females. The fatal accidents 73,686, of whom 18,000 were females. 1 of every 500 is deaf and dumb in Swit- zerland ; 1 in 1500, in other countries of Europe ; 1 in 2000 in the United States. In Sweden, of 200,000 males, 200 live above 90 ; and, of the same, females 450. Half die between 35 and 40. Sweden in- creases 8 per cent, in 10 years, other coun- tries increase from 8 to 12 per cent. In 1463, Russia had but 6 millions of in- habitants, extending only to 18,500 square German miles. In 1584, its population was double, and its extent 6 times more. Peter the Great again doubled its size, and in- cluded 20 millions of inhabitants. At the death of Catherine, in 1796, it extended over 331,810 square German miles, and con- tained 33 millions; Alexander added, and under Nicholas it consists of 370,571 miles, with 50 millions of inhabitants. Poland contains 4 millions, of whom, above 3 are rural, and 869,000 in 453 towns. The slaves in Russia, Servia, &c. are esti- mated at 45 millions. The 15 provinces of China appear to con- tain 368 millions of inhabitants, at 268 to the square mile, of which there are 1,372,450. Some provinces give 700, 500, 400, and 30$, to the mile ; 1 as low as 40, and others under 200. The most populous are the eastern provinces. Tartary, &c. add 2 millions more. Men vary on the average, in length , from 496 at birth, 1000 at 5, 1500 at 15, 1722 from 20 to 30; and then shorten to 1713 at 40, 1674 at 50, 1639 at 60, and 1613 at 80. In weight, they vary from 32 at birth to 100 at 1, 150 at 4, 200 at 7, 310 at 12, 574 at 17, 650 at 20, 690 from 30 to 40, and then grow lighter, as 655 at 60, 630 at 70, and 610 at 80. Women are at birth only 483 long , 1000 at 7, 1500 at 16, 1580 at 30, and then decline to 1555 at 40, 1516 at 60, and 1506 at 80. In weight , at birth 29, 93 at 1, 305 at 12, 491 at 17, 550 at 25, 566 at 40, 585 at 50 ; then lighter, as 567 at 60, 537 at 70, and 515 at SO. At 80, both sexes are the same heighth as at 16 ; and the same weight at 80 and 1 6. Boys at 18, who work in factories, are to other boys, in weight, as 48 to 5 7 ; and, in girls, the differences are as 48 to 55. In truth, factories lower the human standard, both in weight, heighth, and longevity. The mean weight of the human skeleton is 17 lbs., of the male 17 5 lbs., and the fe- male 15 8 lbs. The force of a man, at 20, is 3T4 lbs. with both hands ; with the reins a third ; 15 lbs. with the right hand, and 14£ lbs. with the left. Woman but 16 lbs., 7 i, and 6f lbs. The greatest power of man is at 30 lbs. or about 33 lbs. Ratio of Diseases In the Seven London Hospitals : — HOSPITALS. Out-patients in One Year. In-patients in One Year. Ave. num of In-patients. Annual j Deaths. I Bartholomew’s .. 21,403 5,164 483' 392 St. Thomas’s 25,430 3,000 398 261 Guy’s 50,000 3,395 480 300 Westminster.. . 3,885 7961 1 100 Middlesex ....^ 4,426 1,732 180 1*65 London 7,125 2,517 300 260 St. George’s .... 4,588 2,133 250 22 7 Total i *116,857 18,740 1 2191 1 1605 In 1000, only 228 medical men live from 63 to 72, and 328 theologians; from 73 to 82, but 141 and 2 ; and from 83 to 93, 30 and 70. Till 62, the medical men are mor« than the clerical. 761 POPULATION. — INDUSTRY AND EMPLOYMENT. 762 In professions, of those who attain the age of 66, there are found to be 43 Theologians. 32 Clerks, &c. 40 Agriculturalists. 29 Advocates. 35 Men in office. 28 Artists. 32 Military. 2 7 Professors. 24 Medical practitioners. Proportion of Deaths and Sickness , at diffe- rent Ages, among Members of English Benefit Societies : — Between Ages. Annual Deaths Per Cent. Six Weeks in a Year. 20 to 30 •95 •806 30 . . 40 1-45 •953 40 .. 50 1 85 1*339 50 .. 60 298 2-206 60 .. 70 492 5 89 70 .. 80 9 80 17- 80 .. 90 .... 21- 90 .. 100 — 35- From the books of Benefit Societies, it ap- pears that in the middle ages, from 20 to 60, that for every death there are twice as many sick of similar ages as the ratio of mortality, t. e. if any man die at 55, in any Society of 100, the ratio is 2 34, and this by 2 gives 4-68. So also, taking the mean of all ages in England as 2 0885 per cent., 4 1/7 is its double, and for every death in the 14 mil- lions 4177 is sick, i. e. 584,780. In 21 provincial hospitals, the total ex- pences of the 21 are 44,084/. for food, fire, &c. ; and, for drugs, &c. 5,21 61. The mean annual expences, per patient, are 23/. 5s. It appears, by the registers of benefit societies, that persons, from 20 to 35, ave- rage 7 days sickness per annum ; from 30 to 50, 9 days ; from 50 to 55, 10 days ; to 60, 13£ days; to 65, 21 days; to 70, 39£ ; and, above 70, 116 days. A society may give Is. per day after 65, 10s. per week in sickness, and 15/. at death, if its members, commencing at 15, pay 2s. 2 £d. per week ; at 25, 3s. ; at 33, 4s. 4 d. ; and, at 45, 8s. b\d. ; making 4 per cent, of their money. At Manchester, three-fourths of the inha- bitants are under medical treatment ; and there are 430 gin-shops, all crowded on Sa- turday evenings. In the cotton factories, 2 7 8 males per cent, are ill, on the average, 16-43 days; and 417 females, on the average, 12 63 days. From 1771 to 1780, in London, 1- 10th died of small-pox ; but, in the last 5 years, but l-40th. Consumption killed a 5th and 4th ; but, since 1810, but a 6th. Measles, since 1800, a 37th or 38th ; before 80, but a 200th. Apoplexy has doubled in this century, and is now 19 per 1000. Old age has risen from 70 and 80 per 1000, to 112. Suicides are tre- bled, being 1 in 450. On 4 millions of burials, England and Wales return 2000 above 100 years of age. Scotland on 2 millions returns 102 above that age ; and Ireland on 7| but 349. Of 240 Cornish miners, no one had at- tained the age of 70 ; only 2 were 65, and 8 of 60. But, in 240 Cornish labourers, there were 16 of 75, 28 at 70, 54 at 65, 70 at 60. In 2500 labourers, the days of their sick, ness at 20 averaged 14 days ; from 30 to 40 22 63 days ; and from 60 to 70, 29 days. In musters of soldiery, at home, 4 to 5 per cent, are on the sick list ; but, at Madras, 10 per ct. Industry and Employments. The best returns make it appear, that, in Great Britain, there are about 4 millions of males above 20 ; — that 187,000 are tarmers, who employ 887,000 labourers, and 167,000 are occupiers of some land who do not employ labourers; — that about 405,000 are opera- tives in manufactories, and 1,200,000 are shop-keepers and handicraft artizans that 609,000 are porters and assistants, coachmen, &c. ; 236,000 are clerks, &c. ; 80,000 are footmen, &c. ; and 210,000 are gentlemen, bankers, and professionals. Ireland has nearly 2 millions, of whom 1^ millions are rural, and 400,000 retail, opera- tive, and handicraft. In Lincoln, Hampshire, Rutland, Suffolk, Northampton, Essex, and Cambridge, 53 or 54 of every hundred are agricultural. In Lancashire and the West Riding, 70 in every hundred are manufacturing. In Lei- cestershire, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Middlesex, and Warwickshiie, 55 to 60. In Great Britain, Marshall calculates that the Coal Districts of the North employ 53,835 families. Other Collieries about 9600. Coal and Iron , and hard- ware, 106,000 families. The Cornish Mines, 34,742. Other Mines and Quarries, 17,182; so that Mining provides for 221,359 families. The Potteries 8,015 Woollens , (West) .. .. 32,418 Ditto, (Yorkshire) .. .. 113,099 Worsted , &c. mid. Coun. .. 60,531 Ditto, Norfolk 23,360 Silk manufactures (1834) .. 25,228 Cotton , all branches . . . . 203,443 Linen , &c. 18,000 Salt - Works 5,000 So that the staple manufactures provide for about 3 millions of people. The Sea-Ports and coasts employ about another million. The learned professions consist, in Great Britain, of about 36,000 ministers of religion of all denominations, about 24,000 lawyers and law employments, and 50,000 physi- cians, surgeons, apothecaries, and druggists* making 110,000 families of the 3 millions; or 1 to every 55 families for divinity, 1 to every 66 for law, and 1 to every 40 for physic : or, of the three, 1 to every 17. By Marshall’s Return, in 1821 and 1831, ip the mining and hard-ware districts, the po- pulation had increased one -third ; in the cotton, wool, &c. districts, one-fourth ; in the metropolis, and sea-port tov\n«, one-sixth • 763 POPULATION. — INDUSTRY AND EMPLOYMENT. 764 and, in the inland towns and agricultural districts, only one -eleventh. In regard to kinds of employments, the agricultural are about a third, the trading and mining nearly half, and the unproduc- tive nearly a fifth. And, since the traders in the agricultural parishes are as about 1 to 5, and the population of the mining and manufacturing districts is about 5 millions, it follows that 4f millions of the population of the mining and manufacturing districts are dependant on manufactures. The other inhabitants of the United King- dom consist of the Hereditary aristocracy, who are land- proprietors, constituting about 3 or 4000 families. Of squines and gentlemen, who are land- proprietors, stock-holders, money-lenders, &c., there are 50 or 60,000 families. Of destitute paupers, soldiers, &c. about 800,000 families. In England, in 1811, 347 per cent, of the population w ere returned in agriculture ; in 1821, only 33 per cent.; and, in 1831, but 27'/. The manufacturing were 45 9, 47'6, and 43 1 ; while the non-productive were 19*4, 19*4, and 29-2. In Wales, the agricultural fell as in Eng- land, from 56-2 to 43 9. Trade from 27 7 to 26 9; while the non-productive increased from 16 1 to 29 2 So in Scotland, agriculture fell, in the 20 years, from 31 ’3 to 25 2. Trade from 421 to 41 3; while the do-nothing classes rose from 26-6 to 33 5, or one-third. In Ireland, but one return gave no com- parison; but, in 1831, what are called agri- cultural were 63 8 percent., trade 18, and the non-productive 182. There are 608,712 maie labourers, va- riously employed by retailers, shipping, &c. And there are various traders and handi- craftsmen, not in the other classes, amount- ing to 235,499. And there are 113,224 male servants, and 671,491 female servants. The line of Coal and Iron from Charn- wood, in Leicestershire, to Scotland, north, ■ and Wales and Whitehaven, west, is the demarcation of agricultural employments, and of manufacturing and agricultural. As Coals are used in the manipulations, they are the bases of the manufacturing system, and its site is the site of production. Coals render Leicestershire, Nottingham, Derby- shire, Warwickshire, Staffordshire, Cheshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire, compact seats of manufactures, where iron is wrought in all forms, clay, and all fibrous materials, as wool, cotton, flax, silk, &c. With slight exceptions of particular fabrics, often older than the steam-engine, there are manufac- tories at Norwich, in Bedfordshire, in Wilt- shire, and in Gloucestershire, with mining in South Wales, and in Cornwall. These branches of industry, according to Marshall, have subsisted about 350,000 families, or 2 millions men, women, and children. The farmers who employ labourers in the United Kingdom, are 187,075. Those small occupiers who employ no labourers are 168,815. Then, taking the latter at 6 acres each, we have 33 millions of cultivated acres for the former, or an average for each of 176 acres. These employ 887,167 male la- bourers, or nearly 4f to each farm, or 1 to every 40 acres, instead of the supposed ave- rage of 1 to every 25 acres. The parliamentary returns give exactly 36,995,200 acres in England and Wales. The number of persons, in 1831, were 13,897,187 ; of families at 2,91 1,871, and inhabited houses at 2,482,444.. It hence appears, that the number to each family is 4 773, and to each house 5*6, i. e every 4 families consist of 19 persons, and every 5 houses contain 28 persons; and further, in the United King- dom, to every man, woman, and every child, there are 2| acres of land, and to every family 12f acres for food and labour. The Hardware trades in its 2 chief depots, and other places, were believed, in 1835, to give direct employment to above 100,000 hands, and the goods they produced were estimated at above 16 millions, i. e f labour, 5 millions ; materials, 3 millions ; wear and tear, 3 millions ; and profits, 5. Peace, how- ever, has compelled Foreign Governments to employ their people; and, since 1836, our pig-iron is preferred to wrought, or cast, and other rough forms to finished, in fearful reduction of labour. Above 5000 persons were engaged, till Railways, in Coach-making, in England and Wales. The number of stage-coach owners, drivers, &c. were about 12,000. 23,500 are employed as Cabinet-makers in Great Britain. From 16 to 18,000 hands are employed in Hat-making, silk and beaver; and straw- hats employ full 20,0000 females between London, Dunstable, and Luton. In Middlesex the idle to the industrious are 130,335 families to 183,704 ; but, in Bed- fordshire, the numbers are 3,515 to 16,501. In all England, every 100 families average 477 persons ; — in London 432, in Lancashire and Cheshire 514, and in Sussex 516. In 87,856 in Lambeth Parish, 2033 lived by prostitution ; and 1 in 6 of all females between 16 and 40. In 1835, the number of persons employed in the Government Offices were 23,578, with salaries amounting to 2.786,278/., 4000 less than in 1815. Nottingham, Derby, Loughborough, &c. employ 150,000 hands in the Bobbin-net manufactory, which returns above If mil- lions. Also, 16,000 in Cotton-stocking frames, which produce 2f millions dozens of stockings, at 8s. per dozen. Between 400,000 and 500,000 persons are immured in factories from half-past 5 or 6 o’clock in the morning, till 8 or 9 at night, and this not on particular occasions, but during their whole Jives, or as long as they are capable of employment. — Brotherton. The highest wages of males in the Woolle* trade, in Yorkshire, are 1/. 2s. 6cf., in Glouces^ tershire 15s., in Somerset 20s., in Wiltshire 15s. 6 d., and at Aberdeen 15s., — female* but one-third. J(J5 POPULATION. — INDUSTRY AND EMPLOYMENT. 700 Manufacturers, farmers, and traders in the several counties of Great Britain : — Counties, j Manufacturers. E cs * 1 Trade & Handi- crafts. Bedford 38 1330 5,502 Berks . 521 1711 10,528 Bucks 369 2152 8,604 Cambridge 39 2421 8,792 Chester .13,305 4374 22,134 Cornwall 4608 15,254 Cumberland .. 3,214 3617 11,186 Derby .. 8,863 3320 14,787 Devon .. 1,221 9328 35,784 Dorset 2213 10,568 Durham .. 2,547 2229 19,035 Essex .. 871 4561 18,953 Gloucester .. 5,992 3675 29,716 Hereford 63 2505 7,576 Hertford .. 290 1518 9,426 Huntingdon 857 3,443 Kent .. 476 4361 34,251 Lancaster ..97,517 6658 86,076 Leicester ..12,240 2656 13,772 Lincoln .. 167 6901 20,490 Middlesex ..11,064 1050 163,220 Monmouth .. 3,293 1648 6,649 Norfolk .. 4,740 5229 26,543 Northampton . . . . .. 582 3015 13,841 Northumberland. . .. 1,252 2376 17,149 Notts ..14,260 2643 14,683 Oxon .. 711 2054 11,110 Rutland 12 429 1,373 Salop 3832 14,461 Somerset . . 4,350 6032 26,762 Southampton .... . . 292 2774 23,164 Stafford ...26,755 3781 24,766 Suffolk .. 6 76 4526 18,167 Surrey .. 2,065 1873 44,139 Sussex ... 109 3-160 19,208 Warwick ...11,375 2838 32 579 Westmoreland.. . . ... 1,074 1435 3,621 Wilts 3387 13,089 Worcester .. 8,024 2636 13,693 York, E. R ... 175 3331 12,917 , City district .. 211 340 4,069 , N. R 49.0 12,749 - , W. R 7096 60,109 In Wales, Anglesey contains 120, 1215, and 2190, — Brecon , 551, 1249, and 2818. — Cardigan , 248, 2002, and 2353. — Carmar- then , 292, 2735, and 5586. — Carnarvon , 143, 1506, and 3235 .—Denbigh, 235, 2264, and 4604. — Flint , 630,1010, and 2774. — Glamor- gan, 1993, 1823, and 75/1. — Merioneth, 194, 1112, and 1761.— Montgomery , 1639, 1938, and 3370. Pembroke , 131, '1842, 4785.— Radnor , 42, 1032, and 1179. The greatest number of Manufacturers employed in counties in Scotland are — in Aberdeen, 2294; Ayr, 8311; Dumbarton, i 998 ; Dumfries, 1602; Fife, 7729; Forfar, 8574 ; Lanark, 26,677 ; Linlithgo, 4942 ; Renfrew, 9617 ; Stirling, 3776. 426 sub-divisions of trades exist in Lon- don. In rural towns and districts there are inn 50, and often not 20. Numbers in the Principal Occupations exercised in Great Britain , 1831. ! England. i Wales. | Scotland. | Auctioneers 2,365 98 360 Bakers 23,730 3/1 3,841 Barbers 7,580 133 736 Basket-makers .... 4,381 144 268 Blacksmiths 45,405 3,557 9,202 Bookbinders 3,023 83 488 Booksellers 2,732 55 549 Bricklayers 28,939 212 442 Brokers . 2,431 7 203 Butchers 31,026 1,177 3,015 Cabinet-makers .... 17,646 465 3,663 Carpenters 83,810 4,601 14,836 Carriers 12,324 511 6,024 Cheese-mongers .... 2,424 24 93 Chemists 4,753 175 495 Clock-makers 7,720 1,870 228 944 Clothiers 155 760 Coach-makers 5,030 44 323 Coach-owners 8,557 266 1,691 Coopers 9,530 702 3,014 Copper-pl. Printers 2,302 8 353 Curriers 5,086 291 635 Cutlers 1,522 5 157 Dyers 6,517 127 1,223 Gilders 2,575 14 265 Glaziers ] 1 ,084 243 672 Grocers 18,217 415 3,515 Gun-makers 2,700 18 168 Harness-makers . . . . 3,984 67 265 Hatters 9,095 452 1,311 House Painters . . . . 13,839 235 1,579 Hucksters 9,257 200 1,424 Ironfounders 4,940 258 684 Ironmongers ’ 3,862 100 56/ Jewellers . . . . , 4,779 31 421 Linen-drapers 11,809 412 1,380 Maltsters 6,124 424 431 Masons 31,631 3,577 13,947 Milkmen 5,216 63 516 Millers 15,921 1,212 2,663 Millwrights 1,489 35 337 Nailors 1,674 142 66 Opticians 798 1 59 Paper-makers 3,644 63 457 Pastry-cooks 2,703 52 346 Pawnbrokers 1,463 5 76 Plasterers 8,130 298 1,255 Printers 7,090 114 1,138 Publicans 52,621 3,070 5,540 Rope-makers 5,664 116 81 Sadlers 5,439 391 1,134 Sail-makers 1,114 24 98 Sawyers .......... 15,178 858 3,145 Shipwrights .. 11,272 577 2,035 Shoemakers 110,122 5,819 17,307 Shopkeepers 31,312 1,724 5,214 Silversmiths 609 101 Slaters 2,496 504 1,53? Spirit Dealers 1,887 86 2,058 Stationers 2,378 26 393 Straw-bonnet- makrs, 1,876 67 100 Tailors 60,166 3,320 10,568 Tallow.chandlers . . 3,199 122 2/1 767 POPULATION. - — INDUSTRY AND EMPLOYMENT. 763 Tanners 4,521 311 717 Tea-dealers 3,159 130 167 Tinmen 4,471 166 574 Tobacconists 1,718 11 495 Turners 5,160 112 i 630 Upholsterers 2,421 11 500 Wheelwrights 17,444 818 1,288 Whitesmiths 9,007 105 431 Wool-combers .... 2,862 4 1 This enumeration is more curious than correct. Thus, the Excise licenses in Great Britain to malsters are 12,716 ; to soap-boilers, 276 ; to spirit-dealers, 67,500 ; to tea-dealers, 89,202; tobacco-dealers, 150,843; wine- dealers, 22,553 ; and publicans who deal in wine, spirits, and beer, 20,638. The licenses in 1833, to auctioneers in the United Kingdom, were 3686 ; to retailers of beer, 90,833 and 35,609 ; to malsters, 13,243 ; to tobacco and snuff dealers, 167,785 ; to brewers only, 2364 ; to victuallers 70,446; to beer-retailers, 35,354. There were, in 1835, in the United King- dom, 3160 factories worked by steam, which employed 355 373 hands; of whom, 20,588 were under 12, and 144,000 from 12 to 18. The males, 190,710, and females, 196,818. The average in cotton was 174, wool 54, flax 96, and silk 129 per factory. Irish labourers and operatives immigrate to our manufacturing towns, so that there are above 30,000 Irish in Leeds, 50,000 in Manchester 40,000 in Liverpool, and 36,000 in Glasgow. Machinery, in reducing manual labour, affords an argument for the novel principle of encouraging the emigration of the indus- trious classes, and reducing a country to a skeleton of idlers and machines. Upwards of 360,000 persons are actually employed in the cotton, woollen, and silk mills of this country, and a far greater num- ber dependant upon them. — Brotherton. No child under 13 can, by law, be em- ployed more than 8 hours a day, or 48 hours per week ; above 13 and under 18 years, can be employed more than 12 hours a day, or 69 hours per week. Every factory, with its showy ranges of windows, and its busy hum of industry, is, nevertheless, a scene of suffering not to be looked at, or contemplated without horror. It has no modification but the consideration, that the beings thus immured have, like birds in cages, been long used to it, and know of no better state of existence ! Mr. Ashworth estimates the loss, caused by the Preston strike of the cotton-spinners, at 107,196/., viz. : — 57,210/. in wages of 8500 hands ; 45,000/. loss to the masters on their capital ; and 4986/. to the shopkeepers. A 23 weeks’ strike at Derby, in 1833, occa- sioned a loss of above 60,000/. Such losses would be prevented by reference to masters to be named by the hands ; for strikes are always caused by grinders, under-sellers, and makers of slights. Sixty years may be considered as the limit of such a system of monopoly as enabled Britain, by her machine-products, to absorb wealth from other nations. From 1785 to 1792, the system began to take root, creating splendid private fortunes ; — from 1792 to 1825, the system produced immense public balances of trade, which made the Treasury rich; but, from 1825 to 1838, hope was the support, and profits became doubtful. Nor should it be lost sight of, that our monopoly has depended on the raw materials of na- tions, now become competitors ! Thus, we have manufactured cotton from the United States, wool from Saxony, &c., flax from the Netherlands and Hamburgh, and silk from Italy ; our minerals alone being our own, yet not sufficiently exclusive to assure monopoly against cheaper manipulations. As it has been with other commercial na- tions, so therefore it must be with Britain. Our debt, and landed and monied monopo- lies, create however fearful peculiarities. Inferences about increase of manufac- tures from increase of towns, are fallacious. One half the increase of towns has arisen from the consolidation of farms, and the destruction of farm-houses, by which rural population have been driven into towns. By the police registers in France, it ap- peared that, in 1838, there were 46,000 Englishmen residing in France, which in- cluded 12,000 artizans and manufacturers. The Hindoos, says Wight, have manufac- tured cotton for upwards of 3000 years ; and, till within half a century, enjoyed a mono- poly in muslins and fine calicoes. It is now exported in wool manufactured in Britain, and sold in India 20 or 30 per cent, below the native fabrics ! The growth of Bourbon and American green-seed cottons is now adopted in place of the primitive wheel and loom of the ancient Hindoos, and India af- fords the best soil for the purpose. In Bengal a beegah of land grows 320 cot- ton-plants, with which 108 yards of yard-wide cloth are made. The Hindoos make extensive use of their toes for many purposes, to which Europeans only apply their fingers. Every Russian, carrying on trade, must be a burgher, and a registered member of a guild or company ; and of these there are three ranks, according to the capitals of the members 10 to 50,000 roubles entitles to foreign commerce, exempts from corporal punishment, and qualifies a carriage and pair: — 5 to 10,000 roubles are confined to inland trade 1 to 5,000 roubles includes petty shopkeepers. The best Turkey carpets are made by wo- men, by rude means, at Ushak, 80 miles S. E. of Brusah —near the Marmora. Women, all over Asia, and also in Africa, are degraded to the condition of slaves; and, yielding to their condition, are gross and lewd, indulging, without reserve, in personal indecencies, and in language which surprise and shock Europeans of both sexes. In Hindoostan, this degradation of the sex is not only a habit, but mingled with law and religion, and they fall into the scale assigned them. In China, the first class are the literati the second, the husbandmen; the third, the 769 POPULATION. — POOR AND POVERTY. 770 artizans ; and the fourth, the interchangers. The priests hold no office. Poor and Poverty . Society is the union of men for their tnmon convenience. Live if ye can, is the Law of Nature ; it is, therefore, the primary duty of all to be industrious, and, in some way, contribute to the common •lock of provisions, necessaries, or enjoy- Jtnts. Neither nature, nor the animal eco- nomy, nor the social relations, give counte- nance to idleness or inutility ; and those are be regarded as base and contemptible, who live only for the sake of living, or who, by some craft, or some abuse of institutions, seek to live by the industry of others. Those who produce nothing, and who contribute nothing either for their own support, or the support and enjoyment of others, are, in every community, a public nuisance. It is still a blot in our criminal code, that transportations to the Antipodes are so un- feelingly numerous, and often for remainders of 7 years, return being impracticable ; and, above all, that young females are sent, with such levity, for offences so trifling, as to disgrace even the mockery of law. It was a standing joke of the noted Re- corder Sylvester, and Alderman Curtis, that when Curtis was Sheriff, the numbers sus- pended after every Sessions fell together at the New Drop like pounds of candles! When Mansfield was Lord Chief Justice, Thurlow Chancellor, and Rose Recorder, executions at Tyburn were so numerous, that the Editor, on one hanging Holiday , saw 19 on the gallows, the oldest of whom was not 22. For arresting these, and other legal enormities in 1807, he was speedily the victim of conspiracies, both in cast and for- tune. Romilly, Eden, Bennet, Wilberforce, &c., however, adopted his views, and they are now Law . — Letter to Livery of London. The prison for juvenile offenders is at Parkhurst, in the Isle of Wight. In fact, Crime is as Want and Poverty, and Crime and Poverty are simultaneous and identical. Passion may cause outrages, and covetousness may lead to thefts, but want and distress cause 49 crimes in 50. That poverty is the chief cause of crime, is proved by the fact that, in 1803, the whole number of commitments were 3950 ; and, in 1819, 14,2/4; and in 1837, the pro- secuted offenders were 23,612, or 1 in 588, of whom 17,090 were convicted, and 14,000 were petty larcenies. It was an increase of 10 and 12 per cent, on former years, aud in that proportion a sign of distress occasioned by the wicked Poor Law. No less than 3000 were transported, while 8 only (for murder) were executed 88 per cent, had little or no education ! The commitments in Ireland, in 1838, were 27,730, and the convictions 11,036. Tipperary and Dublin city stood the highest, or 3907 and 3299 committals. Raumer says, that beggary in Ireland is more universal than in Switzerland, the Pope’s dominions, or Naples, owing to absenteeism ! In 1822, while subscriptions were raising in England, to relieve a famine, by which thousands perished in Ireland, there were exported from Ireland 387,973 quarters of wheat, 565.612 quarters of oats, 343,719 cwts. of flour, 175,500 cwts. of pork, &c., 55,615 sheep, and 65,037 pigs, to meet the demands of absentee landlords ! In Massachusets, 1 in 68 is a pauper, sup- ported by assessment ; in New Hampshire, 1 in 100 ; in Connecticut, 1 in 150 ; in New York. 1 in 220; and in lower proportions in other states. This poverty is produced by ardent spirits. One-twentieth of the population in France is considered as poor, and one-sixth in the United Kingdom. The Academie Frangaise gives prizes and medals for virtuous conduct and meritorious actions. In 1830, 6000 francs to an indefa- tigable Hospital nurse ; 5000 to the humane wife of the keeper of a Prison ; 3000 to an intrepid fireman; 1500 for faithful servi- tude, & c. To 7 others, medals worth 600 fr. In the 25th chapter of Leviticus is to be found the neglected institution of the wise and benevolent year of Jubilee. The poor, under the Mosaic law, were entitled to the tithe of every third year ; to one-sixtieth of the crops every year ; and to full half of every seventh year. Gleaning also is the right of the poor, according to the law of God, as set forth by Moses. By that law, no man can rake his field, but all that is left belongs to the poor. Every great branch of trade might be made to provide for its own sick, crippled, and aged members, by weekly contributions from wages and masters, in the way in which Greenwich Hospital is maintained; and deficiencies, when they arise, be made up from assessments. An industrious ope- rative, or ingenious mechanic, is entitled, in old age, to at least as much public gratitude as a soldier or sailor. 1000 pauper children are born m London, in workhouses, per annum ; and from 13 to 18.000 are in all the workhouses. It was estimated, in 1810, that there are, on an average, 15,000 beggars in and round London, who obtain from Is. 6d. to 5s. daily. Contrary to the policy of all ages and nations, a system of emigration has not only been encouraged of late years, but even enforced by authority ! Inconsequence, full 100.000 per annum have, for some years past, been driven from the country. The Custom- House returns make it 103,313 in 1832, and this would be only a portion. There are even Public Agents with public money, for the purpose, and Parish Funds are thus applied. An alarm is excited that there are too many people for the land, or rather for the property ! The non- producing classes are active in thus removing the producers. It appears, by very accurate calculation, that with the severest economy, a labourer in the Northern Counties, his wife, and six chil- dren, cannot live on less than 851. per an- CC 771 num, while the current wages of man, wife, and three children, do not exceed 45/., which a cow, pigs, and a garden, may raise to about 7 0/. — Hindmarsh. In the autumnal months of 1829, it ap- peared that 13,226 individuals, connected with the manufactures of Huddersfield, were reduced to live on 2 Id. per day ; and that 5|r4 per day was the pay for a day’s labour. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the wages of labour were equal to the price of a quarter of wheat in 21 days. This, at 635. per quar- ter, would be 35. per day, the least sum that ould keep a healthful labourer and family /rom destitution. At the Revolution, the pay was 7s. per week, and since then money has fallen in value five-fold, and on land, &c. full eight or ten- fold. Pawnbroking, in all its shades, operates as a cruel robbery on poverty. There are 380 in London, 1096 in the counties, and 61 in Scotland. It is a safe means of making 15 or 20 per cent, by money, when those who pay such interest cannot afford even to pay 5 per cent. In Paris, 12 per cent, is taken, and there are usually in pledge 6 or 700,000 articles, at an average of 18 francs. Foreign Monts-de-Piet6 take no interest, or very trifling. Interest prevents redemption, in 19 cases out of 20. A pawnbroker, in Glas- gow, lately had in pawn 539 coats, 355 waist- coats, 1980 gowns, 540 petticoats, 90 pelisses, 240 silk-handkerchiefs, 294 shirts and shifts, 60 hats, 262 pair blankets, 300 pair sheets, &c. 48 umbrellas, 102 Bibles, 204 watches, 216 rings, and 48 soldiers’ medals. In Chelsea parish, of about 40,000 inhabi- tants, 12,000/. pet annum is falsely collected as Poor Rates, whereas 3217/. of it is applied to the Police, and 1442/. to the County Rate, sums which are artfully excluded when Unions are formed under the late law, and the exclusion then treated as a saving ! The whole that reaches the poor is 20424 for provisions in the workhouse, 13104 for mis- cellanies, 23804 for out-door relief, and 619/. for medical relief, about 63004 The gross rate is 15. 11(4 per pound, of which about I5. 1 d. reaches the poor. The poor's rates, in 1826, were 7 millions, of which 4f were drawn from land, nearly 2 from dwelling-houses, and the rest from manufactories. Usurers, mortgagees, and fundholders, are not assessed. Paupers in Lambeth workhouse cost 45. 10^(4 each per week ; in Whitechapel, 2s. 94<4 j Shoreditch, by contract, 35. 7(4 Immense benefits are imparted to po- verty by allotments of land at fair rents. It gives the poor a stake in the country, pro- motes sobriety, and increases subsistence. the poor, in general, consider a work- house and a prison as synonymous. Poverty, therefore, begets desperation j and despera- tion crime. That kind of fund by which every trade might support its own indigent and aged members, has lately been established among the London booksellers. The arrangements have been carefully made, and, in working, v/e trust it will meet, in a fraternal spirit, 772 the necessities of men who have devoted their skill to the lottery of books, and their lives as honest assistants, so that the trade may rise in the moral estimate of society. Average Parochial Assessments for Poor 3 and various other local purposes : 1812 to 1818 £8,146,629 181 9 — - 1825 7,789,897 1826 — 1832 7,881,435 1834 — 1836 6,317,254 1836 (Poor only) ..4,717,629 1837 (Poor only) .. 4,044,741 Besides the heavy expences of new work- houses, lunatic asylums, &c., and the salaries of commissioners, subs, &c. equal to 54,2524 Taking the annual profits of the United Kingdom at 200 millions, the poor-rates, as 6 millions, are only 3 per cent. ; at 8 millions 4, and even at 10 they would be but 5 per cent. ; a small return to age, disease, and misfortune. The poor-rates are so unequal, that 4 mil- lion acres, with a rental of 10 millions, pay but 750,0004 ; and another 4 millions, with a rental of only 3 millions, pay 1£ million. Poverty, says the Diffusion Society and its disciples, quickens men’s industry ; there- fore, say they, let us increase it by the new Poor Law. The assessments for indemnifying the poor have risen, since 1748, from 600,000 to 7 or 8 millions ; but, it is computed that the profits, from the use of machinery, and the rise in rents, amount to 50 or 60 millions, or 8 times more than is assessed to reimburse those who formerly performed the labour of machinery, or lived on the land. The assessments for the poor in England and Wales, according to Marshall’s Tables, have been as under : — Assessed. Expended. Wheat. 1750 730,125 689,971 27 11 1776 1,721,316 1,521,732 48 4 1785 2,167,748 1,912,241 49 9 1803 5,318,204 4,077,891 63 2 1813 8,646.841 6,676,105 128 8 1819 9,320,440 7,890,148 90 7 1826 6,965,051 5,928,504 64 4 1827 6,966,157 6,766,829 1830 8,161,281 6,829,052 65 6 1832 8,622,920 9,683,420 The charitable bequests, held by parishes, for the use of the poor, amount to nearly 250,0004 per annum. Those seized by Henry the Vlllth, and given to flatterers, are now worth 10 millions. The annual rentals and dividends of endowed charities were, in 1829, 5,506,2634 The unprincipled Poor Law has been forced by the Whig administration into no less than 662 Unions, to the utter ruin of the poor. 375 parishes have been protected by local acts, and 283 under Gilbert’s act No less than 328 of the loathsome buildings, commonly called Bastiles, have been raised into operation, and 141 are building, in spite of the loud reprobation which in a short time must reduce the whole to memorable follies. The reports of the parties are to be POPULATION. — POOR AND POYERTY "73 regarded only as pleadings for the conti- nuance of salaries. Returns have been made to Parliament of 543 of these Unions in England and Wales. Their impracticable absurdity is proved by their size. Bedford is 152 square miles. Hungerford 150. Wycombe 147. Wis- beach 184. Nantwich 1/7. Newmarket 150. Penrith 269. Wigton 244. Tavistock 242, &c. an insult on guardianship and controul. The sums advanced in Exchequer bills, in 1836, to build obnoxious prisons for the poor, were 40,254/., 55,087/., 530,150/., 86/. and 16,205/., in all 641,000/., and 633,241/. had been granted before 1836. As there are 46 millions of cultivated acres in the United Kingdom, and not quite 5 millions of families, there are 9 acres to a family ; therefore, a wise paternal distribu- tion might secure abundance to all who contribute their due proportion of labour. The scheme of Savings’ Banks, in Novem- ber, 1837, included in the United Kingdom 636,066 accounts, and a gross capital of nearly 20 millions. In all questions about the poor, it should be considered that law-makers and governors are of the class of the rich ; and that, to im- prove the condition of poverty, concessions and sacrifices are demanded of the rich. The most that the laws of wealthy legisla- tors attempt, is to vary the relations of po- verty and industry ; and, it is forgotten, that of nothing, nothing can come. In British society, 9-10ths of the property is divided among l-10th of the people, or, in other words, only l -10th of the property is divided among 9-10ths ; and, it is the unwearied study of the rich law-makers and the 10th to protect their own rights, whatever may be the consequence to the 9-10ths. Wealth and poverty, in a community, are mere relations of the com mon stock of pro- perty. When a man gets rich, he abstracts from his neighbours ; and, when others be- come poor, their property has, by some means, passed to others. If a merchant im- ports, he uses his trade only as a means of personal accumulation. If he increase the public stock of 1000 to 1001, he merely re- duces the relative value of every portion. Every wise and just king should, as his primary duty, be the king and protector of the poor, and leave the nobility and wealthy to their own power to protect themselves. Kings ought to know that they are the ba- lance-wheel between wealth and poverty ; and no king, worthy of his office, ought ever to sanction laws made by aristocratic legis- lators to rob and oppress the poor. It is with the poor-laws as with other laws, they must be just and liberal to be respected and become operative. Harsh and cruel laws are always defeated by the moral sense and Christian charity of the community. A reckless and insulted poor will not be managed with less expence than a grateful poor. It might have been hoped by philanthro- py, that, when machinery was made to perform the labours of the people, there 774 would be more general enjoyment with less labour ; but, as the proprietors either got the difference, or it is given to foreigners in reduced prices, philanthropy is disap- pointed. This rule does not, however, demand that all should dig and delve, since the general good requires various employments; and the merchant, interchanger, scholar, artist, phy- sician, player, or buffoon, are severally useful in their way, provided such employ- ments are not made a cover for idleness, or are not unduly multiplied. Virtue and industry ought to be singled out, promoted, and specially honoured by formal institutions ; while vice and incorri- gible crime should be subject to ignominious punishments. Youth should • be usefully educated and trained to some employment, and virtuous old age be honourably pro- vided for. The Greeks and Romans duly provided for the poor. Austria, France, Prussia, and Russia do the same. The Brahmins take a tenth for the poor; and the Mahomedans are enjoined by the Koran to provide for them. Pauper colonies have been established in Holland for the relief of poverty, by General Van den Bosch. With funds of 5380/. the society purchased an estate on the east side of the Zuyder Zee, and not far from the town of Steenwyk. NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. The Phoenicians were the first navigators, and sailed in all seas. The Romans and Chinese were early and able road-makers ; but, in Europe, generally, down even within two centuries, the roads had dwindled into mere horse-paths, just wide enough to per- mit 2 loaded horses to pass, aided by bells for narrower ways. Within 100 years, some roads began to assume capability lor wheel- carriages in the United Kingdom ; and, since then, roads have been converted into canals, and now canals into railways, with locomo- tive carriages in vast trains, and a regular speed of from 20 to 35 miles an hour. The face of society and industry will thus be changed, and the United Kingdom rendered one vast and combined metropolis I Nor are these changes limited to land, — for the ocean is covered with steam-vessels, which, in de- spite of winds and tides, connect all ports with a celerity which renders winds and sails both useless and ruinous. The entire economy of roads and canals, and of sailing vessels, is therefore, in rapid course of change, and our facts must refer not to what is passing away, but to what will be in ano- ther 20 years. The earliest recorded traders were the Phoenicians, who were succeeded by Car- thage, Egypt, Venice, Genoa, and the Hanse Towns ; Holland and Portugal followed : but, for above 100 years, Britain has obtain- ed the ascendancy, and the United States are now rapidly advancing. Commerce and feudality seem to be incompatible with each C C 2 NATION. — POOR AND POVERTY. 775 other, and trade never flourishes but in free and citizen states. Navigation was natural to the Venetians, and they absorbed all commerce from the year 1000 to 16 or 1/00, having for rivals the Genoese and the Hanseatic league, in which Lubeck, Bremen, and Amsterdam, took the lead ; and Bruges, Antwerp, Dantzic, and Hamburgh concurred. The Dutch republic and civil liberty, for 2 centuries, tranferred the trade of the world to Holland ; but, in the middle of the 18th century, the tonnage of England increased to half a million. In the 15th century, the Argosese and Galeasses of Venice, from 100 to 300 tons, to the number of 3000, connected the com- merce of Asia and all Europe. Her ex- ports were 10 millions of ducats, at 9s. 3d., and her profits four millions. The Hanseatic League began about 1200, between Hamburgh and Lubeck. It then extended to Cologne and Dantzic, and finally included eighty commercial cities, for the protection of the sea against pirates, &c. Every three years they held a congress, and, becoming very rich, they aimed at political influence, and hence the ruin of the League. Whenever marine engines are generally substituted for masts, sails, and rigging, we may suppose, that, on the average, every vessel will quadruple the number of voyages per annum, and will double the present mean tonnage ; so that, instead of 24,000 vessels, the same business will be done with 3000. The cost of coals bears no comparison to the cost and ruin of contrary winds. Packets have been a week on a voyage to Margate, 2 or 3 days to Gravesend, 4 or 5 days between Dover and Calais, and a month on way from Bristol to Tenby. Colliers have been wind-bound for a month at New- castle, — ships from the Atlantic are often detained even to the famine-point in the chops of the Channel, while freights are perishing, and markets lost. In fact, in 1940, no one will give credit to the miseries created by the uncertainty of sails and winds. It is the same in regard to railways. The time wasted — the severe labour of a long journey— the dependance on horses, coach- men, axle-trees, dark roads, &c , — the 3 hours for 12, and the 10 for 40, with perfect ease and elbow-room, will place horses and coaches at an immeasurable distance from railways ; so that, sooner or later, all tra- velling in civilized countries must be per- formed in steam-carriages, and horse car- riages reserved only for short distances. It seems therefore proper, in the present article, to treat of public travelling by coaches, and of navigation by sailing-vessels as in transitu. There will be horse-car- riages for private and local uses, but, as great machinery governed by science, they must be secondary. Within a few r years, the great lines of road will be entirely traversed by railways, as well as by lines joining great towns. Already, where railways are estab- lished, coaches are reduced as 5 to 1, and the experienced convenience of railways will soon reduce them as 30 or 40 to 1. 776 As to marine intercourse, there can, also, be no doubt that sailing must soon yield to the steam-engine. Capital in ordinary ship- ping may resist for a time, but the certainty and celerity of steam-ships will, ultimately, command general use, both for passengers and the transport of merchandize, which, in all cases, seeks the earliest market. Every time we hear of a new steam-ship being placed in a line of trade, we may be sure that she supercedes eight sailing-vessels. At the same time, while these changes for presumed public benefit are in operation, onerous duties devolve on the justice of go- vernments. If the owners of the negroes had their 20 millions of indemnity, the 40,000 families put in danger of the Poor- house bastiles, merit the most liberal com- pensation ; and re-payment should be cheer- fully made by assessments on the produce and profits of the new concerns. While Fulton was in England, converting a speculation into a reality, he was on friendly intercourse with Sir R. Phillips ; to whom he dispatched a triumphant letter on the evening of his first voyage on the Hudson. This letter was shewn to Earl Stanhope, and 4 or 5 eminent engineers, but treated with scorn, as descriptive of an impossibility ! Sir R. Phillips then adver- tized for a company, to repeat on the Thames what had been done on the Hudson ; but, he obtained only 2 ten- pound conditional subscribers, after expending some pounds in advertizing! He then printed, with com- mendation, Fulton’s letter in the Monthly Magazine, and his credulity was generally reprobated ! Then, for several years, the American accounts were treated as false- hoods, till a man ruined himself by launching a steam-vessel on the Clyde ; though, after- wards, a Clyde vessel was brought round to the Thames. In her first voyage to Margate none would trust themselves, and the Editor and 3 of his family, wdth 5 or 6 more, were the first hardy adventurers ! To allay alarms, he published a letter in the newspapers, and, ere the end of that summer, he saw the same packet depart with 350 passengers ! The art of working oars or paddles, by oxen in a circular wheel, was known to the ancients, and used in the middle ages ; and even on the Thames and Medway after the Restoration. The invention of steam-vessels consists, therefore, in exchanging the work- ing power from animals to the steam-engine. This last application was made by Garay at Barcelona, in 1543, and perhaps, by the Marquis of Worcester, at London, in 1663. Hulls improved on this, in 1/37, and pub- lished a description, with a drawing. Three Scotchmen afterwards made experiments. It was, however, a mere speculation till taken up by Fulton, in 1806-7, and intro- duced on the American rivers. Thence, Bell introduced it on the Clyde. The first idea of steam-navigation was set forth in a patent, obtained in 1736, by Jona- than Hulls, for a machine for carrying ves- sels against wind and tide, or in a calm. In 1778, Thomas Paine proposed, in America* NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. 777 NAVIGATION this application of steam. In 1781, Marquis de Jouffroy constructed one on the Soane; and, in 1/85. two Americans pub- lished on it. In. 1/89, Symington made a 7 oyage in one on the Forth and Clyde canal ; and, in 1802, the experiment was repeated with success. Soon after, Fulton went to America ; and, in 1809, started a steam- boat on the Hudson’s River, which succeed- ing, was imitated by hundreds. We have, within a century, performed three grand experiments for internal inter- course. 1. 25,000 miles of turnpike-roads. 2. Canals and improved rivers, at a vast cost; and 3. Railways for directive locomo- tive engines, the last superceding the two others ; but whether the last , however plau- sible, is uncertain. It is a preparative for a long career of prosperity, and part of the public capital spent to assure it. The com- pletion will cost at least 100 millions, en- tailing a further annual charge on the public industry of 8 or 10 millions ; for, in this and all cases, we do not improve by capital , but by the increase of debts. Turnpike-roads were first established in the reign of Queen Anne : till then all roads were repaired by the parishes. One It. Phillips, in 1736, published the first tract on road- making. Turnpikes were so called from poles or bars, swung on a staple, and turned either way when dues were paid. In 1829, the Turnpike Roads of England were 1,8,244 miles; in Wales, 2631 ; and in Scotland, 3666. Total 24,541 miles, proba- bly now 25,000. The miles in Yorkshire, 448 ; in Lancashire, 631 ; in Middlesex, 158; in Devon, 782: in Salop, 988. In Scotland, Ayrshire had 486; and, in Wales, Montgo- mery 450. In Middlesex, the annual cost was 550/. per mile, and in Yorkshire but 60/. and in Salop but 20/. The average of Great Britain was 49/. A turnpike-road, by law, is CO feet ; and parish-roads about 30 feet. Stones for roads are broken to six ounces, but rounded pebbles do not imbed. Ten inches depth of well-consolidated materials are sufficient, whatever the substratum, and better soft than hard or rocky. Five tons of sized stones over a morass last as long as 7 on a hard bottom. — M'Adam. A fall of three inches from the centre to the sides, is sufficient in a road of 30 feet. 7° or 8° is the greatest angle for carriages, 15° for beasts of burden ; and 35° cannot be ascended by a man without steps, and even with steps 44° is very difficult. — Saussure. In roads, the draught in a rise or fall is 262 2, more or less, at 1 foot in 9. 236, at 1 in 10 ; 118, at 1 in 20 ; 787, at 1 in 30 ; 47 2, at 1 in 50 ; 1 in 100 23 6 ; i in 150, 15 7 ; 1 in 200, 11 8; 1 in 400, 5 9 ; 1 in 600, 3 94 ; 2 in 1000, 2 36; 1 in 2000, 1 18; and 1 in 4000, 0 59. The difference between a rise and fall, of 1 in 156 feet, in pounds, in the draught of a stage-coach, is 128 and 82 ; of 1 in 245 feet, is 125 and 96 ; and 1 in 600, is 112 and 100. The average resistance of a waggon on a AND INTERCOURSE, the level road is 73 lbs. per ton. 778 The force of traction, on a well-made pavement, is 33 lbs. per ton. On a macadamized road, 65 lb^ On a gravel road, 147 lbs. On a broken stone-road, with a hard foundation, 46 lbs. By heavy waggons, at miles per hour the cost is 8 d. per ton per mile. Light vans, at 4 miles, Is. A 4-horse stage varies from 16 to 18 cwt., and carries 2 tons of passen- gers and luggage, at 9 miles per hour, at 3d. per passenger per mile, or 3s. per ton per mile. Holborn-hill has a rise of 1 in 18, Lud- gate but 1 in 36; less than 1 in 12 requires the wheels of carriages to be locked. In the evidence about M’Adam’s roads, it appeared that stage-coach horses lasted from 3 to 6 years ; and that light-coaches generally weighed 2\ tons; the coach 1, the passengers 1, and the luggage a. It appears, by the evidence of the chair- man of the commissioners of the metropolis roads, that the debts for money borrowed upon the trusts throughout England, Wales, and Scotland, which amounted, in 1821, to 6,000,000/., amounted, in 1833, to 8,000,000/. ; or 320/. per mile, for money borrowed. The first coach in England was built in 1565, for the Earl of Rutland. In 1661, a stage-coach was two days going from London to Oxford, and the flying-coach in summer was thirteen hours. The chariots of the ancients were like our one-horse chaises, or phaetons. Close-car- riages began to be used by persons of the highest quality in the 14th and 15th century. Baris had three in 550, and Henry IV. one, but without straps or springs ; and, in the same age, there were thirty-six at Warsaw, drawn by six horses. In sundry places, men were forbidden to ride in them, as effemi- nate. They were first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses; and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. They were first let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre ; and, hence, their name In London, they were first let for hire in 1625, and were 20 in number; in 1637, they were limited to 50 ; and, at the restoration, 400 were licensed. In 1828, the four-wheel carriages in Great Britain were about 28,500 ; the post-chaises 6596; the stage-coaches 2996; the gigs, &c 48.800; and tax-carts 19,500. Mail-coaches pass from London to Caer- marthen, 204 miles, in 27 hrs., 31 min. ; to Devonport, 219 miles, in 23 hrs., 48 min.; to Thurso, 799 miles, in 105 hrs., 45 min — which includes York, 196 miles, in 21 hrs., 31 min. ; Edinburgh, 399 miles, in 43 hrs., 38 min. They keep time to a minute by regulation at every stage, the average pace being above 9 miles an hour in England. Telegraphs in England used to transmit signals at 5 miles a minute. For Electric Telegraph, See Supplement. There are round London 850 stages and omnibuses, making 6800 journies per day. 'The e fleet of railways on canal property 779 NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE.— SAILING-VESSELS 780 has not been stated ; but, as celerity will compensate for extra expense, it may be ex- pected that canal tonnage will decline. The Caledonian Canal is 60£ miles long, 15 feet deep, and 120 to 50 broad, with 28 locks ; but, in 1 6 years, it has not paid the in- terest. Its expense was a million .’ 536 miles of canal in the United Kingdom, have been made since 1800. The Regent’s Canal, round the North of London, is 8 miles long. It passes from the Thames at Limehouse, is 45 feet wide, and rises in 13 locks, 84 feet, passing through a tunnel at Islington, of 896 yards, and ano- ther at Paddington, of 440 yards, to the basin of the Grand Junction, which joins it to the inland navigation of the kingdom. It is crossed by 37 bridges. The Ellesmere Canal passes over the Dee at Chirk, in an aqueduct of 600 feet, in 10 arches ; and again at Pontay-Sylte, in the Vale of Llangollen, 127 feet long, 65 feet high, in an iron aqueduct 1010 feet long. There are 104 canals in the United King- dom. The Leeds and Liverpool 130 miles, the Ellesmere 109, the Grand Trunk 93, with 37 of branches, the Grand Junction 93£, with 53 of branches, and the Oxford 91, are the longest. The oldest is the Bridgewater, in 1758, and the next in 1770. Whether they will maintain themselves against rail- ways, can only be determined by experiment. In 1838, there are 2200 miles of canal in England, and 1800 of improved river navi- gation. In Ireland, there are 300 miles of canals, and 200 of rivers. France has about 2400 miles of canal na- vigation. The navigable rivers of France are between 4000 and 5000 miles, and of England about 1800. The Grand Canal from Dublin to the Shannon is 80 miles, with 8 branches of 75 miles. The Shannon has 10 steamers. Besides the Grand Canal there is the Royal, 92 miles; the Henry, 21 miles; and the Ulster, besides 5 or 6 navigable rivers. The tonnage 600,000, at ltf. per ton per mile. The Canadian Canal (Welland) joins Lakes Erie and Ontario, avoiding the Falls of Niagara. It commences at Grand River, and, in If of a mile, descends through 17 locks ; and then, in 2^ miles, 12 locks; de- scending 322 feet, to Port Dalhousie. Three rapids obstruct the navigation of t’ne St. Lawrence, 3000 miles to the extre- mity of Superior. St. Mary between it and Huron, Niagara, and, Montreal. But the Welland Canal, of 42 miles, joins Erie with Ontario for vessels of 100 tons, with 37 ascending-locks of 9 feet each. The Lach- line Canal of 9 miles, and another of 40, avoid the Montreal rapids ; while the Rideau now joins Ontario to the Ottowa, and by it makes a perfect water communication of 259 miles from Kingston to Montreal. The Rideau is one of the most stupendous undertakings of modern times. It extends a distance of 160 miles, between the Ottawa river and Lake Ontario. The canal has been estimated to cost £196,000, ai:d when finished as far as the summit level, steam- boats may go from Quebec to Lake Superior. There is a canal of 60 miles across Nova Scotia, with 15 locks, from Halifax Har- bour to the Bay of Fundy. The canal for uniting the Atlantic and Pacific will, it is hoped, be completed in 1839. The line extends from St. Jean de Nicaragua, following its course to the great lake, a distance of 130 miles. It then pro- ceeds across the lake to Nicaragua, 97 miles, and thence to Borette in the Gulf of Popaya, 16 miles, making the total 253 miles. A canal of 40 miles has been cut from Foua, on the Nile, to Alexandria, by which the Delta and the Bar is avoided. The Bute Docks and Canal, at Cardiff, to aid the export of iron and coal from Mer- thyr Tydvil, &c. &c., are among the great improvements of the country. Sailing - Vessels. In 1803, we had 20,893 ships, and 2,167,863 tons. In 1816, 25,801 ships, and 2,783,933 tons. In 1830, 23,721 ships, and 2,531,819 tons. And, in 1837, 24,343, and 2,651,655 tons, manned by 163,641 hands. From 1000 to 1400 6hips are built an- nually, shewing that the mean duration is about 20 years. New V cssels built , with the Amount of their Tonnage, in the year ending Jan. 5, 1839. Vessels. Tonnage. United Kingdom .1,089’ 157,255 Isles of Guernsey, Jersey,! and Man j 58 4,204 British Plantations . 343 45,811 Total 1,490 207,270 The proportion of steamers does not appear. Number of Vessels , with the Amount of their Tonnage , and the Number of Men and Boys that belong to the British Empire on the 3 Is/ December , 1 838. Vessels. Tons. Men. United Kingdom Isles of Guern. sey, Jersey, £ and Man . . 3 British Planta-7 tions j Total 20,300 2,383,484 612 37,275 5,697 469 842 26,609 2,890,601 143,007 4,350 31,226 178,583 2,785,387 1,211,666 154,499 68,891 Shipping entered Inwards in the United Kingdom , from Foreign Parts , 1833 Vessels. , Tons. Men. 16 - 119 Foreign Vessels 8,679 Shipping cleared Outwards from the United Kingdom , to Foreign Parts , 1838. Vess .8. Tons. Men. 452,763 68,380 A sailing-vesse of 400 tons, and 20 crew, costs 750/. to 8 0/. wages, per annum, be- sides provisions, 1 )/, per week. Vessels } 1 ,907 2,876,236 Is 8,520 1 ,222,803 781 NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. — SAILING-VESSELS. 782 The coasting-trade of the United King- dom, including colliers, employs about 3000 vessels, of which 1200 are colliers. There were 107 custom-houses in the United Kingdom, and the vessels registered at each, as belonging to the Port, were as follows, in 1835 : — Vessels. London .... 2,663 Newcastle . . 987 805 624 585 579 496 389 371 350 349 Liverpool .... Sunderland .. Yarmouth.... Hull Whitehaven . . Beaumaris Greenock Aberdeen .... Dartmouth .. Bristol 316 Plymouth .... 302 Dundee 299 Dublin 289 Cardigan 281 Leith 263 Whitby 258 Cork 256 Rochester 255 Belfast 247 Gloucester ..247 Glasgow .... 235 Colchester . . 235 The others making up 19,143 vessels with 2,225,980 tons, averaging 116 tons. Guern- sey, &c. had 521 of 35,880 tons, and the Colonies 4771 of 356,208 tons. The Newcastle coal-trade employs 950 ships of 212,703 tons, and 10,975 men and boys ; 68 vessels, per annum, are wrecked, and 170 lives lost. Vessels are valued at 10/. per ton. 7400 ships bring about 2,100.000 tons of coals to the Port of London, of which half are from Newcastle, and a third from Sun- derland and Stockton. The Scotch and Welsh send about 35,000 tons each. York- shire, with its vast coal-fields, but half this quantity. There entered the Port of London, from foreign parts, in 1831, 5610 ships; in 1832, 4018; and, in 1833, 4396; average tonnage 190 tons. Tonnage. 572,835 202,379 161.780 107,628 44,134 72,248 72,967 22,076 35.241 46,201 24,114 49,535 24,838 31,986 23,904 14,643 26,362 41,576 17,093 10,816 24 989 13,026 41,121 6,745 The number of coasting-vessels which ar- rive in the Port of London annually is about 19,000, or three times the number at the beginning of last century. The Colliers to London, in 1832, were 7437, in different voyages. There are often nearly 1000 vessels, of all sizes, in the Port of London, and about 80 steam- vessels. The British ports provided with docks are Liverpool, London, Bristol, Hull, Goole, Gloucester, and Leith. The 22 docks of Liverpool cover 111 acres, and the quay spaces around them are 8 miles, and beside the river 2£ miles. The Prince’s dock is 57,129 square yards; the Queen’s, 51,502; the King’s, 37,776; Bruns- wick, 60,824. The cost of the 22 docks and dry basins has been above 2 millions. The first, erect- ed in the reign of Anne, is now filled up. 12,900 vessels enter, inwards and outwards, per annum. Salthouse Dock, at Liverpool, is 3| acres, formed in 1760. George’s Dock is 6 acres. King’s Dock is 7$ acres. Queen’s Dock is 11 acres. Their United Quays are 2 miles, and there are usually 400 vessels in them. The new Docks, and the enlargement of the others, cover 62 acres, including the Build- ing, Repairing, or Graving Docks. The following is the capital, in 100/. shares, engaged in the London Docks : — St. Katherine’s 2,527,732/. London ... 3,114,000/. West India 1,380,000/. East India 483,750/. Commercial 3665 shares East Country 1038 shares The several London Docks occupy, in water, wharfs, warehouses, &c. 295 acres. The West India Docks, in the Isle of Dogs, formed in 1800 and 1802, cover 68 acres ; and the buildings, &c. 72 more. They cost 1£ million, and hold 204 vessels. The shed, near the quays, is a quarter of a mile long; the frame- woik and supports are wholly iron. Beneath are extensive vaults for rum and spirits, wholly lighted by day- light reflectors and reflections. The St. Katherine’s Docks cost 1,700,000/., and cover 24 acres, in clearing which, 1250 houses were pulled down. It will accom- modate 150 ships, besides small craft. The London Docks cover 25 acres, 29 feet deep; the entrance basin is 1 2£ feet; and these, with the quays, sheds, and ware- houses, four stories high, with extensive vaults, cover 110 acres. In 1831, the ships entered at the follow- ing ports were Amsterdam, (1833) 2,374 Antwerp 955 Barcelona 2,720 Batavia 960 Bourdeaux, about 40Q Boston 550 Bremen '§81 Cadiz, (1834) 634 Calcutta 686 Canton, about 900 Cape of Good Hope, about .... 200 Charles Town, about 200 Dantzic 1,050 Hamburgh 1,584 Havannah 1,053 Havre 1,074 Leghorn, about 450 Lisbon, about 300 London, about 22,000 Liverpool 10,703 Marseilles 2,048 Memel 869 New York, about 6,000 Odessa 700 Petersburgh (1833) 1,278 Quebec, (1835) 879 Riga 1,162 Sound, passed (1837) 3432 British 14,101 Swinemunde gQ 9 783 NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. — STEAM NAVIGATION. 784 Smyrna, about 500 Sydney 120 Trieste 280 In some of the above, the returns apply only to foreign trade. Others include ves- sels of all kinds. There are 11,166 fishing-boats belonging to the ports of Great Britain, the highest 1224 to Tobermory, and 603 to Lerwick. In the 3 years, 1816, 1817, and 1818, 1203 ships were lost; and, in 1833, 1834, and 1835, 1702, — the cargoes 6 and 8| millions; and, in the 6 years, 5000 of the crews and passen- gers were drowned. 10,026 ships, averaging 110 tons, have been employed between Great Britain and Ireland. The tonnage of Jamaica, in 1835, was 157,000; that to Guiana 47,000, to Trinidad 20,000, and to Barbadoes 21,000; the whole being 245,000 in 900 ships. The trade with Germany is almost en- tirely with steamers. The tonnage of France is 797,684 ; of which, 228,000 is colonial trade. British and colonial-built vessels and prizes must be duly registered at the ports to which they belong. Copies of the regis- ters are annually sent to the Custom-House, London. The master and three- fourths of )he crew must be British subjects. The property in every ship is divided into 64 parts ; but 32 persons only may at one time be owners. The majority of owners appoint the master or captain. On the accession of George III., the Bri- tish tonnage was 540,241. In 17/0 896,495 1780 731,286 1790 1,424,912 1800. 1,445.271 1810 1,624.120 1820 i 2,508,190 1830 2,517,000 jrhe foreign ships which cleared out were, in tons 1760 107,237 1780 154,111 1800 685,051 1830 710,300 To prevent confusion in sailing, vessels to starboard keep their course ; and those to larboard are bound to tack. There are 108 light-houses on the English coast, 51 of which are for ports or harbours. 53 in Scotland, 28 for harbours ; and 37 for Ireland, 14 harbours. There are, also, 18 floating-lights in England and 3 in Ireland. In all 219, of which, 127 are public, 55 are under the Trinity-House, 23 under the Commissioners of Northern Lights, 85 under the Irish Ballast-Board, and 14 are leased to private persons. They collect 240,000/., and cost 97,000/. A new method of illumination, proposed by Gaudin, is stated to be an improvement of the Drummond Light. Drummond pours a stream of oxygen gas through spirit of wine, upon unslaked lime ; but, Gaudin em- ploys a more ethereal kind of oxygen, which he conducts through burning essence of tur pentine. The Drummond Light is 1,500 times stronger than burning gas ; the Gau- din Light is as strong as that of the sun, or 30,000 times stronger than gas. Chinese shipping, or junks, are curiosities in forms and colours. Arabian vessels were found in all the Eastern Seas, when first visited, just in the fashion of the age of Nearchus. The French are the most scientific ship- builders in Europe. American ships are remarkable for their elegance, inside and outside. The engineering department gives England the preference in steam-ships, but America carries all the mechanic arts to the highest perfection. The fixed rates by Government-steamers are — Falmouth to Oporto, or Lisbon, 12 /. cabin, and 6/. 10s. steerage. Cadiz, or Gi- braltar, 17/. and 9/. 10s. Malta, 29/. and 16/. Corfu, 36/. and 20/. Malta to Alexandria, 6/. and 4/. Jamaica to Barbadoes, or St. Tho- mas’s, 15/ and 8/. Children under 3 years, gratis ; under 9, as steerage ; 400 lbs. lug- gage. In sailing-packets, Falmouth to Madeira, 25/. and 13/. Teneriffe, 27/. and 14/. Buenos Ayres, 75/. and 38/. Halifax, 30/. and 16/. Bermuda, 40/. and 21/. Barbadoes, &c., 35/. and 18/. St. Kitt’s, 39/. and 21/. VeraCruz, 52/. and 27/. Jamaica, 40/. and 22/. Vera Cruz to Falmouth, 60/. and 30/. Timber freights from Quebec have fallen from 60/. in 1818, to 42/. and 38/. From Me- mel, 2 71. to 18/. From Petersburg, from 37/. to 25/. Coals from Shields, 13/. to 9/. 9s. From the Mediterranean, from 51. to 3/. Marine insurances to the East Indies were 12/. 12s. in war, and now cnly 2l K 10s. To the West Indies, 15/. 15s., and 18/. 18s. in war ; now only 25s. To Constantinople, in 1797, 42/. ; in 1799, 31/. 10s., now only 30s. To Oporto, in war, 15/. 15s., now only 30s. To Hamburgh, 71. 7s., now 30s. To Dublin, 5/. 5s., now 15s. The simple plan of dividing the hull of a vessel into sections, each of which is com- pletely water-tight, has been long practised by the Chinese ; the several water-tight compartments being under lock and key, and appropriated to separate shippers. This mode of giving security has now been intro- duced into European naval architecture by Mr. Williams, of the Dublin Steam-boat Company. Egyptian drawings prove that the ancients knew the use of the anchor and capstan, the pulley, and the vice. Steam Navigation. There are, in 1840, steam-packets from London once, twice, or thrice a-week, to every port of business on the coasts of the United Kingdom, serving at once for passengers and goods, and superceding sailing-vessels, whe- ther as coasters or traders ; and there are others once or twice a-week for passengers and goods, from London, &c. to nearly every port on the Continent, from the Baltic, North Sea, Atlantic, and Mediterranean, besides 785 NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. — STEAM NAVIGATION. 786 others to the United States, West Indies, &c. In fact, this species of intercourse is now ■without limit, and every year will add to the variety and competition. The great ports, as Liverpool, Bristol, &c. send forth their shoals to all the ports in their vicinity. Many are conducted by companies with great science and respectability, and with such regularity, that departure and arrival of a steam- vessel may be reckoned on with the same certainty as a stage-coach, at a pace which averages 12 miles an hour, and with every luxury of a private dwelling. London has offices in all parts, and Thames- street East, &c. abound in them. It is, in fine, to be remarked that, in every sense, steam, applied to direction of loco- motion, will prove of greater importance to us and to all nations than its past applica- tion to manufactory. It will even be many years before all its applications are deve- loped. Horses, roads, canals, wind, tides, &c. must all yield to it ; and it will horizon- tally connect the surface of our planet, as intensely as the two motions connect every part perpendicularly. The immense distances in Asia and Africa will for ages (if ever) deprive those countries of the benefits of railways and steam navi- gation. Even in our Indian territories the distances are often 1300, 1400, and 1500 miles ; and, in China and Central Asia, these distances are doubled. Wooden rails may remove obstacles, but the combinations are too numerous, and the manners and policy of people too varied, for extensive and desirable communications. At present, also, projectors look to profits, and many chances must concur before governments form railways with prospective advantages. The first steam-vessel in Europe was the Comet on the Clyde, and there are now 76 on that river with nearly 8000 tons. The United Kingdom and Colonies have about 630 steam- vessels, in 1840, whose ton- nage is about 71,000. The Great Western steamer, built at Bristol in 1836. was 236 ft. long, with breadth 35 feet 4 inches. Draught, loaded, 16 feet. Tonnage 1340 tons. Diameter of paddle- wheels 28 feet. Consumption of coals, (Bristol to New York) 452 tons. 4 boilers, each 1750 cubic feet. Power of engines 450 horses. Weight of engines, boilers, Ac. 380 tons. In the expansive use of the steam the supply from the boilers to the cylinders is cut off, before the piston has finished its movements down and up, so as to accommo- date its pressure to the reaction of the atmosphere. She made the Atlantic voyage with precision in 13 to 15 days. Two barrels of resin are equal to one ton of coals, and hence, at the same expanse of fuel, the Great Western performed nearly double the work of the Sirius. The British Queen , built for the British and American Steam Navigation Company, is the largest vessel ever launched. The length from figure-head to tafi'rai* is 2/5 feet, being about 35 feet longer than any ship in the British navy. The engines are two of 250-horse power each, with cylinders TJ\ inches diameter, and 7- feet stroke j dia- meter of paddle-wheels, 30 feet. Her com- puted tonnage is 1,862 tons. The outward voyage in 18 days, and the homeward in 12, consuming 540 tons of coal out, and 360 home. The voyage from New Orleans to Louis- ville is now performed in ten or twelve days, formerly three months. The Americans burn pine-wood in their furnaces, and try anthracite. England alone has the advantage of bituminous coal. 2f cords, of 128 cubic feet, is equal only to a ton of coals, at double its price. Many American steamers on rivers are as large as the Great Western, with powers from 800 to 1500 horses, and a regular pace of 16 miles an hour ; but some of them use high-pressure engines with 130 to 150 pounds to the square inch! They have about 600 steamers with 150,000 tons burthen. A Dublin steam-packet, built of iron, weighs 180 tons, burthen 281 tons, with 63 inches water-way. It requires an engine of 200-horse power to propel a steam-vessel of 500 tons, and a 300-horse power for one of 1200 tons. The paddle-shaft should be 2-5ths from the head. Short beam-engines working over the crank are preferred ; but more subject to accidents than long beams. Delivering-valves and pipes should be larger than the suction and delivering-valves. The pipes should be pro- tected by yarn and canvas. The iron of the boilers should be of the best temper, and the flues of charcoal iron. The surface of water should be 2f feet per horse power. Hall’s patent condensers return the steam as water at a high temperature. The outsides of boilers usually give way before the inside, owing to bilge- water. Paddles only require to be oblique when the vessel is stationary. As coals diminish, the tanks should be best filled with sea- water. The consumption of the best coals is 8 lbs. per horse power per hour, so that in 466 hours it would be 466 X 300 X 8 = 500 tons nearly. A 300-horse power engine weighs 320 tons, and the stores for 19 days, 50 tons, leaving 330 for passen- gers, &c. &c. Every horse power is equal to 4 tons, in the best vessels and best con- struction. — Russell. Junius Smith estimates that one steamer would perform the annual work of 8 sailing- vessels, with a saving o I 3000/. in expenses. A steam-vessel, of 2,500 tons, will have, deducting engines, &c., 1600 tons register, or 2400 tons measurement of 40 cubic feet. Modern steam-vessels are, in length, six times their width, or twelve times their depth. The Osprey, of 377 tons, the property of the British General Steam Navigation Com- pany, in 51 voyages between Bristol and Dublin, the average consumption on each voyage was 26| tons of coals. The number of hours the fires were burning was 32, and the consumption of coal 17 per hour. The length of the passage from 22 to 26 hours. 75-feet keel and 6-feet beam is the best form for quick sailing steam-ships. It enters smooth water without ruffling tlqe surface. NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. — RAILWAYS. 787 788 A steam-vessel of 450 tons and 100-horse power, with duplicate parts, costs 18,000/. The ordinary working speed of the best class of steam-boats on the Hudson is 14 miles per hour, through still-water of depth. An iron ship was launched in Liverpool. With the exception of her decks, she is en- tirely of iron ; she is 270 tons, 24 ft. 6 in. breadth of beam, 13 ft. 10 in. depth of hold, 96 feet keel, and has 99 ft 9 in. for tonnage. In the water, she floats like a cork. The Rainbow, built at Birkenhead iron- works, Liverpool, is a large iron steamer of 580 tons, 190 feet between the perpendicu- lars, 198 on deck, and 25-feet beam between paddle-boxes, and 180-horse power. She plies between London and Antwerp, and has made the trip in 16 hours and 50 minutes. The Steam Frigate Gorgon , in an expe- rimental cruise, attained a velocity of 11| miles per hour ; and yet, with this speed, there was not the least sensible vibration on board. The consumption of fuel, ascer- tained by weighing, was 1 ton of Welsh coals per hour, equal to 7 pounds per horse, per hour, at full speed. Arrangements have been completed for establishing three steamers, between Boston and England, of 1000 tons each, and for the conveyance of the mails, and these have since been greatly increased in num- ber. Tabular statement of the comparative di- mensions and capacities of the three first American steam-ships. British Liver- Great Queen. pooL Western. Extreme length 275 ft. 223 ft. 236 ft. Breadth within paddle-boxes ] 37.1 30| 35i Tonnage . . 1,863 1,1491 1,340 Horse- power. 500 468 450 Diameter of cy- linder . . . ] 74 in. 75 in. 73§ in. Diameter of paddle- whls. j- 30 ft. 284 ft- 28f ft. Extra weight : engines, boi- >500 tons 450 t. 480 t. lers, &c. wa- ter .... Ditto, coals 600 600 600 Ditto, cargo 500 250 250 Draught of wa- ter . . . . ^ 16 ft. 16| ft. 16| ft. Materials have been shipped for the con- struction of three iron steam-boats, in large pieces of plate-iron, riveted together, each forming a section or portion of the respective boats for which it was moulded or fashioned, so that the whole may with facility be put together on arrival at Monte Video. The plates are from a quarter of an inch to three- eighths in thickness ; the engines from 23 to 39 horse power. The East India Company’s steam-ship, the Queen , is intended to navigate the E. Indian rivers. She is 230 feet in length, 29 feet in breadth, exclusive of the paddle-boxes, and 800 tons burden. The largest iron sailing-ship is now build- ing in Aberdeen. Length of keel, 130 feet ; breadth of frame, 30 feet ; depth of hold, 20 feet ; length over all, 137 feet ; tons register 537. In June, 1819, the Savannah , of 350 tons, came from New York to Liverpool by steam. Since then, or in 1840, we have a dozen •great steamers passing between Bristol, Li- verpool, and the United States, with regu- larity, in 12 or 15 days. Hogg, of the Bahiana steam-packet, in Dec. 1838, made a passage in 20 days, from Cork to Pernambuco, stopping at Funchal and Bona Vesta. In fact, marine engines turn upside down all our past systems of naval tactics ; and, however humiliating to proud admirals, &c. the strength of a navy will henceforward depend on steam-vessels of 3 or 400 tons, which are quite independent of wind, and to which larboard and starboard, leeward and windward, are indifferent. In 1839-40, Rus- sia, France, &c. are building steam-ships in British dock-yards, with British engines. Railways. List of Railways to Jan. 1, 1839. Capital in joint stocks.. ..£41,610,814 Power to raise by loan .. 16,177,630 Total £57,788,444 In all 102 separate concerns. Arbroath and Forfar.— Total 46,000/. Avon and Gloucestershire. — Total 105,0004 Aylesbury. — Total 66,000/. Ballochney. — Total 38,431/. Belfast and Cavehill. — Total 38,7004 Birmingham and Derby Junction. — Total 830,000/. Birming. and Gloucester. — Tot. 1,266,6664 Birmingham, Bristol, and Thames Junc- tion. — Total 200,000/. Bish. Auckland & Weardale. — Tot. 96,0004 Blaydon, Gateshead, &c. — Total 80,000/. Bodmin and Wadebridge. — Total 35,5004 Bolton and Leigh. — Total 126,500/. Bolton and Preston. — Total 506,5004 Brandling Junction. — Total 336,0004 Bridgend. — Total 10,000/. Bristol and Exeter. — Total 2,000,0004 Bristol and Gloucestershire. — Tot. 77,0004 Canterbury and Whitstable.— Tot. 80,0004 Carmarthenshire. — Total 18,0004 Cheltenham and Great Western Union. — Total 1,000,0004 Chester and Birkenhead. — Total 330,3334 Chester and Crewe.— Total 333,3334 Clarence.— Total 500,0004 Coleorton. — Total 31,0004 Commercial. — Total 800,0004 Cork and Passage. — Total 266,0004 Deptford Pier Junction. — Total 80,0004 Dublin and Drogheda. — Total 800,0004 Dublin and Kingstown. — Total 270,0004 Duffryn Llynvie. — Loan 12,0004 Dulais.— Total 14,0004 Dundalk Western.— Capital 100,0004 Dundee and Arbroath. — Total 140,0004 and Newiyle. — Total 1/0,0004 Durham and Sunderland. — Total 256,000/, NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. RAILWAYS. 700 789 Durham Junction. — Total 130,000/. Eastern Counties. — Total 2,133,333/. Edinburgh and Dalkeith. — Cap 133,053/. Edinburgh and Glasgow. — Total 1,200,000/. Edinburgh, Leith, and Newhaven. — Total 140,000/. Exeter and Crediton. — Total 47,000/. Festiniog. — Total 46,185/. Forest of Dean. — Capital 125,000/. Garnkirk and Glasgow. — Total 148,19.3/. Glasgow, Paisley, and Greenock. — Total 533,333/. Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock, and Ayr. —Total 833,300/. Grand Junction. — Total 1,906,000/. Great Leinster and Munster. — Total 1,065.000/. Great North of England. — Total 1,150,000/. Great North of England— Clarence and Hartlepool Junction. — Total 70.000/. Great Western — Total 3,333,333/. Hayle.— Total 80,000/. Heckbridge & Wentbridge. — Tot. 21,700/. Hereford. — Total 35,000/. Hull and Selby. — Total 533 333/. Kenyon and Leigh — Total 31,250/. Kilmarnock and Troon — Capital 40 000/. Lancaster and Preston. — Total 333,000/. Leeds and Selby. — Total 340,000/. Leicester and Swannington. — Tot. 175.000/. Limerick and Waterford Total 600.000/. Llanelly Railway & Dock. — Tot. 270,000/. Liverpool & Manchester. — Tot. 1,465,000/. London and Birmingham. — Tot. 4.500,000/. London and Brighton. — Total 2.400,000/. London and Croydon.— Total 575,000/. London and Greenwich. — Total 733.333/. London & Southampton. — Tot. 1,860.000/. London Grand Junction. — Total 800,000/. Manchester and Birming. — Tot.2, 80 >,000/. Manchester and Leeds. — Total 1,733,000/. Manchester and Oldham. — 'Total 95,000/. Manches., Bolton, & Bury. — Tot. 650. 000/. Maryport and Carlisle. — Total 240.000/. Midland Counties — Total 1,333 000/. Monkland & Kirkintilloch. — Cap. 20,000/. Nantle. — Loan 20 000/. Newcastle and Carlisle. — Total 750,000/. Newcastle and N. Shields. — Tot. 160,000/. Newtyle and Coupar Angus. — Tot. 35,200/. Newtyle and Glammiss.— Total 26,600/. Northern and Eastern. — Total 1,600,000/. North Midland.— Total 2,000,000/. Paisley and Renfrew. — Total 33.000/. Polloc and Goran. —Total 66,000/. Preston and Longridge. — Total 40,000/. Preston and Wigan. — Total 333,000/. Preston and Wyre. — Total 170,000/. Rutherglen. — Total 20,000/. St. Helen’s & Runcorn (Tap — Tol.220,000/. Saundersfoot. — Total 25,500/. Sheffield and Manchester. — Total 706,000/. Sheffield and Rotherham. — Total 130,000/. Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne, and Man- Chester Total 933,000/. Slamannan. — Total 135,000/. South-Eastern. — Total 1,850,000/. Stockton and Darlington. — Cap 100,000/. Stratford and Moreton. — Loan 10,000/. Taff Vale.— Total 41)0,000/. Taw Vale (Railway & Duck.)— Tot. 20,000/. Thames Haven. — Total 600,000/. Ulster. — Total 800,000/. Warrington and Newton. — Total 93,000/. Whitby and Pickering. — Total 135,000/. Wigan Branch. — Total 87,500/. Wishaw and Coltness. — Total 80,000/. York and North Midland. — Total 493,333/. The Seventeen following were finished in the Autumn of 1839, and in use. Derby and. Nottingham. Grand Junction. Leeds and Selby. Leicester and Swannington. Liverpool and Manchester. London and Basingstoke. London and Birmingham London and Greenwich. London and Croydon. London and Rumford. London and Twyford. Manchester and Littleborough, 1 6 miles Newcastle and Carlisle. North Union. Southampton and Winchester. St. Helen’s, Runcorn Gap. Stockton and Darlington. 31 others are in progress, and will be finish- ed in 1840. per cent., in railway property, is equi- valent to 5 per cent, on real security ; hence, at 74 per cent, profit, shares are at par , but, at 10 per cent., are equivalent to 133/. 6s. 8d. per share. Profits of 15 per cent, raise 100/. shares to 200/. It is the same with the other contingent property. Railway property has been found very variable since 1845, In many cases shares have doubled in their nominal value in a few days, and afterwards fallen as rapidly. Thirty new railway-bills passed the Legis- lature during the session of 1836. The length is 994 miles, one furlong, 90 yards, and the estimated cost 17,595,000/., or 17 /00/. per mile ; and the annual expense of working and maintenance will be 1,571/. per mile. Of the 30, 19 have no tunnels, and 11 have 27, the length of which is 11 miles, 7 furlongs, 35 yards. Of these tun- nels 5 are upon the Leeds and Derby, of 3*208 yards ; 4 upon the Northern and Eastern, 17/0 yards; 4 upon the South- Eastern, of 5874 yards ; and 3 upon the Ulster, of 1200 yards. Manchester and Leeds has 33 curves in 14 miles, mostly of small radius ; 17 have no inclined planes. There are, in 1840, about 54 railways with steam-carriages in the United King- dom, extending about 750 miles, and others are in progress, which, before 1845, will make 11 or 1200 miles. Their average speed is from 20 to 25 miles an hour, and as smooth as gliding on water. Iron rails are laid down 60 lbs. to the yard, (but the Liver- pool is but 45 lbs.) with bearings 3 ft. asunder. Trevethick, in 1810, made th e first loco- motive Steam-engine . Till his experiment, it had been imagined and concluded, that turned wheels would give no locomotion ; and this mistake ob.-TUCted the introduction of steam-navigation by revolving paddle- 791 NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. RAILWA YS. 792 wheels! When Fulton sent the account of his first voyage to the Editor, Lord Stanhope demonstrated, geometrically, that Fulton’s statement must be false. It was in March 1802, that Trevithick and Vivian took out their patent for locomotion on railways; but their ideas were so imper- fect, that, to assure adhesion, they advised that the periphery should be roughened, or armed with nuts, grooves, &c. Blenkinsop varied this, by making toothed-wheels run on rack-work ! ,The first iron rail-road was laid down at Colebrook Dale, in 1/86, drawn by horses. Near Newcastle, there are 250 miles of iron railway above-ground, and nearly the same beneath. In Glamorganshire there are 300 miles, from different coal-works and mines to quays, by horses. The cost of hauling goods 20 miles an hour, is If d. per ton per mile, and of pas- sengers a f of a farthing per mile. The cost of carriages per ton per mile, is the 5th of a penny. The entire cost of conveyance per mile, at 20 miles per hour, is 0 675 pence per pas- senger, and 2 855 pence per mile per ton for merchandize and coals. The rate of charge is from 1 d. to l^rf. per mile per passenger, 12 37 pence per mile- per ton. — Wood. The average weight of a train, Liverpool and Manchester, is 47‘2 tons ; Stockton, 6 36. The total cost of the line of the London and Birmingham Railway is estimated at 5,000,000/. for 1124 miles, or 44,444/. per mile. It passes by Watford, Hemel-Hemp- stead, Tring, Leighton Buzzard, Fenny Stratford, Blisworth, Rugby, Coventry, and Stone Bridge, to Birmingham. It passes the highest summit between Birmingham and London, at Tring, where it is 419 feet above the sea. The railway at London is 119 feet, and at Birmingham 367 feet above the sea. The railways pass 74 miles S. W. of Barnet, 5 S. W. of St. Alban’s, 8 S. W. of Dunstable, 4 S.W. of Newport Pagnell, 3 N.E. of Towcester, 4 S.W. of Northamp- ton, 4 N. of Dunchurch, 2 N.E. of Wolver- hampton, 10 E. of Shiffnal, 10 E. of New- port, 10 E. of Drayton, 5 W. of Newcastle, 5 E. of Nantwich, 2 W. of Norwich, and crosses the Mersey about 2 miles S. W. of Warrington. The Liverpool line crosses the road from Birmingham to Wolverhampton 4 miles from the latter town, and then passes by Brewood and Penkridge, and nearly iti a straight line to the Liverpool and Manches- ter railway, about 1^ mile W. of Newton. The Tunnel, which connects the water level of Liverpool with the Manchester Rail- Road, is 6750 feet long, 22 feet high, and 16 broad, and 4500 pass through rock. Most railways in America are formed by wooden railways of large scantling. Brunei’s Wf stern railway is on this plan of pine rails, and piles of beech 15 feet asunder, and 8 or 10 feet in the original ground. A section weighs 44 lbs. per yard. The width is 7 feet 2^ inches from the centres of the rails. Every mile consumes 420 loads of pine, 40 of beech, 6 tons of iron- bolts, and 30,000 wooden screws. To increase the speed, the driving-wheels, instead of 5 feet, are 8 and 10 feet diameter ; or, if 5 feet, make 3 revolutions for every stroke of the piston. The Kilsby Tunnel cost 300,000/. ; the extension from Camden Town to Euston Sq. 1± mile, with the station, cost 380,000/. On the Manchester and Liverpool railway the journey is performed in a train, in about 90 or 100 minutes. The train consists of 20 waggons or upwards, weighing about 4^ tons each ; and the consumption of coke is about 1000 lbs., or 33 lbs. per mile, making the third of a pound, or about 5 oz. per ton per mile. The cost of an engine is about 1,200/.; and of one connected with a coach for passengers about J60O/. A locomo- tive engine appears to perform the work of 1500 mail-coaches, or 1500 waggon-horses per day: 800 passengers have been drawn from Manchester to Liverpool in little more than an hour, by the train of one engine. In 1834, a locomotive cost 900/. ; in 1836, 1120/. ; in 1838, 1,200/. ; in 1839, 1,250/. The railway-carriages have travelled from Manchester to Liverpool in an. hour and a quarter, 33 miles. 100 tons is drawn by a single railway-engine from Manchester to Liverpool in an hour and a half, while a stage-waggon would draw but 8 tons the same distance of 30 miles in a day. The Birmingham railway has 7 tunnels, in all 3| miles. The Primrose-hill 112C yards. The Kensal Green 320 yards. The Watford 1830 yards. The Leighton 272 yards. Weedon 418 yards. Kilsby 2398 yards. Beechwood 300. The Birmingham station is 250 feet above the London. Iron rails for the whole 112^ miles cost 460,000/., for 35,000 tons, and the stone blocks 180,000/. for 152,460 tons. The whole cost nearly 5 millions, or about 45,000/. per mile. (Inte- rest 250,000/.) There are 8 trains per day and 4 on Sundays. On the Western railroad, the extreme speed has been 45 miles an hour with a load of 15 tons; but, with a load of 50 tons, 35 miles, the gradient 4 feet per mile. On the London and Birmingham, the extreme speed has been 40 9 with load 314 tons, and 32 miles with a load of 50 tons, the gradient 16 feet per mile. The evaporation 94 85 cubic feet of water, with cylinders 12 inches and 5-feet driving-wheels. The Great Western required 12 acres, and the earth- work was is. 7d. per cubic yard. Average fares, 2d. per mile; and first class, 3 \d. On the Southampton, or South-western, the land on the 77 miles cost 260,000/., or treble the estimate. Fares under 'id. and 2d. Speed, 764 m ^ es in 3^ hours, or 22 m. per hour. The Croydon, of 104 miles, cost 500,000/. The Romford, or Eastern Counties, ex- tends through Chelmsford, Colchester, Ips- wich, and Norwich, to Yarmouth. Fares ; London to Birmingham, 30s. and 20 s. London to Rugby, 24 s. and 1 6s. fid. i 793 NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. RAILWAY POSTAGE. 794 and to Harrow, only 3s. and 2 s. Birming- ham to Coventry, 4s. 6d. and 2s. 6d . ; and to Rugby, /s. and 4s. 6d. Soldiers pay 9s. 4c?. from Birmingham to London. Carriages pay 75s. and 55s. ; horses, 50s. The total cost of merchandize in the Li- verpool and Manchester railway is about 2\d. per ton per mile, and of coals, l^d. per mile. On the canal it is 1 \d. y but the railway is to the canal as 31 miles to 56 ; so that the cost is 6s. 3d. per canal, and 3s. lid. per railway, always shorter than canals. On the Liverpool and Manchester rail- way, 31 miles are run in 70 or 75 minutes. Birmingham and Liverpool, 97 miles in 270 minutes. And London and Birmingham, 114i miles, in 300 minutes. Great Wes- tern, 24 miles in 44 minutes. The swiftest boats on canals are above double the time. The fares for passengers on the Liverpool and Manchester railway are 2d. and l£d. per mile. The fares, from Manchester to Liverpool, are 6s. and 4s. ; the rails are 60 lbs. per yd. ; the mail-bags are l^d. per mile. In 280 days, from June, 1838, to March, 1839, 434,225 passengers passed on the Bir- mingham Railway, producing 262, 557/., i. e. above 1600 per day, producing about 950/. Summer and Autumn is the best season by 50 per cent. In the same time, 40,369/. was received for parcels, chiefly in winter; and 1300/. for excess luggage. The weight of goods was 10,417 tons, in 3044 waggons. Up and down nearly equal. In nearly 18 months of 1837-8, the loco- motive or directive power cost 48,000/. ; the coaching department, 58,000/. The engi- neering, 15,390/. The produce of every kind, 270,000/. The railway from London-bridge to Greenwich is a grand viaduct on arches, so as not to interrupt the lines of streets, &c. It is four miles, travelled in twelve or fif- teen minutes. The passengers, carried on Geenwich rail- way during the Whitsun-week, 1839, ex- ceeded those of any former period. Monday, 35,336, receipts 1,227/. ; Tuesday, 22,8 77, and 784/. ; Wednesday, 10,028, and 343/.; Thursday, 4,635, and 117/.; Friday, 3,372, and 122/. ; Saturday, 346/. — Total 2,942/. Railways are proposed from Dublin to Belfast, and Londonderry, 1664 miles, with branch, 62 miles; and another from Dub- lin, by Navan, to Armagh and Enniskillen, about 150 miles. The cost is estimated 'at from 10 to 12,000/. per mile. The railway from Bruxelles to Antwerp conveys 91,500 passengers per month : and that to Malines 52,680 ; another has been opened from Ostend to Bruxelles. Forty-three new railway companies were incorporated in New York State only, in 1836. In Dec. 1838, 74 railways, of various lengths, were in operation in the United States. Twice as many more were planned and incorporated. Railway Postage. The Whig Administration has liberally yielded to the generally-expressed wishes of the nation ; and letters to all parts of the United Kingdom are to be forwarded at an uniform postage of One Penny, instead of the usual mean rate of lOd. per 100 miles. The facilities to intercourse of all kinds, to trade, commerce, and speculation, will be immeasurably great; and, if 9 times the number of letters are posted, the Post-office Revenue of a million and a half will be equally great. Our Post communication will then be the cheapest in the world The chargeable letters, per annum, have been about 90 millions. The franked letters 7s millions. The newspapers about 30 mil- lions. The mean cost, per chargeable letter, has been 9-8ths of a penny ; but, of news- papers s:id franked letters, 0 84 of a penny, of which the expence of transit is 0 28 of a per y, and 0 56 is miscellaneous. l.ondon Postage has been nearly 700,000/, per annum ; Liverpool, 91,000/. ; Dublin, 70,000/. ; and Edinburgh and Glasgow but 43,000/. each. The whole revenue is nearly 1,600,000/. The price for carrying the mails to Bir- mingham (the 1124 miles in 5 hours by day and 54 by night) is 28/. 45. 4c?. per day, or 10,340/. per year, for a day-mail up and down, and a night- mail up and down. They find large Post-office carriages, carry a guard, and two clerks to sort on the journey. The weight of the Edinburgh mail in 1837 was about 4 cwt. 2 qrs. 23 lbs. 13 oz., and made up as follows : — cwt. qrs. lbs. oz. Sacks and bags 1 0 9 8 2296 newspapers 2 2 3 8 2 stamp parcels 0 1 12 O 484 franks 0 1 19 15 1555 chargeable letters 0 1 6 14 4 2 23 13 The Louth mail, 1 cwt. 1 qr. 2 7 lbs. 12 oz., was made up as follows : viz. — Bags cwt. .. 0 qrs. 0 lbs. 25 oz. 0 866 newspapers . 1 0 14 0 108 franks . 0 0 8 12 365 chargeable letters 0 0 8 0 The 1555 Edinburgh letters, weighing 34 lbs., cost in conveyance § d. each; and the 365 Louth letters, weighing 8 lbs., rather more than 1 \d each. The postage was 13d. and lOd. ! Railways convey the mails under an Act, and make two deliveries per day. The India mails now pass by Marseilles and Malta, and reach Bombay in about 50 days, and Calcutta within 60 days; the distance 5238 miles ; while by Falmouth it is 6310, and by the Cape 10,580. From Cairo to Suez is 80 miles, by dromedary in 3 days. The Menai bridge is 1600 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 100 feet above the water. The weight suspended is 343 tons, and the power 2016 tons. The water-way is 500 feet. 795 NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. PRINCIPLES OF POWER. 796 A wooden bridge of 1 arch, 980 feet span, has been erected at Petersburgh. A suspension- bridge at Freyburg, the ’"-•Tjgest in the world, was completed in 1834. -ts dimensions, compared with those of the Menai, are Length. Elevation. Breadth. Freyburg.. 905 ft. 174 ft. 28 ft. Menai .... 580 130 25 It is supported on four cables of iron wire, each containing 1,056 wires, the united strength of which is capable of supporting three times the weight which the bridge will ever be likely to bear, or three times the weight of two rows of waggons, extending entirely across it. A new suspension-bridge over the Da- nube, between Buda and Pest, will be 1600 feet. There will be three openings ; the middle passage being 640 feet in width, and those at the sides 270 feet Edward’s Bridge, over the Taaf, is 140 feet span, 35 high, and 8 broad. The great causeway of the Incas from Quito, through Cusco to La Plata, in south lat. 19° 40/, nearly 2000 miles long, still re- mains in parts, with ruins of great buildings near it, and is one of the greatest monu- ments. It may be questioned, whether it was not constructed by an extinct race, who once flourished in America. Commercial navigation through the Fro- zen Ocean, north of America, is proved tot be utterly hopeless by all the late abortive expeditions. A loose outline has been ob- tained of the 103 degrees of longitude, of which the whole coast consists ; but the fact is a barren one. Even the Northern coast of Asia would be more promising than America for navigation to India, but for N. E. Cape, in 784°. The Desert of Sahara extends over 1.200.000 square miles, and is still extend, ing. Adams and Riley travelled with camels 29 days across one side of this desert, like a sea, without seeing either trees, shrubs, grass, or human being. African and Ara- bian caravans travel from 18 to 22 miles per day, for months. The burden of the camels is from 500 lbs. to 1000 lbs. The Breakwater at Cherburgh is near 2000 toises, or 2£ miles long, having en- trances near the Pelee Island and Point Querqueville. There is also a new dock, &c. excavated in the rOck, near Fort Hornet. It cost Napoleon nearly 3 millions. Mount Cenis, since its improvement by Napoleon-le-Grand, is annually traversed by 17.000 vehicles and 48,000 horses and mules. Quarantine, owing to new vidws of conta. gion, is, in the United Kingdom, reduced to 10 or 15 days, and in some cases to 3. Se- paration of convalescent from healthy per- sons is 20 days. Principles of Power . The steam-engine, which confers on a piston the directive power of any number of horses, (or 5 times their number of men,) is the machine of power which has raised modern nations above their ancestors. Whoever invented it, it is now altogether English, and made what it is by our me- chanics, and by successive additions to its facilities by Savory, Newcomen, Watt, and others. The Marquis of Worcester pub- lished mere projects, many of them very wild and absurd. As to the origin of steam- navigation and circular paddles, the Editor has seen an engraving of circular paddles, worked by oxen in an horizontal wheel, in a foreign book of 1510 ; and, with regard to the substitution of steam for oxen, it is not to be questioned that Blasco de Garay , a Spanish Captain, in 1543, made and exer- cised a steam-vessel in the port of Barce- lona ; but laid it aside, owing to the bigotry of an imperial officer. The French refer the developement of the principle of gaseous expansion to Salomon de Cans , of Frankfort, in 1615. The Mule, invented by Crompton in 1775, has now superseded the Jenny of Hargreave, of which it is such an extension, that 500 or 1000 spindles may be worked by it, and the finest weft be produced. Crompton called his machine a Mule , because Arkwright’s spinning- frame used to be worked by a Horse wheel, and it is intermediate between that and the Jenny. The number of mule spindles is estimated at 8± millions in Great Britain. All the manufacturing machinery are va- rieties of the mechanical invention of An- droides. Wheel-work, levers, straps, cranks, stops, &c. are made to act by directive powers of steam, water, or wind. The in- ventions of Hargreave, Arkwright, Watt, Crompton, Cartwright, Fulton, Stanhope, Babbage, Brunei, Stephenson, &c. &c. are mere new applications of varieties of move- ments, long practised by chronometer-ma- kers and mill- wrights, and mostly known to Archimedes, Hero, Bacon, Albertus Mag- nus, and the men who by the ignorant monks were called necromancers. In all cases, steam, &c. are to be regarded as directive power, at right angles to weight and mundane central force. — Phillips. Mr. W. Duke, of Oxford, proposes con- densed air as a power, instead of steam, and the idea is reasonable. A new mechanical power, called the Tur- bine, acting by an arranged fall of water, with a directive power of 40 horses and more, has been invented by M. Fournayron, of Paris, and, at this time, claims the spe- cial attention of all engine- makers and en- gineers. It appears, m tact, to be a valu- able adjunct to steam. On a well-constructed railway, a ton is drawn by a force of lbs., whether the force be derived from steam, or from a weight acting over a pulley. Hence, a force of 25 lbs. would draw a stage-coach with its luggage and passengers, which usually weighs about 3 tons. An engine costs 1200/. and the tender 50/. and every 5 engines requires a spare one. The repairs in constant work are about 100/. The coals are 382 tons for 312 days, and wages, &c. are about 100/. per annum. 797 NAVIGATION AND INTERCOURSE. — PRINCIPLES OF POWER. 798 The power of engines weighing 8 tons, water and fuel 24 , is equal to 10 horses at 10 miles an hour, and capable of conveying 13 tons of goods, besides 6± of waggons. The cost is 0 2787 penny per ton per mile, 12 miles an hour. The Liverpool and Manchester has 123 engines of 1254 horse-power, and each will work 20 years. The speed of a steam-vessel is the area and speed of the floats by the area of the midship section of the vessel. In a vessel of 550 feet section, if the area of the floats Is 1746 feet, moving 16 revolutions per mi- nute, then 29.760 yards per hour gives 17 miles. This reduced to a mean, and allow- ing for resistance, is about 10 miles an hour. Mr. Rennie has constructed a steam- vessel to act by the Archimedean Screw. The length of the stroke is 3 feet. The power is estimated at 90 horses. The mo- tion is given to the cranks by means of double side-rods, the joint length of which is S feet. The screw is made of plates of iron fastened to arms of wrought-iron, keyed upon a wrought-iron shaft, and when the engine is at work makes turns for every complete revolution of the shaft-crank. The weight of the engines, and boiler, chimney, coal- boxes, driving-machinery, &c. is 644 tons. The use of screw propellers has now become common. Railways have been constructed at light expense in very hilly countries, by inclined planes with fixed engines, to raise and lower the carriages from one level to another. The conveyance of coals, once the chief business of canals, is now effected by rail- ways direct from coal-pits to places of con- sumption. There are already 15 or 16 such, from 5 to 15 miles long, and they lower the price of coals from 20 to 30 per cent. On the Great Western Railway, 675 pas- sengers, besides two stage-coaches and three horses, have been directed in one train ; also, 617 passengers, nine coaches, and fif- teen horses, to Maidenhead, in less than one hour ; and 657 persons, five coaches, and four- teen horses by another. To avoid the immense expences of via- ducts, embankments, and removals of streets, Sir R. Phillips proposes suspension-roads, 10 feet above the house-tops, with inclined planes of 20° or 30°, and stationary engines to assist the rise and fall at each end. Cities might be traversed, in this way, on right lines, with intermediate points for descent and ascent. In the abstract, intercourse of every kind is motion at right angles to the law of central force produced by the two motions of the earth ; and, whatever its form or results, the motion is produced by some energy or counteraction of wind, water, gas, steam, &c. to the central force. The object is, to apply such a directive force aa shall be greater than half the square-root of the general central force into the actual weight of the body to be moved. In some cases, as in balloons, the central force is negative, and to be added to the directive force ; hence. a velocity of 50 miles on a wind of six miles an hour, &c. &c. — Phillips. Persons employed about steam-engines, usually ascribe some occult power to be in the steam ; but, there is no power m the steam, and it is merely a means of directing certain apparatus into force in a line of de- sirable motion. The expansion of water by heat lifts the piston, and condensation lets it fall again. There are varieties, but the principle is constant. The piston-rod is then the mover and director of wheels acting in the direction desired, i. e. turning the paddle-wheels, or forcing round the main wheel of the engine. A horse, in drawing 2| miles an hour, has a force of about 128 pounds, and will draw- 24 miles per hour, on a railway, 14 tons ; but, at 12 miles an hour, only 3 tons. A horse-power requires from 5 to 7 gal- lons of water per minute for condensation of the steam. The adhesion of iron bars sliding on one another, is 1 -7th of the weight, but in a loco- motive engine it is l-15th, and is less as the plane rises. To create adhesion, engines have been raised from 5 or 6 tons to 10 or 12, of which 2-3ds, or 8 tons, are on the drawing- wheels, the 15th of which is 1200 pounds, and this, by 9 pounds per ton, gives about 133 tons for the power of traction. If the wheels are coupled, the whole weight would give 200 tons of draft. To convey 180 passengers 240 miles in hours, by coaches, would require 12 coached with 15 passengers each, and 1200 horses; but one locomotive engine does the same in 12 hours, and, therefore, is equal to 1200 horses. If the coaches, as the mail, took but 6 passengers each, they would employ 3000 horses, and the engine in its two trips is equal to 6000 horses. Taking the gravity, or weight to be over- come, at 9 lbs. on a level road, the friction on an inclined plane of 7 feet per mile of 5280 feet, or 1 in 750 feet, is 22 lbs; in 16 feet, or 1 in 330, is 6 8 ; in 21 feet, or 1 in 250, is 9 lbs. or double ; in 66 feet, or 1 in 80, is 28 feet, or quadruple, and the limit of advantage. In 106 feet in 5280, or 1 in 50, it is 45 lbs., or 6 times that on a level. The gravity of carriages is taken by engi- neers to be the same at ail velocities. On a railway it is 1.250th of the load, so that 2240, the pounds in a ton, gives 9 pounds ; but it is usually taken as 10 pounds, or the 224th, as the mean of all weathers ; or by others at only 8 pounds, or 74 pounds, that is, at a 280th or 300th of the load. Some models have even given but 3, 4, or 5 pounds. On a railway, on a declivity 1 in 139, the uniform velocity is double that in the hori- zontal ; 1 in 695 is a fifth more when uni- form. Between 695 and 139 requires ad- justment of the steam, and where more than 1 in 139, the brake is necessary. Trials have been made at Woolwich with prepared fuel, for the use of steamers. It is a composition of screened (otherwise almost useless and small) coal, river-mud and tar, cast into brick-like moulds, COMMERCE. 799 800 Every railway, to attain a level, consists of cuttings down and embankments raised, with viaducts, when the embankments are not practicable, or rivers or roads intervene. To comprehend the advantages of a level rail-road, whose gravity is 9 lbs. and friction 0, the gravity on a gravel road being 9 lbs., the friction is 138 lbs., and on a macadamized road is 9 lbs., and 37 lbs. for friction ; and even on a smooth pavement is 9 lbs., and 24 lbs. for friction ; when broken stones are first laid, the friction is 230 lbs. In a locomotive steam-engine, the power is governed by the diameter of the cylinders, the pressure of the steam, and the length of the stroke of the piston ; and this power, divided by 8, 9, or 10, gives the tons which the engine can draw. But the absolute power of an engine is its velocity, and a rate of 15 miles an hour being taken as 20 horses, 30 miles is called a 40-horse power. Improvements raise the cost of railways to 20,000/. or 25,000/. per mile. The direct expenses of conveying loaded coals or minerals, by railway, is about 1 d. per ton per mile. Light goods, says Wood, are conveyed on railways, with locomotive engines, at l-8th of the cost of roads, and 3 times the speed ; and passengers and parcels at l-14th, with double speed. COMMERCE. In the present articles we have adopted the Parliamentary Returns, as briefer and more correct than any other form of infor- mation ; and we owe them to the more libe- ral spirit of modern parliaments. Foreign trade is salutary only, when kept by the state within its object of importing desirable foreign products, in exchange for superfluous native ones ; and it ought to be controlled, when its transactions interfere with native wealth and home industry. It is advantageous to those concerned in it only, when supply follows demand. But, when supply precedes demand, and goods are sent on speculation, prices are unduly lowered, the exporter is ruined, and the trade disturbed or destroyed. Our external commerce began with the first system, and has proceeded in the ambition of speculation to the last. What we grow ourselves is wealth, abating the cost of production. What we manufac- ture is wealth, abating the cost of the raw material ; — but what we import and export is wealth only on account, in which cost of material, charges, risk of debts, machinery, and labour, are essential ingredients, and may or may not be wealth. Shipping, the commercial test in an island, is not so in nations in juxtaposition. Thus, France carries on an immense unseen trade with Spain, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, and Germany. And Russia, with its thousand miles of frontier, may, unseen, carr.v on half the interchanges of the world. The Sampson’s Hair, or Strength of Eng- land, was exposed, when, after the Peace of 1814, foreigners were admitted to see all our manufactories. The hair was shorn when a law was passed to permit the exportation of machinery; and when the raw material, as yarn, &c., were permitted to be exported. In all external trade, the exports and sales are the receivable accounts ; and the imports or purchases are the payable ac- counts. Balances of a nation with parti- cular nations are against or for, as they are producers or consumers ; and, every nation has its own set of accounts with other na- tions, pro and con . ; but if any nation im- ports and consumes more than it has to export in exchange, it is like a trader who buying more than he sells, must, in time, become bankrupt. If it export more than it import, the balances must be receivable in money ; but, if it imports more than it exports, the ba- lance must be paid in bullion, or specie, as has been our case, for two or three years past. Increasing luxury is one cause of adverse balances, for, in 1814 and 1816, the imports retained for home consumption were but 14 millions, while for several late years they have been 38 millions. The balance of trade is in favour of every country, or the merchants must in time re- tire from it. If against England with A, B, and C, it is in favour from D, E, F, G, H, and so it is with all nations. It is with a nation as with an individual. It is against him with his baker and wine-merchant, but in his favour with others, or he could not pay the baker and wine-merchant. The balance began to turn against our manufac- tures, i. e. the ratio of quantity rose above the ratio of real value, after the Milan and Berlin decrees, when it became necessary to smuggle, or export by circuitous means. It will be seen, by the following general Lists, what are the arti«les which command the foreign sale of millions, seven in num- ber ; and of half millions other seven in number. These alone give name and cha- racter to the manufacturing system. But the tenure in them must be short, if the United States, # France, Prussia, Russia, Switzerland, &c. continue, for the next 10 years, the activity of the last seven. The nurseries and perpetuators of our trade have been the great commercial com- panies. Individuals cannot afford the risks of foreign enterprizes, and delays of return in untried markets. They are usually too anxious after immediate advantages, and they compromise profits by the fatal error of making supply precede d emand. The epoch of commercial profits and mercantile wealth in England was when nothing was exported but to order, or to meet known periodical demands. The scramble among needy ex- porters into foreign markets, has been more ruinous to all concerned than the scramble to undersell among shopkeepers in London and country towns. For particular branches of commerce, there were a North American Company, Canada, Eastland, Hudson’s Bay, Russia, South Sea, and the East India and Turkey COMMERCE. ?01 802 Companies, the operations of which laid the foundation of our commercial ascendancy. There is a Board of Trade and Colonies, with commissioners, clerks, &c. &c. but none of them are traders. There are British consuls at 126 foreign ports, or commercial cities, and about the same number from all foreign governments, in the ports and towns of the U. Kingdom. The following is the number of British Consuls in foreign countries, and the num- ber of vessels, under the British flag, which arrived and departed in 1 832. Countries. Consuls. Vessels. Russia - 7 1,409 Sweden - 2 ,°9 Norway - 2 52 Denmark (Sound) o - u 3,330 Prussia - 4 315 Germany - 6 930 Holland - 2 1.056 Belgium - 2 536 France - 12 660 Spain - 12 143 Portugal, &c. - - 9 573 Italy - 16 713 Greece - 4 20 Turkey - 10 185 Syria - 5 .... Egypt - 4 .... United States - 10 1,079 Mexico - 4 37 Hayti - 3 70 Guatemala - 1 .... Colombia - 6 75 Brazil - 6 425 Monte Video - 1 30 Buenos Ayres - 1 47 Chili - 4 51 Peru - - 3 • • • • Sandwich Islands - 1 27 ported 40,194 for 36 millions ; and, in 1828, 52,029 for 40,194. Quantities, constantly multiplied by a fixed price, give amounts in the exact ratio of the quantities ; and this is the official value , as it is ridiculously called. The equi- voque has, however, led to mistakes of fatal character, for the ratio of quantity being put as pounds sterling, and these increasing as quantities are increased, owing to reduc- tion of prices, dishonest ministers have thus imposed on ignorant parliaments. Nor are the declared values absolute cri- terions, for some merchants undervalqe to save charges, and others overvalue to exalt their transactions. Some, also, take the home value, and others the value at the place of exportation ! Values of the Imports into, and of the Exports from , the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , during the Three Years ending the bth Jan. 1839. 1 1 2 ice and of the , taken on. 'G - gs B|g it, cs . « « . xs S s 0 O cS £ « S c o£i'i u- q - £ g 2 C u. CD CD 'C -oD £ £ g « g, *•§ 3 ® *uc S S =2 £ c-c-s 8£|o .5 x> o^2 S x 0-5 S2£-§ S3 &£ 2 ^ 3.5 -US 0 tH £ 1 ~£~" £ 1 £ 1837 57 , 030 , 9 68 85,229,837 12,391,712 53,293,979 1838 54 , 737,301 ¥ CC 13,233,622 42,069,245 1839 61,268,320 92, 459 , 231 1 I 12,711,318 50,060,970 1 The official value is a mere guage or ratio of quantity, the values being taken the same in 1840, as in 1694, when fixed. If they were 36 millions in 1817, and 72 in 1840, it shews that, in 1840, we give double the quantities for 42 millions, the amount at real value in 1817 and 1840. This is the solution of the difficulties of the manufac- turing classes. We give to foreigners double the weight, measure, and tale, that we gave twenty years ago, and this difference is con- stantly increasing. We gave, within 14 years , above double in weight and tale for equal invoice amounts! Years. Ratio of Declared Quantity. Value. 1798 19,672 £33,148,682 1800 24,304 39,471,203 1S07 25,190 40,479,865 1814 32,200 43,447.372 1821 40,194 35,826,082 1828 52,029 36,152,799 1830 U.K. 60,492 37,691,302 1834 69,989 39,667,397 1838 92,107 49,640,896 Thus, in weight and measure we exported, in 1798, a quantity expressed by the num- ber 19,672 for 21 millions; in 1821, we ex- What the Public Returns call official values, was the value in 1696, and a mere numerator or a comparison of weight, measure, and tale now, and in 1696. Perversely, the Imports are given only in this numeration value, and therefore permit no comparison with, the Exports. Nevertheless, as 85 official means 53 real, 72 means 42, and 92* means 50, we may approximate the value of the Exports of colonial merchandise, and also of Imports. It is a Custom -House absurdity. 'Numeration Estimates of Imports into Great Britain, in 1838, in articles taken at above £40,000. Almonds . Ashes, Pearl and Pot Bark for Tanning or Dyeing Peruvian Bones of Animals and Fish Borax Brimstone Bristles . Butter Cassia Lignea Cheese Cinnamon Clocks Cloves D D .£49,232 162,348 121,229 47,802 255,967 67,524 447,614 44,394 365,843 28,549 341,884 80,921 34,126 45,532 803 COMMERCE. 804 Cochineal, Granilla, and D :«w , Cocoa and Chocolate „ , Coffee . Copper Ore Cork . Corn, Grain, &c. Cottons, India Europe, &c. Currants Dye and Hardwoods, Barwcod . Fustic — Logwood . Mahogany Rosewood Flax and Tow of Hemp and Flax Furs . Gum Animi and Copal . Arabic Lac of all sorts Senegal Hair or Goats’ Wool Hemp . Hides, Raw and Tanned Indigo . Iron in Bars Lead, Pig Lemons and Oranges Linens, Foreign . Mace Madder ... Melasses Nutmegs Oil, Castor of Olives Palm Train, Sperm, and Blubber Pepper Pimento Quicksilver Rags, &c. Raisins Rapeseed and other Oil Cakes . Rhubarb Rice . Safflower Saltpetre and Cubic Nitre Seeds, Clover Flaxseed and Linseed Rape . . Tuumac if ilk. Raw and Waste Thrown Manufactures, India Europe, &c. Skins (not Furs) Spelter . Spirits, Brandy . Rum Sugar . Tallow . Tar .... Tea . . . . Timber . Deals and Deal Ends Masts and Spars . - Staves Timber, 8 inches sq. Fir ■ Oak 493,208 93,334 2,45-2,055 70,781 41,409 2,369,956 185,738 91,968 177,956 42,088 38,810 198,418 220,996 20,264 3,220,723 212,885 28,402 51,482 145,245 62,208 39,722 601,032 1,036,225 936.453 222,416 49,982 52,676 74,442 16,189 718,122 434,807 47,818 84,026 260,027 279.721 512,607 61.372 24,054 290,076 47,543 133,318 238,506 74,043 216,207 37,137 185,197 67,073 379,679 92,107 65,687 1,688,022 338,053 301.454 739,148 230,442 268,717 323,485 418,889 6,609,422 1,137,685 149 394 3,976,363 22,954 88,198 80,961 51,430 460,156 49,582 Balks, Spikes, Oak Plank, &c. 56,785 Tin .... 153,609 Tobacco and Snuff . . 298,942 Turpentine, Common . . 215,932 Whalefins . . . 84,492 Wines . . . 895,322 Wool, Cotton . . . 16,655,757 Sheep’s . . . 1,420,112 Woollen Manufactures . 235,384 Official numeration of Imports .£59,878,905 Colonial Merchandize Exported at the Offi- cial Enumeration of quantities in 1838. Almonds . .£31,165 Ashes, Pearl and Pot 8,325 Bark, Peruvian . 15,276 Cinnamon 126,882 Cloves 47,058 Cochineal 376,499 Cocoa and Chocolate 22,895 Coffee 705,601 Cotton Manufactures off India 432,869 Currants . 42,294 Hemp 49,314 Hides 128,160 Indigo 985,914 Nutmegs 40.071 Oil of Olives 41,587 Pepper 166.628 Pimento . 23,918 Quicksilver 620.398 Raisins 15.867 Rhubarb 52,892 Rice 231.731 Saltpetre 161,987 Silk 154,045 Manufactures of India 544,645 Skins and Furs . 70,471 Spelter 78,526 Spirits, Brandy . 279.575 Geneva . 131 '529 Rum 353,576 Sugar 936,437 Tea 386,585 Tin 188,719 Tobacco and Snuff 228,516 Wool, Cotton j, . 2,094,349 Sheeps’ . . 130,494 Produce and Manufactures of the United Kingdom Exported from Ireland to Fo- reign Parts. Bacon and Hams . . .£3,426 Beef, Salted . . . 2,922 Beer and Ale . . . 5,566 Butter .... 49,977 Lard .... 5,478 Linen Manufactures . . 35,036 Yarn . . . 158,271 Pork, Salted . . . 26,995 Spirits . . . . 2,927 Ireland exported in beer and ale, in 1837, £6,355 ; in 1838, £4,887. Exports from Ireland during Three Years. Years ending 5 th Jan. Produce and Manufactures of the United Kingdom, Exported from Ireland 1836 . . . .£.353,141 1837 . . . 303,040 183» . . . 420,074 805 COMMERCE, Home Consumption of the principal Arti- £ cles of Foreign and Colonial Merchandize , in the Year ended 5th Jan. 1839, com- pared with the preceding Year. 1838 1839 Barilla . . cwts • 91,603 77.759 Bark, Tanners, cwts ■ 788,71 1 613.743 Butter . . cwts • 266,161 252,132 Cheese . . cwts ■ 232,257 219.354 Cocoa-nuts . lbs ■ 1 418,5/0 1,602,671 Coffee, W. India lbs. 17,174,721 15,526,569 < — Other sorts lbs. 3,169 . 8,201 Tot, Coffee imported arid consumed lbs. 26,392,427 25,818,613 ■ Corn : — Wheat . . qrs 232,793 1,740,806 Barley . . . qrs. 47,475 8.193 Oats . . . qrs. 333 933 11.070 Rye .... qrs. 19,575 2.517 Peas . . . qrs. 87,615 11,619 Beans . . . qrs. 109,075 54,240 Maize . . . qrs. 763 3,124 Buckwheat . qrs. 298 174 Flour . . cwts. Dyes : — 40,187 392,847 Cochineal . lbs. 154.947 202,086 Indigo . . lbs 2,240,451 3,020,170 Lac- Dye . lbs. 427,920 633,861 Logwood . tons. 1 2,355 14,107 Madder . . cwts. 79,084 109,385 Madder Root cwts. 101,508 83.725 Shumac . . cwts. 123,638 208,251 Eggs . . numb. Flax and Tow cwts. 74.790,126 1,002,340 83,817-789 1,624,754 Fruits: — Currants . cwts. 175,033 166,483 Figs . . . cwts. 18.816 16.006 Lemons & } chests 313,647 230,916 Oranges 5 loose. 30,547 17,435 Raisins . . cwts. 152,639 155.5755 Gloves, Leath. pairs 1,221,350 1,136,842 Hemp, undr. . cwts. 666,997 763,943 Hides, untann. cwts. 293,491 318.763 Mahogany . . tons 22,958 24,758 Mel asses . . cwts. Metals : — 592,575 527,089 Iron, in bars or unwrought, tons 13,470 19,318 Spelter . . cwts. Oil : — 53,946 77,662 Train . . tuns 21,286 28,008 Palm . . . cwts. 214,000 276,809 Cocoa-nut . cwts. 28,837 38,781 Olive & Paran gal. 1,499,103 2,038,028 Opium . . . lbs. 37,616 31.204 Quicksilver . lbs. 314,036 406,580 Rice .... cwts. 1 26,740 138,573 Rice in Husk bush. 289,238 ; 290 ,062 Saltpetre . . cwts. Seeds : — 256,872 3004^ Clover . . cwts. Flaxseed and Lin- 124,965 95, £02 seed . . bush. 3,394,843 1 3198,217 Rape , . bush. 6ilk : — 957,526 ■ 713,959 Raw . . . lbs. Waste, Knubs, & 3,730,427 ’ 3,683,722 Husks . . lbs 875,785 \ 960,128 Thrown, sorts, lbs 213,36£ i 243,569 lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs lbs Silk or Satin lbs. — figured or bro- caded . lbs. Gauze, plain lbs. — tissue, foulards lbs. — figured or bro- caded . lbs. Crape, plain lbs. Velvet, plain lbs. — figured lbs. ilks, India : — Bandannoes and Handkfs. pieces Skins : — Goat, undr. num. Kid, undr. num. — dressed, num. Lamb, undr. num. — dressed, num. Spices : — Cassia Lignea Cinnamon . Cloves . . Mace . . Nutmegs. . Pepper . . Pimento . . Spirits : — Rum . . £ Brandy . £ Geneva . £ Sugar, unrefined:— Of the Br. Posses- sions in Am. civts Of Mauritius cwts. E. India, Br. cwts. Tallow . . . cwts Tar . . . , lasts Tea .... lbs. Timber Battens and Ends gr. liund Deals and Ends B. America do. Deal & Deal Ends other parts do. Staves . . do. Timber. 8 in. sq. and upw. loads From other pts. do. Tobacco : — Unmanufac. lbs. Manu. & Snuff lbs. Turpentine : — Common . cwt. Wines : — Cape . . galls. French . galls. Other sorts galls. Wool, Cotton : — Brit. E. Indies lbs U. S. Amer. lbs Brazil . . lbs. Egypt . . lbs. Otherwise . lbs. Total of Cotton t W ool imported > and consumed J Wool, Sheeps’ lbs 183S , 806 1839 77,050 117,285 37,720 1,154 70,700 371 8,165 16,285 21,949 4,608! 15,834] 1,307 10,451 £,993 20,854 2,074 134,714 85,478 433,688 217.058 720,200 1,673,1/3 14,212 511,392 121,664 680,831 1,983,896 6,881 105,485 14,956 87.131 18,481 134.115 2 626,298 335,653 100,837 16,688 108.103 20,418 125,334 2,635,020 339,979 3,184,598' 1,209,055 18,252 3,135,373 1,203,666 18,256 3,562,779 522,361 270,071 1,294.020 i 11.744 . 31,872,635 3,369,035 585.160 418,717 1,166,177 14,221 32,366,412 14,496 17,708 39,461 41,816 27,486 85,137 29,312 76,167 » 545,370 117,439 559,147 157,005 • 22,504,344 144,959 23,356,246 190,349 405,773 353,642 500,968 459,623 5,604,214 538,900 436,866 6,225,110 ■ 34,019,419 • 309,027 306 • 20,822,509 7,463,050 5,645,936 34,135,861 389,579,134 24,727,312 4,831,532 6,320,275 1378,019,654 460,756,023 .1 43,170,136 56,734,625 D D 2 807 COMMERCE. 808 The Net Receipts from the Customs , in 1838, in amounts above £5,000, were as under. Almonds . . . £6,985 Bark for Tanners or Dyers . 17,472 Beer, Spruce . . . 11,243 Books, Foreign . . . 8,162 Brimstone . . . 16,722 Bristles . . . . 29,831 Butter .... 251,665 Cheese .... 113,903 China-ware, Porcelain, and Earthen. 5,228 Clocks .... 8,223 Cochineal, Granilla, and Dust . 5,058 Cocoa, Cocoa-nut Husks and Shells, and Chocolate . 13,719 Coffee . . . 664,748 Cork, unmanufactured . . 20,960 Corn, Grain, Meal, and Flour . 185,096 Cotton Manufactures, not other- wise described . . 5,694 Currants .... 183,415 Dye and Hardwoods : — Mahogany Rosewood Eggs .... Embroidery and Needlework . Figs .... Flax, and Tow or Codilla of Hemp and Flax Furs .... Ginger, Dry Glass; viz. Bottles, Green or Common Glass, of all other sorts. Gum, Senegal . Hides, and Pieces of Hides not tanned Indigo .... Iron in Bars, or unwrought Leather Gloves . Lemons and Oranges Linens .... Liquorice Juice . Madder and Madder Root Melasses Nutmegs Nuts, Small . Oil, Chemical, Essential, and Perfumed of all sorts * Olive and Paran . „ Palm „ Train, Sperm, and Blubber Pepper .... Platting of Chip or Straw Plums dried, French Plums and Prunelloes Raisins .... Rape Seed and other Oil Cakes Rice .... „ in the Husk Saltpetre and Cubic Nitre Seeds, all sorts, (including Tares) Silk, Raw Silk Manufactures, East India „ „ France Skins, (not being Furs) Spirits, Foreign and Colon. Rum „ „ Brandy „ „ Geneva * „ of all other sorts 55,535 10,767 29,024 8,888 11,641 6,477 35,991 6,516 15,828 5,000 7,344 41,461 38,810 27,847 21,385 48,444 19,529 26,274 12,954 236,433 15,494 15,204 6,379 44,912 17,100 6,592 61,162 28,957 5,091 113,497 7,807 6,962 17,639 7,504 132,371 15,286 16,573 222,550 17.928 1,402,201 1,334,654 19,211 9,769 Spirits of Manufacture of Guern sey and Jersey £5,158 Sugar 4,261,317 Tallow 173,518 Tar 10,078 Tea 2,956,101 Timber : — Battens and Batten Ends 160,492 Deals and Deal Ends 607,056 Firewood 7,882 Lathwood 31,410 Masts and Spars 18.876 Oak Plank . . 15,552 Staves 56521 Teake . 6,553 Timber, Fir, 8 inches square 521,434 „ Oak, ditto 45,939 „ of other sorts, ditto 10,090 Wainscot Logs ditto 12,215 Tobacco and Snuff 2,795,727 Turpentine, Common 78,918 Valonia . 5,212 Water, Cologne . 5,077 Wines 1,654,425 Wool, Cotton 557.891 „ Sheep and Lambs’ 163,607 Woollen Manufactures, not otherwise described . 32,12L Tota\ Duties Inwards . £20,197,997 Duties Outwards. Coals and Culm . . 7,630 Other Brit. Goods (per centage) 100,139 Total Duties Outwards . £107,769 All duties, £20,421,150. Duties Inwards , Ireland, above £10,000. Coffee .... Spirits, For. and Colonial, Rum „ „ „ „ Brandy Sugar .... Tallow .... Tea .... Timber : — Deals and Deal Ends . Timber, Fir, 8 in. sq. or upwards Tobacco and Snuff £20,232 8,865 18,959 395,574 10,150 405,933 15,203 51,160 766,084 Total Irish Duties Inwards . £1,933,807' The Prusso-Bavarian league, or Zoll Yerein, extends over 176,000 square miles, and includes about 26£ millions of people. The scheme has much affected British ex- ports, except in yarns for their own manu- factures, leaving to us the poor advantages of being their spinners. In Saxony, cotton gloves are 9 d. per dozen pairs, stockings at 3s., and night-caps at Is. to Is. 6d. per dozen, aud other articles in proportion ! Germany is the chief foreign market in exchange for manufactured sheep’s wool, about 33 millions sterling. Italy 216. Holland and the United States, 17 each. Brazil 1*5. India 127. Russia 1*1. Total to all nations nearly 20 5 millions. 809 COMMERCE 810 8 8 8 8 I 8 a- ka o >4 8 2 <1 a* 0» 8 8 a. 00 OC 00 W tO *— * to to to to !-« 00 .f* © 01 to CO "bo “oo © co co to to VJ j© “© “© “© to to CO © 00 © cc O CO 00 to to to CO CO to 00 _ >£*• © to rr <31 VJ 00. © V “© o to co © V| to to © 8 '8 to — CO to © If* © Ci © £ © r- © if* © to Cyt i— > © I— o © © © J© V» CO CO V "co © *f* to ** W rf*. M O’ © oo A M to m Cn 00 to CO © to co CO © — © © if* © — CO I— © © © 00 to 3 — 1 "c© © © VJ 00 05 © © CO If*. — © CO VJ Oi Oi “oo “to “oo 00 •— © © © I— U U if M U If* 00 VJ 00 © vj J— VJ jf* “■f* vj "© vj 4* VJ If* V| © M W © « © © 00 vi n jto vj jo jf* ^ r; ~® to “to " 00 VJ u © to © © tD © c - 3 >< H Sll © p_ < • a co •— oo © VJ © JX> VJ J© VJ “go “to co ■— co if* © 00 © © to © © © © J© <—• vj "oo if*. © © © to MARKET PRICES OF IMPORTS. (Tooke.) Asiies, Barilla, per Cwt. 1782 . . 22s. 0 d. a 24 s. 0ct eats the leaves. It is 3 clays in its first moulting. In 5 days, its second moulting takes place ; in 5 days a third ; and in other 5 days a fourth. In 3 or 4 days, it encloses itself in its cocoon, and becomes a chrysalis. In all, 29 or 30 days. They require a tem- perature of 65^ to 70°. Eggs at 45°. It remains in the chrysalis form for 2 to 4 weeks, and escapes from the cocoon by dis- solving the gum which ho’ds the threads (and not by their rupture,) as a large moth. Each female lays about 356 eggs, and 391,680 weigh a troy lb. But full-grown, 50 weigh a lb., or have increased 9000 times. In a few days they die. In 1000 oz. of cocoons, the pure silk is but 150, and in reeling but 100 or 80. 240 co- coons weigh a troy lb. of 5760 grains. An oz. of eggs yield about 1200 oz. of cocoons. 5 lbs. of reeled silk has been produced in England, from 12,000 worms. 97‘5 lbs. avoirdupois of mulberry -leaves yield 10 oz. of reeled silk, or 156 to 1. Cocoons from lettuce-leaves are one-seventh less, and the worms die. The coarse floss is a twentieth of the pure cocoon. The length of fibre in each cocoon varies from 300 to 600 yards. 12 lbs. of cocoons, of 3 grains each, from 2800 worms, and 156 lbs. of leaves yield, on the average, 1 lb. of reeled silk, from which is made about 15 yards of gros de Naples. Every fibre of silk will sustain 50 grains. One-third of our exports of silk manufac- tures is to the United States, and a sixth to Canada and the West Indies. Spitalfields still manufactures 3-7ths of the broad-silks, and Manchester 2-7ths. Coventry and Macclesfield are the chief manufactures of ribbons, worth If millions, and equal to l-5th of the whole consumption. The duties, in 1836, were 214,898/. We pay nearly 20$. per lb. for our silk, and our national returns depend on repay- ment for our exports of l-5th to all parts of the world. Not less than 4000 lbs. of raw silk are used weekly, for making sewing-silk, which em- ploy s above 2000 hands, at 8 or 9s. per week. A reduction of duties on raw and organize silk, in 1825, has greatly increased the manu- facture, which, subject to oppressive duties, could not compete with French fabrics. Of raw and thrown, we imported, in 1836, 2,130,000/., and of foreign manufactures but 774,000/. worth ; while we exported 367,000/. and of British manufactures 973,478/., and 117,334/. of raw, thrown, and waste. The annual consumption is estimated at about 4 millions of lbs., of which nearly 2 is in piece goods ; a fourth in ribbons and handkerchiefs, and a twentieth in sewing- silk, at a cost of 17$. the lb., exclusive of 2s. for throwing. The cost of labour in all branches, winding, weaving, dyeing, &c., is about 3f millions, divided among 180,000 at an average of only 8$. per week. The re- turns are 10,500,000/., leaving 2| for machi- nery, profits, &c. Linen. — The annual value of all linen fabrics was, in 1838, eight millions, of which 3^ were wages. The woollen trades employ 400,000 hands. Manufacturers’ Petition. Ireland, since the revolution, has enjoyed a preference in the manufacture of linens ; but cotton goods, and spinning by steam power at Leeds, &c., have much interfered with Irish skill and industry. In 1825, the export of Irish linen Lad risen, since 1800, from 34 millions of yards to 55 millions. Sail-cloth is 2£ millions of ells. Irish ex- ports to foreign parts were, in 1821, 4 miL MANUFACTURES. 837 lion yards, and they continue from 9 to 10 pillions. Till 1824, the Irish linens pro- duced 2£ millions sterling, of which above 2 tvere from Ulster. The imports of flax vary from 3-4ths of a million cwt. to 1| cwt., chiefly from the Low Countries. There are about 360 factories, above half in Scotland, and they employ about 36,000 hands, about l-6th children. The most considerable are at Leeds, as Marshall’s, Benyon’s, and Atkinson’s. The flax used in England, and much of that used in Ireland, is imported from the Netherlands, Germany, and Russia. The former only answers for fine fabrics. Nearly the whole is spun by machinery, for which there are several extensive erections at Leeds, and they far transcend in fineness what can be performed by hand. It is now common to spin 200 leas to the pound, and even from 200 to 300, each lea being 300 yards. Flemish flax is of a slate colour, German is of a deep brown, Russian is light brown. They are whitened by a bleaching process. Dunfermline, in Fifeshire, and Barnsley, in Yorkshire, are the two chief seats in Great Britain of linen manufactories. Belfast has nineteen mills for spinning flax. Machinery destroys the domestic ma- nufactures. In other parts there are twen- ty- two others. Belfast has also about six cotton factories, and other parts twenty ; together they employ 11,000 hands, about naif children. There are, also, in Ireland, 46 woollen and worsted factories, without profit, chiefly south. In all, about 113 spin- ning factories. The linen exported, in 1835, was about 70 millions of yards, value 3| millions, or about Is. l$c/. per yard. Ireland produces about 350,000 lbs. of long coarse wool, for worsted and inferior cloths. Irish wheat is ground near Dublin, and there are great breweries at Dublin and Cork, for exportation of superior porter. Hosiery. — The plain stocking-frame was invented about 1590, by the Rev. Mr. Lea of Woodboro’, near Nottingham. ' For want of encouragement he removed it to Rouen, but died poor in Paris. His workmen returned to London, and got a charter under Crom- well, and frames were set up at Nottingham and Leicester. After the Revolution it be- came a small manufactory for thread and worsted goods, and, as frame and knit stock- ings produced a similar price, handsome fortunes were made at Nottingham, Leices- ter, and Derby. It is now as extended to point lace, and in silk, cotton, thread, and worsted hosiery, and many fancy articles, a great trade, though very low in profits. Filkin estimates the stocking-frames at 33,000, which make 3| million dozen of silk, cotton, and worsted hose, valued, respec- tively, at 241,000/., 880,000/., and 8/0,000/., or nearly 2 millions. This branch employs about 70,000 men, women, and children. The quantities are nearly 2£ million dozens cotton, 1 million worsted, and £ million silk. The produce, per narrow-frame cotton, is 40 dozen per annum ; wide, 300 dozen. Wor- 838 sted, narrow, 75 dozen; wide, 150; silk frames, 30. Nottingham, Leicester, Derby, and Loughborough, are its seats. Silk hose employs, per Filkin, between 0 and 7000 persons, and consumes nearly 4000 lbs. per week. In the stocking trade of Leicestershire, there are 14,000 stocking frames and looms, which employ 28,000 hands. The labour at 65. per week, and materials are worth a million per annum. Miscellaneous. — Owing to a remission of the Glass duties, the exports have greatly increased, and glass-cutting has become an extended employment. It is first wrought by iron wheels and sharp sand, then smooth- ened by stone wheels, rotten-stone, and pumice, with willow-tree wheels. Putty gives its finish. — Jones. An abatement of duty, in 1834, on plate- glass, has much extended that manufacture, and shops in London have plates 7 feet square, while those a yard square are seen every where. The principal rooms of many private houses, also, have plate-glass, often a pane to a sash, or 4 feet by 3 ; cheaper in use than the slight brittle crown-glass. The exports, since the abatement of home duty, have risen nearly half, owing to the improve- ment and ease of trade. The whole weight of all kinds of glass made, per annum, is about 30,000 tons, of which bottle-glass is 2-3ds. The exports are about 15,000 tons, chiefly to India, the United States, and Brazil. The duties, in 1836, were 683,237/. Of flint-glass about 55,000 cwts. are made annually ; of plate, about 30,000 cwts. ; of crown, about 118,000 cwts., and. of bottle- glass nearly 200,000 cwts. The largest plate of glass made by the British Company is 13 ft. 4 in. by 6 ft. 8 in., and the price when silvered 247/. At 1 1 ft by 7, the price is 200/. Wedgwood was the improver of our Pot- tery trade. Within 70 years, our best fabric was brown and black pans, and Staffordshire ware. We now make the finest porcelain in the world, and export half a million worth, in nearly 50 millions of pieces. Burs- lem, Hanley, Stoke, &c., employ 30 or 40,000 persons, and Derby, Worcester, Lambeth, &c., also make the prime ware. The gold, alone, used in gilding is not far short of 1000 lbs. per annum. The best material for clay is brought from Cornwall and Purbeck, with flints from Kent, Ac. It also employs some hundred artists.— Shaw. Porcelain clay is decomposed, or incipient feldspar, i. e. 3 silica, 1 alumina. Potters’ clay is 6| silica, 5£ alumina, £ lime, 1-6 th oxide of iron, and 3 water. Clay from horn- blende has less alumina. Stourbridge clay is infusible, because mere alumina and silica; but lime, or much oxide of iron, renders clay fusible. English porcelain is made of feldspar, de- tached from Cornish granite, by trituration and washing ; and the silex, ground flint, and soap-stone, from the Lizard-iock. Jewellery is a considerable manufacture in London, where 4500 hands are employed, E E 2 839 and only about 700 in other parts of the United Kingdom. They consume above 24.000 lbs. troy, of pure gold, and full 150.000 lbs. of silver in various works. Gold and silver plate, also, absorbs 500 lbs. of gold, and 106,000 lbs. of silver, on articles of which 4-5ths are made in London. In all, nearly 2 millions worth of gold and silver for trinkets and ornamental furniture. In ge- neral, they melt sovereigns for these pur- poses, alloyed to two-thirds pure gold, so that a lb. of jewellers’ gold is usually worth but 16 carats, or 31/. 3s. About 1 '2 million oz. of silver plate are manufactured in England, per annum, and about 5200 oz. of gold plate. The manufacture of paper used for writing and printing, is nearly 60 million lbs. per annum, and taking it at 18 lbs. to the ream, this gives a consumption of 3± millions of reams. Of whited brown and brown paper, the production is 18 millions of lbs., and at 20 lbs. weight, this gives 900,000 reams. Di- viding the production, nationally, England makes 90 parts, Scotland 15, and Ireland 3£, though Scotland sends large quantities to London. The duties, in 1836, were 831,000/. Soap is a great manufacture. The United Kingdom makes 148 million lbs. of hard soap, and 12$ of soft soap; 6 7ths in England. The export is but 13 millions of hard, and 9000 lbs. of soft. Manufacturers claim a drawback on 7 million lbs. of each sort. The duty was 3-4ths of a million. Every ton of soap consumes 12 cwt. of tallow, and soap consumes 28,000 tons per annum. An ox yields 70 lbs. of fat, and a sheep 13 lbs., equal m a year to 90,000 tons over the imports from Russia, &c. The whale-oil produced, per annum, was, in 1814, 33,567 tuns, of 252 gallons; but, latterly, was but 20,000 tuns per annum. Sixteen tons of hides and skins are an- nually imported, at a custom-house value of T£ million, for conversion into leather, and these with home produce make 30,000 tons of leather, worth 5 millions. Twice the value is believed to be expended in labour and profits, or 10 millions. This gives em- ployment to 133,000 shoe-makers, to 30,000 tanners, &c. ; to 12,000 saddlers, and to 25,000 glove-makers, of all ages. A large shoe-trade exists at, and near Northampton, and a glove-trade at, and near Worcester ; but, we besides import 1§ million pairs of gloves from France. Thirty-four lbs. of raw sugar make 20 of refined sugar, with 13 cwt. of waste mo lasses, Ac. We export about 20 tons of re- fined sugar, chiefly to Italy. The gross import of sugar, in 1836, was 222,762 tons, and we re-exported 30,000 tons, partly raw and partly refined, as 34 to 20. The mean price, in 1836, was 1/. 14s. 5 d. per cwt., or nearly 3f d. per lb. The duty was 4,947,670/. Sugar and water, in equal weights, fer- ment in a warm place, and are turned into carbonic acid gas and alcohol. 100 parts yield 57 1 alcohol and 43 carbonic acid gas. And alcohol is 52 carbon, 34 oxygen, and 14 840 hydrogen; and carbonic acid is 2 7 carbon and 73 oxygen. White sugar is carbon 43, oxygen 50, and hydrogen 7. And water, oxygen 87^, hydrogen 1 2£. Then the carbon in the sugar is 2150 The oxygen 2500 The hydrogen 350 5000 And the oxygen in the water . . 4350 And hydrogen 650 5000 10,000 At the same time, the products in alcohol and carbonic acid gas are Carbon 4125 Oxygen 5077 Hydrogen 708 10,000 Much beet-root sugar is now made in Austria, France and Flanders. Brewing — (The British Wine Trade) employed, in 1837, 107 brewers in London, and 2269 in the country. The former con- sumed 5,641,470 bushels of malt, rather above the average, and the latter 16,765,313 bushels. There were, also, 26,867 brewing victuallers, who consumed other 8,812,11,7 bushels, and a further 3,683,324 bushels by others licensed. The Licensed Victuallers were 55,751. The hop-grounds were 56,323 acres, and the malt, paying duty, was 33,692,352 bush. The tax on malt, till 1717. was but 4s. per quarter. Pitt raised it, in 1787 and 1791, to 12s. 6d. The French war, in 1802, to 18s. 8c?. ; and, in 1804, to 38s. 8c?. ; but, in 1818, it was lowered to 20s. 8c?. No other government would impose such a tax — the French would not tax grapes, nor the Chinese tea. The high price leads to the use of noxious drugs, and it appears that, from 1/20 to 1730, 500,000 more quarters were used for 3f mil- lions of barrels, than from 1790 to 1800 for 6 millions. Most publicans, by drugs and mixtures, increase 2 brewers butts to 3! In 1720, every one of the population drank a barrel per annum, now not half ; while gin has increased from 3 to 12£ millions of galls. The present duty on malt is 57 per cent., on coffee, 63 per cent. ; on wine, 75 per cent. ; 011 rum, 400 per cent. ; on spirits, 333 per cent. ; on brandy, 627 per cent, j and, on Hollands, 930 per cent Peele. The London Porter brewers produce 135 gallons from one quarter of malt, which, with duties and expences, cost 8/. 85., or nearly Is. 3c?. per gallon ; the retailing, at 5d. per pot, leaving a profit of 5 d. per galloh to brewer and publican. Without duties, the cost price would be 10c?. ; or, at lowef costs of malt and brewing, 8c?. The specific gravity of ale is about 14; of brown stout, P01 ; and, of porter, 1*014. Burton ale yields 8 88 spirit in 100 bulk. London 7 5. Edinburgh 6. Dorchester 5 6. London porter 4*2. Brown stout 6 8. Strong home-brewed ale 9 6. Between 1720 and 1730, 500,000 quarters MANUFACTURES. MANUFACTURES. 841 842 more malt were consumed in brewing 3,733,000 barrels of beer, than from 1790 to 1800, in brewing 6,170,000 barrels : a proof of excessive adulteration. Malt dried, at 119° is white, at 134° amber, and 148° brown. It loses from 8 to 10 per cent, in weight; but, in bulk, it in- creases from 7 to 10 per cent. One half the starch of the malt remains in the grains, for 100 lbs. of grains remalted weighs from 52 to 56 lbs. Malting germinates the grain, and the germination is stopt before the plant shoots ; but the process converts the kernel into starch, soluble in water. In brewing, the water is 180° for the first mash, and 190° for the second. In cooling, from 200° to 52° ; worts lose about a fourth. In 151 parts of yeast, 136 are water, 3 sac- charine matter, 2j alcohol, 2\ mucilage, and 5 gluten, with some lime, potash, and acids. Four or five bushels of malt, and 4 lbs. of hops, are usually employed in making a barrel of good family ale. In grinding malt, stones will crush twelve quarters per hour ; iron rollers as much ; and large steel-mills, six or eight quarters. Beer, from pale malt, is made into the por- ter-colour by infusing burnt sugar, mixed with water. In 1839, the net duty on malt, in England, was 4,274,663 /. ; and, in Scotland, 372,101/. The hop duty was 302,906/. The greatest produce of hops grown, in 48 years, was 57£ millions of lbs. in 1826; and the least, in 1802 3,707,170 lbs. Worts from 1-04 to 1 05 fall in gravity, by fermentation, to T0014 and T007- Eight bushels of barley make nine of malt. A bushel of English barley weighs from 50f lbs. to 49f lbs., and of the same, in malt, from 40£ lbs. to 35 lbs. Scotch barley averages 52£ lbs. per bushel. The weight of a grain of barley is 0 64 of a grain in weight, and its size 0 00208 of a cubic inch; the length being 0343, the breadth 0143, and the thickness 0408. The quantity of Spirits consumed, per head, in England and Wales, is pints. In Scotland, 23 pints. In Ireland, 13 pints, besides the illicit distillations. The total quantity in the United Kingdom, on which duty is paid, was 31| millions of gallons, in 1836, and the total duty was 5| millions of pounds. England imports, from Scotland, 2£ mil- lions of gallons, and from Ireland l-3rd of a million ; and Ireland receives from Scotland nearly a million of gallons. There are 12 distilleries in England, 260 in Scotland, and 87 in Ireland. 108 recti- fiers in England, 11 in Scotland, and 19 in Ireland. Six millions pounds worth of whiskey are annually consumed in Ireland. The western counties are supposed to make 50,000 hogsheads of Cyder, and 1500 of Perry. Grain, &c.— In the reign of James the First, wheat sold from 13s. 6tf. to 21s. a quarter, and barley and rye from 7s. Qd. to 10s. In that of Charles II. and James II. wheat land let from Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. per acre. The increase of price, in 1800, to 30s and 40s. arose from the increase of currency and this increased speculative and prospec- tive values. That which had been 2s. and rose to 40s. might be 80/. or 100/., hence the object is to hold at any rate. But that which had been 80s. fell to 4s. and it might fall to 2s. ; the object, then, would be not to hold. This is the entire mystery of high and low prices in every thing. Grain is a manufacture, which employs a man for every 60 quarters, or 16,600 men for every million quarters. The price of corn is in exact relation to the price of meat, and the profits of both are fixed by nature. The preference in cultivation is, whether, at market-prices, 226 lbs. of mutton, 187 of beef, or 3 or 4 quarters of grain, yield the best balance of cost and sale per acre. Arthur Young computed the average price of wheat, barley, and oats, for different periods, taking the price, in 1810, as 20s. From 1400 to 1500 3 1500 to 1600 5 1600 to 1700 8 75 1700 to 1800 10 25 Till 1 766, a bounty was granted on expor- tation, 5s. on wheat, and 2s. 6d. on barley. But the political economist, Adam Smith, procured the abolition of the bounty, and, for the remainder of the century, less was cultivated, and wheat rose to 1 If ; latterly to 14 £ ; and, from 1804 to 1810, to 20s. From the year 1773to the year 1814, the total imports of grain were 30,430,189 quar- ters, and the exports 5,801,440. The highest Annual Averages of Wheat, in this century, have been as under — 1800. . . ,£b 10 5 1801 5 15 11 1810 5 3 3 1812. ...^6 2 8 1813 5 6 6 1839 3 12 0 The lowest Annual Averages of Wheat have been as under — 1803.... £2 17 1 1821 2 14 5 1822 2 3 3 1823. . . .£2 11 9 1827 2 15 0 1834 2 2 0 The result of the corn- laws will appear from the following statement of the imports of corn for fifteen years, contrasted with the imports in the preceding 15 years, di- vided into periods of five years each ; — In the 5 years ending Quarters. 1805 7,365.184 1810 « 6,933,975 1815 5,931,693 Total.... 20, 230, 852 In the 5 years ending Quarters. 1820 13,866,973 1825 10,356,958 1830 22,151,425 Total.... 56, 3/5, 456 A barrel of flour of 196 lbs. is considered, in duties, as equivalent to 38J gallons of wheat ; 181 1 lbs. of oatmeal to one quarter of oats. * 843 MANUFACTURES. 844 Baking is an invention by which the meal of grain is, by fermentation and evaporation, brought into the convenient substance of bread. A pound of wheat-flour consists — of bran 3 oz., starch 10 oz., gluten three-quarters o{F an ounce, and sugar one-quarter. Wheaten bread, marked with a W, is made of the finest flour ; standard wheaten is made of the whole flour, mixed ; and, household, marked H, is made of the coarser flour. Good flour absorbs more water than bad, and old flour more than new. Hence, from the first sorts, 5 or 6 loaves more are often made from a sack of 280 lbs. When alum is used, to indulge consumers with artificial white- ness, equal quantities of salt and alum are introduced. A quarter of wheat of 8 bushels yields 7 kinds of flour, as under : — Bushels. Pecks. Fine flour ............ 5 3 Seconds — 2 Fine middlings — 1 Coarse — 4 Bran 3 0 Twenty-penny 3 0 Pollard 2 0 14 2* It is found, when economy of w r heaten flour is desirable, that 1 lb. of rice goes as far, in satisfying hunger, and in nutriment, as 8 lbs. of flour ; and that 2 lbs. of potatoes are equal to 1 lb. of flour, and equal to four of turnips or carrots. Five lbs. of boiled potatoes, mixed with 20 lbs. of flour, make as good bread as can be eaten. Bran, boiled in the water used for kneading the dough, greatly inqreases the weight. The quartern-loaf was 5frf. in 1779, and wheat 5s. 2± d. per bushel ; in 1795, 12 \d. ; in 1800, \7\d., and wheat from 10s. to 2 2s. ; and, in 1812, 18£c/. Its average was 6frf. from 1765 to 1794 ; and, during the war, it averaged 14 d. One peck of seed-wheat produces an ave- rage crop of 2 bushels ; but, by separating and transplanting the roots of a single grain of wheat, 500,000 grs. have been produced. France, Poland, &c. produce 5 or 6 to 1, and fertile parts of France 15 to 1. In South America, from 12 to 24 to 1. In Ni- gritia, 50 to 1. Two bushels of seed in England produce 18 of wheat, 4 of barley, and of potatoes 190 bushels in fair crops. The quantity of seed \sed in dibbling is from 1 4 to 2 bushels per acre : by broad cast \t is 2§ bushels per acre. 1000 parts of wheat yield 740 parts of starch, barley 790, rye and cats 610, peas 500, beans 420, potatoes 160 to 200, beet, parsnips, carrots, turnips, &c. under 7 5 ; grasses from 65 to 20 Wheat, rye, and beans most gluten. Beet, parsnips, carrots, barley, and turnips, most sugar. Wheat and barley most soluble matter. Wheat, m America, averages 36s. per quarter 405. is the highest. Every member of the population is consi- dered as consuming the flour of a quarter of wheat per annum ; and, of the flour of ■"'fcher grain about two quarters. In France, they estimate the daily con- sumption of bread, including that used with coups, at 2^ lbs. per person , whilst, in Eng- land, it is not quite 13 ounces. There being about 24 millions of quartern, loaves, per week, eaten in the United King- dom, a half-penny per loaf, more or less, is 50,000/. per week, or 2,600,000/. per annum, and so with every half-penny assessed on the population. The average import of foreign corn hap been 700,000 quarters. Ireland exports to Great Britain nearly 2 millions of quarter of grain, chiefly oats, per annum. Bread may be sold, if made of the flour or meal of wheat, barley, rye, oats, buck-wheat, Indian corn, peas, beans, rice, or other grain, or of potatoes or any of them, such ingredients being mixed with any common salt, pure water, eggs, milk, barm, leaven, potato, or other yeast, butter, seeds, or sugar, in such proportions as the bakers may think fit, but with no other ingredient what- soever. It may be made of any weight or size ; but, it must be sold by weight, and in no other manner. Bakers must use avoirdupois weights, and provide frames, scales, and weights. Dantzic has an unrivalled trade in wheat — the white of Poland and the red of Prus- sia. From 1000 to 1200 loaded vessels de- part annually, of which 850 are for Great Britain. Odessa wheat is preferred in the Levant to British wheat, and that brought from Teganrog is preferred for maccaroni, vermi- celli, &c. It is 10 per cent, heavier than our wheat, from having much less bran. The price at Odessa averages 28s. 6d. and the ex pences 18s. See Supplement. In toys, and fine mechanism, the Chinese are highly ingenious, and imitate with rea- diness the most curious productions of Eu- ropean workmen. They make little or no use of machinery ; it is constantly discou- raged by the government, as interfering with the subsistence of the people. The arts of Europe, which have been carried to perfection in the last century, were as perfect in China, 1000 years ago, a* in Europe now. The common people were clothed in silk, while the people of Europe wore woollen cloths as coarse as blankets. The Chinese ladies enjoyed a superb toilet and costly trinkets, while wooden skewers were used instead of pins ; and, when oats and turnips were first grown in Europe, China enjoyed luxuries of our improved horticul- ture. If Europe has excelled them, it has been chiefly by imitating them and the Hindoos. The Chinese appear, beyond doubt, to have made many of the important inven- tions claimed, in dark ages, by sundry Eu- ropeans. They invented the cycle of 60 years, before the use of the epoch of the Olympic Games. They printed from blocks MANUFACTURES. ^845 so early as the 10th century ; they used the magnet before the year 900 ; they have used gunpowder, for fire-works, as long since as the Christian era, and make it exactly in our proportions ; they have had original spectacles, of crystal beads, from time im- memorial, also concave reflectors, on varie- ties all their own ; they invented paper in fiie first century, and their language proves that the written character was borrowed, and not even improved, by the Phcenicians. Many of the Chinese arts cannot be imitated even to this day, much as we, on the con- trary, excel them in particular inventions. — Davis. The vine flourishes between lat. 25° and 43°, and in America from 20° to 38°, and below 3000 feet. It succeeds best in vol- canic countries, and in light soils with a 60 uth-east aspect. Port is produced chiefly in Upper Douro, and is mixed, for exportation, with 23 per ‘cent, of spirits of wine. Its quantity 30,000 pipes. Sherry is produced near Xeres, in Anda- lusia. Its quantity 15,000 pipes. The United Kingdom imports from 6 to 8 millions of gallons ; Madeira as 1, Cape 2, Trench lg, Portugal 12, Spain 8, others 1{. The teeth of a saw-mill may move 8200 feet per minute. The salt-work at Wallac, in Sweden, ope- rates by evaporation, and has a mass of brushwood, 40 feet high and half a mile in length. 10 lbs. of salt, 12 of manganese, and 12 of ■sulphuric acid, form bleaching powder. Suhbingen, called a German Birmingham, •has 4 smiths, who employ 20 or 30 men, and make about 6000 scythes per ann. — Trollope. Dupin estimates that the British steam- engines could rais« from their quarries, and 1 Leipzig. 188, by Valenciennes. 214, by Lille. i oqa S by Vienna and 1^80, ^ Belgrade. 0 _- \ by Milan and y ' l Laybach. j by Hamburg and y20 > ( Lubeck. 1005, 645, by Leipsig. t by Madrid and blU ’ \ Badajoz. 288, by Calais. 290, by Havre. 275, by Dieppe. 280, by Boulogne. 01 d j by Vittoria and dlS ’ } Burgos. 1000, by Rome. 117c 5 by the Belts and Sound. Amsterdam Ditto . . . Augsbourg Berlin . . . Bruxelles.. . Ditto .. . Constantinople Ditto .. . Copenhagen Dantzig Dresden Lisbon London Ditto Ditto Ditto Madrid Naples Stockholm Petersburg Rome Warsaw . Vienna 1940 S by Berlin and U ’ Konigsburg. 820, by Genoa. 1 070, by Berlin & Posen, cot: Cby Strasburg & i Munich. 856 In 1836, 305 new pieces were brought out at the Paris theatres. The receipts of the houses, within December, 1836, were 663,303 francs ; of which the Italian Opera produced 104,000, and the French Opera 99,000. The Average Expenditure of each Inhabitant in the City of Paris, in the Year 1826, was «£40 85., which makes a total qf ^£35,388,774. — The following are some of the proportions for each Person. Rent Repairs of Houses Corn Flour Maccaroni Grits, &c. Meat of all kinds .. Poultry and Game . . Fish, (Fresh-water) Oysters and other Shell-fish Fresh Sea-fish Salted Sea-fish Fresh and Salted Butter Eggs Milk, Whey, Cream, and Ne Cheese Vegetables and Fruit Salt Dry Cheese Olive Oil .. Vinegar . Brandy and Cordials Wine Cider and Perry Barley, Beer, and Hops Sugar Coffee Tea and Cocoa Spices, Honey, &c. Water .. Clothing .. Fuel Lighting . . Washing .. Furniture Servants and Salaries Horses Carriages and Harness Conveyances Tobacco and Snuff .. Baths Charities . . Presents Theatres and Exhibitions Lying-in Charges .. Nursings .. Medical Aid . , Newspapers, &c. Taxes r | ^£3 12 0 18 6 3 1 2 8 0 0 4 2 8 4 7 0 12 0 1 0 1 0 5 4 8 0 4 64 10 0 0 8 H 9 0 19 0 15 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 /! 65 7i 4 10 6 3 104 1? 4 V 9 4 3 8 8 6 13 10 16 5 6 74 1!* 0 I 1 There are nearly 5 millions of mortgagees, who devour the proprietors by their 5/. to 10/. per cent, interest; but, in other respects, the subdivision is favourable to the happi- ness of the population. Half the forests belong to individuals, and the rest to the crown and communes. The chief are in the Cote d’Or, Upper Marne, Vosges, and Meurthe. The annual production is estimated at 6,000,000,000 of francs, or about 240 mil- lions sterling at French prices, including 70 millions sterling for manufactures. AMERICA. 857 8S3 In 1835, France exported 76 millions of eggs to Great Britain, and 1 million to other countries. Paris consumes 101 millions. The French colonists are half a million, besides Algiers If million. France imports a million of tons of coals. The Budget of the Republic was 500 mil- lions of francs, of Napoleon 1000, of Louis XVIII. 837, and of Louis Philippe 1000. The Republic had 113 departments, Na- poleon 130, the restored monarchy but 86. Napoleon, in the 10 years of his reign, expended 1001 millions of francs on public works and improvements, 276 millions on roads, 30 on bridges, 48 on canals, 116 on harbours, 140 on fortifications, 32 on pa- laces and churches, 223 in charities and hos- pitals, and 134 in improving Paris, as 20 on the canal del’Ourcq, 11 on the museum, 11 on the Quais, 10 on the Louvre, and 10 on markets. Pontarlier is the highest city in France, being 887 metres (2736 feet) above the sea level. Gex is 667 (2060 feet). The highest French mountains are the Arsines, in the Upper Alps, 4105 metres (13,400 feet), and Pelvoux, in the Isere, 3934 metres. Mont d’Or, in Auvergne, is 1886, and Cantal, in the Cevennes, 1935. Balon, in Vosges, 1429. AMERICA. Vague notions prevailed, but no general opinion, before the end of the 15th century, that the Earth was round ; but in few cases do the most palpable truths force from men reasonings d priori. Afterwards, faith in the annual motion was for above a century a scholastic dogma, and, even to this day, no one but the present writer has ventured to apply the motions to the physical pheno- mena. The two motions so competent to produce the consolidation and weight of the parts, and the phenomena called Time , are ideas violently resisted ; and the further in- ference, that the two-fold motions are also evidence of the motion of the solar system through space, are truths for another age, though a thousand times a thousand men live in their dreams, and eat and drink by speculations on tnese subjects. The mathe- matical theories of Newton, like the ex- tended plane of the terrestrial form, are defended even to the sword’s point, and woe to him who for another century shall oppose them. The improvements in navigation in the 15th century, the voyages on the African coast, the previous discovery and settlement -of Madeira, the Azores, and Cape Verde Islands, rendered the discovery of the adja- cent American continent a necessary conse- quence. The gulf stream brought trees, vegetables, dead animals, and even dead bodies of Grange men to the Azores. On the 3d of August, 1492, Columbus sailed with three small vessels, appointed by the Court of Spain, destined as all believed for the East Indies; but, on the 12th of Octo- ber, he fell in with St. Salvador, or Cat LI and, one of the Bahamas, proceeded th/ough the Gulf to Hispaniola, and then returned to the Tagus, March 4, 1493, after seven months absence. He subsequently made three other voyages, and after suffer- ing various indignities and wrongs from the Court of Spain, died, aged 60, in 1506. The Spaniards called him Colon, the French Colomb, the Italians Columbo ; and there are those who detract from his merit, just as envy always robs originality and perseverance of its reward, of which Fulton, Winsor, Lancaster, &c. are modem instances. Pingon, an officer of Columbus, disco- vered Brazil, in 1499, and its first colony was formed in 1531. It is now nearly two millions of square miles, with a population of nearly five millions. The continent of America extends from 75° north to 55° south latitude, or about 8000 miles in length ; and in its broadest part has 40° of longitude, or 2000 miles. In the Mexican isthmus it varies from 100 to 200 miles. The island in the Bahamas, which Co- lumbus first discovered, in 1492, was Guana- hani ; he called it St. Salvadore, and the English, Cat Island. The first known discovery of America was by Martin Behem. In a first voyage of discovery, in 1460, he found an island co- vered with beech-trees, which he therefore called Fayal ; and others abounding in hawks, which he therefore called Azores . He afterwards visited Brazil, and sailed as far as the Straits of Magellan, in 1484. The voyage of Columbus was in 1492. Moreri, however, maintains, that America was known to the Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians, and it seems probable. North America is divided into the Bri- tish Possessions of the two Canadas and Nova Scotia, and the United States. Middle America, into the Republics of Mexico and Guatimala. South America into the Republics of Columbia, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, and Argeru taria. The Empire of Brazil, the British Colony of Demerara, the Dutch of Surinam, and the French of Guinea. The West Indies among the British, Spanish, French, and Dutch nations, in their respective islands. South America, even above North Ame- rica, transcends in all natural productions for purposes of general commerce, and is super-abundantlv provided with water inter- course for their transmission. But these matchless countries have, to this age, been paralyzed by the imbecility of the Spanish character, by the gross ignorance of the re- maining population, and the worse than beastly superstitions of a lazy and pampered priesthood. America contains the hignest mountains, and the largest rivers in the world, with every variety of climate; and its govern- ments being, for the most part, free and liberal, the whole is rising on the decay and exhaustion of the old continent. The breadth of the North American con tinent, from Long Island to Vancouver’s 859 AMERICA. 860 ' Island, is 50° of 52 miles, or 2600 miles ; and length of the United States is about 15°, or 1000 miles. The distance from Cape Clear in Ireland to New York is about 3000 miles. The dis- tance from the western coast to China is about 5000 miles. The breadth of the South American con- tinent, from Salvador to Lima, is about 45° of 60 miles, or 2/00 miles. The climate of the United States includes from the tropic of Cancer to lat. 50, but it is colder and hotter than the old continent in the same latitudes ; the differences being 9° in the lat. of Philadelphia, and 12° in that of Boston; while snow lies on the ground from three to five months, between lat. 40 and 50, and the summer heats are from 80 to 100. In some places it is often 22 below Zero in winter, and 105 in summer. There have been 14 Presidents of four years in the United States. The salary is 25,000 dollars. The four Secretaries of State have 6000 dollars. The President of the United States, the Vice-president, and the six members of the Cabinet, receive in all, 64,000 dollars, or 12,850/. sterling. The American Senate consists of two, chosen by the 26 legislatures of the several States, and has the Vice-president of the Union for its President, with a salary of 5000 dollars, about 1200/. ; and, during Sittings, other 16 dollars. The House of Representatives consists of 242 members, each chosen by 47,700 popu- lation. They receive 8 dollars per day du- ring the Sittings, and 8 for every 20 miles of travel from their State. The Speaker has 16 dollars per day. In the United States, every member of the 244 of the House of Representatives is chosen by an even population of 47,700 every 2 years. The Upper House of 52 se- nators is chosen 2 for each state every 6 years, and a third go out biennially. The persons elected to choose a President and Vice-president for 4 years from March 4, are 294, and they are chosen by the people in districts, by general tickets, or by the state-legislatures. The President of the Senate is the Vice-president of the United States. New York returns 40 representa- tives, Pennsylvania 28, Virginia 21, Ohio 19, and Michegan and Arkansas but 1 each, as per 47,700 population. The Chief Justice of the United States has 5000 dollars, and the 8 other judges 4500, that is, about 1200/. or 1100/. per annum. The Seven Ministers Plenipotentiary have 9000 dollars per annum, the Secretaries 2000, and the Charges d’ Affaires 4500. The Governors of each State, chosen by the people, have from 1200 to 3500 dollars salary each. In 1829, the whole body of the Statute and Common Law was revised, re-written, and published. Every male is an elector, who has resided twelve months in the State, or six months in his county, and the num- ber of electors was 296,583, and representa- tives 42. New York is in lat. 40° 40/, and Rome in 41° 54/ ; yet the average of the thermometer for the year is, at New York, 53 8, and a. Rome 60 4 ; while, in the three winter months, the thermometer averages at New York 29 8, and at Rome 45 8 ; and, in the three summer months at New York, it is 7 9 2, and at Rome 75 2. North America has 1 18 native quadrupeds, and Mexico and South America many others. 21 are nearly of the same species as on the Old Continent. European quadrupeds, transplanted to some parts o! America, have changed their characters. The hog is a wild boar. The cow gives milk only for the calf. The wild horse becomes a uniform chesnut. Sheep cast their super- fluous wool in mass, and goat’s hair takes its place. The goat reserves its milk like the cow. American Population in 1820 and 1830 1820. 1830. Eastern States .1,659,854 1,954,682' Middle ditto .3,179,944 4,108,959 Southern ditto . 2,547,726 3,022,812 Western ditto .1,414,729 2,263,103- South-western ditto. . 779.569 1,367.471 Territories 136.611 9,637,299 12,976,649 The following was the population of some of the principal places in the United States, according to the last census : — New York, 213,107; Philadelphia, 161,412; Baltimore, 80,519 ; Boston and Charleston, 70,164 ; New Orleans, 48',674 j Charleston, S. C. 30,289 ; Cincinnati and suburbs, 26,513 ; Albany, 24,516 ; Washington city, D C., 18,823 ; Providence, R. L., 17,832; Pittsburgh, 17,313; Richmond, Vir. 16,085. The increase of population in the United States is not 8 per cent, in 10 years in the old states ; but in new tracts, as Indiana, Michigan, &c. it is 200 per cent. In Con- necticut, in 1790, the number was 237,946, and, in 1830, it was but 297,71 1 . Delaware, in 1790, was 59,096, and, in 1830, 'was 76,739, though there have been great immigrations. Both the free and the slave population have trebled since 1790, in the whole. In 1790, the white population was 3,164,148. In 1800, it was 4,312,841. In 1810, 5,862,092; and, in 1820, 7,861,710. In 1836, aoout 13,000,000. The immigra- tions are estimated about 20,000 a year, which, in 30 years, would be 600,000 ; be- sides, the States have been increased, by the Mississippi, Floridas, &c. to the number of 1 , 000 , 000 , In 1837, the gross population of the 28 United States was 12,689,856 whites, 237,864 free-coloured, and 2,791,588 slaves. — Total 15,719,308. In 1830, the whites increased 2 95 per cent., the slaves 2 67, and the whole 2 913. The Mayor ‘of New York lately stated officially, that, owing to tyranny and op- AMERICA, 861 pression in Europe, the arrivals in 1837 had exceeded 2000 per week, most of whom wander, without money, friends, or employ- ment. “ The alms-houses and asylums,” he says, “ can receive no more, while the in- crease is such, that he calculates they will soon be 3000 per week.” What a picture of the effects of our atrocious Poor Laws ! Of the last 81,000, there were 4,800 from the United Kingdom, 2781 from Canada, &c., 20. ’41 from Germany, 4500 from France, 568 from Prussia, 445 from Switzerland, &c. The Aborigines of North America and Mexico are not quite two millions ; and of these only the Choctaws, Cherokees, Creeks, and two or three small tribes, have made such advances in civilization, as lead them to build and cultivate. M‘Coy considers that 10,000 as educated, and says, that other 60,000 perform mechanic arts and manufac- ture. Guess, a Cherokee, has reduced their language to the written form. The Ameri- can Government have lately assigned to the tribes a territory of 600 miles by 200, west of the Mississippi ; fixed the bounds of each, and afforded all the means of promoting their civilization and independence. New York City, in 1830, contained 223,009 inhabitants, and Albany 25,238. The Cherokees now possess negro slaves, and live by agriculture.— James. The American character is that of the persons who have their living to get, or who, by habit, continue to accumulate through life. Hence, the improvement of manners and mind is a secondary object, and every one follows his own humour without any idea of deference to another. Mathematics, the sciences, and critical researches do not interest one in a million. — Trollope. The Araucanian Indian nation is one of the finest native races in South America. The Pennsylvania, or United States Bank, has a paid-up capital of 35 million dollars. Their circulation is 10 million dollars, and the loans and discounts are 57 millions. Dr. Kelly, in 1825, estimated the republic ot Mexico at 6,868,000 inhabitants ; Guati- mala at 1,485,000; Columbia 3,600,000; Peru 1,900,000 ; Chili 1,200,000 ; La Plata 1,500,000 : all on rapid increase to 1840. The population of Mexico is about eight millions, to a territory of 1,500,000 sq. miles. Central America is in six States, contain- ing about two millions. But the government was unsettled in 1838. Guatimala, the ca- pital, has about 50,000 inhabitants. Four-fifths of the population are engaged in agriculture, and the other fifth in manu- factures and commerce. The unproductive classes are one- fifth more. The Indian po- pulation is about 120,000, and the other Indians around are 180,000 During 1833, there were 10,000 criminals in prison, in the United States, and 1000 debtors. Also 1000 lunatics. The criminal commitments, in 1833, were 75,000, and the debtors 38,240. The various settlers in the United States have, in the first and second generations, been more intent in laying the foundations 862 of prosperity than in enjoying it. They, however, closely imitate Europe, and its pursuits. In the mechanic arts they have no rivals, and already teach other nations. In ship-building, trade, canals, railways, and roads, they have deserved fame. In cheap government and institutions of liberty, they are a model to all nations. In literary com- position they are on a par with every natioi , but in physics and experimental science they are copyists of the olden authorities. The American Army consists of 648 com- missioned officers, and 7310 non-commission- ed and privates. The militia are 1,333,091. The Navy consists of 11 sail of the Line, 17 frigates, and 28 sloops and schooners. They reckon 1,341,547 militia-men in the United States The clergy at 10,405, and the children in the public schools at 1,065,147. The salaries of the clergy are 2,652.260 dollars. The army, in 1837, was 7958, including 2 regiments of dragoons, 4 of artillery, and 7 of infantry, with 4 generals, 15 colonels, &c., and 5625 privates. The number of the trained militia is 1,326,821. All travellers infer a similarity between the American natives and the Tartars, in manners, opinions, and language. They have like superstitions, and say they were driven away by the rising of the waters. All the tribes dwindle in numbers, from various diseases and bad practices. The American Indians, for the most part, take upon them the name of some animal ; as the blue snake, the little turkey, the big bear, &c. ; and their signatures to convey- ance deeds of land, &c. consist of the out- line, drawn with a pen, of the animals whose names they bear. An Indian calumet of peace is a long pipe adorned with feathers. Belts of wampum consist of shells, black and white, in the form of beads strung upon a thong. By them they recollect events, and they serve instead of writing, being variously construed for different purposes. As the United States extend from lat, 45 to 25, so various states produce the growth of all climates, from the corn, wool, and hemp, of the north, to the cotton, rice, su- gar, coffee, and indigo, of the south, while middle states raise tobacco. America is calculated to contain half the useful soil of the old continent, or about 10 millions of square miles, each capable of supporting 350 persons, or four times the present population of the earth. The entire population is 35 or 40 millions. In the United States, 90 million lbs. of cot. ton are produced in Alabama, 80 in Georgia, 70 in South Carolina, 160 in Mississippi, Ac. Cotton yields from 250 to 300 pounds to the acre, and occupies in the United States about 1,750,000 acres. It employs nearly 700,000 hands and assistants. The capital engaged is 800 millions of dollars. In 1790, the produce was but 1 million pounds, and, in 1815, but 100 millions of pounds. The American prices, from 1831 to 1836, averaged 12^ cents, and, in England, they averaged 8|c/., or 174 cents. AMERICA 863 864 In 1793, the United States exported but 1 million pounds of cotton; but, in 1836, 400 millions. In 1834, Egypt, &c. exported 23, Brazil 30, India 80. The exports of Sea Island cotton, worth 2^ ; the other kinds were, in 1834, 8 million pounds, chiefly from Georgia and South Carolina. In 1832, the American cotton manufac- ture had doubled in four years, and stout American fabrics are on sale in shops in London. The Northern United States, in 1837, ma- nufactured 200 million yards of plain cali- coes ; and, also, 5| millions sterling worth of woollen goods. The United States produce above 500 million pounds of cotton, which employs a million of hands. Nearly 4-5ths are ex- ported in the raw state. The value of manufactured cotton goods is estimated on American authority, in 1835, in England at 160 millions of dollars, at 4*8 to the pound sterling ; in France at 6‘2 ; and in the United States at 48. The capital in England was about 200 millions of dollars, 120 in France, and 80 in the United States. In 1835, the United States exported 7f million pounds of Sea Island cotton, and 380 millions of other kinds, value 65 mil- lions of dollars. Of these quantities, the United Kingdom received 6| and 263 mil- lion pounds, value 45 million dollars, and France 1 million and 87 millions. The gin for cleaning cotton was invented Ln the United States, by Whitney, in 1792, and is a master-piece of ingenuity. Till its invention, a woman could separate the seed from only 1 lb. of cotton per day, but by this machine one man can separate 2 or 300 lbs. 374 millions of acres of land (equal to England and Wales,) were sold by the American government in 1835-6-7, being more than the whole since the Union ; and 3-4ths were bought on speculation, since 3 millions per annum suffice for new cultiva- tion and immigration. The public lands of the United States ex- ceed 1000 millions of acres. 167 millions of acres were surveyed and offered before Sept. 1835, and only 444 sold. Any family may, therefore, become proprie- tor of 360 acres of the best land, in the best climate in the world, for 100/., at the Public Land Office in Philadelphia, &c. The sale of lands, at l£ dollar per acre, was, in 1834, 4§ millions of acres ; in 1835, 124 ; and, in 1836, 22 millions. It was this increased speculation in land, which led, in 1837, to the derangement of the monetary system. The speculation was chiefly in the new states of Indiana, Illinois, Mississippi, and Michigan. The imports of the United States, in the year ending Sept. 30, 1837, were 141 millions of dollars, at 30 millions sterling ; and the exports, 1174 millions dollars, about 25 mil- lions dollars. l-6th in foreign vessels. The exports were sundry products, 17§ millions Tobacco, 5 8 millions; cotton. 63i (above half the whole) ; manufactures, 3 millions ; cotton-pine goods, 2 83 millions ; other articles, 2 2 millions of dollars. Great Britain received 54 6 ; France, 19 7; Ne- therlands, 34 ; British North American co lonies, 3 29 millions. The imports were 44| from Great Britain ; France, 22; Cuba, 124 ; China, 9 ; Mexico, 5 65; Brazil, 5; Hanse Towns, 5 64 ; Bri- tish East and West Indies, 44 ; British North American colonies, 32 6 millions dollars. The value of the imports were 104 millions dollars in bullion and specie; 8 65 coffee ; 3 3 skins ; tea, 6 ; and 36 millions of silk, linen, worsted, and cotton goods ; 3 silks from China ; 54 iron and steel goods ; cop- per, brass, tin, &c. goods, 1£; earthenware, 24 ; wines, 4 ; sugar, 7'1 ; cigars, T2 ; iron, steel, and heavy articles, 4 6 ; wheat, &c. 44 . Total, 140,989,217 dollars’ worth. From 1772 to 1775, North America ex- ported about 100,000 lbs. of tobacco per an- num, of which 3-8ths were consumed in the United Kingdom, and 5-8ths in Europe. From 1787 to 1789,' it was 89 millions lbs. The average, from 1815 to 1835, was 99| millions lbs., in hhds. of 1200 lbs. each, at 7\d. per lb., in 1835, or total value 8£ mil- lions dollars ; or 10 as prepared in snuff, &c. In 1820, France grew 33 millions of lbs. In 1832, the United Kingdom took 36,000 hhds. ; but, in 1835, only 28. The Hanse Towns, also, took 28. France, 6£. Holland, 18. Sweden, 2f. Gibraltar, 24 . The home consumption, in the United States, is 100 millions lbs., chiefly in cigars ; and New York expends 34 millions dollars for bread and for tobacco. — American Almanac . In the United States, in 40 years, flour has varied from 14 to 5 dollars, and averaged 8 51 ; rice has averaged 4 61 per cwt. ; cot- ton, Upland, from 33 to 10, average 204 per lb. ; tobacco has averaged 8 07 per cwt. ; coffee, 22 per lb. ; and sugar, 12 03 per cwt- 766 new vessels, and 124 new steam-boats, were built in the United States, in 1836; total, 113,627 tons. The tonnage of the principal places was 1,370,000 tons. A new steam-vessel is launched per day. The American trading- vessels entered in- wards, in 1835, were 7023, of 1,352,653 tons ; and the foreign were 4269, of 641,310 tons. 528 American, and 480 foreign, at New York, which port imported 88,191,305, and exported 30|. Louisiana imported 17 4 , and exported 36|. The foreign ships were 3682 British, 162 Spanish, 123 Mexican, 95 Han- seatic, 65 French, 64 Swedish, 18 Danish, and 17 Dutch. The mercantile shipping is about 2 mil- lions of tons, every 200 tons having 9 men. The foreign trade employs 700,000 tons, and the coasting 920,000 ; the rest are in fisher- men, and 150,000 in steam. The American seamen are 85,799, with 8000 masters, mates, &c. About 30,000 are naturalized British seamen. The entries from foreign ports, in the United States, in 1836, were: — American, 1,255,834 tons; British, 547,606; other na- tions, 132,607 ; total, nearly 2 millions. AMERICA, 865 866 The imports and exports of the United St&t6S • 1810 £17,791,666 £13,907,909 1830 21,477.602 1*5,385,314 1836 39,579,174 26,804,799 The tonnage of the United Kingdom in- creased from 2,167,863 in 1803, to 2,792,646 in 1836. The British trade with America, United States, is 4 176 per cent, of their trade ; and the American trade with Britain is 22’31 per cent, of the whole British trade. Virginia exports about 45,000 hhds. of tobacco, acd above half a million of barrels of flour. To aid this and other produce, there are half a million of black slaves. The domestic use of tobacco in the United States, is estimated at 100 millions of lbs. per annum, at the value of 10(7. per lb. Of cigars, only 200,000 dollars worth are smoked per annum, in New York only. The whole consumption in the United States, taken at 10 million dollars worth, is 8 times more than in France, and 3 times more than in England, man for man ; and equal in value to the consumption of bread. Nor are the United States so bad as the Havannas, nor worse than Holland and Germany, where two men out of three are constant smokers ! New York is the great emporium of the commerce of the Western world. It con- tains nearly 250,000 inhabitants, and is superbly built on the finest harbour in the world. It imports half the amount of those into th6 whole United States, and exports a third. Its harbour always presents a forest of 800 ships at anchor, and about 1600 fo- reign voyagers, and 4000 coasting-ones pro* ceed from its port every year. The sugar-cane succeeds in Louisiana, and yields above half the sugar used in the Union ; an acre producing 9 or 10 cwt. Rice is also a productive crop, an acre, in moist situations, yielding 10 or 12 cwt. Indian corn yields from 40 to 100 bushels per acre, and wheat from 22 to 50. Tobacco about 1400 cwt., and cotton, when prepared for the market, from 1± to 2 cwt. Provisions are cheaper in the United States than in Europe, but all articles of dress and taste are much dearer. South America, like Asia and Africa, has its companies or caravans of itinerant traders, called Callavayas, who deal in drugs, and practice as physicians, in journeys which last for years. Tepic, in New Galicia, 40 miles inland from the fine port of San Bias, is the chief seat of Mexican commerce on the Pacific, and a flourishing city. To exclude foreigners from Paraguay, a port on the Paraguay, nearer than Assump- tion, has been adopted for commercial inter- course, called Neembucu : and it happens that this place is very near the junction of the Peruvian and Pacific river Vermigo, with the Paraguay. This voyage was per- formed by Soria, in July, 1823, and, as an inland communication of the La Plata with the Pacific, will prove very important, as soon as the Creole Spaniards have proved themselves fit for social life; for Spanish America is greatly below the average of civilization. The late escape from Paraguay of the Robertsons, from the lawyer-like tyranny of the monster Francia, has, however, enabled them to bring us acquainted with the Yerba or Paraguay Tea, the Lapacho-tree with timber larger and superior to the oak, and with 50 other products, as surprising as use- ful, hitherto shut out from the world by Spanish policy, and by the necessary naviga- tion of 3 rivers 1500 miles, with a slight current, which, however, will yield to steam navigation when applied to them. Pittsburgh, in Western Pennsylvania, on the point where the Monangahela and Alle- ghany rivers join, contains about 30,000 in- habitants; and, being in the centre of a vast coal and iron district, is the seat of many manufactories. It has nail and rolling-mills, 12 foundries, where 3000 tons are cast, 37 steam-engines, 8 cotton-factories, 8 paper- mills, 13 brass and copper- works, &c. &c. trifling, when compared with the Birming- ham and Sheffield regions, but growing. The manufactures of the state of Massa- chusetts employ 97,226 hands, valued at 83$ millions of dollars. Boots and shoes employ 39,068 ; clothing, &c. 3939 ; cotton cloths, 19,754 ; calico-printing, 1660; iron, 1311; leather, 1798; machines, 1399; nails, &c. 1095; paper, 1173; stone, 1177; ship-build- ing, 2834 ; woollen fabrics, 7097. The po- pulation of Massachusetts is l-20th of the United States. The United States have 20 millions of sheep, which yield annually 50 millions lbs. of wool, worth 20 millions of dollars. For woollen manufactures, there are 1549 sets of machinery, 344 of which are for broad-cloth, and 61 for carpets. The Americans calculate that 500 manu- facturing families consume as many custom- house goods as 2000 agriculturalists. They also determine that 12 millions of people consume 249 millions of dollars of food, 202 millions dollars of clothing, &c. &c. ; in all, 1066 millions- worth of all produce. An official document states the particulars of the cotton manufactory in the United States, in 1832, about a third of 1840 ; and we have official information, on nearly the same points, as to the United Kingdom. The United States has 795 factories, and we have 1070. They consume 77 million lbs. of cotton, we about 310, or 1 to 4. Their factories are, therefore, to ours, as 1 to 3 in efficiency. They employ 18,479 males, besides wea- vers and children under 13; we 67,500; 38,827 females, we 70,100; 4961 children under 13, we 28,574. They employ 4760 power-loom weavers, and we 54,000 hand and power-loom. The whole of their wages, in 1832, was 2,087,400/., that is, 12s. per week on the average of hands ; and our wages at 10s. 5 d. per week on the average of ages and em- ployments, making, on 225,000 hands, 10,725,000/. F F 867 AMEB The yards of cloth, made by the United States, were 230,461,900, value, 5,350,000/., at G d. per yard ; which, in ratio of our cot- ton consumed in cloth, independently of twist, ought to give us 7,201,385,700 yards. We export 70 millions as twist, or, with waste, one-third ; but, taking our fabrics in weight, to theirs as 2 to 3, which appears by our excess of weavers, our quantity may be 1080 millions of yards nearly, of which about half, or 540 or 550 millions, are exported, and the other half for home-consumption. The valley of the Mississippi is 1400 miles from N. to S , and 14/0 from E. to W., be- tween lat. 29^ and 49°. Two. thirds are arable land, containing 14 times the quan- tity of land capable of cultivation in the British Islands. Its present population is under 6 millions; while, in 1/90, it was only a quarter of a million ; and, in 1820, but 2£ millions. With the highest known rate of population, it might support in abundance 200 millions; but there must be no peers or princes, and no overgrown occupiers or pro- prietors. It consists of two slopes to the two great rivers, and every part is navi- gated by steam-boats. South of the Ohio mouth is the lower valley, and North the upper, and they are distinguished by their climate and products. In one there is no ice in winter, and the products are cotton, sugar, tobacco, and indigo. In, the other, there are sharp frosts, and the products are grain, stock, hemp, and minerals. The Missouri is deemed the main trunk, but the Mississippi and its branches are the most useful to man. Both run 3000 miles. The extensive prairies in the great valley remain so, because trees will not grow on a thick grassy sward. A desert, of several hundred miles wide, divides the fertile lands of the Mississippi and Missouri from the rocky mountains and the Pacific Peck. All mercantile communication from Eu- rope to the Great Valley is via New Orleans, whence packages pass by water to every part. Emigrants, without heavy luggage, go by New York or Philadelphia. The dis- tances are immense. It is 394 miles from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, 466 thence to Cincinnati, and 509 from this to the Ohio mouth ; then 850 to St. Louis. The cost of the whole about 50 dollars, and the time 15 or 16 days. The valley of the Ohio, 750 miles by 261, is the favourite resort of European settlers, and it produces every thing desirable to man in an abundance without example. The mean summer and winter heat of Cincinnati, the capital, is 34^ and 74§ ; and the clear days average 172°, the rainy being about 60^. Any settler may purchase 40 acres of rich land for 50 dollars, and at this price there is always plenty on sale. The country is divided into sections of square miles of 640 acres ; then into ranges E. and W., and into townships taken N. and S. There Eire 5 meridian lines, and 5 bases to count the sections from. The usual lots arc 8ths, or 80 acres at 1$ dollar each, in general, with ica. 868 5 years’ exemption from taxes. Emigrants should apply to the Government Land Offices, and beware of speculators and jobners. The province of New York presents an extraordinary spectacle of rising prosperity. It is 400 miles long, and 300 broad, contain- ing 45,658 square miles, or 29 millions of acres ; of which, 8£ are in cultivation. It contains five cities, (New York, Albany, Troy, Hudson, and Schenectady,) 764 towns, and 108 villages. It lies between lat. 40° 30/ and 45°, and its mean temperature, for five years, was 48^; its rain and snow was 38 22 inches; and its extreme temperature 104 F., and 33 below Zero. It contains 2284 grist-mills, 6340 saw-mills, 121 oil-mills, 1231 fulling-mills, 1685 card- ing-mills, 131 cotton-factories, 223 woollen- factories, 191 iron-smelting works, 184 trip- hammers, 2206 asheries and salt-works, which, in 1836, made 1,600,000 bushels. The State has constructed the Mohawk and Hudson Rail-road , 15 miles. The Ithaca and Oswega Rail-road , and the Sara- toga Rail-road. It supports four colleges, and two medical colleges ; 77 incorporated academies, and *9662 common schools, educating 597,503 children between 5 and 16, and not in the badge of charity -clothes. There are 1482 religious congregations, each of which pays its own teachers ; and four theological seminaries. The finances in 1836 were, receipts 2 mil- lion dollars ; of which, 1,520,939 were applied to canals, 138,920 to schools, and 3830 to literary objects. The poor, on two millions of inhabitants, cost 250,000 dollars ; the paupers being 6000. The value of real and personal estates in 1836 was — real, 300 millions of dollars; personal, 75 millions. The countries watered by the Mississippi, and comprehended in the United States, are 1400 miles long and 1200 broad, compre- hending an area of 1± million of square miles, or more than three times as much as the 13 ancient states. The Alleganies cover a tract of 1100 miles long and 120 broad, being from 1000 to 6000 feet high. The land near them consists of their substance. The tract near the sea, 20 or 50 miles wide, is a sandy encroach- ment on the sea, brought down by the rivers Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Susque- hannah, Potowmac, and six or seven others, which run from the mountains to the sea, from 200 to 350 miles. The drain on the other side of the mountains is the Mississippi and its branches. The river Ohio, which gives name to a state in America, runs into the Mississippi, and is navigable for numerous steam-vessels. The present population of the state is a mil- lion, and it extends over 40,000 square miles, between 39° and 42° of N. latitude. Co- lumbus and Cincinnati are its largest towns. The Ohio is nearly 1200 miles before it* junction with the Mississippi, and nearly one third of a mile broad. AMFRICA. <869 The state of Missouri contains 38 millions of acres : and the undivided territory, be- sides, is 900 miles by 800, four times the size of France. It is in the latitude of Southern Italy, yet the winters are very severe, and the Missouri frozen over. The open prairies extend hundreds of miles, and every mineral and vegetable product exists in superabun- dance. St. Louis is the capital, and con- tains 10,000 inhabitants, a college, and pub- lic library. There are roads as far as the Pacific. The Illinois country, lying between the Ohio, Mississippi, and Illinois, intersected by the Wabash, and approximating Lake Michigan, is considered in America as the most promising district, iri position, in fine soil, abundant coals, iron, lead, &c. It is in the fine latitude 36° — 40°, and connected with vast tracts by the Missouri. The Saratoga Springs is the fashionable Spa of the United States. Washington is in latitude 38° 52/ 54", and longitude 77 ° 1/ 48". New York 4(P 42/ 40" latitude, 74° 1/ 8" longitude. In recent observations on the Andes, by Pentland, he asserts, that Nevado de Sorato is the highest of them, being 800 feet higher than Chimborazo, or 25.000 feet ; and he considers Illimani near Paz, in Bolivia, as equal to Chimborazo, or 24,200 feet. The Gulf of Mexico, the drainage of North America by the Mississippi, may be regarded as the lake or debouche of that great stream. The Isthmus of Panama, about 70 miles wide and 350 long, is considered as the boundary of North and South America. Russia, not content with its vast Asiatic territories, has seized on, and claimed a large tract of territory on the eastern side of Behring’s Straits. It extends over 25° of Ion. and 10° of latitude, and includes the northern discoveries of Cook. The Aleutian islands, part of Russia, stretch from Ame- rica to Asia, like the piers of a bridge. The Republic of Mexico is 1800 miles by 900, and large portions of it are 6 or 7000 feet above the sea. Its produce is all the articles of the tropics and the temperate zone, and it is a most promising country. The population is 7 or 8 millions. Mexican history goes back 1200 years, and is mixed with some early traditions of the Deluge. Chuquisaca, the capital of Bolivia, (late La Plata) is 9300 feet above the sea, in the silver district, and contains 20,000 inha- bitants. Rio Janeiro is the last mart for slaves. In 1832,20,000 were sold there! In other respects, Rio Janeiro and its vicinity are to be admired, as the most fertile and enchant- ing spot in the world. Behring’s Straits are from 40 to 50 miles wide, and between lat. 65 and 66. Naviga- tion is obstructed by the ice two or three degrees to the north of them, the Asiatic coast bending westward, and the American eastward. Kotzebue’s Sound is in lat. 66° *21 30", and long. 164° 12/ 50"; and he found mammoths’ bones in the vicinity. 870 The north-east cape of North America is in 69° 41/ N. lat. and 82^ 35/ W. Ion. Cook explored the north-west coast, to lat. 70. The Esquimaux appear to inhabit the entire coast of the North American Ocean, from Greenland to the south of Behring’s Strait, with uniformity of language and manners. New Granada includes Panama, Cartha- gena, Bogota, &c., with l£ million of inha- bitants. Venezuela includes Caraccus, Cumana, &c., with 1 million. Equator includes Quito, Guayaquil, &c. with | million. Peru includes Lima, Cusco, Truxillo Arequipa, &c., with 1£ million. Bolivia includes Potosi, Chuquisaca, La Paz, &c., with 14 million. Chili includes Valdivia, Santiago, Co- quimbo, &c. l£ million. Argentine includes Buenos Ayres, Tu- cuman, &c., 1£ million. Uraguay includes Montevideo, &c., and 150,000 inhabitants. Paraguay includes Assumption, &c. and 4 a million inhabitants. Brazil is an empire under Pedro II., born 1825, and includes Rio Janeiro, Per- nambuco, Para, Bahia, &c. with 3000 square miles, and 5 or 6 millions inhabitants. The nineteen provinces of Brazil contain but five and a half millions of inhabitants, of whom two are slaves. Brazil is 2300 miles long, and 1100 broad, in a fine climate, with a luxurious soil, and connected by the Parana and various rivers; besides enjoying the advantage of a line of coast equal to its length, with many fine harbours. Its luxu- riance is such, that its extensive woods, often for a thousand square miles covered with the largest trees, are absolutely impe- netrable, except to the birds who abound in their branches, and to innumerable crawling creatures, who live on their fruit and bark. The native population is very trifling, but they are well-made, active, and very wild. The Portuguese, who live on the coast, have the lowest moral qualities, and are the ab- ject slaves of an ignorant priesthood. Columbia extends, on the Atlantic, from Cape Nassau to Cape Gracias and Dios; and, on the Pacific, from Golfo Dolce to the Tumbes. It meets Peru and Brazil at the Yaberi and Maranom. The population is above 3 millions, of which half are whites. Owing to the increase of the horse in the Pampas, the Indians south of the Amazons have become equestrian, like the Tartars. Newfoundland was discovered by John Cabot, a Venetian, on the 24th of June, 1497, in a squadron of discovery which sailed from Bristol. The table-land of Mexico is healthy, but unfruitful, while the coasts are unhealthy, but adapted to produce more than all the world could consume. The only anchorage, however, on the east, is Vera Cruz, a seat 01 pestilence, and the gulf being a marine cul de sac receives, as a dam, the whole force of the Atlantic. On the west, there are two ports San Elas, and Acapulco. Mcju F F 2 AMERICA. 871 872 Ico contains 200,000 inhabitants in a highly- picturesque district, and fine climate. The population of Mexico and New Spain is now nearly 8 millions, of all mixtures of colour, covering 1 million of square miles. In wheat, the increase is 50 and 80 to 1, and in maize 200 to 1. Bolivia lies between the Paraguay and the Pacific, and includes the silver mine dis- tricts of Potosi, La Paz, &c. It is central, being bounded on the east by Brazil, on the north by Brazil and Peru, on the west by Peru and the Pacific, and on the south by Chili and Argentia. Its port is Cobija, mid- way between Lima and Valparaiso. It in- cludes two ridges of the Andes, and some fertile regions adjoining Brazil. The capi- tal is Chuquisaca, near Potosi. The total population is not 2 millions, or 2 to a square mile. Columbia, in 1834, was divided into three Republics, New Granada, Venezuela, and the Equator. The Rio de la Plata, an arm of the sea, which receives three great rivers, the Para- guay, the Parana, and the Uraguay, is 150 miles broad at its mouth, and is an opening and drain to vast plains, which extend on every side to the Andes. On its south side stands the city of Buenos Ayres, celebrated for its extent and regularity, and the seat of a republican government, which asserts its ascendancy over immense tracts of country. The thermometer varies from 100° to 45°, and every degree of climate is experienced according to elevation. Prodigious numbers of settlers from Europe go to these fine pro- vinces ; and, if the government is just and wise, they will rival North America, the climate being finer, the soil richer, and the productions as abundant as various. The extent is about a million of square miles, or fifty times larger than Great Britain. In the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, twelve mil- lions of cows, and three millions of horses are property, besides the wild herds. Texas is four times the extent of Virginia, with a constitution like that of the United States. Its first President was General Houston, and the seat of government is called Houston. The population is 100,000. Bogota, the capital of Columbia, is on an extensive plain, 8694 feet above the level of the sea, in the most delightful temperature and healthful atmosphere. The Magdalena is its communicator to Carthagena, by steam-vessels, and by the Negro to the Orinoco The republic of Chili lies between the 24th and 36th deg. of south lat. in the best climate of the temperate zone, and includes the fertile level tract, 300 miles wide, which lies between the Pacific Ocean on the west, and the Andes on the east. In these moun- tains, there are fourteen recent volcanoes, and some of them commonly burning ; hence the country is subject to earthquakes, and the houses are built low. The productions of every climate arrive at perfection in it. Marine substances are found every where, • pen on the tops of its secondary mountains. Gold is very abundant, and there are many valuable mines, besides the quantities found in the beds of rivers. Silver, copper, and iron are also very abundant, as well as pit- coal. Many of its trees are of gigantic size, particularly the red cedar, and there are few or no noxious animals. The boundary of the republic of Peru is the river Tumbez, in latitude 23° 26/ south, and it is separated from the Chilian territory by the Loa, in latitude 15°. The south of Chili is highly fertile, the north as sterile as Arabia, and without rain. The Indian antiquities are few and tri- fling. Axes and knives of stone, potters' ware, rude ornaments of copper and silver, with the calumet or large stone-pipe, spear- heads, &c., are found in their burying- places. Skeletons and mummies are also found in the nitrous caves of Kentucky, and a few earth- works for camps. Peck denies the existence of ancient races in the Great Valley, and asserts, that there is not a skeleton to be found, except in caves, more ancient than Columbus, The Ohio and other mounds are natural products, not burial-places. The tribes were few in number, never numerous, and latterly di- minished by European vices. They could not have cut down trees, and cleared and shaped timber by fire. The language of California has no affinity whatever with that of Mexico, though so near; and their manners, customs, and superstitions, have no resemblance to any thing Asiatic, though they say they came from the North. Their three tribes speak languages altogether dissimilar ; and a Spa- nish missionary says, there are in this penin- sula 17 languages. The chiefs of the Osage and Missouri In- dians are called Incas. The coinage, in 1837, was 232,200 gold pieces, and 7,200,200 silver. The mines produced 5 million dollars’ worth of gold. Down to Michaelmas 1837, 6l£ millions of acres of land had been sold, at 127 dollars. Half per cent, annually is paid out of the capital of 29 banks, to form a fund for the payment of the creditors of any bank that may fail, and their capital is 6,494,000 dol- lars. Other banks had 22,323,460. The currency is paper, dollars, and copper coins, in cents, or the 100th of a dollar. In 1835, the United States revenue was — Customs 19,391.311 dollars. Sale of lands 14,757,601 do. And sundries — making receipts 35,430,087, and a balance in hand of 8,892,856. The expenditure was only 17,573,142 Civil List, Embassies, &c 3,721,261 Military 9,420,313 Naval 3,864,939 And sundries. The balance in hand was 26,749,803, di- vided among the States in 294ths, accord- ing to electoral votes. New York receiveo on 42 shares 5,352,694 dollars ; and Penn- sylvania 3,023,353 on 30 votes. There are no public taxes besides the customs on fo- AMERICA. 873 reign goods ; so that the returns are substi- tutes for local rates. The balance, in the American treasury, of revenue over expenses, were, within 1835, 26J millions dollars; within 1836, 46 millions; and, within 1837, 34A. The reve- nue, within 1837, was 46 millions, and the total expenditure 35£ millions. The public expenditure of the United States, in 1836. was 31 millions of dollars ; and, in 1837, 39 millions. 3 per cent, of the sale of lands is devoted to local improvements, and 2 per cent, to education. There are 709 banks, and 173 brancbes, with 440 millions of dollars for capital. The United States Bank has 35 millions. The American dollar is 371 5 grains of pure silver, or 416 standard silver. The Eagle is 232 grains of pure gold ; 4 • 87 t?^ dollars are equal to a sovereign. In 1834-5-6, the United States imported 43 £ millions of dollars in bullion, and ex- ported lOf. They coined 47 -in gold, 3§ in silver, and 23,100 in copper cents and half cents. In 54 years, the United States coined in gold 22 millions dollars ; in silver, 46f ; and, in copper, f . In half dollars, 84£ mil- lions pieces. The mines of Mexico and South America, per Humboldt, yield, in sterling value, 1,273,000/. gold, and 7,168,000/. silver per annum. Jacob estimates the produce from 1500 to 1810 at 9g millions, and 'from 1811 to 1820, 3$ See Supplement. In 1837, to prevent the exportation of specie to meet undue commercial specula- tion, all the banks stopped payment in specie ; but their circulation was then limited by law, and no dividends paid till resumption. The government (U. S.) gave 16 millions in 46 years, to old soldiers, colleges, and schools. Most of the States have separate debts for local improvements, provided for by sale of lands, by profits, or surplus revenues. The United States have 558 banks, chiefly joint-stock, whose average capital is half a million of dollars. Their credit affords cur- rency to their notes of all values above a quarter of a dollar. Labour, however, is in demand, and land in surplus, hence the effect of so vast a currency is not felt by the people at large. There is a safety-fund of 3 per cent, on all the capitals, as guarantee for the payment of all issues in full ; and each bank is obliged to state and publish its whole con- cerns annually, to a committee of the legis- lature. If a bank is not connected with the safety-fund, every proprietor is answerable for all the obligations. The post-office routes in the United States a le 118,264 miles. The bye-posts make a distance of 274 millions of miles. At 25 cents for 400 miles, the post-office revenue over expenditure is § million of dollars. Newspapers pay a cent, and magazines a cent and a half per royal sheet of 24 pages. 3000 miles of double railroad are in pre- paration in the United States. R74 In the United States there are already 28 railways, extending 1000 miles. The New York and Erie is in progress, 506 miles, at 4230/. per mile. The Cincinnati and Charles ton will exceed 650 miles. America (United States) has 3026 miles of canals. The Hudson and Erie is 363 miles with 84 locks, rising 689 feet. The canals completed, in 1837, are 2000 miles ; the railroads 1500. Other railroads are in progress, connecting Boston with New Orleans. The cost per mile is 7000 dollars for single tract, and 13,000 for double ; the cost chiefly borne by the Provincial funds. The roads in the United States are im- proved by the post-office revenues. The projected railroad from New Orleans to Nashville is 564 miles ! In 1 825, the Congress of Mexico decreed the construction of a canal across the isthmus of Tehuantepec, to join the two oceans in lat. 18, Ion. 94. 51,000 Indians, by treaty, have removed west of the Mississippi, and 280,000 remain west of that river, in 46 tribes. The Creeks at 20,000 ; the Choctaws 15,000; the Sioux 21,600; the Pawnes 12,500; the Camanches 19,200; the Pagans 30,000; the Assinci- boins 15,000 ; the Appaches 20,280 ; the Gros Ventry 16,800 ; the Entaws 19,200, and the Blackfeet 30,000. They have 66,500 warriors. The American government having pur- chased the lands from the near tribes of Indians, have removed them into other dis- tricts ; but these being claimed as the hunt- ing grounds of other previous occupants, bloody rencontres have taken place. The Esquimaux appear to inhabit the entire coast of the North American Ocean, from Greenland to the south of Behring’s Strait, with uniformity of language and manners. The Esquimaux, seen by Parry, are five feet five, and the women five feet. They live in huts built of ice and snow, entered by long passages, and divided into apartments, with well-constructed dome roofs, lighted by a sheet of ice, and kept warm with lamps. They have the Tartar physiognomy. There are 8 law schools and 95 endowed colleges in the 26 States, in most of which true learning is as well cultivated as in any of the European universities. Pennsylvania has 67 0 students. Harvard 422, and Yale 570. There are, also, 28 medical schools, with 1 or 200 students in each. The United States are distracted and dis- graced by religious divisions. The Editor of the American Almanac enumerates no less than 29 denominations! The Methodists with 6 bishops, the Baptists, and the Presby- terians, appear to be the favourites. The Shakers, Tunkers, &c., are almost nominal. In this chaos, there are 443 Catholic congre- gations with 14 bishops, and 850 Church of England with 18 bishops. The Methodists have 3039 travelling preachers, and nearly as many local preachers ! The conferences, camp-meetings, &e., are very numerous in the United States. 875 MONETARY AND FISCAL. 87 * MONETARY AND FISCAL. The gross amount of all the expences of The Finance Accounts of the United fleeting the Customs, was <£1,300,807 ; T .. j /. ,, . i g ,T Excise, .£1,037,962; Stamps, £ 168,034 ; Kingdom, for the Year ended 5th Taxes, £233,465 ; Post-office, £669,756 5 Jan. 1839 . Ordinary Revenues and Extraordinary Revenues, constituting the Public Income of the United Kingdom , for the Year ending 5th Jan. 1839. Payments Gross Receipts. into the Exchequer, Customs . Excise . Stamps . Taxes Post Office 1$. in the Pound, and 6d. in the Pound on Pensions and Sala- ries, and 4s. in the Pound on Pensions Crown Lands . Small Branches of the Hered. Revenue Surplus Fees of Re- gulated Public Of- fices Money received from the E. I. Company From the King of the Belgians Imprest Monies Unclaimed Dividends 23,210,881 20,846,246 15,493,310 13,632,171 7,428,060 3,907,2G4 2,467,216 6,759 388,642 4,575 7,050,582 3,654,818 1,656,993 6,831 180,000 4,575 35,000 126,853 6,861 35,000 126,853 6,861 Pubiic income ottne 53 207,951 47,333,459 United Kingdom J ’ ’ In Ireland, the gross was £4,677,076, and the net £4,041,429. Expenditure. Interest and Management of the Permanent Debt . £24,355,344 Terminable Annuities . . 4,183,965 28,539,310 720,928 385,621 Total Charge of the Funded 7 Debt . . S Interest on Exchequer Bills Civil List Annuities and Pensions for Civil .Naval, Military, and Judicia Services Salaries and Allowances Diplomatic Salaries & Pension Courts of Justice Miscellaneous Charges Army Navy Ordnance Miscellaneous . Insurrection in Canada Crown Lands, £40,789. Rate per Centum, for which the Gross Receipt was collected, 61. Besides the charges of collection, there are other payments out of the income, amounting to £591,120, in which £165,998 was made out of the Crown Lands, besides the £40,789 for expences of collection. EXCISE. An Account of the Gross Receipt and Net Produce of the Revenue of Excise in Great Britain , in the Year ended 5th Jan. 1839. England : 72,525 72,525 60,000 60,000 Auctions . £248,628 Bricks © 410,822 Glass 619,026 Hops 302,906 Licences . 795,368 Malt . 4,274,664 Paper 424,145 Post-horse Duty 217,762 Ditto Licenses 3,528 Soap 732,043 Spirits . 2,520,024 Sugar from Beet-root 103 Vinegar 20,827 Law Costs recovered 906 Fines and Forfeitures 6,841 Total Scotland : . 10,577,599 Auctions . . 23,558 Bricks . 7,512 Glass 38,136 Licences . 101,642 Malt 373,100 Paper 93,507 Post-horse Duty . 19,658 Ditto Licences 317 Soap 76,987 Spirits . 1,437,324 Vinegar . 174 Law Costs recovered 439 Fines and Forfeitures 3,274 Total 2,170,920 Expences above Income Income 609,544 213,352 182,028 791,728 222,884 6,815,641 4, 520,428 1,384,681 2,792,539 500,000 47,678,687 345,228 £47,333,460 £13,000 9,829- 1 26^ 191 285,314 22,226 1,509,841 45$ Balances in the Exchequer on the 5th January, 1839, £4,594,884. Ireland. Auctions Glass Licences . Malt Paper Spirits (Home-made) Vinegar . Total . £1,966,860 The Salaries to Officers on the Establish- ment are 607,816/. Within 1832, the Spirits distilled in England were 3,788,068 gallons; in Scot- land 9,979,038 gallons; and in Ireland 9,260,920 gallons. Total 21,028,026 gallons. Duty for home consumption was paid on 20,778,558 gallons, i.e. 17*26 for England,, 4 *86 for Scotland, and 8 '66 for Ireland. This gives the ratio of drunkenness, accord. 877 MONETARY AND FISCAL. 873 ing to population, as 4*54 for England, 24-3 for Scotland, and 12*39 for Ireland. In distilling whiskey, 2 parts are barley and 1 malt. When more barley, oat-seeds are added. Hollands is made from 1 malt and 2 rye-meal, and only 1000th yeast added to the ferment. Juniper and hops give the flavour. In making Rum , 12 gallons of molasses and 100 of water make 14 or 15 of spirits, 1 to 10 over proof. Stamps. Net Produce of the Revenue of Stamps in Great Britain, including Hackney Car- riages, and Hawkers' and Pedlars' Li- cences. Deeds and other Instruments, not included under any of the following Heads . .£1,542,388 Probates of Wills and Letters of Administration . . 843,998 Bills of Exchange . . 516,263 Bankers’ Notes . . . 28,343 Composition for the Duties on the Bills and Notes of the Bank of England, and of Coun- try Bankers . . . 91,317 Receipts .... 157,951 Marine Insurances . . 250,590 Licences and Certificates . 212,578 Newspapers and Supplements, and Papers for Advertisements 204,590 Medicine . . 26,107 Legacies . . 1,276,59 7 Fire Insurances . . . 852,372 Gold and Silver Plate . . 80,943 Cards .... 11,960 Dice .... 1,8/2 Advertisements . . . 111,899 Stage Carriages . .. . 494,284 Hackney Carriages . . 46,185 Penalties in Law Proceedings, and Costs received . • 495 Total . .£6,750 /41 The Salaries to Officers on the Establish, ment are £53,871. The Stamps, &c. for Ireland are ^£461 ,747. Taxes. N et Produce of the Revenue of Taxes in Great Brit., in Year ended 5th Jan. 1839, Land-Tax on Lands and Tene- ments . . .£1,184,830 ASSESSED TAXES. Schedule : — A. Windows . . 1,262,561 C. Servants . . . 20 1 , 01 8 D. Carriages . , . 442 /5/ E. Horses for Riding, &c. . 315,023 F. Oi.her Horses and Mules . 62’453 G. Dogs . . . 156,’ 199 H. Horse Dealers . . 13,1/3 I. Hair Powder . . 6,36/ K. Armorial Bearings . 63.814 L. Game Duties . . 161,366 Composition Duty . . 32,389 Penalties in Law Proceedings and Costs received . . 1,022 Total . £2,718,142 The Salaries to Officers ol the Establish, ment are .£61,442. Post-Office. Net Produce of the Post Office Revenue of Great Britain , in hear ended 5th Jan. 1839. Unpaid Letters Outwards, and~j Paid Letters Inwafds, and Ship Letters charged on Coun- try Postmasters Unpaid Letters Inwards, and Paid Letters Outwards, col- lected by Letter Carriers, &c., in London and Edinburgh By and Cross-road Letters Two-penny and Penny- post Let- ters at London and Edinburgh Letters charged on the Post- masters in the W. Indies and British North America , Postage of Letters received by the Windowmen, &c., of the Foreign Office Miscellaneous Receipts 1,833,740 134,313 64,616 81,862 2,264 Total . £2,116,798 The Salaries to the Postmaster- General, Officers, and Clerks in the London and Edinburgh Offices, and Wages and Allow- ances to Letter Carriers, Mes- sengers, &c. . . . 86,26. The Salaries and Allowances to Deputy Postmasters & Agents in Gt. Britain and the Colonies 111,485 The Salaries and wages to Offi- cers and Letter Carriers in the Twopenny Post Office . 48,890 parliamentary grants : — To the Duke of Marlborough . £3,625 To the Duke of Grafton . 3,407 To the Duke of Schomberg . 2,900 Total . £256,568 IRELAND. Unpaid Letters Outwards, and - ] Paid Letters Inwards, and Ship Letters, &c., charged on Coun- try Postmasters Unpaid Letters Inwards, and {> Paid Letters Outwards, col- lected by the Letter Carriers in Dublin By and Cross-road Letters Two-penny and Penny Post Let- ters at Dublin Miscellaneous Receipts . 224,839 4,042 598 Total . £229,480 No less than £137,109 are expended on the separate form of Civil Governments in Scotland, chiefly in prodigal salaries and' pensions ; among others, £4,300, £4,000, £2,600, and £2.000 to Judges ; £3,000 to a Chief Baron ; £4,000 to a Chief Commis- sioner ; £2,775 to a I ord Privy Seal, and a hundred others, chiefly sinecures, and re- liques of useless feudality I 879 MONETARY AND FISCAI , 880 Funded Debt. Sums paid in the Year ended 5th January , 1839, in respect of the Public Funded Debt. South Sea Company, Interest and Management of their Ann. . .£310,238 Bank of England, for Interest and Management of the Stock created by Loans to Govern- ment at various periods . 336,032 Bank of England, one year’s Management, due 5th April, 1838, on the Capital of the Unredeemed Debt . . 133,566 Interest on £3 p. c. Consol. Ann. 10,737,964 — Reduced . 3,807.552 — 12 Geo. I. . 24 .799 £3 10s. Annuities . 370,508 — Red. Ann. . 2,322,897 ~ Ann. (New) 5,105,539 £5 Annuities . 21,354 South Sea Company . . 9,197 Total . .£23,179,651 IRELAND : Interest on £ 4 and £5 per cent Bank Annuities . 115,384 £3 p. c. Con. Ann. 94,237 — Red. Ann. 3,619 £3 10s. Ann. 1818 506,545 — Red. Ann. 34.280 — Ann. (New) 417,951 £5 Annuities 333 Debt and Management . £24,344,491 Exchequer and Tontine Ann. . 17,563 Long Annuities, expire 1860 . 1,295,302 Ditto, Ireland . . . 136 Life Annuities . . . 822,634 Annuities for Terms of Years . 1,440,529 Life Annuities . . 8,976 Annuities for Terms of Years . 306 Irish Life Annuities, with the benefit of Survivorship . 40,073 Bank of England, on account of the Annuity purchased of the Trustees of Naval and Mili- tary Pensions and Civil Super- annuations . . . 585,740 Total annual Payments and t Charges on account of >.£28,553.754 Funded Debt . j Capital of Public Funded Debt. Bank Annuities, 1726, £3 p. ct. .Consolidated Annuities ditto Reduced Annuities ditto £3$ per cent. Annuities, 1818 •£3i per cent. Red. Annuities New 3f per cent. Annuities New 5 per cent. Annuities ^1,294,586 16 10 Long Annui- ties, at 25 vears’ purchase Annuities for terms of Years .£1,046,354 7 6 (after deduct- ing the Annuity of .£355,822 10 6 held by the Bank,) at 25 years’ purchase .£825,333 357,019,936 125,416,272 10,690,794 66,295,138 146,012,625 438,240 32,364,671 26,158,859 Total . £76 5,221,871 Total sum paid the Bank of England for management . .£139,145 Paid the South Sea Company . 5,900 Expences of the National Debt Office . . . 11,900 Interest on Exchequer Bills . 720,928 Pensions, Appropriated to the Charge of the Civi List : — The three Royal Dukes have Pen sionsof .£21,000; four Princesses, £13,000 Queen Dowager Adelaide, £100,000 ; (! Duchess of Kent, £30,000. There are, also, £35,000 of Naval and Military Pensions; £51,000 for unknown Civil services ; £34,000 for unknown Judi- cial services ; £99,000 for Court Pensions ; and £90,000 for Irish Pensions, chiefly for unknown services. Total Pensions £624,642. £216,125 is also paid in Salaries, chiefly to sinecurists, — as £1026 to an Inspector of Anatomy, in Great Britain, and £487 10s. in Irelind, &c. &c. £139,553 is paid for Diplomatic Agents and Secretaries, — as £10,000 and £1,952 to France ; £9,900 and £862 to Austria, &c. &c., on an equal scale of profligate waste. £52,420 is then superadded for Pensions to the same parties. Abstract of the prodigal Salaries , Pensions , Sinecure Allowances , Sfc. Sfc. in the Judi- cial departments. For Courts of Justice and Police England £213,256 Ditto Ireland 458,667 Compensation for regulated Law Offices .... 123,835 £795,760 The two Chief Justices of the Bench and Common Pleas have £8,000, the Chief Baron of the Exchequer £7,000, the other twelve Judges £5,000 each. The sinecure of Chief Clerk £7700. The Filacer £4,496. The C'ustos Brevium £2,090, &c. &fc., all equally astounding to tax-payers. Other payments are for Interest and Sink- ing Fund on Russian Loan, raised in Hol- land, £101,686; Annuity for Barracks in the Regent’s Park, £5,400 ; Greenwich Hospital, towards support of, £20,000 j Commission of West India Compensations, £26,175 ; Interest on account of the Com- pensation, £ 1 1,506 ; Secret Service, £ 1 0,00i Police Constabulary, £175,227. Cholera Expences, £5,258. County Treasurers for Boards of Health, £7,808. Army and Navy. Sums issued in the Year ended 5th January, 1839, for the Service of the A rmy. Supply, anno 1837 . . £2,051,205 1838 . . 4,724,43 i Sums issued in the Y ar ended 5th January , 1839, fo* the Service of the Navy. Supply, anno 1837 . • £1.345,428 1838 . „ 3,175,000 881 MONETARY AND FISCAL. 882 Sums is sued for the Service of the Ordnance. Supply, anno 1837 . . .£580.940 1 OOQ CrtO "l A 1 1838 . 803,741 Public Works. 1837. 1838. £ £ Repairing Marlborough House 12 000 Rebuilding Houses of Parliament 86,000 8,607 Temporary Accommoda- tion, ditto 5,095 12,000 Prison, Isle of Wight 25,000 4,185 Enclosing Ground oppo- site the Nat. Gallery 2,000 Civil Departments. Household of the Lord Lieute- nant of Ireland . . .£10,337 Salaries of the Chief and Under Secretary’s Office of Ireland . 10.601 Salaries and Contingencies, Treasury 33,006 Ditto Home Office 16,035 Dkto Foreign Office 35,000 Ditto Colonial Office 13,050 Ditto Council Office 16,154 Salaries and Expences of Houses of Parliament . . 40,787 Secret Service (.£10,000) . 27,900 Law and Justice. Insolvent Debtor’s Court . 7,000 Police of Dublin . . 22,655 Convicts at Home and Bermuda 48,552 Ditto, New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land . 244,949 Colonial and Consular Services. For Special and Temporary Objects. Commissioners for preventing Slave Trade . . . 10,004 Inspectors of Factories . . 5,724 Inspectors of Prisons . . 2'467 Revising Barristers . . 27.00C Commission on Railways, Ireland 9’00(J Public Records : Binding, &c. 8,200 Commis. for Hand-loom Weavers 3,700 Expences of Coronation . . 69,421 Balances in the Exchequer , 5th Jan. 1839. Consolidated Fund in Cash . .£3,465,175 Sugar Duty . . . 470,399 In Exchequer in Ireland . 659,310 Total . .£4,594,885 Total Public Debt. Balance due to Public Creditors 5th January, 1839, including Management . . 730,028,648 Annual Charge . . 27,473,559 General Total Debt, Ireland . 33,774.915 Annual Charge . . 1,195,773 Great Britain and Ireland, Tot. 763,803.563 Annual Charge . . 28,669,333 DEBTS.— Great Britain. Debt due to the South Sea Com- pany, at 3 per cent. . 3,662.784 Old South Sea Annuities do. 3,497,870 New South Sea Annuities do. 2,460,830 South Sea Annuities, 1751 do. 523’l00 Debt due to the Bk. of Eng. do. 11,015,100 Bank Ann. created in 1/26 do. 825,083 Consolidated Annuities do. 357,246,465 Reduced Annuities do. 125,853,774 Civil Government, Bahamas . 1,511 Ditto Prince Edward’s Island 1 ,567 Ditto Bermudas . . 2,361 Settlement, Western Australia . 1,582 Agents of Emigration (!!! ) . 2,691 Salaries to Governors, W. Indies 6,000 Education of Negroes . . 8,565 Support of Captured Negroes . 16,000 Salaries to Consuls at Canton . 68.539 Magistrates, West Indies . 67,363 Allowances and Gratuities for Chari- table AND OTHER PURPOSES. Commissioners for the Poor Laws, (Expences) Vaccine Establishment . Refuge for the Destitute Distressed Poles Protestant Dissenting Ministers, Poor Fr. Refugee Clergy, &c. Protestant Dissenting Ministers, Ireland 41,250 1,850 3,000 8,380 4,010 15,859 Education, Science, and Art. British Museum, Expenditure of 20,601 Steam Navigation to India . 31,816 Roman Catholic College, Ireland 6,696 Royal Dublin Society . . 3,303 British Museum, New Buildings at 10.110 National Gallery, Works . 4.362 Total, at 3 per cent .£505,085,007 Annuities at 3£ per cent. 1818 10,628,549 Reduced 3£ per cent. Annuities 66,212,024 New 3$ per cent. Annuities 145,834,453 New 5 per cent. Annuities . 427,088 Total, Great Britain .£728,087,123 In Ireland. Irish Consol. Ann. at 3 per ct. .£3,155,233 Irish Reduced Ann. ditto 120,363 £ 3$ per ct. Deben. and Stock 14,450,260 Reduced per cent. Annuities 969,533 New 3£ per cent. Annuities 11,927,745 Debt due to the Bank of Ireland at 4 per cent. . . 1,615,384 New 5 per cent. Annuities . 6,661 Debt due to Bank of Ireland, at 5 per cent. . . . 1,015,384 Total, Ireland . .£33,260,566 The Donations and Bequests are .£253,046 Stock Unclaimed, 10 years 278,388 Unclaimed Dividends . . 892,100 Total Unfunded Debt and De- mands outstanding . . 29,957,321 Printing and Stationery for the Public Departments . . 92J96 883 MONETARY AND FISCAL. Gross and Net Produce of the Duties of Customs, in the year ended bth January , 1839, compared with the Produce of the preceding year. 1838. | 1839. | Gross Duties Inwds. Outwds. £ 22,688,806 98,102 £ 22,966,214 115,586 Total Gross Receipt 22,786,908 » 23,081,800 Payments On British Refined") Sugar . . . . j Other Articles A llo wances on Da - 1 mages, &c. . 3 ! 496,948 179,290 • 167,581 J 578,966 202,887 63,125 Total Payments 843,819 | 844,978 Net Receipts of) Customs . j 1 21,943,089 j 22,236,822 The net produce of the Income of the United Kingdom was, on the 5th of April of each year, — 1836 46,180,240 1837 48,453,068 1838 46,090.543 1839 47,833,118 Expenditure in the same years, — 1836 45,003,940 1837 46,590,245 1838 47,519,077 1839 48,263,443 In 1836, the Income exceeded the Expen- diture 137,630/ ; and, in 1837, 1,862,823/. ; but, in 1838. the Expenditure exceeded the Income 1,428,534/. ; and, in 1839,430,325/. To April 5. 1840, the estimated Income will be 48,128,900/., and the Expenditure 47,988,954/. The Unfunded Debt has been, April 5, 1836, 28 504,850/., in Exchequer-Bills ; in 1837.25,394,450/. ; in 1838, 24,043,850/. ; and, in 1839, 24,025,650/. N. B — The preceding are the Fiscal and Monetary Tables published, for the infor- mation of Parliament , by the British Go- vernment. They include , in fact, the whole subject of British money affairs. Taxes are a portion of the aggregate net incomes of the people. These incomes are fractions of the entire profits of national pro- ducts, and those of foreign trade ; for these include the incomes of the entire community, whatever shapes they may assume, or what- ever may have been their mixed source or origin. The best publicists determine that the tolerable proportion is a fifth ; the burthen - some proportion a fourth ; the oppressive proportion a third ; and the revolutionary proportion more than a third. The first question, of a wise financier, re- 884 fers to the net income of the people. If it be 200. millions, 40 may be assessed, or from 40 to 50. Profits depend, however, on prices, on steady or rising markets, and on the fixity of money. A currency of 50 millions may sustain profits of 200 ; but, if reduced to 40 millions, the profits would be under 150 ; and, if to 30 millions, the profits would not be 100. If, in the first case, taxes were 50 millions, or a fourth, they could not, in the second, be above 37 millions ; and, in the third case, but 25 millions. Of course, as the revenue of a government can arise only from, the actual profits of the- whole people, so all taxes ought to be brought home to those profits. If 50 people are em- ployed by a man who gets 10,000/. a year,, it would be absurd to tax the 50, whose in- demnity must be sought from their employer. Thus, if an ignorant government should tax the articles consumed by them at 5s. each per head per week, the profits of dealers would raise this 5s. to 7s., and for 7s. thus paid, the 50 w T ould reasonably require 8s., *. e. the employer would have 20/. a week to pay, instead of 12/. 10s. on his profits. The landlord, to indemnify himself, raises his rents, the farmer his produce, 8ic. &c. and taxes thereby create privations in those who constitute the last term in the social series, and who have no stock to raise. But, as of nothing nothing can come , and as the fiscal minister will have his amount, so it is absolutely certain that, whatever be the shifts or appearances, the profits on real property must ultimately pay the whole,, together with 5, 10, 15, and 20 per cent, assessed by manufacturers, dealers, &c. on value and risks, as augmented by the taxes. We might as well attempt to shift the pres- sure of a weight on the earth, by the inter- vention of springs or levers, as attempt to shift, in the actual result, the weight of tax- ation from the real profits of land, mines, and foreign trade. All evasions must, in fact, be made in a vicious circle ; and, in the end, an indirect tax, whatever it be, must reach real property and profits in its amount* and with aggravated force, in all the inter- vening charges. Between 1793 and 1826, i. e. in 34 years, the British government raised, by all its means of taxes and loans, 2,4/6,334,21 6/., or, above 72 millions PER ANNUM. And it expended, in the same period, 2,492,665,240/. Of these enormous sums the customs yielded 309£ millions, the excise 688^, the assessed and property taxes 363f, the stamps 165|, the post-office 39£, lotte- ries nearly 1 1, loans and funding 722. Of the enormous expences, the interest of the debt absorbed 891g millions, the army 598, the navy 422£, the ordnance 95, di- rect subsidies for allies 55, the sinking- fund 318A, losses by exchequer-bill^ &c. 57. It far exceeded, in less than a generation, the total of all the taxes and public expenses* in 1000 years, or from the reign of Egbert MONETARY AND FISCAL. 885 the first king of England, in 82 7, down to 1826. Marshall, considering the exchequer-bills, on and off, as part, makes the amount ano- ther 1038 millions. In the age of Henry V. the taxes were but 1100/. per week ; in that of Cromwell, 29,000/. ; at the Revolution, 39,000/. ; in the reign of George II., 150,000/. ; and, in 1833, nearly 1,000,000/., or ten thousand times more than in the reigns of Henry V. and VI. Taxes fall on labour, simply because there is a surplus of labour, and supply exceeds demand. Is. 2 d. per day from every opera- tive and labourer, taking their number at 3 millions, pay the 60 millions of rates and taxes in the United Kingdom. Other pro- perty has risen 3. 4, 5, or more times its no- minal value in 1689, just as the demand ac- corded with the supply. The rise, too, has been facilitated, by debasing and increasing the currency by paper. In 1689, land let for 4s. per acre, which now produces 30s. or 40s. per acre ; while labour, which then got 6s. or 7s. per week, does not now average above 9s. or 10s. Abstractions from labour having, therefore, paid the whole of the taxes and rates, 3£ millions of labourers and opera- tives, at 7s. per week, or 18/. 4s. per annum, pay the 60 millions of rates and taxes. This is the entire secret of our public wealth. Average taxation in half a century, for every 7 years, in pounds sterling, and ratio to 100,— £ Batios. 1784 to 1/90 .. 14,490,762 .. 100 1791 to 1797 .. 19,036,129 .. 131 1798 to 1804 .. 33,285,859 .. 229 1805 to 1811 .. 58,010,248 .. 400 1812 to 1819 .. 65,232,176 .. 450 1819 to 1825 .. 55,601,834 .. 383 1826 to 1832 .. 52,793.750 .. 364 1833 to 1838 .. 46,903,250 .. 323 In 1813, the revenues were 68f millions, and addition to the public debt 107£ mil- lions. The highest revenue was 72 2 millions, in 1815 ; and the lowest, in 40 years, 19 25 millions, in 1792, when the interest of the debt was but 9| millions. The highest inte- rest of debt was in 1816, 33 millions nearly. In 1792, the gross amount of taxes was 19J millions, the current annual expenditure 7f, and the interest of the debt was 9,767,333/. In 1802, 8 years’ war had raised the interest to 19,855,588/. ; and, in 1816, 14 years’ war had raised it to 32,938,751/. In 1817, the current expences were 22 millions ; and lowest in 1835, or 15,884,649/. The surplus revenue over expenditure, in 10 years, from 1828 to 1837, was greatest, or 5,850,169/., in 1828; and, in 1830, 2,913,673/. In 1832, but 614,759/. ; and, in 1836, 2,130,000/. Of these surpluses, (23,408,634/.) there has been applied to the purchase of stock, 17,644,178/. : and the remainder to the redemption of exchequer-bills. The two highest incomes of the 10 years were, 1828, 55,187,143/.. and 1830, 50,056,616/. The two lowest, 1833, 46,271,326/., and 1835, 46,043,663/. In four quarters of 1832, there was a deficiency of 3£ millions. 8 in 1790, id . ; and, in 1818, 6c?. Peas , in 1729, were 4s. ; in 1780, 7s. 6d . ; and, in 1818, 10s. 9c/. per bushel. Flour , in 1790, was 43s. 4cf. ; in 1810, 98s. ; and, in 1818, 65s. lie/. Oatmeal, in 1730, was 4s. 6c/.; in 1780, 5s. 3 g?. ; and, in 1818, 13s. 6c/. In 1730, Malt was 29s. per quarter; in 1780, 31s. lc/. ; and, in 1818, 83s. 9 d. Honey was used, instead of sugar, till the 15th century; and beverages were made of it, called Mead, Metheglin, Pigment, and Moret. The price of provisions, in towns, is from 30 to 50 per cent, above that of the country, according to size. — Allnutt. It is estimated that three agricultural fa- milies may support two artizan or trading families, in all the varieties of social em- ployment, from the learned professions -down to the blacksmith and carpenter, or as three agricultural to two of all other descriptions. But, by the returns of 1821, the entire agricultural population of Great Britain were 978,656 families employed in agriculture, including agricultural trades, to the number of 50,000 : while the dealers and traders were 415,507; the manufactu- rers 924,432, and the unproductive families, who lived on the others, were 612,488 , making the proportions 9 to 20 instead of 9 to 6 or 3 to 2. Hence, 1,400,000 families, or half the population, are in an artificial state, depending on exports and imports, on fashion, shifts, crimes, and contingencies. A colony of 100 agricultural families ought, in due proportion, to consist of 66 of other classes, as, one priest, two lawyers, four medical men, four school-masters, six tailors, eight carpenters, five smiths, three braziers, two cabinet-makers, four brewers, &c., fourteen manufacturers, ten traders or interchangers, and three clerks or ac- countants ; and, as it is with a colony, so it ought to be in nations, while the annual gains of each ought to be nearly equal, to make them happy. To protect high rents, a tax on foreign corn was imposed in 1814 and 1828. It had, of course, no connection with agriculture, or the interest of tenants ; but was, in every sense, a landlord's tax, in aid of lands mort- gaged at more interest than the lands could pay, at an unprotected price of produce. Prior to the abolition of the corn laws, grain at 735. per quarter was subject, on im- portation, to a duty of Is. ; then, by a scale, the duty was raised as the price lowered ; thus from 665. to 67s. per quarter, the duty was 20s. 8c?.; from 6 1 5. to 62s. 255. 8 d . ; irom 56s. to 57s., 30s. 8d . ; and, from 50s. to 5ls., 36s. 8 d . ; so as to force foreign corn to be dearer than English, without reckoning freight and charges. Four able-bodied labourers can dig an acre, half-spit, in a week, and the labour is estimated at 12s. each, per week ; add 2s. for two pints of strong beer per day, and the cost would be 56s., ploughing costs 20s., and the difference, 36s., would be more than compensated by 50 per cent, increase of pro- duce, or about 54s. on the average of crops. The soils adapted are poor ones, cold clays, and woodlands, gravelly soils, and sandy loams. LAND AND AGRICULTURE, 921 922 The author of an excellent pamphlet who signs Qincinnatus , estimates the increase, from digging, as 48 bushels to 27, 25, or 20, and a profit, per acre, of 4 /. 15s. at least, taking the digging at 3/., rent 1/., 3 bushels of seed at 18s., 12 loads of manure 21. 8s., and other expences to sale at 1/. 15s. For a crop of beans, the seed is 4 bushels, and the produce 48, at a lower price, or 1/. per acre. In potatoes, he reckons 16 bushels of seed for 320 of produce, and a third more ma- nure, leaving a profit of 31. 16s. He says, on good land and deeper digging, the pro- duce may be 500. A plough cuts a slice with the coulter, lifts by the share, and turns it over by the mould-board. It resembles digging, when well performed on a good soil. When not in lands or ridges, the mould-board is shift- ed in going back, and the plough is called turn-wrist. Ploughing, digging, hoeing, &c. merely serve to expose the elements of the soil to the re-action of the elements of the atmo- sphere. In Europe, generally, the laws of landed property are founded on the assumption of conquest by a chieftain, who distributed the whole as property to his followers, as feu- dal vassals, in contempt of the prior natural rights of the original inhabitants. The feudal lords, having large tracts, took rents in kind, and not a 50th of the produce ; but when the trading interests became land- lords, and land an object of speculation, currency was exacted, and more and more, till the purchasers claimed a tenth, fifth, and even a fourth and third of the produce for mere rent ! In Cornwall, 100 acres let for 150/. ; rates are 30/. ; labour 200/. ; seed 84/. ; horses, Ac. 151/. ; taxes 19/. 7s. 6d. ; tithes 15/. ; produce 779/., or five rents. In Yorkshire, rent is 150/. ; rates 33/. 15s. ; labour 178/. 13s. 8 d. ; seed 86/. 5s. ; manure 35/. 4s. ; horses, &c. 116/. 10s. j taxes 15/. 12s. 6d. ; tithes 65/. 17s. 6d. ; produce 718/. 7s., or nearly five rents. In arable cultivation, every acre of land costs the farmer from 71. to 8/., and it yields from 8/. to 9/., at usual market-price, after all expences. Pasture-land costs less, and yield less. The Fens, in Cambridgeshire, &c. amount to many thousand acres, and are part of the gulf called the Wash. The tract has been drained by canals, and latterly steam- engines have been applied with great suc- cess. It was a woody district 500 years ago, and the sea, which then rose, appears now to be on the retreat nearly on the whole easterly coast. In 30 years, about 2000 inclosure-bills have passed, at a cost, in fees, &c., of at least one million; by which 108,000 acres, out of 18 millions of waste in the United Kingdom, have been enclosed, at a cost of nearly 10/. per acre for fees and expenses of getting the bills. Five millions of acres have been enclosed in the last <20 years, by about 4200 acts of parliament, at a cost of 10/. per acre, and about 1200 acres for each bill. In general, the interests of the poor are neglected, and these acts serve often to increase the mono- poly of land. A ten-horse steam-engine in the fens will drain 1000 acres in 20 days at a cost of 2s. 6d. per acre for coals. Since 1770, the various expences of farm- ing have risen, in England, 52 per cent.; and, in Scotland, 70 percent. The expence of cultivating a farm of 100 acres, including rent, tithes, rates, and direct taxes, was, in 1790, about 410/. In 1803, about 550/. In 1813, about 7721 . ; and, in 1823, about 900/, The produce of good land is generally di- vided, one-third for rent, one-third for ex . pences, and one- third for profit; but, for inferior land, rent is taken at one-fourth. House-rent, in the United Kingdom, in forty years, from 1780 to 1825, was qua- drupled ; and, in 1825, in general, stood mortgaged for double the rental in 1780. If, in 1780, rent averaged 8/., in 1825 it averaged 32/., making a rental on 3 millions of houses of 96 millions, and a probable mortgage of 600 millions. The rental of the 3 millions of houses in Great Britain, may now be taken at 24 mil- lions ; and, the value, at not less than 240 millions. The million and a half of houses in Ire- land, may be taken at a rental of 9 millions, and a value of 90. Colonel Sykes takes the rental of the 605,097 new houses in Great Britain, but between 1820 and 1832, at 13,665,364/. In England, building is carried on by in- dividual speculators, with money obtained by successive mortgages of money-dealers on floor after floor. The hope of gain leads to an excess of houses, and the undue en- largement of all towns. In other countries, no such system is known ; and, the capital to build or re-build can be supplied only by mortgage from the public treasury. The system was commenced, in London, about 1770, when Mary-le-bone, Ac. was rapidly raised; since which period, it has enabled builders, without money, to double the size of London. A cow yields 168 lbs. of butter per ann. ; and, as London alone consumes 36 millions of lbs., it is supplied by 215,000 cows. Milk, at 9 quarts per cow, requires 9000 cows, or 224,000 cows for London only. 92,000 cows, for cheese, are kept in Cheshire ; and, as many more in other coun- ties for various cheese, at 3 cwts., or double butter, per cow. At 6 quarts per day, is about 450 lbs. in a year. Cheshire yields 11,500 tons, and hence must have 60,000 cows. Cheshire cheese owes its quality to the excellence of the soil, to the size of the dairy-farms, and the great number of cows kept on them, and to the accurate system of the manufacture. Some dairy-farmers have from 3 to 400 cows, each yielding 8 quarts of milk ; from which is made 1 lb. of cheese, or for every 16 ounces of milk one ounce of cheese, being the produce of a cow LAND AND AGRICULTURE, 923 per day. The cheeses, therefore, are very large, running from half cwt. to one and two cwt. j and single cheeses have been made five or six cwt. In making cheese, it is customary to put two cups of rennet to about 25 gallons of milk, at a heat of 100°, and the curd comes within two hours. Cheese is a very ancient product. It is mentioned in Job and in Samuel, and by Homer and Hippocrates. A cow eats 100 lbs. of green food every 24 hours, and yields 5 quarts, or 10 lbs. of milk. Muriatic acid curdles milk better than rennet, and preserves it from mites. In November, 1836, when fine flour in London was 60s. the sack of 280 lbs., the same weight sold in Paris at 30s. 3 d. ; in Cambray, at 28s. 3d, and at Soisson, 25s. lOd or as 65 London to 28 Soisson. In Paris, the 4-lb. loaf was but 5 d, and in London 9|d The produce of the land of Spain has been recently estimated at 90 millions sterling ; of manufactures at 14 millions ; mercantile profits at 5 millions; and house-rent at 8 millions. The State debts, of all kinds, are about 350 millions. The ecclesiastical pro- perty is valued at 72 millions, and the crown at 23. Spain, like many other countries, is ruined by the ignorant meddling with nature. The selfish Spaniards, in Castile and Leon, to de- prive the birds of shelter, have cut down all the trees, and, in consequence, no rain falls, and the whole country has become desert. It has been the same in the West India Islands. Clouds require the spiculae of leaves to act on their electricity. The Nile must rise 16 cubits to ensure its extent of fertility. In 1829,, it rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were drowned, and immense property lost. During summer, on each side of the Nile, are rich fields of corn and rice, and such beautiful groves seeming to rise out of the watery plains, and to shade innumerable settlements in the Delta, amidst never-end- ing plantations of melons, and all kinds of garden vegetables, that, from the abundance of its produce, Egypt may be deemed the richest country in the world. But to stran- gers, and particularly to inhabitants of nor- thern countries, where wholesome air and cleanliness are among the necessaries of life, Egypt is the most detestable region on the earth. On the retiring of the Nile, the country is one vast swamp. An atmosphere, impregnated with every putrid and offen- sive exhalation, stagnates like the filthy pools over which it broods. Then the har- vest regularly begins, and ceases not till the waters return again. About the beginning of May, when intermitting fevers prevail, certain winds cover even the sands of the desert with the most disgusting vermin, in swarms of millions. . In Turkey, every cultivator is a proprietor. In social importance, in population, agri- culture, and productive industry, Yorkshire, Northumberland, and Durham, are about equal to Scotland. In spite of disadvantages of climate, agri- culture is conducted in Scotland on more 924 scientific principles than in England; and the rapid improvements of late years are ascribed to the currency of 1/. notes, which the wily Scotch retained when they were stopt in England. The rental of Scotland; about the period of the Union, was but 317,018/. ; but, in 1812, it was 6,108,050/., money being five times less valuable , but improvements had increased it fourfold. The population was under one million; but, in 1831, it was 2£ millions. Ships increased, too, from 215 to 3160 ; and the revenue obtained was, in 1822, forty times greater than in 1707; *. e. 110,694/. and 4,292,567/. Till 1750, no peas, turnips, potatoes, or grass, were raised in Scotland, and no cattle fatted. Oats and barley alone were culti- vated, and peat-turf was the fuel. There are 19,944,209 English acres in Ire- land, equal to 14£ per family of 5 6. The houses are 1,249,816, containing 1,385,06*5 families. In Kerry and Wicklow, there are 25 acres to a family; but, in Armagh, only 7i Irish lean cattle are sent to all the ports of the western coasts of England, Bristol channel, &c. to be fed by English graziers. Their fat cattle are slaughtered to victual the English ships of war and merchant- ships ; their butter, tallow, and skins, are in great part exported ; and the money arising from all these articles sent to absentees and others, for rent and tithes. Under fair management in Ireland, a spade-square of potatoes weighs 19 lbs. per spade, or 108 barrels per acre, each barrel 252 lbs. or 36,000 lbs. to the acre, or 100 lbs. per day on an acre. — Young. 285 tons 11 cwt. of turnips were a single crop of turnips on an Irish acre in 1 829. An acre of potatoes, in Ireland, generally yields 82 barrels, of 20 stone, or 22,960 lbs. ; and an acre of wheat yields four quarters of 460 lbs., or 1840 lbs ; then, if wheat goes three times as far as potatoes, and is equal to 5520, the potatoe crop gives four times more subsistence than wheat. The export of Irish butter is about 20,000 tons, and 120,000 barrels of beef; besides 130.000 barrels of pork, bacon, and hams. The linen is 20,000 boxes; in all, about 1.680.000 pieces of 25 yards, at 50s. per piece on the average. Of whiskey they make from five to six millions of gallons. One hundred thousand Irish labourers visit England, from March till October, to perform agricultural labour on large farms, which, having engrossed small ones, leave tracts and parishes, without adequate local population. Meath and Westmeath are the chief grazing districts, and Down, Armagh, Louth, Wicklow, and Wexford, the chief arable districts. The Bogs are 2£ millions, and run from near Dublin, expanding to the Atlantic. The Bog of Allan is 65,000 acres, and 2/0 feet above the sea. One million and a half acres of flat red bog are susceptible of easy improvement, and other millions might be applied to plantations. COLONIES, P25 926 COLONIES. Wars, treaties, and original colonization, have secured to Britain every desirable commercial position that political cupidity could desire. We have the Cape, Mauri- tius, Ceylon, Bombay, and Bengal ; Deme- Tara, the Mosquito shore, Jamaica, and the oest West India Islands; Bahama, Ber- muda, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, the Ca- nadas, Malta, Gibraltar, the Ionian Islands, besides New Holland, Van Diemen’s Land, Sincare, and finally New Zealand — and yet we want more, to secure the coveted mono- poly of commerce ! But, unhappily, short-sighted policy over- reaches itself, and the competition of indivi- duals oversteps, as an aggregate, all mone- tary power; hence, State-Banks in general are bankrupt, and amounts in paper are ten-fold greater than all means of genuine circulation, to keep pace with the paper ac- counts of a wild commerce. Colonization takes place when a people, from bad government, cannot live at home ; or, when a country finds another unused, whose climate enables it to cultivate pecu- liar produce. The latter is the foundation of the West India and tropical European colonies ; and the former is the foundation of the colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia, and Albany. Nature produces and reproduces from the same elements, but if the productions are carried away, exhaustion renders reproduc- tion impossible. Consumption on the spot assures return of manure ; but consumption, at 6000 miles distance, affords no returns beneficial to the soil. This, then, is the limit of colonial wealth and production. Egypt has poured out its grain for 5000 years, but the Nile works a constant miracle in renew- ing the soil. The British Colonic* amount in number to 40. Of these, there have been captured 11, ceded 4, obtained by settlement 25. The following are the forty British Co- lonies, which have establishments of local governments, of from twelve to sixty persons, affording patronage to the British adminis- tration : Albany. Antigua. Bahamas. Berbice. Barbadoes. Bengal. Bermuda. Bombay. Canada (Lower) Canada (Upper) Cape of Good Hope. Ceylon. Demerara. Dominica. Fernando Po. Gibraltar. Grenada. Mauritius. Mountserrat. Nevis. New Brunswick. Nova Scotia. Newfoundland. New South Wales. Norfolk Island. Prince of Wales’s I. Sierra Leone. St. Christopher’s. St. Helena. St. Lucia. St. Vincent. Ionian Islands. Jamaica. Madras. Malta. Tobago. Trinidad. Tasmania. V irgin Islands. The produce of these Colonies is sugar* rum, spices, coffee, indigo, rice, sago, some cotton and tobacco, vegetable-oils, some wine and wool, timber, flour, fruits, hemp, flax, &c. &c. Colonies ought never to be thought of but to get rid of superfluous population. They add nothing to the wealth, and nothing to the strength of an empire. They are war. BREEDERS. — Cooper. The English Colonies have a governor, lieutenant-governor, president of council, speaker of the assembly, chief-justice, at- torney and solicitor-general, admiralty-judge, marshal, collector of customs, &c., and it is for the patronage of these employments, by the ministry at home, that three out of four of all colonies are maintained* Lower Canada has a general governor, a lieutenant-governor, a bishop of Quebec; governors of Quebec and Gasp6, 10 judges, 13 of an executive council, and 28 of a legis- lative council. But late events have changed these arrangements, and a new British con- stitution, or a new republican one, may bo soon looked for. Upper Canada has a lieutenant-governor, 7 executive council, and 19 legislative. Jamaica, besides the usual functionaries of colonial government, has a bishop of that island ; and the Bahamas a Court of Admi. ralty, and Stamp-office. Bengal is governed by a governor-general of India, and 2 others of a supreme council ; with 3 secretaries, 3 judges, a bishop, &c. &c. Madras, Bombay, St. Helena, the Cape, the Mauritius, Ceylon, and Prince of Wales Island, have similar establishments. New South Wales has a governor, and council of 13, with 3 judges, attorney and solicitor-general. The Governors of Ceylon and the Canadas have £10,000 a year ; of each West India Is-, land from 4 to £5000. Jamaica £7000. Of the Cape £7000, and the Island of Mauritius £8000 ; besides residences, perquisites, re. tiring allowances, &c. &c. The British territories, in India, consist of about 90 fiscal and judicial subdivisions or provinces. Under the government of Ben- gal, there are 56 ; under the Madras presi- dency there are 22, in which the total popu. lation is 13,508,535. The presidency of Bombay consists of ten provinces, besides Bombay, and a territory in Cutch. Till the act of 1833, for renewing the Charter, the Company was commercial, with sovereign powers ; but the commerce is now thrown open to vessels of certain dimensions, and the Company receive the territorial re- venues to pay expences, and the interest of their capital and debt. The capital of the East India Company is six millions, paying a dividend of 10£ $>er cent. £1000 stock gives one vote, and £10,000 four votes. Of 2000 proprietors, 1490 have one vote, 396 two, 69 three, and 48 four votes. The concerns are governed by twenty-four directors in committees, sis of whom go out every April. COLONIES. 927 The revenues of the Company are the land rents, formerly assessed by the native princes, amounting to 8| millions, an opium monopoly which has yielded 2 millions, a salt monopoly 2J millions, customs nearly a million, and other items, making, in Bengal only, 14|. At Madras, these items yield 5^ millions ; at Bombay 2§ ; and, with other places, are altogether about .£23,000,000. Bengal is divided into 24 pergunnahs, each with its judge and magistrate, registrar, &c. British India contains 1,100,000 square miles, and 120 millions of inhabitants. The Ryots pay 14 millions in rent to the govern, ment, and the whole revenue is 20 millions. 48 millions had, in 14 years, been drawn from India without return, and 30, 40, and 50 per cent, was often given for money to buy seed! Cotton, indigo, and saltpetre, are the chief commercial products of India ; gums, drugs, -horns, and hides, ebony and ivory, are also exported from India to Europe ; and, it trades with the East in cocoa-nuts, betel- nuts, grain, cloth, &c. An Hindoo village consists of a chief in- habitant, or Potail ; a Curman, or registrar of produce ; a Talliar, or constable ; a Totie , or land-surveyor; a Boundaryman ; a. Sur- veyor of Water -courses ; a Brahman , or priest ; a Schoolmaster , an Astrologer , a Smith , a Carpenter , a Potter , a Washerman , a Barber , a Cow-keeper, a Doctor , a Dan- cing-girl, a Musician, and a Poet. The salary of the Governor-General of Bengal is 244,181 rupees ; and, of the other 3 members of council, is 293,01 7 rupees at 2s. 3d. There are residencies at Delhi, Lucknow, Gwalior, Magpore, Hyderabad, Poonah, Nepaul, and Indore ; and agencies at Jag- pore, Harowtee, Serowhee, Mhairwarra, Bundlecund, Mundlaiser, Bhopawar, Ma- nidpore, Baugur Oodeypore, Bhopaul, and Bahar. The dynasties that have been conquered by the British arms, in India, had been only of short duration — scarcely one of them had been in existence above a century. Of this description were the Nabob of Bengal, Bahar, and Orixa; the Nabob of Arcot, Tippoo Saib, and the Paishwa. The na- tives had no other attachment to them than what arose from their possession of power. An immense population, calculated at 68 millions, inhabits those conquered provinces. Towns and reputed Population : — Poonah .... 110,000 Nagpoor 115,000 Baroda .... 100 000 Ahmedabad 100.000 Cashmere .. 150,000 Farruckabad 70,000 Mirzapoor.. 60,000 Agra 60.000 Bareilly .... 66,000 Aurungabad 60.000 Burdwan.... 54,000 Bangalore .. 50,000 Benares .... 600,000 Calcutta. .. 550,000 Madras .... 462,051 Patna 312,000 Lucknow .. 200,000 Hyderabad 200,000 Dacca 180,000 Bombay .... 180,000 Surat 160,000 Delhi 150,000 M bad hCda '} 150 ’ 000 The native army of the East India Com- pany, disciplined in European tactics, is about 150,000 cavalry ana infantry, spread 928 over 500,000 square miles of Hindoostan, or thrice the surface of the United Kingdom. Their formation took place in 1757. They are usually called sepoys, and are light and short. The Epochs of the British Dominion , in India, are as under : — Two Charters, granted - - 1600 and 1609 Mogul’s Firman, to permit four! irio Factories - - - - 3 Fort St. George built i, 1641 Bombay occupied - 1668 Fort William built _ 1698 Calcutta taken by Suraja Dowla - 1756 and Hoogly retaken byl Watson and Clive 3 Battle of Passy, between Clive and") i-c? Suraja Dowla - - June 233 1 707 The Great Mogul, Shah Alum, de- > feated - - 1760 and$ 17bi Lord Clive, Governor- General - - 1765 War with the Nizam and Hyder Ali 1767 Warren Hastings, Governor-General 1772 Death of Hyder Ali - 1782 Tippoo Saib, his Son, makes war - 1783 Pitt’s Board of Controul Bill - - 1784 Marquis Wellesley, Governor. General 1798 Seringapatam taken ... 1799 Battle of Assye - 1803 Hamilton calculates the area of India at 1.280.000 British miles, and estimates that the British possessions occupy 553,000 square miles, or 4-10ths. British political influence, however, embraces the whole indiscrimi- nately. Ceylon has 6/86 Europeans, and a million and a quarter of natives, besides 27,000 blacks. The Mauritius has nearly 9000 Europeans, 16.000 Creoles, and 68,600 blacks. The novelties of East Indian scenery are, — the palm and banyan trees, the elephants, the naked Hindoos, and the idolatries, fes- tivals, and processions, with brilliant skies. The government of the East India Com- pany is comparatively just and equal, but the taxation is heavy, and some of the taxes very objectionable. The fortunes made by Europeans are spent out of India ; Indian trade and manufactures have been over- whelmed by English machinery ; and the emoluments of many native servants, under the old governments, are swallowed up in the pay of one English collector. These are causes of dissatisfaction among the natives. Besides the Bengal produce of indigo, great quantities are exported from Madras, Java, Manilla, and South America. Fair profits require that it should sell at 9s. or 10s. per lb. in London. The Ghauts are the high table-lands in the centre, or mountain passes. The Punjub is the country watered by the five branches of the Indus. The chief revenue of India rs derive^ from a tax upon land, which is levied ir, different parts of India, in different propor- tions to the cultivators’ profits, and by dif- ferent officers. In many parts, one half the crop (the old and exorbitant Musselman tax' C > ONIES. 929 93f is considered the standard ; and this being levied in money, and fixed without regard to the state of the markets, is often very much more than the cultivator. 1-1 Oth of the Indian population are Ma- homedan, and 100th Christian. The rest are in tribes, clans, trades, and sects, much divided, and without any education, except in legends, mysteries, and absurd traditions. The interior of New Holland is woody, but without timber-trees ; there is far more barren than fertile land, a general want of water, and very few animals. Banks of rivu- lets and particular tracts are fine. Port Philip is a very promising district. India comprises the Punjab, the Sikh, and the Rajpoot States, independent, and in al- liance with England ; Oude, Malwa, Sat- tara, Hydrabad, Mysore, and Travancore, &c. tributary to England; and the four British Presidences of Bengal, Madras, Bombay, and Agra. It lies between 8° and 360 of N. lat., 660 a nd 92° of E. Ion. Ameer or Emir, in Hindoostan, means a nobleman ; Aumeen , a commissioner, and Aumil , a tax-gatherer ; Banyan , or Bice, a dealer or farmer ; Bega, the third of an acre ; Begum, a princess. Bungalow, a country-house ; Choultry or Serai, a public barn for travellers ; Chunam, lime ; circar, the chief man of business ; Coolies, porters ; Coss, 2 miles ; Crore, 10 millions; Cutwal , the chief of police ; Deccan, the south ; Dewan, a place of assembly ; Droog, a for- tified hill ; Durbar, a levee ; Faquecr, a religious beggar; Fermaun, a royal order ; Ghee , clarified butter; Jaghire, an assign- ment of land ; Jungle , a wood ; Khan, lord ; Killadar, a governor ; Lac, 100,000 ; Maha, great ; Caliyug, the present epoch, is pronounced Calyoogum ; Moonshee , a secre- tary ; Musnad, a throne ; Nabob, a viceroy ; Nair, chief ; Nizam, an adjuster ; Omrah, a Mogul lord ; Pagoda, a temple, or 8s. ; Palankeen, a litter ; Pariar, an outcast ; Peshwa, a prime-minister ; Peon , a foot- soldier ; Peshcush, tribute ; Potail, chief inhabitant ; Pundit, a learned Brahmin ; Purana, ancient books ; Rajah, a sovereign ; Rajipoot, the son of a king ; Ranee, a queen ; Rupee, 2s. or 2s. 3d ; Ryot, a pea- sant or tenant ; Shaster, a book of instruc- tion ; Soucar, a banker ; Subah , a county ; Teep, a note of hand ; Vakul, a deputy; Vedas, the Brahmin scriptures ; Yogies, fa- natics ; Yug, an age ; Zomindus, a rent- collector ; Zenana, the Harem. From Bombay to Calcutta is 1300 miles; and, to Madras, 77 0. From Calcutta to Madras, 1030; to Delhi, 1060; to Patna, 400 ; to Benares, 566 ; to Poonah, 1200 ; to Surat, 1310; and, to Cape Comorin, 1231. From Madras to Seringapatam, 290 ; to Surat, 930 ; and, to Cape Comorin, 390. From Delhi to Agra is 115 miles; to Bom- bay, 965 ; and, to Cape Comorin, 1415. The Company maintain botanical gardens at Muggat, Thannet, and Scharunpore ; and it has mints and assay-offices at Calcutta, Benares, Furruckabad, and Sangore. Besides the College of Fort William, at Calcutta, with professors and 54 pensioned students, it supports colleges at Bhaugulpore and Benares ; with geological, mineralogical, zoological, and botanical agents liberally provided. The College of Fort William costs the Company 139,637 rupees ; public instruction 148,736; and roads, bridges, &c. 279,747 rupees, at 2s. each, or 8rf. per pagoda ; or 2s. 3d. per Bombay rupee. The number of British-born subjects in India is not 100,000. The natives in British pay are nearly 250,000, artillery, cavalry, and infantry. An estate in the best part of the colony of Demerara produces, on an average, 800 hogsheads of sugar, which turn out 14 cwt. nett each, and 60 thousand gallons of rum. An estate at Demerara, in an average part of the colony, produces on an average 260 hogsheads of sugar, and 17,000 gallons of rum. But since the just manumission of slaves, all speculations about estates, formerly worked by slaves, are very vague and un- settled. Population, Produce, and Imports and Ex- ports of the British West Indies , pre- viously to the Manumission of the Slaves. ► a \ C5 . 8 ; • i • t Antigua Bahamas .... Barbadoes . . . Berbice Bermuda .... Demerara .... Dominica .... Grenada Jamaica St. Kitts St. Lucia .... St. Vincents .. Tobago Trinidad 'T'h/y nv.ri nth /tv 1 1 1 V © O CO — jPk j-> j-» v| jwco bo CO bo to’©'© CO 00 “o'© Cn ©“to © ©t0©c0000 0i00tn©00 ©©©©©©©©»©©©©© 3 sr n !—> CO bo to o l Cr> 04 J— ' JO JC0 CO JCn to CO 04 *-> J— Cn CO CO © bo bo V| © © GO C4 “tfx b- — © g o © © © © © o © O Ot © © © OODCOOOOOOCOOO ’ 0 to 2 ? 3 a. 04 to to M O o CO bo 04 © © © 1 CO to>— 'to — — toto~ v * _ 4— tO COJCO to JCO +*■ cn j© 44. — to to © “© bn bn “04 bo “© "© © '04 CO © CO © ©©©©©©©©©©Oggg ©©©©©©©©©©©©©© Lat« Slaves. to ■ to ►— *“co M w 1 >— 1 1 0 44.tOtOCJ'©tOC00 1 CO to to 04 — to © to 04 04 J34 JtOjO Jp a ©■©©©©'©©©'©' 0 “©' © ©©©©©©©©© gg g ©©©©©©©©© © © © Sugar. 1 Coffee. ; I 19,769,500 Pounds. 82,500 1.585.000 1.940.000 613,000 6,000 15,460,000 83,000 VJ bo © QO *© © © CO JCO tn t— < to bn CO bo 1 to 1 C4©G4I— 'Cn©C0O4tO toto © S. tOj© ©JO v» ©J3* Co © t 0>l t .° g. o©o©©©©©©, © © . gg ©©©©©©©o© ©© © w J p ? 1 |8, 603, 000 '4,035,000 CO j-« CO ■ CO ^ to“© CO •—■'04 CO Cn to 0>©Srf4.©CnCOCntO 44 . tO . Or zn cn © CO JCO GO © >1 jt* — JtO J— © t+s cbbbobbb ©©©©©© 0 © © © © © © © © © © © © © 00 ©=©©©©©©©©©© Value of | Exports to G. B. CO CO ^ C444.00CO K 4© v 4'“Cn©^»©Cn — . 0 j— JO to J© © © 04 © © 44 . © © Cn Hi '0 “©“©“©“©'© “©“© © © ©© © © 0©©©®©©©©®©©® 0 ©©©©©©©©© 0 ©®®® c r65. Stephen’s charter of general liber*, W was in l' 36. Henry the Second’s confirmation, J ? 54 and 1175. Magna Charta, by John, 1215. Confirma- tions, by Henry III., in 1216, 1224, 1237, 1250, and 1264. (Forest charter, 1225.) By Edward 1 , 1297 and 1299. By Edward III., in 1345 and 1368. The curfew-bell was a law only till the iceession of Henry 1. Since that time, the eight o’clock evening-bell has been a custom only. Henry voluntarily proclaimed the first charter of liberties, which was confirmed by Stephen and Henry II., but neglected till extorted from John. The Year Books were Reports from the reign of Edward II., taken by an appointed officer, at ffie expence of the State, and pub- lished annually. Such reports have been since continued by private hands. The first statistical survey of England was Domesday Book. The second, the Rotuli Hundredorum of Henry III. and Edward I. The third, the Valor Ecclesiasticus, of 1537. The fifth, the Custom-House Returns of 1694. The sixth, Poor Rates of 1750 and 1776. The seventh, Sir John Sinclair’s Scot- land. The eighth, Moreau’s valuable books The ninth and best, Marshall’s General Sta- tistics of the Kingdom. The tenth, the Par- liamentary Returns of the Population, &e. Domesday-Book, the most ancient record in Europe, is the report and returns of a survey of nearly the whole of England, made by order of William I. It consists of 2 vols., and has been illustrated by Kelham, and published verbatim by the Record Commis- sioners. The distribution of the counties in the two volumes, and the orthography of their names, are given below. The survey of the four northern counties is not con- tained in that record, but they are in ano- ther, called the Boldon Book. VOL. I. Chenth. Sudsexe. Sudrie. Hantescire. Berrochescire. Wiltescire. Dorsete. Sumersete. Devenescire. Cornvalgie. Midelsexe. Hertfordscire. Bockingbamscire. Oxonfordscire. Glowecestr’scire. Wirecestrescire. Gentebr’scire. (Cambridgeshire) Herefordscire. Huntedunscire, Bedefordscire. Northantscire. Ledecestrescire. Warwicscire. Hartfordscire. Sciropescire. Cestrescire. Inter Ripam and Mersham, (Lanca- shire.) Derbyscire. Snotinghamscire. Roteland. Euvicscire. Lincolnscire VOL. II. Exsessa. Norfulc. Sudfulc. It divides the land into oxgangs, or bo- vates, of 12 or 15 acres ; virgates of 40 acres ; carucates of 8 oxgangs, or 100 acres; and hides of about 120 acres more. In Domesday Book a carucate, or 100 acres, was valued at only 32 d., and 4 at 105.; and sometimes at only 85. The barons, or tenants in chief, or fre^ holders, by Domesday Book, were 730 ; but. being split into small parts, were greater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament ; but, in 1307> the lesser barons were allowed, to choose two representatives; hence called knights of the shire. In 1215, the barons took the field at Stam- ford, under Robert Fitzwalter, Baron o Dunmow, and John met them on June 15, 945 CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 946 at Runnemede, a meadow between Staines and Windsor, when the great seal was af- fixed to the charter, and 25 barons, elected to secure its fulfilment, were put in posses, sion of the Tower of London. Twelve knights were also appointed to rectify the forest laws. John was so indignant, that he died in October, at Newark, as was said, by poison, or of a broken' heart. His son, Henry III., afterwards confirmed them in 1236 and in 1253, in Westminster-hall, with great solemnity. Edward I. did the same, before he could obtain supplies or service. There were, therefore, five charters— one of John, three of Henry, and one of Edward I., the same in spirit, but slightly varied in expression. Magna Charta provides that fines or amer- cements shall never destroy a man, and, therefore, all such are unlawful. It saves a freeholder’s estate, a merchant’s merchan- dize, a scholar’s books, a workman’s tools, &c. By Magna Charta, 10 d. was fixed as the price per day of a cart with two horses, and Is. 2d. with three. The Charta de Foresta was of the same year. It retained many vexatious provi- sions, and some interesting ones ; thus it shows the early use of marl in agriculture, the value of honey before sugar was abun- dant and cheap, and the ecclesiastical epi- curism in forest venison. Parliaments were fixed by the 14th chap- ter of Magna Charta, by a pledge to summon archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and great barons ; and, by the sheriffs, all who held a fief, after 40 days* notice, which was to ex- press the cause ; and, by chapter 13, it is provided that no scutage or aid should be imposed, unless by this council. The original of Magna Charta, preserved in the British Museum, is 144 inches broad, and 201 long. Another copy is 17 by 21. Originals of Magna Charta, or contempora- neous copies of it and confirmations, are also in the Museum, the Chapter Houses of Lincoln, Durham, Norwich, and Wells ; in Corpus-Christi, Cambridge, and Oriel, Ox- ford ; in the Bodleian and Ashmole Museum. At Rochester is a charter of liberties, granted by Henry I. in 1101, and at Exeter another, by Stephen, in 1136. The language of Charters and Statutes were in Latin or French, till Henry VII. The statutes of Henry III. are in Latin. The first use of English was in 36th Ed- ward III. Records in court were written in Latin, till the Commonwealth. French was used in all proceedings of courts of law, until ordered to be in English by 6th Edward III., “because the king and his nobles had, in travel, observed tnat people were better governed by laws in their own tongue.” But law books were written in law French, even so late as the reign of William and Mary; and the barbarisms of this language still compose a large part of our legal nomenclature. There are about 50 volumes of indexes, digests, and abridgments of law and equity. Littleton’s Tenures is a small tract, com-, piled in the reign of Edward IV. out of the Year Books, and by its editors broken into 750 sections. This work Sir Edward Coke employed as the text of his common-place book, and he published an edition of the Tenures, calling it The First Institute. Coke also published three other books, which he called the Second, Third, and Fourth Parts of the Institute. 5500 copies are now printed of new public acts, and 300 of others. The public ones are sent to members, public offices, justices of the peace, sheriffs, town clerks, &c. free. Ruff head’s edition of . the Statutes at Large, consists of 32 volumes quarto. Seveii and a half comprise the legislation from Henry III. to the accession of George III., but in that single reign 16| volumes were added, and twelve since ! In America, the laws have been con- densed, and, in 1829, the local and general laws were in New York reduced to a porta- ble and comprehensible form ; but this is not done in Britain, because 30,000 persons flourish by what they call “ the glorious un- certainty” The acts of union are those of 2 7 Henry VIII. c. 26, uniting Wales to England — 5 Anne, c. 8, uniting Scotland to England and Wales — and 40 George III. c. 67, unit- ing Ireland to Great Britain. The bench of judges, in the celebrated ship-money case of Hampden, consisted of Branston, C. J., and Davenport, C. B., who were for Hampden, on technical grounds, but against him on the question of preroga- tive. J. Croke, Hutton, and Denham, were for Hampden, and against the prerogative. Finch, C. J., afterwards lord-keeper, Trevor, Weston, Vernon, Crawley, Berkeley, and Jones, were against Hampden, and for the prerogative; but the twelve joined in the certificate against him. The star-chamber was opened 3d Henry VII. and abolished 16 Car. I. De facto is applied to actual possession, and dejure to right. The Habeas Corpus Act is the 31st Car II. c. 2. The cause of its introduction was the arbitrary imprisonment of Francis Jenks, a patriotic city linen-draper. Under it, on complaint of any prisoner, (except for trea- son or felony) any chancellor or judge must award the writ to bring up the defendant, and bail him, if bailable. Acquittals after bills found, on an average of years, are about one.fifth. In one case in 6 or 7, no bill is found after commitment. Laws are enacted not for the benefit of rulers, but with a view to promote the greatest good of the greatest number. Titles, customs, &c. are, in law, immemo- rial, when before Edward II., or 1340. The period of legal memory was the return of Richard I. from the Crusades. A new law makes it 60 or 40 years. The authorities, on the laws of nations, are Groteus, Puffendorf, Barbeyrac, Burla- maqui, and Vattel. William I., and his son Henry, were ac- CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 947 tive legislators. Their laws were made in great councils. Edward I. effected very great improvements by parliamentary con- currence. The reign of Edward III. also is distinguished in legislative history. That distinguished patriot, Major Cart- wright, passed a long life in inculcating, by speeches and publications, the fundamental principles of Civil Liberty ; that there ought to be Universal Suffrage, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parliaments, and cheap arms for the entire male population, to defend the country J&nd their liberties. In the spring of 1839, the operatives and labourers delivered to the House of Com- mons a petition signed by 1,285,000 persons, demanding Universal Suffrage, Election by Ballot, and other ancient constitutional Rights. The tyrant, William, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property and imprisonment to disable a wild beast ; and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar. Of these laws, the clergy were zealous promo- ters ; and they protested against the amelio. rations under Henry III. LAW AND LAWYERS. The temple was established in 1185 ; Lincoln’s-ifm, 1310 ; and Gray’s-inn, 1357. They have masters, treasurers, deans, stew- ards, librarians, &c. The Court of Chancery has a lord-high- chancellor, vice-chancellor, master of the rolls, accountant-general, 16 clerks, besides secretaries of bankrupts, lunatics, presenta- tions, briefs, appeals, with numerous clerks, 8c c. & c. Also 6 clerks in chancery, 3 of the petty bag, &c. &c. with numerous assistants. The property of wards, trusts, minors, suitors, &c., standing in the name of the Accountant-General, in 1832, was about 50 millions ; in 1826, it. was 39 millions ; and, in 1726, but .£741,000. Such are the en- croaching powers of this jurisdiction. In Chancellor More’s time, from 1529 to 1532, there were 133 suits per annum. In James I.’s reign they averaged 1500 per annum, and under Lord Bacon 1461. In Chancellor Nottingham’s time, 1650. In Lord Hardwicke’s 2000, and latterly they have been from 1500 to 2000. From 1749 to 1751, the number of equity decisions made by Lord Hardwicke was 1264, and from 1808 to 1810, under Lord Eldon, but 962. The three common law courts, at West- minster, have each 5 judges ; and each about 60 officers, clerks, &c. &c. The Court of King’s Bench, per Lord Brougham, had 61,000 causes in 1829 j which, at an average cost to both parties of 150/., was above 9 millions ; but many cost double or treble that sum. Law expences altoge- ther, civil and criminal, cost, in 1829, above 20 millions. Justices in law are the eight judges in the King’s Bench and Common Pleas ; and the heads are called chief-justices. In the Court of Exchequer, the judges are called barons, ana the chief, lord-chiet-baron. They expound the statute law, and apply the common law j and make rules of court often 943 equivalent to laws, having, in all respects, great power and discretion, but restrained by counsel, and by the verdicts of juries. Originally, juries were 12 men, who, on oath, certified their belief of innocence. Then, in formal trials, they were the per- sons present ; and, in time, fixed at 12. - No accusation of crime can be lawfully made by the laws of England, except before a grand jury, usually 17, sworn to secresy ; and 12 of them must decide that it is true, before the party can be required to answer. Coroners’ juries consist of 17, and 13 are expected to be present during the enquiry. They are usually summoned from the neigh- bourhood. Verdicts of juries must be unanimous, that every one may be responsible to his own conscience and to the parties ; and, that the decision may be considered as a cer- tainty, not a mere probability, in the ratio of the numbers pro and con. No English judge can pass a sentence greater than the law prescribes ; but he may diminish the extreme severity of the law, as the case requires. Proof of guilt lies with the accuser, aDd the accused is not expected to prove a nega- tive. Proof, also, should be positive, and not presumptive. All doubts are construed favourably to the accused ; but the opinions of a judge ought not to influence a jury, every one of whom ought to think for him- self, and decide for himself. The jury are judges of the criminal inten- tion, as well as of the fact ; and they must be satisfied with proof of both, before they assent to a verdict, which concludes both on the fact and the criminal intention. The Saxon penal laws went on a principle of commutation. Every man, from the king to the slave, had his price, and every limb its value, called the “were.” The were of a leg or an eye was 50s., of a tooth Is., of a finger from 6s. to 9s. A law of William the Conqueror took away all capital punish- ment ; and, instead, directed various kinds of mutilation. By a new statute. Courts of Sessions are holden 8 times in the year, instead of quar- terly, and under the presidency of a bar- rister. Sheriffs’ Courts are also appointed, in dis- tricts of counties, for the trial of ail questions involving less than £50 debt, or £10 da- mages, under the same barrister. The courts of law, in Scotland, consist of the Court of Session, of Justiciary, the Exchequer, Civil Jury Court, the Admiralty, the Chancery, the Signet-office, the Lord Registrars, and the Consistorial Court. Torture was used in England previously to the Commonwealth. The Tudors were partial to it, and the Gunpowder- Plot con- spirators were racked. Lord Bacon and Sir E. Coke signed many warrants to put men to the torture, and the last case was under Laud, in 1640. The Hack was a frame, in which the prisoner was suspended horizontally by the wrists and ancles, and stretched. The Scavenger’s Daughter was a compressing 949 CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 97,(1 hoop, embracing the doubled body. Ma- nacles were iron gauntlets, contracted by a screw. Little Ease was a cell, too small to move or exist in. The writs issued in chancery are those which relate to the crown, which used to be kept in a little bag ; and those relative to the subject kept in a hamper j and hence the hamper-office and petty- bag-office.' Before the Norman Invasion, local courts for decisions in civil causes, and often also for criminal trials, existed not only in every county, but in many large divisions of them. To increase the power of the kings, the Aula Regis, or King’s-Bench, was substituted. The jurisdiction of the courts has been from time to time extended by fictions of process and pleading. Alfred was said to be the contriver of trial by jury, but we have evidence of such trials long before his time. The home circuit goes to Hertford, Chelmsford, Maidstone, Horsham, Lewes, Kingston, Guildford, or Croydon. The oxford circuit goes to Reading, or Abingdon, Oxford, Worcester, Stafford, Shrewsbury, Hereford, Monmouth, and Gloucester. The midland circuit goes to Northamp- ton, Oakham, Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester, Coventry, and Warwick. The western circuit goes to Winchester, Salisbury, Dorchester, Exeter, Launceston, or Bodmin, Bristol, Taunton, Bridgewater, or Wells. The Norfolk circuit goes to Bucking- ham, Bedford, Huntingdon, Cambridge, Ely, Thetford, Norwich, and Bury St. Edmunds. The northern circuit goes to York, Dur- ham, Newcastle, Carlisle, Appleby, and Lan- caster. Chester circuit goes to Chester, Mold. Welsh Pool, and Ruthin. The south wales circuit goes to Cardi- gan, Pembroke, Caermarthen, and Haver- fordwest. The Brecon circuit goes to Cardiff, Bre- con, and Priesteign. The north wales circuit goes to Beau- maris, Caernarvon, Bala, or Dolgelly. The jury system of Englahd is vitiated by there being no law to compel sheriffs and their agents to summon jurors, in the exact order in which their names stand, in three or four predetermined districts ; and it is rendered illusory and inefficient, in France, by the decision being made by a majority, so that the chance of truth or error is but in the ratio of the numbers. The number of barristers, recently, was 1132; conveyancers and pleaders, 132; Lon- don attorneys, 4342 ; country attorneys, 2/42 ; total number of lawyers, in England and Wales, 13,348. By an Act 1st Will. IV., it was enacted, that Hilary term should begin on the 11th, and end on the 31st of January. Easter on the 15th of April, and end on the 8th of May. Trinity on the 22dof May, and end June 12 ; and Michaelmas on Nov. 2, and end Nov. 25. By the statutes of the 9th and 13th of William III., it is enacted, that submissions to arbitration may be a rule of any of the courts of record, and equivalent in force to the decision of a jury. These statutes are, however, unavailing, owing to barristers being often made arbiters, by which a deci. sion is made according to law, and not ac- cording to equity. A solicitor is an attorney, who conducts suits in equity. By parliamentary returns, it appears that, in the 18 months subsequent to the panic of December, 1825, 101,000 writs for debt were issued : 71,000 by the King’s Bench, 23,000 by the Common Pleas, and 7,500 by the Marshalsea-court. CRIMINAL LAW. The usual course of criminal proceeding is to arrest the suspected offender by a war- rant, , and bring him before a Justice , who will commit him, take bail, or discharge him. If committed for trial, the prisoner is indicted at the next goal delivery. The grand jury first determine whether the pro- secution shall proceed. If they find the bill, evidence is given for the prosecution before an open court and a common jury, and the prisoner may challenge the jury, make his defence, and employ counsel. The judge sums up the evidence. The jury re- tire, and return to deliver their unanimous verdict. If guilty, the judge then passes the proper sentence. If it be of death, for trea- son, or murder, one of the consequences is attainder, and forfeiture of estate. In cases of the insanity of prisoners, by 39 and 40 George III., c. 94, the crown is to make order for their custody. A refusal to plead puts the prisoner on trial. As crimes are directly as inequality of social condition, and inversely as education ; and as their violence is directly as want, — so all tables and speculations about crime, without reference to the causes, are mawkish and futile. In 1837, the criminal list had swelled to 23,612, of whom 17,090 were convicted. The increase, over 1836, was 2628, or 12^ per cent. ; so that 1 in 588, in England and Wales, were criminals; and, in England, only 1 in 565, or one in 280 of the adult population. 3800 of them were transported ; 9500 were under 21, 358 under 12, and 100 under 10. Howard had the merit of drawing atten- tion to the miseries of prisons — but he was a severe disciplinarian, and the promoter of the climax of human oppression by solitary confinement. During the second 10 years of Geo. III., the capital punishments, in London, savoured of butchery. Every 6 weeks there used to be a public procession, from Newgate to Tyburn, of from 8 to 15 and 20 criminals, chiefly youths ; and, at the drop of the Old Bailey, the executions used to be likened to the suspension of pounds of candles, 15 or 20 at a time. In England, in 1836, the charges of mur- der were 73 ; in Ireland, 340 ; and, in Scot- land, 16. ?51 CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 955 The attempts to murder were 118 in England and Wales; 192 in Ireland; and 12 in Scotland. The manslaughters were 201 in England and Wales; 280 in Ireland; and 26 in Scot- land. The London police took into custody, in 1837, no less than 64,416 persons, of whom 21,426 were for drunkenness, 5026 for as- saults, 7659 disorderly, 1634 suspicious, 4287 vagrants, 3103 prostitutes, and 921 reputed thieves ; the remaining 26,560 being for various penal offences. Of the whole, 28,500 could neither read nor write. No less than 4578 convicts for petty of- fences, and mostly for 7 years, were sent, per annum, in the 10 years down to 1833, to Australia. Six to one were males. In 1834, 99,780 persons were confined in the gaols of England and Wales ; and, as crime is on the increase, owing to the poor- laws, they have not since been less. Of the 23,612 criminal prosecutions, in 1837, no less than 17,087 were convicted, being a considerable increase. The largest propor- tion, per county, was Somerset, 1 in 393 ; and Warwick, l in 382; all England and Wales, 1 in 588. The sentences of death were 438 ; transportation for life, 636 ; eight only were executed, all for murder. Of the whole, 36 in 100 were unable to read and write, and 52 in 100 imperfectly; i. e. 88 in 100 were uninstructed ! The commitments, in England and Wales, in 1838, were 23,094. 3052 were sentenced to transportation for life or to 7 years, in 1837! Life 886, and 7 years 2166. Ireland averages in transports 1000. Expences to Australia 15/. Six only were executed in 1837. — Maule . Prison expences are 14/. to 24/. per annum. — Ibid. The causes of the frightful and disgraceful disproportion of crime in England, where there is ten limes the religious instruction, are the anti-social inequalities of property, and the increased facilities for increasing the proportion of reckless poverty ; the dif- ference in the size of farms in the two coun- tries, the average in Britain being 220 acres, and in France but 60 ; and the absence of inexpensive amusements on Sunday even- ings ; the French population being at fetes, rustic dances, &c. and the English in public- houses or gin-shops. Those who refer it to the low price of spirits, are not aware that, in France, one penny is the price of a glass of the best brandy, and 3d. the price of a quart of draught wine, or 5c?. by the bottle. The causes are, the recklessness of families in England, ruined by the late monetary changes, and by commercial fluctuations, and the want of innocent amusements on the day of leisure. The situation of convicts in New South Wales is so horrible, that jurors ought not lightly to convict, as implying mere trans- portation. About 600 prisoners are confined in the Penitentiary at Milbank. Keepers of the Peace were formerly chosen by the inhabitants of each county ; but, by 34th Edw. III., a royal authority, or commission, was given to them. Juvenile convicts are now removed to Parkhurst, in the Isle of Wight. The 3 city prisons have cost the City of London full 20,000/. per annum. The punishment of the gallies in France, &c. is cruel, insulting, and disgraceful to humanity. The victims are chained by the neck to a main chain, which unites 30, and few ever disengage themselves till suicide, disease, or crimes worthy death, relieve them. Their place of confinement and la- bour, at Toulon, is called the Bagne. The Hindoos and Japanese still practice ordeal, and in very cruel forms. TOPOGRAPHICAL. The number of parishes, in England, is 9860 ; in Wales, 833 ; and, in Scotland, 948 ; respectively, in 42, 12, and 32 counties. In Ireland there are 32 counties, divided into 294 baronies. Many of the counties of England are men- tioned before the extinction of che Saxon Heptarchy ; and, therefore, this division was not made by Alfred. Distances of Towns from London — Aberystwith . 211 Liverpool . . . 206 Alnwick . . m 308 Lynn . . . 102 Bagnor . . . 236 Maidstone . . 34 Bath . . . 106 Manchester . . Bedford . . 50 Merthyr Tydvil 176 Birmingham . 109 Milford . . . 258 Brighton . . 51 Montgomery 168 Bristol . . 118 Newcastle-un.-li. 150 Buckingham . 58 Ditto upon Tyne 274 Bury St. Edm. . 71 Newmarket . . 61 Caermarthen . 218 Northampton . 66 Cambridge . 50 Norwich . . . 108 Carlisle . . 301 Nottingham . . 124 Chatham . . 30 Oakham . . . 95 Chelmsford . # 29 Oxford . . . 54 Cheltenham . 94 Penzance . . . 281 Chester . . 183 Peterborough . 81 Chichester . # 62 Plymouth . . 216 Colchester . 51 Poole . . . . 103 Coventry . . 91 Portsmouth . . 72 Croydon . . 9 Preston . . . 217 Devizes . . 89 Ramsgate . . 71 Doncaster # 162 Reading . , . 38 Dorchester . # 119 Rochester . . 29 Dover . . . . 71 Salisbury . . . 81 Dumfries . . 336 Scarborough 217 Edinburgh 395, 466 Sheffield . . . 162 Exeter , . 171 Shrewsbury . . 153 Falmouth . 269 Southampton 74 Gloucester . 104 Stafford . . . 141 Glasgow . . 396 Stamford . . . 89 Guildford . . # 29 Stratford . . . 92 Halifax . . 197 Taunton . . . 141 Hertford . . 9 21 Tenby .... 250 Holyhead . . 9 267 Tunbridge- Wells i 36 Hull . . . # 174 Wells . . . . 120 Huntingdon . 59 Weymouth . . 128 Ipswich . . 69 Whitehaven . . 294 Kendall . . 262 Winchester . . 62 Lancaster 214 W adsor . . . 21 Leicester . . 96 W »rcester . . 111 Leeds . . . 189 Ya, mouth . . 124 Lincoln . 132 York .... 199 t*33 CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 95 i JE^-jy Hundred had 100 or 120 house- holders. Some Hundreds do not contain a sq. mile ; and, in Lancashire, some 300. In Wales, they were called Cantrefs and Corn- mots : in the northern counties they are called Wards and Wapentakes j in Kent, Lathes ; and, in Sussex, Rapes. The parishes were originally of the same extent as the manors, and the lord appointed the clergyman. In the north, parishes often contain 30 or 40 sq. miles. From the Lizard to Dunnet, in Caithness, is 608 miles by the map, i. e. 8° 44^ diff. lat., and 1° 44' Ion. From Rye to Cape Wrath is 58 miles. The greatest breadth from the Land’s End to Lowestoffe is 367 miles. The coasts of England present high cliffs only in Cornwall, Wales, Kent, and Norfolk. The Antipodes of England lie to the south-east of New Zealand ; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes Island. Ireland is 3| degrees of latitude, or 259 miles long, taken from Cork-head to Malin ; and 2£ degrees wide, or 155 miles wide, taken from Dublin to Ballynahinch. . In superfices, England and Wales are to France as 90 to 154 ; Turkey the same ; to Spain as 90 to 137 ; to Prussia as 90 to 80 j to Portugal as 29 ; and to Belgium as 10. Corporate Towns are governed by a mayor and town-clerk, from 6 to 24 aider- men, and from 20 to 30 common-councilmen. They have also a recorder, and about 20 clerks and officers, besides gaoler, trum- peter, &c. In 1839, a law was passed to put an end to the iniquitous system of imprisonment for debt on the first process of the plaintiff. Trial and judgment must now precede the option of the incarceration of the debtor. This law contains many harsh provisions after judgment ; but, the principle being adopted, modifications may be expected. Professor Cooper states, in his lectures on Political Economy, that in the affairs of life, neither individuals nor bodies are uniformly guided by just considerations for their own good. They decide under present tempta- tions, from caprice, prejudice, flattery, or temporary excitements ; often on unfounded likings, or dislikings, under imperfect ap- prehension, want of information, reflection, and consideration ; while bodies constantly make decisions by majorities, under influence and authority, of which every individual would be personally ashamed. It was a maxim of the government of Mo- rocco, that, to rule people effectually, there should always be a stream of blood flowing from the throne. The punishments of these despots, according to their humour, are — to cause a culprit to be run through the body, strangled, beheaded, or cut in pieces, tied in a bag, and thrown into the sea, impaled on a stake, sawn asunder, burnt alive, sus- pended from iron hooks, thrown upon pikes, or dragged at the heels of a horse ; and sometimes they bury alive, or cause four Walls to be built round their victims. Of 237 corporations in England, 212 have property. Their gross income is 367,000/.', and their expenditure 377,000/. 133 are in debt for 1,855,371/., besides 4463/. annuities. 31 have not above 50/. 25 have from 7504 to 1500/. 9 hare above 10,000/. 17 havenn income. Government and laws are commonly dis. played by the pride of authority only, as sort of vulgar Raw-head and Bloody. bones ! Their means are coercion and punishment, and the people know them only by these and their exactions. It would be a novelty to see Power address itself to the affections, and laws made in a spirit of kindness, to promote and reward virtue. In a valley, 36 by 30 miles, surrounded by impassable Pyrenees, lies the independent republic to Andorra. It is a society under patriarchal family control, with representa- tive legislation, but without civilization, or domestic comforts ; and its only art is the forging of iron. Priestcraft and superstition govern every thing. Criminal Jurisprudence is in the lowest state in Germany. The untried are treated cruelly, and the trials demand confession as part of the procedure, and even preliminary to punishment — the alternative being a loath- some solitary dungeon, so that false confes- sions are often made, to escape from them even by death. A sight of a transcript of any will may be had at Doctors’ Commons for Is., but nothing must be extracted from it, or compared wiu it, without paying for a copy or extract. The Norwegian parliament is called the Worthing. One quarter is selected from a second chamber called Zoathing, and the 3-4ths are called the Odelsthing. The free cities, in the time of the Romans, were, Camulodonum (Maldon), Eboracum (York), Lindum (Lincoln), Wintoma (Win- chester), Cestria (Chester), Sorbiodunam (Sarum), Londinium (London), and Veru- lameum (St. Alban’s). The law of primogeniture is the great curse of British society. It enables pro- perty to accumulate by heirship faster than by industry ; it generates a race of spoiled children of fortune, and simultaneous races of proud beggars. Twelve persons, assembled for an unlaw- ful purpose, constitute a riotous assembly. The Posse Comitatus is the whole male population, called out by the sheriffs or two justices ; and all not attending are liable to be imprisoned. A Feod, or feud, was a grant of land to a vassal, on condition to the lord, as for military service, &c. This service for land was the feudal system. Taxes on law proceedings are a denial off justice to all who are not rich, and a pre- mium on oppression and immorality. The London Police were in the year 1840, 3415 in number, and their cost about 210 , 000 /. Villeins, or farm-labourers, were sold for slaves till the reign of Edward I. The markets were glutted with them, and Ire- land and Scotland were cultivated by then*, FORMS OF GOVERNMENTS. $55 A Hindoo jury, agreeable to ancient cus- tom, consists of 5 persons, chosen from among the elders ; 2 by the plaintiff, 2 by the defendant, and the 5th by the adminis- trator of justice. * In 12 years, from 1820 to 1832, 49,500 per- sons were discharged under the insolvent act. By the custom of gavel-kind, in parts of Kent, an estate is divided among all the sons, and that of an intestate brother, among his brothers. None but vain sovereigns add to the splendour of palaces, before cottages are made comfortable. These ought to be re- garded as the porticoes of palaces. The English champions of civil liberty, since its object has been understood, were — 956 Hampden, Pym, Fairfax, Hollis, Coke, Vane, Ludlow, Lilburn, Milton, Sidney, Russell, Marvel, .Fletcher before the Re- volution; and since, Locke, Burnet, Swift, Holt, Shippen, Glover, Chatham, Wilkes, Camden, Erskine, Sawbridge, Fox, Sheri- dan, Whitbread, Paine, Priestley, Price, Tooke, Stanhope, Perry, Belsham, Romilly Cobbett, Wakefield, and Cartwright. The best Reading Histories of England are those of Rapin, Hume, Smollett, Henry, Coote, and Lingard. Portions are Claren- don, Turner, Hallam, Belsham, Burnet, Ludlow, Lyttleton, and Spelman. The best for elementary study is Goldsmith’s Gram- mar of British History, and Robinson’s Abridgment of Hume and Smollett. Forms of Government of. the States of Europe . Andorra, Pyrenees, Republic , .. Anhalt-Bernburg, Duchy , Anhalt- Cothen, do. Anhalt-Dessau, do. Austria, Empire , Baden, Grand Duchy , Bavaria, Kingdom , Belgium, do. Bremen, Free City, Brunswick, Duchy , Church, States of, Popedom , Cracow, Republic , Denmark, Kingdom , .. France, Empire Frankfort, Free City , .. . . . t Great Britain, Kingdom , Greece, do. Hamburg, Free City , Hanover, Kingdom , .. .. .. Hesse- Cassel, Electorate , Hesse-Darmstadt, Grand Duchy , . . Hesse-Homburg, Landgraviate, Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Principality , .. Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, do. Holland, with Luxemburg, .. Ionian Islands, Republic , Lichtenstein, Principality , Lippe-Detmold, do. Lubeck, Free City , . . Lucca, Duchy , Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Grand Duchy , .. Mecklenburg-Strelitz, do. Modena and Massa, Duchy , Monaco, Principality , Nassau, Duchy, Oldenburg, Grand Duchy , Parma, Duchy , Portugal, Kingdom , .. Prussia, do. Reus , Principalities of, • • . . •• Russia, Empire , San Marino, Republic , Sardinia, Kingdom , Saxony, do. Saxe-Altenburg, Duchy , Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, do. Saxe-Meiningin-Hildburgen, do. Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach, do. Schwartzburg, Principalities of, Schauenburg-Lippe, Principality , .. With two syndics and a council. States having limited powers. Do do. Do. do. Absolute monarchy except Hungary, &c Limited sovereignty ; — two chambers. Limited monarchy ; — two chambers. Do. do. Republic; — senate and convention. Limited sovereignty ; — one chamber. Absolute elective sovereignty. Senate and chamber of representatives. Absolute monarchy ; — with provincial states. Absolute Monarchy ;-tw s o chambers. Republic ; — senate and legislative body. Limited monarchy ; — lords and commons. Absolute monarchy. Republic ; — senate and common-council Limited Monarchy ; two chambers. Limited sovereignty one chamber. Limited sovereignty ; — two chambers. Absolute sovereignty. Limited; — one chamber. Do. do. Limited monarchy ; — two chambers. Under Br. protection ; — council & chamber. Limited monarchy, with one chamber. Do. do. Republic ; — senate and common council Limited sovereignty, with one chamber. Limited monarchy, with one chamber. Do. do. Absolute sovereignty. Do. do. Limited sovereignty ; — two chambers. Absolute sovereignty, Do. do. Limited monarchy ; — 1 chamber of repres. Absolute monarchy ; — provincial States. Limited sovereignty ; — one chamber. Absolute monarchy, Senate and council of ancients. Absolute monarchy. Limited monarchy ; — two chambers. Limited monarchy ; — one chamber. Do. do. do. Limited monarchy ; — one chamber. Do. do. do. Limited monarchy ; — one chamber. Do. do. do. N&.VAL AND MILITARY. 953 957 Sicilies, The Two, Kingdoms , Spain, do. Sweden and Norway, do Switzerland, Republic , .. . . Turkey, Empire , .. .. .. Tuscany, Grand Duchy , . . . , Waldeck, Principality , .. .. Wurtcmburg, Kingdom , NAVAL AND MILITARY. In a Roman army, the first line were Has- tati , or young men ; the second, Principes, or middle-aged ; and the third, Triarii, or veterans. The light troops, for skirmishing, were called Velitts. The latter had bows and slings, and seven javelins. The former a two-edged sword, buckler, and helmet. A Roman legion consisted of 6000 men, divided in 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with a vexilum, or standard, guarded by 10 men. Attached to fevery Roman legion was an ala of 300 horse in 10 turmae. The com- mander of the legion was a prefectus; of the cohorts, a tribune; and of the centuries, a centurion. The standard was a silver eagle, on the top of a spear. Among the early Romans, commanders of armies were called Imperatores, but when Caesar became emperor, the commanders were called dukes, or lieutenants of provinces. The Greeks and Romans had no standing armies in time of peace. In war, every citizen was a soldier. The Greek phalanx consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears crossing each other. The Macedonian phalanx were 61 deep, with shields joined. Ancient soldiers were trained to- fight with either hand. The Roman camp was a square j one part for officers, and one for privates. Battering-rams were from 60 to 100 feet long, and worked by 40 cr 50 men, continu- ally relieved. The largest battering-rams of the ancients were equal in force to a 36-lb. shot from a cannon. The iEgis of the ancients was the breast- plate, or modern cuirass. The balista discharged stones, and the catapulta arrows. They were equivalent to artillery, threw arrows half a mile, and stones of 200 or 300 lbs weight. The shield, the breast-plate or gorget, was extended to the body and limbs, as armour, and the helmet protected the head. The most savage tribes use shields, and often helmets. Shields were usually made of leather, but often of wood or metal. The Grecian was round, the Roman square. The helmet was provided with a vizor, to raise above the eye, and a beaver, to lower for eating. The vizor, with grated bars, is used in the arms of nobility ; the elevation, without bars, a knight ; and the vizor, closed, an esquire. The armour, for the arms and shoulders, was called the vambrace and pouldron ; for the thighs and legs, cuises and greaves ; and, for the hands, gauntlets. Limited monarchy, with a council. Limited monarchy, with a legislature. Limited monarchy, with a diet and storthing. Confederation of republics; — a diet. Absolute monarchy. Absolute sovereignty. Limited sovereignty ; — one chamber. Limited monarchy ; — two chambers. Knights wore golden spurs ; squires, silver ones. The armour, or mail, was called chain , if made of scales, or net-work ; or plate, if in small metal pieces. The Saxons apd Normans used long spears. The Greeks threw theirs. Spears were 6 yards long, and pikes 14 or 15 feet. Maces were origi- nally clubs, used by cavalry, and fixed in their saddles. The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches. The broad-sword and scymetar has lately been adopted. The habergeon, or coat of mail, was made of plate, or scales of iron, or of chain in rings. The power of a bow is as the distance it is drawn from its inert position. The English long-bow was the heigh th cf the archer, and made of yew, hazel, ash, oi hawthorn. The cross-bow had the arrow ir. a solid groove, and was clumsy. The long- bow was straight, and its arrows longer than half, or the radius. Targets were, at least, a furlong distant, but at present 200 yards. A strong man can draw 27 inches, but Ro- bin Hood’s arrows were a cloth yard, or ell of 45 inches, and his bow, (lately in posses- sion of Sir G. Armitage) 6 feet. 300 yards is a good shot, but nearly 600 have been performed, and Hood’s songs claim for their hero, and John Nailor, ^ feet high, a North country mile, or 2000 yards! Four arrows can be discharged in the time of loading a musket. The arrow was of yew, and pointed with iron and steel. The feathers were 3, and 1 grey to guide the eye. A sheaf was 24 . Sometimes they bore combustibles. They would pass through a seasoned deak. board an inch thick. Every archer carried a pike and dagger, for close action, and he fixed the pike in the ground. His left arm was protected against the recoil of the string by a leather bracer. The bow was well notched, the middle of the bow waxed, and a spare string in reserve fitted the archer for action. Coats of mail, or habergeon, were shirts of interlaced rings, to protect the body from thrusts and cuts. A Roman legion was ten cohorts of 600 men each, with a wing of 300 horse. Ships of war were, by the Romans, called naves longce ; merchantmen, oner aria ; and light vessels, actuaries The Pacha of Egypt has 12 sail of the line, and 14 frigates; 3 or 4 are first-rates, car- rying 150 guns. There are two regiments called life-guards, 1 royal horse-guards, 7 of dragoon-guards, and 17 of dragoons; of which, 4 are lancers and 3 hussars. In infantry, 3 foot-guards and 99 of the line j also, a rifle-brigade, a NAVAL AND MILITARY. 959 96ft royal staff’ corps, 2 West India, 1 Ceylon, 1 African, 1 mounted rifle, 1 Newfoundland, and 1 Malta. Chelsea Hospital is under a governor, lieutenant-major, and adjutaut ; treasurer, comptroller, steward, and about 60 clerks and assistants. There are 33 garrisoned places in Great Britain, as towns or castles, 11 in Ireland, and 9 in the colonies. There are also 3 mi- litary asylums, and 2 military colleges, in England ; and 1 in Ireland. The corp3 of Engineers has a colonel-in- chief, and a second, 5 colonel-commandants, and 11 colonels. The Royal Artillery consists of 3 field- officers, 10 colonel-commandants, and 20 colonels. In the British land-service, the adjutant- general directs all matters of discipline ; the quarter-master-general gives orders for marching and quarters ; the barrack-master- general manages the barracks ; the commis- sary-general the provisions and stores ; the paymaster-general superintends pay and ac- counts ; while the master-general of the ordnance directs the arms, ammunition, de- pots, &c. The price of commissions in the army is, in the cavalry, lieutenant-colonel, 6176/. ; major, 4575/. ; captain, 3225/. ; lieutenant, 1190/. ; and cornet, 840/. In the infantry, lieutenant-colonel, 4500/. ; major, 3200/. ; captain, 1800/. ; lieutenant, 700/. ; ensign, 450/. The horse-guards are 25 per cent, higher, and the foot-guards double. At Woolwich there is a military academy, a laboratory, an artillery depot, a carriage department, and a grand repository. The ordnance is managed by a master- general, lieutenant-general, surveyor-gene- ral, clerk, store-keeper, clerk of deliveries, treasurer, secretary to the master -general, and chief secretary, with about 160 clerks ; and, under this board, is the academy and laboratory at Woolwich ; with minor esta- blishments at 35 places in Great Britain, and 31 in the colonies. Each have a store-keeper, deputy, and clerk. Previously to Charles II., the only armed force was the 100 yeomen of the guard ; and he established, on a foreign model, two re- giments of guards. Previously to Henry VII. there were not any yeomen of the guard. An iron 42-pounder is 10 feet long, and weighs 67 cwt. ; 32 and 24-pounders are the same length, but lighter; 18, 12, and 9- pounders are 4 inches shorter ; and the 9- pounder weighs but 30 cwt., taking a charge of 3 lbs. of powder, and the diameter of the shot being four inches. In the merchants’- aorwi^e, 9-pounders are 5 feet long, and -«*gh but 14 cwt. The English light brass 6- pounder is 5 ft , and weighs 6 cwt., with 3 668 inches calibre, and vent 212; 9, 6, and 3-pounders are 17 calibres long ; and 24 and 18-pounders are 13 calibres ; a 24-pounder is 6 feet long, with 3 669 inches calibre and weighs 24 cwt. ; the 18-pounder weighs 18 cwt., and so down. The 42-pounder weighs 66 cwt., is 16-244 inches calibre, and 9± feet long ; 24 pound iron guns weigh from 31 to 50 cwt., and are from 6£ to 9i feet long ; 24-pound carronades are 5 68 bore, 7 feet long, and weigh 12 cwt. Cast-iron cannon are used in the navy. Brass cannon droop by much firing. Robins says, that no field-piece should be loaded with more powder than a fifth or sixth of the weight of its ball ; nor any bat- tering-piece with more than a third. The velocity of the explosion of gunpow- der, fired alone from a cannon, is 7000 feet per second ; and, at the moment of explo- sion, four times greater. Cannon-balls go farthest at an elevation of 30°, and less as the ball is less. 13-inch mortars range 2| miles, and weigh 82 cwt. ; are 5 feet 3 inches long, and take a charge of from 20 to 30 pounds of powder ; 10-inch range 2 miles ; and 8-incb 1 mile, 2 feet 1 inch long, with 2 lbs. 2 oz. of powder ; 13-inch, in the land-service, are 3 feet 8 inches long, with 9 lbs. 1 oz. of powder ; 68- pound shot are 8 inches in diameter, with 9 lbs. of powder, and bore 4 inches ; a 13-inch shell weighs 198 lbs., and is charged with 6| lbs. of powder. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, and a lighted fusee to make it explode before it reaches the enemy, when the bul- lets separate, and proceed as before. The range of carcasses is about two miles, and those of 13-inch diameter require about 30 lbs. of powder. Rifle-barrels make the ball pass through a screw, formed in the length of the barrel, by which the velocity, at exit, is increased, and the aim more true. Perkins’ steam-artillery is to throw 60 balls, of 4 lbs., per minute ; and from 100 to 1000 musket-balls per minute. The armies of different nations are nearly as follow, in a state of peace, in 1838 : — United Kingdom 95,000 France 310,000 Austria 270,000 Prussia 165,000 Switzerland 32,000 Bavaria , 35,000 Sardinia 25,000 Portugal 35,000 Naples 30,000 Spain 50,0OP Sweden 45,0C€ Denmark 38, 02$ Russia 650,0<4> Turkey 200, 0CC Egypt 150,000 East India Company .... 200,000 China 1,200,000 Japan 1 20,000 Sikhs, confederacy 200,000 Morocco 40,000 U. States (200,000 militia) 6,000 South American Republics 40,000 At Midsummer, 1840, there were, in tha itish army, 4 field-marshals, 42 gene- rals, lieutenant-generals, and major-generals, 357 colonels, 689 lieutenant-colonels, and 696 majors, besides 128 retired. The army itself 961 NAVAL AND MILITARY. 962 consisted of 26 regiments of cavalry, 99 of infantry, and 7 foreign and colonial regi- ments. The British army, in 1839, consisted of,—. Cavalry 6,200 Ditto, India 3,506 Infantry 73,334 Ditto, India 17,735 Officers 5,681 Non-commissioned .... 7,868 Charge £4,527,020 Less, E. I. Company 714,692 Pensioners 70,371 Half-pay 4,803 Cost 28,387,486 A memorable revolution took place, in 1838, in Western Asia, when the Egyptian army under Ibrahim, for Mohammed Ali, utterly routed the great Turkish army, near Aleppo, 600 miles from Cairo, and from Constantinople. The crisis was remarkable ; Sultan Mahmoud, who had prepared the Turkish expedition, died at Constantinople but a few days before the conflict, leaving a minor successor, and an empire in disorder. Second-rate ships are from 80 to 100 guns on two decks, with a complement of 700 .men ; third-rates have 74 guns, and 650 men j fourth-rates 50 or 60 guns, and 400 men. The above are called ships of the line. The fifth and sixth-rates are frigates, from 24 to 48 guns. Our best ships are built after French mo- dels, the French being the most scientific ship-builders. An improved 50-gun ship, 32-pounders, is 2000 tons, 183 feet long, 176 feet high from keel to deck, and 52 feet broad. The Rodney, of 92 32-pounders, is in length 2434 feet, and in breadth 52 feet 2 inches, tonnage 2598. To build a 74-gun ship requires 18 men for three years, or 54 men for one year. There are five naval stations, or commands, in the British Seas, and seven in the colonies. The cavalry and infantry of the British army, in 1838-9, are 89,305 men, over and above the East Indian army. There are, also, 8600 artillery, and 34,000 seamen and marines. Austria announces a military force, in 1839, of 744,000 men; Prussia of 440,000; and the German confederation of 222,000. Russia, at the same time, announces a force of 1,020,000 men of all arms, besides 36 sail of the line, and 50 frigates. The Swedish regulars are but 5900 men, and the militia 26,914. The artillery is 2700. France, in peace, has 310,000 men, and 448 generals. Austria, in peace, has 272,000 soldiers, and 364 generals. Prussia, in peace, 120,000, and 81 generals. Malte Brun estimates Hesse as 1 soldier to every 49 inhabitants ; Prussia, to 68 ; Russia, to 90 ; Austria, to 100 ; France, to 110; England, to 140; and the Italian powers, 8 to 220. A battalion of 500 has a colonel, lieute- nant-colonel, major, 10 captains, 12 lieute- nants, 8 ensigns, an adjutant, quarter-mas- ter, pay-master, surgeon and mate, 32 ser- jeants, 30 corporals, and 21 drummers. A regiment of horse-soldiers, of about 360 officers and men, costs about 25,000/. pe? annum. A new enrolment of the English militia is now taking place by a law of 1852. The gunpowder depots are at Waltham Abbey, Hyde Park, Purfleet, Gravesend, Tilbury, Upnor, Priddey’s Head, Tipner Point, Keyham Point, Tynemouth, and Marehwood. The 6640 men in the guards cost 45/. 7s. id. per man per annum, and other soldiers 42/. 7s. 3 d. each. Barracks for 800 infantry cost about 37,000/. For 1200 infantry and 400 cavalry, 60,000/. The British native army in India is, 24,515 in Bengal ; 56,295 at Madras ; and 30,802 at Bombay; besides 4000 artillery, and 6000 European officers. There is a Volunteer Regiment of Infan- try in London, called the Hon. Artillery Company , which, upon all occasions of com- motion, is in aid of the civil power of the city. It consists, mostly, of respectable citi- zens, who equip and support themselves at their own expence. Their head-quarters are in the City-road, where they have a handsome establishment. It is a very an- cient corps * as far back as Henry VIII. Flying horse-artillery consist of light guns and howitzers, for use where wanted in bat- tle, or to attend cavalry in rapid evolutions. Vossius maintains that cannon w-as in- vented in China, in the reign of Kitey, in the year 85. Cannon were used at Quesnoy, or Cressy, perhaps before, and called bumbards. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast in 1685, at Beijapour, by Aulem Geer. It is 14 feet 1 inch long, and 28 inches bore, and equal to a ball of 2600 lbs. The famous floating-batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked in 1782, were the scheme of D’Arqon, a French engineer. There were ten of them, and they resisted the heaviest shells and 32-pound shot, but ultimately yielded to red-hot shot. In modern tactics, the hollow square is preferred to the solid squares of the ancients, when infantry are attacked by cavalry. There are on the Kentish coast 27 Mar- tello Towers, as defence to the military canal. The British army, during the years of peace, 1783 to 1/92, was from 30,276 to 39,253 men. The peace establishment, in the year 1826, was 149,000; in 1830,88,500; and, in 1839, 99,000. The first regiment, armed with muskets, was formed by Colonel Thomas, in the Low Countries, in the age of Elizabeth. Till 1750, our regiments were only called after their colonels. In 1782, to assist re- cruiting, many were called after counties The Scots Royals are the oldest regiment, and formed in the reign of Charles 1. The Coldstream Guards were forrrued by Monk, in 1660. The 2d, or Queen s Royals, was I I NAVAL AND MILITARY. 963 formed out of the four regiments sent to hold Tangiers, and called Kirk’s lambs. The parade step is 75 to 95 per minute. The quick march 108 to 115. The storming step 120. Moralists and civilians deplore the slaugh- ters in battles, but military men never ; lince the survivors, (and all hope to survive,) tonsider the killed and wounded as so many removed out of the way of their promotion It is a lottery, in which the blanks are death ; but every adventurer looks only to the prizes. Glory in war is derived solely from the justice of the war. Those who are victori- ous in an unjust war have no higher glory than appertains to the success of a banditti. But this discrimination is not always made either by contemporaries or historians, and kings and courts confer meretricious distinc- tions on their successful generals, to excite them and to gloss over the injustice of the cause. To carry on the wars of the past century, the currency was depreciated ; paper- money was increased, and the circulation, from a few millions in 1688, to fifty millions in 1815, besides inland bills and notes, for 4 or 500 millions. By this means, the faxes, of less than two millions at the Revolution, were increased to seventy millions in 1815, and the annual public expences from 3 to 130 millions. England, in the scale of nations, was a secondary power till 1763. The conquest of Canada and the establishments in India, her naval superiority, her colonies, and her trade, raised her then to the first rank among nations. She suffered a deep blow, by the separation of the American colonies, and the expences of the war ; but, in 1792, she had re-attained -the summit of internal prosperity and foreign ascendancy. The wai against the French Revolution then employed, for 23 years, all the resources of the kingdom, and exhausted them. The real property was mortgaged by and for the government, and money was artificially lowered in value by paper, as 4 to 1. Military officers die 312 per cent, in Ben- gal ; 4 49 per cent, at Madras ; and 3 94 at Bombay. The Prussian military system is light and effective. An annual conscription extends ‘ to every class, from 21 to 26 years of age, and 3 years is the period of service, except in the artillery, 5 years. They then belong to the Landwher, or National Militia, and are called out 10 or 12 days in the year.— Gleig. The military expenditure on colonial ac- ount is 2 millions ; the civil, half a million ; and the naval, directly and indirectly, ano- ther half million, in all 3 millions. 5000 British fell at the storming of Ba- dajoz, and 4000 at St. Sebastian. Fort William is the most regular fortress in India, but so large as to require the de- fence of 8 or 10,000 men. 5000 military, and 1000 naval cadets, are always under education in Russia. There 964 are 550,000 infantry, 95,000 cavalry, 50,0(1(5 artillery, and 90,000 cossacks, &c. The navy is 54 of the line, and 35 frigates. Five-sixths of the Dutch troops die in their passage to Java, and in seasoning. Armies employ the idle, dissolute, and reckless. Among officers, the chance of promotion by survivorship, compensates for the chance of being killed ; and, hence, bat- tles, &c., so revolting in a moral sense, are to them desirable. Victorious generals are created by success in 2 or 3 rencontres. Confidence is thus given to troops, and other victories beget the false renown of a conqueror. Victory is the consequence of discipline, if strong enough to render troops indifferent to the direct assaults of an enemy till worn out. Other victories, as those of Cromwell, Charles XII., and Napoleon, were gained by pushing through the enemy’s centre, and dividing and distracting the whole. In partizan wars, more is effected by bri- bery than the sword. The longest purse generally succeeds, for treachery is engen- dered by shades of opinion. Thus, in 1815, the French were Napoleonists, Republicans, or Bourbonists, so that when Napoleon took the field on June 15, 1815, the generals and officers had been so tampered with, that some of his generals went over to the foreign enemy on the 16th, and several movements were baffled by unseen causes. Ney was too late at Quatre Bras, and too forward at Waterloo ■, Erlon, with the centre, marched and countermarched a whole day, while right or left needed his aid j and Grouchy and Vandamme, the right wing on the 18th, did not fire a shot. While the Allies (dou- ble the number of the engaged French,) acted in concert, and the route of the French left and centre was effected by flank movements of the very troops to which Grouchy was opposed. Napoleon’s plan, in June, 1815, was to prevent the union of the Allies. The Prus- sians lay to the right, and the other Allies to the left, and other large Prussian corps were in advance. On the 15th and 16th he drove all before him, as a wedge in tne centre ; but, on the 17th, he allowed the English, Dutch, &c., to rally and unite at Waterloo ; and though the Prussians were but a few hours from the field, he postponed the attack till after noon. As usual, he carried the position ; but, in the moment of victory, 40,000 Prussians joined, and his situation became critical. At 8, other 10,000 Prus- sian cavalry, from Wavre, galloped through the valley, and struck the French with a panic, so that they fled in confusion to Char- leroi. The Prussians claim the victory, and assert that they converted a defeat into a victory ; but the right wing of the Allies, under Wellington, also claim it. About 36 or 40,000 of the Allies were killed and wounded, including 20 generals, and it is supposed, as many of French, but no general killed. The Prussians, in their advances, took 5 or 6000 prisoners. The number of Chelsea pensioners, lately, 965 NAVAL AND MILITARY. 966 were 84,960, at a cost of 1,387,169/. The Greenwich , 19,489, cost 252,563/. There are 100 companies of marines ; 26 at Chatham, 29 Portsmouth, 27 Plymouth, isnd 18 Woolwich ! with about 1000 officers. Greenwich Hospital has a governor and lieutenant, also 5 captains, and 8 lieutenants, with about 60 clerks, medical assistants, &c. It has estates in the three northern counties, and valuable schools, with 10 masters and mistresses. There are 2 schools of 400 boys each, and 200 girls at Greenwich, for children of sea- men. There is also a Royal Naval College, at Portsmouth. An admiral carries his flag on the main- top-mast, a vice-admiral on the fore-top- mast, and a rear-admiral on the mizen-top. Pensions for wounds and widows are provided by stopping 3d. in the pound from all payments to officers, and by rating every 100 men as 101. This yields to widows from 120/. to 51. per annum; and, for wounds, from 20/. to 4/. Both eyes being reckoned at 20/. a year, one eye at 6/., an arm from 30/. to 14/., and a leg from 14/. to 12/. A lieutenant in the navy ranks as a cap- tain in the army ; a post-captain as colonel ; and an admiral as general. Below the lieutenants are warrant-officers, as master, second master, boatswain, and carpenter; also chaplain, surgeon, mate, and purser. The petty officers are master’s mates and midshipmen. The master has charge of all the ship’s materiel. The gunner of the ordnance, &c. The boatswain superintends the stores, &c. The carpenter watches the soundness of every part. The purser manages the pro- visions. In the time of Henry VIII. the royal navy consisted of 1 ship of 1500 tons, 2 of 800 tons, 3 of 600 tons, 3 of 400 tons, and 6 or 7 smaller. The largest was called the Great Harry. At his death, the royal navy was extended to 50 ships, making 12,000 tons, manned by 8000 sailors and soldiers. Elizabeth’s fleet, in 1588, consisted of 176 ships, with 15,000 men, 40 of which were of the royal navy, and 2 of a thousand tons. The Prince Royal, built in 1610, was 1400 tons, and had 64 guns. In 1637, the Sove- reign of the Seas was launched, of 1600 tons, and pierced for 86 guns. In 1679, the navy consisted of 76 ships of the line ; and, at the revolution, 173 ships of all sizes. At the death of George II. it consisted of 412 ships, measuring 321,000 tons. In the last war, there were in commission from 1 00 to 106 ships of the line, from 130 to 160 fri- gates, and 200 sloops of war ; besides smaller vessels, amounting to another 500, and mea- suring between 800,000 and 900,000 tons. Henry VIII. established the dock- yard at Woolwich, and a separate Royal Navy. Besides the Great Harry , he had the Regent of 1000 tons, and 650 men, and the Henry Grace de Bieu , with 3 tiers of guns, 4 masts, and very lofty poops and forecastles. Eliza- beth’s largest ship was the Triumph of 1000 tons, 60 guns, and 780 men. King James built the Prince , of 1400 tons ; and Charles I. the "Sovereign of the Seas , of 1600 tons. First-rates are now 2500 and 2600 tons. The Caledonia, of 120 guns, and 2616 tons, is 205 feet long, 53 broad, and 23 feet in the hold. The French Commerce de Marseilles was 208 feet long, and 2747 tons. Several steam- frigates’ have been built b> the French, with four boilers, each of 60-horse power, and provided with covers for the paddles, ball-proof. Other nations, with great activity, are doing the same, and steam-power will, unquestionably, effect great changes in naval tactics and warfare. The different Navies were in 1840 nearly as under, by some accounts : — Line. Frig. Smaller. United Kingdom 120. . . .130. . . .307 France, 54.... 65. ...213 Austria 3 8..., 61 Holland 18.... 26.... 50 Spain 15.... 18.... 40 Portugal 4 6 .... 40 Sweden 13.... 15.... 60 Denmark 5.... 8.... 20 Russia 50.... 36.... 60 United States ... . 18.... 16.... 40 The Pennsylvania, an American man-of- war, is 225 feet long by 58 broad, burthen 3000 tons, crew 1200, with 140 32-pounders. Her largest anchor is 5 tons, and her draught 28 feet. She could carry 30,000 barrels of flour, the consumption 15,000 for a year. Total of 20 years’ ex pences for building public ships .. 18,721,551 Repairs 11,037,188 Ordinary repairs for wear and tear.., 6,412,592 £36,171,331 The annual demand of timber for the royal navy, in war, is 60,000 loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which 35 will stand on an acre. In peace 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A 74-gun ship consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons or trees, the pro- duce of 57 acres in a century. Hence, the whole navy consumes 102,600 acres, and 1026 per annum. — Allnut. But, as five oak-trees yield a load and a half, so the navy may demand half a million of acres, or the produce of 5000 per annum. Teak is preferred to oak, as more durable and less liable to splinter ; and ships-of-war of this timber are building at Bombay and Port Jackson. Larch is recommended. At 70 years it is full-grown; and a tree of 79 years was 102 feet high, and 12 feet girth, with 253 cubic feet. Another, of 80 years, was 90 feet and 17 feet, and 300 cubic feet, or 6 loads. None can be pressed into the king’s naval service above 55, nor under 18. No appren- tices, nor landsmen who have not served at sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of mer- chant-ships, first mates of 50 tons, and boat- swains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the public boards, and none, except by an officer, with a press- warrant. The system is an exception to the rule oi I I 2 ANCIENT MYTHOLOGY. 967 social right. The public want the services of persons subject to impress, and yet de- cline to pay such bounties and wages as should tempt men to become volunteers. If bounties and wages in the king’s service were equal to those in the merchant’s ser- vice, the royal navy would be manned with volunteers, and half the irksome discipline of the navy would be unnecessary. Persons enlisting as soldiers or sailors are not to be sworn in before a magistrate in less than 24 hours, and then are at liberty to dissent, on returning the enlisting, or bounty- money, and 20s. Foreign seamen, after two years’ service m any British ships, are naturalized. During the late war, the number of sea- men and marines was 150,000. The sums voted for the navy were 18 millions; and the waste was enormous. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously-concerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship by varying the combinations of two revolving crosses; and, also, to spell any particular words, letter by letter. In a British Admiral’s cabin there is no furniture for shew, and the apartment is as fully provided with cannon as the gun-decks. Dupin. The Russians have a dock-yard at Nico- laief, in the Black Sea, and a fleet of 13 or 14 sail of the line, 8 or 10 frigates, and as many msre small-armed ships. The average duration of ships built of or- dinary timber is, seven, eight, and ten years ; but, if dry-rot were prevented, and the ships subject only to ordinary casualties, thirty years would be their average duration. The English navy dock-yards cover about 500 acres. Portsmouth, 100 ; Plymouth, 96; Pembroke, 60 ; Chatham, 90 ; Sheerness, 60 ; Woolwich, 36 ; and Deptford, 30. In 1835, there were 120 ships of the line in ordinary ; in 1793, 141 ; and, in 1821, 160. The shipwrights, in the royal dock-yards, vary from 4000 to 2500. The last war employed 700 transports of 300 tons. The annual average of timber for the Navy costs, for building .... 748,723 For repairs . 441,890 Total £1,190,613 In years of war it was half a million more. THE ANCIENT MYTHOLOGY. The Mythology which the Romans and other ancients adopted from the Greeks, and their poets and priests, is so remarkable for the grossness of its absurdity, that every rational person feels shame and astonish- ment that it should be taught in modern schools as a branch of knowledge. The absurdities do not, however, originate with the first invention; but, in the igno- rance and fancies of the commentators. The gods and goddesses, major and minor, were of Phoenician and Phrygian invention and growth, with some Egyptian varieties. 968 They were, originally, real personages dis« guised, in prolonged time, by priestcraft,, poetry, fable, and allegory. Perhaps Taautus, the minister of Chronus^ who wrote Ten Books of Laws, and wh was a mystic in philosophy, laid the firs* rude basis of the system, by conferring sa- cerdotal character on Chronus and certain members of his family ; and then, in pro- gressive ages, the system spread to all the major and minor deities. Another auxiliary was the naming of the planets after the same personages, by which they became associated with a science uni- versally credited, and with the good and ill fortunes of mankind. This connection was irresistible, and the science of astrology being universal, worship and rites became coeval with faith in the celestial influences. This was Phoenician and Egyptian ; and, as the Greeks, &c. were colonists, the elder systems were decorated by the Greek fabu- lists, priests, and poets, till there was gene- rated the mass of incongruous nonsense, since known as the Greek mythology. Of course, in conferring names, the lan- guages of Phoenicia, Egypt, and Greece, were intermingled; and, hence, the very same personages got different names ; and, in time, such confusion arose, that it be- came sacrilege to attempt to unravel it! Our only present method is to go back to the earliest records, and these are presented by Sanchoniatho and Manetho. What has since been added, is amusing for its folly, whether added by Greeks or Romans ; but, the essentials are only to be found in records anterior to the jargon of Hesiod, Homer, Sappho, Ovid, Virgil, &c., &c., the oldest; of whom lived 1800 years after Chronus and Taautus. In this sense, mythology became the basis of the arts of recording, and the priesthood from their foundation became, by various arts, first recorders of great natural and po- litical events. It was like all human prac- tices, a step-by-step affair, which the ima- gination may follow. It was the very same with the sacerdotal characters, the modes of reverence, worship, &c., as in open spaces, woods, groves, temples, &c. &c. The explanation of the hieroglyphics, with Sanchoniatho and Manetho, enable us now, without consulting Greeks or Romans, to decide that the Egyptian mythology was a device of Taautus, to give weight and effect to his ten books of laws, and the secular power. He treated useful discoverers, then dead, as gods ; and he arranged some rude sacerdotal ceremonies. Modern theorists, on these subjects, are even more absurd than the Greeks. Some, as Dupuis, see every thing in personifica- tions of the zodiac and constellations ; and our one-eyed Bryant refers every thing to Noah and his Ark! A Christian believes little that is asserted by a Mahometan, Hin- doo, Chinese, or Jew ; and, among Chris- tians, Catholics do not credit Protestants, nor these Catholics. Prejudices are, in all things greater than truth. 969 ANCIENT MYTHOLOGY 970 The gods and demi-gods, doubtless, were heads of society, as great inventors and be- nefactors. Thus, Vulcan, or Hephistus Diamichius, or Ammon, was the discoverer of iron, and the modes of forging it. Dagon (Osiris) invented the plough, and the making of bread. Taautus hieroglyphics, writing, the lyre, &c. ; Menes, or Bacchus, intro- duced the vine, salt, &c. Chronus made the first sword and spear, assisted by his daugh- ter Athena, or Minerva. They were consecrated after death ; their statues set up ; and worship appointed. Taautus reduced the whole to a state reli- gion, and engrafted rites and civil laws, in ten celebrated books. His hieroglyphics were symbolic, and resembled our system of heraldry, crests being changed as men behaved ; and these changes were the silly transformations of the superstitious Greeks, who received the system through the half- informed colonists that settled on their coasts, from Phoenicia and Egypt, about 2000 B. C. Whether the idiom of oriental language, or the custom of honouring ancestors and great men, was the cause of the title Zeus, or God, being applied to these men ; or, whether it was a device of Taautus, to combine the sacred and legal authority, is uncertain. Many Greeks, for many purposes, and many modern mystics, pretend that these ancient personages were mere poetical and theological personifications of passions and qualities. But, this is mistaking the effect for the cause, and oddly substituting their own theory for matter of fact. Epiphanus says, that it was not till a considerable interval that Chronus, Rhea, Jupiter, and Apollo, were honoured as gods. Jupiter was one of the seven sons of Cronus, by Rhea. Sanchoniatho mentions Adodus, as he who was called the chief of the gods ; and Jupiter in Greece was at first called the Dodonian. Ouranus and Ge, whom the Romans call Uranus and Terra, protected him in Crete from Cronus, who had driven Ouranus from his continental dominions. In the family contentions with the children of Astarte, he headed the party of Ge and Rhea, his grandmother and mother ; and the Titanides, the children of Astarte, being defeated, he became the head of his party, and the chief of this Theocratic Dynasty, in Greece and Asia Minor. Cronus, on his abdication, divided his dominions thus to Astarte he gave Phoe- nicia, Syria, &c. ; to Belus, Mesopotamia and Chaldea ; to Adodus, or Jupiter, Crete, &c. ; to Athenae, Attica; to Mars, Thrace j to his brother Dagon, (Ahsi-Eretz, or Osiris,) Lower Egypt ; to Poseidon, or Neptune, Bary tus ; and to Taautus, Upper or Southern Egypt. This division, however, created such dis- satisfaction, that Jupiter, Neptune, Mars, Dagon, and Athena, united against Astarte, Belus, and the Titans ; and, hence that war, about which legends were converted, by the Greeks, into poetical extravaganzas. Cronu* himself departed into Italy, and appears to have died in peace. Probably, he there founded the kingdom of Rassena, or Etruria, and in his followers transferred the arts of Phoenicia and Egypt to that district, being afterwards worshipped as Volturna ; but, according to some, he settled under Janus in Latium. Pindar sends him into the Atlantic, as far as the Hesperides, or Britain ! The Titans, or Aletae, were descendants of the hunters and sturdy husbandmen of early ages, often distinguished by colossal size. Taken altogether, the Titan war, between the children of Cronus, by his different wives, was one of the most remarkable in ancient history ; but the Greek poets make it appear more like a romance than matter of fact. It raged between 2830 and 2860 B. C. Its result settled the divisions of all these countries for many ages. On one side was Cronus, aided by his son Jupiter, or Adodus of Crete; by Apollo, another son ; by Neptune, or Poseidon, his nephew ; and Mars, or Demarous, his half- brother ; and Hercules, son of Demarous ; with Osiris, or Dagon, King of Egypt, bro- ther of Cronus ; and by Taautus. On the other side was Astarte, and her family ; with Pontus the Titan ; Belus of Babylon ; and all the Titans and Giants, commanded by Ty- phon, son of Cronus and Astarte. One was called the party of the gods, and the other of the Titans. In spite of Greek disguises, there is no doubt that Typhon forced Olympus, the central position of the gods, and compelled them to flee to Egypt, where he pursued them, killed Osiris, and held the country 2’i years. In time, however, the war was re- newed, and it may be inferred that Typhon, who is blackened by the Greeks, like our Richard III., was ultimately killed in Sicily. This family war arrested Belus in his grand design at Babylon, and it is very re- markable, that it was one of the charges made by the god party against the Titans, that, at Babylon, “ they were raising moun- tain on mountain , to scale Heaven ! ” The Planets derive their names from Cro- nus and his family, and court, before the Titan war, which divided the family. Sa- turn was so called after Cronus ; Jupiter after his son Adodus, of Crete; Mars after Demarous, the foster-son of Dagon, and son of Ouranus ; the Moon after Diana, Ceres, or Isis, the wife of Dagon, or Osiris ; Venus after Astarte, the fair wife of Cronus, and mother of the Titanides ; Mercury after Taautus, Thoth, or Hermes; the Sun after Apollo or Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis, or, in Chaldea, after Belus or Baal, the son of Cronus, born in Berea, Then the names associated with the Pla- nets and Stars, which were believed to be so efficient in fortune and misfortune, ren- dered them the gods of all ages and nations, in which faith in astrology prevailed. Eupulemus says, that Atlas, the youngest son of Ouranus and Ge, was the inventor 971 of astrology ; and Sanchoniatho says, that he was starved in a cavern, by Cronus and Hermes. Corybantes were itinerant dancers, singers, and musicians ; among whom, Jupiter was said to have been concealed and educated, just as a child might be put into the hands of our gypsies. The Blacks are absorbed in superstitions, and these being inbred in the Ethiopians, were easily systematized by Taautus, and rendered national and imposing by vast structures, by establishments of priests, kc . ; for the Bull, Ibis, Serpent, Lotus, &c. were mere varieties of the vulgar African Fe- tisches. Waddington considers Ethiopia as the cradle of the religion and arts of Egypt. The temples are older, and the pyramids are more numerous, though smaller. Among the 330 kings of Egypt, Herodotus says, 18 were Ethiopians. Cronus, Ilus, or Saturn, preceded Menes, and was the first fixed monarch of Egypt, and surrounding countries. He had three wives, and several concubines, and was the father of most of the subsequent demi-gods. Osiris was Dagon, son of Ouranus and Ge, and brother of Cronus. He invented the plough, and first cultivated bread-corn, for which he was called Zeus-Arotrius , or in Phoenician Asti-Erotius , Ahsi-Eretz, or Osiris in Egypt. He was killed by Typhon, his nephew, one of the sons of Cronus, after a reign of 35 years, and buried at Philce. His hieroglyphic was a plough and other implements of agriculture. Hathor, or Athyr, was Astarte, wife of Cronus, and called Venus, from her fair complexion. She had seven daughters, called Titanides, and two sons, called Po- thos and Eros. The Greeks also called her Aphrodite. Rhea, another wife of Cronus, by whom he had seven sons — Poseidon, or Neptune ; Belus, founder of Babylon; Apollo; and Adodus the youngest, afterwards called Ju- piter ; and Muth, or Pluto, who died young. Nephthe, the Greek Minerva, was (the same as Athena,) daughter of Cronus, to whom he gave Attica. She aided him in making iron weapons, and in the Titan war led an army into Egypt, and was there called Athena the Victorious. Neith, or Beruth, was the wife of Vulcan, or Elioun. Thoth, or Taautus, the thrice greatest, was son of Misor, son of Amynus. Mysor is believed to be Misraim, or the first The- ban king; and Athothes, or Thoth, the second, Cronus giving him all Upper Egypt, while Osiris, or Dagon, reigned in the Lower. Then, since Amynus, who first taught men to build villages, and tend flocks, was the father of Misor, or Misraim ; we find in mm the great Ammon, progenitor of the Pharoahs, and the Ammon Ra of all the inscriptions. Agrotes, who at Byblus or Babylon was called the greatest of the gods, and the pro- tector of husbandmen and huntefs, was the 972 Pan of the Greeks, the Orion of the hea- vens, and Alorus, first King of Chaldea. His statue was drawn about Phoenicia, by yokes of oxen. Ares, or Artes, was the Demarous c/ Sanchoniatho, and the Mars of the Greeks. He was the son of Ouranus by a concubine, whom Dagon married, and was one of the Osiris, or Dagon party, against Typhon. Esculapius Shum was the son of Sydyc the Just, by one of the Titanides. Phthah was Chrysor, Hephaestus, or Vul- can, who discovered iron, and invented fish- ing-tackle and boats; and, also, one “ who exercised himself in words, charms, and divinations.” He was the first god-king, and his reign of 724 years by Manetho, and 680 by Castor, meant lunar periods, or 59 or 55 solar years. Phre was Hysistus, or Helius, son of Hephaestus, and called, in mythology, the Sun. He was the second god-king, and reigned 77 years. Cneph was Epigeus, Autochthon, or Ouranus, inventor of bricks, &c. He was the third god-king, and reigned 56 years, 6 months, and 10 days. Ge, wife of Ouranus, was the Greek Juno. She was the mother of Cronus and of Pha- tamen-Ousieri, or Dagon, and was the Sate of the Egyptians. Proserpine, or Persephone, was a daugh- ter of Cronus, and, dying young, she was said to be the wife of his dead son Muth, or Pluto. Sanchoniatho mentions the death of Pluto, or Myth, and his consecration by his father Cronus ; and, being a dead god, he was called the God of the Dead. Neptune was Poseidon, to whom Cronus gave Berytus, inhabited by fishermen. He navigated the Mediterranean, and took part against the Titans, The Greek fables tell of his Lybian children, and of his son Al- bion, who, as was pretended, led a colony to Britain ! There was no Jupiter-Ammon. They were two distinct persons, Ammon and Ju- piter, living at an interval of three genera- tions. The, father of Taautus, or Athothes, was Minor, Menes, or Misraim ; and the father of Misor was Amynus, who is be- lieved to be Ammon. Then Jupiter was the youngest son of Ilus, son of Epigeus, son of Elioun. But Ammon, whether Vul- can (Diamichius), or Amynus, was the Chief God of the Egyptians, and Jupiter, or Je- vant, (the young prince) was of Crete, the Chief God of the Greeks. Their vanity led them to call their Jupiter, Jupiter-Ammon. Hercules was the son of Demarous or Mars, the son of Ouranus, by a concubine. He took part with Jupiter, another grandson of Ouranus, and with Dionysius contributed greatly to the defeat of the Titans. We then find that he led armies to the Straits ot Gibraltar, and, after overrunning Spain, died in that country, when his army was dispersed. He was a hero, but the twelve labours, &c. &c. are silly inventions. Megasthenes says, that Hercules and ANCIENT MYTHOLOGY. ANCIENT MYTHOLOGV. 973 974 Dionysius (Bacchus,) conquered India, and Sallust /elates that Hercules perished in Spain it the head of a mixed army of Medea, Persians, &c. Sesostris, the Egyptian, overran Europe ; and Tearcon, the Ethiopian, did the same, Nabucodrossorus, the Chaldean, as well as Tearcon, or Taracus, proceeded to the pil- lars of Hercules, and thence to Thrace and Pontus. Idanthurus, the Scythian, also over- ran Asia, even to Egypt, except India. Of some of these mighty conquerors we have no records. Tearcon was the Taracus of the 25th dynasty, who reigned 20 years, about 750 B. C. Isis was either the daughter of Cronus or the concubine of Ouranus, whom Dagon married ; and the Greek Ceres, her husband, being the inventor of corn, ploughs, &c. &c. There is no doubt that Bacchus, about whom the Greeks propagated such a multi- tude of absurd legends, was Menes, or Dio- nysius, the first king of Egypt, who, accord- ing to Manetho, made extensive foreign conquests. The Greeks report his conquest of Ethiopia, and, probably, he passed thence by water into India, since he was of the Rhea Party, while Belus, on the Euphrates, was of the Titan Party. In Arabia he was Adenis ; in Egypt Menes, or Dionysius. Dr. Young thus gives their hieroglyphics : — Agathodaemon, Chnouphis, or Ammon, was the God of Male Nature, drawn as a man's head and a circle. Neith, Minerva, Goddess of Female Na- ture, drawn as a Vulture. Phtha was the brother of Ammon, a man with a hawk’s head and head-dress, the Greek Vulcan, inventor of fire, and a great artist. Phre, or Re, was Haleus, successor of Hephaetus, a globe standing on the head of a hawk. Sate, Juno, connected with Ammon. Sme, or Themis, officiated in the Amenti. Osiris was God of the Dead, with Muth or Pluto, a sceptre with the head of a wolf. Gods have the head of a hawk in the hieroglyphics. The Catholics ridicule the Egyptian God- kings, but forget their own Saints. The Temple of matchless dimensions at Sais, to Neith, the Goddess of Female Na- ture, has on it the following sublime inscrip- tion, translated by Champollion, “lam all that has been — all that is — all that will be. No mortal has ever raised the veil which conceals me, and the fruit which I have produced is the Sun.” The Hindoos apply to Vishnu a passage of like kind, “ All which has been — all which is — and all which will be are in Vishnu. He illumi- nates every thing, as the Sun illuminates the world.” Sate, or Juno, is called, in the inscrip- tions, “ the living goddess, daughter of the Sun, Queen of the Heavens and the Earth, the ruler of Lower Egypt, protectress of her Son, the Lord of the World, king of the three regions of Egypt, Son of the Sun, Phatamen Ousieri. * ' The most magnificent Temples were raised to Astarte, and that at Apollonius Magna is to her, and Harhat, or Cronus, and their son, Harsont-Tho, Horus, or the Eros of Sanchoniatho. The Temple of Edfou was dedicated to Arohris, Horus, or Apollo, son of Osiris and one of the demi-gods. Corn was first cultivated in Egypt by Isis, or the Ceres of the Greeks. It merits emphatic notice, that the rival Chaldeans and Egyptians, and, perhaps, also, the Phoenicians, gave different names, or even assigned different persons to certain attributes of divinity. Then, as the Greeks understood neither Chaldaic, nor Coptic, nor Phoenician, so they confounded the three, and added to the confusion by Hellenizing the separate names. All the transformations recorded in the Greek Poetry, or Mythoiogy, were merely a change in the signet or recognized hiero- glyphics, by which, before the invention of letters, men and women, especially those of note, were honourably or dishonourably de- signated. It resembled the crests of our heraldry. In many cases it might have been the judgment, or record, of a tribunal, or of the sovereign, and hence so many trans- formations were ascribed to them. It is impossible to find terms strong enough to express the contempt due to the Greeks for their ignorant or wilful perver- sion of the Egyptian Theocracy. Perhaps, however, it has been, as it would be, if the future year 4000 received accounts of the English Religion from the Cherokees or Ashantees. In reading Greek Authors, who speak of sons of the gods, about 1000 or 1200 B. C., we should remember that this was only in an astrological sense, a man being called a Son of Mars, or Jupiter, just as the planets Mars or Jupiter had most astrological dig- nities. The Greeks, through Orpheus and other Poets, converted the Egyptian Helius into Phoebus ; Ammon, or Agathodaemon, into Jupiter ; their Cronus, or Phtha, into Sa~ turn; their Osiris, or Muth, into Pluto j their Typhon into a Monster ; their Neith into Minerva ; their Sate into Juno ; their Sme into Themis; their Isis into Proser- pine; their Amenti into Hades; their Oms into Cerberus ; their Thoth, or Taautus. into Mercury ; and their Horus, Apis, and Anubis into Apollo, Minos, jEacus, and Rhadamantus. The Chaldeans called Dionysius, or Bac- chus, Jao j and he was often called Sabaoth or Demiurgus. Bel , the Babylonish name of the Sun, or Belus, was pronounced Baal by the He- brews; and Baal, Bel, or Pel, is the general name of great buildings and pyramidal tem- ples through the East. The name Babel, or Babylon, meant the City of God. The Persians refer its foundation to Tamarath. The chief difference between the Jewish historian and others lies in his referring the Giants, the Sons of God, and the mighty ANCIENT HISTORY. 975 men of renown, to remote ages preceding the Flood, while they refer the Gods, the Giants, Hercules, Bacchus, &c. to a period about 600 years after the Flood, or 2900 and 2800. They assert, too, that Xisuthrus, his wife, daughter, and pilot, were lost, and never returned ; whereas, Noah lived long after, cultivated the vine, &c. ANCIENT HISTORY. No study is more interesting and specious than history, yet few events have been, or are f correctly or honestly recorded. Histo- rians are either half- informed, or they are partizans ; or they have been bribed to give false colours to crimes and follies. The earliest records were monuments of stone ; but, amidst legends, traditions, and revolutions, their use was transient. We still find them every where, but they serve only to mystify. The historic period does not, therefore, begin, till pictures, with hieroglyphic symbols and letters, in verse and prose, recorded events. Till these long stages of step-by-step discovery were passed, and till nations were organized, and public events became impressive, we have no ma- terials. But even hieroglyphics, till our own age, had served only to render darkness darker. Written language itself ceases to be intelligible, in every fifty or hundred ge- nerations. The Zend no longer explains Babylonian history ; the Hebrew is now un- intelligible ; the Phoenician, which spread the art of writing, has not preserved itself ; the languages of Plato and Cicero are no longer spoken. Alfred would now be unin- telligible, and the present penman will not be understood in 1000 or 1500 years; Temporary notoriety is always in the in- verse ratio of permanent celebrity. That which strikes the vulgar and ignorant, is not calculated to endure the cool examination of intelligence ; and that which satisfies the intelligent few, is not understood by the multitude. Two or three eternal names figure alone in the longest vista of human history. Taautus, the Phoenician, perfected and fitted for use a system of written charac- ter, and raised medicine, geometry, and civil policy into sciences. Euclid, the Egyp- tian, perfected knowledge on figube, num- ber, and quantity in the abstract, and laid a sure foundation for their application to motion, in the analysis of nature and phe- nomena. The evidence of facts, in newly-discovered countries, shews that the bulk of the human species, through all past time, have made Dut slight advances, even in the common arts of living and comfort ; while, in some countries, we still find them contending for mastery with wild animals. Science, high abstractions, knowledge of fire, of metals, of recording experience, of history, of arith- metic, of geometry, &c. &c. seem to be acquired by none of them ; and time and experience have to them been useless. If so many thousand years have passed 976 without any improvement in the mere ani- mal condition, we are forced to concede longer time than has been usually assigned to the periods which preceded weaving* ploughing, building, writing, metallurgy, geometry, astronomy, and astrology. What master-minds must have been engaged, and for how many ages, to produce Euclid’s Elements, an Egyptian work, now 2000 years old, and yet absolutely perfect ! How wonderful, in like manner, this art of writing ! Those alone, who have laboured at original ideas, can conceive the difficulties of originality , beset, as it was, at one time, by charges of magic, and, as it always is, by envy and persecution. We dare not surmise the indefinite time which must have elapsed previously to the works of Euclid, Archimedes, and Aristotle, to the abstractions of Taautus and Plato ; to the fabrication of the forge and plough ; to the erection of a horoscope and astrono- mical observatories ; and to the invention of cycles to record time l In referring to the arts in question, we must also estimate them in comparison with New Hollanders, New Zealanders, &c., who have flourished as long without improve- ment, and not in reference to their accele- rated state in certain countries; for arts add to arts, as rapidly as force adds to motion ; and the year 2840 may, perhaps, regard 1840 as a dark age, in spite of con- ceits. Nationality is inimical to the perfection of general history. Every people are absorbed by their own concerns. They see themselves in an angle of 89°, and all the rest of the world in the one remaining degree, and that, discoloured and distorted in the horizon. A Phoenician only considered Phoenicia, a Greek only Greece; a Frenchman is wholly absorbed by France, and an Englishman by England. War and other circumstances have de- stroyed so many records, that, although w# begin with the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Hin- doos, Chinese, Hebrews, Chaldeans, &c. we may imagine that many previous people would also have claimed attention if their records had not perished with themselves, and the very name of their nation. Bailly has traced the existence of a once-great un- named nation near the Caspian. Geology may explain what fables mystify, and writing and printing does not record- The Euxine burst into the Bosphorus and the countries of the Egean Sea ; thereby draining the Aral, Caspian, and the channels of communication through Sarmatia to the Baltic. The Mediterranean overflowing, burst the pillars of Hercules, and thereby drained the central sea of Africa, as it opened at Syrtis. These changes forced the inhabitants to seek new countries, and ro- bust emigrants, not being men of science, carried with them only the vulgar traditions, and hence all the fables of early history. Homer called all barbarous, remote from Greece; and beyond Thrace was the hyper- borean region of darkness; and, beyoR, the last of whom was worshipped. They in- vented porticoes, first used dogs in hunting, and were called Aletae or Titans. Subsequently Aminus and Magus taught men to construct villages, and tend flocks ; and Misor and Sydyc found out the ise of salt. 984 From Misor descended Taaut, who invent- ed letters, and the same, says Eusebius, whom the Egyptians call Thoor, or Thoyth^ and the Greeks Hermes ; and the Thra dans, &c., Thor. From Sydyc descended the Dioscuri, or Cabiri, or Corybantes, or Samothracians, who first built a ship. He then relates that Elioun and Beruth, near Byblus, begat Epigeus, or Autochthon* called Ouranus, Heaven ; and his sister Ge, Earth. That Elioun was killed by wild beasts, and Ouranus marrying Ge, they had four sons, Ilus, or Cronus, Betylus, Dagon* (inventor of bread, corn, and the plough,) and Atlas. Ouranus had other wives, and Ge was so jealous of them, that he sought to kill his children. Cronus, his eldest son, having Hermes Trismigestus for his secretary, opposed Ou- ranus, defended his mother, and, by Hermes* invention of a scymetar and spear of iron* drove Ouranus from his kingdom. In the contest, he took a pregnant concubine of Ouranus, married her to Dagon, and her son was Demarous. Cronus also, on suspi- cion, killed his own son Sadidus, and one of his daughters, anrl destroyed his brother Atlas. Ouranus sent his three daughters to de- stroy Cronus, but he married them, and baffled other attempts of Ouranus ; who also devised Bcetulia , stones that moved as hav- ing life. Sydyc the Just begat Asclepius, by one of the Titanides. Ouranous and Demarous made war on Pontus, son of Nereus, but were defeated- From Pontus descended Sidon, inventress of odes. In the 32d year of his reign, Cronus took his father Ouranus prisoner, and dismem- bered him, so that he died. When danger from war and pestilence threatened Cronus, he sacrificed his son by Anobret at the altar ; and such was the cus- tom of the rulers of cities and nations, to appease the deities. In another line of descent there was Elioun, or Hypsestus, and Beruth. Then Epigeus, Autochton, or Ouranus, and Ge. Ilus, or Cronus, Betylus, Dagon, or Seton, or Zeus Arotrius, Atlas, Demarous or Zeus, Athena, and Sadidus. Enemerus , who lived about 300 B. C., confirms, in a rude outline, this history of Sanchoniatho. He says, Ouranus was the first king, and had 2 sons, Pan and Cronus ; and 2 daughters, Rhea and Demetra. Cro- nus succeeded him, and married Rhea, and had by her Jupiter, Hera, and Neptune. Jupiter succeeded and married Hera, De- matra, and Themis ; his children, by Hera, were the Curetes; by Rhea, Persiphone; and, by Demetra, Athena. He visited Be- lus at Babylon, went to the Indian Island, Panchcea, returned by Syria, and conquered Cilicia. If this be true, and Alorus is Pan, then we trace two sovereignties, that of Chaldea and Western Asia, which seem» robable. 985 ANCIENT We are indebted, literally, to Mr. Cory’s ‘Ancient Geography’/or many of these paragraphs , a Work which ought to he studied by every lover of real Antiquity . Sanchoniatho, abridged as he is by Euse- bius, makes Ancient History plain, as far back as the year 3000 or 3100 B. C. We have brought before us the foundations of Greek and Asiatic History. The first ex- tended western sovereignty was commenced by Hephaestus, known as Vulcan to the Greeks, and as Elioun, Diamichus, or Amy. nus, to the Phoenicians and Egyptians. He lived aboutBlOO years B. C., j*r 36,000 luna- tions from the age of Herodotus. The period was about 330 solar years : Hephaestus 55 Helius, his son 86 Ouranus . . . . 57 Chronus, Ilus, or Saturn 40 Dagon, or Osiris 35 Typhon 29 Orus 28 Contemporary with whom, were the per- sonages called demi-gods, Apollo, Jupiter, Mars, or Ares, Ammon, Hercules, Auubis, Tithoes, and Sosus. Meander, of Ephesus, wrote a History of Tyre, quoted by Josephus. Circumcision was an ancient practice of the Egyptians, Ethiopians, Phoenicians, Sy- rians, &c., and other Asiatic people, as a precaution against diseases. Cronus had himself circumcised, and he made his allies do the same. The ruin of Phoenicia, by the Assyrian and Persian Despots, paved the way for the maritime ascendancy of the Greeks. Miletus and Phocoea began then to colonize. The Tyrians excelled as dyers in purple, 2000 years B. C. The analogy between the Hebrew and Phoenician is proved by the following : — Hebrew. — Na eth elionim velioneth sico- rath jismacon Zoth. Phcenician. — Ny thalonim valon uth si corathisima Consith. The Jews and Phoenicians called all coun- tries, in the Indian Ocean, Ophir ; and the Phoenicians had factories in the Persian Gulf, in aid of their eastern trade. Tyre, too, sent regular caravans all over Asia, and Heeren has traced their routes. The pillars of Hercules were either Mount Abyla in Africa, and Mount Calpe, or real pillars erected on them, afterwards Phoeni- cian sailing-marks. The Phoenician Hercules is said to have conquered Lybia and Spain, and erected columns at the entrance of the ocean. Car- nac, in Brittany, was probably his work, as well as Abury, See. The Phoenicians laid the basis of western commerce, invented letters, navigation, giass, &c., and colonized the coasts of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, Ireland, South Britain, &c. They considered themselves the most ancient of mankind. They found- ed Utica, Carthage, Septis, Gades, Malaga, Adrumentum, Tysdrus, and colonized Sar- HISTORY 986 dinia, Sicily, Malta, Spain, and Tartessus. Gades is believed to have been built before the 12th century. Heeren believes, that from Gades the Phoenicians traded along the coasts even to the Baltic. The government of Carthage sent out Himilco to make discoveries, in 500 B. C. The Phoenician territory was 120 miles from Tyre to Aradus. Sidon was the first city noticed in Jewish History, though San- choniatho called Byblus the first. The ad- jacent provinces were Galilcea, Gaulonitis , and Galaaitis ; and we have, therefore, no difficulty in tracing the origin of the names Gael , Gaul, Gades , &c. Phcenicia was at the pinnacle of power between the years 2000 and 750 B. C., and, in fact, its people were the instructors and civilizers of the whole western world. Canaan extended from lat. 31^ 15/ to 33° 5/, or 130 miles long ; and, from Ion. 35° to 36^ east, or 45 miles wide. The whole was 6000 square miles. The entire kingdom of the Jews lasted 120 years ; of Israel, sepa- rately, 246 years longer ; and of Judah 370 years. Both were then merged in the Baby- lonian empire. Jewish History. The Jews were descended from Abraham, a Culdean, of Ur, or Orfa ; but their ene- mies, Diodorus Siculus, Tacitus, Celsus, the Emperor Julian, &c., describe them as Cre- tans, who settled in Idumea, so called from Mount Ida, in Crete, and hence the name Judea. They also record, that a contagious leprosy breaking out in Egypt, Amenophis and Ra- meses drove all the diseased into the deserts of Idumea, where their chief was Moses, a former priest of Osiris, and under his in- structions they finally settled themselves in Judea. Their exclusive ordinations and tenacity, in maintaining them, drew on them the special hatred of the various ambitious conquerors of the East ; and the Romans, in particular, exterminated them. Abraham must have lived after Taautus, the inventor of the idolatry of Western Asia; since, we know, that Terah, Abra- ham’s father, was a maker of idols in Ur, of Culdea, and that his brother Lot had a collection as household gods. Abraham is described, by Greek writers, as a man skill- ed in magic and astrology, the learning of his times. Nicolaus Damascenus says, that Abraham was King of Damascus, and came with an army from Ur, but afterwards removed into Canaan. The Eloeim were a sacred hierarchy, ac- cording to Moses ; but Sanchoniatho relates, that they were the allies of Ilus, and so called after his name. The Jews themselves confer on Ezra pa- rallel importance to Moses. To him they ascribe the collection and arrangement of their Bible; and hence it is, that Jewish tribes in the East, and in Central Africa, dispersed before Ezra, have no books buf J0 * ANCIENT the law, and that the Samaritans never re- •ognised the historical books. Ezra appeared to be unable to restore the oft-quoted books of Jasher, the Annals of the Kings, and the Book of the Wars of the Lord ; he also seems to have lost most of Solomon’s 3000 Proverbs and 1005 Songs ; and, what is to be regretted, Solomon’s Natural History. His version was in Chaldaic. On the return from the Babylonish capti- vity, the Chaldaic continued the vernacular tongue of the Jews, and the law, read in Hebrew, was expounded to the people in Chaldaic. Ezra made 54 sections of the five books. The present chapters and verses were of the 13th or 14th century. The original language of the Jewish Scrip- tures being obsolete, we rely on early trans- lations into Greek and Latin. The modern versions are from Jerome’s translation, call- ed the Vulgate. Then there is the Septua- gint, a Greek Translation, made for Pto- lemy Philadelphus, when he was forming the Alexandrian Library, about 300 B. C. ; and the Samaritan copies. The whole being verified by the compiled history of Flavius Josephus, made for the purpose of correcting Homan errors about the persecuted Jews. As the Jews had no epochs and no chro- nology as a science, the guesses of commen- tators lead to many discrepancies. The Septuagint, no mean authority, supported in a great degree by Josephus and the Sa- maritan version, assigns: — From the Deluge to Abraham 1257 From Abraham to Jacob 290 Sojourn in Egypt, per Exodus 430 Departure to Solomon 873 Solomon to Christ 1156 In all, years 4006 Instead of the 2348 of Jerome’s Vulgate. Taken thus, the Jewish history embraces all the demands of astronomical records, and the combined pretensions of general ancient history, while 1840 added to 4006, gives 5850 years since the Deluge. The modern Jews date the current year as 3600. The birth of Abraham is usually fixed at 1996, but without any precise data. Jose- phus himself, a learned Jew, with all the resources of ancient MSS., and with every motive for accuracy, is our only chronolo- gical authority. He proves the whole, by giving 393 years before the epoch of Danaus, as the period of the Exodus. The high authority of Dr. Thomas Young, (the ablest philosopher which this country can boast,) carries the era of Thuthmosis to 1840 B. C., in the middle of whose reign the Jews were expelled from Egypt ; for which, we have the authority of Josephus and Ma- netho. Then Josephus fixes 511 years for the sojournment in Egypt, and there being an agreed 290 years from Abraham to Jacob, we have 1815 + 511 + 290 = 2616 for the birth of Abraham. Bishop Cumberland makes the epoch of Thuthmosis 1825 B. C. ; and then, for the HISTORY. 988 sake of the Vulgate, argues against the de- duction on Greek evidence, other than the Parian Chronicle. Ptolomaeus, Appian, Josephus, &c., say, that the Exodus took place in the time of Inachos, who built Argos, about 1807 B. C. ; and this agrees with Manetho, Young, &c., as to the precise age of Thuthmosis, the Pharoah who expelled the Jews. Diodorus says, that the King of Egypt expelled all foreigners, owing to a conta- gious disease with which they were affected. And that Moses conducted a colony of them into Judea. Lysimachus states, that many of the incurable were drowned, and others conducted into the deserts by Moses. Po- lemo calls them deserters from the army, in the reign of Apis, son of Phoroneus. We have a discordance between Josephus and Exodus. He asserts, emphatically, that the Jews were 511 years in Egypt, but Exodus calls it 430. Timaus was Pharoah, when Jacob went into Egypt ; and Thuthmosis drove them out in the 25th year of his reign, and he reigned 25 years and 4 months afterwards. Then, if this was in 1815, Josephus’s 511 carries us to 2326 for Jacob’s emigration; and 290 to Abraham, again fixes his birth in 2616, or 620 years before the commenta- tors on the Vulgate. The Jews, while in Egypt, had their own dynasty of governors in their own provinces for 161 years, by name Salatis Beon, Apa- chas, and Apophis, according to Josephus, to whom Manetho adds Staan and Archies. They became so numerous and intolerant, and so afflicted with leprosy, that the The- ban sovereigns, and others, united and ex- pelled them into the desert. They were headed by a priest of Osiris, called Osarsiph, whose name was changed to Moyses Tisi- thin ; and he was assisted by a sacred scribe, whose name was Josephus Peteseph. Pal- manothis had been the Jewish persecutor. He compelled them to build Kessa, and its temple, and the temple of Heliopolis, and to work in the quarries. His daughter, Merris, wife of Chenephres, having no chil- dren, brought up a child of the Jews and named him Moyses Artapanus. So say Ma- netho , Josephus , <$fc. Manetho says, that the priest who ordain- ed the polity and laws of the expelled “ sacrilegious shepherds,” was by birth of Heliopolis, and his name Osarsiph, from Osiris, the God of Heliopolis ; but when he went over to these people, he was called Moyses. Chseremon says, the leaders were two scribes called Moyses Tisithen , and Josephus Petiseph. Manetho then adds, that after the departure of the nation of the Shepherds to Jerusalem, Thuthmosis, the King of Egypt, who drove them out, reigned 25 years and 4 months. Both Niebuhr and Burckhaidt think tha, the Jews passed the Red Sea near Sue*, where Niebuhr forded it himself. The 603,550 fighting-men, a fourth of all males and as many females, made up a vast cara« van of nearly 5 millions. 989 ANCIENT HISTORY. Egyptian History . The Arabians call Egypt emphatically Misr, the place— the Jews Misrairn. It was anciently called Mestrea, or Misraim, from Mestraim, or Menes, the first king. Diodorus says, Ethiopia was never con- quered, and that Bacchus failed against them. They call the Egyptians a colony led from Ethiopia, and say that Egypt is but the mud of Ethiopia. They state, too, that the sacerdotal hieroglyphics of the Egyptians were used by all the Ethiopians. Menes, and his son Athothis, believed to be Taautus, were the first localized Kings of Egypt ; and, according to Manetho’s cor- rected lists, he began his reign about 2800 B. C. Champollion found a tomb which refers to the last king of the 17th dynasty, and he who expelled the Jews; and another con- tains five sovereigns of the 18th dynasty. Herodotus and others state that Sesostris was the builder of the chief temples of Egypt. He also constructed canals, and the pictures on the great temples are records of his achievements. The antiquity of Cities was, in order, Meroe, Syene, Thebes, Memphis, Bubastes, Byblos or Babylon, Damascus, Sidon, &c., all built before the year 2500 B. C. The recent travels of Calliaud, Ehrenberg, &c. &c. to Meroe, in 17 N. lat. and in Southern Ethiopia to 10°, afford proofs of high and early civilization in those countries. Duplicates of temples, pyramids, colossal statues, &c. are found 3 or 400 miles south of the Cataracts, and they confirm the tra- ditions that this country was civilized before Egypt. The true Ibis, the Golden Beetle, and the Hunchback Ox, are all found indi- genous there. Herodotus refers the three great pyramids to Cheops and his two successors, Cephranes and Mycenius ; but Manetho refers the first to Sophis, of the 4th dynasty. In 1821, Belzoni exhibited in London the tomb of Nechao, king of Egypt, of its na- tural size, with all its figures and hierogly- phics. The figures represented a procession, including captive Ethiopians, Jews, and Per- sians. This is explained in Chron. xxxv. 2. and in Herodotus, who calls Jerusalem, Ca- dy tis, a large city of Syria. In 1819, Belzoni visited El Wah, the Oasis, containing the temple of (Jupiter) Ammon. It is in ruins, but he was not al- lowed to approach it. In 1817, Captain Caviglia, with great en- thusiasm, removed the sand from around the great Sphinx, and beneath found, in front, an inclosed temple, and altar, with inscriptions in hieroglyphics and Greek. The paws are stretched fifty feet in advance of the body, and one inscription speaks of v that fi-erce Sphinx that Thebes, ere while, laid waste.” The most wonderful assemblage of Egyp- tian antiquities is now at Thebes. They cover a vast extent in four distinct villages, two on each side of the Nile. Luxor and 99 © Carnac on the eastern, and Gournou and Medinet Abbou on the western. All it colossal, in red granite, shaped and carved, overwhelming all beholders with astonish- ment ; but it is time mocking men, for the names of the despots who thus employed the people are forgotten. Two sitting figures, near Thebes, are 60 feet high, of one block of reddish sand- stone, on pedestals 18 by 14, and 6 high. One of them, by its hieroglyphics, represent* Amenophis II., who reigned in 1651 B. C. In the Ramesseion is a broken statue, 63 feet round the shoulders, 13 feet from the crown of the head to the shoulders, 13£ from the shoulders to the elbow, and 7 feet over the foot, so that it must have been 80 feet high. The court in which it stood has co- lumns whose capitals are 32 feet round, and the fronts of the columns are figures, 20 feet high to the shoulders. An inscription, in hieroglyphics, ascribes the whole to Rameses, beloved of Ammon- Ra, king of the gods. Now, Rameses was fourth of the 19th dy- nasty, and not Sesostris, because he recorded the achievements of Sesostris. Bread, barley, and wheat, are often found in Egyptian tombs. Pharoah is Coptic for king. The zodiac of Dendera, or Tentyra, is projected on the plane of the ecliptic, and is merely the horoscope of the time of comple- tion, or the nativity of the reigning sove- reign. The pole is midway between the signs, and in or near the Great Bear, which as to Capricorn is on the Cancer side, and lying even between the middle of Gemini and Sagittarius. It is now even between ten of Virgo and ten of Pisces ; consequently, the constellations have advanced about fif- teen in Gemini, sixty in Cancer and Leo, and ten in Virgo, since it was constructed, i. e. 85° X 72 years = 6020 years. The planets, &c. &c. are marked on it, and the outer circle is the usual astrological spe- culum. Night begins where the two semi-discs are marked on the serpent; the semi-disc standing for N. or S. latitude, and this equal point was then in Gemini. Hence, it has fallen back nearly three signs, and the two circumstances agree. In the horoscope, Scorpio is ascending, Taurus descending, and the Part of Fortune is in Cancer. The hour is nine in the even- ing, about April 20. The (•) was in the beginning of the ]) in $ > $ in OP? 9 in $ has N. lat. in 8 , % in in nu the Dragon’s head is in $ ? the tail in II , and all the chief fixed stars are located in each constellation. It is now at Paris, and is a square of 7 feet and 9 inches. Champollion’s theory of hieroglyphics tends to prove that they are representations of ideas, and not of sounds. They are of two kinds, hieratic , or sacerdotal, and de- motic, vulgar, or enchorial. On this view, Akerblad, Young, and Champollion, have ANCIENT HISTORY. 991 imagined a sort of alphabet, by which they decypher names and some ideographic sense. The names, Ptolemy, Cleopatra, and Alex- ander, afford the keys of comparison. Memphis, now to be traced only by its mounds of rubbish, is spoken of by Edrissa, in 1200, as built 4000 years before, or in 2800. There was a statue 45 feet high, of one block of red granite. Ancient writers indifferently used lunar years or solar years, for the sake of even numbers, at a time when the relations of the two were not fixed, leaving it to the common-sense of readers to discriminate. Egypt declined with the rise of Greece, and, in fact, never recovered the atrocious invasion of Cambyses, in 525 B. C. The Hermaic language was lost in the destruc- tion of the Priesthood by the Persians, the Ptolemies, &c. Sauchoniatho, Manetho, Josephus, and the Hieroglyphics, confer connection on Egyptian History; and Moses, Ezra, and Josephus, on Jewish, while the Chinese have been systematic Chroniclers ; but, owing to wars and conquests, we have slight records of Hindoo History, and very imperfect ac- counts of the Empires in Central Asia. Asiatic History. The Assyrian Empire began with Alorus, or Orion, whose dynasty of 10 kings ended with Xisuthrus, in a deluge from which he escaped in an ark to Caucasus, but did not return to Sippora, his companions reporting that he, his wife, daughter, and the pilot, were caught up by the gods. This dynasty was followed by Evechius, or Nimrod, in seven kings, and these by six Arabians. Cronus then gave Babylon to Belus and Dione, both of whom were afterwards dei- fied as Bel and Baaltis, or Diana, This dynasty lasted till Sardanapalus, who was burnt in his Palace about 67 years before the first Olympiad, or in 843. The ten Kings of Chaldea, who preceded Xisuthrus, or the Deluge, correspond in number with Moses’s ten Patriarchs. They were Alorus, or Orion, Alaparus, Amelon, Ammenon, Megalarus, Daonus, Euedoracus, Amemsinus, Oliartes, or Ardates, and his son Xisuthrus, who reigned 120 sari, or 2220 years, but there is no likeness in the names to Adam, Cain, Seth, &c. Yet there is some resemblance to names in Sanchoniatho, who, it may be suspected, referred to re- nowned personages in Western Asia, which seemed to be one patriarchal sovereignty. The next dynasty of the Chaldean Kings began with Evechius, Nebrod, and Nimrod, and lasted 225 years. The third Chaldean dynasty began with Nabonasor, and in 20 kings ended in 219 years. The 17th was Nabuchodonosor, who reigned 43 years, and conquered all Western Asia and Egypt, finished Babylon, built its triple walls, its palace, hanging.gardens, &c. No fact is more certain, on the evidence of various ancient authors, than that the first Chaldean dynasty of ten sovereigns was terminated by a deluge, from which the last 992 king, Xisuthrus, escaped from Sippora, in Syria, in an ark to the Northern Mountains of Caucasus, against the stream of the rivers. The sacred historian calls him Noah, but does not speak of him as a king. The Septuagint version fixes it in 4000 B. C., and this harmonizes with other events ; but the Catholic commentators on the Vulgate (without the shadow of reason,) fix it in 2348, which was impossible, if it was ge- neral ; for Chinese, Hindoo, and Egyptian History, begin between 3600 and 2348. If rain had caused the deluge, the current of the rivers would have carried the Ark to the Sea ; it seems, therefore, that the current came from the sea over the land, so as to carry the Ark from the sea to the mountains. There is concurrent authority to shew that Cronus was contemporary with Belus, and both with the Titan War. But Mane- tho’s three books give 5471 years, and the Assyrian monarchy of Belus is clearly not so ancient. We may hence conclude, that Manetho gives contemporaries in Upper and Lower Egypt. He gives the kings of each, and also of other divisions of Egypt, just as though an historian gave the separate con- temporary kings of England, Scotland, and Wales. It is, however, not easy to separate them. His Memphite Kings make up about 1800 years, and the Diospolite 1163, which together seem to make up the whole pe- riod. The Thinite, Elephantine, Tanite, Bubasite, Ac. were contemporary. In three succeeding reigns of the Chaldean Kings came Oannes, or Annedotuses, out of the sea, part fish, part man, who taught all wisdom. It seems possible that the marine visitors were voyagers, such as our Cook or Wallis at Otaheite or Owyhee. Perhaps they came from America, and might belong to the lost people, whose remains are found over the American Continent. Nothing in ancient authors is more circumstantial than the accounts of them by Berossus, Apollo- dorus, and Abydenus. Humboldt seems to identify them in his account of the engraved gems found in Cumana, so like those des- cribed by Landseer. Their names were Oannes, Eudocus Eneugamus, Eneubolus, Anementus, and Anodaphus. The Assyrian kings at Babylon began with Belus, the son of Cronus, who reigned 55 years, and who, with Typhori, headed the Titans and the Astarte branches against Jupiter, and the Rhea branches in the great Titan War. He married Baaltis, or Dione, since famed as Diana. From them, in the fifth generation, was descended the second recorded king, Ninus, who built Nineveh, and reigned 52 years. He was succeeded by Semiramis, so famed for conquests, who reigned 42 years. They were succeeded by at least 36 others, down to Thonus or Sarda- napalus, in 843 B. C. That kingdom lasted in the succession of 41 names 1460 years, besides names not inserted. Thus, the two previous dynasties of 13 Chaldean kings (after the first of 10,) endured ANCIKNT HISTORY. 093 225 and 215, i. e. 440, which carries Evechius or Nimrod to 2/43. But every ancient au- thor states that, from Nimrod to Sardana- palus, there were 86 kings, or 32 more than enumerated, which, at 20 per reign, would carry us back nearly to the Septuagint era o*f the Deluge, 3426, and reign of Xi- suthrus. If, then, we deduct 100 years unsettled after the death of Xisuthrus, and the 440 for the two dynasties, we get 2886 for the commencement of the great Assyrian Em- pire, under Belus, son of Cronus. Eupolemus says, that Babylon owes its foundation to the Giants, who were saved from the previous Deluge. Damascenus remarks, that at the Deluge many persons retreated to the great mountain Baris in Armenia, and were saved, and that one, in particular, was carried thither northward, in an ark. Castor relates, that Belus took part in the Titan war, and that the Giants who aided the Titans were slain by Hercules and Dio- nysius, themselves Titans. Thallus says that Belus, with the Titans, made war against Zeus Jupiter and his compeers, called Gods ; and that Gygus fled to Tartessus. Syncellus says, the building of the obser- vatory at Babylon was arrested by the war of Cronus, and the Titans under Belus, against Jupiter and the Rhea family. It is asserted, that Belus built the great tower as a security against future inunda- tions of the sea, as an observatory, and as a temple. Ninus and Semiramis were warlike sove- reigns of Assyria, who, by large standing armies of nearly two millions of fighting- men, overran Asia to the Indus. In their time Nineveh was built and adorned, as a rival to Babylon. Besides their vast armies, they had 10,600 armed chariots and fleets of fighting ships, while other kings brought nearly equal forces into the field, and terrible slaughters covered that populous garden of the world. The empire was overthrown by a conspi- racy of three viceroys, who divided it into the three kingdoms of Assyria, Babylon, and Media. The Assyrian kingdom, 150 years after, was conquered by the others, and Nineveh destroyed. Cyrus, the founder of the Persian empire, lost his life in a battle with a Scythian tribe, in 529 B. C. ; but Xenophon says, he died in peace. The Babylonians worshipped fire, as the emblem of the Sun. They were acquainted with geometry and mechanics, and were per- fect manufacturers, their products selling at vast prices in all countries. Their astro- nomy was accurate, but subservient to as- trology. They lived like the Hindoos, chiefly on vegetables, in which the country, owing to inundations, was productive. Babylon was the centre of the caravan routes in ancient times, and the seat of ex- changes, East and West, 934 Cylindrical signets, engraved in intaglio on jasper, chalcedony, jade, and onyx-stone, about one or two inches long, and half an inch in diameter, were used as seals in Ethiopia. Chaldea, Arabia, and other na- tions of Western Asia. They are found in the ruins of Babylon, Nineveh, &c. and are mystical and curious. Landseer has dis- played profound erudition in illustrating them. Our translation states, that Abraham was called out of Ur of the Chaldees ; but the original is, that “ he went out of the fire of the Casdims to go towards Canaan.” This is explained by the Jews, as referring to his being condemned, by Nimrod, to fire, for breaking his father’s idols, and to his brother Haran being burnt. It is stated in 28th ver. chap. xi. in literal translation, that Haran died in the fire of the Casdims. — Blackwell. Hellah is the nearest town to the present ruins of Babylon, and Mosul is on the site of Nineveh. The Persian kings, from Cyrus, in 556, to Darius III., were 10, and reigned 207 years. The Medes had eight kings from Arbaces to Astyges Darius. Deioces V. founded Ecbatana. Pasadarga was the ancient capital of Per- sia, built by Cyrus, whose tomb still exists there. Susa is now Shus, with ruins, 11 miles. Ecbatana is now Hamadan. Balkh and Canoge are the oldest cities ia the East. The tombs of the Persian kings were caves in rocks, inaccessible except by an apparatus of ropes from above. Persepolis is in the plain of Merdasht, across which runs the Bend-emir, or Araces, and near Shiraz. It is called the throne of Jemsheed, the second king, or the palace of forty pillars, and is said to be that of Darius, burnt by Alexander when drunk. It re- sembles, in magnitude and gigantic sculp- ture, the Egyptian temples ; but the execu- tion is far more perfect, and the figures and objects more interesting and numerous. It is about 80 miles north of the Persian Gulf, and 220 east of Babylon. — Porter. The native Persian historians begin their history with King Kaiomurs, the first created man, according to the Guebres. He was such a personage as Osiris, Bacchus, or Rama. But one historian carries back their history to Mahabah and his wife, who es- caped the last great flood. The history of his successors, of Jemsheed, the grandson of Kaiomurs, Khoesrou, Afrasaiaeib, Isfun- dear, Roostum, and Darab, or Darius, are then filled with wonders like the Arabian Nights. These native Persian writers take no notice whatever of the ancient Persian em- pire, described by the Greeks and Jews ; on the contrary, Persia is by them limited to the Euphrates, and all the glories and power of the country, if they ever existed, are buried by its own historians in unaccount- able oblivion! We learn from Malcolm, who had the best sources, that one Za. KK ancient history. 995 hauk, a foreigner, dethroned Jemsheed, but was slain by Kowah, a blacksmith, who re- stored Farihoon ; and, hence, a leathern apron became the Persian standard. But no Greek author names this standard ; and it is very extraordinary that the Persians say not one word of Xerxes , or of any king named by the Greeks or Jews. All they say of this period is, “ that Gushstasp. (Hystaspes,) protected Zoroaster; and that a king of Rome , named Secunder, (Alexander,) sub- dued a king of Persia, named Darab !” One of their dynasties is called the Judges , a curious similarity to Jewish history. Jem- sheed is said to have reigned 700 years, and Zohauk 1000 years, which, of course, must mean their dynasties. From Alexander to Artaxerxes Babigan, who, in 226 expelled the Parthians, i. e. 500 years, native Persian history is a void. The doubts about the genuineness of the Zendavesta of the Parsees appear to be re- moved. Heeren believes the part called Vendidat to be earlier than Cyrus; and Heeren considers the first section as descrip- tive of Asia, by Zoroaster, in the age of mammoths and elephants, when the tropics were some degrees wider. Most ancient people, especially the Asiatic nations, were divided into castes, or fixed hereditary employments. Cicero relates, that the Chaldeans and Bactrians claimed celestial observations for 470,000 years ; but, taking a day as an astronomical period, it becomes 1300 solar years, or a moon, or 32,000 years ; so there is, palpably, some ignorance in the reporters, or some mistake of the figures by ignorant transcribers. Perhaps it was a mere astro- nomical cycle. *** For Epochs and Events down to our own age y see the article Time and Chro- nology, with the continuation of the latter in Supplement. The Lombards, or Longobards, overrun Italy in the 6th century, and maintained a kingdom till Charlemagne. Under his suc- cessors it was divided into states and free cities, the Pope being the chief. Genoa, Venice, Milan, Florence, Naples, &c. rose to great power, but the country was alter- nately conquered by the Germans or French. The chief states now are Sardinia and Naples, and the Austrians are the ruling power. The Sclavonic tribes, which now form Russia, were first organized by Ruric, a Swede, about 820. Its chiefs were called Grand-dukes till 1100, when the title of Czar was taken. In 1223 they became tri- butary to the Mongul Tartars, but, in 1477, they were expelled ; and the sovereigns, till Peter the Great, generally died violent deaths. Since his time there have been four empresses and four emperors, and the Rus- sian power threatens Europe on every side. Gustavus Vasa made Sweden independent ,f Denmark, in 1523. Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, consti- tuted the ancient Scandinavia. Spain was a province of Carthage and Borne. It was then overrun by the Vandals, 996 Suivi Alans, and Visigoths. In 711 it was invaded by the Saracens, and held for tha Caliphs at Bagdad, who made Cordova the capital. In 1150, the Christians esta. blished the kingdoms of Castile, Leon, Ar- ragon, and Navarre. About 1250, the Moors only held Granada. In 1479, the Christian provinces were united under Fer- dinand and Isabella; and, in 1490, Spain was free from the Moors, Joan, their only child, marrying the Emperor of Germany, their son, Charles V., became Emperor and King of Spain. The five Philips, and other kings, were imbeciles ; and Spain, in 1800, had sunk to a second-rate power, and, since then, has lost its vast American colonies. A contest about the succession, during which cruelties were practised by both parties, which disgraced the name of civilization, was happily terminated in September, 1839. Of Arabic history little is known before the Christian era. Marib was the capital of the Sabean kingdom of Himayar, where star-worship and astrology flourished for above 2000 years. Marib was, however, destroyed, in the third century, by the burst- ing of a reservoir constructed to regulate the streams from the high lands. Mahomet, in 622, united them in faith, and the spirit of proselytism ; and, in 642, they overthrew Persia ; by 675 they had penetrated Bar- bary to the Atlantic ; and, after overrunning the Spanish Peninsula, they were checked at Poictiers in 732; while, in 717, they over- run Asia Minor and besieged Constanti- nople. Before 800, they had introduced their faith through the centre of Africa, along its Eastern coast, and in the Oriental Islands. Mahmud, the Mahomedan Sultan of Ghizna, about the year 1000 invaded India 12 times, and laid the foundation of the Mogul empire. In 1192, his descendants defeated three powerful allied rajahs, and establishe.d a government at Delhi. Alt- mish, in 1230, extended his dominions.; but, in 1288, several murders made Ala-ad-din king. At length, Firoz reigned 37 years as a benefactor, and dying, in 1388, Timur-leng ravaged the whole country, and every pro- vince had its own rajah or king. Ba- ber, a Tartar, in 1526, restored a general sovereignty; and, in 1556, Akber became the first general sovereign, and lived to 1605. He was followed by Jehangir, Jehan, and Aurungzeb, who reigned in splendour 48 years. His four grandsons then disputed for ascendancy, during which Nadir Shah invaded India, committing atrocities without parallel. Shah Alem then became mogul at Delhi ; but, being captured by the. Ro- hillas, they blinded him, and, in 1803, he was taken in Delhi by the English, who, at his death, appointed Akber Shah a nominal mogul I The Persian empire began under Cyru*, in 559 B. C., and ended in Darius, 335, There were thirteen sovereigns previously with Kaiumers And three after Darius, from 252; Arsaces to Yesdejird 632. Then 57 Mahomedan Khalifls to Mastarem 1242. 997 ANCIENT The first king of Judah was Saul, in 1095 ; the last Zedekiah, in 59/. Of -the ten tribes separately, Jeroboam, in 9/5, and the last Samariah, 721. The Syrian kings_ were Hyrcanus, 136, and the last Agrippa, 3/ A.D. Authentic and verified Chinese history runs back 6000 years; others mixed with fable to 30,000 years. The Chinese claim 22 dynasties of empe- rors. two of them Hia and Chang, before the age of Samuel, or 1122 B. C., and 3 others with 64 emperors before our era. The other 17 dynasties have had 126 empe- rors down to the Manchu, in 1644, of which there have been 6 down to Ka-Hing. Carthage was occupied by Dido, 869 B. C. ; Cyrene by Bathus, in 630 B. C. Iwan, an infant, succeeded legitimately to the Russian empire, in 1740 ; but Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I., usurped the crown in 1741, and imprisoned, during her life, Iwan and his father, mother, and family. Iwan was kept in a dark room, and finally mur- dered by his guards ; his mother died in pri- son in 1746; and his father in 17/6, after 35 years’ imprisonment. His children were liberated in 1779, and sent to their aunt, the queen of Denmark. A monarchy was formed in Russia, about 1000, under Ruric and Vladimer ; but, from 3 2 to 1500, it was overrun by the Tartars. They were expelled by Iwan, and the Re- public of Novogorod united. Some cossacks, under Yermak and Kopilos, then overran Siberia, and united the whole In the reign of our Elizabeth, it was so little known, that in a voyage to Archangel, Moscovy was treated as a discovery. Peter and his succes- sors, since 1710, have raised it into a power dangerous to all liberty, if not to civilization. In 5 centuries, France had 326 years of war for 174 of peace ; and in the wars were fought 184 bloody battles. Clovis the Frank, aged 20, defeated the Romans at Soissons, in 492, and founded the French monarchy, under the laws of the conquered. His four sons divided the mo- narchy. The first 400 years of Roman History were fabulous; and Buonarotti thought Rome, as well as Tarentum and Naples, were built by the Phoenicians or Greeks — Spence. The admitted History of China began in 1122, B. C. The age of Eli with the dynasty of Shu. There were 2 previous, Hea and Chang, and 19 others since, making 22. That of Shu had 35 emperors, Tsin 16, Thang 20, and Sing 18. The earliest historical Hindu dynasty was that of Anala Chouham, whose reign began in Ajmer, A. D. 500. The first Rajas of Udaypur began in 728. The Mahommedan kings of Ghizni began in 9 77, by Sabak- tezin ; and Mahmud the Third began his reign in 997, reigning 33 years. The first of Delhi was Ibek, in 1193, and there were 6 dynasties down to Akber, in 1806. The Mahratta kingdom began in 1651, and there have been 14 sovereigns. The last modern event is the overthrow' of the Turks, near Aleppo, and the heredi- H1STORY. 998 tary accession of Mehemet Ali, Viceroy of Egypt, as Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Notes and Abstracts. There were 12 kings of Macedon from Philip 360 B. C. to Perseus 179. There were 22 kings of Syria from Seleu- cus 312, to Antiochus IX., in 69 B. C. There were 7 kings at Rome from 753 to 534, then a republic for 461 years. The emperors from Augustus to Romulus Au- gustus in 475, were 55, with 7 or 8 double sovereigns. The kingdom of Naples began in 1284 by Charles. From 1506 to 1755, it was Spanish. The first Czar of Russia was Fedor in 1585, and there have been 18. The Vandals, after over-running France, Spain, and Italy, conquered North Africa; but, a century after, they were conquered by Belisarius for the Eastern Empire. There were 13 Mongul emperors from Jangez or Ghengis, in 1205, to Timur-leng, or Tamerlane, in 1384. This dynasty ended in Uluph Beg, in 1446, but there were 9 other sovereigns, and among them Abbas the Great, from 1582 to 1627. The first king of Prussia was Frederic, in 1701, and there have since been Frederic II. (the Great,) and 3 Frederic Williams. There were 15 Ptolemys, in Egypt, from 323, to Cleopatra III. in 51 B. C., when it became a province of Rome. There were 22 kings of Judah, from Saul 1095, to 597 ; 18 in Samaria from 975 to 721. The Kingdom oi Sweden commenced in 1019, by Amund ; and of Denmark, in 1014, by Canute the Great ; and it was united to Norway in 1438, and separated in 1815. There were 25 Scotch kings from Malcolm in 1004, to James VI. in 1567. Duncan from 1034 to 1040. Macbeth from 1040 to 1056. Arnulf was the first Emperor of Germany in 888, and there have been 48. Rodolph, of Hapsburgh, was the first of the reigning dynasty in 1273. The first Bishop of Rome was Lewis, in 67 A. D , and there were 62 down to Gre- gory in 590. The first Pope was Sabiances, in 604, and there have been 177 down to 1829 ; the average reigns being but 7 years ! There have been 21 Johns, 13 Innocents, 13 Clements, 14 Benedicts, 12 Leos, 15 Gre- gorys, and 11 Bonifaces. The Portuguese monarcny commenced under Alfonzo, in 1139. The kings of all Spain under Charles, in 1516; of Arragon by Ramieres, in 1035 ; and Castile by Ferdi- nand, in 1034. France has had 5 dynasties from Clovis, 481 A D. to Childeric III. 742. The Carlo- vingian from Pepin 751, to Lewis V. 986. The Capetian from Hugh Capet 987, to Charles IV. 1321. The Valois from Philip VI. 1328, to Henry III. 1574. The Bour- bon, of 9 sovereigns, from 1589 to this time. Ching- Vang built the G reat Wall, 250 B. C. The Greek empire lasted till the taking of Constantinople, and with little distinction except in Justinian and the Comneni. Most of the emperors fell by assassins or in the field. K K 2 YEAR, 800 814 836 843 857 860 866 872 876 877 879 884 887 888 898 899 901 911 919 922 923 925 936 941 946 954 955 959 973 975 978 983 986 987 99 7 1002 1016 1017 1024 1031 1036 1039 1041 1056 1060 1065 1066 1087 1100 1106 1108 1125 1136 1137 1138 1152 1154 1180 ANCIENT HISTORY. 100C ARAT1VE CHRONOLOGY OF BRITISH, FRENCH, AND GERMAN MONARCHS. ENGLAND. FRANCE. GERMANY. Egbert. Charlemagne. Charlemagne. . . .. Louis I. Louis I. Ethelwulph. • • a a m m Charles the Bald. Louis II. Ethelbald. Ethelbert. Ethelred I, ” Alfred the Great. • • mm .. • a mm mm Carloman. .. • • mm mm Louis III., the Younger .. • m . . Charles the Fat. . m m a Louis II., the Stammerer mm m m m m Louis III. m m • • Carloman. m a . . Charles the Fat. ■ m m . . • • a a Arnold. m m .. Hugh. • a mm .. Charles the Simple. • • • • . . o m • • mm Louis IV., the Infant. Edward the Elder. mm mm mm mm * . • • mm mm Conrad I. . . . . • • mm Henry L # # • * Robert. mm m m • a Ralph. • • • a Athelstan. mm mm . . • — Louis IV. Otho the Great. Edmund. mm m • • • a a Edred. mm mm a a a o .. Lotharius, mm mm Edwy. mm mm • • mm Edgar. mm mm m m mm .. mm mm Otho II. Edward the Martyr. mm mm mm mm Ethelred II. mm mm • • mm • • mm mm Otho III. m m • a Louis V. . . m m Hugh Capet • mm a a Robert the .Pious. mm mm a a e. • • mm Henry II. Edmund Ironside. mm mm mm mm Canute. mm mm mm mm • • • • mm Conrad the Salic. . 9 Henry L • a mm Harold Hare-foot. • • mm a • a a Hardicanute. mm • • Henry III. Edward the Confessor. ♦ • • • mm mm • • . . mm Henry IV. . . • a Philip 1. mm rnm Harold II. 9 • mm a a a a William I. • » mm William II. mm mm mm mm Henry I. mm mm -a a a # , • • a • Henry V. m m 9 # Louis VI., the Gross. a a a a m m mm mm Lotharius II., the Sax. Stephen. • • • • a a a a m m . . Louis VII. • a a a m m a a • • Conrad III. m m m m mm mm Frederic I., Barbarosso. Henry IL mrn mm a a mm Philip II., Augustus. mm a a Richard I., < Coeur-de- • • • • mm mm • a [Lion. mm mm Henry VL 1001 ANCIENT HISTORY. 1002 YEAR. ENGLAND. FRANCE. GERMANY. 1198 Philip & Otho IV. 1199 John. • • .. a a . a 1212 m m « « ,, Frederic II. 32)6 Henry III. .. mm mm' mm 1223 Louis VIII. - • . . 1226 Louis IX. St. Louis. 1250 . ® „ Conrad IV. 1254 m m m • • mm William of Holland. 1257 m m • • . . Richard, D. of Cornwall. 1270 9 9 m „ Philip III., the Bold. • • mm 1272 Edward I. . . - • t . 1273 m m . a Rodolph of Hapsburgh. 1285 « a Philip IV., the fair. 1292 • • .. Adolphus of Nassau. 1298 • • . . Albert of Austria. 1307 Edward II. « • • • • • • » 1308 . . Henry VII. 1314 .. Louis X., K. of Navar re. Louis of Bavaria & Fred. 1316 . m . . Phil, the Tall, King of [Navarre. [of Austria. - - a a 1322 . . . . Charles IV., the Fair, K. 1327 Edward III. [of Navarre. .. 1328 m m • • Phil. IV., the Fortunate. 1346 • • • • Charles IV. 1350 . . John I., the Good. -• 1364 m m Charles V., the Wise. -• 1377 Richard II. .. 1378 * . • • mm Winceslaus. 1380 m 9 Charles VI. - - 1399 Henry IV. • a a a • • mm 1400 . . . . • a Robert. 1411 . . • • • • Sigismund. 1413 Henry V. - • • • 1422 Henry VI. Charles VII., the Victor. 1437 . . • • • • . . Albert II. 1440 . . . . • • • . Frederic III. 1461 Edward IV. Louis XI., the Prudent. a. 1483 Edward V. Rich. III. Chas. VIII., the Affable. 3485 Henry VII. .. a! 1493 . . - • • • Maximilian I. 1498 . . Louis XII. 1509 Henry VIII. . . • • mm 1515 . . . . Francis I. m mm 2519 . . . . - - m m Charies V. 3547 Edward VI. Henry II. -a 1553 Mary. • • • • « • 1558 Elizabeth. .. .. Ferdinand I. 1559 . . . . Francis II. 1560 . . Charles IX. 1564 . . . . • • Maximilian IL 1574 . . Henry III. • • mm 1576 . . .. • - • « Rodolph II. 2589 . . . , Henry IV., the Great. • • mm 1603 James I. - - mm • m mm 1610 . . Louis XIII. • • mm 1612 .. . . Matthias. . 1619 .. • ■ • • Ferdinand II. 1625 Charles I. * • 1637 . . . . Ferdinand I IT. 3643 . , Louis XIV., the Great. a. 1653 Cromwell. • • • • -- al 1658 . . .. • • Leopold I. 1660 Charles II. „ . m m . . 1685 James II. 1689 William and Mary. m m m 1702 Anne. a. • • « m 1003 BIOGRAPHY. 1004 YEA. ItS. ENGLAND. FRANCE. GERMANY. 17R5 Joseph 1. 1711 • • Charles VI. 1714 George I. .. .. 1715 - , , Louis XV. .. 1727 George II. rnm mm . . 3 742 m " mm « . Charles VII. 1745 mm mm . . Francis I. Mar. Theresa. 1760 George III. .. 1765 mm mm Joseph II. 1774 m * • Liouis XVI. . . . » 1790 1 ** . . mm Leopold 11. 1/92 • • • • Republic. Francis II. 1804 • • Napoleon, Emperor. . . 1806 mm . . Confed. of the Rhine. 1814 Louis XVIII. • • a . 1815 • • 0 • . . Germanic Confederacy. 1S20 George IV. . . .. 1824 . • mm Charles X. 1830 William IV. Louis Philippe. Ferdinand I. 1837 Victoria. .. -■ BIOGRAPHY. \In the following Article it has been attempted to record , in brief only the ori- ginal minds who founded or originated. Biography , in general , is filled with mere imitators , or with men noted only for chance of birth , or necessary position in societi /. Even with this limitation, the Article is far from complete ; but it will afford data in the absence of larger Works. The main ob - ject has been to multiply interesting facts and fundamental dates.} AARON, high-priest of the Jews under his brother Moses, and, previously to the expulsion of the Jews by Thuthmosis, about 1850 B. C., was known in Egypt as a scribe, by the name of Josephus Petephen. His two sons were destroyed for using other than sacred fire. His rod blossomed, in proof that his tribe of Levi was chosen for the priesthood. Nevertheless, in the, absence of Moses, he set up the Phoenician golden calf as an object of popular worship. He died at Mount Hor, aged 123. There were two Shahs ABBAS, Kings of Persia; the first reigned from 1585 to 1630, and the second in the reign of Charles II. ABDERAMA, a great Moorish general, killed in 732, in the bloody battle with Charles Martel, between the Cher and Loire, where it was said the Moors lost 375,000 men, and Martel but 1500, owing to an ally of Abderama deserting him in the midst of the battle. ABDUL WAHAB, a Mahomedan re- former, or Puritan, was born about 1696, and, in 1800, the sect had overrun all South- east Arabia, including Mecca and Medina ; but, about 1820, they were defeated, and most barbarously repelled by Mahomed Ali. ABELARD, was a learned professor, who debauched Heloise, and, being at the point of marrying her, her uncle caused him to be castrated, on which he became a monk and she a nun. He wrote many works, died in 1 142, and was buried by Heloise in her nun- nery at Paraclete. ABUBEKER, the father-in-law and suc- cessor of Mahomet as first Caliph. He accepted, as Caliph, but three pieces of gold as an annual salary, the maintenance of a single camel, and a black slave. Five pieces of gold and a coarse garment were all he left to his family. ABULFEDA, Prince of Hamah, one of the few sovereigns who have filled a throne with wisdom, and distinguished himself by devotion to learning and science. He wrote a Geography, Universal History, &c. &c. still in existence, and, as productions of the thirteenth century, by one who had access to all Arabic sources, worthy of translation into English. His MSS. are at Paris. ACHILLES, the most heroic of the Gre- cian generals engaged in the siege of Troy, where his history is mingled with all the ab- surd superstitions of Homer’s times. He was killed, in 1184 B. C., by the wound of an arrow in his heel, by Paris, the brother of Hector, whom he had killed, and whose body he had dragged at his chariot- wheels. There were two ADAMS, American Pa- triots ; John, born in 1/31, and who died in 1826, on the 50th Anniversary of Indepen- dence ; and Samuel, in 1722, who died in 1803. The nephew of John, named John Quincey, was the fourth President. ADANSON, a naturalist, died in 1795. ADDISON, author of the Spectator, Ac. died in 1719. ADELUNG, the very learned German philologist, died in 1806. Pope ADRIAN IV. was Nicholas Break- spear, a native of Abbots Langley, and of BIOGRAPHY. 1005 1006 very poor parentage. He concerted the Norwegians, was made Cardinal, and elected Pope in 1154, as which, for four years and eight months, he tyrannized over the con- temporary kings as much as any of his pre- decessors or successors. jESOP, the Euclid of moral science, was born of parents who were slaves in Phrygia, and was sold as one at Samos to a liberal master, one Xanthus, under whom he dis- played his wit and talents, and, finally, ob- tained his freedom. He was afterwards patronized by Croesus, the rich king of Lybia, and then by the kings of Babylon and Egypt, in which period he composed his Fables. At Delphos he ridiculed the ignorant priests and magistrates, and was, in consequence, thrown from a rock, about 600 B. C. JESCHYLUS, a tragic writer, died about 330 B. C. AGAMEMNON, King of Argos, was the commander of the Greeks in the siege of Troy, but he was murdered on his return by his wife and her favorite. AGIS, a King of Lacedemon, was for- mally put to death by the legislature, for governing contrary to the laws. Cornelius AGRIPPA, was a learned phy- sician, and, therefore, in the semi-barbarous sixteenth century, a reputed magician. He was a friend of Trithemius, Erasmus, and Melancthon, and held various state-offices at Metz, &c. He died in 1534. AGRIPPINA, a woman infamous in Roman History, was the daughter of Ger- manicus. She was sister of Caligula, wife of Claudius, and mother of Nero, and three times married. She was put to death by Nero’s order, A. D. 60. One of the greatest wonders of female genius was Signora AGUESI, born at Milan in 1718- At nine she was familiar with Latin j at eleven she spoke Greek with fluency, and at fourteen was acquainted with several oriental languages. At fifteen she was an expert mathematician, and she pub- lished on conic sections, finite quantities, and infinitesimals. In 1750, she was appointed Professor of Mathematics and Natural Phi- losophy at Bologna, and, after becoming a blue nun, she died in 1790. A1KIN, Dr., a tasteful writer, died 1815. AKBAH, the Saracen conqueror of the Northern coast of Africa, about 700. Ano- ther Akbah was the Great Mogul from 1556 to 1605. AKENSIDE, poet, flourished 1750. ALARIC, King of the Visigoths, who, between 376 and 410, overran Europe, and took and sacked Rome. ALBERTUS MAGNUS, master of the palace to Pope Alexander IV., and Bishop of Ratisbon ; he had, in the 13th century, the fame of being a great magician, owing to his studious life and various knowledge. He died in 1280, aged 87. ALCIBIADES, flourished 420 B. C. ALCUIN, flourished 800 A. C. There were three ALEXANDERS, Kings of Egypt, two of Epirus, three of the Jews, three of Macedon, (he who was called the Great being the third,) two oi Syria, and three of Scotland, besides minor potentates, and seven popes of this name. ALEXANDER, the son of Philip, of Macedon, who, owing to the extravagance of his ambition, has been called the Great, at the age of twenty, in 336 B. C., became the leader of the armies prepared for the purpose by Philip. First destroying the liberties of Greece, he made an irruption into the too. extended Persian empire, easily defeated the Asiatic myriads of Darius at the Granicus and Issus, and pursued Darius to death. After destroying the illustrious Phoenicians and Tyrians with atrocities never surpassed, he visited the Oasis of Ammon, passing to Babylon, and thence to India, wasting life on every side for the lust of conquest. Intoxicated by success, he fancied himself a god, and died either of poison or drunkenness, at Babylon, in 323, in the 33d year of his age ; having disturbed the world, he left it in a disorder which led to a century of crimes and bloody revolu- tions. His generals seized his conquests, and destroyed his mother and ohildren; while the only benefit was the establishment of the first Ptolomies in Egypt. ALEXANDER, a popular Emperor of Russia, succeeded his murdered father, Paul, in 1801 j and, after various wars and en- croachments on neighbouring states, died in 1825, aged 48. Pope ALEXANDER VI. had four sons and a daughter, and he desired to re-esta- blish the Roman empire in his son Caesar Borgia. Wishing to poison some Cardinals at a feast, a bottle of poisoned wine was confided to an attendant ; but, by mistake, he gave some’ to the Pope, who died in con- sequence, in 1503. ALFIERI, the famous Italian dramatist, was born in 1749, and, after writing about 60 tragedies and poems, he died in 1803. ALFRED, fourth son of Ethelwolf, suc- ceeded his brother Ethelred in 871. The Danes were then masters of the coasts ; but, by various success and treaties, he acquired a durable peace from 880 to 893, when new invasions kept him employed for four years From 897 to 900 he enjoyed peace, and died after establishing a judicial system which has lasted to this day. He promoted learn- ing and learned men, besides writing himself many excellent works. ALI, the first disciple of Mahomet, and his son-in-law, was assassinated, after being fourth Caliph four years and nine months. Mahomet was succeeded by Abubeker, Omar, and Othman, and the two last were also murdered. The Persians follow Ali, and the Turks Omar. ALMAMON, the wisest of the Caliphs of Bagdad, was born in 786, and died in 835. ALORUS, or Orion, the first of the 10 kings of Chaldea, whose dynasty was ter- minated by a deluge, from which Xisuthrus, the last of the 10, escaped in an ark from Sippara, or Babylon, into Armenia. Alorus is said by Apollodorus and Abydenus tohava BIOGRAPHY, 1007 reigned 10 sari, or 185 years, and to have given out that he was appointed by God to be the shepherd of the people. The ten reigned 2222 years, or 120 sari or revolu- tions of the Moon’s nodes. The whole very remarkably resembles the first chapters of Genesis, its 10 patriarchs, &c. The Astrological King of Castile was ALPHONSUS the 10th, who succeeded in 1252, and died in 1284. He spent 400,000 crowns on the Alphonsine tables. Under the Duke of ALVA, Spanish Vice- roy in the Netherlands, 1800 were executed in a few months, and 18,000 in a few years, besides as many more by the sword, all in the cause of religion. AMBROSE, St., was Bishop of Milan, and died in 39/. AMBROSIUS, or Emrys, was a British king, who, coming from Armorica, burnt Vortigern in his castle, and defeated Hen- gist and his adherents. Ambrosius being poisoned by a Saxon doctor, was succeeded by his brother Uther. surnamed Pendragon, who for several years maintained wars with the Saxons, and was the father of Arthur. AMENOPHIS, is supposed to have been Memnon, Sesostris, or Vexones, and to have been the Pharaoh of Moses, who enslaved the Jews, and drove them out of Egypt. AMMON, flourished 650 B. C. AMPHICTYON, flourished 1500 B. C. A MRU, a successful leader of the Sara- cens, and one of the founders of the Maho- medan empire, died 663. AMURATH I. was the founder of the power of the Turks, and reigned from 135/ till he was killed in 1390. He organized the Januaries, and won 37 battles. ANACREON, the Greek poet, lived in the sixth century B. C. ANACHARSIS, a Scythian, who tra- velled in Greece, and invented the Potter’s wheel. The fiction of his travels forms an interesting work of Barthelemi. He was put to death by his brother, for endeavour- ing to reform the laws. ANAXAGORAS, an Athenian, who flou- rished in the fifth century B. C., taught that wind was owing to rarefaction ; that the rainbow w r as owing to reflection ; that the moon is enlightened by the sun ; that comets are wandering stars ; that the fixed stars are beyond the sun, &c. ; many of them regarded as modern discoveries. He was persecuted and banished by the priesthood. ANAXIMANDER, a Greek philosopher, who flourished in the sixth century B. C., taught that infinity of matter is the original cause of all phenomena, and that all things return into it. He made the first globe, and invented the sun-dial. He observed the ob- liquity of the ecliptic, and taught that the sun is 28 times larger than the earth. He thought stars animated by the divinity. Anaximander and Thales directed, says Simplicius, their attention to the prolific vital nature of water ; Heraclitus, to fire ; Anaximenes, to air ; and Anaximander, to motion : owing to their different views as intelligible, sensible, or proximate, asserting 100S different things in words, but not such as are contrary to those who are competent to judge. Aristotle observes, that some assume prior, others posterior principles ; and one appeals to reason, and another to sense, with little general difference. ANAXIMENES, a Greek philosopher, who flourished in the sixth century B. C., taught the infinity of air, or ether ; that its activity was the cause of all things; and that it was in reality God. From it proceed fire, water, and earth, by rarefaction and condensation. ANELLO, Thomas, a bloody leader of a short insurrection at Naples, in 1646. ANTHONY, the first* monk, died in 251. ANTIGONUS, chief captain of Alexan- der, got Central Asia after his death, but quarrelled with Eurnenes, whom he killed, and with Seleucus, whom he drove out of Syria ; the other captains of Alexander united against him, and their vast armies meeting near Ephesus, Antigonus was de- feated and killed in 299, in his 80th year. There were thirteen Syrian kings of the name of ANTIOCHUS, between 230 B. C. and the empire of the Caesars. The third was surnamed the Great : he began to reign 174 B. C. He joined Hannibal against the Romans, but being defeated by them, lost the chief part of his dominions, and was killed by a rabble while he was plundering a temple of Belus or Baal. His son was the Epiphanes, or illustrious, of the book of Maccabees, and taking Jerusalem in 168, he slew 80,000 Jews, and sold as many for slaves, setting up the statue of Jupiter in their temple. ANTONINUS, the best of the Roman emperors, was born in 86, and succeeded Adrian in 138. His moderation secured general peace, and though he persecuted the Christians, he wrote some excellent works, and died at 75, after 23 years’ reign. He was succeeded by his son-in-law, Marcus Aurelius, called the philosopher, and a pat- tern for all kings. APELLICO, a Biblio-maniac of Athens, who bought MS., and made a vast library without reading it. He acquired fame as the rescuer of Aristotle’s works, for which he gave a high price. When Syila took Athens, he sent them to Rome. APELLES, a Greek painter, who flou- rished in the age of Alexander. AP1CIUS, the Roman gourmand, spent in a few years 807,000/. in luxuries of the table, and poisoned himself when he found that he had but 80,000/. left. There were three Apolloniuses. One a great geometrician, who died 205 B. C. A poet, who wrote the Argonautics in Egypt. And the famous physician and astrologer, who died about the year 100, aged 97. AQUINAS, St. Thomas, lived from 1224 to 1274, and acquired, for his ability in solving theological and logical conundrums, the name of Angelic Doctor, angel of the schools, &c. His disciples were called Tlio. mists , and his works, often printed, are in seventeen volumes folio. BIOGRAPHY 1009 ARATUS, wrote a Greek astronomical poem, about 300 B. C., but his theories are very imperfect. There was also a cele- brated commander of the same name. ARCHIMEDES, a mathematician and mechanic of Syracuse ; he was killed during an assault by the Romans, 212 B. C. ARETINO, in 10/0, invented the present musical notation, by applying to it the first syllables in the following verses — UT queant laxis REsonare fibris, Mira gestorum, FAmuli tuorum, SOlve pollutis LAbils reatum. By these he converted the old tetra-chord into hexachords. He invented lines and spaces in musical notation. ARIOSTO, a famous Italian poet, died at 59, in 1533. ARISTIDES, an Athenian, was so emi- nent for his virtue, that in envy his enemies procured his banishment for ten years ; but he afterwards defeated the Persians at Sala- mis, 478 B. C., and died honoured. ARISTOPHANES, a Greek comic writer and poet, who lived about 359 B. C., and pandered to the enemies of Socrates. ARISTOPHANES, flourished 400 B. C. ARISTARCHUS, was a learned critic of antiquity; and Zoilus a carping insolent critic. ARISTARCHUS, of Samos, lived in the third century, B. C., and Hipparchus of Nicea in the second century, B. C. They laid the foundations of European astronomy. ARISTOTLE, was a justly-celebrated philosopher of Athens, founder of the school of the Peripatetics, and tutor of Alexander the Great, who had the merit of being grate- ful. Of course, his enlightened opinions dif- fered from the ignorant priesthood and ma- gistracy of Athens, but being protected by Alexander, his enemies durst not shew themselves till after the death of the king; but he was then obliged to retire from Athens. He died two years after, at the age of sixty-three ; and, to secure his writ- ings, they were conveyed to Ephesus, and secreted in a cellar. After 150 years, they were bought by a wealthy Athenian, and then sent to Rome by Sylla. In due time they were copied and published, and to them we are indebted for clear views of the sur- prising perfection of many branches of know- ledge among the Greeks. Aristotle and Plato were rather commentators than in- ventors of new opinions, though they con- ferred greater perfection ; and Plato defined the intellectual God ; while Aristotle states, that every thing which moves must have an immoveable mover, the first principle of motion subsisting as a properly-producing principle, and as eternally motive. Aristo- tle taught the principle of virtual velocities; and, also, that time, space, and a vacuum, were essential to motion, with the laws and varieties of which he was familiar. The energy of nature to fill up vacuities, he figuratively described as an abhorrence, but 1010 did not assert that there are no vacuities. Aristotle taught five rules of conception, or perfect reflection, as follows : 1. To conceive of things clearly and dis- tinctly in their own natures. 2. To conceive of things completely in all their parts. 3. To conceive of things comprehensively in all their properties and relations. 4. To conceive of things extensively in all their kinds. 5. To conceive of things orderly , or in a correct method. Hence, every perfect idea includes clear- ness, completeness, comprehensiveness, ex- tent, and order. ARIUS, an early divine, who, about 300, denied the doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Christ ; about which he divided the church. ARKWRIGHT, (Sir Richard,) previously a barber at Bolton, and having a mechanical genius, in 1/67 constructed a machine for carding and spinning cotton : the same thing having been effected by one Hargrave at Blackburn, whose machinery had 4 been de- stroyed by a mob of hand-carders and hand- spinners. Having made his machine near Warrington, and taken out a patent, here- moved to Nottingham to avoid mobs ; but, succeeding well, his patent was impeached, and, on the evidence of the Hargraves, set aside in 1785. He had, however, set up other mills at Cromford, and dying in 1792, he left great wealth to his son, then the richest commoner in England. ARMINIUS, or Hermann, a German, who, in the reign of Tiberius, expelled the Romans out of Germany, but was assassi- nated in 55. ARMINIUS, a divine, flourished in 1600. ARNE, an English composer of original merit, died 17/8. ARRIAN and APPIAN, two historical writers, flourished 115 A. C. There were four ARTAXERXES, Kings of Persia. The opera is founded on the Third, called Ochus, who began his reign 364 B. C., murdering 80 of his brethren, and also Artabanes, but was finally poisoned by Bogoas, 319 B. C. ARTHUR, a British King, who, in the 6th century, resisted the Saxons under Ker- dric, and gained the battle of Baden, or Bath, in 520 or 30, and eleven others. He then joined the other nations under Totila, in driving in the Romans, and, during his absence in Italy, his nephew Medrawd, whom he left Regent, joined the Saxons; but Arthur returning with reduced forces, met his nephew and the Saxons at Camel- ford, when he was mortally wounded by Medrawd, whom he killed, and only three of his brave army escaped. This happened about 550. He instituted the Round Table at Winchester, with the following motto — “ Spread be my board, round as the horizon and ample as my heart, that there may be no first or last ; for odious is distinction, where merit is equal.” ATHENJEUS, flourished 215 A. C. BIOGRAPHY 1011 1012 ATALIBA, King of Peru, was murdered by Pizarro, atCuseo, in 1533. ATHANASIUS, author of the creed, was a native of Alexandria. He enjoyed little authority in his life, even among Christians, and died, in 371, in exile. ATTILA, King of the Huns, (Hungary, Poland, &c.) in 441, over-ran Greece and Italy, and made Theodosius pay tribute. In 451, he invaded Gaul with an army of half a million, and besieged Orleans, but was de- feated at Chalons with the loss of 200,000 men. He then plundered Italy a second time. He was called the scourge of God. AUGUSTUS, nephew of Julius Caesar, was born 62 B. C. At 20, he was made Con- sul and heir of Julius. He defeated Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in 41, and Mark Anthony and Cleopatra, at Actium, in 32. Twice he offered to restore the Supreme Power to the senate, and, after being thir- teen times Consul, died in 14 A. C., aged 76. AUGUSTINE, St., was Bishop of Hippo, and died in 430. AURENGZEBE, the most famous of the great Moguls, was born in 1618, and died in 1707. He was the third son of the Great Mogul Shah Jehan. Having murdered his elder brothers, he succeeded his father in 1659, and extended his empire over all India within the Ganges. He was a zealous Ma- nomedan, and sought to destroy the religion of Brahma. AUSTIN, St., was first Archbishop of Canterbury, and died in 608, ten years after converting Ethelbert. The two famous Arabian Philosophers were AVICENNA, born in 97S, and AVER- ROES, born about 1130. The former was an Arabian, and educated at Bagdat — the latter was born at Cordova, but resided chiefly at Morocco. Both of them denied the possibility of a sudden creation and a particular providence. Francis BACON, Lord Verulam, a very profound thinker for his age, and Lord Chancellor in 1619, in the reign of James I. In 1605, he dedicated his great work on the advancement of learning to James, and de- scribed him as “ superior to Caesar, Anto- ninus, or Hermes,” for which he was raised to the highest dignities. During his ascen- dancy, the laws were passed for burning witches, and the great Sir Walter Raleigh was beheaded, after suffering fourteen years* imprisonment in the Tower. Being accused of taking numerous bribes from suitors, some of whom he ruined for making the accusation — to save his life he confessed the whole, and was sentenced by the House of Lords, to pay a fine of 40,000/. and banished London. He died in April, 1626. The sen- tence of the Lords was in the following terms — “ That the Lord Viscount St. Albans shall undergo fine and ransom of 40,000/. ; that he shall be imprisoned in the Tower of London during the King’s pleasure ; that he shall for ever be incapable of any office or employment in the State or Common- wealth ; and that 1. e shall never sit in par- liament, or come within the verge of the court.” His letters to Buckingham were mean and disgraceful ; while, in philosophy, he opposed the Copernican system ; believed in demonology and withcraft; and, such was his faith in astrology, that, owing to the Moon being lady of his ascendant, he used to faint during an eclipse, and, as he asserted, even if he did not know of it. He trans- lated some of the Psalms, and the following is one of h's verses, written in the age of Shakespeare : — The fishes there far voyages do make. To divers shores their journey they do take. There hast thou set the great Leviathan, That makes the seas to seeth like boiling-pan. The chief design of his writings is to prove the necessity of studying nature by means of experiment, a system which had then began to prevail in Italy under Bruno and Galileo ; in England under Gilbert; and, in France, under Gassendi. Roger BACON, was an experimental philosopher, who was born at Uchester in 1214, to whom the world is indebted for some discoveries and the germs of others. He died in 1292, after suffering two impri- sonments, and one of ten years, for “ hold- ing communion with the devil and being an atheist.” BAILLY, a learned Frenchman and as- tronomer, author of Letters on the Origin of the Sciences, and on Plato’s Atlantis, (both meriting English translation) but mix- ing with politics in the heat of the revolu- tion, and, as Mayor of Paris, directing the military to suppress a riot, by which many were killed, was, for the same, barbarously guillotined by the revolutionary tribunal in 1793. BAJAZET I., son of Amurath I., suc- ceeded his father in 1389. He over-ran Asia Minor, Bulgaria, andServia, and, be- sieging Constantinople, was attacked by a Christian army of 100,000, which he met and defeated with terrible slaughter at Ni- copolis ; he afterwards met Tamerlane, the Tartar, at Angora, in 1402; and, after a murderous conflict of three days, in which 340,000 were slain, Bajazet was defeated and taken prisoner ; he died nine months after, of an apoplexy. Elizabeth BARTON, was the name of the holy maid of Kent, an epileptic im- postor, of whom the clergy made use of to deter Henry VIII. from his quarrel with the Pope ; but he ordered her to be taken up, when she confessed all, and, in conse- quence, several dignified clergy were hang- ed ; and Bishop Fisher, and some others, deprived and imprisoned. BARBAROSSA, was the son of a potter, who, joining some pirates with his two bro- thers, soon became Admiral of a fleet, and, seizing Algiers, obtained the sovereignty of that city and the adjoining country ; but he was overpowered by a general confederacy two years after, and killed in battle, in 1535. BAYLE, Peter, the celebrated writer o*. a great and learned Historical Dictionary, born in 1647, and died in 1706. BIOGRAPHY. 1013 1014 BAYARD, Chevalier, was born in 14/6, and, after various romantic achievements, was killed in 1524. Cardinal BEAUFORT, was son of John of Gaunt, by Catharine Swinford, sister-in. law of Chaucer ; he died in 1447. Cardinal BEATON, was a zealous sup- porter of the Romish Church while the Reformation was spreading in Scotland ; and, having brought Wishart, a popular preacher, to the stake,. he was assassinated in his own castle, in 1546. Thomas a BECKET, a factious and arro- gant churchman, who was killed in 11/0, at Canterbury. The Marquis BECCARIA, an eminent modern Italian writer, was born in 1755; he published on crimes and punishments, and on political economy, and died in 1793. There was, also, Father Beccaria, an eminent natural philosopher, born in 1716; he made many discoveries in electricity and other branches of natural philosophy, and died in 1781. BEDE, an English historian, flourished at the end of the seventh century. BEDFORD, Duke of, a son of Henry IV., who, as Regent of France, burnt the maid of Orleans in 1431, by which atrocity the English interests were ruined in France. BEETHOVEN, composer, died 1827. BEHMEN, Martin, gave its name to Patagonia, in a voyage of discovery about 1480; he was afterwards treated with great distinction in Portugal ; and at Nuremberg, his native city, he constructed a globe still in existence, and on which he depicted his own discoveries before the voyage of Colum- bus. It seems, too, that his discoveries were well known to Columbus and Magellan ; he died in July 1506, at Lisbon. BELISA R1US, commanded the victorious armies of Justinian, the Eastern emperor, from 529 to 561 ; but, exciting jealousy, he was reduced to extreme poverty, though some say he was restored before his death, in 565. There were two BELSHAMS, William the historian, and a very amiable man, who died in 1827 ; and Thomas his brother, a Unitarian minister, of great ability and sound learning, who died in 1829. There have been thirteen Popes who took the name of BENET. BENEDICT, was an Italian, born about 480, and founded his order in 543. BERENICE, whose hair is a constellation, was sister and wife of Ptolemy Euergetes, and killed by her son 220 B. C. BERGMAN, a chemist, born in 1735, and died in 1784. BERKELEY, Bishop and Philosopher, born in 1684, and died in 1753. He main- tained that the existence^ of matter was purely ideal, and supported this by certain inferences of the mind during vision ; he thought it necessary to expel matter from nature, to destroy scepticism and impiety. BEItOSUS, a Chaldean philosopher, who came to Greece after the death of Alexan- der, and wrote various works. BERTHOLLET, a chemist, died in 1822. BERWICK, Duke of, was son of James II. by a sister of the Duke of Marlborough and was killed in the field, in 1734 BERNARD, was a preacher in favour of the Crusades, and a zealous stickler for tha rights of the Church between 1131 and 1160, when monks ruled the w.orld. BERTHOLD the Black, or Schwartz, whose real name was Anklitzen, was the discoverer of that mischievous compound Gun-powder ; and a monk, who, mingling the ingredients for a medicine in a mortar, and laying a stone upon it, it caught fire by his striking a light near it, and blowing up the stone with violence, the idea of cannon was suggested. It was first patronized by the Venetian government, and they employ- ed the first cannon in the battle of Chioza, in 1318. James and John BERNOULLI, com- monly called the Bernoulli , were two very eminent mathematicians, natives of Basle, born about the middle of the seventeenth century. James died in 1705, and John in 1748. Daniel, the son of John, born in 1700, trod in the steps of his father and uncle, and died in 1782. BICKERSTAFF, Isaac, author of Love in a Village, the Maid of the Mill, Doctor Last, Romp, Lionel and Clarissa, &c. died in 1776. BICHAT, the French physiologist, was born in 1771, and died in 1820, having laid new foundations for the theory of animal phenomena. BILDERDIJK, the most universal of modern scholars and poets, was born in Holland in 1756, and died 1831. BILLAUD, Varennes, the most sangui- nary member of the Committee of Public Safety ; he escaped to the United States, and died about 1816. BLACK, an eminent chemist, was of Irish family, and born at Bourdeaux ; he received his education at Glasgow, and was elected Chemical Professor at Edinburgh in 1766; he was the promulgator of an hypothesis, that heat is a peculiar fluid, sometimes ac- tive, sometimes latent; he died in 1799. BLACKSTONE, an English Judge, Dorn 1723; died 1780. Admiral BLAKE, the most heroic of English admirals, was born at Bridgewater in 1599. Thwarted in obtaining a fellowship at Merton College, he joined the Puritans, and was returned M. P. in 1640. In 1642, he raised a troop of dragoons ; and, in 1644, surprised Taunton, of which he was made governor, and afterwards defended it against 10,000 royalists for some months. In Fe- bruary, 1649, he took the command of a squadron to act against Prince Rupert, and distinguished himself at Kinsale, the Tagus, Carthagena, and Malaga. In 1652, he com- manded against Van Tromp, De Witt, and De Ruyter, and fought some signal naval battles ; he afterwards attacked the Barbary States, and, in his voyage home, died ia August, 1657- Queen BOADICEA, was the daughter of BIOGRAPHY. £015 the King of the Iceni, (now Norfolk and Suffolk.) Her father had borrowed money of Roman usurers, one of whom appears to have been Seneca , the too rich philosopher ; these creditors oppressed the king and his daughters, and a general insurrection was the consequence. Boadicea took Augusta, (now London,) and destroyed the ninth and other legions, and above 40,000 (some say ;0,000) of the Romans and their partizans. in the meantime, the Romans assembled their forces, and Boadicea and the Icenians were routed with great slaughter ; and she, being taken prisoner, soon after died. BOCCACIO, an Italian writer, author of 11 Decamerone, died in 1375. BODE, author of the Celestial Atlas, containing 17,240 stars, died in 1826. Sir Thomas BOD LEY, founder of the Library at Oxford, was born in 1544, and died in 1612. BOERHA A VE, the modern Hippocrates, was born in 1668. He reformed medicine, and expanded its philosophy more than any other modern ; he died in 1738. BOETHIUS, was prime-minister to Theo- •doric, King of the Goths, in 510, and pre. served the Greek books during that king’s conquest of Greece. BOILEAU, a French poet, died 1711. There were eight sovereigns of Bohemia and Poland, of the name of BOLESLAUS, in the 10th, 11th, and 12th centuries. Lord BOLINGBROKE was born in 1672. In 1704, he became Secretary -at- War, and, in 1710, was Secretary of State. Being a suspected Jacobite, he lived abroad till 1723, and afterwards at Battersea, in association with Pope and the Literati, till he died, in 1751. BOLIVAR, the Washington of South America, and founder of three republics, was born in 1783, and died, at the head of the Columbian Republic, in Dec. 1830. Bo- livia is called after him ; he established the independence of Peru. St. BONIFACE, was a native of Crediton, who, preaching his religion in Frieseland, was killed, with 60 of his followers, in 753. There have been nine popes of the name of BONIFACE; the 8th, elected in 1294, dictated to all the kings in Europe, and, in 1301, he placed France under an interdict; but, being seized by the French party of the Ghibelines, he died, of a phrenzy, in 1303 ; he instituted the Jubilee of 50 years. The bloody Bishop Bonner under Mary, was deprived and imprisoned by Elizabeth, till his death, ten years after. BOSSUET, Bishop of Meaux, an eloquent French preacher, died in 1704. BOSCOVISH, commonly called Father , because he was of the order of Jesuits, was an eminent mathematician, and the author of some philosophical hypotheses in the last century ; he died in 1787. The Hon. Robert BOYLE was a distin- guished theological writer, and philosophical experimentalist, who flourished in the 17th century. To his influence, while residing i.t Oxford, the world are indebted for the 1016 germ of the Royal Society, of which, in London, he was a member ; he was a suc- cessful experimenter with the air-pump then recently invented, but his writings are mixed with gross superstitions; he gave credit to Greatorex the stroker, and even to the pretensions of alchemy. His contempo- raries, in the Royal Society, were such men as Aubrey, Ashmole, Moore, and Glanville, who were devoted to astrology and divina- tion ; he died in 1691, aged 65. Joseph BRAMAH, the engineer, was born in 1749, and died in 1814 ; he took out 20 patents for most ingenious — and some of them memorable — inventions. BRADSHAW, a native of Cheshire, and president of the court which condemned Charles I., died in November, 1659. Tycho BRAHE was a Danish gentleman, born in 1516, who devoted himself to astro- nomy, and was the preceptor of Kepler; he imagined a system in contrariety to that of Copernicus, in which he placed the Earth in the centre, the Moon next the Earth, with the Sun at a distance, making Mercury and Venus the Sun’s two satellites. BRENNUS and BELINUS, two British princes, who, in 365 B. C., led armies of Bri- tons, Gauls, &c. against Rome, and, defeating the Romans, sacked the city ; and afterwards, in Greece, took Delphos. The Bards and Druids, as well as Geoffrey of Monmouth, record these achievements, and Plutarch, Chap. VII. Book 3, speaks distinctly of it, while others say they came from the extreme west. Billingsgate is said to be called after this Belin, and his name occurs in Nennius. There were three BREUGHELS, pain- ters, the Droll, the Hellish, and the Velvet, from their subjects and styles. The two last died in 1642. BRIGGS, Henry, the inventor and calcu- lator of the Logarithms in general use, died in 1630. BRISSOT, a philosophical politician, sa- crificed by the Robespierrian party, October, 1793, with many friends. BROOKE, Henry, a polite writer, of su- perior genius, died in 1783. Mrs. BROOKE, a woman of superior talents, was conductress of the Opera-house, and wrote Rosina, and other dramas ; she died in Canada, about 1790. BROWNE, Sir Thomas, author of a work on Vulgar Errors, but was himself, in 1664, witness in support of a trial for witchcraft, at Bury, before Sir Matthew Hale, by whom two victims were in consequence burnt ; he died in 1682. Robert BRUCE, the Hero of Scotland, and successor of Wallace, as a defender or the country against the pretensions of Ed- ward I., was crowned at Scone, March 2 7- 1306 ; his prowess, and that of Wallace, are deservedly favourite themes, and the battle of Bannockburn having fixed his power, he reigned 23 years, dying at Cardross, on the 7th of June, 1329, in his 55th year. BRUCE, the African traveller, was born in Scotland, in 1730, and educated at Har row; he was at first a wine. merchant, but. BIOGRAPHY. 1017 1013 having studied Arabic and Coptic, he was appointed Consul at Algiers, and, under the sanction of the Dey, he performed his tra- vels in Asia and Africa, and visited Abys- sinia and the sources of the Nile. Bruce has been verified in the late government survey of the Red Sea, by Wellstead ; the differences are only a few minutes. For example, Bruce makes the lat. of Kosair 26 o 7' 51 ", and long. 34° 4 ' 15" ; Wellstead, lat. 260 6/ 59'', and long. 34^ 23' ; Yembo exactly agrees' lat. 24° 3 ' 35" ; Koheido, per Bruce, 140 48' ; per Survey, 14° 46' 30" ; Mokha, 130 20', and 130 19/ 55"; and Mas- Tsowah, 150 35/ 3// ; Survey, 150 33' 56". BRUNO, the founder of the Carthusians, died in 1101. The Guelphs are descended from BRUNO, brother of Wittikind, King of the Saxons, who, in 785, swore allegiance to Charle- magne ; and, in time, they became Earls of Althop and Dukes of Bavaria. BRUTUS, a Trojan Prince, who, after the burning of Troy, collected the Trojans, and established colonies on the Loire ; and then, landing at Totness, established that race of princes from whom Henry VII. and the present Royal Family of England claim de- scent. There were two famous BRUTUS’s: one Lucius Junius, the grandson of Tarquin the Proud, whose son having violated Lucretia, Brutus roused the people to expel the fa- mily, and was himself made Consul, in the year 500 B. C. The adherents of the royal family conspired against the change, and among them were Titus and Tiberius, the two sons of Brutus, who, refusing to protect them, they were beheaded while he sat as Consul ; he was afterwards killed, in a bat- tle with the Tarquins, by one of the king’s sons. — The other BRUTUS was Marcus Junius, who was believed to be a natural son of Caesar, by the sister of Cato ; he took part with Pompey, but was forgiven by Caesar, and promoted to a government ; he was afterwards made first Praetor, but he joined the conspirators in killing Caesar. Jacob BRYANT, a learned expounder of ancient mythology, and a very able archaeo- logist, was born in 1715, and died in 1804. George BUCHANAN, a Scottish man of letters, was born in 1506, appointed tutor to James VI. in 1565, and died in 1582. John BUCKHOLD, a butcher of Leyden, was the fanatic leader of the Anabaptists, who, in 1533, committed such atrocities in Munster, announcing the millenium ! BUFFON, the very distinguished modern philosopher, was born in 170/ ; his first study, like that of all successful scholars, was ma- thematics, and, having an income equal to 12,000/. a-year, he was enabled to indulge his passion for learning. In 1749, he pub- lished the first volume of his famous Natu- ral History ; ha died in 1788. Sir Thomas BULLEN was a statesman and ambassador of talent for Henry VIII., and created Earl of Wiltshire ; his daughter Anne married Henry VIII. in 1532, bore Elizabeth, afterwards the Queen, and was beheaded May 19, 1536, and, two days after, her brother George, and three of her friends ; the tyrant next day marrying Jane Seymour. John BUNYAN, was an ingenious enthu- siastic writer in the 17th century, and his works are exactly adapted to the class of minds who are susceptible of religious fana- ticism ; he was a tinker in a village near Bedford, and most cruelly treated by the intolerant government of Charles II., by being imprisoned, for twelve years and a half, in Bedford gaol. The celebrated Michael Angelo, whose family name was BUONAROTTI, was born in 1474, and became the greatest sculptor, painter, and architect of his age ; he built St. Peter’s at Rome, and many other beau- tiful buildings in that city. Edmund BURKE, who made so great a figure in English politics, and, moreover, was so eloquent a writer, was a native of Dublin. In 1753, he came to London as an adventurer, and lived by writing for the booksellers : he afterwards edited the An- nual Register, and, in 1761, obtained a pen- sion of 300/. a-year ; he then found a patron in the Marquis of Rockingham, and acted with the party of the Whigs. In 1785, he impeached Hastings, and made a great dis- play of vituperative eloquence. At this time he wanted money, for his liberal patron died in 1782; he expected his party to sub- scribe for him, as they did for Fox and Grattan, but, being frustrated, he exerted his pen in defending the old monarchies of Europe, for which unexpected service he obtained a pension of 3000/. per annum ; he died in July, 1797. BURNS, the inimitable Scottish poet, and one of the most independent and original geniuses which that country has produced, was born near Ayr, in January, 1759. Poorly educated, and employed in farming-labour, in July, 1795, he died of a broken constitu- tion ; and that honour is now bestowed, which, alas ! is too late to cheer the aspiring poet. There were two BURNETS, nearly co- temporary, and often mistaken. Thomas, the elder, was a Yorkshireman, and wrote a theory of the earth, highly ridiculous, and some other works, and died in 1715; but Gilbert was born at Edinburgh, and distin- guished, in the reign of Charles II., by his friendly connection with the partizans i. bevt. In 1609, he tried Baptiste da Porta’s idea of combining lenses to see distant objects, a combination which Leonard Digges, an Englishman, had also effected ; and he was led to do this by the recent for- mation of a telescope by some Dutch spec- tacle-makers. With this he at once disco- vered Jupiter’s Moons, Venus’ phases, and the ring of Saturn, and he followed these astonishing discoveries by constructing the microscope. These distinctions brought on him a torrent of abuse and misrepresenta- tions, and, in writing to a friend, he remarks, that “ as to advancing in public opinion, or gaining the assent of the book philosopher let us abandon both the hope and desire.’* He now removed to Florence, and res dedl in the court of the Grand-Duke w ith a largo pension. In 1611, he discovered, at Hume, the spots in the sun ; but all these facts being inconsistent with the Jewish cosmograph) , the priests began to preach against him, and, in 1615, to the eternal disgrace of the Ca- tholic church, he was arraigned before the inquisition, and, though discharged, the* condemned the doctrines of Copernicus, anA forbade them to be taught, or the books de. scribing them to be circulated. He now returned to Florence, and wrote his Dialogue on the Ptolomaic and Copernican systems, leaving the readers to decide between the speakers ; and published it, with license, ii. 1632, for which he was again arraigned anti tortured; and, at 70, made to abjure publicly on his knees, and to curse his own book and doctrines, and sentenced for the next three years to remain in prison, and repeat once a week the seven penitential psalms. To all this he submitted, to escape the fate 0 / Bruno , who, for similar opinions, had beet, burnt at Rome but 32 years before. His powerful friends, however, enabled him to make their houses his prison for three months, and he was then allowed to live at home, but not to go abroad, or to receive visits. In 1636, he became blind; and, ia 1638, he was allowed, on the same condi- tions, to pass a few months at Florence, and to receive a friend in presence of an officer of the inquisition. His last discoveries were the Moon’s librations and the cause, and his last project the determination of the longt tude by Jupiter’s Moons, to which he united an improvement of time-pieces. In 1636, he finished his dialogues on motion; but, as the inquisition had forbidden every thing under 1035 BIOGRAPHY. 103 his name, they were, after much difficulty, printed in Holland. In this work he ex- plained the rectangle of velocity and quan. tity, or equal momenta, but quoted Aristotle for the principle ; and he also developed what are called the laws of motion, of falling bodies, and projectiles, principles rhapsodized by Descartes, and mystified by Newton. After he became quite blind, and very in- firm, the inquisition relaxed; he died in 1642, aged 78. Nor was he the mere philo- sopher, for he wrote the purest Italian, and cultivated the belles-lettres ; be used to say, that reading Tasso after Ariosto was like eating cucumbers after melons. He was married, had children, and was a great con- noisseur in wines. After his death, being still under sentence, his right to make a will was disputed ; he was denied Christian burial ; and his MSS. were seized and lost. GALEN was a physician of Pergamus, and died in 140, aged 70. GALVANI was an Italian experimental- ist, who discovered the mode of exciting electrical action, by opposing bodies of diffe- rent affinity for oxygen, and first displayed, by accident, in frogs ; he died in 1/93. GAMA, Vasco de, was a Portuguese na- vigator, who first discovered the Cape of Good Hope, in 1497, and established the Portuguese in India. GARDINER, Bishop, was brougnt up under VVolsey. He was by Henry VIII. made Bishop of Winchester, and a leading instrument in his murders. In the next reign he was committed to the Tower; but, under Mary, he was made Chancellor and first Minister, directing the fires in Smith- field; he died, in November, 1555. GARRICK, David, was an unrivalled player, and a man of great genius; he died January, 1779. GASSENDI, Peter, one of the most emi- nent of the restorers of mechanical philo- sophy and astronomy, of the school of Galileo, died in 1655, aged 63. He taught that all our ideas are derived from, and compounded of, sensations. Hobbes taught the same; and Locke followed them, superadding reflec- tion , or ideas derived from the operation of t he understanding, posterior to ideas derived from sensation. Dr. GAUDON was believed to be the author of the Icon Basilike, which he caused to be printed as the production of Charles I. ; he died a disappointed Bishop of Worcester, in 1662. GAY, dramatist and poet, died in 1732. GENGHIS KHAN was the chief of a tribe of Tartars, called Moguls ; in 1210, he was adopted as chief of all the Tartars of Western Asia, and, entering China, took Pekin, and added the northern provinces to his empire. He afterwards overran Persia, and gained a victory over the King of Ka- risme, in which his army of 700,000 Tartars defeated 400,000 Karismeans, with a loss of 160,000 slain ; he died in 1227. His succes- sors overran India, destroyed the Caliphate, anu established the great Turkish empire in Asia and Europe. St. GEORGE, called the patron saint of England, was a profligate fanatic of the fourth century, born in Cilicia, and at first engaged as contractor for the army ; but, his peculations being detected, he fled, and, turn- ing Arian, contrived to eject and succeed Athanasius, as bishop of Alexandria, where he committed great atrocities ; but, on the accession of Julian, he was finally torn in pieces by the populace. The Arians, on joining the Catholics, got George enrolled, and he Was adopted by the English as their patron in the Crusades. GIBBON, Edward, a very able and labo- rious historian of the Roman empire; ho died in 1794. There were two modem GIFFORDS, both political writers in support of the Court of George III. John, the Editor of the An- ti-Jacobin Review, and a police magistrate. William, a poet. Editor of the Quarterly Review, who held also two appointments under government; he died in 1826. GILBERT, William, an experimenter on magnetism, which, agreeably to the then prevailing philosophy of witchcraft, he ascribed to attraction, and all the pheno- mena to a central magnet in the earth, which he considered an intelligent principle. His elaborate researches paved the way to some speculations of Bacon, and the hypo- theses of Newton ; he died in 1603. GLANVIL, Joseph, M. A , was one o! the first members of the Royal Society, and famous for his illustrations in confirmation of witchcraft, published in 1670. GLAUBER, chemist, flourished in 1660. GLENDOWER, Owen, the last of the heroic patriots of Wales, died in 1415. GLOVER, Richard, poet, died 1785. GODFREY, King of Jerusalem, one of the martial fanatics in the first crusade. He took Jerusalem in 1099, and won the battle of Ascalon, but died in 1100. He is the hero of Tasso. GODOLPHIN, made an Earl by Anne and the head of her Whig Ministry, was au active politician in the reign of Charles II., James, and William ; he died in 1712. GODWIN, Mary Wolstonecraft, an inge- nious woman, who wrote a Vindication of the Rights of Woman, and other original works. She died in 179 7. GOLDSMITH, Oliver, poet and drama- tist, died 1774. GORDON, Lord George, son of the Duke of Gordon, who, as the presenter of a peti- tion against Catholic concessions, in 1780, was charged as an instigator of the mob riots, in which not even any of the peti- tioners were implicated. He was tried and acquitted ; but, persecution continuing, he turned Jew, and was imprisoned, from ina- bility to find exorbitant bail, till his death, in 1793. The GRACCHI, were two brothers, Tibe- rius and Caius, who advocated the rights of the poor against the usurpations of the nobles, by insisting on the equal distribu- tion of the public lands acquired by con- quests. For this Tiberius was murdered by BIOGRAPHY, 1037 tl:e Patricians, in 133, and Caius in 121, B. C. The subsequent accumulations in few hands proved ultimately the ruin of liberty. GRAM MONT, Count de, was a courtier of Louis XIV. and Charles II., celebrated by his Memoirs of the profligate court of England ; he died in 170/. GRAVES, Richard, the colleague of Pope, Shenstone. Melmoth, Allen, Pratt, &e., and author of some elegant works, died 1807, at 92. GRAY, the author of the Elegy in a Coun- try Church-yard, and other superior poems, died 1771, aged 55. Lady Jane GRAY, famous for her preco- cious talents and tragical end. She was daughter of the Duke of Suffolk, and grand- daughter of Henry VII. She was married at 16, in 1553, to the fourth son of the aspir- ing Duke of Northumberland, who got her proclaimed queen in prejudice of Mary, her own father heading an insurrection in her favour. She and her husband were be- headed in Feb. 1554. GRiEVIUS and GRONOVIUS, contem- porary editors of Greek and Latin authors, lived in the end of the 17th century. And there were five other Gronoviuses, sons and grandsons, in the same career of verbal cri- ticism and emendation ; the last, also, a na- turalist, and he died in 1777- Pope GREGORY, called Hildebrand, flourished in the 11th century; he excom- municated the Emperor of Germany, and commenced that arrogant system of eccle- siastical domination which ultimately led to the reformation. GRESHAM, Sir Thomas, a munificent London merchant, died 1579. GROTIUS, or Huig-de-Groot, was born at Delft, in 1583; his work Bewijs Van den waren Godsdienst, or De Veritate Religionis Christian®, was written in Dutch verse for the use of Fishermen and Sailors. GUIDO, painter, died 1642. GUILLOTINE, introducer of that merci- less instrument, was a French physician, who died in 1814. GUSTAV US VASA was King of Swe- den from 1523 to 1560; and his grandson, Gustavus Adolphus, from 1611 to 1632, when he was killed in a victory gained over Wallenstein at Lutzen. GUY, Thomas, a miser, who, dying in i724, left nearly half a million to various charities and a hospital. GUYTON MORVEAU, a very distin- guished French* chemist, and author cl many discoveries; he died in 1815. HAFIZ, a Persian poet of great popu- larity, died 1389. H ALE, Sir Matthew, a pious judge, who, though a philosopher, yet in that age of su- perstition, condemned to death some persons accused of witchcraft, so late as 1664; he died in 1676. HALLEY, Edmond, a very enterprizing mathematical philosopher, who flourished from 1675 to 1742L 1038 HAMPTON, John, a leader in the cause of English liberty, who was killed in a skir- mish near Thame, in 1643. HANDEL, G. F., the prince of musicians, born 1684, and died in London, 1759, HANNIBAL, a Carthaginian general, who, in 219 B. C., took Saguntum ; in 216, gained the great battle as born in 1166, and, though his father’s favourite, he joined his brothers in rebellion, which broke his father’s heart, in 1189; he then rebelled against his brother, Richard I., and kept him prisoner in Austria. On the deaih of Richard, he made war on his ne- phew Arthur, and rightful heir to the crown, and, taking him prisoner, murdered him in prison. In 1207, his tyranny led the Pope to put the kingdom under an interdict. All the bishops, &c. left the kingdom, and for seven years no divine service was performed. He now quarrelled with the Barons, lost his dominions in France, and committed an atrocious massacre on his Welsh hostages ; he then sought an alliance with the Sara- cens in Spain, offering to deliver England to them, and turn Mahomedan. At length, in 1213, the Pope appointed Philip of France to remove him ; and, on May 13, he resign- ed. liis crown and realm to the Pope's Nuncio at Dover, when the inderdict was removed. The Barons now extorted from him Magna Charta, on June 15, 1215 ; but, to avenge this, he brought over foreign auxiliaries, and got the Pope to annul the charter, and excommunicate the Barons, against whom he commenced hostilities. These invited the French King, and the Dauphin landed at Sandwich, May 30, 1216, with a force brought in 660 ships ; he advanced to Lon- don, and was well received every where, the nation declaring for him. John, in de- spair, attacked Lincoln, and fixed his head- quarters at Lynn ; whence, crossing the Wash, he lost his baggage and money, and died at Newark, October 19, 1216, of a dysentery. JOOST, Vanden Vondel, born in 1587, is esteemed, in Holland, equal to our Shak- ipeare ; he wrote a poem, called Lucifer, which the Dutch regard as equal to Milton. JOSEPHUS was a learned Jew, born 37 A. C., and, after a youth of study, became a leader against the Romans ; but, being taken prisoner, was received into the favour of Vespasian and Titus, and present at the siege and destruction of Jerusalem ; he af- terwards lived at Rome, and wrote his various works ; he is, by the Jews, callei Ben Gozion, and their copy differs consider rably from the ordinary translation from the Greek. There were two JUSSIEUS, uncle and ne* phew. The former died in 1 779, after suggest- ing the natural system of plants ; but it wav perfected by his nephew, Antoine Laurent in 1789, and, with the further aid of De Candolle, is now the prevailing system. The nephew died at 88, in 1836. KANT, Immanuel, a Prussian logician, and metaphysical systematize!*, was born in 1/24, and died 1804; he divides philosophy into Physics, Ethics, and Logic. The two former are material sciences, which take cognizance of external and internal facts ; whereas the latter is purely formal , and treats only of th z form and connexion of our thoughts. Sense is the faculty which re- ceives the matter of all the phenomena of nature ; it is therefore passive , and has only two modes or forms of receiving. It con- sists, therefore, of the two receptivities, time and space. Reason is a faculty that acts quite independently of time and space, by its six pure activities , which are the Six Ideas — Absolute Totality ; Absolute Limi- tation ; Absolute Substance ; Absolute Ne- cessity ; Absolute Cause ; Absolute Con- currence. His system begins with six axioms : — 1. Consciousness, or egotism. 2. Time, th eform of internal sense. 3. Space, of external sense. 4. Sense, for intuition. 5. Understanding, for conceptions ; and 6. Reason, for Ideas. Intuitions are, he says, present in time and space ; Conceptions, absent in time anti space ; Ideas, things out of time and space ; and the three generate mind. He then asserts, that time and space are in the mind, and are the receptivities of sense. Understanding, he refers to Aris- totle’s four categories of quantity, quality, relation, and mode ; and their species unity ; Many, the whole ; Existence, negation, size ; Property and Accidents, cause and effect, action and re-action. Possibility, certainty, necessity. Reason, he founds on the cate- gories in their absolute sense, as totality, limitation, substance, cause, concurrence, necessity. LACEPEDE, Count, a French naturalist, and long President of the Senate under Na- poleon ; he died of the small-pox, at 69. LA GRANGE, a very profound mathe- matician, died 1805. LANJUINAIS, Count, one of the most enlightened patriots of the French Revolu- tion, which he survived, and died 1827. LA PLACE, a very profound mathema- tician, died 1825. LE SAGE, the author of Gil Bias, waa biography- 1043 1044 very deaf ; he wrote for profit, and got fame also. LEAKE, Sir John, a distinguished Eng- lish admiral, who died 1720. LEIBNITZ, G. W., a celebrated Saxon philosopher, contemporary of Newton, Locke, and Clarke, and inventor of the Differential Calculus ; he was born in 1646, and died in 1716. He taught a pre-established Har- mony, by which.the mind contains general notions and truths, like the plant in the seed; so that, according to him, “ every thing goes on in the soul, as if .it had no body ; and in the body as if it had no soul.” Op- ticism , or the doctrine that this is the best of all possible worlds, was an inference from the pre-established harmony , which he as- sumed to be formed by the Deity, and therefore perfect. Another mystical phrase of his was the sufficient reason, which merely meant, that nothing happens without a sufficient reason why it should be so, ra- ther than otherwise. And another, the law of continuity , meaning that motion is never lost, which, extending to the soul, he main- tained that it never ceases to think, even in sleep or in a fit. Nature, says his disciple Helvetius, never proceeds per saltum, (never jumps,) and the law of continuity is exactly preserved. The two great principles of Leibnitz were, that it is impossible for a thing to be, and not to be, at the same time ; and that nothing is without a sufficient reason why it should be so, rather than otherwise. LEUCIPPUS, a Greek philosopher, as- serted that atoms, the elements of all things, were infinite, and always moved ; and that they were of various forms, thereby gene- rating and characterising different bodies in figure, order, and position. Democritus and Metrodorus followed Leucippus ; and added, that the full and the void are the first causes of things. Zeno, Leucippus, Democritus, Protagoras, and Epicurus, were the inven- tors of the Atomic System, in which they ascribed the composition of all bodies to smaller and smaller parts, in various forms, called Atoms, at present the principle of ■chemistry. LIVY, historian, flourished 15 B. C. LOCKE, John, a political and philoso- phical writer, born in 1632, and educated at Oxford; he was patronised by the Earl of Shaftesbury, and obliged to retire with him to Holland, in 1682, and there he wrote his Essay on the Human Understanding. He returned with the Prince of Orange, and died at Otes, in 1T04. LOUIS XVI., King of France, and the representative of a line of sovereigns, under whom, for several centuries, abuses of go- vernment and impolitic privileges had been accumulating, till the embarrassments of the government and people rendered it ne- cessary to call a National Assembly in 1788. But the reforms effected, and the free spirit displayed, led the King and Court, covertly or openly, to play the delicate part of op- posing the will of the nation, and the in- creased intelligence of the age. The Bastile was, in consequence, taken by the populace, in July, 1789. In October, the King and family were brought to Paris. In 1791, he fled towards the frontiers, leaving a procla- mation, which disclaimed his own assent to all that had been established. Brought back, he ratified his former acts, but main- tained a constant intercourse with the armed emigrants on the frontiers, and assembled a large force in the Tuil.eries. Here ne was attacked, August 10, 1792, and after a fright- ful slaughter of his adherents and assailants, he surrendered, and was committed to the prison of the Temple. The national con- vention then decreed a Republic, and his trial. This took place in December, 1792, and, on January 21, 1793, he was guillotined the victim of his birth, education, and royal sense of duty. His queen, the victim of circumstances, was brought to trial, and guillotined in October, the fate of both ex- citing the warmest sympathy, as victims of public circumstances, and of the external hostilities of their order out of France. LUCRETIUS, poet, flourished 80 B. C. LUTHER, Martin, the German Reformer, was born in 1483, and died in 1546 ; he was educated, at the University of Wittemburg, by charity ; and became an Augustine Monk, a Professor and Doctor of Divinity. In 1517, he published 95 propositions against indulgencies ; and, certain princes favouring him, for the purpose of getting possession of the property of the Church, he was enabled to set at defiance all the power of the Pope- dom. His life was very turbulent and dis- contented, constantly occupied by contro- versies and public contests ; but he had zealous and able disciples in Melancthon Bucer, Corvin, Jonas, Adam, and others. He was even more rancorous against dissen- tients from his own doctrines, than against Popery itself ; and extremely superstitious about appearances of the devil, angels, &c. He divides Protestant Christendom with Calvin and Arminius. Mrs. MACAULEY, who married a bro- ther of the noted Dr. Graham, is celebrated as the author of an excellent History of England ; much admired for its independent spirit, and much abused by the Court party. She wrote, also, some Political Pamphlets, and died in 1791. MACHIAVEL, an Italian writer and statesman, was born in 1461 ; he wrote some works of history, and a treatise on govern- ment, called the Prince ; a book containing such infamous doctrines, that it is disputed whether it was serious or ironical ; he died in poverty, in 1 527. James MACPHERSON, Editor of Os- sian, was born at Inverness, in 1738. In 1758, he published his first fragments of ancient poetry, collected in the Highlands. In 1762, he produced Fingal j and, in 1763, Zeniora and others ; he died in 1796 MAHMOOD, the first Sultan, was Sove- reign of Kandahar, and resided at Ghizni, about the year 1000. He conquered Bac- tria, and made nine expeditions to India, in 1045 bjogi which he took its chief cities, introduced Mahomedanism in place of the Brahrnist religion, and carried away immense trea- sures ; he died at Ghizni, in 1028; his son, Musaood, afterwards made three invasions of India. MAHOMMED was born Nov. 10, 5/0, st Mecca, and died June 8, 632, at Medina, 23 years after his public mission, and 10 afier the recognition, through Arabia and Persia. He was of middle size, dark com- lexion, lively black eyes, aqueline nose, ull cheeks, and regular features ; his hair was black, and his beard bushy ; his head was large, and he was stoutly built; his voice was fine, and his ear acute ; he was fust, merciful, and impartial— zealously de- voted to the poor, and noble, polished, and affable in his manners ; he milked his own gouts, and mended his dress and sandals ; he lived chiefly on barley bread, and his family on dates and water. At 50, he lost his first wife, Khadijah, and then took se- veral, but Aichah was his favourite. Madame DE MAINTENON was born in 1635, and married Scarron, an ingenious poet, who died in 1660, and left her in indi- gence. In repeated petitions to Louis XIV. for a pension, she drew his attention, and obtained an appointment in the Royal nur- sery — becoming a favourite of the king, who ultimately married her. She survived him, and died in 1719. MANDEVILLE, celebrated as the au- thor of the j V able of the Bees, published in 1 723 ; he wrote other works, and died in 1733. MANICHiEUS, the founder of an early Christian sect, and a Persian by birth ; he wrote a gospel, but attacking the Persian religion, he was crucified, or flayed alive, about the year 2 77. Mrs. MANLEY, an ingenious female writer, was born about 1660, and wrote the new Atalantis; two tragedies, called the Royal Mistress, and Lucias; and the co- medy of the Jealous Lover, besides other works. She died in 1724. Lord Chief Justice MANSFIELD, whose first name was William Murray, was born in 1705. In 1742, he became Solicitor- General ; and, in 1/56, was made Chief Justice of the King’s Bench, an office which he filled for 32 years, and died in 1793. IMA RAT, a French demagogue, was born in 1744, of Protestant parents, and educated in Medicine ; he published various works on Natural Philosophy, in which he displayed considerable talents ; but the abuses in the government, and the growing strength of an opposing party, rendered him a politician, and he published a cheap journal, called the Friend of the People , which became an authority with the republican party ; he was also the leader in the club of the Feuillans, and very active in the commotions of 1792. The Moderes denounced and prosecuted him ; and, in July 1793, he was stabbled by Char- lotte Corday. Carlo MARATTI, a distinguished Italian painter, was born in 1625, and died at Rome, in 171 ?. IAPHY. 1046 MARIE ANTOINETTE, Queen of Louis XVI., was a daughter of the Emperor of Austria, and married in her 15th year. She was beautiful, and possessed the best feminine qualities, but extravagant and dis- sipated ; and, therefore, became the butt of public discontent. In October, 1789, she and her husband were brought from Ver- sailles to Paris, where their plots to eman- cipate themselves led to the catastrophe of August 10, 1/92, on which the Royal Family W'ere closely imprisoned in the Temple. Here her submission to the violent temper of her husband, and her general amiable conduct, belied public report ; but she fell a victim to prejudice, in October 1793, nine months after her husband had suffered a similar fate. MARIUS was a distinguished Roman. In 108 B. C. he defeated Jugurtha, King of Numidia; and, soon after, conducted some bloody vvars in Gaul ; he was then six times Consul ; but, being thw'arted by Sylla, he fled to Africa ; and, returning, committed unparalleled legal murders on the friends off Sylla, and died 86 B. C. MARMONTEL, an elegant French wri- ter, was born in 1723; and, becoming the popular Editor of the Mercure de France , he acquired great celebrity by his writings in that work, and by his exquisite moral tales ; he died in 1799. There were three MARK ANTONYS. The first, a patriot, was murdered by Ma- rius. The second held great power. And the third killed himself in Egypt, in 30 B. C. Benjamin MARTIN, an industrious and ingenious writer, was born in 1704; and, at first, a travelling lecturer on natural philo- sophy, and, afterwards, an optician in Fleet- street. The absurdity of the bankrupt laws led him, in 1782, being then 78, to commit suicide. Andrew MARVEL w T as a patriotic Eng- lish senator, born in 1620, and educated at Cambridge ; he was employed by Cromwell, and as an assistant to Milton. In 1660, he became M. P. for Hull, and, till his death# in 1678, was an incorruptible M. P. MARY, Queen of Scots, was daughter of James V., and of a French Princess. Her father dying a few days after she was born, her mother sent her to France for education; and, at 15, she was married to the Dau- phin, who, becoming King, died in six months, when she returned to Scotland, a widow of 18. Here she married the hand some Lord Darnley, a weak profligate, who murdered Rizzio, and was himself destroyed in 1567. Soon after she married Bothwell, suspected of the death of Darnley, which drove the people to rebellion, and Bothwell fled to Denmark, and Mary to England, where her cousin Elizabeth kept her in con- finement for 18 years; and then, on the most paltry pretence, and with true Court morality, caused her to be beheaded in 1587, at the age of 38. She was a very accom- plished woman, and her story, taken alto- gether, is most affecting. She was the vie tim of her own education, of the ambition BIOGRAPHY. 1047 of others, of the dirty jealousy of Elizabeth, and of the contests between the Romish and Protestant church interest. Mrs. MASHAM was the intriguing fa- vourite of Queen Anne, and supplanted the Duchess of Marlborough. Being connected with the Tories, she produced a change in the government. In return, her husband was ennobled; but the family is now extinct. MASSENA was the most distinguished of Napoleon’s marshals, and called by him “ the Darling of Victory.” He was created Prince of Essling, for his services in that great vic- tory in 1809; and, fond of money, he died immensely rich, in 1817. MASSILLON, a celebrated oratorical preacher, who flourished in the early part of the 18th century, and died in 1/42 ; his works are remarkable for the splendour of their eloquence. MASSINGER, an English dramatic wri- ter, was born in 1585, and contemporary with Shakspeare, whose writings he imitated ; he died in 1639. MAUPERTUIS, a French philosopher, was born in 1698. He measured a degree of latitude in Lapland ; and, after otherwise distinguishing himself, died in 1/59. Thomas MAURICE, a modern poet of eminence, was born about 1/50; and edu- cated in Christ’s Hospital and Oxford. Be- sides his poetical productions, he wrote some works on oriental history and theology, and died in 1924. MAYOW, John, was an English physi- cian, who was educated at Oxford, and died in his 34th year, after publishing some che- mical works, in which he developed many of the principles claimed as discoveries a century after. Cardinal MAZARIN, a political church- man, born in 1602, who succeeded Cardinal Richelieu as minister to the Court of France ; the government of which, he con- ducted with questionable wisdom, till his death, in 1661. Dr. MEAD, a literary physician, born 1673, who flourished in London till 1754. De MEDICI was the name of an Italian family, whose fame will for ever be con- nected with commerce, the arts, and litera- ture. The founder was John, a merchant of Florence, who died in 1428. After accu- mulating immense wealth, his son Cosmo, being contemned by the Florentine aristo- cracy, removed to Venice, but was speedily invited back, and became the patron of every thing which adorns the human character ; he died in 1464. His grandson was Lorenzo, whose liberality procured him the name of the Magnificent. He first established aca- demies and a public library ; and, by his moral influence, became the virtual sove- reign of Florence. He died in 1492, aged 44. The last of the Medici died in 1739. MELANCTHON, an associate of Luther, and learned reformer, who made converts by the variety of his learning and writings, though it is to be lamented that Calvin quoted his sanction for the unpardonable 1048 crime of burning the Unitarian philosopher Servetus. He died at Wittemburgh, in 1560. William MELMOTH, a tasteful writer of the English language, and an elegant translator, was born in 1740, and died in 1799 ; his father was the author of a popular tract, called the Great Importance of a Re- ligious Life. MENAGE, a writer in polite literature, much esteemed in France ; he was born in 1613, and died in 1692. MENDELSOHN, a learned modern Jew, born in Anhalt, in 1729; he was intimately connected with the German literati, and wrote some valuable works of a Metaphysico Moral Character. He died in 1785. MENSCHIKOFF, Frince, a strolling pie-man, who, by the caprice of despotism, became prime-minister of Russia in three reigns, and then, for the crime of seeking to marry his daughter to the Czar Peter II., was banished with his family to Beresov, 429 miles north of Tobolsk, with an allowance of ten rubles per day. Here he built a church with his own hands, and died a de- votee in two years, in 1729. His confiscated jewels were worth half a million, and his estates had 100,000 serfs. METASTASIO, an Italian dramatist, born in 1682. He was at first a strolling boy poet; and, at 14, he wrote a tragedy. His subsequent works were very numerous ; among which were 26 operas, 8 oratorios, and an immense variety of lyric composi- tions. He died in 1782. MEYER was an extraordinary proficient in mathematics and astronomy, for whose lunar tables, the English government paid 3000/. He was a professor at Gottingen, and died in his 39th year, in 1762. Dr. Conyers MIDDLETON, an eloquent English writer, was born in 1683, and edu- cated at Cambridge. His chief works are, his Letter from Rome, his Life of Cicero, and his Free Enquiry. He also wrote a number of Controversial Pieces, which are the best models of English style and compo- sition. He died in 1750. MIERIS, a Dutch painter of the first eminence, born in 1635, and died 1708. Joseph MILLAR, commonly called Joe Millar, was born in 1684, and was a favourite low comedian ; he died in 1738. His Jest- book was compiled by one Motley, and his name prefixed simply because he was a fa- vourite with the populace. John MILTON, author of Paradise Lost, was born in Bread-street, London, in 1608, and educated at Cambridge ; he afterwards resided at Horton, and there wrote his best smaller pieces. In 1638, he made the tour of Europe ; and, on his return, opened an academy in Aldersgate- street, and wrote some of his political works, in a decided re- publican spirit. He defended the trial and execution of Charles, and replied to the Icon Basilike; and also to the work of Sal- matius, which he published in 1651, and re- ceived 1000/. from CromwelL His exertions brought on incurable blindness. At the 104 9 BIOGRAPHY. 1050 Restoration, he was obliged to conceal him- self, his books being ordered to be burnt. In his retreat, he re-commenced and finished his Paradise Lost, and it was printed in 1667. In 1670, his Paradise Regained ap- peared, and his Sampson Agonistes. He died in November, 1674. General MIRANDA, a man of extraor- dinary endowments, and a native of Peru. In 1806, be sailed with an expedition from the United States, to revolutionize South America, and made some progress j but, in 2911, was taken prisoner, sent in chains to Cadiz, and treated with such crueity that he died. MIR ABE AU, an eloquent Frencn orator, was born in 1749, and a member of the National Assembly in 1789. He was dis- tinguished for his eloquence and patriotism ; but died in April, 1791, in the midst of his career. MOLIERE, a very eminent French dra- matist, born in 1620, and died 1673. George MONK, Duke of Albemarle, was born in 1608. In the civil wars he sided with the King, but was employed by Crom- well ; and, at his death, he betrayed his son and his party, and influenced the army to declare for the Restoration, for which he was raised to the highest dignities by Charles II. He was both general and ad- miral, commanding the English fleets, which fought the Dutch in both wars. He died in 1670. Charles MONTAGU, Earl of Halifax, a man of talents, and prime-minister to King William, who, on the suggestion of Bishop Burnet, commenced the ruinous Funding System ; he was not employed by Queen Anne, but distinguished by George I., and died in 1715. Lady Mary Wortley MONTAGU, an English woman of extraordinary talents, was daughter of the Duke of Kingston, and born in 1690. In 1712, she married Mr. Wortley, who, in 1716, went ambassador to Turkey ; here she wrote her celebrated Let- ters. In 1718, they returned to England, and Lady Mary figured in the fashionable world till 1739, when she retired for her health to Italy, and wrote other published letters. In 1761, she returned to England, and died in 1762. MONTAIGNE, a pleasing French writer, was born in 1533, and died 1592. MONTECUCULI, a celebrated Italian general, was born in 1608 ; and, after com- manding in numerous wars, with pre-emi- nent distinction, died in 1680. MONTEZUMA was emperor of Mexico, »n 1519, when it was invaded by the Spanish banditti under Cortez ; who, after commit- ting great atrocities, imprisoned Montezuma, and in an attack on the Spaniards by the Mexicans, the unfortunate emperor was killed by a stone, in 1520. Sir Thomas MORE, an able chancellor to the bloody tyrant Henry VIII., was born in 1480, and being patronized by Wolsey in 1530, he succeeded him ; but, being a bigot- tcd catholic, he refused to take the oath of supremacy, and, after a long imprisonment was beheaded, in July, 1535. MOREAU, a French revolutionary gene- ral, was born in 1763, and, in 1794, com- manded armies in Flanders, and on the Rhine. In 1813, he joined the Allied Sove- reigns in the war against France , but, on making his first observation, was killed by a cannon-ball before Dresden. MOROSIN1, a famous Venetian general in their wars with the Turks, died in 1693. MOSES, a priest of Osiris, whose name was Osarsiph, and who headed the Jews on their expulsion from Egypt about 1850 B. C. by Thuthmosis; and of whom we have such full particulars in the books ascribed to him, and sanctioned by the voice of ages. His laws and institutions are excellent, and greatly to be preferred to the theories of po- litical economy which disgrace this age. His principle of perpetual inheritance, and his securities for the poor, merit universal imi- tation. If he adopted his codes from the eight books of Taautus, and Leviticus exists in Sanscrit, as is alledged, we may presume that Taautus w r as not original, and that the East has been the fountain at which all the philosophers of the West have drank. The Jews refer to Ezra, the final arrangement of his five books ; but the Samaritan must be older than Ezra, as well as the copies found among the Jews in India. The name of the Pharoah being Thuthmom, his Jewish name Moses appears, in some way, to be derived from it. MOZART, the eminent composer, born in 1756, was a prodigy in music from his childhood. After astonishing and delight- ing the world by a great variety of matchless works, he died in 1792. MURILLO, an eminent Spanish painter, was born in 1613, and died in 1635, by a fall from a scaffold while he was painting. Arthur MURPHY, a successful English dramatic writer, w’as born in 172 7 ; he wrote the Grecian Daughter, the Orphan of China, and other pieces, besides translating Tacitus, and died in 1805. Joachim MURAT, one of Napoleon’s marshals, was born in 1771. In 1800, he commanded the cavalry at Marengo ; and, in 1806-7, at Jena, Eylau, and Friedland ; in 1808, he was made King of Naples ; and, in the Russian expedition, commanded the cavalry ; but, on the misfortunes of his pa- tron, in 1815, he was ejected from Naples, and returning again, was seized on landing, and shot October 13, 1815. There were two MYRDDINS, or MER- LINS ; one the minister and architect ot Ambrosius, who succeeded Vortigern, and built Stonehenge, called Myrddin Ambro- sius, and whose skill in bringing the stones from Ireland obtained him the name of En- chanter ; and Myrddin, or Morvryn, a Bri- tish poet and prophet, contemporary with Taliesin, who lived in the following century, and died in Bardsey. NADIR, Shah, was an usurper of the throne of Persia, born in 1686. Being in. BIOGRAPHY. 1051 trusted with the command of an army, by Thamas, king of Persia, on being ordered to disband it, he seized the Shah, and pro- claimed himself regent, and, in 1/39, king. In 1/34, he marched into India, took Delhi, and massacred 100,000 of the inhabitants, robbing the country of 100 millions sterling; but, in 1747, he was assassinated in his tent, after committing frightful enormities of all kinds. Lord NAPIER, of Merchiston, suggested the logarithmic principle of corresponding series ; but we are indebted to Henry Briggs, Gresham professor of geometry, for the tables of logarithms as they now exist, and also for those of sines and tangents. Briggs com- puted them to 14 plans of decimals, and pub- lished them in 1 624. He also passed through the astonishing labour of computing natural sines to 15 plans, and the 100th of a degree! Gellibrand and Vlaco perfected them after Briggs’ death. NAPOLEON, emperor of the French, &c., and a man of the most singular for- tunes ; he was born in Corsica, in 1769, and was educated in the military school of France. Obtaining rapid promotions under the revolutionary government, he was, in 1795, appointed to the command of an ill- provided army, on the Italian frontiers ; but, by his vigour and genius, he defeated the numerous armies of Austria, overran Italy, and, in 1797, forced the Italian states and Austria to make peace. He afterwards embarked with his army for Egypt, and overran that country and great part of Syria ; but the abuses in the French government led him to return to France, and, in a few weeks, he overturned the government, and, as first consul, placed himself at its head. In 1800, he crossed the Alps, and defeated the Austrians at Marengo; and, in 1801, sought peace with all the Courts which had made war on France. In 1803, some new confederacies of ancient governments were formed against him ; but, penetrating into the countries of his enemies, he gained, in the following ten years, a series of unparal- leled triumphs at Ulm, Wagram, Jena, Friedland, Austerlitz, &c., becoming, in effect, dictator of the European continent, and fallowing his victories by seeking trea- ties of peace, which the implacable hatred of the old governments always abused. In 1812, he advanced to Moscow, and his return being intercepted by an early winter and treacheries, his army perished in frost and snow; and, Europe being raised against him, he was defeated at Dresden, and France was invaded on all sides. Paris was surren- dered by treachery, and he was obliged, under treaty, to retire to Elba, in 1813. But the treaty not being respected, and it being formally proposed in the congress at Vienna, to seize him, and send him to St. Helena, he anticipated the base design, by landing in France with only 800 men, with only a few of whom he advanced to Paris, and was re- ceived by the entire French nation with un- bounded enthusiasm, in March, 1815. The congress of the ancient governments now 1052 proclaimed him out of the law of nations, and armies were advanced to the French frontiers. In June, he defeated the Prus- sians and the English, separately; but, at Waterloo, on the 18th, after a desperate battle with an allied army, under the Duke of Wellington, the Prussians, under Bluchei and Bulow, were permitted, by the treachery of one of his generals, to attack his right flank and rear, and the French army was. in consequence, dispersed. Napoleon then returned to Paris, and, being unsupported, or betrayed by certain public men, he de- termined to retreat to America; but, on going to Rochfort, and finding it blockaded by English cruisers, he surrendered himself to the liberality of the Prince-Regent of England. The British government now exe- cuted the original plan, and sent him to St. Helena, placing him under a partizan of the name of Lowe . Here he died in 1821, of a cancer in his stomach. His remains were deposited, with all due honours, in a spot of the island selected by himself ; but were removed in the year 1840 to France, with the consent of the British Government, and re-interred, on the 16th December in that year, with the greatest military and impe- rial pomp, in the Hopital des Invalides, at Paris. Beau NASH was an eccentric but clever master of the ceremonies at Bath, in the reign of George II. James NAYLER was a Quaker, who, at first, was a parliament soldier, and after- wards believed he was inspired; and, in this character, in 1657, he entered Bristol on an ass, as a second Christ. For this he was convicted of blasphemy, and sentenced to be several times whipped, branded, his tongue bored with a hot iron, to be imprisoned, and kept to hard labour. He died at liberty, in 1660. NEARCHUS was an admiral of Alex- ander the Great, who conducted a fleet from the Persian Gulf, round Africa, to Greece. NECKER, a French minister in 1788 and 9, was a Genevese, and distinguished for his knowledge in finance. He was no courtier, and his dismissal from office was the imme- diate cause of the destruction of the Bastile. He retired to Switzerland, and died in 1804. Admiral Lord NELSON was born in 1758, and, in 1779, made post-captain. In 1793, he served under Lord Hood, at Tou- lon, &c. ; in 1797, under Lord St. Vincent, in the battle of that name ; in 1798, he gained the victory of Aboukir; in 1801, he attacked Copenhagen; and, in October, 1805, he was killed in the famous victory of Trafalgar. Sir Isaac NEWTON was born at Wool- strope, near Grantham, in 1642, and edu- cated at Cambridge, where, in 1669, he be- came professor of mathematics. In 1672, he published his theory of light; in 1676, his method of fluxions ; and, in 1687, his Prin. cipiee, or mathematical system of physics. Jr 1699, he was made Master of the Mint. He was patronized by Lord Halifax, and by the Princess Caroline ; and at his death, in March, 1726, had a public funeral in West- BIOGRAPHY *053 1054 minster- Abbey. He wrote 400 unpublished MS. sheets, chiefly on theological subjects, and also published on the prophecies of Daniel and St. John; likewise a work on chronology. He was manv years president of the Royal Society. In the discussions about Newton's jealous temper, and Flam- steed's opposition to a Court favourite, a very early letter of Newton’s to Flamsteed, published by the Editor, in 1/96, is over- looked. Flamsteed had praised Newton in some publication, for which Newton re- proves him, and “ begs he will not name him in future, since a man may be quoted too often.” Can we wonder, after so gross an insult, that Flamsteed was not his flatterer about that gratuitous hypothesis of Univer- sal Gravitation, derived from a vulgar case, whose local cause was not understood, and which, understood, negatives the whole theory. Newton was flattered into his pub- lication by Halley ; and, hence, their mutual partizanship. Flamsteed was a patient worker, Newton only a theorist. Marshal NEY, the bravest of Napoleon’s marshals, was born in 1/69. He assisted in the various French victories ; at Hohenlin- den, in 1800 ; at Elchingen, at Friedland, and at Moskwa ; but fell a sacrifice to the changes of government, in 1815, and was shot in December of that year, while the Duke of Wellington commanded in Paris, under a treaty which assured amnesty to all. NOAH, son of Lamech, and brother of Jubal, Jabal, and Tubal Cain, the fathers of the arts ; but, as Noah only was saved in the Ark, his younger brothers must have pe- rished in the flood. Lord NORTH, prime-minister of Eng- land from 17/3 till 1782, was born in 1732, and died Earl of Guildford, in 1792. NOSTRADAMUS was a noted astro- loger and prophetical impostor, much ho- noured in France in the 16th century. NIZAM, U1 Mulk, was Vizier to the Sultan Alp Arslan, and to his son, and was the model of a good statesman, as well as author of some interesting books. He was stabbed in his 90th year. Titus OATES was a tool of parties in the infamous reign of Charles II., and became an informer, by whose false accusations several eminent persons were executed, for which he got a pension of 1,200/. per annum, and other distinctions j but, in 1686, his per- juries were detected, and he was whipped from Aldgate to Newgate, and from New- gate to Tyburn ; but, at the revolution, he was regarded as a martyr, and recovered his pension. OCELLUS, Lucanus, a Greek philoso- pher of the fifth century, B. C. His book on the Universe is still extant. Sir John OLDCASTLE, afterwards Lord Cobham, favoured Wickliffe, for which the clergy prosecuted him by false accusations, and at length caused him to be burnt alive. OMAR, the second Caliph, ate barley- bread, or dates, and drank water, and his robe was worn in several places. He kin- dled his own fire, milked the ewes, and mended his shoes and garments. He fed multitudes, and lavished gifts on his adhe- rents. He allowed Abbas, Mahomet’s uncle, 25,000 pieces of silver per annum ; 5000 to those who fought in the battle of Beder, and 3000 to the last of Mahomet’s personal fol- lowers : in his reign of ten years, he or his generals captured 36,000 cities or castles, de- molished 4000 churches and temples, and built 1400 mosques. ORIGEN was a father of the church, born in 185, and died in 254, at Tyre; his works make 4 vols. folio. ORLEANS has given the title of duke to several men, eminent in French history. The first figured in the reigns of Louis XIII. and XIV. The second, his son, married the sister of Charles II., and died in 1701. The third was Regent, in the minority of Louis XV. , and a man of taste, who died in 1723. The fourth was a religieuse, and died in 1752 ; his grandson was Philip, who directed his fortunes to the reformation of the Court, and fell a sacrifice to the fury of factions in 1793. As an assurance of his attachment to the republican cause, he took the name of Egaliti, and voted for the death of Louis XVI. ; his son, Louis Philippe, became King in July, 1830. ORPHEUS, a genius of the heroic ages, who wrote poetry, and improved music. OSSIAN, an Irish poet, was son of Fin- gal, a Gaelic chief. His poems are recited traditionally by the Highland and Irish pea- santry, and were collected and revised by Macpherson, in 1762. — Of their antiquity, there can be no reasonable doubt, and proofs are afforded throughout Ireland, and the western parts of Scotland. The name of Ossian also occurs in the contemporary wri- tings of the Welsh bards. There were two OSTADES, Dutch pain- ters, and brothers; and the works of the elder, Adrian, sell for a great price. He died in 1685. OSWALD, John, a Scottish gentleman, who, having resided among the Brahmins, wrote a very interesting tract, called the Cry of Nature , and some other works. His zeal in the cause of the Frencc republic led him to accept a commission as c-olonel, and he and his two sons were killed in a battle in La Vendee. OSYMONDYAS was a king of Egypt, who reigned 3000 years B. C. ; he is sup- posed to have been the same as Memnon ; and to him is ascribed many of the colossal structures in Egypt. OTWAY, author of the Orphan, Venice Preserved, &c., was born in 1651, and died, neglected and miserable, in 1685. OVID, a vivacious Latin poet, who flou- rished in the Christian era, and died A. D. 17, in banishment. Thomas PAINE, a political writer during the American Revolution, wrote Common Sense, and other tracts. — Afterwards, in his native country, he wrote the Rights of Man, and other pamphlets. Being elected into th© French Convention, in 1792, he wrote. 4055 BIOGRAPHY. 10)0 at Paris, 1 ds Age of Reason, against the cre- dibility of the Old and New Testament. He died at the age of 74, in New York. PA1SIELLO, a celebrated musician, born in 1741, and died in 1816. Archdeacon PALEY, a tasteful and in- dustrious English writer, was born in 1/43, and died in 1805, having produced Elements of Moral and Political Philosophy, a work on Natural Theology, &c. &c. PALLADIO, a classical Italian architect, was born in 1518, and died in 1580, having oublished some very considerable works on Architecture. PANCKOUCKE, a Paris bookseller, who died in 1798, was proprietor of the Mercure de France , the most extensively- circulated periodical work ever printed. He then established the Moniteur , which, above 40 years, has been the official paper of the French government ; and he commenced the publication of the famous Encyclopedic Me. thodique , the most extensive and able work of the kind. PANTHERA, the name of the Roman soldier whom Celsus, and certain Roman and Jewish writers, assert was the father of Jesus, after Mary’s separation from her husband. General PAOLI was a patriot Corsican. He defended his country against the oppres- sions of the Genoese, who, being baffled, made over their claims to the French go- vernment, against whom he also defended Corsica ; but being overpowered, he and his friends fled to England, in 1769, and died in London, in 1807. PAPIN, inventor of the digestor, and author of some w 7 orks on natural philosophy, was born in France, and died in Germany, in 1694 ; he was the first who made experi- ments on the power of steam. PARACELSUS, an eminent philosopher in a superstitious age ; he was born in 1493. He settled at Basle, and pretended to have intercourse with spirits, and to possess the philosopher’s stone, and elixir of life ; he died in his 48th year, leaving works which make 1 1 vols. quarto. PARKINSON, author of the Herbal, was born in 1567, and died in 1640. Archbishop PARKER, in the reign of Elizabeth, deserves to be memorable for the care with which he preserved the libraries and manuscripts of the religious houses at the Reformation, of which Benet College enjoys the advantage; he was born in 1504, and died in 1576. PARMEGIANO, a famous painter, was born at Parma, in 1503 ; his works are of the first order of merit. Dr. Samuel PARR was born in 1/47, and was distinguished by his Greek learning, and his liberal and patriotic opinions; he died in 1825. Thomas PARR W’as a remarkable in- stance of longevity; at the age of 100, he was charged with bastardy ; and, at 120, he married a widow. He died at 152 years and 9 months, in 1635, and his grandson lived to be 120. Henry Jenkins, a Yorkshireman, lived to be 169, and the Countess of L)e5» mond to 142. PASCAL, a very erudite French philoso- pher, born in 1623. Before he was 30, h< made many important discoveries, but he was fanatical on religious subjects ; his pro- vincial letters are specimens of acute logic and refined wit. Soon after he became hy- pochondriacal, and composed “ his thoughts.” He died in 1662. St. PATRICK, in the 5th century, intro- duced Christianity into Ireland, and died March 17, 493. Father PAUL, a man whose name figured in the 16th century, was born at Venice, in 1552. He wrote the History of the Council of Trent, and some philosophical works, in which he anticipated Harvey’s doctrine of the circulation of the blood ; he died in 1 56®. The two PENNS made a considerable figure in the 17th century. Sir William, the father, was an admiral, who was sent by Cromwell to take Hispaniola, but failing, he made himself master of Jamaica. His son, born in 1644, was educated at Oxford, and, joining the non-conformists, his father sent him abroad ; but, in 1666, he came home, and, falling among the Quakers, he embraced their tenets ; and his father, in 1668, got him committed to the Tower for preaching against the Established Church. His maxim was, No cross, no crown ; and he began to preach in the streets, for which he and his companion, William Mead, were prosecuted and imprisoned. His father dying soon after, and large debts being due to him from the Crown, Penn accepted, in lieu of these, the grant of a tract of land south of New York. In 1681, he sailed with a band of Quakers to colonize it. On landing, he entered into a treaty with the Indians, and laid the foundation of Phila- delphia, calling the country Pennsylvania. He abolished slavery, and established an excellent code of laws; he died in 1718, in Berkshire. Thomas PENNANT, a man of fortune, and an industrious writer, was born in 1726, and educated at Oxford ; he published, on every branch of Natural History, many va- luable works, and also some tours and topo- graphies ; he died in 1798. Spencer PERC1VAL, an English prime- minister, who being employed, in 1806, as counsellor to the Princess of Wales, became possessed of facts so interesting to George III., that, to prevent his publishing them, the King yielded to his terms, turned out the administration, and put Percival and his friends in their places ; he was shot by BeL lingham, in 1812. PERICLES, an Athenian, was bon: about the year 500 B. C., and his eloquence soon gave him popular influence ; he married the famous Aspasia. By his public spirit and his talents, he ruled Athens as a sovereign, without the name, and purchased the public homage, by building the Parthenon and Odeum, and by patronizing Phidias rnd others ; he died 429. The four brothers PER R AULT were a BIOGRAPHY, 1(T-' remarkable instance of quadruple genius in one family ; Claude, the elder, born in 1613, built the Louvre. Charles II. held impor- tant situations under Colbert, and wrote many valuable works. Peter and Nicholas also wrote books of reputation. PETER the Great, Czar of Muscovy, was born in 1672. In 1697, he made the tour of Europe, and at Sardam, in Holland, wrought as a shipwright, sending to Russia, from that country and England, the best artizans he could procure. In 1709, he totally defeated Charles XII. at Pultowa, and, in that war, obtained possession of those provinces of which Petersburg is the centre. In 1716, he made another tour ; and, in 1723, he made war on Persia, and acquired some provinces. In 1725, he died, being succeeded by his widow, Catherine I., who had lived in the capacity of menial servant in Prussia, and had been taken prisoner by the Russian army. PETRARCH, Francis, was born in 1306, in Tuscany. At 27, he fell in love with Laura Sade, at Avignon, and this incident tinged his whole life. She was, however, engaged or married, but he settled near her at Vaucluse ; and here he wrote his sonnets to Laura, and different works, which raised him to a pinnacle of cotemporary fame. In 1348, Laura died of a plague, which then prevailed throughout Europe. Petrarch lived till July, 1374. Sir William PETTY was the son of a clothier at Rutnsey, and born in 1623. In 1649, he graduated as a physician, at Ox- ford. He was one of the first Fellows of the Royal Society, and one of the first writers on pclitical economy ; he died in 1687- PHIDIAS, the celebrated Athenian sculp- tor, who enjoyed the advantage of being patronized by Pericles j he carved two sta- tues in ivory, 90 feet high ; and the best ancient works are ascribed to him. PHILIBERT, Prince of Orange, com- manded the imperial army at the taking of Rome, for Charles V., in 1527 ; he was killed in 1530. William, his cousin, suc- ceeded him, and was elected head of the Dutch, in their resistance to Spain, under Philip II.; he was assassinated in 1584. Maurice, his son, established the indepen- dence of the Dutch States, and usurped the government, but died in 1625 ; his grand- son was our William III. PHILO Judeus, a learned Jew, flourished about the time of the Christian Era, and wrote various learned works and commen- taries. PICHEGRU, a French revolutionary general, was born in 1761. In 1794, he had the command of the army of the North, defeated the Duke of York, and the Duke of Saxe Coburg ; and, pursuing them across the Rhine, over-ran Holland, and entered Amsterdam, in January. 1795. But, in Sep- tember, 1797, he and 65 deputies, and two directors, were transported to Cayenne, but making his escape, he emigrated. In 1804, he returned, but was arrested, and, in a few days, found dead in his prison. 1058 PICUS, Mirandola, a miracle of learn lng in the 15th century, was familiar with twenty-two languages, and master of all the science of his time ; he visited Universities, to challenge professors, but died at Florence, in 1496, aged 33. PILPAY, an oriental philosopher, wroto his apologues about 2000 B. C. PINDAR, the Greek lyric poet, flourished about 500 B C. William PITT, Earl of Chatham, was born in 1708. In 1735, he became M. P., and joined the party of Frederick, Prince of Wales. In 1/44, the Duchess of Marl- borough left him 10,000/., and, in 1746, he became a placeman ; and, according to the vacillation of parties, was in and out of office till 1768. In 1778 he died, in conse- quence of his exhaustion during a speech which he made in the House of Lords, against the American war. His second son was the equally-celebrated William Pitt, who was born May 28, 1759; he was edu- cated at Cambridge and Rheims, and, in 1780, became M R, taking the side of the Reformers. In 1782, he was made Chan- cellor of the Exchequer, and, in 1783, in his 24th year, became Prime- Minister ; a sta- tion which he retained, in spite of the shocks of parties, till 1801, and then resigned. In 1804, he became Minister again, but died in January, 1806. PIUS VI., the last Pope but two, suc- ceeded Clement XIV., in 1775 ; the French revolution deprived him, in 1791, of Avig- non and its territory ; and in consequence, in January, 1793, the French Ambassador was murdered by the Roman populace, and no satisfaction obtained. In 1796-7, the French marched on Rome, and entered into treaty ; but, soon after, the Roman populace murdered General Duphot, attached to the French embassy. The French army now entered Rome under Berthier, and the Re- man republic was re-established ; the Pope was conveyed a prisoner to France, where he died, in March, 1800. P1ZARRO, a Spanish freebooter, was born about 1500, and, in 1525, he and some other adventurers invaded the peaceful king- dom of Peru ; and, taking Ataliba, the Inca, prisoner, they forced him to profess Chris- tianity, and then burnt him ; but, as a favour to a Christian, strangled him first. Soon after, this banditti quarrelled among themselves, and Pizarro’s brother strangled Almagro, the second in command ; but, in 1451, the soil of Almagro killed Pizarro at Lima. PLATO, the most renowned of the Greek philosophers, was born 430 B. C. He stu- died under Socrates, and, on the murder oi that philosopher, went into Italy, and stu- died in the schools of Pythagoras, and after- wards visited Egypt. He then opened, at Athens, a school called the Academy, and, among his pupils were Aristotle, Lycurgus, and Demosthenes ; while Socrates, Xeno- phon, and Diogenes, were among his oppo- nents. There he taught philosophy till his 79th year, and died in 348. Statues and M M BIOGRAPHY, 1059 1060 altars were erected to his memory, and the day of his birth kept as a festival. His works are in 1 2 volumes, and there is an English edition by Taylor, in 5 quartos. Plato taught three principles ; the cause or mover, matter and form ; or two, the cause and matter. He was, in other respects, of the school of Pythagoras and Parmenides. The Academical Philosophy is so called from Plato’s place of teaching, a grove of one Hecademus, bequeathed for gymnastic exercises. John PLAYFAIR, Edinburgh Professor of Mathematics, was born in 1748, and was, in many respects, one of the most active and original natural philosophers of his age ; he died in 1819. There were two PLINYS, uncle and ne- phew, or elder and younger. The first was born, A. D. 22, at Verona; and he wrote a history of his own time, and a Natural His- t( ry, which last is still extant. He lost his life by his curiosity in ascending Mount Vesuvius, during an eruption. — Pliny the younger died A. D. 103, and there remain his letters, and his panegyric on Trajan. PLUTARCH, the biographer and histo- rian, was born in 50 A. C. ; and, after ex- tensive travelling, he settled at Rome, where he taught philosophy, and was promoted by Trajan ; he died in 119. POLYBIUS, a Greek classic historian, was born 203 B. C. He wrote a Universal History, during 135 years, in 12 books, of which only five are now complete; he died in his 82d year. POMFRET, the author of the Choice, &c. was born in 1667, and died of the small- pox, in 1703. Madame POMPADOUR, famous as the mistress of Louis XV. She was born in 1722, and, in 1745, was created marchioness. She promoted literature and the fine arts ; had a pension of 10,000/. per annum, and the office of Lady of the Palace to the Queen. She influenced every thing, even war and peace, and died in 1764. POPE, Alexander, the prince of English poets, was born in Lombard-street, in 1688. His father being a linen-draper, and a Ca- tholic, his education was liberal, chiefly under Romish priests. He became an au- thor at 12, and published his principal works between 1/05 and 1742 ; he died May 30, i 744. He was small and deformed in person, with a very delicate constitution; but his transcendant genius rendered him the spoiled child of the age in which he lived. PORPHYRY, a distinguished writer, was born at Tyre, in 233. He wrote against the use of animal food, the Life of Pytha- goras and Plotinus, together with some very strong Tracts against the Christian religion ; he died about 304. Richard PORSON, celebrated for his memory, learning, and eccentricity, was born in 1759, and died in 1808. Baptista Della PORTA, an active philo- opher, in a superstitious age, was born at aples, in 1445. He invented the camera- obscura, a near approach to the telescope and published some highly-curious works ; died in 1515. PORTEUS, Bishop of London, and son of the Captain Porteus, whose name is con- nected with the history of Edinburgh, was born at York, in 1731. In 1759, he wrote his beautiful poem on Death ; and, in 1787, was made Bishop of London ; he died in 1808. POTTER, Archbishop of Canterbury, and author of several learned works ; was born in 1674, and died in 1747. There were two POUSSINS, French painters ; Nicholas, the principal, who was born in 1594, and died in 1665 ; and Gasper, his brother-in-law, who was born in 1600, and died in 1675. Charles PRATT, the first Earl Camden, and many years Chief-Justice of the Com- mon Pleas, was born in 1713, and died in 1794, after a life distinguished by the inde- pendent exertion of sound principles. The Abbe PREVOST, the most fertile of modern writers, was born in 1697, and his works and compilations extend to 156 vo- lumes ; he also translated the novels of Richardson. In November 1763, he fell down in an apoplectic fit, in the forest of Chantilly, when an ignorant magistrate or- dered a surgeon to open his body ; on which he started with pain, but not before he had received mortal wounds. Dr. Richard PRICE, a learned Dissenter, was born in 1723. He officiated to a dis- senting congregation at Hackney, establish- ed the Equitable Assurance Company, sug- gested the Sinking-fund scheme, and wrote some political tracts, dying in 17 91. Dr. Joseph PRIESTLEY was born in 1733. In 1761, he became Tutor in the College at Warrington, and there wrote several works, after which he resided six years at Leeds, and discovered the compo- sition of air. In 1773, he became Librarian to Lord Shelborne, and his discoveries in air produced him great distinction. In 1778, he removed to Birmingham, and there wrote his History of the Corruptions of Christi- anity, and other works. But, in 1791, a Church-and-king mob burnt his house and. library, and he removed, first to Hackney, and afterwards to Pennsylvania, where lie died, in 1804. PTOLEMY, the astronomer, was born in Egypt, in 70 A. C. His works convey the best notions of the state of ancient science ; he died about 150. Henry PURCELL, the English musical composer, was born in 1658, and died in 1695. His Te Deum Jubilate, Orpheus Britannicus, and King Arthur, were l«is principal works. PYRRHO, a Greek philosopher, who accompanied Alexander the Great; and. imbibing the Eastern philosophy, founded a sect, and died 288 B. C. PYRRHUS reigned in Epirus about 300 B. C. ; and, in 280 B. C. invaded Italy, and again in 270; but, at length, he was killed at Argos. BIOGRAPHY. 1061 PYTHAGORAS; tho earliest Greek phi- losopher, was born about the year 600, and lived to be fourscore. The fables about him render him almost an ideal personage ; he was born at Sidon, and educated at Samos ; ne then passed 25 years in Egypt, and visited India ; he taught the doctrine of transmi- gration and abstinence from animal food ; he was the inventor of the multiplication- table, and a great improver of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at this day ; he also discovered the diatonic scale in music ; he enjoined five years retired study to his disciples. Pytha- goras was founder of the Italian School ; Thales, of the Ionic or Greek School of Sophi. PYTHIUS, of Marseilles, made a voyage to Thule (Iceland) where he found the Sun did not set at the summer solstice. QUINTILIAN, a Roman classic, was born about 42. He disgraced his learning by praising Domitian, and died 122. RABELAIS, a distinguished French writer, was born in 1483, and died in 1543. RACINE, the French Dramatist, was born in 1639, and died in 1699. His works were numerous, and are still performed. Sir "Walter RALEIGH was born in 1552, and served in the English army in Ireland. He afterwards, in 1584, founded the first settlement in Virginia, calling it after Queen Elizabeth; and, on his return to Europe, brought with him tobacco and potatoes, which he planted on his estates near Cork. He was employed in many other public ser- vices, but not being fancied by the new Scotch Court, he was charged with being privy to a conspiracy for placing Arabella Stewart on the throne. The indictment was for misprision of treason, but a base jury found him guilty of treason. In conse- quence, Sir Walter was imprisoned twelve years in the Tower, during which, he wrote his History of the World. Bribing Villiers, he obtained the command of an expedition to Guiana, but, on his return, in July 1618, was arrested, at the instigation of the Spa- nish ambassador, for attacking a Spanish settlement, and ordered to be executed under the former verdict for treason, ob- tained sixteen years before, at which time Bacon was Lord- Keeper. This legal murder, of the greatest man of his age, took place October 29, 1618. RAMEAU, a celebrated French com. poser, and illustrator of the science of music, was born in 1683, and died in 1/54. Allan RAMSAY, the Scottish poet, was born in 1685; and, in 1/21, he published his poems, and soon after, his Gentle Shepherd ; he died in 1758. R APIN, the French historian of England, was born in 1661 ; he began his history in 1707, and lived to complete eight volumes, quarto, to the death of Charles I. Two other volumes, to the Revolution, were pub- lished from his manuscripts, in 1726, after his death. 100V. RAPHAEL, commonly called the Prince of Painters, was born at Urbino, in 1483. The Popes Pius II. and Leo X. patronized him, also a rich banker of the name of Chigi. The number, the splendour, and the astonishing genius of his works, created a sort of idolatry for his person ; but, he fell in love with a baker’s daughter, and his ex- . cesses caused his premature death, in 152f * No less than 740 of his designs have betn engraved, and many of his pictures sell at the price of an estate. The Abbe RAYNAL, an original French writer, was born in 1718. In 1 770, he pub. lished his History of the East and West Indies. During the revolution, he wrote some pamphlets, and died in 1794. RAYHIB, Pacha, an able Turkish vizier from 1757 to 1768, when he died, distin- guished as a politician and writer. REAUMER, a distinguished French na- turalist, was born in 1683 ; and, after mak- ing many discoveries, inventing a thermo- meter, and publishing a great work on the history of insects, he died in 1757. REMBRANDT, the most powerful of the Dutch painters, was born in 1606, and died in 1674. Sir Joshua REYNOLDS, first president of the Royal Academy, and Founder of the English school of painting, was born in 1723, and died in 1792. The R. A. was estab- lished in 1769, and his annual discourses are deservedly admired. RICHARD I., King of England, was the second son of Henry II., and born in 1157. His youth was marked by the basest con- duct to his father, whose heart he broke. This seems to have qualified him for a crusader, and, in 1190, he sailed with a vast army, accompanied by Philip, King of France, for the Holy Land. They took Acre, and obtained some other successes against Saladin. The intrigues of his bro- ther John forced him to return, in 1192, and while traversing Austria as a pilgrim, he was seized and imprisoned, while his bro- ther John, and Philip, King of France, con- nived at it. In 1194, he procured 150,000 marks for his ransom, and returned to Eng- land ; and, soon after, entered into a contest with a vassal, Lord of Chalus, and was shot by an arrow during the siege, in April 1199. His ferocious bravery led to his being called Cceur de Lion. RICHARD II. was son of Edward the Black Prince, and grandson of Edward III , whom he succeeded in 1377, in his eleventl year. Spoiled by power and education, th' tyranny of his government drove the people to general insurrections ; one of which was headed by Wat Tyler, and caused the loss of some thousand lives, and the destruction of immense property ; his success, in quell- ing these, so intoxicated him, that he be- came as profuse as some of the Roman Caesars ; and, after murdering one of his uncles, Henry, son of John of Gaunt, head- ed the nation, and Richard was formalty deposed in 1399 ; he was then imprisoned Pontefract, and soon after put to death. MM2 BIOGRAPHY, 10G3 mi RICHARD III. was youngest son of the Duke of York, who was killed in the battle of Wakefield, and born in 1450 ; he was educated amidst the slaughters which at- tended the wars between the Houses ot York and Lancaster; he was 21 at the batile of Tewksbury, which ruined the House of Lancaster, an age at which he was not likely to have committed the mur- ders ascribed to him. On the death of his brother, in 1483, he sacrificed his friends and seized his children, procuring himself to be proclaimed King. Whether he killed the young princes, or whether he sent them abroad, and they were the Perkin Warbec and Lambert Simnel of Henry Vllth’s reign, is now uncertain. After sacrificing his creature Buckingham, the crown was claimed by Henry, Earl of Richmond, de- scended from John of Gaunt, who met him at Bosworth, with a superior force, and Richard was defeated and killed, August 23, 1485. Samuel RICHARDSON, author of Pa- mela, Clarissa, and Grandison, was a respect- able printer, in London, and died in l/Gl, aged 7 2; he was the founder of the prolific school of domestic novelties. Cardinal RICHELIEU was born in 1585 ; in 1614, he was made Secretary of State ; in 1622, he was created Cardinal ; and, in 1624, became Prime-minister to Louis XIII. He persecuted the Protestants, and govern- ed France till his death, in 1642. Marshal Richelieu, of the same family, was born in 1696, and held commands in the wars of Louis XV. ; he died in 1788. The last dis- tinguished person of the family was the Duke de Richelieu, born in 1/67, who, after organizing Odessa for the Emperor of Rus- sia, became Prime- minister to Louis XVI II. and died in 1822. Bishop RIDLEY was educated at Cam- bridge, and made Bishop of London in 1551; he was so zealous a friend of the Reformation, that, on the accession of Mary, he was convicted as a heretic, and burnt with Latimer, at Oxford, on the 15th of October, 1555. — Being consulted by Edward VI. on his death-bed, in regard to the best disposition of charitable funds, he planned for the young King the four grand hospitals — of Christ’s, for education ; of Bridewell, for industry and distress ; of St. Bartholomew and St. Thomas, for the sick and maimed. RIENZI, a Roman of Plebeian birth, who was fired with enthusiasm to restore the ancient Roman republic. In this design he acquired considerable power, and the Pope residing at that time at Avignon, his success was obstructed only by his extravagances, and he was killed in 1354. Joseph RITSON, an English antiquary and philologist, in which he displayed great accuracy of learning and research ; he also wrote against the use of animal food ; he died in a derangement of fever, caused by erysipelas, in 1803. David RIZZIO was an Italian musician, and had great talents as a linguist, who, going lo Scotland in the suit of the ambassador from Savoy, became a great favourite with the young Queen, Mary, which exciting the jealousy of her husband, Darnley, he and his partizans assassinated Rizzio, in the Queen’s presence, in 1566. Robert BRUCE, King of Scotland, the opponent of the Baliol interest, asserted his claims in 1306, and having gained the battle of Bannockburn over that weak prince, Ed- ward II., he remained King of Scotland, and died, aged 54, in 1329. William ROBERTSON, the Scottish his- torian, was born in 1/21. He wrote a his- tory of Queen Mary and her son, of Charles V., and of America ; also, a disquisition or> India, and died in 1/93. ROBESPIERRE, one of the most inex- orable politicians recorded in history. He was born at Arras, in 1759, brought up as an advocate, and enjoyed an excellent cha- racter. He was a member of the National Assembly; and, in May, 1791, proposed a law to abolish capital punishments. In 1792, he was the leader of the Jacobin Club ; and, through the year 1793, he, his brother, and their friends, controlled the committees of government, during which period, France was deluged with blood. Self-defence led to attacks on Robespierre, and he and his party were guillotined, July 28, 1794. After his death, his entire property appeared not to be worth five pounds sterling. ROBIN HOOD was the head of the free foresters; who, in spite of royal claims, ranged the forests from Nottingham to Barnsley, in the reigns of Richard and John, for a period of 30 years, having a well- trained band of powerful archers in his command. He was long outlawed, and great rewards offered for his apprehension ; but, falling ill, he applied to the prioress of Kirklees to bleed him, and she bled him to death. The popular ballads, recording his story, have become traditional in the dis- tricts of the northern forests. Mary ROBINSON, commonly called the British Sappho, and as celebrated for her beauty as her talents, was born at Bristol, in 1758. An indiscreet marriage, in her 15th year, obliged her to resort to the stage, where the Prince of Wales, then 18, and the handsomest man of his age, fell in love with her, and withdrew her from the uncer- tain protection of her husband; but she experienced the fickleness of princes, and was soon left, with a pension of 400/. a-year. She died in 1801. Admiral Lord RODNEY was born in 1717; in 1759, he bombarded Havre; in 1761, he took Martinique; and, in 1768, he was ruined by a contested election at Northampton. In 1780, he defeated a Spa- nish fleet off’ Cape St. Vincent; in 1781, he took St. Eustatia ; and, on the 12ih of April, 178f, defeated the French under de Grasse. He died in 1792. Madame ROLAND, a woman of extra- ordinary talents. At 22, she married M. Roland, afterwards a very able and virtuous Minister of State. She took an active par* in favour of liberty during the Revolution ; 1065 BIOGRAPHY. 1068 and, on an accusation being passed against her husband, she presented herself before the Convention, and demanded to be heard in his defence ; for which, she was arrested, put on a mock trial, and guillotined, Nov. 1, 1/93. Her husband, on hearing of her death, stabbed himself. Sir George ROOKE, a famous English Admiral, was born in 1650; and, in 1/02, he defeated the combined fleets in Vigo Bay. In 1/01, he captured Gibraltar, and died in 1709. Salvator ROSA, a Neapolitan painter, of great original genius, was born in 1615, and died in 1 6/3. Jean Jaques ROUSSEAU, an eccentric, but eloquent French writer, was born at Geneva, in 1/12, where his father was a watch maker. He became a music-master, and afterwards lived by copying music. In 1752, he wrote a Comedy, and a musical entertainment; and, in 1762, his Julia, or the new Heloise, afterwards the Social Con- tract, a book on education, a Comedy called Pygmalion, &c. &c., in all, 1 7 volumes quarto. He died in 17/8, extremely popular. ROWE, Nicholas, an eminent dramatist, was born in 16/3. At 24, he produced the Ambitious Step-Mother; then Tamerlane, The Fair Penitent, Jane Shore, Lady Jane Grey, besides a translation of Lucan ; he died in 1718. Mrs. ROWE, cotemporary with the pre- ceding, but no relation, was daughter of a dissenting minister, and born in 16/4. In 1700, she married Mr. Thomas Rowe, the son of another dissenting minister. She wrote Friendship in Death , Devout Exer- cises , The History of Joseph , a poem, and other works ; and died in 1737. RUBENS, the illustrious painter, was born in 1577, and studied his art in Italy. On his return, he was employed and court- ed, for many years, by all the sovereigns in Europe; his works are so numerous, without being less perfect, that more than 300 of them have been engraved ; he died in 1640. Count RUMFORD, whose family-name was Thomson, and native country New Eng. land, was born in 1/52. In 1/99, he pub- lished his experiments on Heat, and planned the Royal Institution. In 1802, he settled at Paris, married the widow of Lavoisier, and died in 1 814. Lord William RUSSELL, known as a patriot, was the third son of the fifth Earl of Bedford, and born in 1641. He was member for Bedfordshire in four Parlia- ments, and 1679 was made one of the privy- council ; but, in 1680, he went to Westmin- ster Hall, and presented the Duke of York as a popish recusant, and also carried up the exclusion-bill, at the head of 200 mem- bers, to the House of Peers. He was, in consequence, imprisoned on the ridiculous Rye.house Plot, for which he was tried be- fore Jefferies, and a packed jury, and con- victed and executed. Admiral RUSSELL, Earl of Orford, was born in 1651. In 1692, he gained the \ ic- tory of La Hogue ; he died in 1727. SABATIA, Sevi, was a Jewish impostor, who, in the 17th century, announced himself as the Messiah, in Turkey, being followed by multitudes. He was taken before tne Sultan, to whom he declared his power of working miracles. The Sultan then ordered him to be tied to a post, and fired at, chal- lenging his power; when Sabatia confessed his imposture. Dr. SACHEVEREL, a theological politi- cian, created a great flame in the reign of Queen Anne, by preaching two sermons about the danger of the Church from the Dissenters ; for which, he was prosecuted by the House of Commons, a circumstance which rendered him the most popular man of his time; he died in 1724. 1 here were two SACKVILLES, Earls of Dorset, both very accomplished ; one Tho- mas, born in 1537, and favoured by Eliza- beth, who died in 1608, author of various poems, and a Tragedy. The other, Charles, was born in 1637, at once a polite writer, and a friend of Milton, Butler, Prior, Dry- den, Congreve, and Addison ; he died in 1706, and his son was created Duke of Dorset. The family. seat, Knolp. exempli- fies his taste in his collection of portraits. SADI, the Persian poet, according to the oriental legend, went forty pilgrimages to Mecca on foot from Shiraz, and studied for 30 years, travelled for 30 years, and passed 30 years in devotion. He was taken pri- soner by the Crusaders, and died in 1296, nearly 100. His chief poems are the Gar den of Roses , and the Garden of Fruits. SALADIN, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria. He was opposed to the Christian fanatics in Palestine, and excited by their massacre of pilgrims going to Mecca. His first victory was at Tiberius, in 1187, where he cut down Guy de Lusignan with his own scymitar, and many more Christian chief- tains; and, among others, Chatillan, the author of the massacre. He then took Acre and Jerusalem, but was opposed by Richard Coeur de Lion, with whom he made a truce, and died in 1 193. SALLUST, the Roman historian, born 55 B. C. SAPPHO, the Thespian poetess, flourish- ed in the 5th century, B. C. Professor SAUNDERSON, of Cambridge, is famous as a blind man who taught mathe- matics, and was among the ablest of his age. He died in 1739, aged 57. George SAVILLE, marquis of Halifax, and a noted statesman, was born in 1603, and filled various high stations in the go- vernment under the Stuarts, but he Pro- moted the revolution ; he died in 1695. Marshal SAXE was the natural son of Augustus, King of Poland, and bom in 1696. In 1/44, he commanded at Dettingen, and, in 1745, defeated the Duke of Cumberland at Fontenoy, aud over-ran Flanders ; he died in 1750 BIOGRAPHY. 1067 1068 There were two SCALIGERS, famous classics and critics. The father, Julius Cae- sar, born 1484, near Verona, and died in 1558. His son, Joseph Justus, was born in 1540, and died in 1609. Their editions and notes on the classics are very numerous. SCHILLER, the celebrated German dra- matist, was born in 1/59 ; and, after writing the Robbers, Wallenstein, Fiesco, Cabal and Love, Don Carlos, and some historical works, died May, 1805. Marshal SCHOMBERG, who was killed at the battle of the Boyne, had commanded French armies in Spain, and the Nether- lands ; but, being a Protestant, he left France on the revocation of the edict of Nantz ; and, coming to England with Wil- liam III., was created a duke, and sent as commander in Ireland, where he was killed by a chance shot, July 1, 1690. SCIPIO, Africanus, was the commander of the Roman forces in the first invasion of Africa, and he defeated Hannibal at Zama. After making peace, he was honoured with a triumph ; but, being assailed by party, he retired from public life, and died 189 B. C. His brother, Lucius Cornelius, was sur- named Asiaticue, for his victory over An- tiochus at Magnesia. There was, also, a third Scipio, who was the son of Paulus iEmilius; but adopted by the son of the first Scipio, and therefore took the name. He was the commander who destroyed Nu- mantia, and who afterwards took, and, in so barbarous a manner, destroyed Carthage ; he was found dead in his bed 129 B. C., in his 56th year. SCOTT, Sir Walter, a very ingenious and tasteful, though voluminous writer of Tales and Romantic Histories, in verse and prose, adapted to the amusement of females, and persons who, in books, seek mere pas- time. He possessed neither the deep philo- sophy of Shakespeare, the satire of Swift, the sound reasoning of Pope, the humour of Fielding, the human sympathies of Richard- son, or the wit and design of Voltaire; yet, by writing under the mystery of the Great Unknown, and by a commercial union with musical composers, dramatists, and journal- ists, he enjoyed, in his day, as unbounded a popularity as Lope de Vega. Seduced by the enormous profits which the unsated patronage of the world conferred on his ^works, he wore himself out, and died of mental and bodily exhaustion, in 1832, at the age of 61. John SELDEN, a learned legal and poli- tical writer, was born in 1584, and died in 1654 ; he wrote on the ancient constitution of England, the history of tithes, a work on the Arundel marbles, an answer to Grotius on the Freedom of the Sea, and took part in the civil wars against Charles I. SENECA, a wealthy Roman philosopher, who was tutor to Nero, and wrote some ex- cellent moral and philosophical works, but, being suspected by Nero, he was allowed to choose his death, and he was bled to death in a warm bath. Edward SEYMOUR, Duke of Somerset, was brother of Lady Jane, third wife of Henry VIII., and, therefore, uncle of Ed- ward Vlth., to whom he was an able prime- minister ; and, also, a zealous friend of the reformation. Jealousy created him enemies among the nobility, which led to his death on the scaffold, in 1552. Michael SERVETUS, a literary Spaniard, was born in Arragon, in 1509. At 22, he wrote a Tract against the 'Trinity ; and, soon after, graduated at Paris, as a physi- cian ; he was the correspondent of Calvin, during the time of their mutual heresies, before Calvin fled to Switzerland ; but, af- terwards, Servetus went a step further than Calvin, and therefore found, in Calvin, a bitter enemy, In 1553, he published a work, for which Calvin stirred up a prosecution, and obliged Servetus to leave Vienna for Naples ; but, passing through Geneva, Cal- vin, who was all-powerful, procured him to be arrested, and he was, on the evidence of letters to Calvin, and of forced constructions of his works, sentenced to be burnt alive ; a deed which was perpetrated on the 27th of October, 1553. Servetus gave the first idea of the circulation of the blood, and of the functions of respiration. Madame DE SEVIGNE, the celebrated letter-writer, was born in 1626, and died in 1696. The SFORZAS were a distinguished fa- mily in Italy, whose founder, the son of a shoe-maker, becoming a soldier, so advanced himself as to become a general and a count, also constable of Naples, but he was drown- ed, in 1424 ; his natural son succeeded him, and became Duke of Milan, and, dying in 1466, his descendants long enjoyed that so- vereignty. There were two Lord SHAFTESBURYS ; one, who was born 1621, and, after filling various public employments, died in Jan. 1683. The other, and third earl, was his grandson, born in 1671, and died in 1713; he was author of the Characteristics, and other works. William SHAKESPEARE, one of the most extraordinary geniuses that ever ap- peared in the world, was the son of an indus. trious wool-stapler, who had a large family, at Stratford-upon-Avon. Before he was 18, he married Anne Hathaway, and, according to the custom of that part of the kingdom, where foresters’ habits still prevailed, he engaged in deer-stealing ; not upon a prin- ciple of thieving, but on a claim of natural right, asserted by the common people from all antiquity. Being in danger of a prose- cution, he fled to London; and, from the employment of holding horses at the door of the theatre, became, first, an actor, and then an author ; his first play was Hamlet, written about 1594, in his 30th year ; hi* second, Romeo and Juliet ; and these were followed, in 1596, by Richard the Second, and Richard the Third. He continued to write till about 1612, when he retired, and settled at Stratford, but died on the day he completed his 52d year, April 23d, 1616; he left three daughters, who died without BIOGRAPHY. 1069 children; but, his sister Joan left a large family, who still live in the neighbourhood, without deriving any advantage from their descent. Granville SHARP, an amiable enthusiast, was born in 1734, and, in 1/70, he had the glory of defending a negro, whose slavery had been asserted in England ; and he es- tablished the principle of law, that there can be no slaves in England. He then headed a society to abolish the slave-trade, and, after 30 years’ unwearied labour, suc- ceeded in his object. Richard Brinsley SHERIDAN was the son of Thomas Sheridan, a literary player and dramatist, and born in Dublin, Octo- ber, 1751 ; he was educated at Harrow, and, before his 30th year, produced the Rivals, the Duenna, the School for Scandal, and the *Critic. In 1780, he became M. P. for Stafford ; and, from that time till his death, distinguished himself by displays of extraor- dinary talents as a senator, in which he always supported the liberties of the people with a disinterested zeal, which has never been exceeded. Surviving his friends, he died neglected, in 1816 William SHIPPEN, a very eloquent pa- triotic member of the House of Commons, was born in 1672 ; and, after serving in many Parliaments, with zeal and great ability, he died in 1741. Sir Philip SIDNEY, a chivalrous and ac- complished hero of the age of Elizabeth, was born in 1554, and killed at Zutphen, in 1586. Algernon SIDNEY, an English patriot, was born in 1617, and, joining the republi- cans, in the civil wars, he held various appointments, and was one of the High Court of Justice for trying Charles I. After the Restoration, he retired abroad ; but, being permitted to return, in 1677, he was, on the following year, charged with being a party in the Rye-house, plot, and convicted, but on imperfect evidence. He was, in consequence, executed on Tower-hill, De- cember 7, 1678, leaving a much-honoured fame. SILIUS ITALICUS was a Latin poet, whose work on the Punic War still exists ; he died in 90 A. D. St. SIMON, a late French visionary, was born in 1760, and died in 1825. He went w ith Fayette to America, in 1779, and, on his return, was made a colonel. He took no subsequent part in political affairs, and, for 34 years, devoted himself to the establish- ment of a new sect of political moralists. Pope SIXTUS V., born in 1521, was not less remarkable for having kept swine in his boyhood, than for the talents which he dis- played as Pope, from 1585 to 1590, when he died. Sir Hans SLOANE, a distinguished na- turalist, president of the Physicians’ College and the Royal Society, was uorn in Ireland, in 1660, and died in 1752. Dr. Adam SMITH, a noted Scotch writer, was born in 1723, and died in 1790. He wrote a work on moral sentiments, and 1070 another on the crigin of languages, and a dissertation on the Wealth of Nations, which last work was useful as a speculation, but unhappily has laid the foundation of an im- practicable practical science called Political Economy. Dr. Tobias SMOLLETT was born in 1721, and after going as surgeon to the West Indies, he settled in London, as an author, and produced Roderick Random , Peregrine Pickle , Humphrey Clinker , his History of England , and other works ; he died in 1771 . SOCINIS, founder of the Socinians, was born in 1639, in the Roman territory, which he quitted with his uncle, on account of their peculiar opinions. They removed into Switzerland, Germany, and Poland. At Cracow, the publication of his Unitarian doctrines occasioned his house to be de- stroyed by the mob ; but, having created a large party, he died in 1609. SOCRATES was born 469 B. C., aud was originally a statuary ; but, studying philoso- phy, he became so eminent for his wisdom, that, exciting the jealousy of the priesu od, he was sentenced to be poisoned, which took place 369 B. C. Socrates and Archilaus made principles infinite, and ascribed generation and cor- ruption to mixture and separation. SOLON, a celebrated Athenian, was born in the sixth century, B. C., and was archon in 594 B. C., and in that office he reformed the laws, and remodelled the constitution^, and died, aged 80, at Cyprus. SOPHOCLES, the Greek tragic poet, was born 491 B. C., and died 407 B. C. Only 7 of 100 of his tragedies have survived to our time. His morals may be judged by the following lines. The portrait of the just feelings of a good wife, by Sophocles, de- serves to be known : — Faithful— as dog, the lonely shepherd's pride; True — as the helm, the bark’s protecting guide ; Firm — as the shaft that props the towering dome; Sweet— as to shipwreck’d seamen land and home ; Lovely — as child, a parent’s sole delight ; Radiant — as morn that breaks a stormy night; Grateful — as streams that in some deep recess. With rills unhop'd the pauting traveller bless. JOHANNA SOUTHCOTT, a cunning impostor, born in 1750, and died in 1814. Though grossly ignorant, she fancied herself the woman of the Revelations, and gave seals to her disciples ; and, on having a dis- order of the womb, she gave out that she was pregnant of Shiloh, and thousands be- came her frantic disciples. SOSENES, of Alexandria, was the ma- thematical arranger of the calendar for Julius Caesar. Pope Gregory XIII., in 1581, struck out 10 days gained by the odd minutes in leap-years, and, in 1752, 11 days were dropt in England. SPENSER, author of the Faery Queen t and other works, was born in 1553, and died in 1589. SPINOSA, a learned Jew, was born at Amsterdam, 1629. Having renounced the Jewish religion, he applied himself to philo- sophy , and, after publishing various works^ BIOGRAPHY. 1071 in which he maintained that God and nature were the same, he died in 16/7- Madame de STAEL, a popular modern writer, was the daughter of the famous Necker, and was born in 1766 ; her husband was a Swedish ambassador at Paris, and she soon distinguished herself by some political writings. After the revolution, she pub- lished her Delphlne , Gorinne , and other works, which were very popular, and she died in 1817. Sir Richard STEELE, author of the Tal- ler, and joint writer of the Spectator and Guardian, and of many dramatic pieces, was born in 1671 ; and, after a life of great va. riety, died in 1729. The STEPHENSES were a family of learned printers, editors, and critics. Henry, the founder, was a printer at Paris, and died in 1520. His three sons, Francis, Robert, and Charles, succeeded him ; and Robert, born in 1503, acquired great celebrity, dying in 1550. It was he who divided the New Testament into verses, which he performed on horseback, while riding from Paris to Lyons. His son Henry, born in 1528, was still more celebrated as a man of learning, but he died in an alms-house, in 1598 ; his son Paul had a printing-office at Geneva, and was also a man of letters. STERNE, the author of the Sentimental Journey , and of the admirable novel of Tristram Shandy , was a Yorkshire clergy- man, born in 1713, and died in 1768. There were two STRABOS, one a geo- grapher, who lived in the first century ; and the other a monk, who lived in the 9th, a poet and prose-writer. Lord STRAFFORD, whose fate led to that of Charles I., was of a Yorkshire family. In 1593, he commenced his career as a zea- lous patriot, and was one of the chief pro- moters of the Petition of Right. On the death of his enemy Buckingham, he became a Court favourite, and w as made President of the North, and Lord Deputy of Ireland. For abuses of power, he was attainted, and beheaded in 1641. STRUENSEE, a Danish physician, who, through Queen Matilda, directed the affairs of Denmark, in concert with Count Brandt, from 1769 to 1771. By a conspiracy of the Danish nobility, Struensee, Brandt, and the Queen were arrested, and the two former put to death ; the latter being allowed to re- tire to Zell, till her death, in 1776. Simon STYLITES, was an insane zealot, who, in the 12th century, passed a life of self-devotion at the top of a high column, and was imitated by Daniel and others $ and this was thought so godly, that these wretches were believed to work miracles, and some of them were canonized as saints of the Christian church. There were two SUETONIUSES, one a successful and cruel general, the same who Vanquished Boadicea, about the year 60 ; and the other a polite writer, and biographer of the Caesars. Emanuel SWEDENBORG, a Swedish visionary, was born in 1688 ; and, after wri- 1072 ting many mystical books, and establishing the New Jerusalem Church, he died in London, in March 1772; he pretended to hold converse with angels, and with the spirits of the most eminent characters. He abstained from the use of animal food. Dean SWIFT, distinguished by his various writings, was born in 1667 ; and, after ming- ling with political parties, and producing many works of extraordinary genius, he fell into a state of idiotcy, in 1736, and died in 1745. His works make 19 volumes, octavo. SYLLA, a celebrated Roman, was born 130 B. C. ; in 88, he was Consul, and quar- relled with Marius, which led to a murder- ous civil war, in which Sylla put to death vast numbers of the highest rank and merit, and became Dictator. TACITUS, the Roman historian, was born A. D. 56 ; his history is from Galba to Domitian inclusive ; his annals extend from the death of Augustus to that of Nero, but they are imperfect. TALIESEN, the Welsh Bard, many of whose works are preserved in Owen’s Archaeology, flourished in the 6th century, at Llanfihangel. The TARQUINS, famous in Roman his- tory, were of commercial origin. Priscus became King of Rome ; and, after a long reign, was killed, 570 B. C. Superbus, his grandson, succeeded 584 B. C. ; but, his son ravishing Lucretia, in 509 B. C., he was banished. Jeremy TAYLOR, the son of a barber at Cambridge, and born in 1613. He was pa- tronized by Laud, and on the ruin of his party he fled into Wales ; but, at the Resto- ration, was made Bishop of Down. He died at Lisbon, in 1667 ; his works are still popular. William TELL, a Swiss peasant, who lives in the annals of patriotism. He flou- rished at the beginning of the 13th century, and was drowned by an inundation in 1234. His intrepidity aided his country in shaking off the dominion of Austria ; but the story of the apple has been doubted, for the very same circumstances are related by Saxon Grammaticus, about 100 years before, in re- lation to one Tacco, a Dane. That Tell was the man who shot Gesler, is a fact, more certain. There were three TENIERS, most inge- nious painters of the Dutch school. The father, David, was born in 1582, and died in 1619; his son David was born in 1610, and after excelling his father in the same line, died in 1694. TERENCE, the Latin dramatist, was lorn in 194 B. C., and was originally a slave. TERTULLI AN, a father of the Church, flourished in the 2d century, but his writings are in little estimation. THALE.S, one of the earliest Greek phi- losophers, flourished in the 6th century, B. C. ; he studied in Egypt, taught the sphe- ricity of the earth, and calculated eclipses. He considered water as the origin of matter BIOGRAPHY. 1073 1074 and that motion produced by mind was the first exciter ; he lived to the age of 99. James THOMSON, author of the Seasons, was born at Ednam, in 1/00, and removing to London in 1/22, be published his Winter ki 1726. In 1728, his Summer and Spring ; and, in 1730, his Autumn. His other w orks w ere Sophonisba, Alfred, Tancred and Sigis - munda , a poem called the Castle of Indo- lence, and some smaller pieces. He ob- tained a pension of «£100 per annum, and an appointment which yielded him .£300 per annum, and died in 1748. His tragedy of Coriolanus was posthumous. The Emperor TRAJAN was a son of a commander under Vespasian, and finally nominated by Nerva as his successor. He succeeded in 97 A. D., and, after various other wars with the Dacians and Parthians, he died in Cilicia, A. D. 117- Van TROMP, the famous Dutch Admi- ral, was born in Brazil, in 1597 ; he fought many battles with the English Admirals, Blake, Monk, and Dean ; but, in August, 1653, he was killed in one of them, by a musket-ball. He had a son, Cornelius, not less famous, who served under his father, and commanded, in chief, in the war be- tween the States and Charles II., sailing at one time down the channel, with a broom at his mast-head, attacking and burning Chat- ham, and even threatening London. In 1675, he visited the English Court, and Charles the Second made him a baronet. Marshal TURENNE was born in 1611 ; in 1639, he commanded in Italy ; in 1645, he gained a great victory at Nordlingen ; in 1674, he conquered Tranche Compte, and, like a barbarian, devastated the Palatinate, one of the many atrocious acts of modern warfare. He was killed at Salzbach, in 1675. TURNER, Bishop of Rochester, one of the seven prosecuted by James, and one of three of them, including Sancroft and Ken, who refused to take the oath of allegiance to William, and, therefore, deprived of their bishopricks. TURPIN, Archbishop of Rheims for 40 years, in the reign of Charlemagne ; the pretended author of the Romances of Char- lemagne and Roland, but they were not written till 200 years after. TUSSER, author of 500 Good Points in Husbandry, died in 1580. TYNDALE, William, an early English Translator of the New Testament, the Pen- tateuch, and Jonah ; for publishing of which he was seized at Antwerp, and burnt at Augsburgh, in 1536. TYRRELL, James, the author of the English History to the Death of Richard the Third, in 5 vols. folio, died in 1718. TYRTJEUS, the Athenian Poet, flou- rished about 700 B. C. There have been four literary TYTLERS, Henry William, a physician and poet, who died in 1808; James, who died in America, in 1805; William, a critical historian and poet, who died in 1792; and Alexander Frazer, Lord Woodhouselee, who died in * 13 . UBALDINO, a celebrated illuminator on vellum, flourished in England in the reign of Elizabeth. ULLOA, Don, who, in 1735, was sent with Don Juan to measure a degree at the equator, and published an account. He died Governor of Louisiana, in 1795. ULUGH BEY, a Tartar Prince, who cul- tivated Astronomy at Samarcand, and was murdered in 1447. USHER, Archbishop of Armagh, a volu- minous writer, and very learned divine, was born in 1580, and died 1656. USTARIZ, the first writer on Political Economy, published his Theory of Com- merce, at Madrid, in 1742 ; and translations appeared in Paris and London. It was the basis of the work of Adam Smith. There were four VAILLANTS, one, Francis the African traveller, who died in 1824; John Foi, who wrote learnedly on Numismatics, and died in 1706; Sebastian, a botanist, who died in 1722 ; and Walle- rant, a painter, who died in 1690. V A LAZE, an amiable member of the French Convention, who, in 1790, visited England to study Platonism under Thomas Taylor ; but, returning to France, was cho- sen a member of the Convention, and being 1 proscribed with the Girondists, he stabbed himself before the bloody Revolutionary Tribunal, in October, 1793. There were two VALDERVELDES, fa- ther and son, celebrated for sea-pieces. The first died in 1693, and the latter in 170 7. VALENTINE, the Alchemist, who dis- covered antimony, flourished in the 15th century, at Erfurt. VALLENCY, the Irish antiquary, w T as born in 1721, and died in 1812. VALM1K1 was a very early Hindoo poet, who wrote an epic poem, called the Rama- yana, of which two books have been trans- lated. VANBRUGH, Sir John, Architect and Dramatist, died in 1726 ; he wrote the Re- lapse, Provoked Wife, Esop, Confederacy, and Provoked Husband. He built Blenheim and Castle Howard. There were two brothers VANDER- WERF, Adrian and Peter, famous for small history; one died in 1722, and the other in 1718. VANDYCK, Sir Anthony, the Prince of Portrait Painters, was born at Antwerp, in 1599, and died in 1641. VANE, Sir Henry, was a distinguished patriot, born in 1612; and barbarously put to death, in 1662. VAN-GOYEN, a Dutch landscape pain- ter, died in 1656. VAN IN I, a Neapolitan, who wrote in France some free works on Theology, which the clergy called atheistical ; and, to their everlasting disgrace, he was burnt alive at Toulouse, in 1619. — Vanini was the last vic- tim on a charge of Atheism, having pub- lished “ that God is the beginning and the end ; the father of both, without need of either; eternal, without time; in no ouo BIOGRAPHY. 107e 1076 place, yet present every where ; creating all and governing all.” This, however, was not the God of the Romish church ; so, also, Anaxagoras was obliged to flee for his life, for asserting that Apollo did not lead the Bun in a chariot drawn by horses. VALNOO, the Historical Painter, died in 1 746 ; he had a brother Charles, and a son and nephew, also distinguished painters. VARRO, a learned Roman, who died 27 B. C., aged 90. There was another Varro Atacinus, a poet of distinction. VASARI, a painter, and author of the Lives of the Painters, died in 1574. V ATTEL, the Expounder of the Law of Nations, died, in 1767, at Neufchatel. VAUBAN, Marshal, celebrated as an Eugineer, died in 1707, aged 74. VEGA, Lopez de la, the Spanish poet, famous for his genius and industry ; his mis- cellaneous works forming 22 volumes in 4to., and his dramatic 25 volumes. He died in 1635. VELASQUEZ, the Spanish painter in History and Portrait, died in 1660. VERNON, Admiral, took Porto-Bello in 1739, and died in 1757. VESPASIAN, the Emperor, died in /9, after a reign of 10 years. VESPUCIUS, Amerigo, a Florentine Navigator, whose name was given to the new world, owing to Brazil being marked on the charts, Amerigo’s Land. In 1497, he made a voyage, and discovered Terra Firma. He afterwards coasted Brazil to Patagonia, which was first called Amerigo’s Land, and then America. His four voyages and letters have been published. VIDA, a Latin poet, died 1566. VILLARS, Marshal, the antagonist of Marlborough, in 1708 and 9. He died in 1734. VILLIERS, George, first Duke of Buck- ingham, third son of Sir George Villiers, born in 1582, and favourite minister of James I. and Charles I., till he was killed by John Felton, in 1628. His son, who was a reprobate favourite of the dissolute Charles II., wrote the Rehearsal, and died in 1683. VINCI, Leonardo da, a distinguished Painter, was born in 1452, and died in 1520, in the arms of Francis the First. VIRGIL, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the principal Roman Poet. He was born 70 B. C., near Mantua. At first he studied phi- losophy ; at 33, he wrote his Eclogues, then his Georgies, and, at 45, his iEneid. He was patronized by Pollio, Mecaenas, Augustus, and Octavia. He died 19 B. C., aged 51. V1SHNOO-SARM A, a Brahmin of a very early age, who wrote the Fables and Apo- logues of Pilpay, or Bidpai. VITRUVIUS, the Architect, flourished in the time of the two first Caesars. VOLNEY, Count, was born in 1755. He published Travels in Syria and America, and wrote a much-read work called Ruins. He also published new Researches in An- cient History, exposing the errors of the Jewish chronology, and other works. He died in 1820. VOLTA, the experimental philosopher was Professor at Pavia, and died in 1826. VOLTAIRE, a Dramatist, Poet, and Phi- losopher, was born in 1694, and died in 1778. He was, for 50 years, the most popular write! in Europe. His works extend to 71 vo- lumes octavo, and are constantly reprinted. His Philosophical Dictionary was lately pub- lished in six volumes, in London. There were several writers of the name of VOSSIUS; the first and most eminent was Gerard John, born 1577, who died in 1648, and wrote ably on many subjects ; and his son Isaac was born in 1618, and died 1688, after publishing many learned works. WAINFLETE, William, Lord Chancel- lor and Bishop of Winchester ; but, memo- rable as the Founder of Magdalen College, Oxford. He died in 1486. WAKEFIELD, Gilbert, a learned Critic, and honest Political and Theological writer j born 1756, and died 1801. WALKER, George, the Irish Divine, who defended Londonderry, in 1689, against King James ; he was afterwards killed at the battle of the Boyne, 1690. WALLACE, Sir William, the Scottish Patriot, opposed to Edward I. He was made Regent for John Baliol, but defeated at Fal- kirk ; and, being taken, was barbarously put to death in London, in August, 1305. WALLER, the Poet, was born at Coles- hill, in 1605 ; and. having a large estate, made love to Lady Dorothea Sidney, whom he celebrated as Sacharissa. He suffered in the civil wars, and died at Beaconsfield, in 1687. WALLIS, John, a mathematical philoso- pher of great eminence, was born in 1616, and died in 1/03. ' WALPOLE, Sir Robert, one of Queen Anne’s ministers, and prime-minister to George I. and II. ; died, Earl of Orford, in 1745, aged 69. WALPOLE, Horace, his third son, a dilletanti man of letters j was born in 1718, and died in 1797- WALSINGHAM, Sir Francis, a states- man in the age of Elizabeth ; died in 1590, aged 90. WALTON, Isaac, a gossiping, supersti- tious writer, of the age of Charles I., who wrote two or three over-praised books on angling, &c. WARBURTON, Bishop of Gloucester, a man of much temporary note, as the friend of Pope, Allen, &c. His works are chiefly professional. He died in 1779. There were two WARTONS, brothers, Joseph and Thomas. The first, who died in 1800, was master of Winchester school, and Editor of Pope’s Works. The second, who died in 1790, was poet-laureate, and wrote the History of English Poetry, besides criti- cal works. WASHINGTON, George, commanderof the American armies, and first President of the United States, — a man of the happiest union of good qualities. After a life of un- sullied glory, he died, Dec. 1799, aged 68. BIOGRAPHY, 1077 1078 WATSON, Bishop of Llandaff, a philo. lopher and theologian, author of Chemical Essays ; he died in 1816. WATT, James, the improver of the steam- engine, and inventor of many machines, died in 1819. WATTS, Isaac, a laborious writer and pleasing poet, born 16/4, and died in 1718. WEBER, author of Der Freischutz, was tom in Holstein, in 1786, and died in Lon- don, in 1 826. WENTWORTH, Earl of Strafford, Lord Deputy of Ireland, 1632; and, subsequently, adviser of Charles I. ; was impeached in 1640, and beheaded 1641. WERNER, the founder of Mineralogy and Geology, as modern sciences, was born in 1750, and died, in 1817, at Freyburg. WESLEY, John, a religious enthusiast, and an excellent man, who, for 60 years, preached through the three kingdoms, and increased the sect of Methodists ; he died in 1791, aged 88. WEST, Benjamin, a celebrated painter, and President of the Royal Academy; was born, in Pennsylvania, in 1738, and died, in London, in 1820. WH1STON, William, successor of New- ton as mathematical professor at Cambridge, but displaced for Unitarian doctrines ; he died in 1752, aged 85. WHITFIELD, George, the enthusiastic founder of Calvinistic Methodism, in the propagation of which he preached through this kingdom, and the United States, for 30 years ; dying, in New England, in Sept. 1770. WHITTINGTON, Richard, Sheriff of London in 1389 ; and Lord Mayor in 1397, 1406, and 1420, celebrated as a runaway scullion-boy, who afterwards acquired great wealth as a merchant. WICKL1FFE, John, the first English Reformer, died in 1384; he was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward’s son and Richard’s uncle, yet virulently persecuted by the church, and rescued from martyrdom only by a paralytic attack, in his 60th year. WIELAND, C. M., the Voltaire of Ger- many, whose works, in prose and verse, make 42 vols. 4to. ; he died in 1813, in his 80th year, near Zurich. In 1808, Napoleon con- sidered it an honour to breakfast with him. WILKES, John, was an English dema- vgue, before and during the American war, who outlived his professed principles, and Led, Chamberlain of London, in 1797, aged 70. WILLIAM I., King of England, who, two centuries after, was, by venal writers, called the Conqueror , was natural son of Robert, Duke of Normandy, by Arlotta, daughter of a tanner of Falaise; he was born in 1024, and, in 1035, was adopted as heir to the dukedom. In 1065, Edward, the doting Confessor, bequeathed him the crown ®f England, in prejudice of his nephews, JTosti and Harold; and William, landing with an immense army, defeated and killed Harold, at Hastings, Oct. 4, 1066. He then treated the nation as a conquered country, seized on all the lands, &c and distributed them among his rapacious followers, whe asserted their claims with fire and sword, and entrenched themselves in castles through- out the kingdom. After a tyrannical reign, he was killed, in a murderous affray, by a fall from his horse, near Rouen, in 1087. WILLIAM III. was Stadtholder of Hol- land, and son of Mary, daughter of Charles I., therefore nephew of James II., whom he ex- pelled in 1688. He also married Mary, the daughter of James, in 1678. On July 1, 1690, he defeated James at the battle of the Boyne, and his admiral, Russell, destroyed the fleet of James’ ally, Louis XIV., in 1692, at La Hogue. The war was terminated, by the treaty of Ryswick, in 1696 ; but, in 1701, the King of Spain having bequeathed his crown to the grandson of Louis XIV., Wil- liam stirred up a confederacy against France ; but, before it was in action, he was killed, by the fall of his horse, March 6, 1702. WILLIAM OF NASSAU, founder of the Dutch Republic, opposed the Spanish Viceroy, Alva; and, in 1579, procured a recognition of the independence of the Seven Provinces. He was killed, by a Spanish emissary, in 1584 ; and succeeded, as Stadt- holder, by his son Maurice. WILSON, Richard, the English Claude, was born in Montgomeryshire, in 1714; and, after a life of destitution, died in 1782. WINCKELMANN, a celebrated anti- quary, was a shoemaker, born in Branden- burgh, in 1718 ; and murdered in an inn at Trieste, for the sake of some gold medals, in 1768. WISHART, George, was a Scottish gen- tleman, and man of learning; who, beinj tried at Edinburgh for heresy, was hunt alive, March 1. 1546. WITTIKIND was the Pagan chief of the Saxons, against whom the bigot, Charle- magne. made war ; and, overcoming, caused him to be baptized. He was killed in 807. WODEN was chief of certain tribes in Caucasus, allied to Pontus, and Pompey forced him to emigrate into Sarmatia and Saxony, about 60 B. C. WOLCOT, John, better known by hit literary name of Peter Pindar, was born in Devonshire, in 1738 ; he wrote the Louisiad , and a series of satirical poems, which enjoy- ed unparalleled popularity, and died in 1819. WOLFE, General, the conqueror of Ca- nada, was killed, before Quebec, in 1759. in his 34 th year. There have been six German writers of the name of WOLFIUS, properly Wolpf; the chief of them was Christian, the mathe. matician, born 1679, and died 1754. WOLSEY, Thomas, Cardinal, Lord-Chan- cellor, Archbishop of York, &c. &c. was a butcher’s son at Ipswich, and born in 1471. For 20 years, from 1509 to 1529, he was mi- nister and master of Henry VIII.; but, offending him about Anne Boleyn. he was disgraced, and, being arrested for high-trea- son, he took poison at Sheffield Castle, and died, at Leicester Abbey, in Nov. 1530. WOLLASTON, Dr. Thomas, a very ac- tive and acute experimentalist, contempo- BIOGRAPHY. 1079 1080 rary with Davy and Young, inventor of the scale df Equivalents, and author of many able papers in the Transactions of the Royal Society ; he died, aged 65, in 1829. WOODVILLE, Anthony, Earl Rivers, was brother of Elizabeth Grey, whom Ed- ward IV. married, and a distinguished patron of letters, and the art of printing. To assure the coronation of his nephew, Edward V., he had prepared some forces; but, being defeated, he and others were, without trial, beheaded at Pontefract, by order of Richard, Duke of Gloucester. WREN, Sir Christopher, the builder of St. Paul’s, &c, &c., was bora in 1632, and died in 1723. WYKEHAM, William de, Bishop of Winchester, and Chancellor in 1367, is me- morable as the founder of New College, Oxford, and of Winchester School; he died in 1404. XENOCRATES, a pupil of Plato, and 25 years teacher in his school j died in 314 B. C., aged 81. XENOPHON, a Greek commander, who conducted the retreat of the ten thousand, and wrote many works; died nearly 100, in 360 B. C. XISUTHRUS, the tenth of a dynasty of kings of Chaldea, which was terminated by a flood, from which Xisuthrus was carried in an ark fram the sea, towards the head of the rivers, 300 miles, into Armenia. He, his wife, daughter, and the pilot, left the ark first, but then disappeared. Their be- wailing friends returned to Sippora, and found writings which Xisuthrus had buried. Priests, and others, saved themselves in the mountains, and returned to Babylonia. There can be little doubt but Xisuthrus was the Noah of the Jews ; for the legend con- tains the same details about sending out birds, &c. Four authors agree in their nar- ratives, besides the account of Moses. YOUNG, Arthur, a very useful and ex- tensive writer on Agricultural Science, which his labours greatly improved. He died blind in 1820, aged 79. YOUNG, Edward, D. D., author of Night Thoughts, and three Tragedies; died at Welwyn, in 1765, aged 84. YOUNG, Dr. Thomas, one of the ablest mathematicians and experimental philoso- phers. He developed new and perfect views of light, produced a reasonable theory of Egpytian Hieroglyphics, and wrote other able works j he died, aged 59, in 1829. ZENO, a mystical Greek Philosopher, who flourished at Elia, about 400 B. C. ; and there was a later Zeno, a native ol Cyprus, and first teacher at Athens, of stoical or self-denying principles. ZENOBIA, Queen of Palmyra and wife of Odenatus, at whose death, in 267, the declared herself Queen of the East ; but Aurelian took Palmyra, and reduced her to a private station. ZEUXIS, a celebrated Greek painter, in the fourth century, B. C. ZINGIS-KHAN, or Jenghis-Khan, was born in Tartary, about 1160; about 1200, he was acknowledged chief of the Mogul tribes, for whom he wrote a legal and moral code, divested of religion, of which he tole- rated all sects. In 1210, he invaded China, and conquered five provinces. He then de- feated the Sultan of Karizm, seized his dominions, and became master of all Central Asia, including Georgia, and the countries around the Caspian. He died in 1227, during a third expedition to China. His posterity still constitute the royal houses in several countries. ZOROASTER, or ZERDUSHT, a cele- brated Chaldean Astronomer and Astrologer, and founder of the Religion of the Magi, who worshipped Fire and the Sun, as em- blems of the Deity, and now exist under the name of Parsees. Among the names which History will re- cord as British Patiiots, as well as Prince.-?, that of Augustus Frederick, Duke o? Sussex, will claim a distinguished rank. He was the fifth son of George III., and was born the 27th January, 1773. His Royal Highness at an early age was weaned from the frivolities of a Court Life, and devoted his time to pursuits and studies which quali- fied him for his useful and benevolent career as a Philanthropic Prince. His Royal High- ness died at Kensington Palace, on the 21st April, 1843, and by his will directed that his mortal remains should rest in the Public Cemetery at Kensall-Greeri, in the vicinity of the Metropolis. The funeral took place on the 4 th of May, and was attended by a nume- rous train of mourners, comprising the most illustrious public characters of the times. iSse Supplemental Biography.] 1081—82 THEOLOGICAL STATISTICS. THEOLOGICAL STATISTICS. List of Archbishoprics and Bishoprics of the ANGLICAN CHURCH. Canterbury. — Three-fourths of Kent, peculiars in London, &c.. Benefices 343. Churches and Chapels 374. Income £17,000. York. — Yorkshire, except part of Ripon. Benefices 595. Income £10,000. London . — Middlesex, Essex, and part of Herts. Benefices 635. Churches and Cha- pels 689. Income £ 1 1 ,700. Durham. — Durham, Northumberland, and Hexhamshire. Benefices 199. Churches and Chapels 234. Income £8,000. Winchester. — Hampshire, with islands Wight, Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Sark. Surry. Benefices 433. Churches and Chapels 543. Income £10,500. Bangor. — Benefices 124. Churches and Chapels 192. Income £4,000. Bath Wells. — Benefices 441. Churches and Chapels 493. Income £5,000. Carlisle. — Benefices 285. Income £3,000. Chester. — Churches and Chapels 580. In- come £3,250. Chichester. — Benefices 267. Churches and Chapels 302 Income £4,200. Ely. — Benefices 495, (being lately in- creased by 330.) Income £5,600. Exeter. — Benefices 611. Churches and Chapels 711. Income £2,700. Gloucester and Bristol. — Benefices 395. Churches and Chapels 492. Income £3,700. Hereford. — Benefices 256. Churches and Chapels 360. Income £4,200. Lichfield.— Benefices 606. Churches and Chapels 655. Income £4,500. Lincoln.— Income £4,000. Llandaff.— Benefices 192. Churches and Chapels 228. Income £1,000. Norwich . — Benefices 1,021. Churches and Chapels 1210. Income £4,465 Oxford . — Income £2,400. Peterborough. — Benefices 290. — Churches and Chapels 338. Income £4,500. Ripon. — Benefices 153. Churches and Chapels 320. Income £4,500. Rochester. — Benefices 94. Churches and Chapels 111. Income £1,459. Salisbury . — Benefices 316. Churches and Chapels 474. Income £5,000. St. Asaph. — Benefices 156. Churches and Chapels 144. Income £5,300. St. David's — Benefices 407. Churches and Chapels 501. Income £2,500. Worcester. — Churches and Chapels 416. Income £6,500. Sodor and Man. —Benefices i 7. Churches 'rfid Chapels 28. Income £2,000. Collegiate Chapters. Brecon. Manchester. Middleham. St. Katharine’s. Heytesbury. Southwell. Windsor. Westminster. Wolverhampton. 8 •S o r r e®“ 8 <-> r R « ^3 S -8 8 a £ 5 1 1 I- ss on go co o . 00 io v a > qj < 'n > S’* I co co o' 1 I • • £ ® XI .2 O ao •S-S s s *3 3 S 3 SI « & £ ’S..2 S o W bet- -S -i* 0 3 3 o ^•30° &§ ® S 2 s 2 ® g g •g £ £ rt s7 . JS • c . s • ^ S3 O 5 5 , . £ • 0 -3 ’g * g a a 30 ’“' r a « C/3 .ho • : u .0 : s . -3 Cj 3 ** .’RS 2 £0 ? ,■5 ..g .£ . •*g *Rs • * 8 » , g . -5 .73 . : & . „ . 0 n3 s R o ,0 o cn O £ O 0* J%S--r! ISs'Sl 2 90 — 900 1000 134 — 1000 1500 32 — 1500 2000 18 — 2000 and upwards. as above. 62 „ I 18.622 I 300 I 17.095 1093 THEOLOGICAL STATISTICS, 1084 Irish Church. Archbishoprics. Bishoprics. Armagh.— Income £ 14,494. Dublin. — Income .£7,786. Meath. — Income .£4,068. Kildare.— Income .£6,278. Cashel , fyc. — Income .£5,000. Cork , 8fC. Clogher. — Income .£8,668. Derry. — Income .£8,000. Down Income .£4,204. Dromore. — Income .£4,216. Elphin . — Income £6, 253. Limerick, fyc Income .£4,973. Killaloe , fyc. Kilmore. — Income £6,225. Ossory , fyc Income .£5.730. Tuam , fyc. — Income .£6,996. Scottish Episcopal Church. Sees. — Edinburgh, Dunkeld, Aberdeen, Ross and Argyle, Brechin, Glasgow. Bishoprics of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States : — Vermont. East Diocese. Connecticut. New York. West York. New Jersey. Pennsylvania. Maryland. Virginia. N. Carolina. S. Carolina. Kentucky. Ohio. Tennessee . Illinois. Missouri. Michigan. Colonial Bishops. Nova Scotia. Newfoundland. Montreal. Toronto. Jamaica. Barbadoes. Calcutta. Madras 8f Ceylon. Bombay. Australia , and A Bishop for the Continent. Presentation to a Living of the yearly value of .£10 and upwards, stamp .£20. To any other Benefice, &c. .£10. Bishops on Consecration , homage-fees £112 10s. 4o?., and Archbishops, double. First-fruits , under £40, fees £1 16s. Qd . ; above £40, £2 18s. Colleges and Public Schools. Eton. Westminster. Winchester. Narrow. Charter -house. St. Paul's. Christ's Hospital. Merchant Taylors'. Hury St. Edmunds. Heading. Rugby. Repton. Richmond. Manchester. Sherborne. Shrewsbury. Leeds. Gresham College. East India College. Dulwich. St. Bees. King's College. The Universities of London and Durham, and St. David's College. There are 400 Endowed Grammar-schools in England and Wales. Members of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, in 1839. Oxford, 5331 ; of the Convocation, 2684 Cambridge, 5628 ; of the Senate, 2705. The following Table indicates the Extent q) Property applicable to Charitable Pur- poses, on which the Enquiries of the Com- missioners of Charities are completed. County. Income for Education. Other Charitable Purposes. £ £ Bedford . . 1,841 12,119 Buckingham . . 1,583 9,816 Cornwall .... 982 2,678 Cumberland . . . 1,930 1,464 Derby 5,381 10,132 Devon ..... 6,578 22,370 Gloucester . . . 5.435 14,072 Hereford .... 3,529 9,624 Hertford .... 2,865 9,346 Huntingdon . . . 1,026 2,706 Lancaster . . . 18,715 17,011 Monmouth . . . 1,933 2,950 Norfolk .... 6,243 30,943 Northumberland . 2,526 3,747 Nottingham . . . 3,029 13.337 Oxford .... 1,973 12,618 Rutland .... 1,487 3,296 Salop 6,450 15,086 Somerset .... 8,413 33,909 Stafford .... 7,133 13,286 Suffolk .... 3,991 24,193 Warwick . . . 12,516 29,631 Westmoreland . . 2,261 3,070 Wills 2,095 14,527 Worcester . . . 7,816 12,540 York 22,210 63,621 Societies and Charitable Institutions, IN CONNEXION WITH THE ESTABLISHED Church. Established. Society for Promoting Christian"? , r o Q Knowledge Society for the Propagation of the?,^. Gospel in Foreign Parts . . J 1/Ul National Society for the Education of? , Q11 the Poor \ 1811 Society for Building and Repairing"? 1Q1Q Churches, &c. . . . .3 Corporation of the Sons of the Clergy 1678 Corporation for the Conversion of? 170A Negroes, &c. . . . Clergy Orphan Society . . . 1749 Society for the Relief of the Clergy ) and their Widows . . . £ Anniversary Festival of the Sons of? the Clergy £ The Associates of the late Dr. Bray 698 Patrons of the Anniversary of the? ,*. n „ Charity Schools . . f 1/0J Society for Promoting the Employ- -7 ment of Additional Cuiates in Po- > 837 pulous Towns . . . . j Clergy Mutual Assurance Society . 1829 Orders in Council, For fixing the future Annual Payments la be made from certain larger Sees towards the augmentation of the smaller. Lichfield. — To raise the average annual income of the Bishop to the sum of £4500, there be paid by the Commissioners £850. THEOLOGICAL STATISTICS. 1085 1086 Chichester.— To raise the average annual income of the Bishop to .£4200, there be paid by the Commissioners .£650. Oxford. — Out of the payments made from the larger Sees, there be paid to the present Bishop .£750 ; and that from and after the next avoidance of the See of Oxford, in order to raise the average annual income to .£5000, there shall be paid by the Commis- sioners .£3500. Hereford. — To raise the average annual income of the Bishop to £4200, there be paid by the Commissioners .£1400. Peterborough. — To raise the average an- nual income of the Bishop to .£4200, there be paid by the Commissioners £1400. Carlisle and Chester. — To raise the ave- rage annual income of the Bishops of each of these Sees to .£4500, there be paid to the Bishop next succeeding to Carlisle .£2000, and to the Bishop next succeeding to Ches- ter .£1450. Lincoln. — To raise the average annual income of the Bishop, for the time being, to .£5000, there be paid by the Commissioners to such Bishop .£1200; and that, until an episcopal house of residence for the Bishop of Lincoln be provided, instead of the House oi Buckden, in the County of Huntingdon, now in the diocese of Ely, there be allowed to the present and future Bishops of Lincoln £500 yearly for a residence. Exeter. — From and after the next avoid- ance of the See, in order to raise the average annual income to £5000, there be paid by the Commissioners the annual sum of £3400. Also, that the Scilly Islands are in the juris- diction of the Bishop of Exeter and the Archdeacon of Cornwall, for the time being, respectively. St. Asaph and Bangor. — When either of the Sees of St. Asaph or Bangor shall be- come vacant, by death or translation, the Bishop who shall succeed thereto shall take the same as Bishop of St. Asaph and Bangor, the said Bishop to become possessed of all the property, revenues, advowsons, and pa- tronage, then respectively belonging to both the said Sees, and of all the episcopal juris- diction, power, and authority, then and theretofore exercised by the Bishops thereof. Further proposed, with the view so to leave to the Bishop of St. Asaph and Bangor for the time being, the average annual income of £5200, the Bishop and his successors shall pay out of the revenues of the united Sees to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners of England, the fixed annual sum of £4/50. St. David's. — In order to raise the average annual income of the Bishop to ihe sum of £45C0, there shall be paid by the Commis- sioners, out of their funds, to the Bishop, who upon the first avoidance of the said See shall succeed thereto, and to his successors, the fixed annual sum of £1600. Llandaffi. — In order to raise the average annual income of the Bishop to the sum of £4200, there shall be paid by the Commis- sioners upon the first avoidance of the same See to the Bishop who shall succeed thereto, and to his successors, the fixed annual sum of £3150, and a further allowance of £300 a-year until an episcopal residence be pro- vided. Manchester. — On the union of the Sees o» St. Asaph and Bangor taking effect, the col- legiate church of Manchester shall forthwith be constituted a cathedral church, and the seat of a Bishop, within the province of York, and the wardens and fellows thereof to be then styled dean and canons. The whole county of Lancaster, excepting the deanery of Fumes, to be detached from the diocese of Chester, and to be made and con- stituted the diocese of the Bishop of Man- chester the Bishop to be invested with all the same and like rights, privileges, digni- ties, power, jurisdiction, and authority as are now possessed by the respective Bishops of England and Wales. The said Bishop- rick to be endowed with an average annual income of £4500, by the transfer of lands, tithes, or other hereditaments, from some other See or Sees, or partly by such transfer, or partly by a fixed annual payment by the Commissioners from the funds applicable for that purpose. Stamp Duty on Marriage Certificates. In answer to some questions recently put to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, upon the subject of certificates of marriage being liable to the stamp duty, it was stated that certified copies of marriage entries obtained from the Registrar, under the provisions of the Registration Act, sect. 36, are not liable to the sfcimp duty of 5s., payable on mar- riage certificates ; and the same exemption applies to certified copies of marriages given by a clergyman under the 35th section. Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages. According to law, the country is divided into 618 districts, over each of which is ap- pointed a Superintendent-Registrar, and which are generally coincident with the Poor Law Unions. In the latter end of 1838, there were 2193 Registrars employed. Certified copies are transmitted to the Ge- neral Registrar Office quarterly : they are collected by the Superintendent-Registrars from more than 14,000 persons charged with the duty of compiling them. More than 80,000 separate papers, containing 847,149 entries, have been thus transmitted, of which 739,737 (being all the entries of births and deaths, and such marriages as are registered by the Registrar of Marriages) have been compared with the original by the Superin- tendent-Registrar, and certified to be cor- rect. The certified copies are examined, arranged, and indexed at the General Re- gistrar Office, and there the abstracts are made which are contained in the Annua Report. 399,712 births were registered — 204,863 of males, 194,819 of females. The numbers registered in the first quarter amounted to 74,588, in the second to 89,528, in the third to 113,815, in the fourth 121,781. The re- gistration of births “ has, since the con* ICb 7 THEOLOGICAL STATISTICS. m\ mencement, made a considerable and pro- gressive advance ; and during the fourth quarter of the first year attained a supe- riority in point of numbers over the average registration of baptisms,” which, it is esti- mated by the Registrar General, would have amounted to 111,147 quarterly, in 1837-8. The deaths registered in the year amount- ed to 335,956, to which must be added 2704 deaths which occurred in the first year, and were registered in the first quarter of the second. This would make 338,660 deaths in the year ; while, according to former pro- portions, the probable number of burials entered in the parochial registers, during the same period, would be 291,715. Mr. Fin- layson, in a communication addressed to the Registrar-General, and appended to the Re- port, estimated the total deaths at home, in the year ending June 30th, 1838, at 335,968. The per-centage proportion of deaths by small.pox, typhus, and phthisis, was as follows : — Males. Females. Small-pox . . 4 262 3 935 Typhus . . . 6 213 6 567 Phthisis . . . 18 152 21 073 2,520 persons died of scarlatina, 3,044 of hooping-cough, 4,732 of measles, and 5,81 1 of small-pox. The ages of 1,056 persons who died of small-pox are enumerated, and the number under 5 years of age was 887. It is probable, therefore, that the majority of the 5,811 had never been vaccinated, and that about 12,000 die annually by small- pox through the neglect of the parents. Expenses of Ecclesiastical Establishments in the Colonies, by Grant of Public Money. MARRIAGES. The Number of Marriages solemnized in Roman-Catholic Chapels and Protestant Dissenting Places of Worship , in England and Wales, from the 1st of January to the 31s* of December , 1838. In Roman- Catholic Chapels .... In Protestant Dissenting Places of Worship of the following denomina- tions, namely : — Baptists ..... 605~j Ditto (General) . 88 | Ditto (Particular) . 28 728 Ditto (Scotch) . . 1 | Ditto (Welsh) . . 6J Berean Universalists . . . l\ Bible Christians Cowardites Independents . . . 1355 Ditto (Welsh) . 5 Lady Huntingdon’s Connexion 28 629 1 1 1360 Lutheran Church Methodists Ditto (Primitive) (New Con.) (Independent) (Calvinistic) (Episcopal) Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto 98 22 ] 39 I i 175 > 2504 New Jerusalem Church . . 7 Presbyterians .... Relief Church .... Secession Church . . . . 31 Southcottians . . . . . l Swedenbcrgians . . . . . 8 Unitarians Undefined . . 1 / Scotland, Church of . . . 45 Church of England .£212,095 Church of Scotland, &c 26,112 Church of Rome 16,749 Number of Churches compared with Popu- lation : — Diocese. Churches. Population. Chester 493 2.000,000 London 690 .... 1,690,000 Durham 234 .... 460,000 Lichfield 665 .... 985,000 Winchester .... 918 .... 995,000 Exeter 714 .... 773,000 Gloucester . . .. 492 .... 437.000 Bath and Wells 493 .... 305,000 Salisbury 474 .... 320,000 Chichester .... 302 231,000 There are in Great Britain about 36 Sub- scription Societies: — Ten are Missionary. The Church Missionary has an income cf .£72,000 j the Baptist, of .£22,000; the London, £65,000 ; the Wesleyan, £85,000 ; and others, from 4 to £5000 down to 4 or £500. Again, the Christian Know- ledge Society has £90,000 income ; the Propagation of the Gospel, £71,000; Re- ligious Tract, £62,000; the Pastoral Aid, £10,000; Sunday School Union, £9 000; British and Foreign Bitde Society, £105,000; the Hibernian, £12,000 ; Children’s Friend, £6000 ; the British and Foreign School, £5000. In all. about £640,000 per annum ! EDUCATION. Return to an Order of the House of Com- mons , in 1835, of the total number of Children educated in England and Wales , by Voluntary Subscription, exhibiting the proportion supported by the Dissenting interest. Daily Instruction. Dissent. Bedford . 6,632 . 285 Berks . 16,574 . 1*20 Buckingham . 10.834 . 42 Cambridge . 15,269 . 343 Chester . 32,199 . 1,303 Cornwall . 31,629 . 249 Cumberland . 21,531 . £25 Derby . 24,508 . 334 Devon . 54,971 . 1,076 Dorset . 18,158 . 394 Durham . 30,656 . 550 Essex . 32,977 . 1,235 Gloucester . . 32,274 . 1,272 Hereford . 8,815 . 218 Hertford . 14 752 . 433 Huntingdon . . 5,805 . 153 Kent . 53,721 . 844 Lancaster . 97,534 . 9,384 Leicester . 19,267 . 283 Lincoln . 38,124 . 413 Middlesex 101 , 2-0 . 9,747 Monmouth . . 6,645 . i36 Norfolk . 35,128 . 590 Northampton . 18,295 . 292 *089 THEOLOo-icAL STATISTICS. 1090 Brought forward . , 727,518 Northumberland . . 24,582 Nottingham . 21,439 Oxford . 15,939 Rutland . 2,701 Salop . 19.179 Somerset . 35.891 Southampton . 38 733 Stafford . 35,710 Suffolk . 28.642 Surrey . 45,915 Sussex . 32,877 Warwick . 26,041 Westmoreland 7,250 Wilts . 20,375 Worcester . * . 17,858 York. — East Riding . 20,406 City and Ainsty 4,324 North Riding . 22,825 West Riding . 73,932 30,021 461 1,134 637 12 580 1,260 1.568 2,079 390 2,146 1,61 7 1,116 795 285 1,000 25 7 555 387 2,170 Total . . 1,222,137 48,470 Benefices began about 500. The number in England and Wales are 10,674 benefices, and parochial chapelries, with 649 chapels not parochial, and 227 new churches and chapels, greeted under the authority of the church-building acts. The number of Irish benefices are 2168. The number of Places of Worship of the Established Church, and those of Dissenters in England, are : — Of the Established Church of England 11,600 Of Protestant Dissenters .. 7,634 Of Roman Catholics ... 388 Church-yards were first consecrated in 31 7 Councils .— That at Jerusalem, when the first controversy was discussed, in 48 — at Antioch, 269 at Arles, 314 ; at which three English bishops were present. — the first Nicene one, when 328 fathers attended against Arius, 325 the first at Constantinople, when Pope Damasus presided, and 150 fathers at- tended, 381 that at Sardis, when 376 fathers at- tended, 400 — the first at Ephesus, when Pope Celestine presided, and 2J0 fathers attended, 431 the second at Constantinople, when Pope Virgilius presided, and 165 fathers at- tended, 552 — one called Milevetan council, 568 — at Constantinople, in 600 — at Rome, in 649 — the third at Constantinople, when Pope Agatho presided, and 289 fathers at- tended, 680 — the second at Nice, when Pope Adrian presided, and 350 fathers attended, 787 — the fourth at Constantinople, when Pope Adrian and 101 fathers attended, 869 at Vercellus, when Pope Leo IX. pre- sided, 1053 — - the Lateran one, when Pope Innocent II. presided, and 1000 fathers attended, 1139 — the third Lateran one, when Pope Alex- ander III. presided, and 300 fathers attended, 1175. Council, the fourth Lateran, when Pope In- nocent III. presided, and 1185 fathers attended, 1215 and 1217. — at Lyons, 1255 and 1274. — that at Vienna, when Pope Clement V. presided, and 300 fathers attended, 1311 — one at Constance, when Pope John XXIL and Martin V. presided, 1414. — the sixth Lateran one, when Pope Julian III. and Pius IV. presided against Luther, 1546. There have been several other provincial councils, and others, as that of Avignon, in France ; and at Bituria, in Tuscany, 1431. — at Tours in France, 1448. — at Florence in Italy, 1449. — at Toledo in Spain, 1437. — at Aspurgh in Germany, 1548. — at Cologne in Germany, 1548. — at Treves in Germany, 1548. — at Cologne in Germany, 1549. — at Mentz in Almaine, 1549. — and at Numantia in Spain, 1550 o o o o o o o o o o o o •S o' o' o' o’ o' ®" ^ © o © © o o ,30 0 0 0 0 ® O TT CD Ol CO .gp § T3 o o o o . o o o o ^ o o o o % ©' ©" m" coT *2 0 CO O »n =>. o, -V CO, to of co" ©' «-T m cm —< CM ' —< <® O, K ©' (>. © OJ, in' rjf — ■ CO CO r-> 8 8 O ^ o Pq°- I o <0 o 22 o 00 S 04 p=5 CM o o o o o o o © o' ©' o' o o o <© ©^ o oo in o' c o' o o o o o “ o © o' o' o o ©, ©, m" o' I— < o 2 S .2 2 2 -a u © S M 2 © , pq < Another estimate is : — Protestant 85,500,000 Catholics 175,600,000 Mahometans 102,300,000 Pagans 397,800,000 Brahmins 81,500,000 Jews 6,300,000 849,000,000 Religious Orders , Sects, fyc. Albigenses had their origin in . . 1 160 Anabaptists, began 1525 Antinionian sect .. .. .. 1530 Arian sect 320 Armenian 15844 Augustines 389 Capuchins .. 1525 Cardmals 853 N N 1091 THEOLOGICAL STATISICS. 1092 Carmelites 1141 Carthusians 1084 Dominicans 1215 Dissenters from the Church of England, first appeared in Queen Elizabeth’s reign Franciscans 1200 Grey Friars 1122 Hugonots 1560 Hutchinsonians .. .. .. 1/30 Independents 1580 Jesuans 1367 Kirk of Scotland 1561 Lollards 1315 Lutherans 1517 Methodism 1734 Monks first associated . . . . . . 828 Moravians appeared in Bohemia .. 1457 Protestants 1529 Puritans 1545 Quakers 1650 Trappists, order of monks, solemnly in- stalled at Port Bingeard, depart- ment of Mayenne, Jan. 21, 1815 Trinitarians 1198 Unitarians .. .. .. .. 1553 Ursulines established .. .. 1198 The principal superstitions and impostors put forward by the authorities of the ancient world, are comprised in the following list : — An acquaintance with the motions of the heavenly bodies, and the variations in the state of the atmosphere, enabled its possessor to predict astronomical and meteorological phenomena, with a frequency and an accu- racy which could not fail to invest him with a divine character. The power of bringing down fire from the heavens, even at times when the electric influence was itself in a state of repose, could be regarded only as a gift from heaven. Dreams, and spectral appearances, in all their forms and varieties. The science of acoustics furnished the an. cient sorcerers with some of their best de- ceptions. The imitation of thunder, in their subter- ranean temples, could not fail to indicate the presence of a supernatural agent. The golden virgins, whose voices resounded through the temple of Delphos. The stone from the river Pactolus, whose trumpet-notes scared the robber from the treasure which it guarded. The speaking head, which uttered its ora- cular responses, at Lesbos. The vocal statue of Memnon, which began at the break of day to accost the rising sun. The marvellous fountain which Pliny de- scribes, in the island of Andros, as discharg- ing wine for seven days, and water during the rest of the year. The spring of oil, which broke out in Home, to welcome the return of Augustus from the Sicilian war. The glass tomb of Belus, which was full of oil, and which, when once emptied, by Xerxes, could not again be filled. The weeping statues and the perpetual lamps of the ancients ; the rapid descent of those who consulted the oracle in the cave of Trophonius; — these were all deceptions, de- rived from science, and from a diligent observation of the phenomena of nature. INQUISITION IN SPAIN. Table of the Number of Victims under forty. five Inquisitors. General, between 1481 and 1808. Condemn- ed to the Burnt Burnt in Gallies,or alive. effigy. to Impri- Between 1481 & 1498. sonment. Under the Inquisitor- Generalship of Tor- quemada 10,220 684 97,371 1498 — 1507- Under that of Deza 2,592 829 32,952 1507 — 1517- Under that of Cardinal de Ximenes 3,564 2,232 48 059 1517 — 1521. Under that of Adrian de Florencio 1,620 560 21,835 1521 — 1523. (An Interregnum) 324 112 4,481 1532 — 1538. Under the Inquisitor- Generalship of Man- rique 2,250 1,125 11,250 1533 — 1545. Under that of Tabera .. 840 420 6,520 1546 — 1556. Under that of Loaisa, and during the reign of the Emperor Charles V. 1,320 660 6,600 1556 — 1597. During the reign of Philip II. 3,990 1,845 18,450 1597 — 1621. During that of Philip III. 1.84) 692 10,716 1621 — 1665. During that of Philip IV. 2,852 1,428 14,080 1665 — 1700. During that of Charles II. 1,632 540 6,512 1700 — 1746. During that of Philip V. 1,600 760 9,120 1746 - 1759. During that of Ferdinand VI. 10 5 170 1759 _ 1788. During that of Charles III. 4 0 56 1788 — 1808. During that of Charles IV. .. 0 1 42 • 34,658 18,049 228,214 1093 SUPPLEMENT UP TO 18/2. 1091 GEOGRAPHICAL AND COMMERCIAL FACTS. Marennes (Seaport town of France, clearing at the port of Dantzig (in cur- in the Department of the Lower Cha- rency). The estimate is for a steamer rente). — There has been successfully 650 iasts, or 1000 tons burthen. Harbour Dues. River Pilotage. So- called Broker’s "eS In- wards. Out- wards. Up. l Down. Church Dues. Com- mission. •p C Erl Th.s.pf. Th.s. pf. rh. s. pf. Th.s.pf. Th.s.pf. Th. s.pf Th.s.pf. Coming in empty, or with coals, out with a cargo 43 10 0 36 20 0 4 0 0 4 0 0 1 24 2 83 2) 0 226 14 2 Coming in with iron or general cargo, out with a cargo of grain or timber 86 20 0 86 20 0 4 0 0 4 0 0 1 24 2 108 10 0 291 14 2 Coming in with iron or general cargo, going out empty 86 20 0 13 10 0 4 0 0 4 0 0 1 24 2 83 20 0 226 11 2 Coming in coastwise from Prussian ports, and clearing with a cargo of grain or timber Nil. 85 20 0 4 0 0 4 0 0 1 24 2 86 20 0 183 4 2 1 formed at Marennes an establishment for the preparation of various chemical sub- stances, chiefly acids. The principal arti- cles produced are sulphuric acid, nitric acid, muriatic acid, chloride of lime, sulphate of soda, and carbonate of soda. There are four main divisions in the manufactory. The first and largest, upon which the others depend, is the production of sulphuric acid. “ The basis of this and origin of the undertaking depends on the pyrites of iron, a mineral common in this district, and prevalent on the pro- perty of the leading partner in the manu- factory. This substance has hitherto been thought unavailable for purposes of commerce, and a sample which 1 caused to be analysed some years since was re- ported valueless.” It appears, however, that the pyrites of the manufactory con- tain about 50 per cent, of sulphur. The pyrites are first broken or macadamized, and afterwards subjected to furnace-heat. Sulphurous gase3 are evolved in available quantities, and these when concentrated by the action of cold water and oxygen are ready for the second process. The sulphuric acid is thus brought in contact with muriate of soda. “ The effect of the process is that the acid of the sul- phuric acid combines with the muriate of the salt, and the sulphur with the soda, forming, in the first instance, by concen- tration with water, muriatic acid, and in the second, sulphate of soda. The mu- riatic acid, called in science, hydrochloric acid, is an article of trade, and the sulphate cf soda is valuable for manure.” Dantzig. — Approximate estimate of various charges on a ship entering and Amber.— In East Prussia, especially in that part called the Samland, amber is found in abundance; and, during the prevalence of certain winds, is frequently thrown upon the shore by the sea in large quantities. It is collected there, as well as fished for on the surf, as also dug out of the sand-hillocks running along the sea-coast. In these sand-hillocks, re- gular beds of amber are found enclosed in a soil of blue clay, which is to be met with at an average depth of about one hundred feet, in a thickness of twenty-five to thirty feet. It is stated that, out of some diggings established in those parts, 4500 lbs. of amber were raised in the course of four months of the year 1S69. Diggings of this kind exist at present in various spots of the Samland, more especially at Wan- gen-Sassau, Gros-Kuhren, Klein-Kuhren, Kraxtepellen, Kreislackeo, and Hubinc- ken. Besides these works, there are other establishments at Brusterort, where amber is obtained by divers from th) bottom of the sea, and at Schwarzort (near Memel), where it is raised by dredg- ing for it at the bottom of the Curish Haff. The total amount of amber obtained during the year 1869, in all parts of the province of Prussia, by the various means of collection, is estimated at 150,000 lbs., valued at 550,000 Prussian dollars. The quantity collected (by fishing for it) in the sea and upon the shore, is about equal to that raised by the digging and dredging works. The chief seat of the retail amber trade is Dantzig; the wholesale trade i3 at pre- 1095 GEOGEAPHICAL AND COMMEECIAL PACTS. 1096 Bent in the bands of only two or three firms in the province of Prussia. Amber is exported chiefly to Vienna, London, Paris, Moscow, and New York. Great progress has lately been made as regards the sorting of the various kinds of amber. There are now no less than fifty distinct kinds, differing in size, colour, hardness, and clearness. Tunisian Trade. — The import trade of colonials, hardware, etc., has been thrown into the hands of the shopkeepers, who find it convenient, with the increased steamboat facilities, to obtain their sup- plies in small consignments direct from Europe. Manchester goods are also im- ported in the same manner, with one or two exceptions in the case of British houses having representatives in Tunis. Crkte. — An island in the Mediterranean belonging to Turkey. Ext., 150 miles long, and Irom 6 to 35 miles in breadth. Pop., 280,000, the component parts of which are 209.000 Native Christians, 68,000 Moham- medans, 2600 Foreigners, 400 Jews. Lat ., between 34° 55' and 35° 43' N. Lon., between 23 c 3b' and 26° 30' E. Industries. — The three fortified towns contain barely 40.000 souls ; the remainder are engaged in agriculture. The Cretans are essen- tially agricultural; and, the population being very inadequate for the tillage of the soil, few can be spared for manufac- tures. The only branch of industry of importance is soap ; the best is made at Candia, where its price in 1869 was 200 piastres the cantar (31s. per cwt.), while that of Canea fetched only 170 piastres the cantar (26s. 4d. per cwt.). There are 20 tan-yards at Candia, and several in Canea, for the preparation of oxhides, sheep, and goat-skins. Salt is made in small quantities for home consumption. Whetstones are exported to Marseilles; price about £4 6s. per ton. The coasting - trade is carried on chiefly by three lines of steamers — Austrian, Turkish, and Egyp- tian. The boats of the Austrian Lloyds run weekly between Syr a and Crete, touching at Canea, Kdtimo, and Candia. They form the principal means of commu- nication between Crete and Europe. The others communicate between Crete, Con- stantinople, and Alexandria. Small craft engaged in the coasting-trade average 24 in number, of an aggregate tonnage ot 800. Shipping, British and Foreign— Sailing ves- sels and steamers entering the ports of Ca- nea, Suda, Candia, and Bdtimo during the year, average in number 1572, and in ton- nage 236,653. Trade and Commerce. — The superfluous produce is exported to Turkey, Egypt, and Greece principally, and to a smaller extent to Austria, France, Italy, and England. The chief exports are olive oil and soap. A large portion of the yearly crop of oil is converted into soap, of which about 3000 tons were exported in 1869, or somewhat less than the average yearly shipments. The oil crop is usually good and aoundant, and is in request for the English market. The market price in 1867 ranged from £35 to £42 per ton, free on board. Vessels coming to Crete for oil must bring empty casks, for none are to be purchased on the island. Of raw pro- ducts exported ,t he principal are fruit ( fresh and dried), carobs, valonea, silk, cotton, hides and skins, honey and wax, sponges and whetstones. Sponges abound on the east coast of Crete, but the natives do not dive for them. This calling is pursued by Greeks from the islands of Symi, Calymno, and Khalld, who come yearly in numerous small craft, and purchase licenses to fish for sponges. These duties are farmed, and the actual farmer is a Frenchman, who also fishes on his own account, and makes use of a small steamer and a diving bell to facilitate his operations. 1 he wages of agricultural labourers in Crete are generally from Is. 4 d. to Is. 8 d. per day, rising to 2s. in the active season. The same rates are paid for unskilled labour in the towns; but artisans, such as masens, carpenters, and smiths, earn from 3s. 6d. to 4s. per day. Silk is exported in the form of cocoons and silkworms’ eggs, value £18 per cwt., and about 43s. per lb. respectively. Va- lonea comes from Betimo; price* about £9 6s. per ton. Cotton is cultivated to a limited extent ; price about 9 d. per lb. Hides sell for 10s. to 14s. each; goat- skins, about 2s. ; sheep- skins. Is. 4 d. Estimated statement of Exports. 1863 £400,000 1864 344,000 1865 332,000 1866 250,000 1867 £474,000 1863 380,000 1869 381,000 Imports.— Calicoes, soda ash, coffee and sugar, salt-fish, iron, drysalteries, rice, jute, sacks, and crockery from England ; the total value of which, in 1869, is esti- mated at £200,000, as against £200,000 in 1868, £93,000 in 1867, and £86,000 in 1866. Imports, such as coal, timber, silk, and woollen goods, cereals, butter, etc., are imported from Russia, Italy, Austria, and France. Banking. — The Government bank and branches at Canea, Candia, and Ultimo lend money at 8 per cent, to agri- culturists, and at 12 to merchants. Ca- pital, £68,534. Estimated statement of Imports. 1863 ....£400,000 1867 £340,000 1864 446,000 1868 600,000 1865 .... 363,000 1869 1886 .... 270,000 Caracas Cocoa. — The exports of cocoa from Venezuela during thirty years, viz., from 1701 to 1730 inclusive, amounted to 643,215 fanegas (the fanega consisting of 110 lbs) ; in the following eighteen years (up to 1748) to 869,247 fanegas ; and in the fifteen years following (up to 1763) to 887,191 fanegas; the first period giving 1097 GEOGRAPHICAL AND COMMERCIAL FACTS. 1098 21,440, the second 43,291, and the third 55,449 fanegas as the annual average ; the exportation last alluded to having been thus divided : — To Spain, 503,721 fanegas; Canary- Islands, 76, 141 fanegas ; Yera Cruz, 279,074 fanegas; and Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico, and Havana, 28,255 fanegas. Total, 887,191. In the year 1728 the Dutch so’d the cocoa -which they imported into Spain at from 70 to 80 dollars per fanega, while the price in Caracas at that period was from 7 to 10 dollars, whilst the G-uipuzcuanian Trad- ing Company, which was established in the same year (1728) sold their cocoa in Spain for from 45 to 52 dollars, having after the war of 1738, lowered the price to 30 dollars, which was the highess price they ever paid for cocoa up to the year 1765. In 1730, the produce of the 759 cocoa estates which then existed in Venezuela, was calculated at 60,000 fanegas annually, and in the year 1765, it was computed to have attained the amount of 130,000 fane- gas annually. From the year 1770 to 1774, the Guipuz- cuanian Trading Company, declared its total exports of cocoa from the provinces of Caracas and Maracaibo to Spain, to amount to 179,156 fanegas, giving a yearly average of 35,831 fanegas. Lizarraga, a Bizcayan planter of the neighbourhood of Caracas, writing in the year 1830 on behalf of the agriculturists of the country, estimated the former annual yield of cocoa of the whole ol the Republic of Venezuela at about 150,0 0 fanegas, which at the medium price at the time of 20 dollars per fanega, amounted in value to 3,000,000 dollars, but at the date of his writing he calculated the yield at but 75,000 fanegas. At the present time, the Trinitario seed is the staple of the cocoa from the dis- tricts of Giiiria, Maturia, Carupano, and down the eastern coast as far as the Rio Chica ; but the native or genuine “ creole” plant is still cultivated upon some few estates. The Trinitario seed is also sown to some extent in the valleys of the Tuy, although the majority of the estates are sown with c-roole seed. From the Port of La Guayra, running westward towards Puerto Cabello, and particularly at Choroni,Ocum are,Turiamo, Patanemo, and B >rburato, lie the districts where the best Venezuelan cocoa is now produced, and the best of all at an estate called Chuao, near Choroni, the property of the University of Caracas. From the neighbourhood of San Felipe, the capital of the state of Yaracuy, a very superior unmixed cocoa is sent to Puerto Cabello, to the amount including a small quantity from Barquisincto, of about 4000 to 6000 fanegas annually. Trinidad seed has since 1854 been intro- duce t into Chichi wiche, formerly one of the finest cocoa districts on the western coast. The yearly crop of cocoa throughout the Republic is estimated at from 70,000 to 80,00.) fanegas. These interesting parti- culars are from Consul Ceneral Middle- ton's report. France, Our Trade with. — The im- ports of merchandise from France into the United Kingdom in 1870 w-ere of the computed real value of £37,607,514, the highest amount ever reached in any year. 1 he exports to France of produce and manufactures of the United Kingdom were of the declared real value of £11,643,139, an amount which was only exceeded in 1856 and 1867. Tne exports to Franca from the United Kingdom, in 1870 of foreign and colonial produce and manufactures w-ere of the computed real value of £10,339,860, which is a less amount than usual of late years. Our total trade with France in 1870 — imports thence and exports thereto — amounted to £59, *90, 513. This total was only exceeded in 1836. Tie import into the United Kingdom from France of silk manufactures (stuffs and ribands) reached the enormous value of £10,032,772 ; of brandy, £2,138,832; of woollen manufactures, £2,278,627 ; of sugar, £2,361,667. These amounts exceed those of all previous years. Our import of wine from France in 1870 reached the unprecedented quantity of 4,779,074 gallons, but the computed value of the import declined to £1,468,170. The import of leather gloves also de- clined to 8,873,412 pairs, of the value of £961,288; of butter, to £1,672,899. The whole list of our imports of mer- chandise from Franco in 1870 shows a value more than double that of the list for any year before 1SG2, when the full effect of the Commercial Treaty began to be seen. The list for 1870 includes, besides the groat items mentioned — eggs, £864,619 ; artificial flowers, £2 15,046 ; lace, £322,344 ; oil-seed cake, £298,052 ; rapeseed oil, £231,028 ; clover seeds, £197,364. The principal exports to Franco in 1870 comprise the following: — Woollens, £2,282,708 ; arms and ammunition, £913,834— showing a very great increase over preceding years ; coals, £920,383 ; cottons, £395,087 ; iron, wrought and un- wrought, £505,647 ; machinery, £287,827; copper, wrought and unwrought, £257,379; telegraphic wire, £208,499. The export of horses was larger than usual, but did not exceed 4954. The export of biscuit and bread in 1870 amounted in value to £235,645. The total trade with France in 1870 was in the proportion of 10‘87 per cent, of the whole trade of the country. France.— Consumption of Chestnuts. — The local consumption is estimated at an average of 6,000,000 bushels annually. United States Currency. — United Slates old issue, 92,821 dols. ; United States notes, new issue, 160,199,965 dols. 1099 GEOGRAPHICAL AND COMMERCIAL FACTS, 1100 United States notes, issue of 1869, 197,300,032 dols. ; one-year five per cent, notes, 119,627 dols. ; two-year five per cent, notes, 41,202 dols. ; two-year five per cent, coupon notes, 33,302 dols. ; compound interest notes, 168,600 dols.; fractional currency, first issue, 4,413,828 dols. ; fractional currency, second issue, 321,931 dols. ; fractional currency, third issue, 4,949,168 dols. ; fractional currency, fourth issue, 26,907,214 dols. ; — making a total of 398,043,690 dols. The amount outstanding of United States notes, new issue and issue of 1869, includes 1,600,000 dols. to restore the amount destroyed in the Chicago depository. United States. — Tram- Oceanic Carry - ing Trade. — In 1861, in the month of July, the tonnage of the United States was 5,539,813 tons ; in July, 1865, the tonnage was 5,096,781— a decrease of 443,032 tons, and this decrease is the loss of the war ; but the tonnage in July, 1870, five years after the close of the war, had sunk to 3,946,149 tons. In 1861 the value of the United States export, import, and re-export trade was 53(',569,412 dols., and of this 350,827.256 dols., or about two-thirds, was in American vessels. In 1870 the total trade was 991,857,269 dols., and the value of freights in American vessels was but 350,849,769 dols., or something over one-third. The proportion of passengers carried a few years ago across the Atlantic, was in American vessels six to one carried iu a foreign ship ; now the ratio is fourteen in foreign ships to one in American. The increase both in freight and passengers carried since 1870 has made no change for the benefit of the United States ; and the entire foreign trade of the country passing to other nations has carried with it the control also of ship-building, and that art has now sunk — says her Majesty’s Secre- tary of Legation— to so low an ebb in America, “that it would seem to be im- possible to find in the whole country the appliances and yards capable of building and launching a first-class ocean steam- ship.’* Japan. — Open Ports — Kanagawa, Eio- go and Osaka, Nagasaki, Hakodate, and Niigata. Kanagawa. — Shirtirgs and yarns are the principal articles in demand at this port. Silkworms’ eggs and tea are the principal articles of export. The new silk from the districts in the immediate vic : nity of Yokohama begins to arrive at the end of June. Japanese silk is gradually dete- riorating in quality owiner to hasty and bad reeling and to the large export of eggs. The silk from the Oshiu provinces is highly esteomed. It is shipped in bales (about 100 lbs. net silk to the bale). The Japanese Government has esta- blished four public lights for the guidance of vessels. On Rock Island one tempo- rary light; in Yokohama Bay one floating light; at Kanonsaki,one fixed third-ordtr light; at Noshima, one fixed first-class light. The two latter have been erected by the French engineers at Yokosuka, and the management of them is in their hands. There are also four buoys placed in dangerous localities, viz. : one in Yo- kohama Bay; one on the Saratoga Spit, in the Bay of Yedo ; and two in the Shimono- saki Stiaits. A single telegraph wire has been stretched from Yokohama to Yedo, the apparatus being Brequet’s dial instru- ments. The dial has a sufficient number of divisions on its face to contain both the English alphabet and numbers and the simplest form of the Japauese alphabet (Katakana). Hiogo-Osalca. — At Sakai (the port of Osaka for the largest junks) a cotton-mill in European style has been erected by the Prince of Salzuma. It consists of a 12- horse power engine, driving 2000 spindles, with the necessary preparing machinery, and is capable of working 150 lbs. of yarn per day. The number of foreigners at these ports are: — At Osaka, 64 ; at Hiogo, 185; Total, 249. Nagasaki . — The staple imports of Bri- tish piece-goods are : — Grey goods, Tur- key reds, fancy prints, camlets, lustres, and cotton velvets. The kind of machinery in request consisting of mining machinery, rice-cleaning machinery, gun-cap, cart- ridge, and printing machinery. The prin- cipal articles of export are : — Tea, wax, tobacco, galls, camphor, coal, copper, sea- weed, and planks, besides which consider- able quantities of awabi cuttle-fish, paper, isinglass, mushrooms, biche-de- mer, sharks’-fins, and charcoal, but the trade in these latter articles is almost en- tirely in the hands of the Chinese. A very large share of the total yield of tea is exported in the raw state to China. The reason of this is— tea in the raw form passes under a low scale of duty, whereas, when fired here and shipped in chests or boxes, it can no longer be classi- fied as “bancha,’’ although the quality of the tea itself is in both cases similar. Tea exported as “bancha” pays merely a nominal duty. The growth of the tea- plant is steadily increasing in the follow- ing districts : — Higo, Kurami, Omusa, Hizers, Bungo, etc. The teas most es- teemed here are the Orachimo from Omu- sa and Hezers. Ooji is considered the best in Japan. The population of Nagasaki is estimated at 80,000. There are ninety-eight temples in the town and neighbourhood ; forty-one are of the Shinto religion, and fifty-seven of the Buddhist. The priests of the Shinto race are permitted to marry, but not those of the Buddhist calling. The prin- cipal trades carried on in Nagasaki are those of needle-making, toys in large quantities, and Japanese sandles, etc. There are extensive porcelain works at Imari and Arita, and Nagasaki is the principal market for the produce. In 1101 GEOGRAPHICAL AND COMMERCIAL FACTS. 1102 printing, the Japanese are making great progress. A building has been fitted up at this port, and a number of “ two- sworded ” men employed in the type- foundry, making matrices and casting type for printing in both the J apanese and Chinese characters. Hakodate . — The imports and exports are very similar to those at the other ports. Niigata .— Of the goods imported, cotton and woollen manufactures hold the most important place. These consist of shirt- ings, cotton yarn, Taffachelass cotton and woollen mixtures, T cloths, camlets, black Orleans lastings, etc. As far as European ships are concerned, Niigata consists merely of an open road- stead, without shelter or protection of any kind. From the beginning of May till the end of June there is little danger in discharging cargo here, but during the rest of the year it is hazardous for ships to attempt to discharge. The principal crop of the province is rice. This province is the largest rice- producing one in Japan. It is estimated that in an average year a yield of some 7,500,000 piculs, or 35,700,000 quarters, is obtained, more than a third of which is available for export to other parts of the country. Wheat, barley, and buckwheat are produced in the neighbouring pro- vinces, but for consumption only. To- bacco is produced in considerable quanti- ties in this province, as well as in the neighbouring provinces of Shinshin and Dewa. The tea of this province is of an inferior quality. The annual production at Musakami, Chin jo, Gosen, Niitsu, Muramatsu and Kurokowa is estimated at under 3,000 piculs. Raw silk is produced in Echigo at Horinoiichi, Koid£, and what is known as the Uyeda Valley — the valiey of the right branch of the Upper Shenano-gawa. The present production of these places is esti- mated at somewhat under 100 piculs per annum. The population of Niigata itself is esti- mated at nearly 40,000 registered inha- bitants, with a floating population of some 10,000 more. The cluster of small towns on the other side of the Shinano river, lying between it and the Aga-no- kawa, and comprehending Nottari, Kame- da, and several others, is estimated to con- tain as many inhabitants as there are in Niigata. There are at this port forty-eight shipping “ tongas,” or agencies. The following return shows the relative quantity and value of Japanese produce exported from Japan in 1869 to England, France, and the United States : — Description of Eng land. France. United States of America. Produce. Quantity. V alue in Dollars. Quantity. Value in Dollars. Quantity. Value in Dollars. Raw silk, at 525 dols. per bale 6176 3,242,400 3,077 1,615,425 261 131,775 Waste ditto, at 40 dols. per picul 325 13,000 2,677 107,080 676 27,040 Cocoons, at 85 dols. per picul 148 12,580 613 54,055 183 15,555 Silkworms’ eggs, at cards 1,400,000 2,860,000 ... Tea, at 25 cents, per lb. l,lli,392 277,848 8,287,907 2,071,976 Total 1 |3, 545, 828 ... 4,637,16 > ... 2,246,346 The following is a comparative statement of the total import trade with foreign Treaty Poets of China. countries in 1869 : — Imports Foo-Chow (Happy City) cap. of prov. Fo-Kien, pop. 600,000. Tea is the stanle Cotton manfctres... Woollen ditto Metals 1869. 1 R export, the qualities of which may be J 8ba. thus shown: Congou, Souchong, Oolong, Dollars. 5,251,324 2,010,553 632,255 1,857,625 1,776,690 5,828,485 i-v n Flowery Pekoe, Scented Orange Pekoe, Dollars. Scen ted Caper mixed. 4,722,583 The new teas commence to arrive about 2,610,838 the middle of May. They are usually 693,780 imported into England for mixing with tea grown in India, as the latter is a better 2,730,651 class of tea, and it improves the strength 1,491,043 o f the former. The chief imports are opium, lead, and 2,751,4 76 cotton goods. Malwa opium is preferred, ar-d in th^Mlo^ing order Patna Benares Arms and ammuni- tion Miscellaneous Eastern produce, as rice, cotton, etc... 17,356,932 15,000,371 and Persian drugs. The kinds ’of cotton and woolien goods in demand, and the 1103 GEOGRAPHICAL AND COMMERCIAL FACTS, 1104 average prices paid may be seen in the following hst: — Grey shirtings 8| lbs., 2 dols. 90 cents, 3 dols., 3 dols. 5 cents, 2 dols. 12 cents, 3 dels. 22 cents; ditto, 7 lbs., 2 dols. 72 cents, 2 dols. 80 cents, 2 dols. 82 cents ; T-cloths, 7£ lbs., 2 dols. 60 cents, without variation; ditto, 7ibs., 2 dols. 25 cents, 2 dols. 30 cents. 2 dols. 40 cents, 2 dols. 50 cents ; ditto, 64 lb9., 2 dols. 10 cents ; ditto, 6 lbs., 1 dol. 92| cents, 1 dol. 95 cents, 2 dols'. 5 cents, 2 dols. 10 cents ; ditf o, mixed, 8 lbs., 2 dols. 76 cents, 2 dols. 774 cents, 2 dols. 80 cents ; white T-cloths, 7 lbs., 2 dols. 774 cents; white shirtings, 64 reed, 3 dols. 20 cents, without variation ; chintzes, 2 dols. 15 cents, without varia- tion ; printed cottons, 2 dols. 1 5 cents, without variation ; long ells, assorted, 7 dols. 70 cents ; ditto, scarlet, 7 dols. 65 cents, 8 dols., 8 dols. 30 cents; camlets, 16-5 dols. ; brocadelustres, 6 dols. ; Spanish stripes, 75 cents per yard. This branch of the export trade rests chiefly in the hands of the native dealers, they procuring the goods at the cheapest of the two great depots (Hong Kong and Shanghae) and supplying the surrounding districts. They study the fluctuations of the two marts, and conduct their business by means of native agencies, a system ■which they find more profitable than buj T - ing direct from the British importers at Foo-chow. Regular steam communication exists between this port and Hong Kong and Shanghae. Ningpo City in the prov. Che-Kiang, pop. 400,000. Tea i3 the staple export, of which about £1,500,000 sterling worth is shipped annually. Ningpo occupies the sixth position in respect to the value of its trade, out of the fourteen ports over which the foreign inspectorate extends. The revenue derived from the trade at this port by the Government is considerably more than half of the estimated value of the whole of the merchandise imported and exported, exclusive of opium, which is a prohibited article, although from 2000 to 3000 chests find their way into the port annually. A large and increasing import trade is done at Ningpo, on account of the favour foreign goods, more especially Manchester cottons, are receiving from ihe local in- habitants and districts in the interior of the province of Che-Kiang. The principal imports are cotton, rice, and metals. Che-Foo, cap. of the province of Shan- tung. This port possesses a harbour which, although exposed in some parts to the north-easterly gales of wind, is never- theless capacious and safe. There are 159 foreign residents. The value of the mport trade amounts to nearly £2, 000, CO) annually, and the export trade to upwards of £500,000. The value of the Hiikwau or customs tael in sterling is 6s. 3d. Paper forms one of the principal staples of this port, furnishing return freights to the vessels engaged in carrying the pro- ducts of the norih of China — bran-cake, pulse-oil, etc., to the southern ports; since with the exception of a small quan- tity manufactured in this province from the bark of the Broussonetia papyrifera, and a very coarse description of soft pack- ing paper, made from different vegetable fibres, the north of China depends for its supply entirely upon the inexhaustible bamboo plantations of the southern pro- vinces. The silk-producing districts (King-had Chow, etc.) being in close proxmity to this port, Europeans will have little dif- ficulty of coming eventually into closer relations with the growers than at pre- sent. In brown silk (the product of the so- calied wild or oak-tree silkworm, feeding upon the leaves of the Quercus serrata and Q. mongolica) there is a large exporta- tion, as this kind is in great favour in European markets, on account of its peculiarly bright lustre and strong fibre. There is, however, a difficulty in impart- ing to this silk the more delicate shades of colour, owing to the potash and other solvents used by the Chinese in the pro- cess of unwinding from the cocoon. Straw braid is an article which furnishes a source of employment and profit to largo numbers of the peasantry of Lai-chow Foo, occupying the central portion of the great province of Shantung (on the northern shore of which Che-Foo is situated). In addition to the braid taken away by foreign demand, enormous quan- tities 8re manufactured into straw hats of great size, which go principally to Hankow. The British Consul here reports, that the greatest obstacle to any rapid de- velopment in the trade of the province lies undoubtedly in its want of means of communication. The eastern half of Shan- tung is both mountainous and wholly destitute of navigable rivers.” Washing for gold is carried on by the natives, fifty miles of Che-Foo, but the out-turn so far has been scanty. Coal is found in abundance in the Shan- tung mountains, but the authorities op- pose any attempt to improve the work- ings. Kew-Keang. — The total value of the import trade at this port, is upwards of a million sterling. Nearly one-third of this amount is represented by opium ; rather more than one-third by cotton and wool- len goods, and the remainder by sugar,, seaweed, lead, tin, raw cotton, etc. The south of the province is supplied with opium, chiefly from I'ohkien and Canton, where greater facilities exist for the importation of the foreign drug. Na- tive opium is not sold at Kew-Keang in any quantity ; it is, in fact, not much used in the valley of the Lower Yang-tsze. The slight intercourse between this port 1105 GEOGRAPHICAL AND COMMERCIAL FACTS. 1106 and the poppy-growing districts even with those in this province, accounts for the fact that no efforts are made to find a market here for native opium. The navigation of the river above the entrance of the Pcyang Lake, is impracti- cable for the larger vessels daring almost the whole of the first quarter of the year. The channels in the most difficult portion of the river, may be in most winter sea- sons 8 or 9 feet deep, but they are narrow and shifting. The river rises high between the middle of March and the beginning of August. The principal article of manufacture in this province is china ware. Swatow. — There is a good import trade at this port. In cotton goods, English camlets, and Spanish stripes (a narrow habit cloth) are the two descriptions most in demand, and compose the greater half of all woollens imported, the value of the two items alone being over £150,000 ster- ling. Fancy and dyed goods are not in favour here. The Chinese still prefer wadded gar- ments and coverlets to cloth and blankets to defend them from their winter’s cold. The following statement will show the amount of the trade done in cotton goods at Swatow, for four years, 1867 — 1870. The value of the export trade amounts yearly to the enormous sum of about £4,500,000 sterling, and consists princi- pally of tea, silk, and tallow. As regards the former, it is at all times difficult to say which brands are the best, as every- thing depends on the season. Nmgchow Oolongs .rank high. The Oonfas are, as a rule, fair teas. The Ningchows and Soongkongs are well twisted fine teas, marked by a delicate flavour. The Oopacks are often dis- appointing, as deficient in quality, though handsome ia the leaf. The liglingo Pong 1 Kongs Kokews, and all other Oonam teas, have sometimes a tarry flavour, which is very unpleasant, and the Seangtams are usually badly made up and taste coarse and old. Amoy.— A large opium trade is done at this port. The tea shipped is principally for the American market. The little that finds its way to the English market is* usually sent to Foochow and Hong Kong for shipment. Amoy is crushed by the heavy leking taxes, and until these are removed trade will never be in a pros- perous condition. Canton - , City and seaport on the Choo- Kiang rivers. The import trade at this port, such as that of piece goods, is 1867. 1863. 1869. 1870. Grey shirtings Pieces 64,622 84,669 95,368 99,889 White ditto yy 14,177 17,323 25,507 39,547 T-cloths ... yy 26,016 49,955 48,2S6 105,450 Drills yy 4,972 6,234 5,208 20,797 Tien-Tsin. — The value of the imports from foreign countries amount to about £400,000 sterling annually. In cotton piece goods a large business is done. These articles are distributed from this port over a vast area of the country, and largely sold; more especially is this the case with English drills (which have almost driven the American manufactures of that name cut of »the market) and T cloths, which resemble the Chinese home- made cottons in durability and strength, and are consequently appreciated. The export trade is confined almost entirely to the export of native produce to Hong Kong and the coast ports, the ex- ceptions being the transport of tea to Russia and the export of medicines to Japan. The exports of tea to Russia con- sist of the leaf and brick kinds. Hankow is a great commercial market. The value of the import trade amounts to nearly £6,000,000 sterling annually. Almost all kinds of Manchester cotton goods are so’d at this port, as also woollen fabrics made in Yoikshire; iron, steel, and copper manufactured. entirely in native hands. That the native trade is large may easily be imagined from the large quantities of foreign merchandise found in the shops and seen in transitu into the interior. It is brought from Hong Kong by the native traders, and not a tithe of it passes througbi the foreign custom-house. Denmark, Cereals of. — Great attention is paid in Denmark to cattle and dairy produce. The agricultural surplus avail- able for foreign markets seems rather to diminish than to increase. The productive t-oil of Denmark is rated at about 6,450,000 acres, of which about 2.270.000 are sown with the four principal cereals— wheat, rye, barley, oats. These cereals make up seventeen-twentieths of the vegetable crop ; their annual yield is about 8,600,000 quarters, valued at say £9,000,000. Of the general cereal har- vest about 17 or 18 per cent, may be avail- able for exportation ; the average take is 800.000 quarters, or about half the wholo export. Denmark sends abroad as much grain 1107 GEOGRAPHICAL AND COMMERCIAL EACTS 1108 aa North Germany or Russia ; half as much as Austria or the Principalities. Swabia, Bavarian - Province of. — Cotton and Woollen Manufactures . — There are in this province 418,486 spindles, 3785 power-looms, 9939 workpeople (men, women, and children) ; 18,500,000 florins of capital invested (£1,542,000) ; value of the goods manufactured, 22,500,000 florins (£1,875,000). The yarns manufactured are of the coarser kinds, averaging about No. 27. The chief markets for the yarns pro- duced, over and above those appropriated to the supply of the local weaving-mills, are Wurtemberg, Baden, and some dis- tricts of the former Northern Confedera- tion. The manufactures produced by the looms of Swabia are chiefly smooth-faced, unbleached calicoes, for either printing purposes, or to be u*ed as linings. But some of the Augsburg weaving establish- ments also manufacture wove-pattern fancy or coloured cotton goods, for dresses, bed- coverlets, and other similar purposes. The chief markets for the printing and bleached cloths are the towns of Northern Germany, especially Berlin, to which latter place the manufacturers send their goods exclusively. A small quantity goes to Switzerland and Bohemia ; and of the coloured or fancy-pattern cloths, some portion finds a market in North America. All descriptions of sewing-cotton are established articles of production of Augs- burg. A considerable quantity of carded cotton wool is also produced, for sale in Turkey principally. Flax, hemp, and tow are spun in the mills of Swabia, partly for account of the owners, and partly for third parties, at a The manufactories of wove woollen goods in the province are chiefly at Augs- burg, Nordlingen, Memmingen, and Kauf- bearen. The total number of looms at work in them was about 160 in 1869 ; the chief articles produced being blankets, horse-cloths, ordinary flannel, and the coarser description of cloth made use ol by the rural population for their dress. There is also at Nordlingen one manu- factory of a common kind of carpets, which produces annually about 100,000 florins’ worth of goods. In the province there are about 25 esta- blishments, great and small, for the bleaching, dyeing, and dressing of cotton textures ; the total out-turn of the year is estimated at 330,000 pieces. The total number of people in the various factories of Swabia is estimated at 16,600, as being distributed among the following branches of manufacture : — Cotton-spinning and weaving, 10,000 persons. Cotton twist-spinning, 350 persons. Flax and hemp-spinning and weaving, 1400 persons. Finishing and printing cotton and wool- len goods, 800 persons. Woollen yarn spinning, 1050 persons. Manufacture of machinery and metal wares, 1950 persons. Manufacture of paper, chemicals, oil- cloth, etc., 1050 persons. Of the total number, 16,600, about 6810, or 41 per cent., are male adults ; 7060, or 43 per cent., are women; 2730, or 16 per cent., are youths and girls under 18 years of age. The following is the average scale of wages paid per week in the manufactur- ing towns of the province. (The Bava- rian florin is Is. 8 d. sterling , and 3 kreut- zers make Id .): — Men. Women. Youths and Girls. Highest. Lowest. Highest. Lowest. Highest. Lowest. FI. kr. FI. kr. FI. kr. FI. kr. FI. kr. FI. kr. In Cotton-spinning mills 10 18 5 0 6 39 3 48 5 6 3 0 99 Spinning and weaving ditto 9 45 5 0 8 30 3 36 4 9 2 54 99 Weaving ditto 9 12 5 53 6 45 4 0 4 54 2 50 99 Twist-spinning ditto 9 33 5 15 5 36 3 6 4 21 2 36 99 Flax & hemp-spinning ditto 9 0 5 36 6 0 4 0 4 15 3 6 99 Pressing and dyeing works.. 9 15 5 30 6 30 3 54 ... . .. 99 Machine manufactories and foundries 12 0 5 48 # # # , 2 54 1 42 99 Gold-beaters’ works 15 0 8 0 5 0 3’ 0 4 0 2 0 fixed scale of charges. The markets for the linen yarn3 produced in these esta- blishments are to be found in the agricul- tural districts of Bavaria, especially those of the province of Lower Bavaria, in the eastern portion of the kingdom. Wur- temberg, Baden, and Switzerland draw supplies of linen yarn from the Augsburg manufacturers. Swabia. — Agricultural Statistics. — There are in the province about 300,000 cows, of which more than one-half must be allotted to Allgau, or the southern division. The average annual productioi of butter and cheese from each c w on the dairy-farms of the Allgau is est'inated at 1| Bavarian centuers (175 lbs.). 1109 GEOGRAPHICAL AND COMMERCIAL FACTS. 1110 The entire produce in butter and cheese of the province is estimated thu3 : — Cheese, about £593,000 sterling; butter, £187,500 sterling. The three kinds of cheese produced in the AUgau are designated, “Limburg,” “Swiss," and “Emmenthal.” British Biemah extends one thousand miles along the eastern she re of the Bay of Bengal, from the Naaf estuary in 20° 50' N. Jat. to the Pakchau stream, which separates Tenasserim from Siam, and in- cludes the kingdoms of Aracan and Pegu, also the Tenasserim provinces conquered from the Siamese by the Portuguese. The total area of the province is esti- mated at 90,070 square miles, of which only one-thirteenth is under cultivation. There are three di\isions: — Aracan, Pegu, and Tenasserim. Aracan, comprising the districts of Akyab Ramree and Saudoway, was taken from the Aracanese by the Burmese in 1783, and ceded to the British in 1826. The chief town is Akyab, a seaport, the trade of which has entirely arisen under British rule, within the last 40 years, and now amounts to the annual value of £1,190,000. Pegu consists of the five districts — Ran- goon, Bassein, Myangoung, Prome, and Tounghoo ; and has the advantage of the fine river the Irraw r addy, which runs through its entire length. This river is navigable for three- fourths of the year for a distance of 600 miles, for steamers of a considerable draught. The chief town, Rangoon, on the left bank of the river of the same name, is also the capital of British Burmah. In the district of Bassein there is a seaport of the same name, the annual trade of w inch is esti- mated at £178,000. Tenasserim, at one time under Bengal, included Martaban. It is divided into the districts Amherst, Shrwegyecu, Tavoy, and Mergui. Moulmein, the chief town of this division, is situated on the Selwun, at its confluence with the Attaran and Gyne rivers. The interior of the division is a wilderness of hills, tossed up by vol- canic action, thickly wooded, and running generally in N. and S. directions. British Burmah is inhabited in the north and north-east by wild tribes of Tartar origin, and on the east by the hill Karens. Within the limits of the province are a great variety of tribes, but nearly all of them may be traced to four great families — tbe Talaing or Mon, the Bur- man, the Karen, and the Shan, or Tais. Among the productions of the province, besides teak and rice, the staples are cot- ton, tea, coflee, sugar, tobacco, indigo, sesamum, catechu, cocoa, and areca, palms, plamtains, jaek bael, mangoes, etc. The tea grown on the slopes of the hills in the northern part of Aracan is superior to any raised in Bengal. From the cotton of Pegu the finer sorts of the celebrated muslins of Dacca used to be manufactured. Game of all kind abounds. Its mineral wealth is great, more especially beyond the frontier. . The climate is moist, and somewhat de- pressing. The average mortality in 1867 among the British troops was 18.21 per thousand, a fourth of which was not at- tributable to the climate.. The government is conducted by a Chief Commissioner, in direct communication with the Government of India. He deals directly with the cultivators of the soil, as there are no middle men of any descrip- tion. The revenue is collected in the form of a land-tax, ranging from Is. to 6s. per acre, according to the fertility of the soil. Rice takes up nine-tenths of the entire area under cultivation, the total area of which in 1867-8 was 1,567,419 acres; the area under garden and orchard was 105,042; under Toungya, or hill cultiva- tion the area was 103,712 acres; and under miscellaneous, 59,140, including — cot- ton, 3,433 acres ; tobacco, 10,128 acres ; sesamun, 12,059 acres. The average price of the staple article of food, rice, is 4s. per 80 pounds in Aracan, and 4s. 6d. in Tenasserim. Cotton ranges from 12s. toI4s. per maundof 80 pounds. The price of salt in Aracan ranges from 2s. to 3s. ; and the price of cattle may be taken at from £5 to £5 10s. for a full- grown bullock or buffalo. Skilled labourers, such as Chinese work- men, claim 4s. a day; but the charges made for job work in iron, leather, or wood come to a rate nearer 10s. than 4s. Unskilled labour is set down at Is. per diem. The hire of carts varies from 3s. to 4s. per diem. The tin mines of Mergui are worked by Chinese; the out-turn is about 10,000 lbs. annually, of the value of £3,200. Lead, copper, iron, and antimony ores exist, but not in large quantities. Gold has been found in the Shivd-gyecu district (Tenasse- lim), but the out-turn was of no account. Many looms for weaving silk and cotton exist throughout the province. A loom is part of the household furniture in many families. Useful attire of variegated colours worn by men and women is manu- factured in sufficient quantities to meet domestic requirements. Prome is cele- brated for its workmanship in silver. The aggregate industry of the people of this province was represented during the year 1867-68 by a trade which amounted to £10,000,000. The total of the export trade by sea and land was, in round num- bers, £4,760,000 ; w hile the value of the imports was nearly £5,200,000. In Aracan there is one Anglican Epis- copal Church. Pegu contains four — two at Rangoon, one at Teyctmo, and one ac Tounghoo. There are four Government schools of the middle-class, with an average daily at- tendance of 439 pupils. The cost of the schools in 1867 was £1,620 ; total education grant from Government for 1867 was £500. 1111 RECENT MISCELLANEOUS EACIS. 1112 RECENT MISCELLANEOUS FACTS. Gun Cotton is now made in a com- pressed form, which can be handled and transported with safety, and can be ex- ploded by detonation only; without this it burns away harmlessly if set on fire. One hundred tons of this article are used in blasting operations, a quantity equal to upwards of five hundred tons of gun- powder. It is used largely in the slate quarries in Wales, and is much esteemed by the workmen on account of the absence of smoke after a blast, for gun cotton makes no smoke. Experiments have shown that in military operations it will be found of immense service. In blasting rocks or wrecks under water, it is far more effectual than gunpowder ; “the plug or disk of cotton has only to be wrapped in tarred paper and placed in any fissure of the rocks when it is ready for its destruc- tive ac.ion.’’ The effect of the blast is most astonishing ; there is “first a shiver and a leaping up of innumerable jets, and then an up-rush of a great bank of water, thirty feet in height, followed by swirls of mud, large quantities of splintered wood, and dead fishes.” For torpedoes and military mines, gun cotton is well adapted. Indian Mutiny. — Early in 1857 the Rebellion broke out ; just one hundred years after the battle of Plassey, when Clive with 3000 troops, of whom only one- third were Europeans, defeated and utterly overthrew £0,000 native soldiers under the Nawab of Bengal. The first actual de- monstrations of a mutinous spirit were shown at Dumdum (January), Berham- pore (25th February), and Barrackpore (29th March), where the native troops refused to touch the greased cartridges that had been introduced into the depots of musketry instruction. A report had spread that the Government intended to force them to give up their religion by causing them, as the cartridges in loading had to be torn with the teeth, to bile the fat of pigs and of cows — the former being an abomination to a Mussulman, and the latter equally so to a Hindoo. The wildest excitement in consequence prevailed, and finally the outbreak took place. T he chief centre of it was Meerut (33 miles N.E. from Delhi), where the native regiments (2900 men) rose on the 10th of May, fired upon their officers, and, with a thousand released convicts, committed frightful atrocities. On the following day the Mutineers marched to Delhi, where the garrison fraternized with them, and a second butchery was committed. “ Child- ren were tossed on the points of bayonets before their mothers’ eyes, lilies were dragged through the streets, exposed to the vilest indignities at the bazaar, violated by fiends in human shape, and then cut to pieces.” Many fled lor protection to the palace, where they were taken and slain m the presence oi the old King of Delhi and his sons. On the- following September the city was retaken by General Arch dale Wilson. At the end of June, General Wheeler, in command at Cawnpore, sur- rendered to Nana Sahib under promise of a safe conduct to Allahabad, in spite of which all the men were massacred, and, on the 15th of July, the women and child- ren. Subsequently the Nana was defeated and the city reoccupied by Havelock, who afterwards advanced on Lucknow, at that time besieged by an enormous horde of infuriated rebels. He fought his way into the city (25th September), but, beyond an accession of numbers, the besieged received no benefit from his arrival, and it was not until that of Sir Colin Campbell, on the 14th of November, that the final relief was achieved. The latter (6th December) defeated the Nana Sahib with 25,000 rebels at Cawnpore, and, making that city a centre of opera- tions, proceeded to attack the rebels of the N.W. provinces in several quarters at once, with a view of driving them into Oude, where they could be crushed by a combined movement. On the 17th of March, Lucknow was again in complete possession of the British. Central India was reduced by Generals Rose, Roberts, and Whitlock. Thansi was stormed and reoccupied by Sir Hugh Rose by the 4th of April. The surrender of Calpi and Gwalior followed ; and the cause of the Rebels was rendered still more hopeless by the death of the Ranee of Thansi, and, on the 18th of April, the execution of Tantia Topee, at Sepree. On July 28th a day of general thanksgiving for peace was observed throughout India. The Mutiny appears to have beeu the result of a Mohammedan conspiracy, at the head of which was the King of Delhi, who was tried and convicted at Calcutta, as “a false traitor to the British Govern- ment, and an accessory to the massacre in the palace.” He was afterwards trans- ported to Tongu in Pegu, where he died in 1862. Reform Bill of 1867-C8. — This mea- sure increased the total constituencies of England and Wales 90£ per cent. The largest portion of this increase was to the boroughs, the electors of which became 137 per cent, more numerous. On the other hand, the rate of increase in the counties w as only 46 per cent. Total of electors of England and Wales : Boroughs , 1,220,715; Counties, 791,916; — total, 2,012,631. Important p/ovisions of the Act are those of Clauses 3 and 4; the former establishing household suffrage in boroughs, and the latter occupation franchise in counties. Clause 3 enacts that “Every man shall be entitled to be registered us a voter, und when registered to vote for a Member or Members to serve in Failiament for a borough, who is 1113 RECENT MISCELLANEOUS PACTS. 1114 qualified as follows : — (1) Is of full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity; (2) is on the last day of July in any year, and has during the whole of the preceding twelve calendar months, been an in- habitant, occupier as owner or tenant of any dwelling-house within the borough ; (3) has during the time of such occupation been rated as an ordinary occupier in respect of the premises so occupied by him within the borough to all rates made for the relief of the poor in respect of such premises ; (4) has before the 20th day of July in the same year bond fide paid an equal amount in the pound to that payable by other ordinary occupiers in respect of . all poor-rates that have become payable by him in respect of the said premises up to the preceding 5th day of January, and which have been demanded of him . . . ; or as a lodger, has occupied in the same borough separately, and as sole tenant, for the twelve months preceding the last day of J uly in any year the same lodgings, such lodgings being part of one and the same dwelling-house, andof a clear yearly value, if let unfurnished, of £10 or up- wards, and has resided in such lodgings during the twelve months immediately preceding the last day of July, and has claimed to be registered as a voter at the next ensuiDg registration of voters, pro- vided that no man shall, under this section, be entitled to be registered as a voter by reason of his being a joint occupier of any dwelling-house.*’ Clause 4 enacts that “Every man shall be entitled to be registered as a voter, and when registered to vote for a Member or Members to serve in Parliament for a county, who is quali- fied as follows : — (1) Is of full age and not subject to any legal incapacity ; and who shall be seised at law or in equity of any lands or tenements of copyhold or any other tenure whatever, except freehold, for his own life or for the life of another or for any lives whatsoever, or for any larger estate of the clear yearly value of not less than five pounds over and above all rents and charges payable out of or in respect of the same, or who shall be en- titled, either as lessee or assignee, to any lands or tenements of freehold or of any other tenure whatever, for the unexpired residue, whatever it may be, of any term originally created for a period of not less than 60 years, of the clear yearly value of not less than five pounds over and above all rents and charges payable out of or in respect of the same ; (2) is on the last day of July in any year, and has during the twelve months immediately preceding, been the occupier as owner or tenant of lands or tenements within the county of the rateable value of £12 or upwards; (3) has during the time of such occupation been rated in respect to the premises so occupied by him to all rates made for the relief of the poor in respect of the said premises ; and (4) has before the 20th day of July in the same year paid all poor rates that have become payable by him in respect of the said premises up to ths pre- ceding 5th day of January.” Reform Act for Scotland of 1868. — Every male person of full age and subject to no legal incapacity is entitled to the franchise in burghs, provided he has been for twelve months an occupier as owner or tenant of any dwelling, and has not been exempted from the payment of poor rates. The lodger franchise is conferred on any lodger who has occupied in the same burgh separately, and as sole tenant for twelve months, a lodging of the clear annual value, if let unfurnished, of ten pounds or upwards', and has registered his claims as a voter. In counties “ the ownership franchise is five pounds clear of any deduction in the shape of burdens, with a residential qualification of not less than six months.” RrformAct for Ireland of 1888. — By this measure the borough franchise was reduced to a £4 rating occupation, qualified as in England. No alteration was made in the county franchise. House of. Commons. — In the session of 1871 the number of Members returned by the three divisions of the United King- dom was 658, as follows: — England and Wales. Members. 52 Counties and Isle of Wight... 187 200 Cities and Boroughs 301 3 Universities 5 Total of England and Wales... 493 Scotland. 33 Counties 32 22 Cities ard Burgh Districts ... 26 4 Universities 2 Total of Scotland 60 Ireland. 32 Counties 64 33 Cities and Boroughs 39 1 University 2 Total of Ireland 105 Total of United Kingdom ... 658 Number and duration of Parliaments since the accession of Her Majesty Queen Vic- toria, beginning frcmthe 13th Parliament from the period of the Union: — Parlia. When met. When dissolved. Duration Y. M. D. 13th 14 Nov., 1837 23 June, 1841 3 7 9 14th 11 Aug., 1841 23 July, 1847 5 11 6 15th 21 Sep., 1847 1 July, 1852 4 11 9 16th 4 Nov., 1852 20Mar.,1857 4 4 16 17th 30 April, 1857 23April,1859 1 11 23 18th 31 May, 1859 8 July, 1865 6 1 6 19th 6 Feb., 1866 31 July, 1863 2 5 25 20th 10 Dec., 1868 Public Education. — In the session of 1870 a measure was passed by Parliament entitled, “ An Act to provide for Public Elementary Education in England and Wales,” in which it is required that “ There shall be provided for every School District a sufficient amount of accommo- 1115 RECENT MISCELLANEOUS PACTS. 1116 dation in public elementary schools avail- able for all the children resident in such district for whose elementary education efficient and suitable provision is not otherwise made.” It is also enacted that children, whose parents are unable through poverty to educate them, shall be admitted free to these “ public elementary schools,” and the expenses so incurred be defrayed from local rates. The schools are placed under “ School Boards” in each district, and power is vested in these 11 boards ” to make it “ compulsory upon parents to give all children between the ages of five and thirteen the advantages of education.” The progress of education in Great Britain within the years 1862-70 may be thus shown : — Year end- No. of ingS'st Schools August. Inspected, Children who can be dance. accommo- dated. England and Wales (including Isle of Man and Roman Catholic Schools of Great Britain). 1862 . .. 6,113 . .. 1,292,560 ... 813,850 1863 . .. 6,227 . .. 1,315.988 ... 846,805 1864 ., .. 6,470 . .. 1,332,553 ... 862,817 1865 ., .. 6,867 . .. 1,470,473 ... 901,750 1866 ., .. 7,134 . .. 1,510,721 ... 919,922 1867 .. 7,601 . .. 1,605,409 ... 878,332 1868 8,051 ., .. 1,724,569 ...1,060,092 1869 .. 8,592 . .. 1,838,416 ...1,153,572 1870 .. 8,956 . .. 1,950,641 ...1,255,083 Scotland (exclusive of Roman Catholic Schools). 1862 ... 1,456 ... 183,680 .. . 150,999 1863 ... 1,512 ... 196,794 .. . 162,120 1864 ... 1,421 188,904 .. . 148,317 1865 ... 1,573 ... 207,335 .. . 155,995 1866 ... 1,619 ... 213,487 .. . 162,133 1867 ... 1,739 ... 231,898 .. . 169,131 1868 ... 1,843 ... 246,041 .. . 181,698 1869 ... 1,745 ... 237,928 .. . 179,214 1870 ... 1,963 ... 264,594 .. . 198,448 Total for Great Britain. 1862 ... 7,569 ... 1,476,240 .. . 964,849 1863 ... 7,739 ... 1,512,782 . 1,008,925 1864 ... 7,891 .. 1,521,457 ... ,1,011,134 1865 ... 8,438 ... 1,677,808 ... . 1,057,745 1866 ... 8,753 ... 1,724,208 . 1,082,055 1867 ... 9,340 ... 1,837,307 ... , 1,147,463 1868 ... 9,844 ... 1,970,610 ... 1,241,780 1869 ...10,337 ... 2,076,344 ... . 1,332,786 1870 ...10,949 ... 2,215,235 ... 1,453,531 The Privy Council inspectors visited 735 schools which did not fulfil the con- ditions entitling them to the annual grants, where they inspected 46,094 scholars. The night schools inspected during the year were 2,580, and these had an average at- tendance at an age beyond twelve of 76,937 scholars. The certificated teachers at work in the aided schools numbered 14,966. Forty -five training schools accom- modated 3,261 students. According to the usual test of education supplied by adults, viz , signing their names or making a mark, 35,199 men and 48,758 women made marks to the marriage register in 1869, instead of signing their names. On the average of every 100 marriages in the same year the proportion of men who signed the register was 20, and the proportion of women was 28. In some parts of England and Wales nearly one-half of the women who were married were unable to write. They were in the most illiterate condition in South Wales, Staffordshire, Monmouthshire, Lanca- shire, and North Wales. On the other hand, the counties in which the highest proportion of women wrote their names were Surrey, Sussex, Rutland, Middlesex, Westmoreland, Hants, Kent, and Berks. In the counties of Westmoreland, Rut- land, Northumberland, Middlesex, Surrey, the North and the East Riding of York- shire, the percentage of men able to sign tbeir names was highest. In London the percentage among women was 85, and that of the men 91. Taken as a whole the returns show a decided improvement ; for while “ Thirty years ago, in 1841, only 673 in 100 of the men marrying in England signed their names upon the register, and 51*2 in 100 of the women ; twenty years ago, in 1851, 69 2 of the men, and 547 of the women signed their names ; ten years ago, in 1861, 75’4 of the men, and 65 3 of the women signed.” From the returns of 1869 it appears that there is one per- son out of five adults without education in England. Parliamentary Grants. The sum of £774,743 was granted to popular education in Great Britain in 1862, which in the following year was reduced to £721,386; in 1864, to £655,036 ; in 1865, to £636,306 ; in 1866, to £649,006 ; in 1867, to £682,201 ; in 1868, to £650,429; in 1869, the sum granted was £840,711 ; and in 1870, to £914,721. The schools in Great Britain derived the principal part of their income in 1868 from the school pence. The actual income of 8,937 schools receiving Parlia- mentary aid was £1,546,933, of this the sum of £508,772 was received from the pence ; £484,010 from Government ; and £443,523 from the contributions of 194,745 subscribers. The expenditure, as shown by returns, was in excess of the income, and averaged nearly £1 6s. per scholar. For popular education in Ireland the total amount granted in ten years, 1860-69, was £2,948,669 ; the amount raised by school fees was only £360,363, and by local sub- scriptions and endowments, £111,437, the two items together amounting to but £471,801, or less than a sixth of the sum voted by Parliament. Sweden, Education in— is compulsory and gratuitous. Every child from the age of seven, unless physically or mentally incapacitated, must be sent to school ; either to one of the primary gratuitous schools, or to some private school ap- proved by the Educational Board of the parish. As a general rule the children remain at school six or seven years, or until they 1117 RECENT MISCELLANEOUS EACTS. 1118 are able to pass an examination in the catechism, reading, writing, arithmetic, the history and geography of Sweden, and the rudiments of natural history, general history, and geography. In Gothenburg, a town with a popula- tion of 55,000, there are 120 primary schools, where 4500 children receive gratuitous instruction, at a cost to the town of about £1 6s. per annum for each child. Besides these primary schools, there are higher grammar, technical, and industrial schools. All owners of factories who employ children between twelve and fifteen years old, are compelled either to allow them a given number of hours every week for at- tending school, or to keep a separate school for such children. Noeway, Education in — is obligatory. Every child, without distinction, must at- tend school from the age of eight years for at least three months in each year, unless the parents can prove satisfactorily that education is provided at home. The object of the law is to compel parents without means to send their children to school, where they are educated gratuit- ously, and receive besides religious in- struction. The “Almue,” or people’s schools, consist of primary and secondary schools. In the primary schools children are taught the rudimentary elements laid down; and in the secondary the higher branches of education. The attendance in the latter schools is not compulsory, but is open to those who after the age of twelve are desirous of acquiring further instruction. Education is free in the latter case, unless the parents are able to pay a small rate imposed by the munici- pality, and which the teacher is allowed to receive in addition to his salary. In the primary schools instruction is given in reading, writing, arithmetic, re- ligion, and singing. The books in use are principally the Bible, geography, elements of natural science, and history. The schools are maintained by a rate levied on the “matrient” (the fixed official value of each estate), by voluntary contributions, legacies, public funds, and state contributions. According to official returns, there were in 1867 6344 schools in Norway, to which 212,136 children were bound to attend. Of this number only 5514 were absent from various causes. Besides these schools there were 40 in- dustrial schools for girls, and 11 infant schools. The expenditure for these establish- ments amounted for the year to a sum equivalent to £159,490, of which the state contributed £26,082. In thinly -populated districts, where the inhabitants are widely scattered, the parish is divided into circles, which the schoolmaster visits in rotation, the children being collected at the most con- venient farm, in lieu of a schoolroom ; but when there are 30 children a school is erected at the public expense. Epirus, Education in. — Epirus is a mountainous country, forming the south- west angle of Turkey in Europe. The principal school in the country, we learn from Consul Stuart, is the Zosimdan of Janina, so called from the founders, four brothers named Zosima, natives of the country, who, having amassed wealth abroad, bequeathed £18,000 for the foun- dation and endowment of an educational establishment. Their will was executed in 1843, and in 1852 the school was opened. It has since been in uninterrupted opera- tion, and may be said to answer the inten- tions of the founders. It consists of a gymnasium and an academy : in the former there are four classes, with an aggregate of 250 pupils under 8 masters ; in the latter, three classes, 150 pupils, and 4 masters. The curriculum embraces Greek ancient and modern, Latin, French, Italian, and Turkish; mathematics, geography, his- tory, theology, and the elements of physics. The masters are in general respectable, well-educated men. Some of them have studied in Germany, and deservedly enjoy the reputation of superior learning. Preparatory to the Zosimdan, there are four primary schools at Janina, which are conducted on the Lancasterian system of mutual instruction. They are also en- dowed, and their united incomes amount to £320. They have each a master and an assistant-master, and the collective at- tendance varies between 500 to 600. At both the Zosimdan and the primary schools the course of instruction is free. The pupils belong, without distinction, to all creeds and classes, and the sons of the rich enjoy in them no advantage over the sons of the poor. Books are supplied gratis to the children of indigent parents, aud two scholarships or exhibitions have been instituted in the Zosimdan, which entitle the holders to a course of study cost free at the University of Athens. Two girls’ schools, under competent mistresses, have for some years been established at Janina with together, an average attendance of 200. l’ney were founded, and until lately supported, out of monastic property in Wallaehia. Now they are upheld by the inhabitants, who are thoroughly alive to the benefits which the schools are diffusing. The schools of Janina pretend to the character of Metropolitan. |In some of the other towns primary education is well provided for, and there are female schools with good attendance at Metzovo, Arta, and Prevesa. But instruction is not here confined to the endowed establishments or the larger towns, almost every Christian village has its school. In all these schools the teacher contracted with the village council for a fixed sum per annum for so many years. 1119 BECENT MISCELLANEOUS FACTS, 1120 which sum is raised by an assessment on the inhabitants. Switz erland, Education in.— Children, as a rule, are obliged to attend school from the age of six or seven up to fifteen or sixteen. After they have attained a certain age the hours of study are gra- dually reduced, in order that they may begin to assist their families and earn a livelihood. Precautions are taken by the Legislature to insure their not being over- worked by their employers, who are bound to afford them every facility to attend school at the regular hours, and likewise to grant them the necessary time to pre- pare their lessons. In the Cantons of Zurich the authorities carry their solicitude for these classes even to the extent of compelling employers to allow apprentices and young workmen to attend the industrial schools during work- ing hours, without subjecting them to any corresponding reduction in the amount of their wages for loss of time. In the Canton of Geneva, where public instruction is gratuitous but not obligatory, the average number per child of days absence from school (including sickness and all other causes) did not reach 5 per cent, in 1866 ; the number of school-days in this canton being 246. It is a fact worth knowing, that out of a population of 82,876 there were 7401 children attending public schools. S witz erl a nd . — Circulating Libraries , Musical Societies , Sfc ., for working men are to be found even in the most secluded rural communes. The canton of Geneva possesses 43 of these libraries, with 39,000 volumes ; and that of Lucerne 41. In the latter canton, a small strip of territory, there are also sixteen principal choral societies, seventeen musical societies, thirteen theatrical societies, and twenty- five brass bands. Leuzberg, a town of 2000 inhabitants, boasts of possessing 200 pianos; and there is hardly a village which does not possess one or more choral societies and a brass band. Switzerland, Societies of. — There are societies that take charge of orphans, undertake the education of viciously-dis- posed children, relieve poor parents dur- ing working hours of the care of their infants, and assist others in procuring the necessary school-books, where such are not provided gratuitously. Other societies find work for the unem- ployed, or grant them temporary assist- ance; facilitate the sale of, and advance small amounts on, the articles manufac- tured by them. Other associations, again, provide food and a night’s lodging for travelling ap- prentices and workmen, and, if required, assist them to reach the next town where a society of the same kind exists. Societies exist, says Mr. Gould, whose efforts are directed towards providing for the necessitous classes cheap and healthy lodgings, food of good quality at reduced prices, the use of baths, and facilities for washing, bleaching, etc., etc., purchasing or lending tools and agricultural imple- ments, enabling them to obtain small loans on reasonable terms, and encouraging as far as they can habits of cleanliness, order, and economy. There are, besides, Working Men’s As- sociations so numerous and varied in their objects that no place can be found for them here. Prussia. — Expenditure of Families . — The following table shows that in Prussia the percentage of cost of subsistence is greater in a poor family than in either one in middle or in easy circumstances. The percentage of outlay for clothing is approximately, and for lodging invariably, the same in all the three classes. In the Percentage of the Expenditure of a Family of Items of Exp?nditure. 1. Subsistence 2. Clothing 3 . Lodging 4. Firing and lighting 5. Education, public wor- ship, etc 6. Legal protection 7. Care of health 8. Comfort, mental and bodily recreation ... Total A Working Man with an Income of £45 to £60 a-year. 100-0 A Man of the | Of a Person in Intermediate Class easy circumstances (“Mittelstandes”) (des Wohlstandesj with an Income of with an iKCome of from £90 to £120 a-year. Per cent. 65-0- 180 12 0 5 0 d 90'0 ' 5 ) 3 2-0 20 10*0 from £150 to £225 a-year. 15-0 3o j 1000 100-0 1121 B. iCENT MISCELLANEOUS FACTS. 1122 other items the expenditure of the two richer classes is of course greater. The table is taken from the publication of Dr. Engel, the chief of the Statistical Bureau at Berlin. Cost of Provisions in JBerlin . — The ordi- nary price of beef-steak is ‘2s. 8 d. per lb. ; white bread is 6d. for a two-third half- quartern loaf ; tolerable coffee 2s. 8d!. per lb.; tea from 7s. 6d. to 12s.; cauliflower Is. 10 d.; salmon 6s. per lb.; a pair of small ducks 10s. 6d. Beer is cheap and good, but all kinds of wine fetch extrava- gant prices. Workmen’s Decorations, — A badge of distinction (worn externally, like the star of an order of knighthood) was instituted in Belgium in the year 1847, as a special mode of rewarding skilful and meritorious artizans. It is conferred on workmen and artizans, and persons employed in agricul- tural pursuits and in the fisheries, “ of recognized ability and irreproachable con- duct.’’ The order is divided into two classes, the first limited to 500, the sedond to 1200 persons. Those who have obtained this distinction are entitled to wear the “decoration” attached by a tricolour ribbon (the national colours) on the left breast. It consists in an oblong badge of elegant workmanship, of gold for the first class, and silver for the second, relieved by a border of blue enamel, and sur- rounded by a crown. It is accompanied by an artistically engraved diploma, set- ting forth the name, occupation, and qualifications of the recipient. One of the conditions invariably insisted upon in the case of every claimant for the badge is, that his children regularly attend school. Jews. — In North-Western Russia . — The Jewish population are divided into two groups, which difi'er from each other in faith and language. The Jews of the first of these groups are more or less be- lievers in the Talmud ; those of the second group, called the Kara'ims, reject the Tal- mud, and are not altogether believers in the Bible. They have their own traditions, which have been collected into a book, and this has the same authority over them as the Talmud has pver the other Jews. The Jews of the first group speak a cor- rupt German dialect ; those of the second have a language of their own, which is of Tartar origin. The first group, again, contains two religious sects, theMishnaie- dim and the Cassidim. The first are the Talmudists, properly so called ; the Cassi- dim, who are most numerous in Bess- arabia, Yolhynia, Podolia, Lithuania, and Poland, are called by the .Russians “ Ska- kuntchiki.” This sect was formed about the end of the 18th century. Their devo- tions are accompanied by lively gestures and movements, expressive of religious frenzy. Socially, these Jews are divided into four classes — 1. The worldly Jews, who outwardly observe all Jewish cus- toms, but who do not trouble themselves farther about religion. 2. The devout Jews, who pass the greater part of their time in the synagogue. 3. The “Ger- man” Jews, followers of Moses Mendels- sohn. “who have replaced the Jewish costume by modern dress, and the Jewish language with German more or less pure.” 4. The “Epicureans,” who “ not only repudiate all the external manners and customs of the Jews, but also the Tal- mudic code of laws.” In Eastern Russia the majority of the population belong to the first of these classes. Looshais, or Kookies, The, live in comfortable houses, on high and healthy ranges. They are surrounded by pigs and poultry, goats and gyals (a domesticated bison). They shoot and fish, and brew both beer and whisky. The men are of the middle height, well limbed, and fair, with the Indo-Chinese type of face. The fighting-men are armed with flint-muskets, spears, and javelins. Births in Scotland.— Of the 116,127 children born in Scotland during 1871, 60,072 were boys, and 53,055 girls— thus showing that the proportion of the sexes at birth was 107*2 boys for every 100 girls. The preponderance of male births in Scot- land exceeds that observed in Eneland or on the continent of Europe. This pre- ponderance of male births continues year after year to show itself, more especially among the illegitimate births. On the Continent the ratio of male births is lower among the illegitimate than among the legitimate. The usual proportion of the sexes in all births in Scotland is about 105*5 boys to 100 girls. In 1870, when the ratio fell to 104*5 boys to 100 girls, there was a sensible fluctuation; but during 1871 a sudden change in the opposite di- rection occurred, and the observed num- bers of male and female have been in the proportion of 107*2 to 100. Colliers, Longevitf of.— At the Pinx- ton Collieries eight men are at work at the pits whose united ages amount to 536 years, averaging 67 years per man. There are also eight old colliers off work, whose ages amount to 558, averaging nearly 70 years of age ; and fourteen labourers, re- ceiving daily wages, whose united ages amount to 1009, being an average of 78 years per man. Marriage. — Influence on Life. — Taking the ten years 1857-66, M. Bertillon found out that in 1000 persons in France, aged 25 to 30, 4 deaths occurred to the mar- ried, 10*4 in the unmarried, and 22 in widowers ; in females at the same age the mortality among the married and unmar- ried was the same— 9 per 1000, while in widows it was 17. In persons aged from 30 to 35 the mortality among men was, for the married, 11 per 1000; for the unmar- ried, 5 ; and for widowers, 19 per 1000; among women, for the married, 5 ; for the unmarried, 10; and for widows, 15 per 1000. Mint, The. — C oinage of a sovereign now cost3 3 farthings at the Mint; the O O 1123 RECENT MISCELLANEOUS FACTS. 1124 Bank charge for coinage is 1^ farthings, and about 6 farthing* will replace the gold lost by wear in circulation during eighteen years, when it falls below the legal weight. The coinage of two half sovereigns costs about 6 farthings, and about 8 farthings will replace their gold lost in ten years, when they fall below their legal weight. The Bank of England buys standard gold, unless it is in the form of light coin, at the rate of £3 17s. 9d. per ounce, and sells it at the rate of £3 17s. 10$d. The total number of pieces struck at the Mint in 1871 was 30,022,404, of the nominal value of £10,580,061 11s. 5d. ; the proportion of British money being £10,498,686 10s. 5d., of which £9,793,735 was in gold, £692,335 0s. 7d. in silver, and £7,617 9s. lOd. in bronze. The quantity of new gold coin was almost double the yearly average, while the issue of silver was about three times as much as was re- quired in 1869. Lightning, Flash or. — The duration of a flash of lightning is one four hundred and eightieth part of a second. This is discovered by means of a cardboard disc “ rotating at a great, but a known, velo- city, and with a hole in its edge.” The observer places his eye behind the disc, and when the flash comes he sees the hole lengthened into a streak by the lightning shining through it as it moved. The length of the streak shows how much the disc moved while the flash lasted : just a fortieth of a circle. The card turns once in the twelfth of a second, so the flash lasts the fortieth of a twelfth of a second, that is, one four hundred and eightieth of a second. Public Opinion, Value of . — £40,000,000 sterling, as estimated by Prince Bismarck, whose original demand on France was for six milliards of francs, hut who, finding that the public in the United Kingdom thought the demand too high, reduced it spontaneously to five milliards, the difference being exactly £40,000,000. Fashion Plates.— More than 3,000,000 of Coloured Fashion Plates are exported from Paris to England and the United States, annually. Times Newspaper during the Siege of Paris. — First the priming press com- pressed the three or four hundred letters and message into a single page. Secondly, there was the photographic camera that reduced the large page down to a pin’s head dimensions, preserving all the while the integrity of every word of each message. Thirdly, there was the balloon that brought the trained pigeon out of the city to receive the Liliputian letter bag. Fourthly, there was the microscope that magnified the tiny photograph, and brought every dispatch into legibility. Eclipse of 1871. — Expenses incurred by the English and American govern- ments.— The latter Yoted £6,000 in cash, and detached from their offices for three months eight or ten high astronomical professors. The British Government gave £2,000, and lent a troop ship for a month to carry observers to the vantage ground of observation, which has been set down at £1,000. “ About forty astronomers of all ranks, from tyros to professionals/* gave each man a month at least, and spent money in preparing instruments, and pack- ing and transporting them. The money spent by this company is also estimated at £1,000. Two of the learned societies con- tributed £500 to increase the Government grant. Altogether, the money spent, in- dependent of the sacrifices of time, etc., amounted to £12,000 to see the sun “ put out by the moon for two minutes and a quarter.” Colour on the Mind, Effect of. — There can be no doubt that bright red and yellow rays stimulate and, in some cases, irritate the brain and mind. Deep blue is said to depress or exhaust the vital force. Some animals are excited on being brought in contact with scarlet colour. Green, violet, and, in fact, all the neutral tints, soothe the nervous system and allay mental irritation. Those who have the care of the insane, or medical treatment of patients suffering from great brain irritability, should bear these facts in remembrance. — Dr. Forbes Winslow. Turnpike Trusts. — Turnpikes are not yet extinct, but they are fewer year by year. The abstract of the returns for 1870, made by direction of the Secretary of State, has been issued, and shows that in England and North Wales the receipts from tolls, which in 1837 amounted to £1,509,985, had fallen in 1870 to £800,586. This sum was applied as follows : — £165,108 in repair of the roads ; £246,916 in payment of debt and interest ; £80,358 for salaries and law charges j £8,204 for other payments, or on hand. The bonded or mortgage debt at the end of the year 1870 was £2,671,738. The amount of debt discharged in the year was £.03,284, In several instances compositions were ac- cepted of less than 20s. in the pound ; and, in fact, the cash paid was only £171,126. The total number of trusts was 1112 in 1854, but had fallen to 930 in 1870. These statements are exclusive of South Wales, for which the returns are kept distinct, and they show £24,993, pro- duced by tolls in 1870; and £20,316 ap- plied to repair of roads. The debt at the end of the year was but £50,161. Metropolitan Police. — The receipts for the service in the Metropolitan Police for the financial year ending 31st March, 1872, amounted to £9C9,860. This amount included £219,283 from the Parliamentary vote, consisting chiefly of the contribu- tions upon the rental assessed, which is £20,390,173 ; also £554,977 from the parishes on rate warrants ; £97,800 for special services of the police at the public offices and at private establishments ; and 1125 RECENT MISCELLANEOUS PACTS. 1126 £20,715 from proprietors, drivers, and conductors of public carriages. The expenditure included £25,510 for the establishment and office expenses, £711,943 for pay, clothing, and equipment of the force ; £40,235 for erections, pur- chase, rent, repairs, rates, and expenses of police-stations and session-houses ; £19,204 for fuel and light ; £13,472 for horses, vans, carts, etc. ; £6,581 for medi- cal expenses and the funerals of 43 police- officers ; £70,587 for superannuations, in addition to £21,000 supplied from the superannuation fund. The number of persons belonging to the Metropolitan Police force on the 1st of January, 1871, was 9637 — viz., 4 district superintendents, 24 superintendents, 252 inspectors, 949 sergeants, and 8408 con- stables. 2520 men were on the superannuation list. The year’s salaries of the magistrates, clerks, etc., at the Metropolitan police- courts, amounted to £40,205 in the finan- cial year of 1871-72. These are paid from the public purse— the Consolidated Fund or Parliamentary vote. National Gallery, The. — The total amount expended on account of pur- chases for the National Gallery from the date of the commencement to the present time is £337,195 9s. lOd. ; that expended during the same period on ac- count of annual cost and other outgoings, £133,384 11s. ; and that expended on building account, £102,490. The total amount expended on account of purchases for the National Portrait Gallery from the date of its commence- ment to the present time is £14,483 7s.3<2.; that expended during the same period on account of annual cost and other out- goings, £11,395 4s. 9 d.; and that expended on building account (including rent), £4,320 4s. 2 d. Zoological Society. — The number of animals in the gardens is 2072. British Museum. — The number of visitors in 1871 was only 418,094 (exclusive of readers), the smallest annual number since 1866. The number of readers, how- ever, was 105,130, against 98,971 in 1870. Fish Supply. — The total weight of fish supplied to the Metropolis in the year re- cently closed was 116,463 tons. There is, therefore, a very considerable decline, the figures for 1863, giving a return of 132,004 tons. Holidays and Fete Days. — The num- ber of holidays and village fetes in Russia in the course of a year average from 30 to 100 ; in Austria, they are as many as 76 ; and in Turkey amount to 48. They are also very numerous in Spain, Belgium, Italy, and the Catholic parts of Germany and Switzerland. Chimney Raising. — The Cabot Com- pap*r of Brunswick (Maine), in order to ent. ge their cotton-mill moved their large smoke-stack chimney.{78 ft. high, 7ft. 9 in. square at base, 5 ft. square at top, con- taining more than 40,000 bricks, and weighing more than 100 tons) twenty feet, without rollers or balls, or guys or braces to steady it — one of the greatest mechani- cal feats ever performed. It was accom- plished by building such ways as are used in launching ships — surfaces planed and reased, chimney wedged up and moved y two jack screws in four hours and a half. The flues were disconnected from the boiler at one o’clock p.m., and at half- past nine o’clock the same evening the flues were again connected, fires going, and steam up. Liverpool Houses, Condition oe. — The following facts regarding the lower class of dwellings in Liverpool are given on the authority of the Lancet : — The houses are often occupied from cellar to roof by families in every room. In the cellar these wretched creatures hide for shelter who are unable to pay for lodging elsewhere. They lie upon the damp floor often without covering of any kind, or fire or light. There are 25,000 empty cellars from which they may select their lodging, and when driven out of one, they readily find another, with or without the con- nivance of the tenant of the house. No- tices to quit were served last year on up- wards of three thousand of the inhabitants of these illegally-occupied cellars. Fines are useless, and imprisonment avails no- thing. There are 6000 cellars, which are occupied by permission of the law. These are selected according to certain rules. In a street of fifty houses only a single cellar was found licensed for occupation, not because it was better than the rest, but simply because it had been occupied for thirty years by an aged married couple, and was well kept. But ordinarily the occupants of the cellars are in a wretched state. Many of them have neither bed- steads nor bedding. They sleep on the floor beside the drain in the corner of the room. They belong to the very lowest class of labourers— men whose average earnings do not amount to more than 10s. a-week, the half of which is spent in drink. But bad as the cellars are, the state of things is worse above. In the attics there is neither fireplace nor ventilators to let out the fetid air. Hero at night drunken- ness and dirt, wretchedness and rags, beggar description. It has been officially stated that more than half the inmates of the sublet houses are habitual drunkards. They drink, it is said, for very life. The pestilential atmosphere depresses the nerves and rapidly destroys the appetite. It is, therefore, upon drink they are com- pelled to work. Drink is their clothing, drink their only comfort, and but tor drink they most assuredly would die. In not one room in ten is there a bedstead j in not one a wholesome bed. Sunken Lake. — The great natural curiosity, known as Sunken Lake, is situated in the Cascade Mountains, about 1127 RECENT MISCELLANEOUS FACTS. 1128 seventy-five miles north-east of Jackson- ville, Oregon. The walls are two thou- sand feet high, and almost perpendicular, running down into the water, and leaving no beach. The depth is unknown, the surface is smooth and unruffled, and it lies so far below the surface of the moun- tain that the air-currents do not affect it. Its length is estimated at twelve miles, and its breadth at ten. No living man has, it is said, ever reached the water’s edge. The lake lies “silent, still, and mysterious in the bosom of the everlasting hills, like a huge well scooped out by the hands of the G-enii.” Guns, Costly. — The following are the latest prices at which wrought iron steel- lined, muzzle-loading rifled-guns are pro- duced and charged for to the Government departments, minus their sights and ele- vating plates, but including the cost of their proof 12-inch 600 pounder guns, 23 tons weight, £2627 each ; 12-inch 600 pounder guns, 23 tons weight, £1997 each, 11-inch 600 pounder guns, 23 tons weight, £1893 each ; 10-inch 400 pounder guns, 18 tons weight, £3205 each ; 9-inch 250 pounder guns, 12 tons weight, £912 each ; 8-inch 180 pounder guns, 9 tons weight, £693 each ; 7-inch 115 pounder guns, 7 tons weight, £560 each , 7-inch 115 pounder guns, 6^ tons weight, £503 each; 64 pounder guns, 31'5 tons weight, £240 each; 9-pounder guns, 8*20 tons weight, £84 each ; 9-pounder guns, 6 ’50 tons weight, £78 each. In round numbers, these prices show an increase of 400 per cent, over what cast- iron guns cost — that is, taking the old standard for cast-iron guns at £20 per ton. Animals, Wild, Trices of. — Leonine queen, £20; wild ass of Syrian breed, £50 ; kangaroo, £4 ; bear, £5 ; wolf, derbian wallaby, or a hog deer, £5 each ; leopard, £15 ; nylghau, £15 ; cashmere shawl goat, £7 ; Cretan goat, £1 ; racoons and jackals, 25s. to 30s. each. Birds, Trices of . — Peacock pheasants, £30 each ; ringnecked parokeets, 15s. ; rosy wild duck, £8 ; Australian wild duck, £i ; brush turkeys, £10 each ; jungle fowls, £7; trumpeter swan, £15. Vicuna, The, is classed as a species of the llama (so called from a peculiar bril- liancy of the eye, as of a flame or “ llama ”), a graminivorous ruminant, but is not to be confounded with the Alpaca. It i3 chased and killed to obtain its valu- able and silky wool, which is worth about 5s. per lb. in Europe. Its skin can be converted into leather of very close and supple texture, and considerable tensile strength. This animal is a victim of home- sickness even to death. It is the most timid of gregarious animals, the gazelle not excepted. It exists upon herbage, and is found principally in Peru. The flesh is a delicate venison. The Progress of Land and Subma- rine Telegraphs.— The use and deve- lopment of the electric telegraph will occupy a space of some importance in the history of th^* nineteenth century. In- augurated for the first time commercially by the formation of the Electric Telegraph Company, in 1846, it continued during several of the first years of its existence to operate in a comparatively slow and imperfect manner in its simplest form, as a line suspended in air, and it was not until 1851 that it was found practicable to carry on electric communication between places severed from each other by the narrowest intervening sea. From the latter period, however, the aspect of tele- graphy underwent a rapid change. It had been shown that the business of trans- mitting messages was likely to prove profitable, and consequently the inge- nuity of many minds was directed to the improvement and cheapening of the means of transmission with such success that whereas in 1851 there were not more than some 3,000 miles of telegraph in Great Britain, and none in Ireland, nor any sub- marine communication with that country, there are now about 20,000 miles of aerial line in the three kingdoms, and Ireland is united with England and Scotland by sub- marine cable between St. David’s Head and Waterford, between Dublin and Holy- head, between Portpatrick and Donagh- adee, and between the former place and Whitehead, the whole consisting of four cables, of a total length of nearly 200 miles, and containing twenty conductors or communicating wires. The price, too, which was then 8s. 6d., is now Is. for a single message of twenty words between London and Liverpool, and the total re- venue derived at the present moment from telegraphic business in this country alone is little short of half a million ster- ling per annum. Connecting England with the rest of Europe, we have now no less than eight separate cables of an aggregate length of 1,200 miles, and containing altogether twenty-seven conductors of electricity. These start from different points on our coast, and land respectively on the other side in Hanover and Denmark, and at Calais, Boulogne, Dieppe, Pirou, Ostend, and the Hague. The business transmitted by these cables to and from the British Islands averages 2,000 messages daily. On the continent itself there are now over 100,000 miles of air line, and in dif- ferent parts of America not less than 70.000 miles, and if to these we add the lines in India and other parts of Asia, and the submarine cables not yet referred to, we shall find a grand total of more than 220.000 miles of telegraph at work through- out the civilized world, four-fifths of which have been constructed since 1851. By this enormous net-work of rapid intercom- munication, representing more than £8,000,000 of capital, and giving, employ- ment to 70,000 individuals, time is practi- cally annihilated, events of the greatest magnitude are daily and unerringly con 1129 RECENT MISCELLANEOUS FACTS. 1130 trolled and influenced, as well as recorded by the dingy and insignificant-looking wires which cross our streets and railways ; the wants of Government, of commerce, and of the domestic circle being daily and hourly ministered to by their invisible pulsations. Savings’ Banks. — The first savings* banks are supposed to have been founded at Hamburgh, in 1778, and at Berne, Switzer- land, in 1789. They were first established in Great Britain at the beginning of the present century. In 1798, a Friendly Society, for the benefit of women and children, under the management of Mrs. Priscella Wakefield, was established at High Cross ; to which, before 1801, a fund for' loans and a savings’ bank was added. The Rev. Joseph Smith, of Wendover in 1799 circulated proposals to receive any sums on deposit during the summer, and return the amount at Christmas, with the addition of one-third as a bounty to encourage economy. In 1806, the Pro- vident Institution of London was founded, and two years later, a society for receiving deposits from female servants was esta- blished at Bath. The Rev. Hency Duncan, of Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, founded in 1810 the first savings’ bank in Scotland, and assisted to farm the Edinburgh Savings’ Bank in 1814. Savings’ banks were also established in the same year at Kelso and Hawick. In 1815 the savings’ bank at Southampton was established. Acts were passed two years after by the British Parliament for the encouragement of savings’ banks. The first savings’ banks in the United States were founded at Salem, Boston, Philadelphia, and Balti- more, 1816. The City of New York savings’ bank commenced in 1819, and is said now to have become the largest in- stitution of the kind in the States. The number of accounts on 1st January, 1860, amounted to 50,573, and deposits to 9,587,112 dollars, which the assets made up to 10,259,589 dollars. Up to 1863, 101 other savings’ banks had been chartered by the State of New York. In 1858 there were in the United Kingdom 606 savings’ banks, with 1,261 salaried officers and 621 unsalaried, the number of depositors being 1,393,886, and the deposits amounted to £35,757,455. On the first of January, 1859, there were 379 savings’ banks in France. There were 405 savings’ banks in Prussia on the 31st of December, 1857. In that year 127 were reported to be in operation in Holland ; and there were 130 in Sweden at the close of 1858. There were only two in Russia in 1858, one at Moscow, and the other at St. Petersburgh. Joint Stock Banks. — The Bank of England, founded in 1691, was the first joint stock bank, established by royal charter in England, and until 1834 it re- mained the only one. In that year the London and Westminster bank was founded, and was so successful that it was quickly followed by the formation of the London Joint 8tock Bank and the Union Bank of London. Some of the privileges claimed by the Bank of England in oppo- sition to the new banks were found after litigation to be untenable. The private bankers, who were very powerful, strove to suppress their rivals, and for twenty years contrived to exclude them from sharing the advantages of the Bankers’ Clearing House. In 1869 the paid-up capital of the London Joint Stock Banks amounted to about £12,000,000, and the nominal capital to £10,000,000, a sufficient proof of their commercial use- fulness and public appreciation. The House Duty. — There is some curious information in a Parliamentary return moved by Mr. Locke King, re- specting the number of houses assessed to the house duty in the year ending the 5th of April, 1862. The total number of houses was 519,991, and the total amount of inhabited house duty, £S13,333. The returns for Middlesex are interesting, as showing its vast wealth in comparison with other counties. It has 47,591 houses under £30 rent per year, which is the first head ; and one under the last, where the rent is fixed at the moderate sum of £20,000. The next highest rental is in East Surrey, where there is one entry of £2,500. The lowest return is from the county of Radnor, in which the return statee there are 86 houses under £30, 40 under £50, 10 under £100, and one under £150. The total under the following rents are:— Under £30, 205,523; £50, 169,920; £100, 101,948 ; £150, 25,128 ; £200, 7,678 ; £250, 4,126 ; £300, 1,793 ; £350, 1,332 ; £400, 573; £450, 526; £500, 283; £550, 294; £600, 128; £650, 169; £700, 60; £750, 91 ; £800, 51 ; £850, 57 ; £900, 26 ; £950, 36; £1,000, 14; £1,050, 55; £1,100, 16; £1,150, 10; £1,200, 7; £1,250, 20; £1,300, 4; £1,350, 9 ; £1,400, 5; £1,450, 9; £1,600,3. Street Sweeping. — The cleansing of the streets of Paris costs the municipality more than four millions per annum. There are 11,000,000 square metres to be swept every day, of which 2,220,000 are at the cost of the municipality, 5,52'>,000 at the cost of such owners of property as do not subscribe, and 3,560,000 under- taken by the municipality for the subscri- bers. The average cost is 29£ centimes per annum. The personnel comprises sweepers regularly engaged and auxiliaries. They are in two divisions: — 1st, 41 brigades, composed of a chief and 30 sweepers (male or female) ; 2nd, 70, consisting of a chief and twelve sweepers, occupied only half- a-day. There are 931 sweepers employed con- stantly, and 2,630 auxiliaries on an aver- age, of whom 910 are men and 1,720 women. 1131 AGRICULTURAL FACTS, 1132 AGRICULTURAL FACTS. Silkworms’ EGGS. — Comparison of the average cost of rearing in Italy, and of the product of an ounce of silkworms* eggs in 1850, with the same in 1867, 1868, and 1869 : — Cost of rearing, utensils, sale, carriage, etc Mulberry leaves, 7 quintals, at 6 lire per quintal Eggs Total Expenses Average yield of cocoons. Lire C. 30 kilos., at 4 lire 120 00 Litter for manure 6 00 1850. 1867-68-69. Lire C. Lire C. 25 60 Ml 25 00 20 00 #|J 20 00 42 00 • •• • •• 42 00 5 00 ... ... 25 00 92 00 ... #|| 112 00 Total product. 125 00 Total profit ... 33 00 Average yield of cocoons. Lire C. 20 kilos, at 5 lire ... 100 00 Litter for manure... 5 00 Total product ... 105 00 Total profit 7 00 The Italians have experimented on eggs from all countries, and in the yield of 1869 may be found in great or less quantities cocoons raised from eggs imported from Japan, Portugal, Syria, Macedonia, the Caucasus, Corsica, Manchouria, Walla- chia. Chili, Dalmatia, etc. The Japanese eggs are beginning to be seriously infected with disease. Their quality is not considered equal to that of the Italian and Portuguese kinds. The following statement, drawn up at the mu- nicipality of Ceva, gives their comparative yield in silk : — Native Cocoons. 10 = 10 10 = 10 10 = 11 10 = 15 10 = 20 . Imported Portuguese, first year selected, free from double cocoons. 50. Imported Japanese (Green) selected, free from double cocoons. . Japanese (Green) first reproduction, selected as above. . Japanese (Green) Bivoltines imported, selected as above. . Japanese (White) Bivoltines imported, selected as above. The following return of the produce of silk in Italy and the Tyrol in 1868 and 1869, com- pared with the average annual production before the outbreak of the worm disease, was compiled from returns supplied to Her Majesty’s Consul by the Chamber of Com- merce, Milan : — Total Quantity of Raw Silk in Kilogrammes. PROVINCES. Before Outbreak of Silk- worm Disease. In 1868. In 1869. Stock in hand, March, 1870. Observations. Piedmont, Liguria, Sardinia . Lombardy Parma, Piacenza Modena, Reggio, Massa Romagna Marches Umbria Tuscany Neapolitan Provinces Sicily Venetia Tyrol Total 515.000 1,310,000 32.000 43.000 | 205,000 140.000 353.000 163.000 700.000 250.000 247.000 788.000 10.500 16,000 ( 22,500 32.500 C 5,000 40.500 68,000 34,000 453.000 193.000 360.000 917.000 12,000 18.500 27.000 39.000 6,000 46.500 58.000 34.000 462.000 170.000 200,000 660,000 2,000 1,000 6,000 1,000 1,000 6,400 15.000 5,000 40.000 14,600 It is calculated that at the same date there were also in stock in Lombardy 100,000 kilo3. of Asiatic raw and thrown silks. The stock in hand in Lombardy is com- posed in part of raw silk imported from other provinces in course of being worked up. 3,710,000 1,900,000 2,150,000 951,000 1133 AGRICULTURAL FACTS. 1134 . Norwegian Farm consists of the “ Ind- mark,” or home-farm, comprising the cultivated land around the chief dwelling and homestead; the “Udmark,” com- prising uncultivated ground aud pasture ; and the “ Soeter,” which is a chalet on mountain or maorland, where cattle pas- ture during the summer months. The work of the farm is carried on by the “ Huusmcend,” or cotters; these are la- bourers holding cottages with a small piece of land, just sufficient to keep two cows and a few sheep and goats, usually for two lives — that is to say, the cotter’s and his widow’s— with the obligation of rendering a certain number of days’ work at a fixed low rate of wages, varying from 4- 5 1’ © © o ' H ' P Q £, o Q P TO 4 w I O Objects of Foundation, or Purposes to which the Income is applicable. •jooj oqj JO SOS£)[ P?jau8£) j £ 5. d. 1102 18 8 1 1228 10 1 919 5 4 387 2 11 236 10 4 34 13 3 937 1 4 233 17 4 272 13 11 5012 16 2 360 0 6 797 13 4 1611 3 1 •iauojy jo uoijnqtjjeiQ; J £ s. d. 1295 3 6 1984 19 0 1804 8 4 2761 17 9 922 13 9 1946 17 4 2857 18 8 1924 1 2 545 9 6 4415 12 10 2156 6 1 5445 15 0 4918 11 6 •pmq ut sojoijjy jo noijnqtajsiQ £ s. d. 1146 19 1 3189 14 1 2832 7 11 1708 17 10 353 0 8 801 15 0 4040 0 0 1916 7 11 333 17 1 4397 0 7 2013 6 1 6607 2 6 9983 7 4 •sajnmuj Jioqj pun BGsnbqsuqy ao^ £ s. d. 6658 17 1 9683 6 10 3034 4 6 2431 4 0 727 0 8 3242 6 11 5369 2 8 4407 8 2 682 13 2 29633 9 11 9731 18 11 12894 17 0 14872 14 8 •sobxi oqqnj £ s. d. 392 4 7 199 12 0 870 10 0 548 15 1 58 18 6 508 5 3 559 6 7 256 9 8 962 6 8 1777 12 6 1965 17 10 2653 16 7 •saojuossid jo uoijnohpg; £ s. d\ 20 0 0 105 17 4 • •• 1 19 6 3 10 0 8 5 11 60 0 0 86 15 0 693 1 8 38 7 8 •siojstuijy Jcioqj pun diqsio^ jo soonjjSuijuossiQ jo oounuojuin j\[ £ s. d\ 91 8 0 421 0 6 36 1 7 53 19 6 65 10 3 461 12 9 276 16 11 Ml 181 11 5 62 19 2 546 13 11 389 7 9 •sosodjnjqoinqo £ St d. 990 11 6 1552 13 4 976 7 0 217 7 0 323 17 3 766 3 8 1923 18 10 1079 5 0 669 3 11 1726 9 8 1594 14 1 2978 11 11 4995 7 9 •suorarog joj pun ‘sjoanjood ‘AS.IOIO J° sjuoumopug- £ s. d. 671 8 4 625 15 8 438 11 5 291 0 3 72 18 2 1074 5 5 1233 17 6 760 7 2 165 5 4 1182 9 9 779 7 10 636 15 7 1362 9 10 •juouioounApy pun SupijuGjddy £ St d. 3211 17 0 1694 1 11 2091 15 3 1092 14 4 115 0 11 695 0 7 825 15 10 754 1 6 202 4 7 3267 9 10 1477 2 9 3160 14 1 1309 17 4 •noijnonpa; £ s. d. 9458 4 10 6732 8 0 3304 13 9 5562 9 7 1248 15 6 4946 13 7 10808 11 4 7054 6 0 1850 10 5 15027 15 6 8575 0 5 17161 0 10 8473 18 7 Total Former Income. £ s. d. 13819 1 3 20241 10 1 11350 9 5 11525 9 8 3023 8 1 9102 5 0 21520 7 7 12475 5 7 3584 1 1 40175 13 9 20607 6 4 26932 9 6 36522 0 11 Total Gross Income. £ s, d. 24997 18 5 26994 1 9 16169 4 11 15016 8 2 4106 3 3 13586 14 10 28949 4 0 19127 5 1 4649 17 9 64783 4 5 28527 9 1 50508 12 0 50487 13 11 Counties. England. Bedfordshire ... Berkshire Buckingh’mshire Cheshire Cornwall Dorsetshire Essex Hertfordshire ... Huntingdonshire Kent ... Leicestershire ... Middlesex Norfolk 1149 ENDOWED CHARITIES. 1150 1151 INVENTIONS. 1152 INVENTIONS. Air-balloons invented by Gusmac, a Jesuit, in 1729. Revived in France by M. Montgolfier in 1783. Introduced into England in 1784. Air-pumps invented in 1650. Air-guns invented by Guhr, of Nurem- berg, in 1656. Algebra known in Europe in 1300 ; in general use in 1590. Almanacks first published in 1470 by Martin Hkusat Buda. The first alma- nack in England was printed at Oxford in 1673. “ There were,” says Wood, “ thirty thousand of them printed, besides a sheet almanack for twopence that was printed for that year ; and because of the novelty of the said almanack and its title, they lvere all vended. Its sale was so great, that the Society of Booksellers in London bought off the copy for the future, in order to engross it in their own hands. The first printed almanacks were not calcu- lated for one, but for several years, by way, probably, of reducing their cost. Their great features were astrological pre- dictions. The oldest almanack in exist- ence is one for the year 1491, which was printed at Augsburg, in octavo. It bears the name of neither writer nor printer. Its title-page gives the following descrip- tion of its contents “ This small book is divided, as the year is supposed to be, into months. It teaches further when to use food and drink, and when to take physic, according to the nature and influence of the stars ; when to bathe, and how to regulate pregnant women who are fruit- ful ; how children are to be educated, and how to guard against the plague. It is, therefore, a book of medicine.” The work is written throughout in German rhyme, and is plentifully adorned with rude wood- cuts. The “Nautical Almanack” was first published by Dr. Maskeline in 1767. The first almanack in Russia was “ The St. Petersbugh Almanack, for Leap Year, 1728, printed at the typographic establish- ment of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. 5 9 The almanacks issued by the Stationers* Company were characterized rightly by Erskine, who said the worst part of Ro- chester was ladies reading compared with the filth these almanacks contained. Yet we read how the Worshipful Company went up the river in their state barge to present the forthcoming almanacks to his Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury. Alphabet (The Ionic). — Introduced 399 years before Christ. Before this time the Greek letters were but sixteen in number. Anchors invented in 587. Argand Lamps. — These were invented by Aimd Argand, a native of Geneva, about the year 1782, and were introduced for general use in London in 1785. Arquebus, introduced about 1520, and remained in use until after 1567, when the matchlock supplanted it. In 1630 the Hint lock was invented, and the musket was introduced. Baize first manufactured at Colchester in 1660. Barometers invented in 1626 ; wheel barometers in 1668, phosphoric in 1675, pendant ditto in 1695, and marine ditto in 1700. Battering-ram invented 441 years be- fore Christ. Bayonets invented at Bayonne in 1670. First used in England in 1693. At first these had wooden handles fitting into the gun, but in 1699 the socket bayonet was introduced. Bells invented by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, in Campagnia, in or about the year 400. They were first used in France in 550, in Greece in 864, and in the churches of Europe in 900. In Switzerland they first appeared in 1020. The first tuneable set of bells known in England were used in Croyland Abbey, Lincolnshire, in 960. Bellows. — Strabo informs us that the invention of bellows is due to the Scythian philosopher Anacharsis, who lived in the time of Solon. Blankets first made in England in 1340. Blue (Prussian) first made in Berlin in 1704. Bombs invented at Venjo in 1588, and used first in the service of Prance in 1634. Books in their present form were in- vented by Attalus, King of Pergamus in 887. Boots invented 907 years before Christ. Bread first made with yeast by the English about 1650. Bricks first used in England by the Romans. In 1625 their regular size was fixed by Charles I. Bridges (Stone). The first bridge of stone in England was that built at Bow, near Stratford, in 1087. Buckles invented about 1680. Bullets (of Stone) used in 1514. Iron bullets first mentioned in the Eoedera in 1550. Bullion (Assaying of) introduced in 1354. Butter.— The first mention of butter is that of Herodotus, where, in describing the Scythians, he says, “These people pour the milk of their mares into wooden vessels, cause it to be violently stirred or shaken by their blind slaves, and separate the part that arises to the surface, as they consider it more valuable than that which is collected below it. Soon after the death of Hippocrates, we rea£ Shat the Greeks thought the butter which the Thracians ate a wonderful kind of food. ancient Ethiopians appear to have used butter as food. The ancient Germans were butter- makers. 1153 INVENTIONS. 11G4 Calculating Machines.— "From a re- mote period of antiquity machines for cal- culating arithmetical figures were thought of and devised. The simple Greek and Roman “ abacus” consisted of a number of parallel threads, on which were strung a number of beads representing units, tens, hundreds, etc., and resembled the instrument used for the same purpose in China, and called a swanpan. This in- strument in various forms is extensively employed throughout Cnina, and so expert are the Chinese in the use of it, that few Europeans, with the assistance of pen and ink, can keep pace with them. An instrument of this kind was invented by the celebrated inventor of logarithms, Napier. Mr. Edmund Gunter, an emi- nent English mathematician, invented a superior instrument of a similar kind, which was extensively made use of, and was far in advance of anything of the kind previously introduced. Pascal was the inventor of a calculating machine, in which trains of wheels were introduced. Two machines for calculating figures were con- structed in the time of Charles II., by the son of Sir Samuel Morland, the statesman. Between eighty and ninety years ago two others were made by the Earl of Stanhope, and it was reported that certain calcula- tions made in connection with a plan for reducing the national debt were verified by their means. A work by Morland de- scribing his machines is still extant, al- though rare. It is illustrated with twelve plates, in which different parts of the machine ere engraved, and is entitled, “ The Description and Use of Two Arith- metic Instruments ; together with a Short Treatise explaining the ordinary opera- tions of Arithmetic, etc., presented to His Most Excellent Majesty Charles II., by S. Morland, in 1662.” There seems no reason to doubt the practical value of these machines, inasmuch as they were adver- tise! as manufactured for sale by Hum- phrey Adamson, who lived with Jonas JVLoore, Esq., in the Tower of London. Earl Stanhope’s calculating machine was described in the following words : — “ The smallest machine, which is intended for the first two rules of addition and sub- traction, is not larger than an octavo volume ; and by means of dial-plate9, and small indices movable with a steel pin, the operations are performed with undeviating accuracy. The second, and by far the most curious instrument, is about half the size of a common table writing-desk. By this, problems in multiplication and divi- sion, of almost any extent, are solved without the possibility of a mistake, by the simple revolution of a small winch. The multiplier and multiplicand in one instance, and the divisor and dividend in the other, are first properly arranged; then, by turning the winch, the product or quotient is found. What always ap- pears singular and surprising to spectators is, that, in working sums in division, etc., if the operator be inattentive to his busi- ness, and thereby attempts to turn the handle a single revolution more than he ought, he is in9'antly a lmonished of his mistake by the sudden springing up of a small ivory ball.” Mr. Babbage, however, invented a machine of a far more ambi- tious and extraordinary kind, for cal- culating and printing mathematical tables, for which purpose he received a govern- ment grant. After an expenditure of con- siderable time and money, extending over some years, it was completed. By this machine 82 figures were computed in two minutes thirty seconds — 33 figures per minute. There have been many other attempts to perform numerical calcula- tions by the aid of machines, but hitherto such efforts have not been of much prac- tical value. One of the best, if not the be9t machine of the kind, was that exhi- bited in 1851 at the International Exhibi- tion. This machine was 18 inches in length, 9 inches in breadth, and 4 inches in height. It consisted of 3 rows of vertical cylinders, the first row being thirteen in number, the second seven, and the third seven also. U pon each of the first row of cylinders were ten notches, corresponding with the units 1 to 10. Inside each cylinder was a small pulley connected with a lever, set in mo- tion by a slider, which, when the cylinder was turned, from either 9 to 0, orO to 9, set in motion the lever, and communicated its action to the wheels by which the figures were carried over. The pulley connected with the cylinder farthest from the handle was connected with a bell, so as to give warning to the operator should any error be committed, particularly in the operation of division. Upon each of the cylinders in the second row were placed 10 units. These cylinders were movable from right to left upon their axes, and could be fixed at any part in order to make the cyphers in the two cylinders correspond. A spike lays hoi i of, and works the third row of cylinders. A connecting wheel brought about the internal communication of each part by means of nine movable pegs, set in motion by means of an eccentric incision in the dial. This machine was capable of per- forming addition, subtraction, multipli- tion, division, and of extracting the square root. In the performance of the square root the following additional mechanism came into operation. Between every divi- sion of the cylinder in row two was placed a small wheel with a projecting piece near it, which acted upon a lever. When this projecting piece approached the word “ rad” engraved on the cylinder, a handle was turned, when the figures increased by 1. This machine was the invention of Mr. Staffel, and he was awarded a prize medal for it. Several other calculating machines were exhibited in the same year and place, but, compared with the abo\e a they were found wanting both in accuracy and speed. P P 1155 INVENTIONS, 1156 Calipees.— These instruments of mea- surement were invented at Nuremberg in 1540. Calico Printing and the Dutch-loom engine first used in 1670. Calicos first made in Lancashire in 1772. Camera Obscura invented by Babtista Porta in 1515. Candles (of Tallow) took the place of prepared splinters of wood in 1290. Cannons invented in 1330. First used by the English in 1346 ; used first in Eng- land in 1445 ; in Denmark in 1354; by the Spaniards in 1406. The first iron cannons were made in England in 1547 ; first cast by the Catholic missionaries in China in 1636. Caps first worn in 1449. Cards invented for the amusement of Charles VI. in 1380. Carriages introduced into England in 1580 ; into Vienna in 1515. Cast-Iron Pavement. — The first was that used for paving Spur-street, Lei- cester-square, in June, 1817. Chain Shot invented by De Wit, the Dutch Admiral, in 1666. Chairs (Sedan) first used in London. In 1634 a fouiteen years’ patent for their sale was granted to one Duncombe. Chess invented 608 years before Christ. Chimes on Bells invented at Alvest in 1487. Chimneys first introduced in England in 1200, but at first only in the kitchen or large hall. China made in England at Chelsea in 1752; at Bow in 1758; and in several parts of England in 1760 ; by Mr. Wedg- wood in 1762; at Dresden, in Saxony, in 1706. Clocks, called water-clocks, were first used in Rome 158 years before Christ. Clocks and dials were first put up in churches in 913. In 801, clocks were made to strike the hours by the Arabians, and by the Italians in 1300. A striking- clock was used at Westminster in 1368. The first portable striking-clock was made in 1530. The first really effective stnking- cloek m England was one which bore the date 1510, with the maker’s initials “ N. O.” ; this was preserved in Hampton Court Palace. Mr. Richard Harris, of London, invented clocks with pendulums about 1641. To distinguish thei-e from sun- dials, they were first called “ nocturnal, Or night-dials.” Repeating clocks and watches were invented by a maker named Barlow in 1676. Cloth (Woollen) introduced into England in 1191, and first manufactured at Kendal in 1390. Coaches.— Covered carriages appear to have been used by the old Romans. In the year 1588, Duke Julius of Brunswick published an act against riding in coaches, in v\ hich it is said “Our vassals, servants, and kinsmen, without distinction, young and old, have dared to give themselves up to indolence and to riding in coaches, and that few of them provide themselves with well-equipped riding-horses, and with ex- perienced servants and boys acquainted with lhe roads : not being able to suffer any longer this neglect, and being de- sirous to revive the ancient Brunswick mode of riding, handed down to us by our fathers,” etc., etc., under pain of incurring the punishment of felony. Phillip II., of Pomerania-Stettin, published a similar document in 1608. Coaches appear to have been used in France very early. An ordinance of Phillip the Fair, issued in 1294 for suppressing luxury, forbids citi- zens’ wives to ride in coaches. In 1550, however, or near that time, Paris con- tained only three coaches, one belonging to the king’s mistress, Diana de Poictiers, and the third to a corpulent un wieldly gentleman of the court who was unable to ride on horseback. Coaches were first used in England in 1565, the first being that made for the Earl of Rutland. For a long time only ladies of rank made use of them, as they were regarded scornfully by men as effeminate. In 1601 an Act was passed to prevent men riding in coaches on the score of its effeminacy. Coaches began to be common in 1605, and were peiitioned against by the saddlers and others. Hackney coaches introduced in 1634 ; the first four were set up by a Captain Baily. In the following year they were prohibited. In 1637, fifty were allowed ; in 1652, this number was in- creased to two hundred ; in 1654, to three hundred; in 1661, to four hundred; in 1694, to seven hundred. They were first licensed to eight hundred in 1710; to a thousand in 1771 ; to twelve hundred in 1799. In 1661, a stage coach was two days going from London to Oxford, and the “ Flying Coach” was thirteen hours, even in summer weather, when the roads were at their best. Chariots (Hackney) licensed in 1814 to the extent of two hundred. Coin. — Silver was first coined by Phidon, King of Argos 869 b.c. In Rome, silver money was first coined 269 b.c. Gold and silver coins first used in the East. Coin first used in Britain 25 b.c., and in Scotland not until 218 years later. In 1101, round coins were first used in Eng- land. Silver halfpence and farthings were coined in the reign of John, and pence w^re the largest current coins. Gold was first coined in England in 1087; in Bohemia in 1301. In 1531, groats and haP'-groats were the largest silver coin in England. In 1317, a pound of silver was coined into 22 shillings, and in 1352 a pound was coined into 25 shillings ; in 1414 they were increased to 30 shillings; in 150<> a pound of silver was coined into 40 shillings; and in 1530, they were ex- tended to 62. Gold was first coined in Venice in 1316. Shillings were first coined in England in 1068. Crowns and half-crowns were first coined in 1551. Henry III, in- 1157 INTENTIONS. 1158 troduced copper money into France in 1580. Copper money introduced into England by James I. in 1620. The process of milling coin introduced in 1662. Half- pence and farthings first coined by Govern- ment August 16, 1672. Guineas were first coined in 1673. The broad pieces of gold were called in by the Government and coined into guineas in 1732. Five-shilling and three-penny pieces in gold were issued in 1716 and in 1761 ; one million was coined in 1710 from French louis d’ors. Halfpence were issued for the Isle of Man in 1786. Dollars were issued by the Bank at 4s. 9 d. each in March, 1797, and in the December of the same year, seven shilling pieces. In 1816, the old coin of shillings were called in, and half-crowns, shillings, and sixpences were issued. The mint of the United States of America, es. tablished 1793, issued gold and silver coin, in the form of eagles, half-eagles, and quarter- eagles ; the first equal to five-and- forty shillings English, or ten dollars American. Coining- with a die first invented in 1617, and first used in England in 1620. Compass (Seaman’s) invented in China 1120 b.c. ; used in Venice in 1260 ; im- proved at Naples in 1302. Its variations observed in 1500 ; its dipping in 1576. Copper Monet first coined in Scotland by order of Parliament in 1466; in Ire- land in 1399 ; in France in 1580 ; in Eng- land first legally in 1689. Tradesmen’s tokens, or halfpence, were coined in 1672. Penny pieces were first issued in 1797, and halfpence in the beginning of 1800. Culverins first made in England in 1534. Delf (or Delft) earthenware invented at Firenza in 1450. Diamonds first cut and polished at Bruges in 1489. Dice invented 1500 B.c. In 1775 it was calculated that three thousand pairs were stamped in England. Dipping Needle invented by Robert Norman, a compass maker, of Ratcliff, 1580. Distilling first practised in 1150. Diving Bell. — This machine appears to have been known in 1509, and repeated mention of its use occur in historical chronicles from that date. Mr. Wilson, in 1671, explained the construction of an improved diving-bell, which he stated was invented at Amsterdam. Dresden China invented 1702. Engines to extinguish firesinventedl063. England. — The first Geographical Map of England was made in 1520. Engraving on metal indented in 1423- on copper in 1511, improved process intro- duced by Prince Rupert of Palatine in 1648. Engraving process for tints invented by Barable, a Frenchman, in 1761. En- graving on wood invented at Flanders in 1423, revived in 1511 by Albert Durer. Engraving on glass invented at Paris in. 1799 by Bondier. Etching on copper with aqua fortis was introduced in 1512. Exchequer Bills invented in 1695, first circulated by the Bank in 1706. Faenza Earthenware invented in 1299. False Hair introduced by the courtesans in Italy, first brought into- England from France in 1572. Farthings coined in silver by Henry VIII. in 1522, in copper by Charles II. Fire Artillery. — The first in Europe introduced in England in 1347. Fire Engines to force water existed in very ancient times, but the first of the kind now in use, but of a vastly inferior character, was invented by two Dutch- men, each named Jan van der Heide, at Amsterdam. Invented in 1518, in the city of Augsburg. In the ypar 1657, an im- proved engine was introduced at Nurem- berg by John Hantsch. Fire-engines were first known at Paris in 1699. Fortification. The present mode of introduced about 1500. The first work written on the subject was Albert Durer’s of 1527. Vauban greatly improved the art about 1700. Fobks are, comparatively speaking, quite a modern invention. They were first known in Italy towards the end of the 15th centurv. They began to be known in France by the end of the 16th centuiy. Forks were introduced in Eng- land in 1608. Gamut in music invented by Guy L’Areiin in 1025. Gas was first evolved from coal by Dr. Clayton in 1739. It3 first application as an illuminating medium was made by Mr. Murdoch in Cornwall, in 1792. Sir H. Davy, before a Committee of the House of Commons, declared it was not prac- ticable to light London with gas. The first display of gaslight was in Birming- ham on the occasion of the peace re- joicings of 1802. In 1805 the cotton- mills of Phillips and Lee, of Manchester, were lit with ga9. On August 16, 1807, gas-lights were first seen in London at Golden Lane. In 1809 Pall Mall was lighted with gas, and it was introduced for lighting the siiops and streets of London generally in 1814. Gilding with gold leaf invented by Margaritone in 1273. Glass introduced into England by Bene- dict, a monk, in 674. Glass hrst used in England for bottles, &c., in 1557. The first plate-glass made at Lambeth in 1073, in Lancashire in 1773. Window glass first made in England in 1557. Glasses (Musical) invented originally in Germany, revivediu 1760 by Dr. Franklin. Greatly improved in 1799 by some English- man named Cartwright. Green-dye for cotton first invented by Dr. R. Williams in 1777. Grist Mills invented in Ireland in 214. Guineas first coined in 1073, and so called because the gold of which they w r era first composed came from Guinea. 1159 INVENTIONS. 1169 Gunpowder invented by Roger Bacon in the thirteenth century. First manu- factured for use in 1418 in England, although previously used in Spain in 1344. Guns invented in 1330, used by the Moors at the siege of Algesiras in Spain in 1344, at the battle of Cressy in 1346, and at the siege of Calais in the year following. Adopted by Denmark in 1354, used by the Venetians at sea against the Genoese in 1377. First u«ed by the Spanish in 1406. The early English guns were first made of brass in 1635, in 1547 they were made of iron. Bombs and mortars were invented in 1543. Handkerchiefs were first manufactured at Paisley in Scotland in 1743. Heraldry originated in the year 1100. Horse Shoes. — Although the ancients protected the hoofs of their horses with tome covering, horse shoes of the kind now known were not in general use until the ninth century. Hour Glasses invented in Alexandria 210 . Hydraulic fire-engines invented 1682. Hydrometer. — The oldest mention of this instrument belongs to the fifth cen- tury, but its invention has been attributed to Archimedes. One of the first who at- tempted the adaptation of the hydrometer for determining the specific gravity and purity of metals was Monconys. Im- provements were made by Cornelius Meyer and Mr. Boyle about the same time, and afterwards by Fenille, Fahren- heit, Clarke, Leutmann, and others. Inoculation for Small-pox first tried on criminals in 1721. Vaccine introduced in 1799. Knitting Stockings invented in Spain about 1 550. Lace. — The knitting of lace is a German invention, which was first known about the middle of the sixteenth century. It has been ascribed to Barbara Uttmann, who died in 1575 in the sixty-first year of her age, after she had seen sixty-four children and grandchildren. Lamp (Sir Humphry Davy’s safety) for preventing explosions by fire damp in coal mines 1815. Lanterns invented by Alfred the Great 890. Leaden Water-pipes first used in 1236. Leyden Flask invented by Von Kliest in 1745. Life-Boats invented by Mr. Greathead, who received a premium from Parliament in May, 1802. Linen when first made in England was regarded as a great luxury, and was very costly. A company of linen-weavers from the Netherlands came over and was established in London in 1386. Linen-dyeing first known in England in 1579. Lithographic Printing first brought into England in 1801. Log-line in Navigation used in 1570 Magic Lanterns invented by Roger Bacon in 1252. Magnets first made in England in 1751. Magnifying Glasses first made in England by Roger Bacon 1260. Maps and Globes invented by Anaxi- mander 600 b.c. Marble Paper. — A German invention belonging to the seventeenth century. Medicinal Simples first brought into Europe, from the East, in 1200. Metallic Tractors invented by Mr. Perkins, of America, in 1798. Microscopes first used in Germany in 1621. Improved by Torricelli in 1624. Solar Microscopes were invented in 1740. Mirrors (Silvering) invented by Praxi- teles 228 years b.c. Musical Notes invented in 1070 ; improved 1330. Navigable Canal. The first English one 1134. Needles first made in England by a native of India in 1545; re-invented by Christopher Greening in 1530, and manu- factured in Bucks. Oak Saw-dust first used for tanning. Organs invented in 758. Padlocks invented at Nuremberg in 1540. Paper Hangings. — The invention of hangings of paper to take the place of other more costly hangings, has been at- tributed to a manufacturer of paper hang- ings, named Breitkopf, of Leipsic. That kind known as velvet-paper is said to have been invented by Jerome Lanyer, an Englishman, who received a patent for it in 1634, although the invention has also been claimed for Francois, a Frenchman, who is asserted to have introduced it at Rouen in 1620. Paper made of Cotton, in use in 1000. Made of linen rags in 1319. First intro- duced in England in 1588, when it was manufactured at Dartford in Kent. White paper first made there in 1690. Paper was made from straw in 1800. Paper Money first used in America in 1740, and revived in 1788. Parchment invented by King Attalus, of Pergamus, 887. Paving with Stones first introduced at Paris in 1186. Pearl Ashes first manufactured in Ireland in 1783. Pearls (Artificial) invented 1696. Pendulums lor clocks invented 1656. Penny Post introduced for London and its suburbs by an upholsterer named Murray in 1681. Adopted by the Govern- ment in 1711. First set up in 1774 in Dublin. Carried out on an enlarged scale in 1794, and made a twopenny post in 1801. For more recent facts, see page 794. Pens. — The style or point of bone and metal, which whs used for writing on tables coated with wax, gave place to the reed, pointed and split, and used as a pen with some coloured liquids. These were gradually abaudoned in favour of quills. 1161 INVENTIONS. 1162 The first known record of quills being used for pens is that of Isidore, who died in 635. The substitution of steel for quill pens took place early in the present cen- tury, yet, strange to say, nothing is kno wn with certainty of the person who first in- vented the metallic pen. The honour of its invention has been claimed for three cities, Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and London, and it has been asserted that the idea to which it owed its existence is due to a Mr. William Gadbury, a mathe- matical instrument maker, who con- structed a pen from two pieces of a steel watch spring. Quill pens, from a passage in a work by Isidore, are supposed to have been introduced previous to the year 636. Phosphorus first. made in 1677. Physic Garden. — The first cultivated in England was that of a surgeon named John Gerrard, of London, in 1567. That of Oxford, endowed by the Earl of Danby, was commenced in 1652 ; and that of Cam- bridge in 1763. A Physic Garden was introduced at Chelsea in J732. Pins were brought from France in 1543, and first used in England by Ca’herine Howard, queen of Henry VIII. Before that time both sexes used ribbons, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, hooks and eyes, and small skewers made of gold, silver, and brass. Pipes of Lead, for water, first cast in 1539. Pistols first used by the cavalry in 1544. Pitch and tar first made from pit coal at Bristol in 1779. Plaster of Paris. Casting with it from the face invented in 1470, by And. Verocchio. Porcelain of Saxony greatlv improved in 17u6, and at Chelsea, in England, in 1752. Port-holes introduced for ships of war in 1545. Posts established regularly between London and all the principal towns throughout the country in 1635. Post-horses and Stages. This system was invented in 1433. Post-offices first established in Paris in 1462, in England in 1581, in Germany in 1641, in Turkey in 1740. Regulated by the English Government and made general in 1656, in Scotland in 1695. The first mail conveyed by stage-coach started on August 2, 1785. Pottery improved greatly by Wedg- wood in 1763. Printing invented by Faust in 1441, made public by Gottenburg in 1454. Wooden type first used in 1470, introduced into England by William Caxton, a Lon- don mercer, in 1471. The first press set tip in Westminster Abbey, where it re- mained until 1494. The first patent for printing was granted in 1591. Printing in Colours first introduced in 1826. Quicksilver first used for refining silver ore in 1540. Ribbon Loom. — Mr. Jacobson has as- serted ihat these looms were first known to the Swiss, but ot tiers claim their inven- tion for a German in the town of Dantzic in the sixteenth centurv. It is said that the town council caused the machine to be suppressed, lest it should throw the work- men out of employ, and moreover caused the inventor to be privately strangled, or drowned, le3t he should make his inven- tion known to others elsewhere. Ruling Macbines invented by a Dutch- man in London in 1792. Saddles. — Pliny informs us that one Pelethronius was the fir*t to introduce a piece of leather fastended to the back of a horse for the accommodation of its rider. For a long time these cloths and pieces of leather were regarded as unmanly, and were, therefore, regarded by soldiers with great scorn. The old German races de- spised the Roman cavalry for riding on such effeminate contrivances. Saddles of the kind now in use appear to have been in use in 385. Sailcloth first made in England in 1590. Salting Herrings after the Dutch method first used in 1416. Saltpetre first manufactured in Eng- land in 1625. Saws. — The inventor of the saw is said by the old Greek writers to be Talus or Perdox. Pliny ascribes the invention to Dcedalus, but Hardouia affirms that the passage in which he does so refers to Talus, and not to Dcedalus. Talus was the son of a sister of Dcedalus, and the invention is said to be due to his using the jaw-bone of a snake to cut through apiece of wood. His master grew jealous of the honour Talus won by this invention, and caused him to be privately put to death. Scarlet Dye first used in England at Bow, near Stratford, in 1643. Sedan Chairs introduced into England in 1734. Sextant invented by Tycho Brahe at Augsburg in 1550. Side-saddles first u«ed in 1380. Pre- vious to their introduction women always rode astride. Soap, first made in London and Bristol in 1524. The first express mention of soap occurs in Pliny and Galen. The former speaks of it as an invention of the Gauls. Speaking-trumpets invented by Kir- cher, a Jesuit, in 1652. Spectacles invented by Spina, a monk of Pisa, in 1299. Spinning-wheel invented at Bruns- wick in 1530. Steam applied to boats in 1810 in America. Steamboat established to run between Norwich and Yarmouth in 1813. A steamboat large enough to convey 3*00 persons, the first of its kind, commenced runningbetween Limehouse and Gravesend in 1315. Steel. — The invention of steel is of very great antiquity, as the process of harden- ing iron is deG ”;?,d * K e01d Testament 1163 INVENTIONS. 1164 (Isaiah xliv. 12). The helmet of Hercules, described in Hesiod, appears to have been of steel. Homers refers to the process of hardening steel by immersing it while red hot in cold water. Stereotype Printing invented by Wil- liam Gid, a goldsmith of Edinburgh, in 1735. Stocking-knitting. — A poor curate of Nottinghamshire, William Lee, loved a maiden who could not afford to quit her knitting of woollen stockings to listen to his love-making. Whereupon he set his wits to work, and in 1589 invented the stocking-frame. He removed to London, where Queen Elizabeth was brought to see his ingenious invention by Lord Hudson. Then quoth her Majesty, “My Lord, I have too much love to my poor people who obtain their bread by the employment of knitting, to give my money to forward an invention which will lend to their ruin, by depriving them of employment and thus make them beggars. Had Mr. Lee made a machine that would have made silk stockings, I should, I think, have been somewhat j U9tified in granting him a patent for that monopoly, which would have affected only a small number of my sub- ject ; but to enjoy the exclusive privilege of making stockings for the whole of my subjects is too important to grant to any individual.” Poor Lee was doubtless bit- terly disappointed, but not altogether dis- heartened, for in 1596 he had applied his machine to the making of silken hose, when the French Ambassador tempted him to go to Eouen. But in 1610 he returned still disappointed and nearly heartbroken to England. In 1621 a miller of Ihorston, in Notts, greatly improved Lee’s dis- covery, and from time onward the frame- work-knitters grew and multiplied rapidly, and in 1663 they were made a “body cor- porate.” The corporation of framework- knitters existed in one form or another up to 1753. Stockings of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France in 1547. In 1560 a pair of black silk knit stockings was presented to Queen Elizabeth by her “ silk- woman ” Mrs. Montague, and with these the great Queen was so pleased that she never again wore a pair of cloth hose. It was much talked about when Edward VI. received the gift from Sir Thomas Gresham of a pair of Spanish silk stockings. The weaving of silk stockings was invented by the Rev. Mr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 15P9. Stirrups, according to a statement made by the Emperor Mauritius, were first used in the sixth century. There is no mention of stirrups being used in the old Greek and Latin writings. Hippo- crates and Galen speak of a disease which, in their time, was occasioned by long and frequent iidir.g, because the legs hung down without any support. Sugar first mentioned in 625 by Paul Egiuetta, a physician. It came originally from China and the east ; was pruduced in Sicily in 1148, in Madeira in 1419, in the Canary Islands in 1503, and in the West Indies by the Portuguese and Spaniards in 1510. In 1641 it was cultivated at Bar- badoes. Sugar-refining was first carried out by a Venetian in 1503, and this process was adopted in England in 1569. Sugar was first taxed by the English Government in 1695. Sun-di als invented 558 b.c. The first in Home, 308 b.c., was that erected by Papirius Cuvsur, when time was divided into hours. Taffety, — This species of silken manu- facture was once iu high repute. It was worn by the old queens of England, where it was first made by .John Lyce, of Shore- ditch in 1598, during the reign of Eliza- beth. Tanning Leather. — A new and more expeditious method thau that previously in use was invented in 1795. TELEGRiPHS (mechanical) invented in 1687. First used by the French in 1794, and by the English in 1796. Telescopes invented by Z. Jansen, a spectacle-maker at Middleburgh, in 1590. The first reflecting telescope made on the principle discovered by Sir Isaac Newton in 1692. Thermometers first invented by Drebel, a Dutchman, in 1620; improved by Reau- mur in 1730, and by Fahrenheit in 1749. Thread first made at Paisley in 1722. Ventilators first introduced by the Rev. Dr. Hales in 1740. Violins of the modern kind invented about 1477. Introduced into England by Charles II. Wall-papers first used in Spain and Holland in 1515. Flock or velvet wall- papers were first used in 1620. War Ships. — In 1814 Sir Robert Sep- pings introduced various most important improvements for the construction of war ships. The lower parts of the frames of ships of war were then, for the first time, filled in, a system of diagonal trussing was introduced, the stern was altered in form, so that it no longer remained open to the fire of an enemy, and the upper decks were enlarged. Sir W. Symonds altered them so as to decrease the quantity of ballast required in 1832. In the Inter- national Exhibition of 1851 various im- provements in this direction were shown, but the great iron-cased ships now in vogue were not then thought of. In July,. 1854 the first of a new class of screw gun vessels, designed by Messrs. GreeD, was launched for use during the Russian war. To operate with these, vessels of ircn were constructed to bombard the fortresses in the Baltic. The first French iron-cased ship M as a frigate called the “ Gloire,” and this was quickly followed by the first English ship of that kind, the “ Warrior.” Since then vessels of this kind have been subject to a variety of alterations and ex- periments tending to improve both their s'.recgth and their sailing qualities. 1165 CURIOUS MISCELLANEOUS FACTS, 1166 Watches. — . f we except the watch said to have been in possession of Robert Bruce, King of Scotland, which anti- quarians have regarded incredulously, the earliest existing watch appears to be one which m\ as preserved in the museum of Sir Ashtcn Lever, which bore the date 1541. Some of the oldest watches struck the hours. We read how some thieves, who had stolen the watches of Charles Y. and Louis XI. in a crowd, being de- tected by the watches striking while in their possession. Watches began to be commonly parried in the latter end of the reign of Qaeen Elizabeth. When Guy Fawkes was taken prisoner a watch was found upon him, which he had bought the day before. Repeating watches were in- troduced it the time of Charles II., and one of the first made was sent as a present to Louis XI V. Watches were invented at Nuremberg in 1477, and were first intro- duced intc England from Germany in 1577. Water- (Tills for grinding corn are said to have be en invented by Belisarius when Rome was besieged by the Goths in 555. Pliny, however, mentions wheels turned by water. Weather-Cocks.— The earliest mention of a weather-cock is that made by Vitru- vius, concerning that on the tower built at Athens by Andronic is Cyrrhestes. Wild-fire invented, by a Greek in 663. Wind or Air Guns invented at Nurem- berg in 1560. Wire invented at Nuremberg in 1351. Wire-Drawing. — The first record we have of this art is probably that contained in Holy Writ, where we are told that gold was beaten and cut to threads, so that it could be interwoven in cloth. The present mode of forming metallic threads, that known as wire-drawing, was first known in the fourteenth century. Woollen Cloth. — Although the mak- ing of woollen cloth is one of the most ancient arts, it3 manufacture was not known in France until 1646, when it was made at Sedan. It was first made in England in 1331, but was not dyed or dressed until 1667, CURIOUS MISCELLANEOUS FACTS. Amount of Pressure borne by Ani- mal Life inProfound Depths. —The real amount of pressure borne by animal life in profound depths, is truly an interesting element for consideration and experiment. At 16 fathoms a living creature would have to sustain only about 60 lbs. to the square inch, and at 60 fathoms as much as lbO lbs. ; at 100 fathoms depth the pres- sure would amount to 285 lbs., and at 700 fathoms, the creature must bear with im- punity a quantity equal to 1,830 lbs. upon the square inch ; while the pressure of 1 ,000 fathoms of superincumbent water on the same area considerably exceeds a ton. Consumption of Bread. — Estimating that there are at the least 24,000,000 of bread-consumers in Great Britain and Ireland (leaving out the 4,000,000 of po- tato-eaters), and allowing each person one and a half loaves per week, it is 36,000,000 of loaves. Admitting that each quarter of wheat makes 136 loaves of bread, it re- quires 168,656 quarters of wheat per week. To this add 10 per cent, for flour used in other articles, and it gives 295,521 quarters as the weekly consumption of wheat, or 15,367,092 quarters annually. A quarter of wheat will give 50 lbs. of flour per bushel, of the quality which makes best seconds bread, 400 lbs. altogether ; and that quantity of flour will make 134 quartern loaves. A quarter of wheat ground into flour, and taking out only the rough bran, say about 5 lb. to the bushel, will yield 68 lb. per bushel of such flour, and that will make 141 loaves the quarter. A quarter of wheat ground down into rough meal, without taking any bran, will give 62 lbs. or 63 lbs. of meal, and that will make about 166 loaves of healthy good brown bread. Alkali Manufacture. — M r. Vivian stated in 1863 in the House of Commons, in the discussion in Committee on the Bill for the regulation of alkali works, that the measure proposed to institute control over one of the largest and most important manufactories of the country, the statistics of which could not be expressed by hun- dreds, or even by thousands, but only by millions. The alkali manufacturer, he says, consumes, 1,761,000 tons of raw material, and produces 280,000 tons of finished goods, of the yearly value of £2,500,000. The capital involved in the trade amounts to more than 200 millions sterling. The “hands” directly and in- directly employed in the trade are 19,000, involving the maintenance of nearly 100,000 souls, the wages paid being £871,750 per annum. The trade, too, gives employment to a large quantity of shipping, for the esti- mated tonnage of the raw materials and finished goods is 2,500,000 tons per an- num. The Value of Property in the City of London. — When the freehold was re- quired for the New Meat Market at Smithfield, the trustees of Lady Hatton’s Charity made a claim for compensation amounting to £3,600. In 1615, Lady 1167 CURIOUS MISCELLANEOUS FACTS, 1168 Elizabeth Hatton left £500 to the poor of St. Andrew's, Holborn. Of the sum, £250 was vested in the property in ques- tion. The first lease was £35 per annum, then £75, then £90, and in 1860, £100 a year. Property had greatly increased in value in the city, in consequence of several projects, and it was said “ fabulous ” sums were now demanded. The trustees claimed £3,600, and the highest value on the part of the city was £2,530. The special jury assessed the compensation at £3.000. Materials used in the 1862 Exhibi- tion Building.— Bricks, 17,250,000; lime, 5,611 cubic yards ; sand, 18,352 cubic yards ; ballast, 8,632 cubic yards ; cement and plaster, 47,105 bushels ; cast-iron, 4,953 tuns ; wrought-iron, 2,269 tons ; tim- ber, 439,178 cubic feet, 2,238,722 lineal feet, 9 inch by 3 inch battens, deals, and planks; stone, 62,831 superficial feet, 6 inches thick and under; ditto, 6,877 cubic feet; zinc, 225,864 superficial feet ; lead, 74 tons 14 cwt. ; felt, 623,000 superficial feet; slating, 71,260 superficial feet; glass, 216,8(6 panes, containing 667,542 superficial feet; putty, 95 tons 16 cwt.; nails, 193 tons 12 cwt. ; cash paid in labour, £138,348. Street Paving. — Isidorous tells us that the Carthagenians were the first to pave their streets, although we are informed by the vain-glorious inscriptions of Semira- m:s, that long before that period she caused paved highways to be constructed. The first real Roman paved way was that of Appius Claudius, known as the Appian way, but the time when the streets of Rome were first paved, cannot be distinct- ly ascertained ; it was probably in the year 459, dating from the year of its foun- dation. Cordova in Spain was paved by the fourth Spanish Caliph, probably in 850. Paving was introduced into Paris in 1184, on which occasion the name of that great city was changed from Lutetia to Paris. Dijon had paved streets as early as the year 1391. Street paving was first known in London in 1417, when Holborn and some other of the principal streets were paved ; other streets were paved in the reign of Henry VIII. In 1541 some of the suburban streets were paved. In 1571 and in 1605 other streets were paved for the first time. In 1614, bmithfield was first paved. (See also page 731.) London Bridge, Early History or. —If we may trust the statement made by Dion Cassius, when recording the invasion of Britain by the Emperor Claudius I., a.d. 44, at a time when London was a mere village of little hive-shaped huts made from reeds, bark, and boughs, the Thames even then had its bridge, although we must confess that we regard the Roman chronicler’s statement somewhat incredu- lously. The destruction of London Bridge by King Olaf, when he fought on behalf of King Ethelred, shows that bridge to have been erected on piles, by destroying J which Olaf brought down the bridge and its defenders into the water, to which fact there is little doubt we owe the refrain of the old nursery song, (: London Bridge is broken down.” London Bridge is men- tioned in the laws of King Ethelred, where it states that, “ Whoever shall come to the bridge in a boat in which there are fish, he himself being a dealer, shall pay one half- penny for toll; and if it be a large vessel, one penny.” Maitland surmises that the wooden London Bridge was erected be- tween the years 993 and 1016, to prevent the Danish incursions up the rivrr. In the year 1091, during a terrible whirlwind, the Thames rose, and ran with such violence, that the bridge was swept away. Iu 1097 King William Rufus imposed a heavy tax upon bis subjects for the re- building of London Bridge. In 1136, London Bridge was destroyed by fire. In 1176, Peter, the chaplain of Colechurch, began to re-build Loudon Bridge of stone. The work took thirty-three years for its completion. In consisted of a stone plat- form 926 feet long by 40 wide, raised 60 feet above the level of the water. It had a draw-bridge, 19 broad-pointed arches, and massive piers varying from 25 to 34 feet in solidity, raised upon strong elm piles covered by thick planks bolted together. In 1213 fire again destroyed the bridge, and a terribly severe winter came in 1281, one of the doings of which was the de- struction of five of the arches of the new London Bridge, which appears to have re- mained unrepaired for a very long time. For an account of the modern bridge, see page 731. Lotteries. — The first English lottery was drawn a.d. 1589. It consisted of forty thousand lots, at ten shillings each lot. The prizes were plate, and the profits were to go towards repairing the havens of the kingdom. It was drawn (as Markland, from Stow, informs us, vol. 1, p. 257) at the west door of St. Paul’s Cathedral. The drawing began on the 11th January, 1569, and continued incessantly, day and night, until the 6th of May following. The proposals for this lottery were pub- lished in the years 1567 and 1568. It was at first intended to have been drawn at the house of Mr. Dericke, Her Majesty’s servant ( i.e ., her jeweller), but was after- wards drawn as above-mentioned. Dr. Rawlinson showed the Society of Antiquaries in 1748 a copy of the preceding lottery scheme, and it is thus entitled : “A proposal for a very rich lottery; general ; without blanks ; containing a great number of good prizes, as well of ready money as of plate, and certain sorts of merchandizes, having been valued and prized by the commandments of the Queen’s most excellent Majesty’s order, to the intent that such commodities as may chance to arise thereof, after the charges borne, may be converted towards the reparation of the havens, and strength of the realm, and towards such other good works. The number of lots shall be forty 1169 CURIOUS MISCELLANEOUS FACTS. 1170 thousand, and no more, and every lot shall be the sum of ten shillings sterling only, and no more. To be filled by the feast of St. Bartholomew. The show of prizes are to be seen in Cheapside, at the sign of the Queen’s Arms, at the house of Mr. Dericke, goldsmith, servant to the Queen. Printed by Henry Bynsman, 1567.” In 1611 King James, for the special encouragement of the plantation of English colonies in Virginia, granted a lottery to be held at the west end of St. Paul’s. One Thomas Sharply?, tailor, of London, had the chief prize, amounting to 4,000 crowns in “ faire plate.” In the reign of Queen Anne it was thought necessary to suppress lotteries as nuisances to the public. In the reign of George I. it was found expedient to revive them, as helps to government in bribing the representatives of the people to vote away the rights and property of their constituents : — “ To raise a new fund to pay placeman their wages.” In the reign of George III. they were still continued ; no longer, certainly, for purposes of bribery, but for a purpose equally flagitious, that of supporting a Christian government by means of the worst vices that can possibly afflict a com- munity. A Safety Beacon on the Goodwin Sands. — A safety beacon was erected on the Goodwin Sands in the Downs. It consists of a column about forty feet above the level of the sea, surmounted by a flag- staff two feet high. There is a gallery large enough to hold twenty persons round the top of the column, made of sail cloth, access to which is easy by ropes and cleets. A barrel of fresh water, together with a painted bag, enclosing a flag of distress, is stationed on the gallery, and the words, “ Hoist the flag,” painted in the language of all nations, on boards placed round the inner part of the gallery, so the foreigner as well as the native sea- man may be enabled to show a signal of distress, and obtain help from shore, which about seven miles distant from the beacon. The means by which the beacon was erected is so extraordinary a place, as the Goodwin Sands are as follows:— The foundation of the column is several feet below the surface of the sand, and is secured in the centre of a stout oak plat- form, extending from it on either side several yards. This is secured by upwards of two tons of pig-iron, ballast being lashed to it. It addition to this, eight stout iron bars, each six feet long, are driven obliquely in each quarter of the column, and also two put at a distance of twelve feet on each quarter, and chains attached to them, communicating with the upper part of the column and the gallery. The sands for three or four hours during the tides are high and dry, and present a fine tract of level, extending for several miles. Captain Bu lock, R.N\, was the inventor of this remarkable beacon. Since the erection of the above pillar, Lieut. Worthington has constructed a model, fifteen feet in extent, of an erection upon the Goodwin Sands, upon a more compre- prehensive scale than Captain Bullock’s beacon. Lieut. Worthington’s plan ex- hibits an equilateral triangle, fastened by by a perpendicular upright in the centre, at the bottom of which, and of each of the three uprights which form the triangle, there is a massive boss, or circle, of cast- iron, ten feet high, flanked by cast iron at right angles, at the bottom, of five feet in width. Upon these four massive bases the whole wooden superstructure is built. These iron bosses are sunk into the sand, which is supposed to have three several strata : first, loose, shifting sand ; secondly, more settled, or concrete sand; and thirdly, chalk rock. When once fixed the machine is supposed to be immovable. It is upwards of forty feet in height, and its sides are forty feet in length. Its visibility in thick and blowing weather is of the utmost importance. The triangular form gives the greatest stability, as it presents the least resistance to wind and sea. The angles may be so placed as to point to the most open and exposed parts of the horizon, and the up- right principals are constructed in a manner to combine strength and to afford facilities for mounting the framework without being weakened by mortices. The framework does not embody large masses of timber, but it is so arranged as to com- bine the greatest possible firmness. The most simple and ready facilities are placed to afford ascent and descent in every case. The platform on the top braces the whole together very strongly. On that platform there is a beacon and a round house ; the former crowns the latter and may be seen from afar by its elevated position. A light, a boat, a gun, a bell, a flagstaff, and every minor requisite that might be brought into use upon emergencies, are also provided. By a little attention it will be perceived that if any one of the angles should be inclined to settle more than the others there is a reciprocal force, in a threefold degree, acting against it ; it can scarcely be imagined how one part of the beacon could sink down, or be lifted up, without the whole moving together, and the latter is inconceivable. It is added that it would cost the government but a trifling sum compared with its im- portance, to carry Mr. Worthington’s scheme into complete and, it is believed, successful effect. Burnino Coal Mines. — In March, 1863, a remarkable conflagration broke out in the coal mines of Commentry, in the department of Allier. It appears that this fire, which for the previous four-and- twenty years had been silently smoulder- ing in the bowels of the earth, revealing its existence by perpetual smoke and occasional outbreaks of flames, which. 1171 CURIOUS MISCELLANEOUS FACTS, 1172 however, had always been confined within the limits abandoned to its dominion, at length tr ade its way ihrouih some breech into one of the vast galleries of these ex- tensive workings ; and th- re, meeting with the air-curi ent so long denied it, spread through all the subterranean chambers and passages with a rapidity before which re- sistance became utterly powerless, show- ing itself at every crevice and outlet of the vast labyrinth, flinging ic points and columns of fire far up into the air, throngn all the shafts that led into the wide field of the rich deposit. Neither Vesuvius, nor any eruption (say the accounts) can give a notion of the dreadful and sublime scene. It was at length extinguished by laying the ruins under water, which ap- pears to have been a vast labour, execured with extraordinary promptitude. The nearest river flowed thirty-eight metres beneath the coal-field. A minute survey of the ground was, however, made, and established tbe possibility of turning the course of a tributary stream, which flowed at a distante of 4,300 metres. The work was instantly commenced ; the ground formations for the bed of the deviation occupied forty-eight hours, and twice that interval of time sufficed to execute and arrange in their places certain wooden conduits, destined to traverse several in- tervening hollows. At length the waters, so impatiently expected, arrived, pouring into the burning mine 2,000 cubic metres of water per day. All the subterranean works were thus placed under water, and a system of irrigation established on the burning mass, which not only extinguished the immediate conflagration, but that also which had been in operation for twenty- four years past. Printing the First Bible for the Blind. — The first copy of the Bible ever printed for the use of the blind was com- pleted by Mr. Alston, at the Blind Asylum, Glasgow. It was in fifteen vo umes, super royal, quarto, double pica ; nine volumes of 200 copies each, or six volumes of 250 copies each ; in all, 3,300 volumes. There are 2,470 pages, each page contain- ing thirty-seven lines ; 1,160 reams of paper, weighing 8^ lbs. each ream, 9,860 lbs. The paper was made on pur- pose, strongly sized, to retain the im- pression. In order to account for the great size of the work it must be remem- bered that it can only be printed on one side of the paper, and that the letters re- quire to be of a considerable size, in order to suit the touch. The printing is effected by a copper-plate printing press. The types being strongly relieved, and liable to give way under the heavy pressure re- quired, it was found necessary to have them recast four times during the progress of the work. There were in the operative department one man and one boy as com- positors, who were taught in the Institu- tion ; and one pressman, the ordinary teacher acting as corrector of the press. Tbe New Testament was completed in fonr volumes, suD^r-royal quarto, in great primer. It contains 623 pages, forty-two lines in each page, 450 reams of paper, the same as made f >r the Bible, weighing 3,825 lbs., 25h copies. Singular Experiments with Glass Tubes. — A most remarkable phenomenon is produced in glass tubes under certain circumstances. When these are laid before a fire in a horizontal position, having their extremities properly supported, they acquire a rotatory motion around their axis, and also a progressive motion towards the fire, even when their sup- ports are declining from the fire. When the progressive motion of the tubes towards the fire is stopped by any obstacle this rotation still continues. When the tubes are placed in a nearly upright posi- tion, bearing to the right hand, the motion wilt be from east to west, but if they lean to the left hand the motion will be from east to west, and the nearer they are placed to the upright posture the less will the motion be either way. If tbe tube be placed horizontally on a glass plane (the fragment, for instance, of coach window glass), instead of moving towards tbe fire it wi l move from it, and about its axis, in a contrary direction to what it had done before ; nay, it will recede from the fire and move a little upwards, when the plane inclines towards the fire. These experi- ments succeed best with tubes about twenty to twenty-two inches long, which have in each end a pretty strong pin fixed in cork for their axis. Digging. — It has been calculated that in digging a square perch of ground, with spits of the usual dimensions of seven by eight inches, the spade is thrust into the ground 700 times ; and that as each spadeful of earth — if the spade penetrate, as it ought to, nine inches —weighs on the average quite 17 lbs., there are 11,900 lbs. of earth in a perch 9 ins. deep. As there are 100 perches or rods in an acre, in digging it 112,000 spadesful of earth, weighing in the aggregate 17,000 cwt., or 850 tons, will be raised, and the labourer will have moved over a distance of 14 miles. As we have not calculated the weight of the spade iu the above, and as the weight of this will be probably between eight and nine pounds, there will really be half as much more weight really raised, viz., 1,278 tons. Remembering this, we shall more fully appreciate the fact that an able-bodied labourer can dig ten square perches a day. Cost of War.— T he American War from 1775 to 1783 cost England 100 mil- lions. The war with France cost from its opening in 1793 to its close at Waterloo, nearly 600 millions. In carrying out the war with Kussia, England added 16 mil- lions to the National Debt. Old Taxes.— Bachelors were taxed in 1695, in 1785, and in 1796. Widowers also were taxed 169a. In 1695 to 1783 the 1173 EXTRAORDINARY FACTS. nn birth of children "was taxed. In 1695 to 1783 burials were taxed. Christenings were taxed in 1783, and in the same year a tax was put on deaths. Servant men first taxed in 1775. A tax on female ser- vants, imposed in 1785, ceased in 1792. Hat tax commenced October l, 1784 ; and was repealed in 1811. A hearth or chimney tax of 2s. per year on everv fire- f ilace in every house in England was evied by Charles II. in 1662, and abol- ished in 1689. Marriages were taxed in 1695. Poll-tax, first levied in 1378, was abolished by William III. Quack medi- cines were first taxed in 1785. Receipt tax commenced in 1782. Taxes on shops passed 1699. Taxes raised arbitrarily in 1100. Tiles taxed 1784. Tobacco first taxed by name in 1685. Watches 2 nd clocks taxed in 1797. Window tax first passed in 1696. Promissory notes taxed in 1782. Powdered hair tax, 1795. Post- horses first taxed, 1779. Non-jurors doubly taxed May 27, 1723. Linens taxed 1785. Legacies taxed 1780. Land tax (danegelt), 991. Horse tax commenced 1784. House tax 1778. Income tax passed 1799. Glove tax repealed 1785. Glass tax established 1746. Commutation tax commenced 1784. Coach tax com menced March, 1747. Cards and dice doubly taxed 1756. Bricks taxed 1784. Brewers’ license taxed 1784. Attor- neys’ tax began 1785. Armoral bearings taxed 1798. Dogs taxed 1796. Scutage (the first tax levied in England to pay an army), 1159. Tekrestial Magnetism and the Sun. — In 1840, on the joint recommendation of the Royal Society and the British Associa- tion for the advancement of Science, the English Government established observa- tories for the special observation of magnetic phenomena in diflerent parts of the world. It was then found that be- sides daily and monthly fluctuations in the magnetic currents, due respectively to the influences of the sun and moon, magnetic storms swept over the surface of the earth, and that the mean diurnal dis- turbance for any given month or year underwent a constant degree of chauge, increasing up to a certain period and then decreasing. M. Schawbe established the existence of relations between the above variations of the magnetic needle and the constantly varying spots on the sun, which observations, caref illy conducted and dating from 1836 down to the present time, have fully confirmed. Manufacture of Alkali. The alkali manufacture in this country consumes 1,761,000 tons of raw material, aiad pro- duces 280,000 tons of finished goods of ihe yearly value of £2,500,000. The capital involved in the trade amounts to more than two hundred millions sterling. The “ hands ” directly and indirectly employed in the trade are 19,000, involving the maintenance of about 100,000. The wagis paid being £371,750 per annum. Philadelphia. — Ground Rents . — The system of ground rents in Philadelphia is based upon the principle of the landlord selling the ground, in fact, reserving in the deed of sale an annual rent, which is always precisely the legal interest — 3 per cent.— of the principal agreed upon between the purchaser and the seller, as the price of the ground. Under this system, persons with little capital are enabled to improve lands that would otherwise remain for many years in an impoverished state. The purchaser is the owner of the land in fee, and cannot be ousted of his possession or ownership so long as the annual rent or interest is paid. Ilis fee simple title is transferable, and can be readily sold at a premium when the grounds are improved, and he can extinguish the annual rental on pay- ment of the principal at any time he sees fit. Silk Manufactures . — At the fair of the American Institute, nineteen exhibitors appeared, and showed silk in all its various stages, from the silkworm to the most highly-finished fabrics, with the sole exception of velvet. Silk was produced in Pennyslvania in the time of George III., whose mother wore dresses fabricated in this state. Since that period the progress of silk manufacture has been 6low. In the city of Philadelphia, there are about 20 factories, large and small, employing 1500 women and young girls, with an invested capital, estimated at ono million and half dollars, or £300,000. EXTRAORDINARY FACTS. Sleeping. — There are many curious histories of sleeping prodigies on record. The Philosophical Transactions have several ; in one, a man slept from August till January. There is a case, read before a Society of Physicians in 1756, of Eliza- beth Orvin, who began her sleeping fit in 1738, by a four days' nap, and for ten years afterwards never slept less than seventeen hours out of the twenty-four. Dr. Brady relates that some strange methods were resorted to arouse her, such as rubbing her back with honey, and in a hot day ex- posing her to a hive of bees ti.V her back was full of bumps, making a pin-cushion of her, and performi ig acu-puncturation with pins and needles, flagellations, and “ other odd experiments,” wL'ch tho 1175 EXTRAORDINARY FACTS. 117G doctor informs us he thinks better “ to pass over in silence,” all of which might as well have been spared, for she was very sulky and good for nothing when she was awake. This sulkiness, however, should be noticed as being connected with the complaint. Previous to this somnolent disease many of the persons have become uneasy, sullen, and surly. In all, the mind has evidently been affected, and in some, where there has been extreme abstinence, their waking hours have been characterized by decided mental aberration. A lady in perfect health, twenty-three years of age, was ashed by the parents of a friend to be present at a severe surgical operation. On consideration it was thought wrong to expose her to such a scene, and the operation was postponed for a few hours. She went to bed, however, with the imagination highly excited, and awoke in alarm, hearing, or thinking she heard, the shrieks of her friend under the agony of an operation. Convulsions and hys- terics supervened, and on their subsiding she went into a profound sleep, which continued sixty-three hours. The most eminent of the faculty were then con- sulted, and she was cupped, which awoke her ; but the convulsions returned, and she again went to sleep, and slept with few intermissions for a fortnight. For the next twelve months she remained perfectly well. The sleeping began again without any apparent cause, which, in irregular periods, continued for ten or twelve years, the length of the sleeping fits being from thirty to forty hours, diminishing in duration as time went on, till she got well. Then arrived irritability, and total want of sleep for three months, which was suc- ceeded by aberration of mind. This state continued about six months, when to the relief of her friends, her sleeping fits returned, and were very regular in their periods, both as to arrival and duration. Her usual time for sleeping was forty- eight hours. She would on the inter- mediate day be very well till twelve at night, when she went to bed. Sometimes she would awake for a few minutes, take some warm fluid, which was always kept ready with a lamp ; but found any effort to remain awake unavailing, and the bare notion of attempting it gave her great horror. Amongst the sleepy people of modern times the case of Elizabeth Perkins, of Morley St. Peter, in Norfolk, should be noticed as a case somewhat resembling that just alluded to. For a considerable time she was very regular in her times of waking, which was once in seven days, after which they became irregular and precarious, and, though of shorter dura- tion, they were equally profound ; and every attempt at keeping her awake or awakening her were vain. Various ex- periments were tried ; and an itinerant empiric, elated with the hope of arousing her from what he called “ her counterfeit sleep,” blew into her nostrils the powder of white hellebore, being a perfect sternu- tative; but the poor creature remained insensible to the inhumanity of the deed, which, instead of producing the boasted effect, excoriated the skin of her nose, lips, and face. The following account is abstracted from a scarce tract in the British Museum : — “The sleepy man awakened from M 3 five days’ dream; being a most strange and wonderful true account of one Nicholas Heart, a Dutchman, a patient of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, in West Smith- field, who sleeps five days every August; and you have a true account how his mother fell in one of her sleeps on the first of August, she then being near the time of her labour, and on the fifth day she wakened and was delivered. As soon as he was born he slept five days and five nights; together with the true dream which he and his mother dreamt every year alike. But what is more particular than all the rest, he gives an account of one Mr. William Morgan, who he saw hurried to a dismal, dark castle, and one Mr. John Panner, be saw him going into a place of bliss. These two men were patients in the hospital, and died while he was in his sleep.” Laws relating to Dress, etc. — In July, 1721, broadswords were forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh. In 1721, but- tons and button-hole3 of cloth were pro- hibited. Calicoes were prohibited for wearing apparel from 1700 to 1721. Cam- brics were prohibited for wearing in 1745, and totally in 175S. In 14S9 no hat was allowed to be sold for more than 20d., and no cap for more than' 2s. 8 d. In 1571 a law enacted that “every person above seven years of age should wear on Sun- days and holidays a cap of wool, knit- made, thickened and dressed in England, by some of the trade of cappers, under the forfeiture of three-farthings for every day’s neglect, excepting maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and every lord, knight, and gentleman of twenty marks of land, and their heirs, and such as have borne office of worship in any city, town, or place, and the wardens of the London com- panies.” Dress was restrained by law in 1465, in 1574, and in 1580. Common prostitutes were obliged to wear striped hoods of party colours, and their garments the wrong side out (27 Edward III.), 1355. Highland dress forbidden in Scot- land, 1746; lestored in 1782. In 1337 the law prohibited all who did not enjoy a free estate of £100 per annum from wear- ing furs, skins, or silk, and the wearing of foreign cloth was confined to the Koyal Family alone. In 1467 the wearing of long toes to the boots and shoes, so long that they had to be chained to the knee, was prohibited, a fine of 20s. inflicted, and on the pain of cursing by the clergy. In 1666 and 1678 it was law that no dead 1177 EXTRAORDINARY FACTS. 1178 body should be buried in anything but ■woollen — “ 1 Odious, in woollen ! ’twould a saint provoke ! ’ Were the last word3 that poor Narcissus spoke.” Vibration of the Pendulum. — A memoir from M. Petit, of Toulouse, which was read to the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, on the continuation of the experi- ments by M. Mathieu, at the Observatory at Paris, for determining the difference of the vibration of the pendulum, and, therefore, of the flattening of the earth at Paris and Toulouse, gave as the result of a very careful examination, the following table : — and fi r ty years. Specimens of the eagle tribe have been known to survive in a menagerie upwards of a hundred years. Hufeland states that in 1793 a falcon was taken in the Cape of Good Hope wearing a golden collar inscribed, “To His Ma- jesty King James of England, 1610.” An old journal of 1815 speaks of a goose which died in the January of that year at Pas- brook Cottage, near Titchfield, at the ad- vanced age of sixty-four years. At the house of Colonel Kelly, in Piccadilly, there died, on October 9, 1802, a parrot, aged thirty years. Its faculties of speech and memory were very singular. Solway Moss. — In December, 1771, this great moss began to swell after heavy rains, and upwards of 400 acres of it rose Depression of Earth. Difference between Numbers of Oscilla- tions at Paris and Toulouse. Excess of Observa- tions over Theory. 1 Calculated. Observed. Oscillations. 1 18*7526 18 7700 X0.0174. 252*14 1 18.6090 81*7700 X0*1610 249*83 1 215695 18*7700 —2*7925 306*75 M. Petit thought that the difference of 2*7995 oscillations, more than what the theory indicated, arose in great part from local influences, and that in part it was owing to errors of observation. Longevity of Animals. — French his- tory records the taking of a stag in the ear 1037 in the forest of Senlis, which ad a collar round its neck on which was inscribed “Caesar hoc me donovit,” and the conclusion then arrived at— upon very insufficient grounds, we think — was, that this stag was a thousand years old. It is related in the collection of Voyages and Travels of Malte Brun, that the Emperor Frederick II. caused a fine pike to be thrown into a pond adjoining his palace of Kaisersluntern with a collar on it, bearing the following inscription in Greek : *‘ I am the first fish cast into this pond by the hands of the Emperor Frederick II., Oc- tober 5th, 1230.” In 1497— two hundred and sixty years afterwards — this pike was served at the table of the Elector Philip, when the collar was submitted to exami- nation. We cannot affirm our belief in this story, but thus says the old German record. Most of our readers will have read about the tame old carp at Fontaine- bleau, and the marvellous stories told by the Parisians with regard to i’s great age. Willoughby, in his work on Ornithology, speaks of a fierce old gander eighty years old ; of a swan three hundred years old ; and of parrots which are said to have at- tained from one hundred to one hundred to such a height above the level of the ground that an last it rolled onwaid like a torrent, continuing its course above a mile, sweeping along with it houses, trees, and everything in its way. It then divided into islands of varied extent, from one to ten feet deep, upon which were found hares, wild fowl, etc. It covered nearly 600 acres at Netherby, and destroyed not less than thirty small villages. It con- tinued in motion from Saturday until the following Wednesday, the last day of the month. Curious Volcano. — On the 13th Sep- tember, 1777, a volcano broke out in the isle of Ferro, which threw out an immense quantity of red water, by which the sea was discoloured for several leagues. York Gaol. — In the chronicles of this gaol it is recorded that for three weeks previous to the 26th November, 1814, it was thrown open to the public, there not being a single prisoner in it, either debtor or felon. Incombustible Men. — About 1774 there lived in a foundry at Laune a man who walked over bars of red-hot iron with bare feet, and held burning coab in his hands. It was found that tbe skin of this man emitted a sort of unctuous transpira- tion, to which he owed its preservation. A Sicilian named Lionetti exhibited simi- lar feats, to the great astonishment of the Neapolitans; but it was alterwards found that he owed, his safety to the use of cer- tain chemical preparations. Lementini 1179 EXTRAORDINARY FACTS, 1180 found that by frequent frictions of sul- phuric acid he was able to bear red-hot iron in contact with his flesh ; that a solu- tion of alum would restore the parts thus treated to their former sensibility to heat, and that an application of soap to his tongue enabled him to bring it into con- tact with iron at a white-heat with im- punity. Such experiments are often car- ried out in modern conjuring entertain- ments. Some year3 ago an experiment was carried out at New Tivoli, Paris, in the presence of upwards of two hundred people, to ascertain the degree of beat it is possible for a man to endure. A large dome-shaped oven was heated by a very powerful fire for four hours. At ten mi- nutes past eight, a Spaniard of Andalusia, named Martinez, aged 43, went into this oven, wearing large pantaloons of red flannel — a bad conductor of heat, a thick cloak of the same material, and a broad- brimmed quilted felt hat. Therein he re- mained, seated on a footstool, fourteen minutes, exposed to a heat of from 45 to 50 deg. of a metallic thermometer, the gradations of which only ascended to 50 deg. He sang a Spanish song while a fowl roasted by his side. On coming out of the oven, his pulse beat 134 pulsations a minute. Before entering, it beat at 72. In a second experiment he ate the fowl in the oven when it was roasted sufficiently, and drank a bottle of wine to the health of the spectators. On coming out from f his longer stay in the oven his pulse beat 176, and the thermometer indicated a heat of 110 degs. of Reaumer. Immediately after, for a third experiment, he was stretched on a plank surrounded with lighted candles thrust into the oven, the door of which was closed. He was there nearly five minutes, when there was a cry of ‘‘Enough, enough ! take him out.’* On opening the oven doors a noxious and suffocating vapour had filled the oven, and the candles were all melted away. The Spaniard, whose pulse beat 200, immediately pre- cipitated himself into a cold bath, and in a few minutes appeared smiling, and apparently safe and sound, before the audience. Verbal Delicacy. — The ancient Ro- mans regarded the word “death” as a very improper one, and would not allow it to be pronounced in their presence. Dean Swift says in his early days the word “ whiskers” was regarded as indecent, and could not be used in the presence of a lady. In America it is even now regarded as indelicate to use the word “ leg” in a lady’s hearing. In England you may speak in French or Latin words which in English would be regarded as highly offensive. It would, for instance, be coarse to speak of a woman’s shift, but “ chemise” is inoffensive. Extraordinary Showers. — In May, 1803, in Spain and in the kingdom of Leon a shower of peas fell. The botanist Cava- nilla found they belonged to the legumi- nous family, but he was unable to deter- mine their class. Some of the seeds were sown in the Botanic Garden of Madrid, but without result. Pliny, Livy, Solinus. and Julius Obsequius, have recorded showers of blood, milk, money, wool, and even pieces of flesh ! During the siege of Genoa, in 1774, red rain fell in the suburb of San Pietro d’ Arena. It was found that the wind had carried upward a quantity of red earth. A German journal mentions a rain of “ blood” which fell on the 17ih of May, 1810. It lasted a quarter of an hour. Chemical tests proved this rain to be coloured by some vegetable matter. In the north of Europe rains of a reddish- yellow, due to the bloom of the firs filling the air, constantly occur. The showers of wool, efc„ mentioned were doubtless due to similar causes. An old writer states that showers of mice fell in Lapland and Finmark. In 1804, a shower of frogs was recorded. In Russia in 1827, during a snowstorm at Pakroff, a prodigious num- ber of black insects, an inch long, fell. Showers of rats have been described, and showers of fishes often figure in the old magazines; one fell in 1666, at Stanstead, in Kent. An English officer stated that in 1839 he saw fishes fallng, and that thousands of them were picked from the ground. A fish shower fell in Ross-shire in 1828, at Islay in 1830, and more recently at Wick. The fall of fishes was probably a water-spout licking up the fish, which were driven inland by the wind, and the rats, when out in a body, may have been caught up in much the same way by a whirlwind. Falling in oe Land. — Bosia, a village at Piedmont, near Turin, on the 8th of April, 1693, suddenly sunk like a ship at sea, with above 200 of its inhabitants. A hill at Bulkeley, near Chester, sunk down into a pit of water on the 8th July, 1657, so deep that the tops of the lofty trees growing on it were not visible. In Febru- ary, 1793, a piece of land in Finland, 4000 squat e ells in extent, sunk 15 fathoms; fortunately, most of its inhabitants es- caped. Curious Birth. — An old local record states that a woman, aged 72, named Ellen Ellis, who lived at Beaumaris, in Anglesey, and whose youngest child was then 25 years of age, was brought to bed with child, May 10, 1776. Suddkn Disappearance oe a Lake. — On the 25th of March, 1792, the lake of Harantoreen, in the county of Kerry, Ireland, a mile in circuit, suddenly sunk into the earth. Curious to add, all its fish sunk with it. The Bog op Castleguaro.— On the 20th of December, 1793, the bog of Castle- guard, in the county of Louth, Ireland, moved in a body a distance from its original situation of several miles. It crossed the high road towards Doon, covering every- thing in its way, and throwing down several bridges, houses, etc. 1181 EXTRAORDINARY PACTS. 1182 The Destruction' op Bobge. — Borge was a seat in Norway, near Frederickstadt, which in 1702, sunk into an abyss one hundred fathoms deep, which instantly became a lake. 14 persons and 240 head of cattle were drowned. Brixton in Norfolk. — In June, 1788, the ground here suddenly sunk to a depth of nearly 50 feet. The Statue of Charles I. at Char- ing Cross.— Some curious tales have been told to account for the absence of sword, buckles, and straps in this statue. An old magazine states that they fell from it on the 14th April, 1810. Flight of Eagles. — In February, 1809, a flight of eagles was recorded as seen on the coast of Hastings. Egyptian Goosb.— One of these birds is recorded to have been shot near Stam- ford, in Lincolnshire, in February, 1806. The Philosopher’s Stone. — There are certain quaint old legends extant, which would have us believe that the great secret of Job’s wealth was his discovery of the philosopher’s stone, and that his misfor- tunes followed the loss of it. We first, however, meet with the philosopher’s stone in the chronicles of the fourteenth century, when its existence was affirmed by Arnaud de Villeneuve, Raymond Lully, Paracelsus, Nicholas Flamel, and others. It was believed that the enormous fortune acquired by Nicholas Flamel was due to this stone. Van Helmont believed in it, and affirmed that he had both seen and tested it. A man named Rchthausen convinced the Emperor Ferdinand that he could convert mercury into gold, in com- memoration of which event he was created a baron, and a medal was struck bearing the following inscription, “ Glory to God for deigning to impart to his humble crea- tures a portion of bis infinite power.’ 1 Cardinal de Richelieu is said to have been an eye-witness of experiments in this direction, and Voltaire states that he saw a Marquis of Conventiglio absolutely pro- duce some crowns of gold. Bells and Thunder-storms.— In old times the church bells were rung during a storm as an act of piety. Afterwards arose a belief exactly the reverse of truth — that the movements of the bell served to free the air from electricity. Eggs Hatched by a Cat.— The eminent Norman naturalist. Dr. Vimond, states that in a certain Norman farm, there was a cat and hen so attached to each other, that in the absence of the bird the cat took her place upon the eggs and hatched them, the result being a hybrid race, half fowl, half cat. Mummy Wheat.— During his travels, Sir Gardner Wilkinson procured from an ancient tomb in the Thebaid, which had probably not been opened for three thou- sand years, a quantity of wheat and barley, A few of these grains were planted in an open garden at Albury, near Guildford, where they grew and multiplied, the ears averaging seven inches in length, with about twenty on each root. It was bearded, and resembled what farmers call Egyptian wheat. The experiment has been repeated since with tne same result. Prodigious Strength. — The great victor of the Olympifc games, it is said, would bind his forehead with a cord worn like a fillet or crown, and by holding bis breath, so fill the veins of his head with blood, that they would burst the cord. Accession of English Sovereigns.— It has been remarked as a singular fact, that each of the eleven months of the year, has witnessed the accession of an English sovereign, except only the month of May. Floating Island. — An island of the Danube, called Engel, near Pichment, began one day in May, 1810, to float, and moved a distance of eight miles. Moving Hills.— On Saturday evening, the 17th February, 1571 , Marcby Hill, near Hereford, began to move, bearing with it the trees, hedges, and cattle on its surface. It continued in motion until the following Monday, overthrowing a chapel in its way, and leaving where it formerly stood a chasm forty feet deep and thirty long. A similar prodigy happened in Dorsetshire in 1583, when a field of three acres at Blackmoor, with trees and fences, moved over another field, and settled in the highway to Hearn. The River Pevkr in Gloucester- shire.— In 1773 this river suddenly altered its course, removing while so doing ten acres of land, with everything on its sur- face. Rise of Earth.— Iu 1179 the earth at Oxenhall, near Darlington, suddenly rose up in the form of a very steep and lofty hill, and remained thus several hours, uniil with a horrible noise it suddenly fell in, leaving a deep chasm. Singular Tides.— In 1802, on the 10th of August, the sea at Teignmouth and other places on the coast of Devonshire rose two feet and fell several times in the space of ten minutes. On the 1st of June, 1811, the shipping in the port of Plymouth were left dry and floated again several times in the space of twelve hours. In 1214 the Thames was so low between the Tower and London Bridge that women and children waded through it from one side to the other. In 1214 the tide was so high at Westminster that the lawyers were brought out of the hall in boats. In the summer of 1592 a man rode through the Thames close by London Bridge. In 1732, on the 16th of September, the Thames flowed eight hours instead of four, and ebbed five hours instead of eight. In 1812, on the 21st of October, Palace Yard and Westminster Hall were deluged by a remarkably high tide. At Lyme, in Dor- setshire, on May 31, 1582, the tide ebbed and flowed three times in one hour. On the 1st of November, 1755, the tide was 1183 EXTRAORDINARY PACTS. 1181 suddenly and violently agitated on the south coast of England, several times rising and falling about two feet in the course of a few minutes. At Plymouth, on the 30th of October, 1795, the tide rose two feet in nine minutes, and retired as r«pidlv three times in less than one hour. In 1808 a singularly high tide did terrible damage in various parts of England. A Headless Horseman.— At the battle of Woerth a horse was seen going at full speed, during a charge of the Cuirassiers, with a headless rider, who was afterwards found to be M. de la Futzun de Lacarre, colonel of the'3rd Regiment of Cuirassiers, •who had been decapitated by a cannon- ball. A Buried Town - . — In 1863 a singular discovery was made on the French coast near the mouth of the Garonne, where a town was found buried beneath the sand. The church was first laid bare, and it was conjectured to have been built near the close of the Roman empire. It contained paintings and a profuse display of sculp- tured ornament. The remains were sup- posed to be those of one of the cities de- scribed by Pliny and Strabo. Curiosities op Sleep. — Dr. Graves reported the case of a gentleman, thirty years of age, who was so weakened by long- continued sleep that he was reduced to mere skin and bone, and too feeble to stand alone. This was partly duo to the abuse of opium. Dr. Reid mentioned a personal friend of his who, under the in- fluence of distressing mental emotion, grew drowsy and fell asleep. It is re- corded that a student at Edinburgh, sud- denly hearing of the unexpected death of a near relative at noonday, at once threw himself upon his bed and fell soundly asleep. A woman at Ilamadt slept be- tween seventeen and eighteen hours a day for fifteen years. Another woman is said to have slept during four days and nights. Dr. Elliotson quotes a case of a young lady who slept for six weeks. There is greater proneness to disease during sleep than in the waking state : for those who pass the night in the Campagna di Roma inevitably become infected with its nox- ious air ; while travellers passing through it without stopping escape the miasma. Nudity and Pikty.— In the thirteenth century a sect called Les Turlupins per- ambulated France naked. In 1535 some Anabaptists in Amsterdam appeared naked and were punished. A Franciscan friar named Juniperus went naked through the town of Yiterboo, for which he was illused and abused by “ the wicked inhabitants.” The brothers of the convent even de- nounced him, but says the chronicler, “ so holy was the good little brother,” that he bore their insults, contumely, and ill- usage patiently, and persisted in his nudity. Cardinal Damian denounced the conduct of those who refused to strip naked in the exercise of penitence. Many other instances in which nudity has beeo regarded as aceeptible in the eyes of God might be mentioned, both ancient and modern. Abstinence. — From the most ancient times down to the more recent, when the case of the fasting girl in Wales attracted so much attention, we have records of extraordinary abstinence from food. In the “Edinburgh Medical Essays for 1720,” Dr. Eccles describes the case of a beauti- ful young lady, who was thrown into a state of tetanus — lock-j aw — in consequence of the sudden death of her father. She remained incapable of swallowing for thirty-four days, and, after an interval, was again rendered incapable for fifty-four days. During the whole of each of these periods, she experienced neither hunger nor thirst, and was not reduced in size. Dr. Willan attended a patient who took only a little water flavoured with orange juice for sixty-one days, but he died a fortnight after. In the “Mackenzie Transactions of the Royal Philosophical Society of London,” for 1777, is recorded, by Dr. Alexander, the case of Janet MacLeod, a spinster, thirty-three years of age, suffering from epileptic fits, whose jaws becoming locked, she remained four years without taking solid food, or feeling either hunger or thirst, or wasting away. Sir William Hamilton saw a girl sixteen years of age extricated from the ruins of a house, in which she had been immured, without food, eleven days. Fodere men- tions some workmen extricated alive, from a cold, dark cavern, in which they had ex- isted, without food, fourteen days. Cetois, a physician of Poictiers, relates a case of abstinence in a girl, who, from the age of eleven to that of fourteen, took no nourish- ment. A Dutch girl, of the name of Eve Hergen, is reported to have lived from 1597 to 1611 without food, attributing the fact, singularly enough, to the nourishing power of the perfume of flowers. On her picture were affixed the following lines in Latin : — This maid of Meurs thirty-six yeares spent, Eourteen of which she took no nourish- ment ; Thus pale and wan, she sits sad and alone, A garden’s all she loves to look upon. Petrus de Albano gives an acount of a woman in Normandy, who lived without food for eighteen years. Joubertus tells us of another who did not take food until after she was ten years old. Albertus Krantzius mentions a hermit in the mountains of the Canton of Schwitz, who lived without food twenty years. Hildauus also men- tions the case of a girl who lived many years without eating or drinking, and states that her abdomen was wasted and retrasted towards the spine. Sylvius described a young woman in Spain, who lived entirely upon water, and says there was a girl in Narbonne, and another in Germany, who lived for years without meat or drink. 1185 PHOTOGRAPHY. 1186 Gilbert Jackson, of Carse Grange, in Scot- land, lost the use of his limbs, speech, and appetite, and was fourteen days without food. In 1724, John Ferguson, of Kill- melfoord, in Argyleshire, took nothing hut water for twenty days. Pennant ex- amined carefully into the case of Mary Thomas, in the parish of Cylynin, who was reported to have been without food seven years and a-half without detecting evidence of imposture. In Hufeland’s “ Practical Journal” is a very curious case of nearly four years’ abstinence from all food and drink without wasting away. Six sworn men watched her about a fort- night, and swore that during that time she had taken neither food nor drink. In India, well authenticated cases are told of fakirs having been buried alive, the grave watched, and corn sown upon it, which grew several inches before the buried man was disinterred and found to be alive, In the Records of the Tower of London, we find that Cicely de Ridgeway, who was condemned to death for the murder of her husband, in the reign of Edw ard III., lived forty days without food or drink. Column op Fiee.— In the year 390, a column of fire appeared in the air at Rome, and remained visible thirty days. A Knife Eatee. — In 1809, a man named William Cummins died in Guy’s Hospital, in whose stomach and intestines eighteen clasped knives, such as are used by sailors, were said to have been found. A Long Recoed. — The Land Tax Com- missioner’s Act, passed in the reign of George IV., when unrolled, was found to be nine hundred feet long. To coil and unroll this fearsome statute would occupy an able-bodied man three hours. Wonderful Eyes. — In vol. 7 of the ** Annual Register,” p.54, it,is stated that a woman was then residing at Versailles, •whose eyes were divided each into twelve distinct sections. Cueious Fashions in Female Dress. — Under Charles VI. the ladies wore caps like sugar loaves, with a veil stuck at the point thereof, that, according to the rank ofthe lady, hung down, more or less. Under Francis, extraordinary as the fact is, a fat stomach was thought to look majestic, and ladies immediately procured the same by wearing a large pad ; for quite thiee or four years afterwards nothing was to be seen but fake stomachs. In the same reign the ladies appeared no longer to care about their faces ; they placed loups, a kind of mask, before ; and neither in the streets, nor in the walks, neither on visits nor at church, were they seen otherwise than masked. After this the fashion of painting the face and powdering the hair was introduced, which was really only another kind of mask. Then followed high-dresses, with stays like the pipes of an organ, so that the head appeared to sit in the middle of the body. This lasted several years, till an Englishwoman arrived at Versailles in the year 1714, and was in- vited to dine with Louis XIV. As she entered the hall, and her low head-dress was remarked, there arose a broad, “ Ha l Ha!’’ The King asked what was the matter ? He looked at the Englishwoman very attentively, turned to the ladies pre- sent, and said, “ If you were reasonable you would dress your heads somewhat otherwise.” It required no more to bring about immediately a complete revolution in the mode of dressing the head. The whole of the following night was entirely employed in the demolition of the lofty decorations of the head ; two stories instantly came down, and from the next soon followed the half. The King ex- pressed his satisfaction, and found the ladies now much handsomer. The new fashion then naturally flew from the court into the city, and from the city into the provinces, and those who had been before accustomed to wear the highest head- dresses could not in the least comprehend how it had been possible that they could have disfigured themselves so much. Extraordinary Epigram. — In an old Greek poet, who flourished after the time of Hesiod, there is a curious prophetic couplet that seems to allude personally to Sir Walter Scott, mentioning him by name, and even the title or nom de plume under which he so long distinguished himself as an author — Ev (TKOTLCX. 2K0T02 C7 T€TO KOLL $ for this branch of the art, which has produced some remarkably fine and interesting en- Process. — This name was given to a process invented by M. Tessier du Motay. In its practice a thin film of gelatine and bichromate of potash is spread upon a zinc plate, and when dry exposed to light under a photographic negative. When this part of the process is completed the gelatine is subjected for two or three hours to the action of a fine stream of cold water, after which it is again dried, and is then ready to print from. A wet sponge is next passed over the surface of the gelatine, the soluble portions of which take up the moisture, while the parts on which the light had acted, being insoluble, reject it. The lithographic ink is then applied, and is largements. The Phototype printed from on the press as in the ordi- nary lithographic process. In some cases the impression is transferred to stone or zme in the way we have explained above, but the prints are then of an inferior kind. This process is said to have been used for the production of blocks in relief for printing with type. A secret process bear- ing the same name was introduced by M. Joubert. Micro-Photography.— A n application of the art for rendering large objects so microscopically small, as to be invisible to the naked eye, although distinct and clear in even the most minute details when placed under the microscope. The Phototype Block Process. — A process, invented by Mr. B. H. Courtenay and patented by Messrs. Fruwith and Hawkins, by which blocks in relief are photographically produced for printing with type. So far as concerns the repro- ductions of all kinds of engravings and coarse outline subjects it is very success- ful and of great commercial value, but for the reproduction of drawings it has been a failure and seems likely so to continue. This process is described in the patent as follows : — A paste is made with bichro- mate of potash and a salt of soda or ammonia, pulverized and mixed with a solution of gum or organic substance, which, after exposure, is not soluble in alcohol. This paste is spread evenly over the metal or glass plate and dried. A negative is placed over it, and the ex- posure to light forms the image, parts of which dissolve in a solution of alcohol, mixed with acetic acid. The after process is said to be that of Palmer’s process of glyphography. Mr. Courtenay has, since the publication of this process, however, so greatly improved and modified its working details, that it may, in his hands, almost be regarded as another process. Photo-zincography. — In principle this process is the same as that of photo- lithography, which we have already de- scribed, differing only in some of its minor details. It was invented by Colonel Sir Henry James, andis extensively employed in copying maps, etc., for the Ordnance Survey Department at Southampton. The Albert Type. — This process re- sembles that of M. Tessier du Motay, and therefore most of its class in the use of gelatine and bichromate of potash. Two films of the gelatine are used. One, having the addition of albumen as well as bichro- mate of potash, is first rendered insoluble by the action of light, and then re-coated with a second film of the bichromatized gelatine, which is exposed under a nega- tive photograph. The printing being com- pleted, the gelatine surface is inked and used to obtain an impression not on a press, but simply by pressure. We have seen some very charming pictures pro- duced by this simple process. 1193 COMMERCIAL PANICS, 1194 COMMERCIAL PAN ICS. In 1720-1, when the South Sea Bubble burst, the real power and mischief of com- mercial panics became fu'ly recognized, and since then we have had only too much reason for dreading their visitations. In the year of the Pretender’s advance south- ward — 1745— with his army of wild High- landmen, of whose terrible doings the most extravagant stories were told and believed, a panic began, which culminated on the 5th of December when it was ruin. People made the most extravagant purchases of goods merely to get rid of country bank notes ; the demand for gold was extraordinary, and “the gold of the Bank was drained to within a very few thousand pounds.” ’ On the 16th Decem- ber, the Government intervened, and gave permission for the re-issue of £1 and £2 notes. This step and the appearance— carefully made — of gold existing in abun- dance, despite the panic, at length e '.used known in London, that “ the rebels ” were it to subside, but not before it had caused at Derby. Then the City of London be- came filled with terror and consternation, many of the inhabitants fled into the country with all their most precious pos- sessions, and most of the shops were shut up. The Three per Cents fell to 76, al- though in ’37 they had reached the un- equalled price of 107, and even the bank only escaped ruin by a stratagem hardly to be considered creditable, although thereby the bank preserved its credit. Payment was not indeed refused ; but as those who came first were entitled to priority of payment, the bank was filled with its own agents, who presented notes which they desired should be paid in six- pences in order to gain time These agents went out at one dcor with the specie which they received, and brought it back by another. The yachts of King George were prepared for a hurried departure, and his prudent Majesty’s most precious effects were embarked in them, while trade was at a standstill. These panics were, how- ever, lees genuine than was that of 1792-3, an amount of misery and destitution awful even now to contemplate.” Aider- man Keys’ Panic of 1830, and the stock- jobbing panic of 1836, were much less serious, nor was that of 1837 — although bad enough— to be compared with the frightful panic of 1825. After the panic of 1837, a lengthened period of adversity followed, which did not show signs of brightening until 1844. In the year 1847, the great panic consequent mainly upon extravagant railway speculations, set in. Failures followed failures in rapid succes- sion all over the country. Some of the first mercantile houses in London, Man- chester, and Newcastle, in Wales and in the West of England, succumbed to the shock. On the 28th of October, the Go- vernment came to the rescue, instructing bank directors to enlarge their discounts and advances on approved security, at not less than 8 per cent, interest, and under- taking to provide an indemnity in the event of this course leading to any in- fringement of the law. Although the which occurred at a time when commer- pressure continued, the funds then pro- cial prosperity was at its height, and all ceeded to rise. The failures in London branches of trade were active, and when the country had enjoyed peace for a period of ten years. On the 20th of February, 1793, the startling news spread that on the previous day the bank had been unable to discount tbe paper of Messrs. Lane, Son, and Fraser, and that they had stopped payment for a million. The panic then set in, soon after a hundred country banks stopped payment, and the commercial disasters followed thick and fast until the amount of distress in the country was such as had never before been known. The Government issued £5,000,000 Ex- chequer Bills to relieve the pressure, and in returning confidence a remedy was found for. Another panic arose in that gloomy year of war and rebellion, 1797, which resulted in an issue of one and two a'one during the month of November, were estimated at not less than a million, but the storm was nearly over by the end of that month. In the year of the outbreak of the mutiny in India, viz., 1857, came another panic, known as the American panic. On the 11th of November it was known that the Western Bank of Glasgow had stopped for £6,000,000 or more. The next evil news was the suspension of San- derson, Sanderman, & Co. a large dis- count firm, with liabilities amounting to £5,500,000. The bullion in the bank di- minished to £7,000,000, and the notes in circulation represented £21,000,000, their private deposits to £13,000,000, and the private securities to £26,000,000. With but £7,000,000 to meet possible demands of £60,000,000, the alarmed directors ap- pound notes to meet the terrible want of pealed to the Government, and received specie. A long period of unexampled prosperity ushered in the dreadful panic of 1825-6, when the Bank of England had the greatest difficulty in weathering the storm, and the wonder was not when this or that large firm broke up, but how one contrived to escape the smash. The terror and distress may be imagined, when we add that persons with £100,000 could not command £100 to save themselves from permission under promise of indemnity, to issue notes not exceeding £2,000,000, and notes to the value of £900,000 actually were issued. With the return of gold from Scotland and Ireland the tide turned. Money began to be offered in the market on easier terms, and funds rose. But failures continued, and the results wero most disastrous, affecting every branch of trade, and spreading ruin far and wide. 1195 THEOLOGY. 1196 In New York the panic was described as a financial earthquake, which shook the monied institutions of that country to their centre; one fell after another, in two hours eighteen New York banks stop- ped. The Mississippi steamers ceased to run, because there was nothing wherewith to pay the wages of the crews. The next panic was that which occurred inl8G6, and it is known as the great credit panic, be- cause it was occasioned mainly by an un- due extension of credit. On the 11th of May — known as Black Friday— Overend, Gurney, and Co., suspended paymeut with liabilities in excess ot any previously re- corded, viz., £5,000,000, at first stated to be £18,000,000. The panic followed im- mediately. The most terrifying reports spread with the utmost rapidity, and Lom- bard Street was besieged with people. The English Joint Stock Bank was the next failure, and it soon became known that the great contractors, Peto, Betts, and Co., had been forced to request the indulgence of their creditors. The bank rate became 9 per cent., and the reserve of notes was reduced to £730,000. To restore the public confidence, the Govern- ment, after a brief delay, suspended the Bank Charter Aet, on condition that the minimum rate of discount should be 10 per cent. THEOLOGY. Oriental CHEReiiES.— The GreeJc Church consists of 10 different groups, which, in point of administration, are independent of each other, viz.: 1. The Patriarchate of Jerusalem; which has 13 Sees (Metro- political and 1 Arckiepiscopal). 2. The Patriarchate of Antioch; 6 Metropolitieal Sees. 3. The Patriarchate of Alexandria ; 4 Metropolitieal Sees. 4. The Patriarchate of Constantinople ; 135 Sees (90 Metropo- litical and 4 Arehiepiscopal). 5. Patri- archate of Russia; 65 Sees (5 Metropolitieal, 25 Arehiepiscopal). 6. The Patriarchate of Cyprus ; 4 Sees (of which 1 is Archi- episcopal). 7. The Patriarchate of Austria ; 11 Sees (2 Metropolitieal). 8. The Patri- archate of Mount Sinai ; 1 See. 9. The Patriarchate of Montenegro ; 1 Metropo- liticalSee. 10. The Patriarchate of Greece; 24 Sees. The Archbishop of Athens is ex officio President of the Holy Synod. Statistics of the Greek Church. — Russia, total 57,161,000 ; Turkey, inclusive of the dependencies in Europe and Egypt, 13,300,000 ; Austria, 3,200,000 ; Greece, inclusive of the Ionian Islands, 1,270,000; North German Confederation, 2.000; United States of America, 10,000 ; China, 1,000 ; total, 74,944,000. The Armenian Church. — Number of Armenians, 2,500,000. Of these 100,000 are connected with Rome (United Armen- ians), 15,000 are Evangelical Armenians, and all the others belong to the National (or Gregorian) Armenian Church. Esti- mated Armenian population in Russia (European and A siatic) ,535,000 ; in Turkey, 1,935,000; in Persia, 30,000. The highest bishop of the Armenian Church resides at Etchmiatsin, in Asiatic Russia. The Nestorians, called after Nestorius, a patriarch of Constantinople in the 5th century, were condemned by the (Ecu- menical Council of Ephesus in 431, for maintaining that there was a great distinc- tion between Christ the Son of God and Christ the Son of Man; and that it was only the human nature of Christ that was born of the Virgin Mary. The number of Nestorians in Turkey is estimated at 10,054 families, or 70,000 persons. In Persia, 15,000. In India the Nestorians are known under the name of Christians of St. Thomas, and are about 70,000 in number. In Turkey the Nestorians have a Patriarch at Diz (Mosal), and 18 bishops. Those Nestorians who have united with Rome are called Chaldeans. They number about 80,000, and have a patriarch bearing the title of Patriarch of Babylon, and residing at Bagdad; Archbishops at Amadia and Seleucia, in Asiatic Turkey; four Bishops in Turkey and two in Persia. The Jacobites , one of the branches of the Monophysites. They are called after the monk Jacob Baradai, who, in the middle of the 6th century, reorganized the persecuted Monophysites of Syria. The Jacobites have a patriarch with the title Patriarch of Antioch, at Caramit (Diar- bekir), a maphrian (head of the Eastern J acobites) in a convent near Mosul. There are 21 bishops in Asiatic Turkey. The number of families in Turkey is estimated at about 34,000. In India there are 200.000 (in Malabar and Travancore), whe have four bishops, one of whom lives in Cochin. The Copts is the name of the Monophy- sites in Egypt. The head of the Church i3 the Patriarch of Alexandria who resides at Cairo, with jurisdiction also extending over Nubia and Abyssinia, and the right of consecrating the Abuna (patriarch) of the latter country; 16 bishops and 14& churches and convents. The population is estimated at about 220,000, of whom ] 0,000 are in Cairo. Of the Copts about 13.000 have united with the Roman Catholic Church. The Abyssinians. — The Christians of Abyssinia are Monophysites like the Copts. They number about 3,000,000. Reiigious Orders, Sects, &c. — The Abstinets was established as a sect in 170. The sect of heretics, called Adamites, was first known in 130, but was renewed in 1197 STATISTICS OP THE UNITED KINGDOM. 1193 1124. The Agnacobites, or fanatical sect, began to be known in 701. TheAlbi enses were originated in 1160. The Anabaptists began to exist in 1525, and arrived in England in 1549. The Anchorites began in 1255. The heretical body called ihe Angelites was originated a.d. 494. The Antimonian sect began in 1534, the Antonites in 329, the Arian se t in 2^0. and the Armenian in 1229. In 389 the Augus- tines appeared, and reached England in 1250. A sect called the Bartholemites was founded at Genoa in 1307, and was sup- pressed in 1650 by Pope Innocent X. The sect of the JBarnabites was founded in France in 1533, of St. Basil in 354. The Begging Friars are first met with in France in 1587, the Beguines in 1208, the Benedic- tines in 548, and the Bethlemites in 1*243. The sect called Bonhommes began to be known in 1257, and in 1467 we find the sect of the Bohemian brethren arising in Bohemia. In 1307 appeared the Brigan- tines, in 1660 the Brownists, and in 1546 the Calvinists. Regular canons were esta- blished in 400. The Caj uchins were known in 1525. Cardinals were made in 853, in 1242 red hats were given to them, in 1464 they were entitled to the purple, and their title received its greatest eminence in 1644. The Carmelites began in 1141, the Car- thusians in 1084, the order of St. Catherine in 1373. The Celestines began in 1272, the Chaplines in 1218, the Cistertians in 1094, the Clareval in 1114, and the Crossed-friars in 1170. The sect of the Flagellantes arose in 1259. The Franciscans began in 1206, and settled in England in 1217. The Gray- friars were established in 1122. The Hermits began in 1257, and were revived in 142 51 . The Holy Trinity began in 1211, the Humbled in 1164, the Jacobites in 1198, the Jesuits in 1536, the Jesuans in 1367. The society of “ The Sisters of Jesus” was instituted- in 1626. The sect of the Lollards began in 1315, that of the Lutherans in 1517. The sect of the Manichees began 343. Methodism com- menced in 1734. Minimes originated in 1450, the Minors in 1009. Monks were first associated in 328. The Moravians appeared in Bohemia in 1457, and in England in 1737. The Muggletonians were originated by a journeyman tailor named Muggleton in 1647. The Ophites began 187, the Orebites in 1422. The Pa’agian sect began in 1494, that of the poor women in 1212. The Predestinarian sect began 371. Protestantism was first known in 1529, and the Puritans in 1545. The first professors of the Publican sect were first known in England in 1162. Quakers b gan to be known in 1650. The Quietists began in 1685, the Repentants in 1360, the Sacra- mentarians in 878, Swedenborgians in 1730. Theatins were founded in 1594, and established in Paris in 1644. The order of Monks, called the Trappists, was solemnly installed at Port Rongeard, Mayenne, on January 21, 1815. The order of the Trinitarians was instituted in 1198, the Tritheites arose in 560, the Ubiguarian sect in 1540. Unitarians founded in 1553. The Ursulines were established in 1198. The White c >ats began in 1396, and the Whippers in 1055. STATISTICS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. Post Office Savings Banks. — At the close of the year 1870 there was £15,099,104 due to depositors ; at the close of 1871 the amount had increased to £17,025,004, A large business was done in 1871. As much a3 £5,115,467 was withdrawn, but the pay- ments into these banks amounted to £6,664,628, and the interest accrued brought the amount due to depositors to the sum above stated. These banks only commenced business on the 16th Septem- ber, 1861. The results have justified their establishment. The expenses for the year 1871 are stated at £69,427. The funds are paid over to the National Debt Commis- sioners, and their account for 1871 shows that they purchased in that year above a million of Consols or New Three per Cent. Stock, and that they made also the follow- ing investments of the Post Office Sa ings Banks money : — £900,000 in th9 purchase of bonds of the Irish Church Temporalities Commissioners; £150,000 in the purchase of 13,828 Terminable Annuities; and £405.211 was applied in making payments under the Pensions Commutation Acts of 1869 and 1871. Pauperism:. — On the 1st of January, 1872, the number of paupers in receipt of relief from the rates in England and Wales was 981,042, being 1 in 23 of the population, or 4 3 per cent. ; 16 per cent, of the number were receiving indoor re- lief, and 84 per cent, outdoor relief. The list is constituted as follows : — Adult males, 3,951 able-bodied, and 150,787 not able bodied; adult females, 114,241 able-bodied, and 283,613 not able- bodied ; children under 16, 255,404 re- lieved with able-bodied parents, and 84,474 not with able-bodied parents : va- grants, 3,378 ; insane, 21,496 males, 27,427 females, 1,063 children. These figures make a total of rather larger than that first given, owing to some persons being relieved both indoor and outdoor on the day referred to. The total number receiving relief is less by 104,619, or 9’6 per cent., than on the 1st of January, 1871. The decrease was as large as 18'6 per cent, in the metropolis, and 16*6 per cent, in the north-western division, consisting of Lancashire and Yorkshire. The num- 1199 STATISTICS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM, 1200 ber of adult able-bodied paupers relieved on the 1st of January, 1872, was 19 per cent, fewer than on the 1st of January, 1871. In the Metropolis the decrease was no less than 30’5 per cent., and in the north- western division 28 per cent. Commebce. — An account, showing the amount of the imports into and the ex- ports from the United Kingdom, stated in real value in each year from 1854 to 1870 inclusive : — Years. Real Value. Imports. Exports. Produce and Manufactures of the United Kingdom. Foreign and Colonial Merchandise. Total Exports. £ £ £ £ 1854 152,389,053 97,184,726 18,636,366 115,821,092 1855 143,542,850 95,688,085 21,003,215 116,691,300 1856 172,544,154 115,826,948 23,393,405 139,220,353 1857 187,844,441 122,066,107 24,108,194 146,174,301 1858 164,583,832 116,608,756 23,174,023 139,782,779 1859 179,182,355 130,411,529 25,281,446 155,692,975 1860 210,630,873 335,891,227 28,630,124 164,521,351 1861 217,485,024 125,102,814 34,529,684 159,632,498 1862 225,716,976 123,992,264 42,175,870 166,163,134 1863 248,919,020 146,602,342 50,300,067 196,902,409 1864 274,952,172 160,449,053 62,170,561 212,619,614 1865 271,072,285 165,835,725 52,995,851 218,831,576 1866 295,290,274 188,917,536 49,988,146 238,905,682 1867 275,183,137 180,961,923 44,8 i0,606 225,802,529 1868 294,693,608 179,677,812 48,100,642 227,778,454 1869 295,460,214 189,953,957 47,061,095 237,106,325 1870 303,296,082 199,640,983 44,493,755 244,134,738 Coal . — The total quantity of coal raised in the United Kingdom in the seven years ending with 1870 inclusive was 725,236,578 tons. In this total 1864 figured for 95,122,919 tons; 1865 for 98,911,169 tons ; 1866 for 100,728,881 tons ; 1867 for 105,077,743; 1868 for 104,566,959 tons; 1869 for 108,003,482 tons; and 1870 for 112,875,725 tons. To the aggregate of 725,286,578 tons, Northumberland, Durham, and Cumber- land contributed 77,894,900 tons; South Durham, 106,124,977 tons ; North and East Lancashire, 47,031,875 tons; West Lancashire and North Wales, 56,463,939 ions; Yorkshire, 70,043,900 tons ; Derby- shire, Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire, and Warwickshire, 64,240,000 tons; North Staffordshire, Cheshire, and Shropshire, 41,000,000 tons; South Staffordshire and Worcestershire, 71,683,500 tons; Mon- mouthshire, Gloucestershire, Somerset- shire, and Devonshire, 43,428,500 tons; South Wales, 61,427,851 tons; East Scot- land, 52,348,690 tons; and West Scotland, 43,593,446 tons. British Spirits and Beer.— In the year 1871, 30,855,035 gallons of proof spirits were distilled in the United King- dom, being 634,767 gallons more than in the preceding year. 7,739,720 gallons were distilled in England, 13,813,062 gal- lons in Scotland, and 9,302,253 gallons in Ireland. The consumption of British spi- rits in 1871 is stated by the Inland Reve- nue Department at 24,163,644 gallons, being 1,550,154 gallons more than in the preceding year. The net amount of duty received on this quantity taken for con- sumption in 1871 was £12,081,822. The accounts show 3,923,732 gallons of proof home-made spirits removed from Scotland to England in 1871, and 1, *22, 507 gallons from Ireland; but the removals from England and Wales and Ireland were little over 120,000 gallons. The annual returns relating to brewing show that, in 1871, 50,724,086 bushels of inalt were made, and the duty charged thereon amounted to £6,878,102. In the year ending the 30th of Septem- ber, 1871, 31,726 persons in the United Kingdom paid for licenses as common brewers, and the amount of licence- duty charged upon them was £399,576, being £11,187 more than in the preceding year. The great majority of the brewers brew less than 1000 barrels in the year; but one took out a licence for brewing between 450,000 and 500,000 barrels; one for be- 1201 1202 CHRONOLCKT5 tween 500,000 and 550,000 ; two for 600,000 to 650,000; and one took a licence for brewing more than 700,000 barrels, and paid £9593 licence-duty. In 1871, 467,503 barrels of beer, of the value of 1,811,076, were exported from the United Kingdom, the value being less than in the preceding year by £119,007. The export of beer to India was of the value of £416,089 ; to Australia and New Zealand, £343,209 ; to the United States, £178,208; to South Africa, £61,575; to Brazil, £68,294 ; to Peru, £55,190. Brandy . — The distillation in France commenced in the year 1343, in the form of a medicine: hence the term “Eau de Vie.” The trade is chiefly supplied from the Brandy Stores of Cognac, in the Depart- ment of the Charente. These stores are about five first-class establishments, giving employment to as many as 300 men in the larger class during the active season. The brandies bought from farmers and distillers are, with a certain proportion of older brandies, carried to the top or third story of the mixing-store, which forms the main part of the establishment. Here the brandies are, by means of troughs, poured into large vats placed on the next lower story. For this purpose, six hogsheads of brandy, coming from different localities, and of various ages (the new greatly pre- ponderating), are selected for each vat, and their contents are poured into the vat simultaneously, so as to secure a com- plete admixture. This method is continued with each vat employed until it is full. In the active season, usually, 24 hogs- heads are being poured out, or 4 vats being filled, at the same moment. The vats are made of oak, and capable of holding 60 hogsheads each. In one of the stores there are 28 vats, holding in the aggregate 107,840 gallons. OF EVENTS. The mixing in the vats is performed by vertical perforated flyers, formed some- what like the screws of steam vessels. These are placed inside the vats, and made to rotate by steam-power. As soon as the admixture is perfect, the brandy is allowed to .descend through a pipe into a fit receptacle, and thence it is forced upwards, by hydraulic pressure, through a thick filter, and thus becomes freed from all impurities. It is then re- ceived in another set of vats on the ground floor, whence it is transferred to pipes, hogsheads, or quarters, as required. The following table shows the exporta- tion of Brandy from Tonnay-Charente during six years ; — Years ended Decern. 31. Quantities. French Litres. British Gallons. 1864 27,008,420 5,941,848 1865 28,654,000 6,303,880 1866 52,555,500 11,562,210 1867 44,411.000 9,770,420 1863 41,762,800 9,187,816 1869 37,909,000 8,353,180 The average quantity of grain exported from Dantzig to British and Irish ports during the ten years 1860-69, was 554,000 quarters annually, as a total of 5,540,000 quarters were forwarded during the whole of the period. CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS. {Continued from page 1099). Royal Exchange, Burnt ... 1838 London and Birmingham Railway opened ------ 1838 General Penny Post established - 1840 Union of the Canadas - 1841 Ashburton Treaty signed - 1842 Treaty of Peace between Great Bri- tain and China signed - 1842 Duke of Sussex died - 1843 Monster meeting of Kildare - - 1843 World's Peace Convention - - 1843 Secession from Scotch Church - - 1844 New Royal Exchange opened - - 1844 Duty on glass abolished - 1845 Peace Congress at Brussels . - 1848 French National Guards visited London ------ 1843 Meagher and other Irish agitators convicted ----- 1848 Duchess of Praslin, murdered - - 1813 Louis Napoleon, then in his fortieth year, was elected President of the French Republic - 1843 Siege of Rome 1849 Peace Congress at Paris - 1849 Defeat of the Hungarians by the Russian and Austrian armies - 1849 Great Temperance Meeting at Exeter Hall 1851 Window Tax repealed - - -1851 Resignation of Russell Ministry - 1851 Great Industrial Exhibition opened, May 1 1851 Death of Clay, the American Pre- sident - 1852 Louis Napoleon proclaimed Emperor, December ----- 1852 Electric Telegraph communication 1203 CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS, opened between England and Ire- land. — The wire, 70 miles long, was sunk between Holyhead and King- ston in 18 hours, and a messa° e was received in London at 10 o’clock, dated from Dublin, 8 o’clock. — Junel ----- -1652 An Act was passed relating to the Militia, a number not exceeding 50.000 to be raised in 1852, and 30.000 in 1853 - - - - 1852 An Act to abolish the office of Master in Ordinary oi the High Court of Chancery, and to make provision for the more speedy and efficient dispatch of business in the said Court, was passed June 30lh -1852 The formation of the Camp on Chob- ham Common, an extensive heath, about three miles from Chertsey. The force assembled was from 8000 to 10,000 strong. — June - - 1853 A Camp of Instruction was organized at Aldershott, three miles from Farnham, for the purpose of edu- cating the troops in the construc- tion of field works, in field move- ments, and in attack and defence. Temporary huts were erected for 20.000 men, and permanent resi- dences for a large number. The camp was inspected by her Ma- jesty and Prince Albert on June 16th ------ 1855 A Foreign Legion, in consequence of the war with Russia, has been raised, the depot for recruits being at Heligoland. On August the 8tb, the Queen reviewed those troops fit for service, to the number of 3500, consisting of the German Light In- fantry and Rifles, and a Swiss regi- ment at the camp at ShornclifFe - 1855 The year 1855 was remarkably dis- tinguished by an interchange of visits between the sovereigns of England and France. On the 16th of April, the Emperor and Em- press of France arrived at Dover, where they were received by Prince Albert ; they passed through Lon- don, en route to Windsor. On the 18th, the Emperor was invested by the Queen with the Order of the Garter ; on the 19th, the Emperor and Empress visited the City of London, receiving an address from the Corporation, and departed for Boulogne on the 21st - - - 1855 The visit of the Queen of England to France took place in August. On the 18th, Her Majesty, with Prince Albert, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal, arrived at Bou- logne, where she was received by the Emperor in person. The royal party reached Paris the same even- ing, her Majesty staying at St. Cloud. During her Majesty’s stay in Paris, she visitfd the Universal Exhibition of Fine Arts; the 1204 Opera ; the Great Exhibition of In- dustry ; and, after being present at a grand ball and review, given in her honour, returned to England on the 37th ----- 1855 The compulsory stamp on newspa- pers was abolished ; but papers are permitted to retain the stamp on any number of copies, which gives to theA the privilege of trans- mission and ra-transmission for 15 days from the date of pu21ieation - 1855 Unstamped copies of papers, books, or any pri6ted matter, may be now forwarded by pos tin covers open at the ends, at the following rates : — under 4 ozs., Id.; under 8’ozs., 2d.; under 1 lb., 4d. ; and 2d. ad- ditional for every half pound ; and newspapers may be sent to the Bri- tish colonies by affixing lp. stamp 1145 Covent Garden Theatre destroyed by Fire, March 5th - 1536 Treaty of Peace with Russia, signed at Paris (30 March) 1856 Final evacuation of the Crimea by the British (12 July) Failure of the North British Bank (3 September) Emperor of Russia crowned at Mos- cow (7 September) Outbreak of hostilities with Persia, (1 November) Mutinous demonstrations in India (23 January) 1857 Opening of Art Treasures Ex., Man- chester (5 May) Capture of Delhi by Gen. Archdale Wilson (30 September) Canton captured by the British and French forces (29 December) Attempt to assassinate Napoleon III. by Orsini (14 January) 1858 Dr. Livingstone sailed from Liver- pool en route to Africa (10 March) Treaty of Peace with Japan signed (26 August) India under the Queen’s Govern- ment (1 November) The Austrians invade Sardinian terri- tory (29 April) 1859 Treaty of Commerce between France and England signed at Paris (23 January) 1860 Death of Frederick William IV., King of Prussia (1 January) 1861 Death of the Duchess of Kent at Frogmore (16 March) Census of Great Britain and Ireland taken to-day (Sunday), “ being the seventh decennial enumeration under the authority of Parliament.’* Total pop. of the British Islands, 29,334,788 (8 April) Death of Cavour, in his 52nd year (6 June) Great fire in London, loss £1,000,000 (22 June) Order of the Star of India instituted (25 June) Death of the Prince Consort (14 Dec) 1205 THE WAR WITH RUSSIA, 1206 Peabodv’s gift of £100,000 to the poor (12 March) 1802 Arrival of Speke and Grant at Ripon Falls (27 August) Cotton famine assumes a severe form (8 September) Rise of the Poles against the Russian conscription (1-1 January) 1863 Marriage of the Prince of Wales (10 March) Death of Richard Whately, D.D, (8 October) Death of Lord Elgin at Dhurmsula, E. I. (20 November) Arrival of Garibaldi in England (3 April) 1S64 Inauguration of President Lincoln (4 March) Confederates retire from Richmond (2 April) Death of Richard Cobden (2 April) Assassination of President Lincoln (14 April) 1S65 Wreck of the “ London,” and loss of 220 lives (11 January) 1563 Death of Marie Amelie, Ex-queen of the French (24 March) Battle of Sadowa, defeat of the Aus- trians (3 July) Treaty of Peace between Austria and Italy (3 September) Emperor Maximilian shot at Quere- taro (19 June) 1367 Death of Professor Faraday, aged 73 (26 August) Death of Baron Marochetti, R.A., sculptor (28 December) Capture of Magdala by Sir Robert Napier (13 April) 1863 Flight of the Queen of Spain (29 Sep.) Election of General Grant (3 JSov.) Royal assent to the Irish Church Bill (26 July) 1869 Death of George Peabody, aged 75 (4 November) Opening of the Suez Canal (17 Nov.) The CEcumenical Council at Romo opened (8 December) Result of the iTebiscitum m France, including the A gerine vote, shows 7,336,434 aye9, aganst 1,560,709 nnes (18 May) 1870 Death of Charles Dickens, born 7 February, 1812 (10 J’ ccb i a*. < r 1\ teen at the rate of about £298,000 per week. There appears, however, to have been an increased coinage of 10*mark pieces, or a coinage at the rate of about £127,000 weekly, making the average weekly coin- age, including both 20 and 10-mark pieces, about £425,000. The Germans were coin- ing at the rate of between £100,000 and £500,000 a-week for the 12 weeks ending the 3rd of August. The aggregate coin- age on 3rd August was ; — Marks. £ 20-mark pieces . 220,411,820 . 11,020,591 10-mark pieces . 16,831,030 . 841,551 Total . 237,242,850 . 11,862,142 Population of Greece.— The popu- lation of Greece, as shown by the Census of May, 1870, including soldiers and sailors abroad at that date, was 1,457,894, of which number, 232,221 were in the Ionian islands. The population of the old kingdom, viz., Continental Greece, the Peloponessus, and islands of the Cyclades — had increased since the preceding Cen- sus in 1861 in the ratio of one annually for 85 inhabitants ; of the Ionian Islands one for 643 inhabitants. The annual increase of the entire population of Greece has been one per cent, per annum. The popu- lation of the principal towns in 1870 was found to be as follows : — Athens, 48,107 ; Patras, 26,190; Corfu, 24,091; Syra (Ermopolis), 20,996 ; Zante, 20,480; Sparta had 10,686; Corinth, 6047 ; Thebes, 5273. The official report on the Census states the births in 1867, the latest return, at 42,367, and the deaths, 28,134. The fecundity of marriages is represented as averaging 4*55 in the three years 1865*67 ; and the death-rate is stated at one for 47 of the population. Wealth. — There are says MacLeod, three species of wealth. 1. Material products, such as corn, manufactures, houses, etc., etc. 2. The economic quantities, which may be summed up under the title of labour. Everyone who earns a living by an ex- ertion of the mind, whether of the tongue or head, is a labourer. 3. The third species of economic quan- tities are, however, of a different kind. In tangible and invisible like the second species, they are yet, like the firsthand when we exchange or sell them, we divest ourselves absolutely of the property in them, as we do of the first species. INDEX TO SUPPLEMENT. Agricultural Facts, 1131 Cochineal, management of, 1133 Norwegian farm, 1133 Silkworms’ eggs, cost of rearing, etc., 1131 Statistics of Ireland, 1134 Chronology of Events, 1201 Commerce, 1200 Commercial Panics, 1193 Carious Miscellaneous Facts— Alkali manufacture, 1166 Burning coal mine, 1170 Consumption of bread, 1163 Cost of war, 1172 Diggings, 1172 London Bridge, 1167 Lotteries, 1168 Materials used for the Exhibition of 1862, 1167 Old taxes, 1172 Philadelphia, 1174 Pressure borne by animal life, 1165 Printing first Bible, 1171 Safety beacon, 1169 Singular experiments, 1172 Street paving, 1167 Terrestrial magnetism, 1173 Value of property, 1166 Discoveries, useful, 1209 Employment and wages, 1137 Antwerp, 1137 Alexandria, 1138 Buffalo, 1138 Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, 1139 Brindisi, 1139 Charente Inferieure, 1140 Chile, 1140 Endowed charities, general digest of, 1147 Extraordinary Facts — Abstinence, 1184 Bells and thunderstorms, 1181 Bog of Castleguard, 1180 Brixton in Norfolk, 1181 Buried town, 1183 Curious birth, 1180 Curious volcano, 1178 Curiosities of sleep, 1173 Destruction of Borge, 1181 English Sovereigns, 1182 Egyptian goose, 1181 ^2* Eggs hatched by a cat, 1181 Extraordinary showers, 1179 Falliog-in of land, 1180 Flight of eagles, 1181 Floating island, 1182 Headless horseman, 1183 Incombustible men, 1178 Laws relating to dress, 11761 Longevity of animals, 1177 Moving hills, 1182 Mummy wheat, 1181 J Nudity and piety, 1183 Philosopher’s stone, 1181 Prodigious strength, 1182 Rise of earth, 1182 River fever in Gloucestershire, 1182 Singular tides, 1182 Sleeping, 1173 Solway Moss, 1178 Statue of Charles I., 1181 Sudden disappearance of a lake, 1180 Verbal delicacy, 1179 Vibration of the pendulum, 1177 Wonderful eyes, 1185 York gaol, 1178 Geographical and commercial facts, 1094 Amber of East Prussia, 1094 Birmah, British (geographical), 1109 Birmah, British (commercial), 1110 China treaty, ports of, 1102 Amoy, 1106 Canton city, 1106 Che-foo, 1103 Foo-chow, 1102 Hankow, 1105 Kew-Keang, 1104 Ningpo, 1103 Swatow, 1105 Tien-t sin, 1105 Cocoa of Caracas, 1096 Crete, island of, 1095 Crete , „ silk trade and imports, 1096 Dantzic shipping charges, 1093 Denmark, cereals of, 1106 France, trade with, 1098 France, consumption of chestnuts, 1098 Japan, open ports of, 1099 1215 INDEX TO SUPPLEMENT, 1216 Hakodate, 1101 Hiago and 0?aka, 1100 Kanagawa, 1099 Nagasaki, 1100 Niigata, 1101 Osaka (see Iliogo), 1100 Marennes chemical works, 1093 Swabia, manufactures of, 1107 Swabia, scale of wages, 1108 Swabia, agricultural statistics of, 1108 Tunisian trade, 1095 United States currency, 1098 United States trans-oceanie carrying trade, 1099 India, languages of, 1207 Inventions, 1151, 1166 Mining- Emerald mines of Muzo, 1135 Coal-mines, accidents in, 1136 Photogbaphy, various processes, 1186 to 1192 Recent miscellaneous facts, 1111 Animals, wild prices of, 1127 Berlin, cost of provisions, 1121 Birds, price of, 1127 Births in Scotland, 1122 British Museum, visitors to, 1125 Chimney raising, 1125 Colliers, longevity of, 1122 Colour, effect on the mind, 1124 Eclipse of 1871, expenses incurred, 1123 Education— Public of Great Britain, 1114 Epirus, education in, 1118 Norway, 1117 Parliamentary grants, 1116 Sweden, education in, 1116 Switzerland, 1119 Fashion plate3, 1123 Fish supply, 1125 Gun cotton, 1111 Guns, costly, 1127 Holiday and fete days abroad, 1125 House duty, 1130 Indian mutiny, 1111 Jews of Russia, 1121 Joint Stock banks, 1129 Lightning, flash of, 1123 Liverpool houses, condition of, 112( Looshais, 1122 Marriage, its influence on life, 1122 Metropolitan police, 1124 Mint, cost of coining, 1122 National gallery, 1125 Parliamentary- House of Commons, 1114 Reform bill for England of, 1867-8. 1112 „ Scotland, 1868, 1114 „ Ireland, 1868, 1114 Prussia, expenditure of families, 1120 Public opinion, value of, 1123 Savings’ banks, 1129 Sunken lake, 1126 • Switzerland, libraries of, 1119 ,, societies of, 1120 Telegraph, submarine, 1127 “Times” newspaper, 1123 Turnpike trusts, 1124 Vicuna, the, 1127 Workmen’s decoration, 1121 Zoological society, 1125 Recent statistics, 1141 Canada, defence of, 1144 German empire, the extent and popu- lation, 1145 Russia, finances of, 1146 South America, population of, 1145 Straits settlements, population of, 1146 United States, cost of government, popu- lation, etc., 1141 Statistics of Great Britain, 1197 Theology, 1195 Oriental churches, 1195 Religious orders, sects, etc., 1196 Wab with Russia, 1205 v. ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Aard-Vark, 170 Aaron, 1003 Abbe BossuCs method of teaching Languages , 690 Abelard and Helojse, 1003 Abolition of Slavery, 931 Abolition of Imprisonment for Debt, 953 Aborigines, non-improve- ment, 161 — of North America, 861 — of New South Wales, 933 Abraham, epoch of, 45, 986 Abridgments legal, 945 Absence of rain in P°ru, 545 Absentee landlords, 7/0, 819, 924 Absorbents, 115, 138, 211 — soils viewed as, 917 Abstinence, 154-5 Absurdity of the Ancient Mythology , 967 Abundance of oxygen and hydrogen, 485 Abury, 709 Abydos, 980 Abyssinian nation, 127 — cattle, 166 Academies Royal, 632 — of various countries, 656 Acarides, 195, 198 — production of, on Mr. Crosse’s experiments, 504 Accipitres, 175 Accounts, financial, 875 — Foreign, 27 Accumulation of precious stones and metals, 265 Accum on the adulteration of necessary articles, 845 Acetic acid, 433 Achromatic telescope , 58S Acid, 431, 446 — muriatic, 115, 427, 923 — vegetable, 209 — nitric, 433 Acids, various, reacting pow- ers, &c. 491 — for galvanic experiments, 502 Acotyledons, 205-6 Acoustics, science of, 1092 Acquittal, 946 Acre, 16 — produce on an, 233 Acropolis , 03 Act of Settlement , 935 — of Union, 946 Action, 75 *— equal to re.action, 103, 133, 370 - galvanic, 248, 261 *— capillary, 554 1 Action and re.action, the cause of all electrical phe. nomena. 484-5 Actiniae, 200 Acupunctuation, 148 Adam Smith, 840 Adam , epoch of, 43 Adder, 189 Adhesion of iron, 798 Adjournment of Par lm., 942 Adjustment of the Zodiac, 385 Administrations , 937-8 Admiralty Courts, 934 — droits , 888 — of Petersburg, 743 Adrian’s wall, 709 Adulteration of beer, 840 Advertisements , 666 ASpinus, 485, 489 Aerolites, 560 Aerostation, 557—9 iEsop and iEschylus, 1005 Affairs, naval and milit., 957 Affections of brutes, 161, 1/2 Affinity, chemical, 441, 485 African negroes, 161 — elephants, 164 — deserts, 290 — astrology, 365 Agamemnon, 1005 Agamous plants, 206 Agassiz, 306 Agates, 285 Age, effects of, 128 — of the elephant, 163 — of the horse, 165 — of the eagle, 174 — of fishes, 182 — of the tortoise, 186 — of metals, 261 — (epoch) of man, 281 — of reptiles. 292 — of chalk, 306 Ages, heroic, 48 Aggregate force, 72 Agility of insects, 195 Agreement of the prismatic and diatonic scales, 596 Agriculturists of Great Bri- tain , 847, 907 Agricultural districts, 291 — numbers, 749 — produce of Ireland, 819 — countries, 914 Air, 523, 562 — its density, 78, 525 — resistance, 526, 550 — weight snd analysis, 524 — compression and expan- j sicn, 525 — refraction, 527 — elasticity, 530 — rarefaction, 548 Air, vibrations, 595 Air-bladder, 181 Air-pump, 528 Akenside’s analysis of the merits of poets, 639 Alabaster, 253 Alaric, 1005 Alarm of manufacturers at the export of yarn, 846 Albert Durer, 629 Albinos, 126 Albumen, 137, 439 Alcarazas, 474 Alchemy, 444 Alcohol , 436-7. 839 Aldebaran, 386 Alderney cattle, 166 Ale, &c. 841 Aletae, or Titans, 970 Aleutian islands, 869 Alexander, 1006 Alexandria, 814 Alfred , population in hit time, 750 Alfred compiled the Saxon law, 943, 1006 Algebraical powers, 56, 60 — formulae, 84 Algernon Sidney, 1069 Alhambra, 707 Aliments, 138 Alkalies, 255, 335, 433 — arrangement of, 446 Alkaline principle in leaves, 210 — vases, 503 Allantoid, 117 Alleganies, 868 Alleged saving by the New Poor Law, 77 1 Allotment system, 77 1 Allotment, Indian, 861 Alloys of coins, 21—23 — of metals, 271, 275 Alluvial strata, 280 — soils. 916 Almanac, 646 — perpetual, 35 — nautical, 350 — astrological, 365 — American, 864 Aloes, 220 Aloetic acid, 74 Atoms , dynasties of, 43, 1006 Alphabet, its combin., 68 — Cadmean, 614 Alphabetical arrangement of Modern Capitals of Ra- tions, 711 — 748 — railways, 788 — trades, &c. in London 729 — substances, various, 446 R R ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Alphabetical arrangement of names of eminent men of all nations, 1003 — 1080 Alpine spaniel, 160 Alps, 344 — viewed from Berne, 7 13 Alternation of crops , 916 Alum, its crystallization, 4/3 Amalgam, 2/5 Ambassadors , 88/ Amber, 253 — electric properties, 4/9 Ambergris, 112 Ambiguous existences, 115 Ambrosian library, 65y America, 857—874 — its discovery, 857-8 — emigration to, 861 American dollar, 26 — machines, 85 — laws, 946 — animals, 113, 860 — native race, 122, 126, 146 — mammalia, 161 — monkeys, 162-3 — birds, plumage of, 179 — chain of mount., 289, 344 — population, 356 — languages, 619 — dialects, 622 — literature, 642, 744 — theatricals, 681 — steam-ships, 776 — slave-markets, 820 — wool, 833 Ammonia, 423, 434 Ammonites, 304, 306 Ampere, 509 Amphibia, 186 — 190 Amphictyon, 1006 Amphitheatres, 705, 737 Amsterdam, 712 Amusements in Paris, 855 — want of, 951 Ana, 647 Analogy of animal nat., 108 Analysis, mathemat., 57, 71 — of water, 313, 421 — of wheat and barley, 436 — of poetical merit, 639 — of soils, 916 Anatomy , 121 — 157 — bones, 132 — muscles, 134 — of the elephant, 163 — deductions from, 122 Ancestors and poster- ty, 125 Anchors, weight of, 101-2 Ancient armour, 958 — mythology , 967 — 974 — legends, 145 — British animals, 160 — British parliaments, 940 — botany, 205 — formations, 279 — coins, 29 — astronomy, 367 — history, 975 — 999 — music, 602, 611 — language, 617 — cities, 696, 989 Andes, 337 — eagle of, 113 — height, 341, 530 — recent observations, 869 Andorra Republic , 953 Ar.droides, 86, 820 Andromeda, 386 Anecdotes, 163 Anemometer, 524 Anemone animal, 200 Angils, 124 Angles of Earth's diame.,373 — of reflection, 569 — of draught, 777 — of facial, 127 — of incidence, 579 — of observation, 585 — French scale of, 5 Angular measure, 71 — velocity, 406 Angola ourang, 163 Animal instinct, 115 — organization, 105 — life, 117 — phenomena, 108 — tones, 119, 608 — food, 155 — kingdom, 158—204 — acids, 431 — oils, 440 — heat, 461 — electricity, 492 — powers, 847 — manure, 918 Animalcula, 74, 114, 118 — cause of disease, 148 -- extreme minuteness, 159 — production of, 192 — genera, 201 — in semen, 203, 211 Animals indigenous, 113 — fabulous, 114 — experiments on, 119 — vertebrated, 132 — medicine of, 148 — affections, 161 — ferocious, 164 — observations on, 176 — in Zoological collecs., 174 — insulated, 496 — American, 860 Animated nature, 104 — 121 Animation, its germs, 302 Annual consumption of the United Kingdom, 818 — averages oi wheat, 842 Annuities and leases, 898 Anomalistic year, 34, 413 Anseres, 175 Ant, 194-5 Ant-eater, 169 Ant-lion, 199 Antagonist muscles, 116, 134 Antelope, 167 Antennae, 199 Anthoenius, 591 Anthology, Greek, 645 Anthracite, 90, 477 Anthropophagi, 126, 155 Antidotes, 152, 432 Antipathies, 112 Antipodes island , 953 Antiquity of iron, 272 — of the earth, 277, 303 — of the compass, 508 — of writing, 614 — of sculpture. 627 — of surgery, 649 — of cheese, 923 — of juries, 949 Antonine's column, 746 Antoninus, 1008 Aorta of the whale, 171 Ape, 163 Apennines, 345 Aphelion, 32, 39 — motion, 349 Aphides, 195, 197 Apis, 192 Apjohn, on specific heat, 472 Apogee, 409 Apollo Belvidere and Musa- getes, 629 Apothecaries, 150 — weight, 10 — measure, 7 Apotheosis of great men, 969 Apparatus, branchial, 181 Apparent time, 33 Appearance of new genera, 279 Apple-treealWoolstrope,232 — toads shut in, 188 j Apples, ripening, 238 Apposition of bodies, 500 Approach, mutual , creates electric sparks, 486 Approxima. for distances, 68 A priori reasoning, 851 Apsides, progression of, 32, 39 — motion, 375, 413-15 Aquarius, ancient relative position, 980 Aqua tofana, 155 Aquafortis, 433 Aqua-regia, 436 Aqueducts, 705, 727, 779 Aqueous secretions, 133 Aqueous humour, 144 Aquila, 386 Aquinas, Thomas, 1008 Arabian caravans, 165 — horses, 160 — dromedary, 164 — deserts, 290 — nights, 637 — history, 996 — longevity, 145 Arabic language, 621 — philosophers, 648 Arabin, 439 Arable land, 907 Arachmides, 196 Arago, 394, 509, 527 Aramean language, 622 Ararat, 346 Araucaria, 221, 861 Arbitration, 950 Arc, measure of, 63 Arch, luminous, 554 Archery, 958 Arc neology, 695 Archimedean, screw, 797 Archimedes, 591, 1008 Architecture , 695 — Arabian, 737 Arctic regions, vegetat., 538 — electrical state, 494 Arcturus, 386 Are, 3 Areas, rules for, 65-6 — irregular, 67 — generated by motion, 72 Argali, 915 Argand’s lamp, 463 Argentine, 870 Argonautic expedition, 41 Arguments for and against machinery, 96 Ariosto, 641 Aristarchus, 385 Aristocracy, British, 763 Aristotle, 184, 648, 1009 Arithmetic, importance of, 56 — political, 146, 751 Arithmetical series, 63 Ark of Teheran, 74 7 Arkwright’s machine, 86, 95, 1010 Armadillo, 171 Armagh, ecclesiastical in- come of, 1083 Armenian newspaper, 677 — secretaries, 815 Armies of diff. nations , 960 Armorial bearings, 887 Armour, 958 Army , 957— 967 — Egyptian, 815 — French, 853 — American, 861 Arrangement of shells, 184 — Dr. Buckland’s, 282 Arrow-root, 220 Arrow-headed charact 616 Arts, useful, 983 Artaxerxes, 44 Arteries, 134 Arthur Young, on the price of grain, 842 Artificial incubation, 179 - — magnets, 512 — teeth, 446 Artillery , 959 Artists, celebrated, 625 Arum campanulatum, 221 Ascendancy of manufac., 816 Ascension island, 932 Ascent of air rarefied, 548 Ashantee, 712 Ashtaroth (Easter) 37 Asia , 290 — minor, 617 — debarred steam travel. 785 Asiatic mammalia, 161 — elephants, 164 — goats, 168 — grasshopper, 197 — astrology, 365 — history, 991 Aspect of the heavens, 365 Asphaltum, 255 Ass, braying of, 110 3 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Ass, white, 165 — wild, 166 Assam tea, 228 Assessments , parochial , 771 Assets, public, 906 7 Assiento treaty, 820 Assizes, 949 Associations, literary, &c. 656 Assumed recurrence of wea- ther, 55 7 Assyrian empire, 991 Astrological origin of festi- vals, 37-8 Astrology, 209, 365, 649, 970 Astronomical day, 32 — emblems, 990 Astronomy , 365 — 416 - — Hindoo, how misrepre- sented, 40 — indebted to Astrology, 366 — a science ot observa., 369 — the Editor’s theory, 397 — corollaries, 416 Atlantic ty Pacific canal, 780 Atmosphere, wt. of, 81, 529 — of comets, 395 — of the moon, 409 — extent unknown, 525 — fluids in, 541 — on drying, after heavy rains, 545 — local, 568 Atmospheric pressure, 73, 88, 525 — tanning by, 102 — effect on vegetation, 211 — air, 422 — compression, 525 — column, 530 — refraction, 571 — electricity, 493 Atomic mot. 73, 136, 417,441 — theory, 418 Atoms, 73, 114.15 — number of, 78 — changed, 123 — fundamental, 259 — science of, 417 Attenuated light, 579 Attorney and Sol -Gen., 936 Alt* action, 327, 371 — why absurd, 382, 441 — capillary, 527 Audit-books of Eton sch. 819 Augite, 252 Aula Regis, 949 Aura, 261 Auricles of the heart, 135 Aurora Borealis, 515, 553 Auscultation, 151 Austral continent, 354 Australasia, animals of, 113, — temperature, 536 [194 Austrian universities, 692 Authors, royal, in Engl., 638 Authorities, legal, 943 Automata , 86 Average sale of newspapers, &c. 667 — taxation in hf. a cent., 885 — size of farms, 913 Aver, of life in animals, 173 — temperature, 536 — rain, 544-5 — winds, 517 Aves, 175—180 Avoirdupois, 10 Axis, rotation, 375 — of the earth, 348 Azote, (See Nitrogen.) Babbage on the decline c i science, 642 — on rocks, 469 Baboons, 162-3 Babylon , 699, 970, 993 Babylonian epoch, 42 Bacon, Roger , 1012 Badger, 170 Bag pipe, 611 Bailey on the moon, 409 Bakers 5 weights, 844 Bakewell, assert, of, 208, 909 Balance, hydrostatic, 101 — social, 773 — of trade, 800 — American treasury, 872 Balaena, 172 Baibec, 700 Balca, mount, 290 — lake, 320 Baldwin’s phosphorus, 44 5 Balbi's estimate of the num- ber of newspapers in ali countries, 665 Bal sta and Catapult, 957 Balkh, 696 Balls, motion of, 98 — pith, 503 Balloons. 55 7 Ballot, 934 Bamboo, 221 Banana, 221 Banda Islands, 816 Bands, luminous, 554 Bangor, benefices of, 1081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Banians, 816 Bank of France, 850 — England. 893, 1093 — . Venice, 894 — axioms, 895 — of issue, 899 — accounts, 900 — restriction, 903 Banks, U. Slates, stoppage of, 1094 Baptisms, &c. in different countries, 751 Bar-iron, 272 Barbarity, legal, 769, 917 Bards, 637 Barium, 253 Bark of the earth, 208 Barley, its analysis, 436 — its products, 841 Barlow’s rules for magnetic variation, 518 — telescopes, 589 Barometer, theory c r , i?7, 524, 528 Barometer, water, 5.10 Baronets, 939 Barons, 944 Barrel of flour, 842 Barristers, 94 J Barrows , 708 Barton’s experiments, 580 Barvar Massin , 712 Basalt. 296 Bases of organization, 115 — of alkalies, 255 Basilica , 707 Bass, tenor and, 606 Basierot on fossils, 304 Bastilcs , poor-law, 772 Batavia, 152 Bath, knights of the, 939 — & Wells, benefices of, 1 081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Baths, ancient, 705 — heat of, 466 Bats, 171 Battenng-rams, 99 Battery at the Royal Institu- tion, 505 — floating, 962 Battle of Waterloo, 964 Battles of animals, 195, 119 Baya, 178 Bears in England, 114 — habits of, 164 Beasts, nocturnal, 173 Beats, musical, 600 Beaver once occupied Eng- land, 114 — economy of, 167 Reaume’s hydrometer, 469 Becquerel’s electrical ba- lance, 504 Bed ot London, 733 Bedouins, 165 Beecher, 417 Bees, age of, 174 — species, 192—194 — destroyed for the honey, 194 Beet root sugar, 840, 851 Beetles, 197 Beggars in London, 770 Beginning of the globe, 42,978 Behemoth, 164 Behmen, Martin, 1013 Behring’s straits, 354 Bejapour, 713 Belfast manufactures, 837 Bell's system of cducatn , 689 Bells, changes on, 68, 609, Bell-metal, 609 [1096 Bel us, 367, 970, 993 Belvidere, 629 Bclxcni , 989 Benefices, English, 749 — when began, 1089 — their number, 1089 — Irish, 10&9 Benefices with cure of souls, 1082 — number of, 1082 — annual value, 1082 LienSjit societies, 7 01 4 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Bengal, 926 — ice made in, 475 Bequeathable property, 886 Berger’s experiments, 478 Berlin, public buildings, 712 — museum, 175 Bermuda, 933 Berne, 713 Berzelius on meteoric-stones, 562 — on light and heat, 497 Bezoar, 112 Bible epochs, 43 Bibliutheque Royale , 659 Bicephalus, 153 Biddenham maids , 154 Bidder, George, 71 Biela’s comet, 396 Bile, its properties, 109, 440 Bills bought by governments, 819 Bill of rights, 935 Binary compounds, 497 logarithms, 60 Biography , remarkable, 1003 Biot, 527 Bird’s experiments, 505 Birds, 107, 175-180 — in Zoolog, Gardens, 1 73 4 — their flight, 1 13 — their migrations, 176 — their nests, 177 — American, 179 Birmingham railway, 792 Birs Nimrod , 699 Births, proportions, &c. 146 — in different countries, 751 — in France, 849 — registry of, 1086 Biscacho, 179 Biscuit, manufacture of, 102 Bishops, 938 — colonial, 1083 — fees on consecration, 1083 — incomes of the, 1084—6 Bison, 166 Bissextile, 35 Bitter principle 242 Bittern, 179 Bitumen, 255 Bivalve, 305 Bfack race, 124 — tea, 22 7 — swans, 178 — stockings, &c. 493 Black’s hypothesis of heat, 459, 472 Black stone , 1014 Blagden’s experiments, 478 Blair's First Lines of Arith- metic, 1 Blanc, Mont, 346 Blasco de Garay, /96 Blasting, 463 Bleaching, 833 — powder, 428, 434 Blindness, 585 Block-machine, 102 Blood, various kinds of, 107, 135, 137 — iron containedjn, 108 Blood, weight of, 135 — life in, 136 — of amphibia, 187 — analysis of, 438 Blowing-machine, 97 Blow-pipe, 466 Blue-bird, 180 Blue-stockings, 646 Blumenbach, system of, 122 Boa constrictor, 189 Boar, 169 Board of trade, 801 — of agriculture, 909 Boat, life, 101 Bobbin-net, 832 Bode, catalogue of, 384 Bodies, fall of, 64.5, 82, 99- 100 — irregular, to measure, 66 — heavenly, refract, of, 571 Bogs, 295, 924 Boilers, steam, 476 — tabular, 90 Boiling- water, 422 — points, 465, 532 Bokhara, 713 Bolivia, 870 Bolognese artists, 625 Bombay, 714 Bones of birds, 107 — composit. of, 108, 132, 410 — vertebral, 132 — of the embryo, 109 — gigantic, 309 — used as manure, 819 Books, 634 — advertised only in Eng- land, 643 — published in various places, 662 Book-societies, 658 Booksellers’ fund, 771 Book (bouk) muslin, 832 Boracite, 494 Borax, 253 Boscovich, theory of, 497 Bosjesmen , 122, 126, 162 Bosphorus, 718 Botany, 204, 245 Botanical regions, 120, 214 — marks, 207 — memoranda, 234 — gardens, 239 Boulevards of Paris, 741 Boundaries of the animal & vegetable kingdom, 207 Bounties on exportation of grain, 842 Box-wood charcoal, 501 Boxes, musical, 611 Boyle’s Court Guide, 729 Bracton, 943 Brahma, 41 Brahmins, orovisions for poor, 774 Brain, its proportions, 111 — its analysis, 439-40 — its insensibility, 141 — theories of, 139-40 — of fishes, 181 Bramah' spressiny -engi. , 101 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Brar.chial apparatus of fishes, 181 Brande’s analy. of fluids, 43/ Brandy, 818 Brass, its friction, 93 Brazilian bees, 194 — manufactures, 829 — character, 8/0 Bread consumed in England, &c. 818 — corn of other nations, 911 — its ingredients, 844 Breakwater, 795 Breeds of cattle, 915 Brere & its subdivisions, 603 Bretwelder, 935 Brewing , 840 Brewster’s experiments, 580 Bricks, 67 Bridgewater canal, 7/9 Bridges in London , 73 1 , 1055 Briggs’ logarithms, 59 Bright and dull metals, 493 Brighton sea wall, 707 Brihuspotee, cycle of, 42 Brinkley's Catalogue , 386 British insects, 1 90 — mammalia, 160 — birds, 176 — plants, 205 — tides, 329 — mountains, 345 — newspapers, &c. 663 — institution, 632 — association, 658, 1093 — libraries, 660 — museum , 369, 65S — catalogue of stars. 385 — physical theory , 497 — population, &c. 749 — Queen steamer, 7S5 — consuls, 801 — spirits, 818 — army, 961 — plate-glass company, 338 — wine-trade, 840 trade with America, 865 — colonies, 925 — law and constitution, 933 Britons, ancient, 114 — their coinage, 29 — their architecture, 701 Broadway at New York, 740 Broad cloth, 833 Brogniart, Flora of, 204, 299 — on the earth, 277 Brokers, 897 Bromine , 428 Brougham on the law-courts , 947 Brown, theory of, 203 4 — stout, 840 Bruce, Robert, 1016 Bruno, 353 Brush and star , 457 Brussels carpet, 833 — description, 714 Bubble-year , 894 Buckingham-palace , 727 Buckland’s experiments. 138 — order of strata, 246, 282 Budget, French, 85/ Buenos Ayres, 716 Buffon’s distinctions, 122 — burning glasses, 591 Building, its rapid increase, 922 — ship, 784 Bulbous roots, 918 Bull fight, 166 Bulls and bears, 892 Bullion, 24, 267 — committee, 23 — in Morocco, 902 Bulk, merely relative, 118, 159, 201 — comparison of, 373 — of the sun, 405 — of contemporary popula- tion, /5 8 Buonaparte , 1051 Buonarotti, 625 Buoy, life, 101 Burgundy wines, 458 Burials, estimate of, 751 Burning mirrors, 511 — cliffs, 339 — of metals, 502 Burnet, Bishop, 892 Burr , electrical , 491 Burton ale, 840 .Bushel, 6 Business in parliament, 938 —942 Bute docks, 780 Butter, vegetable, 227 — of goats’ milk, 169 — analysed, 438 — Irish, 924 Butterflies, 176, 191 — their eyes, 1 99 Buxton, J., 1018 Byron, works of, 637 Cabinet-makers, -764 — ministers, 937 Cabins, 695 Cables, chain, 102 Cadence, 607 Cadmium, 271 Cadmus, date of, 45 — his alphabet, 614 Caesarian operation, 149 Cage, birds in, 175 Cairo, 715, 815 Calcareous springs, 322 Calcium, 434 Calculation, limits to, 58 — mental, 71 — of earth’s motion, 352 — of distances, 356 — of fall in a second, 399 Calculus, differential, 57 Calcutta, 716 — scientific association, 660 — college, 929 Caledonian canal, 779 Calendar, Hebrew, 39 — Roman, 33-4 — Chinese, 40. 1 Californian language, &c. S72 Caligraphy, 635 Cali-yug , 42 Callavayas, 865 Caloric, 840 Calorimeter, 506 Calvin, 1020 Cambridge university, 684 — members at colleges of, 1083 — of the senate, 1083 Camel and dromedary, 164-6 Camera obscura , 582 — lucida, 592 Campania, 550 Canada, 926 Canadian canal , 779 Canals, 777 — French. 853 Cancer, 386 Candles, 463, 470 Canis genus, 167 Cannel coal, 476 Cannibals, 126, 155 Canuon, 959 60 Canova in England, 630 Canterbury, benefices of. 1 081 — cathedral, 710 — churches and chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Caoutchouc, 447 Capacity, measure of, 6 Cape of Good Hope , 815 Capella, 386 Capillary vessel, 136, 496 — attraction, 527, 554 Capitals, American, 356 — modern, of all nations, 711-749 Capital punishments, 769, 960 — increase of. 777 Capitol of Washington , 74S Capstan, 102 Captivity, Jewish, 44 Carat, what, 22 Caravans, Arabian, 165 Carbon, 426 Carbonates, 423, 446 — oflime, 434 Carbonic-acid gas, 423, 426 — elimination of, 136 — in vegetables, 209-10 Carboniferous fluids, 306 Carburetted hydro., 426, 477 Cards, combinations of, 68, 70 — playing, 887 — for wool, 102 Carlisle, benefices of, 1081 — income, 1081 — tables of population, 755 Carmel, 346 Carniola, 550 Carnivora, 158, 164 — aquatic, 171 Carpets of vegetable fibre, 103 — Brussels, and others, 833 Carriages for hire, 887 Carrier pigeon, 1 77 Carr on iron- works, 827 Carthage, 997 Cartilage, relaxation of, 134* i Cartoons, 628 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Cartwright , 947, 1021 Carucate, 944 Cary’s microscope, 204 Cashel, ecclesiastical income of, 1083 Cashmere shawls, 163 Casks, contents of, 66 — machinery for making, 102 Caslon, first type-founder in England , 652 Cassava flour , 912 Cassigram telescopes , 531) Cassiopeia, 383 Cast-iron, 2/2 Caste, its baneful influence, 125 — Chinese, 708 Castor , 112 Castor end Pollux, 335 Cat, 167 8 Catalogues of Hipparchus and various moderns, 384 — of double stars, 392 Catania, 335 Catapulta, 957 Catches and glees, 605 Catechism of the British con- stitution, 933 Caterpillar, 191 Cathedral at Florence, 722 Catholic emancipation , 935 Cattle, their diseases, 152 — their breeds, 1 66 — their weight, 167 — destroyed by wolves, 168 — consumed in London, 911 — breeds, 915 Caucasian race, 124 Caucasus, 346 Causes of inclined forma - tions, 2 77 ■ — of flame, 424 — of magnetic phenom., 507 — of atmospheric pheno- mena, 523 — of rain, 544 — of wind, 54/ — of polarization, 576 — of crime, 950 Causeway , Giants\ 296 Caustic painting, 626 Caution of the Egyptian Pa- cha, 814 Cavendish’s experiments, 490 555 Caves, 291, 309, 695 Cavy, or guinea-pig, 169 Caxton, 652 Cecrops, 45 Cedar, Himalaya, 224 — of Lebanon, 232 Cells, of the bees, 193-4 Cellular tissue, 109, 207 Celsus, 149 Censors of the press, 664 — of the press in Vienna, 748 Centesimal division, 71 Centigrade thermo., 464, 532 Centipedes, 197 Central force, 374 ^ Asia and Africa, 815 Central America, 861 Centrifugal force, 98 — of waters in perihelion, 248 Centripetal force, 72, 99 Century, 19th, almanac for, 35 — 17th, astronomers, 369 — increase in a, 1 24 Cerebellum, 1412 Cerebrum, 140, 142 Cervical vertebrae, 157 Cetacea, 113, 171 Ceylon, 816, 886 Chabert’s endurance of heat, 478 Chain of mountains, 289 — rule, 68 Chaldean year, 41 — dynasties, 991 — astronomy, 46, 367 — medicine, 148 — language, 614 Chalk soils, 916 — fossils, 285, 306 — full of marine insects, 287 Chambers, French, 854 — of loans, 893 Chamelion, 112 Champagne, 453 Champions of civ. liberty, 956 Champollion, 615 Champs Elysees, 741 Chancery decisions, 947 Chances, 70 Changes, rules for, 68 — effected by steam, 7/5 — of animals, 1 16-7 — geographical, 323 Channel islands, 750 Chanting, 604 Chapels and churches in London, 729 — parochial, 1089 — not parochial, 1089 Chapters, collegiate, 1082 Character of Newton, 397 — of Americans, 861 — of the French 853 Characteristics of English writers, 636 Charcoal, 426 Charge, electric, 495 Charges d'affaires, Ameri- can, 859 Chariots, ancient, 77 8 Charitable assessments, 7/2 — purposes, 1084 — income for education. 1084 — institut. & societies, 1084 — when established, 1084 Charities, public, 838 Charters, 945 Chartist petition, 947 Chat, 180 Chateaubriand, 723 Chatham, Lord, 1058 Chalsworth ox, 166-7 Chatterton, 1022 Chaucer, 638 Cheddar cave, 294 Cheese, 438 — of goats’ milk, 169 ' Cheese, Cheshire, 922 Chelsea poor’s rate, 771 ! — hospital, 964 Chemical powers, 75 — powers of light, 582 — classifications, Mob’s, 243 — elements of animals, 1 15 — elements of water, 313 — discoveries, 417 Chemistry , 417, 506 Chemistry, vegetable, 303-9 — substances, &c. alphabe- tically arranged . 446 Cherokee language, 619 — agriculture, &c. 861 Cheselden, 585 Cheshire cheese, &c., 922 Chesnut.trees, 231 Chester, benefices of, 1031 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Chichester, benefices of, 1081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Chickens hatched artificially, 179 Chief rivers, 317 Childers, speed of, 165 Children’s galvanic battery, 505 Children, weight of, 128 — number, &c. 75 7 — mortality, 145, 754 — labor, 821 Chili, 870 Chiltern Hundreds, 942 Chimborazo, 346 Chimneys, 707 Chimpanzee, 162 Chinchona, 221 Chinese astronomy, 367-8, 981 — shipping, 7S4 — year, 40-1 — cycle, 42 — maxims, 820 — annals, 44 — ambient civilization, 844 — decimal scale, 57 — feet, 153 — music, 602 — penmanship, 615 — language, 616 — history, 62<>, 997, 1095 — temples, 627 — printing, 651 — architecture, /C3 Chladni on vibrations, 598 Chlorides, 423 — of sodium & lime, 428, 447 Chlorine, 427 8 Chlorurel of soda, 148 Chocolate, 221,448 Choctaw Indians, 861 Choke-damp, 425 Chords, musical, 606 Christ, language of, 623 Christ’s ho pital, 687 Christiana, 716 Christian era, error in, 31, 43 — festivals, origin of. 37 Chronicles, Parian, 45 ALPHABETICAL INDEX Chronicles Irish, 620 — Egyptian, 9/8 Chronology, 30 — historical, 42, 56 — Hebrew, 987 — Hindoo, 40 — dramatic, 681 — of ancient authors, 9/8 — obliquity of the ecliptic, 9/9 Chronological table, 48 Chronometers, 99 Chronus , 46, 969 Chrysalis, 191 — of the silk worm, 835 Church, Irish, 10b3 — archbishoprics of, 1083 — bishoprics of, 1083 — Scottish episcopal, 1083 — sees of, 1083 — music, 604, 609 — bells, 609 Churches and chapels, new, 1089 Church. yards first consecrat- ed, 1089 Chyle and chyme, 115 Cider and perry, 841 Cimarosa, 604 Cincinnatus, 921 Cinnamon, 223 Circle, theorems on, 63 Circles, galvanic, in the ani- mal economy, 501 Circuits of assize, 949 Circular motion, theories, 381 — paddles, known to the an- cients, 776 Circulation, 134 — double, 106-7 — falsely named, 135 Circumcision, 985 Cirrus & cirro-cumulus, 542 Citric acid, 433 City of London, 730 — prisons, 952 Civilization, its origin, 124 — locality, 125 Civil list, 880 — departments, 881 — libefty, 956 Claret, 458 Clarke, Dr., on Jerusalem, 724 — on Moscow, 73 7 Classification of animals, 105 Moh’s, 247 — Dr. Grant’s, 120 1 — Swammerdam’s, 190 — of plants, 205 — of diseases & remedies, 147 — of clouds, 542 Claws of lions, cats, &c. 164 Clayey soil, 915 Clefs, 606 Cleopatra's Needle , 699 Clepsydra, 41 Clergy, length of life, &c 760 Clerks and book- keepers, 886 Cliffs, burning, 339 — high, 953 7 Climacterics, 146 Climate not productive of species, 122 Clocks, cur ous, 99 — vary from solar time, 33 Clogher, ecclesiastical income of, 1083 Closed windows during light- ning, 492 Clouds , 542 — phosphorescent, 554 Clove-tree, 223 Clusters of stars, 384 Coaches, speed of, 165 — introduced, 733 Coal formation, 42 — fossils, 300 — frogs embedded in, 174 — anthracite, 1094 — qualities of, 1094 — mines, 255 — measures , 287, 293 — gas, 423 — force of, as fuel, 88, 462 Coasting- trade, 780 Coasts elevated, 587 Coated paper, 487 Coats of arms, 938, 958 Cobweb, 197 Cochineal, 199 Cock chafer, 198 Cock-fights, 177 Cocoa-tree, 221 Cocoons, 835 Cod-fish, 183 Code, criminal , 770 Codices , 614 Coffee- tree, 223, 233 Cohesion, 441 — how destroyed, 74 Coinage, 19—30 — ancient, in England, 20-1 — weight of, in 1838, 22 — foreign, 22—8 — eastern, antiquity of, 29 — base, fabricators of, 29 — theory, 895 Coke of Norfolk, 909 Colboin, Z., 71 Cold, sensation of, 475 — seeds, 206 — blood of amphibia, 187 Colebrook Dale, 791 Coliseum , 746 Collection of shells, 304 Colleges of faculties, 150 — of Oxford, &c. 685 — French, 854 — list of, 1083 Collieries, 762 Collision velocity, 101 Colonial colleges, 688 — services, &c. 881 Colonics, 643, 925 — of apes, 163 — pauper, in Holland, 774 — exports, 804 — African, 820 — French, 852 — speculation on, 920 Colonization, its cause, 925 Colored stars, 393 Colors, antipathies to, 112 — of man, 123, 130 — of birds, 175 — of flowers, 210 — primary, 596 — of the sea, 313 — of gases, 428 — decomposed, 568 — accidental, 581 Colossal bas-reliefs, 696 — antiquities of Thebes, 990 Coluber, 189 Columbia, 870 Columbus, 85 7, 1024 Coma Berenices. 385 Comb, honey, 193 Combinations, numerical, 68 — of atoms, 417, 441 Combustion, 334, 442, 462 — of alcohol, 437 — Galen, on, 149 Comets, 395 — their orbits, 396 Commemora. of Handel, 612 Commencem. of writing, 613 — of universities, 683 Commerce, 799— 820 Commissariat, 819 Commissioners of light- houses, 783 — of charities, 888 Committee of the French academy, 476 — house of commons, 940 Commitments in Ireland, 769 — in France, 855 Commons', house of, 939 Common whale, 171 2 — salt, 428 — law, 934 Companies, commercial, 800 Comparative bulks of pla- nets, 373 — chronology of modern Eu- ropean monarohs, 999 Comparison, animal powers of, 119 — of heating powers, 583 — of poor’s rate, with prices, 772 — of sound with light, 596 — of exports for two yrs., 826 — temperature and lat.. 860 Compass, its antiquity, 507 — of the ear, 600 — of instruments, 605 Compensation pendulum, 101 — magnetic, 514 Competition, ruinous, 820 Complexion of various race\ 122, 130 Composers, musical, 175 Composite order, 703 Composition, literary, 633 — of atmospheric air, 524 Compost, 917 Compounds of metals, 264 — of hydrogen, 425 — of sulphur, 426 Compound interest , 899 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Compression of water, 422 Compulsory education , 693 Concentrated alkalies, 445 — electricity, 483 Conclusions on geology, 288 — on heat, 475 Concords, 606 Concurrence of ancient chro- nologers, 980 Concrete matter, 73 Condor, 178 Conduct, pow. of bodies, 469 Conductor, water as a, 90 — of sound, 597-8 — of heat, 461 — of electricity, 486 Conference, pariinmen., 942 Conglomerates, 285 Congress, American, 859 Conic sections defined, 63 Conjunctions, Tooke on, 620 Conjunctive, 1 44 Conquest in India, 92 7 — Norman, coin at the, 20 Consols, 898 Consonants, 613 Constant snow, 535 Constantinople, 635, 717 Constellations, 384 Constitutions, physical, 123 — political, 933 Construction, Latin, 621 Consuls, 801, 849, 881 Consump., death from. 352 — of provision, 166, 732, 805 — of coals, 257 — of oxygen, 52 7 Contact alone developes elec- tricity, 49 7 Contagion, 148 Contagious dis., 56, 148, 753 Contemp. of Chaucer, 638 Contem. population, 758 Contents, solid, 66 Continental theatricals, 681 Continents, tempera, of, 538 — nucleus, 289 — Austral, 354 Continuity, law of, 119, 212 Contractility, muscular, 134 Contrary effects of medicine, 150 Convents in Lima, 726 Conventional value, 895 Convexity of the earth, 67 — of the mercury in barome- ters, 529 Convicts at New S. Wales 931 Cooke’s Inlet, 354 Cooper on Colonies, 926 Copal, 436 Copenhagen, 718 — library, 660 Copernicus, 367— 9, 1026 Copper, 264, 269, 271 — and zinc, galvanic effects of, 502 — - colored races, 124 Coptic language, 617-8 Copying, 635 Copyright , 650 Coral, 200 — blue, 201 — forma, in the Pacific, 303 Corallines, &c. 201 Corinthian architecture, 703 Cork, 223 — conducting power, 46S — ecclesiastical income, 1083 Corn laws , 842, 920, 1093 Comoro, 155 Cornish mines, 88 261 269 762 — steam-engines, 476 Corollaries, astronomical, 416 Corona Borealis , 386 Coronations, 888, 953 Coroners, 948 Corporations, 943 Corrected tables of latitude and longitude, 359 Corregio, 628 Correlative action, 488 Corelli, 604 Correspondence „ of conti- nents, 354 — of chemistry with arith- metic, 419 — of languages, 621 Cost of rail w. conveyance, 791 Cotton spinning, 66-7 — trade, 1093 — manufactures, 92 — editor's remarks on, 94 — plant, 221, 828, 862 — imports, 817 — New Orleans, 819 — statistics, 828 Cotyledon, 117, 206 Coulomb's ratio of electrical action, 489 Coulter and share, 921 Councils, 1089—1090 Counterpoint, 605 — tenor, 606 Counties, English , popula- tion, &c. 762 — in Domesday , 944 Country banks, 889-90 Courts of law, 934 Cow, breeds & produce, 922 — tree, 223 ( See vaccination) Cowries, 2 7 Coxcox, 979 Crabs, shower of, 185 — migration, 186 — eyes, 199 Cranmer, 1026 Crassamentum, 137 Crater, 386 Crawford on heat, 472 Crawshay’s iron-works, 826 Cream, 438 Creation , hypothesis on, 120 — its three series, 299 — of peers, 938 Credit, public , 1 9, 28 — limits to, 846 — theory, 890 Creoles, 928 Crested titmouse, 180 Crests of birds, 175 Cretius, 126, 162 Crews of ships, 780 Cricket, sound produ. by, 193 Crime connected with igno- rance, 695 Criminal code, 769, 950 Crocodiles, 187 Cromlechs , 708 Crompton’s mule, 86-7, 796 Cromwell' s policy , 888 Crossley’s rain-guage, 541 Cross, Mr., his opinions, 173 — his experiments, 192, 504 — on atmosph. electricity 493 Cross-multiplica., peculiar 71 Crown lands & revenues, 888 Crudities on political econo- my, 906 Cruelties of experimental- ists, 119 Crust of the earth, 246 Crustacea, 184 — produce reefs like coral, 200 Cryptogamia, 208, 299 Crystals, produc of, 248, 259 — form of, 260 — of carbonate of lime, 434 — of snow, 544 Crystallization, 259, 472 — effect of light on, 584 Ctenoids, 306 Cubic measure, 1 — measure as a standard of weight, 81-2 — inch of frozen mercury, 479 Cubit, 13-4 Cuckoo, 176 Culmiferous plants, 207 Cultivated land, proportion of, to population, 764 Cultivation of tea, 22 7 — W. Indies, 932 Cumulus cumulo-stratus, &e. 542 Curfew, 943 Currency , its relation to price, 19 — debased, effects of, 20 — foreign, 24-5 — American, 26-7 — oriental, 2 7 — amount, &c. 889 Currents, 316 Currie, Dr., 150 Curved gneiss, 252 — surfaces, magnifying pow* . er, 592 Custom-house, 770, 781,807 Cutaneous tissue, 130 — muscles, 170 — disease, 203 Cutlery, polish of, 103 Cuttings for railways, 799 Cuttle-fish, 112, 186 Cuvier’s classification, 105 — 107, 180 — geology, 277 Cycle, 31, 37 — Hindoo, 42 — lunar. 409 Cycloid, area of, 66 Cycloid, oscillation and de- scent in, 100 Cyclopaedias, 647 Cyclopean style, 696 Cygni, parallax of, 395 Cyprae, 1S4 Cyrene , 997 IXedalus, 62/ Daffer-crank, 824 Daguerre, invention of, 5S2 Daily motion, 349, 3/4 — consumption of bread, 844 Dairy-farms, 922 Dalton, 417 Damary oak, 231 Daniell and Mullins, 506 Dan ton, 1028 Dantzic wheat, 844 Data, 57-8 — microscopic, 116 — of great physical pro- blem, 397-8 Date-tree and fruit, 224 Dates, various, 47—56 — Sanchoniatho’s defect of, 43 Davis on the Chinese, 845 Davie’s history of the com- pass, 508 Davy’s experiments, 509 — theory, 481, 485 Day, astronomical, 32 — Mahometan, 39 — Hindoo, 40-41 — hottest and coldest, 536 Dead Sea, 320 — weight, 899 — bodies excited to motion, 503 Deaf and dumb, 157 Death, definition of, 118 — from small-pox, 149 — in London, 152 — imitated by Hindoos, 156 — imitated by insects, 198 — by explosion in mines, 275 — registry of, 10*87 Debasement of value, 20-21 Debts and trusts, 778 — national, 846, 882 — French, 849 Decandolle’s botany, 205 214 Deciduous trees, 207 Decimal notation, 57—9 — applied to the quadrant 71 — tables, 59 Deciphering of hieroglyphics, 615 Decisions in equity, 947 Declination, 348, 407 Decline of science , 642 — of whale-fishing, 820 — of Egypt, 991 Decomposition, chemical 417 — of colors, 568 Decorated tombs, 628 Deer, 169 De facto and dejure, 946 Definite proportions in che- mistry, 418 Definitions of man, 121—3 9 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Definition of painting, 627 — of education, 682 Deflection, its cause, 75 — its effects, 1 18, 378 Degredation of Lisbon, 726 Degree, measure of, 317, 353 — academical, 686 De Lambre, 527 Delaroche, experim. of, 478 Delaval, 581 Deleterious air, 550 Dellas , 319 De Luc, 2 77, 505 Deluge, falsity of its date, 47 — periodical, 44 — HindoQ traditions, 41 — Mexican, 869 — the Editor's theory , 9/9 Demand of timber for the navy, 966 Dendera , zodiac of, 990 Denmark, public instruc. 693 Denominations of weights, 1 Denon’s plan of Egyptian temples, 697 Density of the planets, 380 — of various substances, 74 — of metals, 261 Deoxidation, 4S5 Depots, military, 962 Depth of the sea, 313 Der’ayah, 719 Dermestes domesticus , 196 Derry, ecclesiastical income of, 1083 Dcsagues of Mexico, 736 Descartes, 1029 Descrip, of mammalia, 158 — of laboratories, 418 Deserts of Arabia & Africa, 290, 795 — their electrical phenome- na, 496 Deshare’s collection of shells, 304 Designs, multiplied, 628 Desormes on heat, 472 Destruction of bees, 194 — of works of art, 630 — of ancient literature, 635 — of records by war, 976 Deterioration of soils, 211 — of wool, 833 Detonating oil, 444 Devon's issue-rolls , 895 Dew, 544 Diagonal trussing, 101 Diagrams, 104 Dial, its relation with the clock, 33 Dialects , 612 13, 622 Diameter of the earth, 348 — of the sun, 406 Diamonds, 261 , 426 Diana's temple at Ephesus, 702 Diaphragm, 135, 137, 158 Diastole, 135 Diatonic scale, 596 Dibbling, 843 Dice, chances with, 69— 70 Dicotyledons, 206, 299 Diet, effects of, 150 — nauseating, 155 Differential calculus, 5 7 Diffusion of the English larv. guage, 622 — society,- doctrine of, 772 Digestion of food, 138 Digests , Sfc. of laws, 945-6 Dimensions, how compared. 58 — human, 127 — 9, 156 — of the whale, 172 — of bees, 193 — of the human eye, 534 — of steam-ships, 788 * — of Amer. continents, 858 — of United Kingdom, 90/ Diminution of obliquity, 343 Dinotherium, 307 Dioclesian, 43 Diodorus on the Jews , 986 Dip of magnetic needle, 515 Diplomacy , 887 Direction of forces, 322 — of winds, 54/ — of sailing, 783 Discords, 600 Discovery of America, 857 Discoveries, chronological ta- ble of, 54 — opposed by associated bo- dies, 656 — by Daguerre, 1093 — varied by Talbot, 1093 Discrepancies of chronolo- gers, 45 Diseases, 147, 151 — of cattle, 152 — in 7 London hospitals, 760 Disinfection, 448 Dispersion of population, 913 Dissection, 148 Dissolution of parliam., 942 Distaff, 87 Distance, horizontal, 67 — of the stars, 365, 394 — of the sun, 399 4U0 — of the moon, 409 — of Paris from other places, 855 Distilleries, 818 Distilled water, 422 Distribution of new spa p., 662 Districts of G. Lntaiu, 291 Dividends, 898 Diving for pearls, 156 Divisibility of matter, 7-1 — of gold, 268 Divisions of the tertiary epoch, 281 Docks, 731, 781, 967 Doctrine of chanci s 70 — of electricity, 479-480, &r Dog, anecdotes of, 119, 163-1 — species, 167 — fights, 1G4 — tax, 887 Dollar, 26 Doiland’s telescope, 588 Dolphin, 171, 133 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Domesday book , 750, 944 Domestic slavery, 815 Domesticated ourang , 162 Dominant chord, 607 Dominical letter , 35 Donkin’s velocity-cup, 96 Donovan’s entomology, 191 Doric order, 703 Dorpal, 392 Double circulation, 105 — 7 — magnetic poles, 518 — rainbow, 577 — currents of water, 4/8 — circle of Faraday, 490 Doubling of population in * 300 years, 750 Down, ecclesiastical income of, 1083 Draft-horses, 165 — on inclined planes, 77 S Dragon-fly, 196—8 — constellation, 386 Draining, a science, 909 — and enclosure bills, 919 Drama , 677 — chronology, 681 Drawing, 631 Dreams, 1092 Drebel and Sanctorius, 532 Dredging-machine, 101 Dresden, 719 Droits, admiralty, 888 Dromedary, 164 5 Dromore, ecclesiastical in- come of, 1083 Drops of rain, 541 Dropsy in an ape, 163 Drugs, Reece on, 150-1 — pernicious, 845 Druids revered the mistle- toe, 240 Drum of the ear, 144 Drummond light, 783 Drunkenness, extent of, 876 Drury’s museum, 191 Dry measures, 6 7 — measure, foreign, 8-9 — and wet seasons, 546 — rot, 224 Dryden’s translations, 641 Drying of malt, 841 Dublin, mean tempera., 535 — grand canal, 779 — newspapers, 675 — porter, 837 — university, 684 — general description, 719 *— ecclesias. income of, 1083 Duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall , 936 Duck billed platypus, 1 78 Duck of Vaucanson, 86 Ductility of gold, 74 Ducts, vegetable, 207 Dudong, 171 Dufay’s distinctions of elec- tricity, 479 Duffenbach, 173 Duke, W., of Oxford, 795 Dulong on heat, 471 Dumb, instruction of 157 I 10 Dun cow, 166 Dunlop, 392 Duodecimal scale, 67 Dupin' s estimates , 847 Duties on glass, 838 Dura mater, 142 Duration, law of, 119 — of life, 156 — of luminous impress., 585 — of parliament, 940 Durham university, 687 — benefices of, 1081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Dutch flower-trade, 241 — artists, 625 — republics, 775 — trade with Japan, 817 Dwarfs, 130, 153 Dyed goods, 829 Dyeing, 444 Dyn.ame, 848 Dynamic unit, 90, 270 Dynasties, 145 — of Manetho, 43 — East Indian, 92 7 Eagle of the Andes, 113 — varieties of, 178 — age of, 174 — coin so called, 26, 873 Ear, anatomy of, 144, 157 — compass, 600 Early Chinese literature, 634 — records, 968 — civiliza. of Ethiopia , 989 Earowies, 156 Earth, its motions, 9 — rotation, 32 — convexity, 67 — form, 72 , 120 — galvanic action, 500 — crust, 246 — antiquity, 2 77, 303 — oscillation, 327 — distance from the sun, 374 Earth's motion, 72, 118 — effect of, on projectiles, 98 — changes caused by, 322 413 Earthy minerals, 255 Earthquake at Lisbon, 726 Earthquakes, 333 Earwig, 192, 197 East Indian periodicals, 6/7 — comp.’s steam-ships, 787 Easter, to find, 37 Eastern origin of astron., 366 Ebb of the sea, 325 Eccentricity, 375 Echoes, 598 Eclipse, horse so named, 165 Eclipses, 408, 412 — ancient observation of, 46 — of Jupiter’s moons, 376 Ecliptic, obliquity of, 32, 368, 369, 979 Economy, animal, 134 — of insects, 191 — of ants, 195 — food, 843 — political, 749 Edda, 637 Edentata, 158 Edinburgh described, 721 — ales, 840 — temperature, 535 Editors, 647 Editions in various count. 653 Education, children educated in Eng. and Wales, 1088 — bythe dissent, interest 1088 Education , 682 — 695 — its effects, 142 — in France, 630, 855 — allowances, 881 — American, 8/4 Edward’s bridge, 795 Eels in vinegar , 203 — electrical, 493 Effects of gases on colors, 429 — magnetic, 508 — light on crystalliza., 584 — electricity, 496 — academies, <&c. 656 — the poor laws, 861 Eggs, production of, 109 — analysis, 438 — development, 117 — of birds, 176 — artificially hatched, 179 — of insects, 191 — in an electric current, 496 — French, 857 Egypt, its fertility, 545, 923 — its present state, 813 Egyptian chronology, 41, 978 — history, 989 — mummies, variety of, 122 — medicine, 148 — astronomy, 367 — tradition, 408 — monuments, 545 — architecture, 696 — penmanship, 615 — fine arts, 624, 784 — temples, 627 Ehrenberg, 203 Elasticity, what, 77 — of the air, 530 — of steam, 4/6 Electors in France, 854 Electrical fluid , non-exist- ent, 484 — phenomena, 523 — eel, 493 — action, 248 — column, 505 — theories, 516 Electricity , 4 /9 — 507 — animal, 116, 136 — magnetic, 510 Electro positive & nega., 424 — magnets, 513 — chemical theory, 490 Electrometer, 524 Electrophorous arrangement of Volta’s lamp, 492 Electroscope, 492 Elementary components of rocks, 249 Elements of orbits, 378 Elephant, proboscis of, 112 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Elephant, fond of music, 113 — distinguished from the mammoth, J63 — bones found in Eng., 291 — fossil, 30/ Elevation, its effect on heat, 533 — of modern buildings 707-8 Elevated coasts, 587 Elgin marbles . 628 Elkington’s improved drain- ing, 909 Ellesmere canal, 779 Ellipsis, 66 Elliptical orbits, 381 Elm, 230 Elphin, ecclesas income 1083 Ely, benefices of, 1081 — income, 1081 Emancipation , negro, 776 — catholic, 935 Emasculation, 61 1 Embankments, 799 Embassies , French , 849 Emblems, 862 — astronomical, 990 Emery, 253 Emigration , 750, 770, S61 — agents, 881 — committee, 907 Eminent composers, 601 — poets, 641 Empire of the West, 982 Employments in London 729 — in factories, 764 Emu, 113, 178 Enamel, 448 Encaustic , 629 Encephalon, 142 Encke’s comet, 396 Enclosures, 919 Endeavours of Sir R. Phil- lips to obtain a trial of steam on the Thames, 776 Edemic disease, 147, 150 Endogen and exogen, 206 Endowed colleges, 690 Energy, animal, 116 Engineers' corps , 959 Engine, steam, 8 7 — pressing, 101 — locomotive, 799 England # Wales , fossils 291 — geography, 325 — frosts, 539 — winds, 547 — population, &c. 749 — poor-law unions , 773 — trigonomet. survey, 907 English historians, 956 — weights and measures, 1 — compared with French, 17 — grapes, 240 — machines, 85 — reptiles, 139 — gunpowder, 438 — music, 605 — language, 619 — and American dialects 622 — arts, 625 writers, 636 1 1 Eng. provinc papers, sale 671 — alphabet, 653 — colonies, 926 — long-bow, 958 Engraving, 631 — crystal and granite, 626 Enharmonic system , 607 Enlistment, 967 — enormous appetites, 155 — mammalia, 160 — consumption of tobac. 865 Entomology, 190 — 200 Entomologists, cruelties, 119 Enumeration of popula., 750 Eocene, 281 Epact, 37 Ephemera, 197 Ephem. fame of authors, 643 Ephemerides, 369 Epidemic, 147 Epochs, their importance, 31 — biblical, 43 — of knowledge, 54 — the earth’s motion, 322 — geographical discovery 353 — tertiary, &c. 28l — British domin. in India 928 Equation of lime, 33 Equator, rotation at, 72 — degree of, 5 — angle of, 32 — passed by perihelion, 44 — fall of bodies at, 82 — region of greatest mois- ture, 120 — district, 870 Equatorial radius, 348 Equinoctial point, 349 — year, 413 Equinoxes , 38-9, 413 — precession of, 32 Equity, 934 Equivalents, chemical, 419 Equivocal charac. of wealth , 901 Eras, various, 31-2, 42 — Mexican, 43 Erasistratus, 148 Eratosthenes, 353, 368 Erect position, 161 2 Eriometer, 591 Ermine, 170 Escurial, library of, 660 Escuage , 943 Espaignes on bees, 194 Espy on hurricanes, 548 Esquimaux, 130, 155, 162, 874 Established church, revenues of, 1082 Estates, American, 868 — East Indian, 930 Estimate of Scott’s writ., 637 — of population, 750 — of imports, S02 Etching, 631 Eternity, 380-1 Ether, 435 — its evaporation, 473 Ethiopic language , 618 — civilization, 989 Etna, chesuut-trecs on, 231 Etruscan language, 618 Euclid , 975 Eudiometer, 448 Europe, population of, 750 — quadrupeds, 160 — mountains, 344 — progress of civilization 844 Eusebius, *983 Evaporation, 89. 466, 541-2 — salt-water, 479 — from soils, 918 Evening-star, 3 77 Events, chronologically ar- ranged, 47 — 56 — laws of, 68—70 Evidence on agricultural commission , 818 Excavations, 702 Excessive fertil. of Egypt 545 Exchange at Dublin, 720 — brokers, 897 Exchequer -bills, 773, 892 Excise licenses, 767, £76 Excitement due to motion 489 — voltaic, 490 Executive authority, 335 Executions in London, 769 — in France, 855 Exeter, benefices of, 1081 — chuches and chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Exhaustion of the soil, 211 Existence of the human race, questions respecting, 758 Existences, ambiguous, 115 Exodus, date of, 44 — compar. with Josephus 988 Exogenous plants, 206 Exotics introduced, 232 Expectation of life, 7 55 Expansion of air, 525 — of various substances, 467 — of water in freezing, 474 Expedition in printing , 665 Expenses of menageries, 174 — of royally, 888 — patents, 103 Experiments, electric, Frank- lin and others. 494 — with the Royal Institution ealvanic battery, 500 — Nicholson & Carlisle 503-4 — on human strength, 90 — on human voice, 131 — on human digestion, 138-9 — on frogs, &c. 188 — of Cavendish, 555 — at Viviers, 556 — on the interrog. system 691 Experimentum crucis, 565 Explosion, cause of, 90 — promoted by light, 583 — in mines, 275 Exports of ircn, 273 — of books, 643 — from Ireland, 770 — of machinery, 800 — of yarn, 846 — American, 863 Extensor muscles, 134 Extent of U. Kingdom , 90 7 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Extent of sea & land, 313 347 — of atmosphere, 525 — of cities, 7H — of W. Indian colonies, 932 'External struct, of rocks, 249 Extinct races, 114, 124 — families, 111 ■ — mammoth, 161 Extra rays of light, 576 Extractive matter, 209 Eyes, color of, 130 — anatomy, 144, 157, 563 — of insects, 191, 199 — general properties, 584 — of fish and birds, 586 Ezra, 986 Fables, 346 Fabulous animals, 114 Facial angle, 126, 128, 163 Facts furnished by French staticians, 848 Factories, cotton & wool, 92 — flax and silk, 93 — work in, 760 — bill, 821 Fahlan, 550 Fahrenheit’s therm., 464, 532 Fair of Novogorod, 813 \ Fairs in England, 822 Fairy-rings, 240 Falco genus, & falconry, 177 Fall of bodies, 64, 72, 81, 99, 369, 397 — of roads, 777 — of Niagara, 320 — of rain, 54, 545 Fallacies of political econo- mists, 749 Fallowing, 918 Fallow-deer, 169 False theory of Laplace, 410 — criticism, 644 — premises in political eco- nomy, 905 Falsetto tones, 131, 608 Fame, ephemeral, 643 Families, extinction of, 11 1 — of man, 122 — remarkable, 127 — English, 749 — of Chronus, 971 Famine, death from, 152 — in Ireland, 7/0 Fanaticism, 154 Faraday, experiments of, 509 — favours the Editor's theo- ry, 483 — recent views of, in electri- city, 497, 1094 — his great merit, 498 Fares on railways, 792 Farey’s calculations, 602 Farmers in U. Kingdom, 763 — calendar, 909 Fashion in science, 483 — in London, 729 Fat, 440 Fata Morgana, 58 7 Faults (dykes), 264 Feathers, ingrafted, 173 Fecundity of insects, 192 — of the common fly, 198 — of marriages, 756 Feet of Chinese women, 153 Fellowships, 687 Felis genus, 164 Felspar, 249, 916 Females, birth, &c. 146 — low wages of, 833 Fens, 921 Ferae, 164 Ferguson’s clock, 99 Fermentation, 117 — of sugar, 839 Ferocious animals, 161 Ferret, 171 Fertility, its principles, 918 Festivals, Christian, 38 — oriental, 40 Fetes, 951 Feudal system, 954 — institutions unfavorable to commerce, 774 Fiacres, 778 Fibres of silk, 836 Fibrous manufact., 93, 823 Fifth, musical, 607 Fig, introduction of, 233 Figure, human, 156 — colossal, 697 Filial affection of brutes, 161 Files made at Sheffield, 828 Finance, British, 20 — accounts, 8/5 Fine arts, 633 Finite quantities, 58 Finlayson’s tables, 755 Fire, modes of procuring, 459 — flies, 197 — balls, 561 Fires in London , 733 Firms, banking, 893 First map, 353 — map-writers, 620 — Greek painters, 626 — printed books, 651 — magnitude, stars of, 384 — Western Empire, 982 — fruits, fees of, 1083 Fishing-boats, 783 Fishes, 106, 180—183 — gold and silver, 183 — frozen, 183 — their respiration, 107, 181 — their age, 182 — production of, in ponds, 114 — fossil, 304 — in Zoological Gardens, 174 — in Jiot-baths, 478 Fissures in the Andes, 346 Fixation of oxygen, 88-9, 114 — of nitrogen, 114 Fixed stars, 365, 383 — their distance, 71 Flame, coloured, 583 — theories of, 463 — conducting power, 495 Flamsteed, 3=4, 1032 Flannel in galvanism, 501 Flat-fish, 183 Flax, manufactures in, 93 Flax, New Zealand, 224 — imports, 837 Fleas, docility of, 192 — their motions, 196 Flemish artists, 625 Fleshy leaves, 210 Fleta, 943 Flexor and extensor muscles 134 Flight of birds, 113 Flint, 285 Flint-glass, 838 Floating batteries, 962 — gardens at Mexico , 736 Flocks of pigeons, 179 Flood , 44, 278, 319, 325, 992 — of Deucalion, 45 — of Noah, 323 — of the Nile, 545 Floras, distinct, 119-20,214 — geological, 299 Florence, 721 Flour, its weight, 818 — its qualities, 843 — its price, 923 Flowers, scent of, 214 Fluctuations of the funds, 8 2 Fluidity, 73 Fluids, re-acting powers, 4S1 — atmospheric, 541 — pressure of, 77 — for galvanic experim ,502 Fluoric acid, 449 Flux and reflux, 325 Fluxions, 57 Fly, fecundity of, 197 — catcher, 180 — wheel, 83 Flying- fish, 183 Fcetus, bones in, 109 — brain, 142 Fogs, 543—545 Fohee, Chinese, 46 Fontainbleau, residen. at, 905 Food, its changes, 115 — of man, 123, 166 — of fishes, 182 — of cows, 923 Foot of various nations, 14 Forbes on heat, 470 Force acquired, 64-5 — mean, 72 — composition & resolution. 83-4 — agricultural, 847 — human, 91, 760 — centrifugal, 98 — magnetic, 51 1 — military, 887 Fordyce on freezing, 473 Foreigners in Egypt, 814 Foreign measures, 7 — measures and weights, 1] — mails, 794 — money and accounts , 27 — wool, 833 — ports, 782, 799 — political economists, 758 — competition, 825 Forests, submerged, 300 — northern, 819 ALPHABETICAL INDEX Forms of crystals, 260 Formation, coal , 42 — granite, 257 — inclined, 2/7 — ancient, 279 — soil, 280 — limestone, 302 — - coral, 303 — various, 281 — oi deltas, 319 — of musical notes, 601 For mu ice of forces, 84 Forums, 707 Fort William, 929 Fossil species, 160, 246, 279, — in England, 291-2 [298 — vegetables, 298 — zoophytes, 302 — fish and shells, 304, 306 — quadrupeds, 306 — elephants, 307 Fossils, 2/9 — primary & transition, 252 — early slate, 2/9 — chalk, 285 — various, 281 — Norfolk, 293 — coal, 300 Foundation of colleges, 684 Fount , letters in a, 653 Fountain Abbey, 231 — marvellous, Andros, 10 2 Fountains in Madrid, 734 Fourcry, 1033 Fournayron of Paris, 796 Four -shift system in Norfolk, 912 Fowell Buxton on slavery, in 1 83'^, 820 Fox, species of, 168 Fractions, decimals of, 58 9 Fracture of rocks, 251 France, 848—857 — animal races, 160 — popular education in, 631 — ancient history, 997 — trade of, in 1838, 1093 Francilec, 191 Franklin, clock made by, 99 — his experiments, 494 — his seminary, 744 Fraunhofer, 567, 572 Free and slave population of America, 860 — parts of our constitut.,935 — martin, 1 1 1 — trade, 822 Freezing by air-pump, 474 — point of mercury, 538 — water, 314, 422, 472, 532 Freight, 784 French system of measure, 2 — compared with English, 17 — mammalia, 160 — gunpowder, 438 — artists, 625, 630 — poets, 641 — theatre, 678 — universities, 692 — society, 740 — population, 758, 850 13 French police, 76S — canals, 779 — produce, 851 — colonies, 932 — farms, 951 Fresco paintings, 629 Fresh-water lakes, 319 Friction, 75, 82, 98 — of iron, 798 — of wheels, 97 — effect on barometer, 529 Frigates, 966 Frogs and toads, in coal, 174 — account of, 187 F) osts, remarkable , 539 Frosen fish, 183 — rivers and seas, 541 Fruit, monkeys gather, 162 — growth of, 214 — indigenous, of Britain, 232 — produce, 910 Fucoid, 208 Fuel prepared, 798 — for steam ships, 786 Fulcrum orbit , 328 Fulgora, 197 Fuller’s-earth, 253 Fulminatim; powder, 449 Fulton 8f Sir R. Phillips , 776 Fund- holders, 763 Funded debt, S/9 Fundamental atoms , 259 — ratios, 525 — dates, 957 Fungi, 210, 229 Furia Infernalis, 198 Furnaces, iron, 273, 825 Fusion, how accelerated, 97 Gad fly, 197 Gadolin on heat, 472 Galen, 149, 1035 Galena, 2/1 Galileo, 353, 1033 Gall, system of, 139 40 Gall-bladder, 108, 135 — fly, 198 Gallani, Abbe, 151 Galley-slaves , 952 Gallic acid, 433 Gallinne, 175 Gallipagos, 536 Gallon, 6 Galvanism , 479 — 507 — distinction of, 483, 498 Galvanic experiments, 192 — action between rocks, 261 — effects on magnetic nee- dle, 508 — effects on dead bodies, 503 Galvanometer, 510 Games, Olympic, 31 Gamut, 603 Ganglia of nerves, 141 Gannet, 177 Gardens, Zool. 1 19, 169 — 174 — botanical, 239 — Dutch, 241 — East Indian, 929 Gardner’s musical notat., 175 Garnerin’s .Parachute, 558 Garrison, 959 Garter, order of the, 939 Gas, state of, 73 — inicroscoi e, 201 — olefiant, 423 — oxygen and hydrogen, 424 — lights, 463, 732 — coal, 476’ Gaseous medium in space, — bodies, 418 [380 Gases, specific weight of, 78-9 — inflammable, 429 — produce sound & light, 596 Gasometers, 476 Gaudin light, 784 Gauging, 7, 66 Gavelkind, 955 Gay L.ussac, 209, 558 Gazette , London, 663 Gendarmerie, 954 — French, 849 General motions of the solar system, 407 Genera of animals, 105 — testacea, 184 — reptiles, 187 — extinct, 2/9, 304 — vegetable, 205 Generation of metals, 261 Generations, increase of, 124 — length of, 145, 756 — defined, 755 Generic names , 207 Genus,’ what, 107 — homo , 121- 157 Geographical discoveries , 353 — ignorance of ancients, 977 Geography, 347— 3 i3 — of England, 325 — of plants, 214 — and localities, 288 — Roman, 353 Geology. 246, 276 — 311 data afforded by, 42, 153 — limited research, 284 — W. Phillips on, 288 — explains fables. 976 Geological Flora, 299 — division of England, 919 Geometrical series, 64 — ratio of increase, 124 Geometry, importance of, 56 — how connected with me. chamcs, 57 — some proportions in, 62 German language, 618 — papers, 664 — universities, 691 — wines, 458 — manufactures, 808 — law, 954 Germination, 21 1 — time of, 214 Germs, origin of, 1 16, 1 56, 21 1 — progress of, 117 [302 — first found in limestone, Gestation, periods of, 120 Geysers, 322 Giants, 129 — causeway. 296 Gibraltar, 933 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Gibraltar, floating-batteries, Gigantic fossils, 307 [96? Gilbert’s electric, discov. 4/9 — act, 772 Gilding, 268 Gills of fishes, 181 Gin, 449 — palaces, 818 — for cleaning cotton, 863 Giorgione, 629 Gladiators, 166, 706 Glass, 439, 1096 — manufactures, 838 — musical, 602 — springs, 478 Gleaning , right of \ 770 Gleiditch on botany, 205 Globe, its beginning, 42 — its surface, 313, 347 — its internal heat, 540 Globules of blood, 136 Glory , military, 963 Glottis, 131 Gloucester and Bristol, bene- fices of, 1081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Glow-worm, 199 Glutton, 170 Gnats, 198 9 Gneiss, 252 Goats, 168-9 [967, 972 Gods & goddesses, fabulous, Goethe, whorls of, 208 Gold , 264 — its ductility, 74 — its divisibility, 268 — jewellers’, 28 — coins, 2i , 24 — titre of, 22 3, 895 — fish, 183 — mines, 265 — leaf, 268 — springs, 478 — price of, 889-90 Golden number, 36 — virgins at Delphos, ,092 Goldsmiths’ mark, 28 Goniometer, 2G0 Gorgon , steam-frigate , 787 Gossamer, 196 7 Gothic deities, 32 — features, 122 — languages, 618 — architecture, 703, 709 Government of U. States, 859 — opposed to education , 690 _ offices, 764 — steamers, 784 — . policy, 883-4 annuities, 896 _ account with the Bank, 898 — colonial, 926 — executive, 937 — various forms, Europe, 956 Gradations, natural, 115 Gradual changes of earth, 347 Grain used by man, 123 » weight of, 1,6 e— products, 842 — in England, 909 Gralloe, 175 Gramme, 3 Grammar-schools, why esta- blished, 695 — endowed, 1083 Grand Cairo, 715 Grandeur of Egvpt. archi. 696 — of Dublin, 719 Granite, 249, 293 — formation, 257 — veins, 263 — groupe, 277 — contains no organic re- mains, 279 — soil, 916 Grant’s, Dr., new classifi., 121 Grapes in England, 240 Graphic delineation , 624 — of Naples, 739 Grasses in England, 909-10 Grasshopper, 197 — musical, 198 — market at Edinburgh, 721 Gratuities, 881 Grauwacke, 208 Gravelly soils, 916 Gravitation, 369, 382 Gravity, 58 — specific 71-82 — of humors of the eye, 144 — of sea-water, 313 — of malt liquors, 840 Gray’s infinities of plants, 206 Great bear, 386 Great Brit., mammalia, 160 — sterile parts, 291 Great painters, 625 — beL of Moscow, 738 — Western steamer, 785 Grecian mountains, 344-5 — astronomers, 367 — temperatures, 636 — writers, 633 1 — manuscripts, 634 — anthology, 645 Greek language, 615 — mythology, 967 — coins, 30 — epoch, 42 — schools on geology, 277 — arts, 624 — vases, 630 — phalanx, 957 Green teas, 227 Greenwich hospital, 770, 964 Greenland, 354 Gresham college, 690 Gridiron, pendulum, 101 Grinding-teeth, 163 4 — of malt, 841 Grosbeak, 178 Grotius, U037 Grottoes, 655 G rouse, 179 Growth, ve /etable, 203 — of mythology, 967 Gryllus migratorius, 197 Guayana, 931 Guernsey, 750 Guess, the Cherokee gram- marian, 861 Guinea-pig, 169 Gulph of Mexico, 315 Gum-tree, 231 Gum-lac, 487 Gun-metal, 98 — powder. 438 Gunoids, 306 Gurnetts, 97 Gurney’s lamp, 586 Guttenburg, 651 Guyton Morveau, 465 Gymnasium of Stutgard, 747 Gypsies, 126-7 Gypsum, 309-10, 434 Gyrinus, 203 Habeas Corpus, 935 Habitation of the beaver, 167 Hackney-coaches, 7/8 Haddock, 183 Haerlem galvanic batt., 496 Hail, 496 — stones, 544 Hair, its use, 110 — distinctive of species, 121 — physical properties, 130 — camel’s, 165 Haliotus gigantea, 184 Hall’s condenser, 786 Haller on botany, 205 Halley’s comet, 396 Halo, 587 Hamburgh newspapers, 665 Hamilton on enclosures, 91 Hammering of metals, 82 Hampden, 946 Hampton-Court vine, 230 Hanaper ax\d petty bag, 949 Hand and power.looms, 830 Hands employed in fibrous manufact in Eng. 92—4 — of horse-measure, 887 Handel, 604 — commemoration of, 612 Hanks of cotton, 830 Hanseatic league, 775 Harbour of Lisbon, 7?6 Hard and soft water, 479 — ware, 764 — soap, 458 Hardness, 261 Hares, 169 Hare's calorimeter , 506 Hargrave's invention, 86 — just claims, 95 Harmonic strings, 602-3 Harp, 610 Harpoons found in whales, Hartz mountains, 346 [172 Harvest-moons, 412 Harvey’s theory, 135 6 — experim. on the heart, 141 Hat-makers, 764 Hatching eggs artificially. 17? Hatchett’s experiments, 505 Haiiy’s theory of crystalliza. Haydn, 604 [259, 49i Head flattened artificially 129 — bones of, 132 — nerves, 1 43 Health, theory of 152 Hearing, sense of, 144, 600 Hearth-tax, 751 Heart, its use, 134, 13" — insensibility, 141 Heat , 458, 4/9 — how evolved, 75 — and light, effects of, 120 — internal, 334 — • solar, 405 — effect on magnets, 512 — as a machine-power, 475 Heating powers of various rays, 583 Heaths, 224 Heavenly bod., motions, 1091 Heavens , attent. command- ed by, 365 Hebrew language, 614 Hecatombeon, 31, 42 Hecla, mount, 336 Hedgehog, 112, 169 Hegira , 40 41 Height of the great pyramid compared with other ob- jects, 708 — of the eye, 67-8 — of mountains, 341, 530 — of humidity, 541 — of clouds, 543 Helix , spark obtained by, from the torpedo, 503 Hemisphere, differ, of tem- perature, 538 Hemp and flax, 93 Hen, remarkable, 179 Henry and Ten Eyck’s elec- tro-magnet, 497 Henry VI. and VIII. forbade the use of hops, 238 Hepatization of the lungs 151 Heralds , 938 Herbaceous plants, 207 Herbivorous cetacea, 171 Herculaneum, 335, 634 Hercules constellation, 367 Hereditary peculiarities, 127 — aristocracy, 763 — government, 934 Hereford, benefices of, 1081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Hermaphrodites, 111 Heroic ages, 43 Herrings, 183 Herschel’s telescope, 589 Herschel, 367, 384, 567, 1039 — planet, 372 — satellites, 376 Hide of land, 16, 944 Hides and skins , 839 Hieroglyphics , 615-6, 968, 989 High water, 325, 329 — prices of ancient books 635 Highlands, 346 Himalaya cedar, 224 — mountains, 343 Hindoo chronology, 40, 981 — caste , 912 — freedom from disease, 150 — villages, 927 — affectation of death, 156 15 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Hindoo astronomy, 367 — manufactures, 768, 832 — learning, 614 — temples, 627 — method of making ice, 475 — juices, 955 — vocabulary, 929 Hinny and mule, 165 Hipparchus, yeai of, 41 Hippocrates, 148 Hippopotamus, 113, 164 Historians, errors of anc , 43 Historical chronology, 42--56 — dramas, 678 — notes and abstracts, 998 History of England, 956 — vague, without epochs, 42 — of Josephus, 44, 9S8 — pleasures of natural, 119 — of cotton manufacture, 94 — Chinese, 620 — ancient , 975, 999 — mystified by the Greeks, — Jewish, 986 [977 — Asiatic, 991 Hives of bees, 194 Hoar-frost, 544 Hogarth, 629 Ho Guericke, 479 Holkam soil , 918 Holland, 774 — New, 161, 289 Hollands, spirits, 818 Holy sepulchre at Jerusa. 724 — synod, 145 Home consumption , 805 Homer, 633 Homo, 121 Honduras, 931 Honey, 920 — bee, 193 Honors, academic, 687 Hoof, varieties of, 108 Hoop.-cough, deaths by, 1087 Hops, 238 — duty on, 840 Horizon, dip of, G8 Horizontal size, 588 Horn, component part of, 109 — of the deer, 169 Hornblende, 252 Horned cattle, 166 Horne Tooke, 620 Horoscope, 365 Horses in France, 849 — United Kingdom, 886 Horse power, 89 — 91 — food, 826 — neighing of, 110 — Arabian, 160, 165 — carri. & railw. trains, 775 Horsemanship, 98, 165 Hosiery, 83 7 Hospitals, 150 — Gentoo, 162 — in London, 730 Hot-water pipe, 477 — seeds, 206 — baths, 466 — springs, 321, 540 — house, 240 Hot climates, 552 Hotel Dieu et Paris, 758 Hottentots, 127, 162 Hours, coldest and warmest in the day, 533 — in factories, 764 House-fly, 198 Houses, lords 8f commons 993 — in London, 729 Household, royal, 936 Howard, 950, 1040 Huddersfield manufac., 771 Hudson’s Bay, 354 — dog, 168 Human strength , 90 — hair, 130 — voice, 131 — teeth, not those of a car- nivorous animal. 133, 151 — arts, influence of, 106 — race, speculat. on, 757-8 — food, 123 — numbers, 758 — weight and stature, 127-8 — flesh, 155 — eye, 584 — ear, 600 — proportions, 629 Humble bee, 193 Humboldt, 105, 146, 214 Humic Acid , 211 Humidity, 541 Humming-birds, 179 Humors of the eye, 144 Humps of the camel, 164 Humus, 917 Hundreds, parishes, 8(C. 953 Hungary water, 450 Hunting, 168-9 Hurricanes, 548-9 Hutton on the earth, 2/7 Huygen’s theory of light, 563 Hybernating animals, 1 1 1,164 Hybrids, 111, 125, 165 Hycsos, who, 45 6 Hydatids, 118, 203 Hydatina senta, 201 Hydra polypus, 201 Hydraulic ram, 97 Hydrogen, presumed conver- sion of, 136 — in metals, 486 Hydrology , 313—346 Hydrometer, 78, 133, 469,524 Hydro oxygen micros., 204 Hydrostatic balance, 101 Hydrurets, 450 Hyena, 164 Hygrometer, 120 Hyperbolic logarithms, 59 Ibrahim, Pacha, 814 Ice, heat produced by, 459 Iceland spar, 253 Ichneumon, 170-1 — fly, 197 Ichthyosaurus, 308 Ideas, original, 638 — of time, 30 Ignis jatuus , 554 Iguftnodon, 308 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Illegitimate births, 751 Illicit distillation, 818 Illinois, 869 Illumina. of light-houses, 783 Illusion produced by archi- tectural structure, 705 Imaginary fluids, 490 — powers of steam, 798 Immense mngni. of space 365 — destruction ai St. Peters - burg in 1824, 743 Imperial measures, 1—6 — library, 660 Imports, 733, 802 — French, in 1838, 1093 Impression, lumin. rays, 585 Impressment of seamen , < 66 Imprisonment for debt, 953 Improvem. of A. Young, 909 Improvisatori at Grand Cairo , 716 Impulse defined, 75 Incandescence, 460 — 63 Inclined formations, 278 — plane, 85, 778 — railways, 790 Inclination of orbits, 374 Inclosure-bills , 921 Income , national , 909, 1096 Increase of bulk by heat, 468 — of popula., American, 860 Incubation, artificial, 179 Idemnity to slave own., 776 Index of power, 5 7 — logarithmic, 59 — legal, 945 India , 714, 716 — precious stones, &c. in, 265 — British territory, 926 Indian ox, 161 — astronomical tables, 367 — North American, 861 — antiquities, 872 Indications, barometrical 531 Indiction cycle, 37 Indictment, 950 Indigenous animals, 113 — fruits, 232 Indigo, 221,436, 439, 450 Individual discoveries , 656 Induction, electrical, 481 Industry , productive, 125, 749 Inequalities of the earth’s surface, 335 — of poors-rate, 772 Inertia , a misnomer, 77 Infants, 142-3 — murder. 156 — labor, 821 Infinite quantities, 58, 1 18 — space, 384 Inflammable gases, 429, 462 Inflection of light, 575 Influence, lunar, 556 Infusoria, 120, 200 1 — silicifierl 204 Ingots, weight of, 21 Ingrafting of feathers, 173 Ingredients of bread, 844 Inhabitants of seas, 183 — • of continents, 354 16 Inner rainbow, 58 7 Inns of court, 729 Inquisit. in Spain, victims of. Insanity, § 50 £1092 Insects, genera, 105, 190-200 — reproduction, 110 — reason. ng powers, 126 — wings, 199 — in chalk, 287 Instantaneous results of elec. Instinct, 115, 119 [496 Institute of France, 490 Institutions, medical, 150 157 — British, 632 Instruments, astronom., 370 — optical, 588 — musical, 600—612 Insulation, 479 Insurances, 784 Integument, muscular, 110 Intellect, average of, 125 -7 Intensity of heat, 464 Intercepted pressure, 555 Intercourse, commerc., 774 Interest of debt, 888, 891 Internal struct, of rocks, 249 — heat, 334, 540 Interrogative system, 689 Intestinal canal, length of.l 1 3 Intric. of Eng. law, 934 [139 Itroduction of tea, 228 — of vegetables, 232 — sugar-cane, 233 Inventors deified, 969 Invention of printing, 651 Inverse sq. of distances, 375 Investigation, import, of, 78 Iodine, 428 — compounds, 485 Ionian Islands, 933 Ireland, magnetic surv., 522 — canals, &c. 779 Irish money, 2 7 — laborers, 767 chronicles, 620 — country papers, 676 — population, &c. 749 — linen, 836 — cattle, 924 Iron, 272 — property of, 1093 — discov. by Schoenbien,1093 — experi by Hawkins, 1093 — weight of, 82 — steam ships, 786 — white heat, 90 — railways, 791 — smelting, 97, 265 — works, &c. 103, 825 — found in blood, 108 — oxide of, 249 — furnaces, 273 — and steel, their relative magnetic power, 51 1 — plates for heating, 4/7 — wire, 490 Irregular figures, 67 — motions, 379 Isaiah, 1040 Islands, Sandwich, 337 — British, 749 Isothermal lines, 534 Issue, rolls, 895 — banks, 899 Italian day, 39 — animals, 160 — language, 619 Italian school of arts, 625 — poets, 641 — universities, 692 — wines, 458 Itinerating libraries , 658 Ivory, 163 Ivory’s table of refract., 527 Ivy, 231 Jackall, 168 Jaculator fish, 183 Jamaica, 926 Japanese, 817 [235 Jar dins des plantes, 119, 167, Java squirrel, 169 — winds, 550 Jaw, muscles of, 134 Jeddo, 7 22 Jenks, Francis, 946 Jenner, Dr., his discovery, 149 Jerome’s Vulgate, 45 Jersey, 750 Jerusalem , 722 Jet, wood converted to, 300 Jewellers in London, 838 Jews ignorant of medicine 1 48 — their calendar, 39 — their festivals, 40 — their geography, 353 — their wealth, 888 — history, 986 Johnson, 619 Joint-stock companies, 893 Jomelli, 604 Jones on entomology, 191 — glass manufactures, 838 Jonllo, 337 Josephus , hist, of, 44-45, 614 Joubin, M., calculus of, 71 Journals , 662-677 Jubilee , 770 Judicial salaries, &c., 880, 948 — circuits, 949 Julian period, 31, 37, 46 Julius African us, 983 Jumping. 156 Junius, 648 — Smith, 786 Jupiter and satellites, 3/0 2 — of the mythology, 969 Jura, 344 Juries , 905, 955 % Jussieu, system of, 205 Justinian code, 889, 934 Juvenile offenders, 769 Kaaba, at Mecca, 735 Kalmucs, 123, 126 Kamsin winds, 496 Kangaroos, 161 Kant, 1042 Katharine's Dock, 782 Kay's zoology, 105 Kefeistein, 205 ' Keill, theory of, 136 ALPHABETICAL INDEX Kelby's gas-burner, 4f?3 Kelly, Ur., on Mexico, 861 Kemp< Ion’s speak, mac. 601 Kennedy on cotton spin., 832 Kentucky petrol, springs, 479 Kepler's law , 4 1 Key, musical, 601 3 6-8 Kiddermm. and Kilmarnock carpets, 833 Kildare, eccles. income, 10S3 Killaloe, eccles. income, 1083 Kilmore, eccles. income, 1* 83 Kindness, effect an anims.W 9 Kings, mortality of, 145 — Egyptian, 9/7 King's College, 691 Kingdom, animal. 158-204 — vegetable. 204-245 . — mineral, 246-275 Kites for travelling , 559 — electric, 494 Kit’s-cotv-house, 708 Knighthood , orders of, 939 Knight's com magnet , 511 Knights of the shire, 944 Knowledge, progress of, 55 — of ratios, how limited, 58 — direction of, 76 [367 — ■ astronomic, in early times, — how acquired, 689 — now in its infancy, 634 Kookees, 126 Koran, 620 Koster, 651 Kroo nation, 156 Labour the subject of tax. 885 — most productive, 91 — in mines, 270 — agricultural, 913-14 — Irish, 924 Laboratory, 417-18 Labyiinth of Egypt, 608 Lace, manufacture, 94 Lacteals, 138. 149 Lake Maris, 698 Lakes, 315 — Canadian, 77 9 — Baleal and Titica, 320 — temperature of, 540 Lalande. 384 Lama, 166 — gigantic, 310 Lamaniin, 171 Lamarck’s system, 158, 277 Lamb, Dr., remark of, 151 laminar electricity, 483 Lamp-black vessel 6 , 470 Lamp, (Burney’s, 586 — safety, 463 Lamps, perpetual, of the an- cients, 1092 Lancaster, system of, 689 Land % agriculture , 907-924 — crabs, 186 — submerMons of, 279 — extent, 313 — sales by the American government, 863 Landlord and Tenant , 908 Landscape painting, 627 \r Language, 612-24 — remarks on. 131 — English, 619 - of the Koran, 621 _ of Christ, 623 Languedoc, wooden, 300 Lantern-flv, 198 Laplace, 42, 472 — in error. 410 Larch, 233 Lardarius, 196 Large quadrupeds formerly natives of Q. Britain, 160 — ants, 195 — diamonds, 261 — bells, 609 — seas, inhabitants of, 183 — tarms, 913-14 Larva. 191 Larynx, 131 Latent heat an absurd. 460- 1 Lateral effect, 188 Latin language. 619 — construction, 621 — exercises in Universi. 695 — re( ords, ‘ 45 Latitude, 350 [99-100 — pendulum affected by, — in whicn man isfound, 123 — to find, 351 — comparison of, 354 — tallies, 359 — various freez. heights, 532 — equivalent in elevation.479 Latreille, system of, 105, 184 Lauderdale on veget. dtet,911 Laurentiuian library, 659 Lava, 3o5 Lavateron physiognomy, 156 Lavoisier’s chemistry, 417 Laiv'sM ississippi scheme ,896 Law, 933 — ol population, 756 — of nature, 769 — of nations, 946 — for treeing employm., 846 — schools in the U States 874 — departments, 881 — of Moses, 888 — against usury, 903 — French, 945 Lawyers, number of, 949 Lea's stocking-frame , 837 Leach on insects, 191 Lead, 265, 271 Leaf gold and silver, 268 League, tariety of, 15 — marine, 318 Leap-year, 34-35 Leather, 450. 839 Leaves of metal, 502 Lebanon, cedars of, 232 Le Blon’s oil-colour, 631 Lectures, 150 Leech, power of suction, 190 Legacy dutv, 886 Legal day, 32 — nomenclature, 945 Legends, remarks on, 145 Legion, 957 Legislation English, 935 Leguminous plants, 206 Lesbos,speaking head at, 1 092 Leibnitz, 1943 Lejmming, 1 70 Lemur, genera of, 163 Length of day in London, 349 — of pendulums, 401 — of musical-strings, 601 Lens, convex, 478 — achromatic, 588 Leonardo da Vinci, 277 Lepon on monkeys, 163 Letter, dominical, 35 Letters of the alphabet, con binations of, 68 — in various languages, 614 — in a fount ol type, 653 — conveyed by post, 794 Lettsom, Dr., 131 Level, various, 315 — of the sea, 529 — of London, 733 — of France, 85/ Levelling, 6 7 Leter, 85 — peculiar, 83 Leviticus, law of, 779 Lewenhoeck, 2<>2 Leyden phial , 488, 493 Lias. 306 Libel bill, 935 Libellula, 196 Libra, 386 Libraries, Alex, and Basili- can, 635 — British Museum , 659 — itinerating. 65^ — at Philadelphia, 744 L icentiate bodies, 150 Licenses, 767 Lxhens, 208, 224 Lichfield, benefices of, 1081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 10S1 Life, 114,118, 140, 145 — animal, universality, 115 — succession of, 117 — ascribed to blood, 137 — vegetable, 207 — of beasts of prey, 1/3 — boat and bony, 101 Lifting-power of magnets, 511 Light-matches, 444 — readirg, 642 — gas, 476-7, — houses, 783 Light and heat , effects of, 120, 209-10 — velocity, 384 — solar, 405 — chemical properties, 442 — phenomena, 563 — production, 5G4 Lightning, comparison of, 484 — conductors, 492 Lima, 725 Lime, 249-252, 434 — basis of animal bodies, L*7 Limerick, eccles. income 1081 Limestone, 252 — produced by zoophytes 253 s s ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Lime slaked, 473 *— germs in, 302 . — toads enclosed in, 188 — magnesian, 306 Lime-tree, 230 Limits of tides, 328 — of endurance in taxa., 883 Line of direction, 58 «— of perpetual snow, 342 — of latitude & longitude 353 — apsides, 375 Lincoln, eccles. income, 1081 Linear dilatation, 467 Linen manufactures, 836 Linncean system, 105-6,109, 120,1/5, 180,184, 204-6,215 Linwood’s, Miss, worsted pic- tures, 629, 1096 Lion, zodiacal, 386 Lions and tigers, 164 Lion-bait, 164 Liquefaction of gases, 430 — snow, 473 Liquidity , how produced, 73 Liquids, weight of, 79 — measure, 7 — equal pressure, 313 Liquors, spirituous, 152 — analized, 437 Lisbon, 337, 726 List of rivers, 317 — of railways, 788 Literatures, 633-650 — French, 853 — American, 861 Literary societies, 657 — periodicals, 667 Litmus, 452, 492 Little Bear, 386 Littleton’s tenures, 946 Litre, 3 Livery of London, 730 Liver, its use, 134 — its weight, &c. 135 Liverpool imports, 819 Living, presentation of, 1083 — stamps required, 1083 — skeleton, 154 Lizards, 307 — fossil, 106, 294 Llandaff, benefices of, 1081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — i 1 come, 1080 Lloyd’s survey of Ireland, 522 Loadstone, 274 Loamy soils, 916 Loans on railways, 788 Local atmosphere, 568, 4S7 — acts, 772 Locality of species, 214 — of geological, 288, 292 — of Jerusalem, 724 Localization of manufac., 822 Locations of animals, 113, 120 Locks, curious, 102 Locomotive engines, 790 Locusts, 197 Logarithms, what, 59 — binary, 69 Logic, 648 ' Lombards, 995 London, 727 — benefices of, 1081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 — university, 691 — tides, 329 — plagues, &c. 56 — zoological society, 173 — booksellers’ society, 771 — Royal Institution, 490 — societies in general, 656 — bridge, 731 — public statues, 1080 — gas-pipes, 4 77 — port, 781 — length of day, 349 — barometer, 531 — temperature, 535 — newspapers, 663 — theatres, 678 — police, 951 Longevity, 145-7, 753 — of Quakers, 156 — of elephants, 163 — of swans, 177 — tortoise, 186 — plants, 245 — beasts of prey, 173 — two sexes, 896 [98 Z(mgf/wete,Whiston’s experi. — degrees, 350, 363 — tables, 359 Long bow, 958 — Parliament, 630 — administration, 938 Loom, 95, 866 Lope de Vega, 637 Lords, 938 Lord Byron, 637 Losses at sea, 783 Lost arts, 626 Lotus, 224, 697 Louis XIV., 901 Louse, species of, 195 — increase, 197 Louvre, 740 Low water, 325 — Dutch language, 618 Lower Canada, 926 Luminosity of sea-water, 314 Luminous insects, 203 — rays, 585 — projection of comets, 395 — bands and arch, 554 Lunar cycle, 37, 409 — month, used by Chinese, 41 — year, 145 — maps, 408 — influence, 556 — cau&tic, 450 Lunation, 409 Lunatic asylums, 77 2 Lungs, 135 — temperature of, 137 — electrical theory, 492 Lustre of minerals, 251 Lustra, 39 Luther, 1044 Luxembourg, palace of, 741 Luxury, a local idea, 126 — effects of, 800 Lyall’s geology, 277, 281 — account of Moscow, 738 Lycabas, 168 Lycopodium, 450 Lymph, 109 Lymphatics, 138, 149 Lyons, silk manufactures, 835 Lyra, 386 Lyre, 6 1 1 Mac Adam on roads, 777, 009 Macaulay, 1044 Macclesfield manufact., 836 Macedonian phalanx, 957 Machine electricity, 489 — why popular, 490 — how distinguished, 498 — spinning, 824 Machinery , 82, 104 — argu. for and against, 96 — exported, 800 Machines, acc. of, 85-6,1 01 --4 — cotton, silk, lace, &c. (See the respective articles j — blowing, 97 — block, 102 — electrical of the Editor 480 Mackerel, 183 Madder stains bones, 132 Madeira wines, 845 Madonna, 628 Madras, 734 Madrid, 734 Madrigal, 605 Magazine days, 661 Magendie on the pu'se, 137 Magic lantern, 592 Magna Charta, 935 Magnesia, 249, 252, 435 Magnetic electricity, 510 — pyrites, 274 Magnetism , 507 — 523 — identical with galvan. 509 — its diminution, 517 — peculiar influ. on iron, 490 Magnets of Henry and Ten Eyck, 49 7 Magnifying power, 588 Mahmud, 996 Mahogany, 224, 230 — Honduras, 931 Mahomed, flight of, 40 Mahometan learning, 714 — poor, 774 Mail-coaches, 778 Maingault’s experiments, 131 Major Cartwright, 94 7 Major and minor tones, 607 Malay language, 618 Males, births as to females. 146 — population of Eng., 825 Malt used in England, 818 — tax, 840 Maltese cattle, 167 Malthusian doctrine, 758 Malvern hills, 346 Mammalia, 105, 157 — reproduction of, 117 — dimensions, 159 — aquatic, 171 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Mammalia, number, 160 Mammoth, 106, 163 ,307 — at Philadelphia, 74 4 Man, 124-157 — recent date of, 43.4, 281 — destructive powers, 1 06 — subject to the same laws as other animals, 116-7 species, 121 — 3 — progress, 124, 127 — tallest in the morning, 129 — vital parts, 132 — longevity, 145 — covered with hair, 153 — comparative size, 204 — his residence alternately land and sea, 280 — oxygen consumed by, 527 — first habitations, 695 — Isle of, 750 — slaughter, 951 Manchester manufact., 836 Mandril, 163 Manetho , 43-4, 983 Manganese, 271 Manilla reptile, 190 — galleon, 819 Manipulat. of Faraday, 498 Mansfield, execut. under 769 Manteil, Dr., 277 Mantis, 198 Manufact. districts of Great Britain, 291, 762 Manufactures, 92.-5,820-846 Manure, 819, 917 Manuscripts, 614 Maps of the moon, 408 Marble, 452 — Sussex, 305 Marcus Aurelius , 1008 March, military, 156 Maremma di Roma, 913 Margate, first steam voy . 776 Mariners, impressment, 967 Marine league, 348 — botanical regions, 220 — insects in chalk, 28 7 — engines, 775 — insurances, 784 Marks of age of horses, 165 — of botanists, 207 Mark, St., library of, 659 Market pr. of imports, 810 -12 Marie, 918 Marmot, 171 Marquis de Jouffroy, 777 — of Worcester, 796 Marriage certi., duty on, 1086 Marriages, Ac. 751,754 — in Roman Cathol. chapels in 1838, 1088 — in Protest, dissent, places of worship in 1838, 1088 — other places in 1838, 1088 Marrow, spinal, 142 Man, 372 Marshall's abstracts, 752,819 Marsham’s diary, 176 Marshes, 237 — in Kent, 915 Marsupial anim. 107 113.161 IQ Marts, national, 822 Martin, 171 Martin on insects, 191 Marvel, Andrew , 1046 Mason bee, 193 Massachusetts, 866 Mastodon, 163-4, 307 Materia medica, 153 Maternal affect. ofbrutes,161 Mathematics , 56—71 [194 — analytic, 57 — misapplied, 485 Mathieu, 394 Matter, what, 73 — animal, 108 — vegetable, 204 — conducts motion, 383 Mauritius, 928 Mausoleums , 7 46 Maxims in philosophy , 104 Maximum of galvan. power, May-fly, 199 [504 Maynooth college, 686 Mayor of New York, state- ment of, 860 Mead and metheglin, 920 Mean forces, 72 — apparent time, 32 — of life, 145, 758 — measurement, 347 — eccentricity, (moon’s), 409 — annual temperat., 532, 536 Measles, deaths by, 1087 Measures , 1 — 9 — of capacity, 6 — comparison of, 5, 14, 18 — miscellaneous, 7 — 9 — of length, 13 — of area, 65-6 — of timber, 66 — angular, 71 — of time, 30-40 — a degree, 347 Meat of various kinds, their loss of weight in cook., 478 Meath, ecclesias. incomel083 Mecca, 735 Mechanics, 82—104 — general propositions, 84 — American, 862 Mechanical powers, 85 — contrivances, 83 Medes and Persians , 994 Medical schools, 150 — men, 760 Medicine , 147 — 153, 648 Medicinal use of mercury, 149 Mediterranean sea, 315 Medulla oblongata, 140, 142 Medusa, 183, 200-1 Megalosaurus, and megathe- rium, 307-8 Meggar, 198 Melancthon, 1047 Melloni, 471 Melody, 607 Members of universities, 687 — of parliament, 941-2 Membranes of the brain, 142 Memmonium, 629 Memoranda, botanical, 234 Memnon, voc. statue of, 1092 Memory , legal, 946 Menageries, expenses of, 174 Mental calculations, 71 — phenomena, 140 Menu, laws of, 44, 647 Mephitic animals, 112 — gases, 210 Mercury, planet, 372 Mercury, 264 — mean height of, 529 — medicinally, 149 — freezing-point, 538 — malleable, 474 — thermometer, 479 Meridian, 348 — degree of, 5, 368 Merino sheep, 160 Merits of Eng. Constitu 935 Merthyr Tydril, 826 Mesotype, 494 Metaphysics, 649 Metallic poisons, 210 — ores, 248, 261 — acids, 431 — oxides, 583 — circulations of France, 849 — c;rcula. of Britain, 890 Metals, 261, 275 — condensed by hammer., 82 — absorbed by plants, 237 — expans. & contract, 467-8 Meteors, 560 — fall of, 1093 Meteorology , 523—562 Methods of acquir know. 6S9 Metonic period, 37 Metre, 3 Metrical psalmody, 604-5 Metropolis roads, 77 8 Mexico, 735 Mexican gulph, 315 — dialects, 624 — aborigines, 861 Miasma, 148 Mica slate, 252, 916 Michael Angelo , 626, 630 Microscope, 593 — data afforded by, 1 1 6 — wonders of the, 20 1 — and micrometer, 595 Microscopic insects, 191, 201 — experiments, 119 — appearance of chalk, 287 — shells, 304 M iddle A merica, 858 Middleton on the produce of land, 909 Migration of animals, 112,176 — of whales, 172 — of various fishes, 180 — of crabs, 186 — of birds, 176 Milan, 734 Milbank Penitentiary , 95 1 Mile, 14-15 Militia, American, 862 — domestic, 962 Military, 95 7 — 967 — motion, 156 — mortality, 754 Military statistics, 961 Milk, 438 — products, 922 Milky way , 384-5 Million of Facts, 652 Millions of acres untilled , 758 Mills, silk, 93 — Barker’s, 95 — water and wind, 97, 102 — malt, 841 — Amer can, 867 Milton, 1018 Minarets, 718 Mineral poisons, 152 — kingdom. 246 — 275 — springs. 321 — - acids, 431 Mineralogy, 246 Minerals, lustre of, 251 French, 851 Mines , depth of, 89 — salt, 258 - — diamond, 261 — gold, 265 — produce of, 267 — mode of working, 269 — British iron, 273 — explosions in, 275 — temperature, 5d9 — boiling-point in, 475 — French, 851 — South American, 873 Mining companies, 732 — districts, 822 Minister of public instruction in France, 854 Ministers, American, 859 — royal, 937 Minimum, 452 Mint, royal, 21 — of Copenhagen, 719 Miocene, 281 Mirage, 587 Mirbel on botany, 214 Mirrors, 591-2 Misapplication of endow- ments, 694 — mathematics, 460 Miscellaneous Facts, 1093 — in botany, 215 — in physiology, 153 — in meteorology, 553 — manufactures, 838 Mississippi, 867 — scheme, 893 Mistletoe, 240 Mites, 196, 203 Mixed quantities, 58 9 Mixture of blood, 125 Mobility of water, 313 — inherent, 471 Mocking-bird , 471 Modern entomology, 191 — chemistry, 417 — music, 606 — capitals of nations, 7H •— roads, commerce, &c. 774 — manufactures. 821 — mythological theories, 968 Modulation, 607 Mogul empire , 996 20 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Mohawk & Hudson railway, Mohs’ classification, 247 [868 Moles, 169 MollctVs condenser , 463 Mollusca. 184 Molsheim’s iron-works, 828 Momentum, definition of, 58. — cause of, 74 [75 Monarchs, modern , of Eu- rope, and relative chrono- logy, 999 Monas, 118, 203 M onetary Sf fiscal , 875 — 907 Money , 19—30, 875 — tendency to accumulate, 19 — American, 26 — foreign. 27 — interest, 888 — present & form, value, 896 — the “ root of all evil,” 901 Mongol race, 124 Monkeys, 162-3 Monkish regulations, 854 Monocotyledon, 206, 299 Monopoly, manufactu., 822 — of farms. 847 Monsoons, 549 Mont Blanc , 346 Montgolfier, 558 [1049 Montague, Ladv M. W., 149, Monts de Pield , 77 1 Monthly Magazine, 776 Month, lunar, 41 Monuments preserved, 545 — stone. 975 Moon* 408 — year of the, 145 — southing, 37 — age, 37 — oscillation, 32 7 — longitude by the, 350 — influence on weather, 556 Moon’s orbit, inclination, 409 Moore's almanac , 365, 646 Moralities, 678 Moral sentiments of animals. Mordants, 444 [119 Morning- star, 3 77 — papers, 663 Morocco, 452, 737, 953 Morse. 172 Mortality in London, 152 — in various nations, 751 Mortars, 959 Mortgagees, French, 856 Mortgage of revenues , 892 Morus, 224 Morveau. 473 Mosaic law, 770, 888 — of Palestrina, 1 14 — gold, 452 Mosehion, 149 Moscow, "37 Moses. 620, 978, 1050 Mos, 208 Mososaurus, 30S Mosques, 714 Motacilla, 114 Moth, large, 198 Motu.n, atomic, 73 — mean, 32, 72 Motion, original, 74 — circumstances of, 76.7, 372 — to reverse, 83 — of serpents, 189 — of gnats, 200 of water, as a cause of geological phenom., 322 — planetary. 366 — circular, 370-1 — how produced, 382 — of the sun, 407 — atomic, 417 Mouldiness, phenom. of, 202 Mountains, 340 — American, 858 — earth compared with, 120 — chains of, 289 — barometrical measure, 530 — temperature, 475 Moving powers, 84-5 — stars, 392 Mount Balca, 290 — Hecla, 336, 1095 — Calvary. 724 Mozart, 604 MSS.. 614 Mucilage, 439 Mud in rivers, 319 Muffle, 452 Mule, 111, 165 — machine so called, 86 Multiples of weights, &c. 3 Multiplication, cross, 67, 71 — of designs, 628 Multiplying glasses, 592 Munich, 738 Municipal Government qf London. 730 Murder, 950 Muriate ot silver, 582 Muriatic acid, 115, 42/ — to curdle milk, 923 Musagetes, 629 Musca genus, 190 Muscles, antagonist, 116, 134 — of the mole. 169 — of birds, 175 — of caterpillars, 198 — of dead excited by galva nism. 503 Muscular contractility, 134 Museum at Berlin, 175 — Drury’s. 191 — British. 658 Music , 600 — animals fond of, 113 Mus cal strings, 601-6 — vibrations of, 30 — notes, 600 — glasses. 602 — bells, 609 — boxes, 611 Musk, 112 Myrica Pennsylvania, 224 Myrmecophaga, 1 70 Mysteries, religious, 677 — of electricity, 480 Mystification of science , 485 Mythology , 967—974 Nabonasaii, year of, 42 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Names , popular 8f scientific. Nankin, 73 8 [10/ Naphtha, 255, 452 Napier's logarithms , 59 Naples, 738 Napoleon , 1051 — his excellence in numis- matics, 29 — assemblage of master- pieces of art, 626 — bis roads, 711 [795, 857 — his great public works, Narcotic poisons, 152, 452 Nationality , 9/6 National theatre , 677 — products, 823 — debt, 846 882 — petition, 947 Nations, how composed, 124 — their revolutions, 901 Native population, 357 Natural syst. of botany, 205 Nature, animated, 104 — 121 — reversed in New Holland, — law of, 769 [161 Nautical chronometers, 99 — almanac, 350 Nautilus, 184, 186 Naval tactics. 788 — statistics, 961 Navy , 9: 7—967 — life- boat, 101 — . French, 853 — various, 966 Navigation , 351, 774— 793 ■ — steam, 8 7 — of Columbus, 857 Neapolitan literature, 739 Nebulae, 385 Necessary manufactures, 823 Necromancers , 796 Necrosis, 132 Nectopode, 158 Needles, &c. swallowed, 154 — magnetic, 508 — dip and variation, 515 — manufacture, 828 Neembucu. 865 Negative electricity, 116,484 Neglect of literary men, 644 Negroes , 124 — brain of, 143 — literary works, 125 — change of colour. 127 — length of life, 146 — emancipation, 7/6 — owned by Cherokees , 861 Nehemiah, 44 Neigh of the horse, HO Neith, temple of, 973 Nelson, 1052 Nerves , 139 — 145 — of motion & sensation, 143 — of insects, 191 Nests of birds, 177 — of ants, 195 [807, 883 Net receipts from customs, Netherlands* vegetables brought from, 232 — measures of, 5 Neuter insects, 194-5 21 ! Neutral salts, 503 New England sheep, 167 Newfoundland, 870 New Grenada, 870 Nevi Testament, coins men- tioned in, 29 Newcastle coal-trade, 822 New Poor Law. 769, 861 — commission, 938 New Holland, 354 — animals, 161 — geology, 289 — wool, 833 New South Wales, 926 Newspapers , 662 — 6 77 Newton, errors ot, 41 — singular speculation of, 74 — his opinion of comets, 396 — character, 397, 857. 1052 — his theory of light, 563 — his prism, 572 — his experiments, 580 New York, machinery of, 103 — newspapers, &c. 665 — details, 740 New Zealand, 354 — flax, 224 Nicholson and Carlisle’s ex- periments, 504 Night-glassts, 590 Nile, river, 319, 515 Nimbus, 542 Nineteenth cent,, alman.for. Nitrate, 423 [35-6 Nitric acid, 433 Nitrogen, elimina of, 133,425 — fixation, 135, 209—11 — springs, 322 Nitro hydrogen, reaction, 1 16 Nitrous oxide, acid, &c. 452 Nitrous caves of Kentucky, Noah, 44, 120, 323 [872 Nobility of Vienna. 74 7 Noctiluca miliaris, 203 Nocturnal species, 173 Nodal points , 596, 600 Nodes, 375, 415 Nomenclature , chemical, 417 — French, weights, &c. 2 — 6 Non-electrics, 489 Non-naturals, 157 Norfolk, spring in, 176 — fossils, 293 North America, 858 North American Indians, 122 — Polar star, 386 [126 — Polar imports, 831 Northern alphabets, 615 North's discourses on trade , Norway, animals ot, J60 [905 — pat Lament, 954 Norwich, benefices of, 1081 — churches A chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Nosology, 152 Notation of animal music, 175 — mathematical. 57 Notes, musical, 6U0-1, 1009 — bank, 850 — historical, 998 Nova Scotia, 780 Novels, Scott’s, 637 Novogorod fair, 813 Noxious animals, 161 Nucleus, of the old continent, — of comets, 395 [289 Number, Joubin on, 71 — prime, what, 58 — of cotton, 87, 831 — equivalent, 419 — of languages, 612 — of books published, 662 — of fossil species, 298, 304 — of the human race, 124 — of cells of bees, 194 — of volcanoes, 335 — of newspapers, &c. 663-6 — of universities in various countries, 683 — of persons educated in England & Wales, 688 — of horses, 886 Numerous stars in the milky way, 384 Numismatics, 29 Nutmeg, 224 Nutritive matter of grasses, Nutt's bee hives, 194 [910 Nymph, 191 Oases, 816 Oasis of Thebes, 698 Objects of society, 769 Obliquity of earth’s axis, 348 — of the ecliptic, 368, 979 Obscurity of meteorological phenomena, 562 Observations at the Cape of Good Hope , 392 — on heat and weather, 536 Observatories , 367—370 Obstructors, or non-conduc- tors, 497 Occupations, alphabetically arranged, 765 -7 Ocean, 315 — temperature. 540 Octahedral crystals, 473 Octroi, 854 Odessa wheat, 844 Odour of blood, 137 Oerstead, 508 Official value , 801 — salaries in U. States, 859 — titles, & c., in Hindoostan, Ogres, 129 [929 Ohio, 867 Oils and fat, 440, 839 Oil-painting, 626 — lamps, 463 — spring of, at Rome, 1092 Old prices, 919 Oldest modern painting, 628 Olefiant gas, 423 Olive, introduction of, 233 _ oil, 436 Olympiad, 42 Olympic games, 41 Omar's mosque, 7 24 Omnibus, 733 Onions, 225 Oolite, 306 O. P. riots , 682 Open voting, 941 Opera , 680 Operation, Caesarian, 149 Opinions on an ancient know- ledge of America, 858 Opium, 452 — trade, 817 Opodeldoc, 452 Opossum, 161 Opposit. to the Edit, theory , Optical phenom., 563 [39/ — instruments, 538 Otbits , planetary, 42 — motion in, 372, 3/9 — of comets, 396 — reciprocal, earth & moon, Orchestra, 612 [410 Ordeal, 952 Orders, natural , 107, 175, 180 — of plants, 205 — of architecture, 703 — knighthood, 939 — religious, 1090 Order of flowering in plants, — of strata, 246 [235 Ordnance , 881, 959 Ores, 248, 255, 261, 263, 272 Organic beings, species of, 1 05 — bases of, 115 [120 — destruction & alterna. 279 — remains, 1 17 Organization, animal, 105 — insect, 191, &c. — discussions on, 1 17 — successions of, 208 Organs of the voice, 131 — church, 609 Oriental fables, 146 — weights, 1 1 — astronomy, 366 — epochs, 31 — alphabets, 615 — architecture, 703 — claims to antiquity sup- ported by geology, 978 Origin of germs, 1 16 — of cotton manufact., 94 — of dialects, 613 — of the drama, 677 — of towns, 695 Original motion not observed, — mythology, 967 [74 — inhabitants of Europe, 122 — ideas of composers, 175 — work of Copernicus. 369 — ideas, paucity of, 638 — thinking, 656 Originality opposed by uni- versities, 684 — neglected, 858 Orion , 386 Ornithorhyncus, 178 Oronoco, 926 Oscillation. 32 7 Ossification, progress of, 110 Ossory, ecclesiastical income of, 1033 Ostrich, 178 Ouarine monkey, 119 Parang, 161-3 22 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Our Saviour's temple at Mos- cow , 758 Out-parishes , 72 7 Ovarium, 156 Ovens, chick, hatched in, 179 — heat of, 478 Overflowing of the Neva, 743 Overshot wheels, 102 Ovid, 1054 Oviparous quadrupeds, 112 Owl, 1 77, 179 Ox, Indian, 161 — various breeds, &c. 166 — tallow, &c. 839 — ploughing, 915 Oxalic acid, 433 Oxford university, 684 — ecclesias. income of, 1081 ‘ — members at coll, of, 1083 — of the convocation, 1083 Ox gang, 944 [lies, 335 Oxidation of bases of alka. — of wines, 495 Oxidable metals, 503 Oxide, 275, 423, 583 — of iron, 249 — of carbon, 211 Oxy- hydro, blow -pipe ,466 4S0 Oxy-muriatic acid, 427 Oxy-oil lamp, 586 Oxygen , 424 — its fixation, 88, 114, 135 — its office in vegetable re- spiration, 209-10 — consumed by man, 52 7 — question on, 457 — practical combina.. 462 Oxygenated water, 422 Oyster, 186 Pabulum of vegetation, 211 Packiderma , 109, 158 — rhinoceros, 164 Pacific, coral formations, 303 Paciolus, river of, 1092 Paddles , circular, not a re- cent invention, 87, 7/6 Paganini , 604 Paine, Thomas, 776, 1054 Painting on glass, 626 Painters, proportions of, 157 — Greek, 624 Pakfong, 453 Palace of Saladin, 716 Palais Royal, 7 41 Paladium springs, 478 Palm, 225 Palmyra, 725 Pandects, 934 Pangolin, 170 Panic, its effects, 905 Panorama, 629 Pantheon , 746 Paper, Gi4 — manufactures, 839 — money, 889 Paperes, 175 Papillae nervous, Ml Papyrus , 634 Papyrifera, 240 Par , premium & discount, 898 Parabolic theory, 98 Parachute, 558 Paradise, 120 — bird of, 178 Paraguay, 870 Parallax of cygni , 394 — of the sun, 400-1 — of the moon, 409 Parasita, 196-8 Parchment, 452 — volumes, 634 Parhelia, 58 7 Parian chronology, 45 Paris, 740 — papers, 663 — expenditure, 856 Parish returns, 907 Parkinson, 2 77 Parks, royal, 936 Parliament-houses, 727 — returns, 764, 799 — grants, 878 Parlour-fires, 465 Parochial assessments, 771 Parr, Thomas, 1055 Parrots, 178 Par sees, 816 Particles of blood, 135 Passage, birds of, 176 — of the Red Sea, 988 Paste, animalculee in, 202 Pasture of the U. King., 907 Patagonians, 122 — lama, 310 Patents, expense of, 103 Pathology , 152 Patriarchs, 146 Patterns, how produced, 103 Paupers , 769, 774 Paving-acts, 732 — stones, 254 Pawnbrokers, 771, 902 Payment of printers, 655 Pays Bas, 759 Peach, 233 Peacock, 179 Peak of Teneriffc, 346 Peals of bells, 609 Pearl-fishing, 156, 186 Peat soil, 916 Pebbles, 252, 285 Peculiar vegetable prod. 220 — insect species, 191 Peculiarities in families, 127 — of languages, 623 Peerage , 938 Pegasus, 386 Pekin, 742 Pelican, 177 Pelvis, 157 Pendulum, 5, 30, 32, 40, 350 — first adopted, 99 — gridiron, 101 — length, 401, 468 Penguin, 178 Penitentiaries, 7 44 Penmanship, Chinese, &C.615 Pennsylvania Bank, 861 Penny, silver, 21 — stamp, 666 — postage, 794 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Pensions for wounds, 964 Pension-list ; 880 Pentateuch 9 Samaritan , 43 Percussion, 460 — centre of, 72 Perfect numbers , 58 Perfectness of chemical affi- nities, 497 Performers in commemora- tion of Handel, 612 Perigee, 409 Perihelion , 32,39, 44, 218,322 — periods, 298 — motions, 349 Periodicals, literary, 667 — East Indian, 677 Periodical stars, 39' — criticism, 664 Period, metonic, 3/ — of gestation, 120 — of granitic formation, 257 — siderial, 374 Periods of life, 146 — insect, 192 — perihelion, 298 — of the earth, 347 Perkins' steam- artillery , 960 Peroxide of lead, 489 Perpetual almanack for the 19th century, 35 — snow , 342 Perseus, 386 Persian historians, 994 — empire, 996 Persians, practice peculiar, 40 •— astronomy, 367 — temperature, 536 Personages, real typified in the ancient mythology , 967 Perspective, 62 7 Perspiration, its quantity, 133 — analysis, 440 Peru, 337, 870 — six months’ fog, 545 Pestalozzi, 689 Pestilence, 56, 148, 913 Petals, 206 Peter of Russia , 1057 Peterborough, benefices, 1 081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Petersburg, 742 Petition of rights , 935 Petrifactions, 238 Petrils, 178 Petroleum, 255, 478 — springs, 322 Petty offences, 689 Pewter, 453 Phanerogamous plants, 206 Phalanx , 957 Pharaoh , 990 Pharmacy, 153 Phenician astronomy, 367, 982 — navigation, 774 Phenomena, geological, 322 — magnetic, 507 — atmospheric, 523 — of light, 563, 586 Philadelphia, 744 Philip , 4M, on vital pow. 506 Phillips’ capstan, 102 Phillips, W., on geology, 288 Phillips, Sir R., his theorv, 44, 72, 88, 136-7, 276, 460-1, 489-90,979 — remarks on cotton rnanuf., — Bruno & Galileo, 353 [94-6 — at variance with school- men, 381 — opinion (1805") on the fall of bodies, 397 — suggestions on magne. 507 — endeavours to reconcile the discrepancies of chem. theories, 526 [562 — opin. on meteoric stones, — suggestionfor useful know- ledge society, 658 — on ignorance & crime, 695 — electrical machine, 480 — remarks on Faraday’s ex- periments, 490 — Mr. Crosse’s apparatus 504 — efforts to abolish barbarous punishments, 769 — proposed viaducts, 797 Philo of Byblos, 983 Philology , 612-24 Philosophy, maxims in, 104 Phlogiston , 424 Phonetic alphabet, 621 Phosphate, 423 Phosphorescent clouds , 554 Phosphoric light, 203 — acid, 427 Phosphorus, 427 Phosphoret of calcium, 434 Photometer , 592 Phrenology, 140, 63S Physicians’ college, 150 Physiog. a test of species, 121 — of Lavater, 156 Physiology of man, 121-157 — miscellaneous, 153 Physiologists, cruelty of, 119 — theory of, 123 Pia mater, 142 Piano-forte , 610 Picae, 175 Picture of Naples, 738 Piece-goods, 830 Pig-iron , 272 — its product in wrought, 827 Pigeons, 177, 179 Pigot's Directory , 728 Pilchards, 183 Pile-drivers, 98 Pilgrims at Jerusalem, 722 Pimento, 225 Pinchbeck, 453 Pineal gland, 139 Pine-wood for fuel, 786 Pines, 225 Pinions, 82 Pin-making , 101 — division of labour in, 828 Pieces, 180 Pistols, 206 Piston, power of, 89 Pitch of animal sounds, 608 Pitcher-plant, 225 Pith-balls 503 Pitt, W., 903 Pittsburgh , 828 Places of 40 stars, 39ft — worship in London , 728 Placoids, 306 Plague , 148 — in London, 56 — of 1349, 913 Plane, inclined, 85, 778 — of the ecliptic, 374 Planets , 370 — their orbits, 42 — their mean motion, 46 — their ang. at the earth, 373 — centr & tangent forces,374 — connection with mytho.968 Planetary motion , 366, 379 Plants, selection of, 113 — geography, 214 — progression, 232 — order of flowering, 235 — metals absorbed by, 23 7 — poisonous, 241 — longevity, 245 — colors, 583 Planting of hops, 238 Plaster of Paris, toads in, 188 Plate -glass, 838 — gold and silver, 839 Plated goods, 103 Platina, 264. 453 Platinum pyrometer, 465 Platypus, 178 Pleiades , 385 Plesiosaurus, 308 Plessimeter, 151 Pleura, 135 Pliocene, 281 Plough, 921 — worked by steam, 95 Plumage of Amer. birds, 179 Plumbago, 274 Plumula , 212 Pluviometer, 524, 541 Pocock’s applica. of kites, 559 Pod, cotton, 832 Poetry , 636 Poggendorf, 489 Points, electric, 487 Poison, 432 — of serpents, 107, 112 — acts on the nerves, 143. — vegetable, 152, 241 — upas, 229 Polar regions, 290 — radius, 347 — seas, 354 Polarization of light, 576-8-9^. — merits of the phrase, 483 Poles compared with the sum. mits of mountains, 120 — of magnets, 514 Pole-cat, 167 Police, 880 Political economy , 902 Poll-taxes, 751 Polygons, areas of, 66 Polypus , 201, 304 Pomegranates, 233 Pompeii, 336, 706 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Pompey's pillar, 699 Ponds, fish produced in, 114 Pongo, 162 Pontus ot Cahors, 496 Poor , 716, 7/ 4 — law. 769, 861 — rates, misapplied, 7/1 — French. 854 Pope’s translations, 641 [651 Popes interdicted pi in ling. Poppy, its fecundity, 212 Popular names. 107 — education, 631 — appellations of streets, 734 Population of various great cities, 7U. &c. — theories on, 749, 156, 356 — of London, 728 — of France, 848 50 — of America, 860 1 — of the Fast Indies, 927 Porcelain earths, 439 — pagoda, 76 1 — English, 833 Porcupine, 1 12, 170 Pores, 441 Porphyry, 252 Porpoise 171 Port wines, 845 Ports, British, 781 Portico of Hermopolis, 698 Porter, Dublin, 8 17 Portland vase, 628 Positive electricity, 116, 481 Posology, 153 Posse comitatus , 954 Postage law, new, 1094 Posterity, series of, 124 Post-office , 794, 878, 1094 — American, 8/3 Potash. 434 Potassium 434 Potatoes, 233. 454 — in steam boilers, 453 — - their incre ise 909 Potteries, 762, 833 Pounded ice, 4/2 Poussin, 626 Poverty , 769 Powers, index of. 57 — of the nine digits, 60 — of the nerves, 143 — chemical, dein *d. 75 — mechanical, 82-104 — procreative of animals, 109 — vital, 506 — of lisrhi, 582 — of printing. 6 ’>6 — of metals in forming a gal- vanic circle. 5'K) Power loom, 95 830 Power, material, 73 — mechanical, how diffused. — horse, 89 [83 — galvanic, 504 — its principles, 795 Prairie , 867 Pratt, Lori Camden, 1060 Preacher, monkey, 132 Precedents, iegal, 934 [413 Precession oj the equinoxes , Precious stones, 261 — in India, 265 Prediction, astronomical, 356 — of weather, on false pre- mises. 557 Prehensile members, 112. 157 Premium and discount, 892 Presidents of the U. S., 859 Press, Stanhope, 102 — men, 655 — censorship, 654 — of Vienna, 748 Pressing-engine. 101 Pressure, atmo^p., 73, 83, 102 — of fluids, 77, 313 — intercepted, 555 — on gas, 455-6 Prey, birds of, 176-7 Prices of works of art, 632 — of imports, 810, 862 — of labour, 2/0 — of commissions, 959 Priestcraft , 704 5 Priesthood, S. America, 858 — and mythology, 968 Priestly, 421 Primary colors sounds , 595 Prime numbers, 58 9 Primitive transition, 280 — languages, 613 Primogeniture , 854, 954 Principle of magnify, power, — population, 76 5 [592 Printed goods, 829 Printing , 651 — in oil color, 631 — machine, 102. 652, 666 — its disadvantages, 654 — Chinese, 655 — by steam, 666 — stereotype. 652, 656 — in Phila del >hia, 744 Prior, George. 813 Prisms, 66, 572 Prismatic colors, 572, 584 — scale. 596 Prison discipline, 950 Prisoners , insane , 950 Pr sons. American, 861 Pritchard’s theory, 111, 123, 124, 150 Privilege of Parliament, 941 Privy council. 9 »6 Probabilities of life, 145, 755 — weather, 54 7 — ot decrease of trade, 813 Probate duties, 883 Proboscis, 163 Procreative oowers, 109 Procvon. 3S6 Products per acre, 236 — of mines, 267 -273 — ol volcanoes, 335 — electrical, 248 — exported, 804 Production of ve letables, 204, — oi minerals. 251 [20 > — of mountains, 340 Professions, longevity or, 761 Pr > His oj novel writers, 643 — should exceed interest 903 Progress of opinion on geo. logy, 2 77 — of surgery & medici., 149, — of our navy, 96.5 [649 Progression of plants. 232 — of perihelion, 323 [378 Progressive force of the sun . Projectiles, laws of, 65, 98 — force, 322, 371 Promenades of European capitals, 71 1 Prometheus, 462 Propagation, laws of, 156 Property of France, 849 — tax, 908 Prophets, 63 7 Proportions , 61 — of weight with solidity, 81 — of births, &c. 146 — of painters, 157 — of bees, 193 — of prismatic, 584 — of the sun’s ravs at diffe- rent angles, 586 — of the human figure, 629 — of taxation, 883 Propulsion & vibra. of air. 596 Proroga. of pari ament, 942 Prosperity , its bounds, 905-7 Prostitution. 764 Provincial measures, 7 — papers, 671 — theatres, 6/9 — hospitals, 761 Provis on used in London, 166 — most abundant in populous countries, 909 Proximate principles, 145 Proximity, lateral, 502 — of frontier, 813 Prussian schools, 693 — grain, 913 Prussiate of potash, 45 4 Prussic acid, 152 Prusso-Bavari. League, 808 Psalmody. 6 .14 5 Psyche, 111 Pterodactylli, 189 [353, 367 Ptolemy Philadelphus , 44, Puberty, 147 Public Works, 881 [-652 — societies and libraries, 656 — establishments. 728 — instruction, 693 — schools, 1083 •stitues in London, 1080 Publishing statistics, 661 Pudding stone, 253 Pulley, 85 Pulse, scale of, 137 Pumos, theory of, 97 — chan, 102 — stomach, 152 Purity of coin , 904 Putridity, to correct, 148 Pyramids, contents of, 66 — ot Egypt 698, 989 Pyrenees, 344 Pyrites, magnetic, 2/4 Pyrometers, 465 Pyrus, genus, 207 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Pythagoras, doctrine of, 155, — astronomy ot,366 [1061 — musical strings, 602 Pytheas, 368 Qu \ n ra nt. French scale of, 5 Quadrumana , 158 Quairupeds, oviparous, 112 — nocturnal, 1/3 — fossil, 113,307 — exterminated from Bri- tain, 114 — change on transplantation, Quagga, 165 [860 Quakers, 156 Qualfications of voters, 941 Qualities of minerals, 251 Quantities mixed, 58-9 Quarantine , 148, 795 Quarries, 762 Quarter of wheat , its price, Quartern-loaf, 844 [819 Quartett, 605 Quartz, 249, 916 Queen- bee, 194 Quetetet , calculations of, 146 Quick light, 427 — perceptions of women, 156 Quiils, porcupine, 1/0 Quito, 346 — causeway, 795 Rabbinical Hf.brew, 624 Rabbits, fecundity of, 169 Race-horses, 165 Races of men, 124 Racks and Jettcrs , 948 Racoon, 170 Radial bones, 181 Radiata, 200 Radiation, 461, 469-71 Radicle an l plumula, 212 Radius, 62 — arc equal to, 63 — of moon’s orbit, 328 — earth's, 351 Raffaelle , 628 Ratfiesia, 230 Railway-postage, 794 Railways , 775,738, 1093 — in Egypt, 814 — French, 853 Rain , 541 — tables, 535 — prevented, 923 Rainbow, 570, 577, 587 — steamer, 737 Rainy seasons , 544 Ram, zodiacal, 336 — hjdraulic, 97 — battering, 95 7 Ramadan, 39 Range, laws of, 98 Rapids , 779 Rapid vegetation, 538 Rarefaction of air , 543 Rarity of steam, 477 Rat, 169, 171 Ratafia, 454 Rates per cent., 898 Ratio , definition of, 56.7, 61 25 Ratio of taxa'ion, 883 Rattlesnake, 189 Ravages of locusts, 19/ Raven, 177 Kaw silk, 835 Ray's entomology , 190 Rays of colour, 566 — their heating powers, 583 Re-acting powers of various meta;s and fluids, 491 Readers classified, 654 Reading, 689 Readings in Parliament , 942 Re-agent & re-action, 75, 1 16 Realgar, &c. 454 [126 Reasoning powers of insects, Rcaumer's thermometer, 532 Receipts, net, from customs, Recent comets, 396 [807 — enquiries on mortality, 754 Recipients of the interest of the National Debt, 891 Records, earliest, 43 — Latin, 945 [385 Recorded stars in the zodiac, Red-lead and sulphur, 491 — Sea, 315. 988 — wines, 458 Reed on hurricanes, 549 Reefs, coral, their antiquity, 200, 30 i Reflection, cause of, 7b, 568 Reformation due to printing, 651 — of the universities,. 683 Reform Bill, 935 Refraction, 67, 568 — atmospneric, 527 — unequal, 587 — angles of, 570 Refrangibility of light and heat, 460 Regent’s Canal, 779 Regiments, 958 Regions, otanical, 120 — polar, 290 Register, annual, in Norfolk, — of shipping, 733 [176 — of voters, 941-2 Registrars, number of, 1086 Regular winds, 552 — plan of Philadelphia, 744 Reigns, length of, 41 — parliaments in, 942 Rein deer, 169 Relations of measure, 6 — of weight, 1 1 — of the earth’s orbit, 413 Relative extent of continents, — distan. of planets, 375 [354 — produce of various grains, 843 Religions, different, 1090 — another estimate, 1090 Religious fanatics, 154 — astrology, 365 — mysteries, 667 — sects in America, 874 j — contests on Jerusalem, 722 I Remains, organic, 1 15 i — not found in granite, 279 Remains of art in Rome, 748 Remarkable steam ves., 787 Rennet. 454, 923 Rennie* s steam -ship, 797 Rents, rise of, 20, 908 — London, 728 — Scotland, 924 Reports- of commissions , 773 Representative system , 934 — peers, 938 Reproduction, 110, 117-18 — of worms, 190 Reptiles, circulation of, 107 — arrangement of, 186 — English, 189 — age (geological) of, 292 Repulsion, 382, 441 Republic, French, 857 — American, 859 — Mexican, 801 [284 Research geological, limited, Researches of Belzoni, 989 Residence of man, 230 — in France ^ Be.giurn, 902 Resistance, 7b, 82, 98 — of the air, 526, 550 Respiration, 149 — its various kinds, 106 — its quantity, 136 - less frequent in sleep, 137 — of birds, 175 — of fishes, 181 — of insects, 191 — in diving-bells, 454 Restriction (see Bank) [574 Results of prismatic experi., — of discov. of printing, 651 Resurrection of ammalculae, Retemucosum, 110, 130 [202 Retina, 144 Retorts, gas, 476 Returns, financial, 8/5 — of population, 762 Re-union, electric, 487 Revenue, 876 — of universities, 6S6 — of Egypt, 815 — of France, 850 — of America, 865 — of various places, 886, 902 — of the E India Comp., 926 Reversed ship, 686 7 Reversions, & c. 897 Reviews, their character, 644 Revival of sculpture, 627 Revivification of seeds, 214 Revolution, planetary, 42 — of satellites, 378 — of 1688, currency at, 890 — of mercantile nations, 901 Revolving-plates, 51 1 Reynolds, Sir J., 632 Rhinoceros, 164 Rhododendron, 230 Ribs, 132 — of fishes, 181 Richard /., time of, 919 Richman, professor, 496 Rideau, 77 9 Riding, speed in, 165 Rules, 960 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Right Ascension , 407 Kings, fairy, 240 — of Saturn, 370 Ringing of bells, 609 Rio Janeiro, 809 — de la Plata, 8~1 Riot, 954 Ripening of apples, 238 Ripon, benefices of, 1081 — churches <& chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Rise of astronomy, 366 — of the funds, 892 Rivers, principal, 316 — frozen, 541 — American, 858 Rix-dollar, 24 Roads, ancient, 774 Robert & Charles, aerosta- tion, 558 Robin Hood , 958, 1064 Rochester, benefices of, 1081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Rock-salt, 258, 458 Rocks , volcanic, 297 — stratified and unstratified, — primitive, 248-50 [277 — transition and secondary, Rocky substances, 248 [252 Rockets, ascent of, 98 Rodentia , 158 Rolls, 'parliamentary , 939 Rollers for printing, 102 Roman coins, 25, 30 — day, 32 — calendar, 33-4 — gladiators, 166 — notation, 57 — geography, 353 — sculpture, 629 — army, 957 Romantic situation of Dres- den, 719 Rome, modern, 745 Roofs of houses, 706 Rooks, 177 Rooms, their best tempera- ture, 465 Root, algebraical, 57 Rose, its introduction, 233 — cutter, 192 Rosier, species of, 225 Rosin, 436 Rossini, 604 Rot in sheep, 148 — dry, 224 Rotation, earth's , 352, 381 — of crops, 91-6 Rote, 689 Rough representation of the solar system, 375 Round conductors, 489 Royal patronage of alchemy , — society, 530, 642 [144 — portraits, 630 — artillery, &c. 959 — academies, 632 — assent to laws, 942 — authorship, 633 — institution, 490 26 Royal titles, 935 Ruin of Phenicia, 985 Ruins in N. America, facts proved by, 710 — in Rome, 746 Rules for mean tempera., 533 — for telescopic powers, 590 Rum, 818 Rumford's experim., 450, 479 — remarks on fire-grates, 465 — annuity, 478 Ruminating animals, 110,158 Rural districts, 765 — f6tes, 854 Russian mines, 29 — manufactures, 768 — longevity, 145 — weather, 536 — universities, 692 — population, 760 — ancient history, 997 Rye and wheat, 233 Sable, 171 [968 Sacerdotal office of Chronus , Sach’s arrangemts. of insects, Sacred dramas, 678 [105 Saddle-horses, 886 Safety-valves, 89 — lamp, 463 Sagacity of beavers, 167 — of ants, 195 Sagittarius, 386 Sailing % steam-ve ssels, 7/5, Sails of mills, 97 [780 Salaries in the U. States, 859 Sale of Moore’s almanac, 646 — newspapers, 667—676 — of American lahds, 863 Saline draughts, 457 Salisbury, benefices of, 1031 churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 — Plain, 293 Saliva, 455 Salmon, 183 Salt, 258, 428 Salthouse dock, 782 Salts, 435 Salt manure, 918 Salvator, 628 Samiel, 549 Sanchoniatho, 43-4, 129, 690 — and Moses, 982 Sandstone, 285, 301, 310 Sandwich Islands, 337 Sandy soils, 916 Sanguis draconis , 820 Sanscrit language, 614 Saracens, 636 Saratoga spring, 869 Satellites , not rotatory, 352 — of Jupiter, 370 — of Saturn & Herschel, 376 Saturn , 3/ 2 — satellite?, 376 Satyrus, 162 Savings-banks , 7/3 Saw manufactures, 103 — mills, 102, 845 Saxon language, 6 1 8 Saxon public instruction, 693 — common law, 943 Scale vernier, 68 — prismatic and diatonic,596 — musical, 606 — thermometrical, 464 Scandinavian lemming, 170 — tribes, 995 Scarabaeous, 197 Scarlatina, deaths by, 10S7 Scent and sight in hunt , 168 — of flowers, 214 Schistose, 252 [1094 Schoenbein's experiments 505, Seholefield on hardware, 819 Schools, their doctrine, 381 — of medicine, 150 — of arts, 625 — foundatiou, 687 — London, 731 Science, deriv. from the east, — decline of, 642 [636 — medical, 649 50 Scientific nomenclatures, 107 — bodies, 150, 881 — travelling, 354 — collections, 719 — ship-building, 784 Scipio, 1067 Sclavonians, 122, 995 Scolopendra, 197 Scorpio, 386 Scorpions, 187 Scotland , geology, 294 — music, 605 — editions, 647 — newspapers, 674 — universities, 684 — iron-works, 827 Scott, Sir TV., 637 Screw, 85 — manufacture, 828 Scriptures, Jewish , 986 Sculptors, rules, 157-7 — Greek, 624 — various nations, 630 Sculpture, its antiquity and modern revival, 627 Sea, its relative extent, 313 " alternations of, with land, — otter, 173 [280 — unicorn, 183 — worms and snakes, 190 — water, 258 — shells found far above, 305 — temperature, 313, 315 — frozen, 541 — wall at Brighton, 707 — of Galilee, 724 — island cotton, 831 Seal, 172 3 Sealing-wax thread, 487 Seamen, impressment of, 966 Seasons, 535 — for 41 years, 546 Secant, its analogies, 62 Second, descent of bod. in, 65 — of the earth’s orbit, 7* Secondary causes, 118 — rocks, 252 - strata, 280 Seconds pendalum , 99 -101 Secret service, 880 Secretaries of state , 937 Secretions, peculiar, 112, 132, — vegetable, 211 [14 7 Sections, conic, 63 Sector, area of, 66 Sects, East Indian, 929 American, 874 — religious, 1090—1091 Securities for money , 889 Seeds, their origin, 116 — their divisions, 212 — > hot and cold, 206 — wheat, 843 Selden , 1067 Selections of plants by anim.. Seleniate of zinc, 473 [113 Selenium, 271 Semen, animalcu. in, 203, 21 1 Semi-diameter of the sun, 349 Semi-tone, 607 Senate, American, 859 Senses impaired by artificial life, 123 . — distinguished. 144 — in insects, 191 Sensibility, organ of, 140 Sensorium, 142 Sepoys , 927 Septennial act , 740 Septuagint, epoch of, 43 Seraglio at Constantino. ,718 Series , arithmetical, 63 — geometrical, 64 — of creation, 299 Serpents, poison of, 1 07 — described, 187, 189 Serum, 137 Servants in England, 763 — on farms, 914 — convict, 931-2 Sesostris, 45 Sessions, parliamentary, 940 — judicial, 948 Seurat, the liv. skeleton, 154 Sexagenary scale, 71 Sexes, proportions of the, 146 — of insects, 191 Sexton-beetle, 199 Sexual system, 109, 205 Shah Nam eh, 645 Shakspeare, 678, 1068 Shares in railways, &c. 788, Shark, 183, 291 [894 Shawls, 834 Sheep , 166 — their food, 915 --- their breeds, 833 — their rot, 148 Sheffield goods, 2/3 — Rogers’ manufactory, 82 7 Shells, composition of, 11 5,132 — description, 184—6 fossil and microscope, 304 — explosive, 950 Sheridan, 619, 1069 Sheriff's fund in London ,731 — courts, 948 Sherry wines, 819 Shikapoorees , 813 27 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Snip, blocks required, 102 — reversed, 58 7 — money, 946 — wreck, 781 Shipping, tonnage, &c. 780 — American. 864 — duration, 967 Shire, knights of, 944 Shishak, Jewish, 45 Shoals of stars, 365 Shooting meteors. 561 Shop-windows, 582 Shower of crabs, 185 Shrew-mouse, 158 Shuttle, 90 Siamese twins, 154 Siberian fossils, 307 Sick-list, military, 762 Sickness, amount of, 150 • Siderial day, 32 — year, 34, 413 — rays, 349 — periods, 374 — lunation, 409 Sidney, Algernon , 1069 Siege of Troy, 45 Siennite, 252 Sierra Leone, 933 Signals, telegraphic, 103 — naval, 967 Signs, mathematical, 56 — of the zodiac, 385 Silbury-hill, 708 Silex, 249 Silica, 427 Silicified infusoria, 204 Silk manufactures, 93, 835 — hats, 764 — production of, 112 — from spiders, 196 Silver, 264 — standard, 904 — and gold, value of, 22 — coins of all nations, 24-5 — jewellers’, 28 — fish, 183 _ leaf, 268 Silverter’s appara. for heat- ing ships, 477 Simice, 161 — 3 — troglodytes & satyrus, 162 Simultaneous notes, 606 Sinai, 346 Sinclair, Sir J., 909 Sinecures, 878 Sines and cosines, 62-3 of latitude, 99-100 — of deflection, 328 Singing, 608 — organs of, 175 Singer’s experiments, 495 Sinking-fund, 891 Sirocco, 549 Sisters of charity, 742 Sixth sense, 171 Size, 8fc., of solar system , 375 Size of trees, 229 — of birds, 177 — of bees, 194 — horizontal, 588 — of type, 655 Skeleton, dimensions, 128, 76 i) — living, 154 — of the elephant, 163 of the whale, 172 — of the mammoth, 744 Skewers used for pins, £44 Skin, its properties, 110, 130 — electrical phenomena , 492 Skull, conl'ormat. of, 121, 126, — dimensions, 126, 128 [129 — bones, 132 — of the tivatherium, 31 1 Slate, 252 — early formations, 279 Slaves, West Indian, 146,776 — of ants, 195 Slavery abolish, in Egypt, 81 5 Sledges, 168-9 Sleep, distinctions of. Ill — phenomena, 137, 144 — flowers, 210 Slide of Alpnach, 210 Sliding-bars, 798 Sloth, quadruped, 1 7C Small-pox, 149 — deaths by, 1087 — from neg. of parents, 1087 — farms, 913 Smallness, no limit to, 159 Smart money, 967 Smell, sense of, 144 Smelting, 264 — of iron, 97 Smith, of Bath, 276 — Adam, 840 Smiths’ matches, 459 Smilhfield market, 911 Smuggling of opium, 817 Snails used for food, 185 Snakes, 189 Snow Harris , experi. of, 492 Snow, perpetual, 342, 535 — mixed with salt, &c 471 Soap, its composition. 458,455 — its manufacture, 839 Sobriety , e fleets of, 156 Social crime, 151 — scale, 923 — habits of beavers, 167 — of seals, 172 Societies, ecclesias. subscrip.. Society, its instut.,769 [1088 — zoological, 173 — royal, 530 — public, 656 Socotra, 820 Socrates , 1070 Soda, 434 Sodium, 428 Sodor & Man, benefices, 1081 — churches and chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Soil, exhaustion of, 21 1 — American, 862 Solar day, 32 — cycle, 37 — year, 34 — orbit, 393 — microscope, 204 — rays, 349 — system, 369-70 ALPHABETICAL INDEX Soldiers , mortality of, 754 Solid matter in rivers, 319 Solidity, rules for, 66 — proportions of, 81 Solids, weight of, in water, 71 — regular. 66 — irregular. 67 — pressure of. 77 — solution, 441 — penetrated by light, 569 Solitary confinement , 950 Solomon's temple , 702 Solon, 634 Solstitial point, 349 Solution, metallic, 503 Song of birds, 175 Soprano , 608, 61 1 Sothic period, 42 Sound and music, 595 — 612 Sounding-boards, 599 Sounds of animal bodies, 151 Source of steam, 88 South America . 858 — trees of, 231 — Polar seas, 354 — sea bubble, 894 [28 Sovereign's poorer of coinage. Space . its definition, 73, 371 — infinite, 384 Spade , husbandry , 908 920 Spagnum palustre, 225 [‘*23 Spain ruined by ignorant arts, Spallanzani on the. torpedo , Spaniel, Alpine, 160 [493 Spanish horses, 160 — asses, 1 65 — bull-fight% 166 — mountains, 344 — artists, 625 — wool, 834 — America. 866 — agriculture, 923 — ancient history, 996 Spar, calcareous, 253 Spark, electric, 486 Sparrows, 177 Speaking-machine, 601 — its rapidity, 622 Speaker of the house of com mons, 939 Special diseases, 731 — expenses, 882 Specie in circulation, 23 — proportion to liability, 891 Species, number of, 104 — varied by climate, 105 — but not produced, 122 — extinct, 106, 114, 158 — of men, 121 4 — of mamma'ia, 158 — of birds, 175 of testacea, 1 84 — of insects, 191 — of vegetables, 205 — - locality of, 214 — fossil, number of, 298, 304 Specific heat. 471-2 — gravity, 71—82 — of gases, 429 Spectacles, 592 Spectator, 646 23 Spectre of the Brocken, 346 Speed of pigeons, 177 Spermaceti, 112 Sphere , mean force in, 72 Spheroid, oblates, how acted on 72 Sphinx, 989 — baboon. 162 Spiders, clas>, 196 — their economy, 194, 196 — their eyes, 199 Spinal marrow, 142 Spines of the porcupine, 170 Spinning. jenny, 86, 796, 824 S iral vessel*, 207 Spirituous liquors. 152, 811 Spitzbergen whales 171 Spleen, its use unknown, 135 S j lendour of the universe , 365 Spolir, 604 Sponge, 201 Spots on planets , 3 77 — on the sun, 406 Spout-holes of the whale, 171 Spring in Norfolk, 176 — flow’ering oi' plants, 235 — tides, 328 Springs, 321 — salt, 258 — hot, 540 — watch. 828 Spruce, 455 Squares of distances, 3 75 Squirrel. 169 Sfael , Madame dc, 1070 Staffa- cave, 296 Staffordshire-ware, 838 Stag-beetle, 192 Stage-coaches, 165, 764 Stahl, 417 Stalactite and stalagmite, 253 Stamen, 206 Stamps , 877 Standard of measure, 14 — of coin, 22 — chemical. 420 Standing position, how effect., — armies, 957 [116 Stanhope. Earl, his introduc- tion of stereo, printing, 666 — derided steam naviga. 776 press, 102 Staple commodities, 822 Starch, 436 Stars , 365, 383 — periodical and colored, 393 — electric, 487 St. Asaph, benefices of, 1081 — churches and chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 State-religion of Taautus , 969 Statement, tabular, of im- ports and exports , 810 Statics, 71 —82 Statistics, French, 848 — agrarian, 907 — East Indian. 930 — of benefit societies, 761 — of criminal, 951 Statues, ancient, 629 — weeping, of the anc., 1092 Stature, varieties of, 122,137 Statutes at large . 946 St. David’s, benefices of, 1081 — churches and chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Steam, varied powers of, 103 — its source. 88 — printing, 666 Steam navigation, 87, 776, 781, — frigates, 966 [1095 — artillery, 960 Steam-engine. 8/ — 90 — Avery’s, 95 — for block-making, 102 — horse- powers, 475-6 — its effects, 775 Steel, 273 — friction of, 98 — magnetic power, 511 — engraving, 631 — springs, 478 — malt-mills, 841 Stendel, classification of, 204 Steno, 277 Stere, 3 Stereotype, 652, 666 Sterile parts of G. Britain, 291 Sterling money , 28 — compared with foreign, 25 — value, 23 Stethoscope, 151 Sting of bees, 112 St. Lawrence river, 320 Stoat, 171 Stock Exchange, 889, 1 096 Stockholm, 746 Stockings, black and white, electrical effects, 493 — frame, 837 Stomach compound, 113 — action of, 138 — pump, 152 — power of emptying, 175 Stonehenge, 709 Stones, precious, 261 — meteoric, 560 — for roads, 777 — from volcanoes, 335 Stonesfield lizards, 294 St Peter’s cathedral, 745 Strafford, Lord, 1071 Straits of Constantinople, 718 Strata, remains in, 115 — order of, 280, 323 — Buckland’s order, 246 — Tilgate, 292 — limestone, 302 — uplifted, 31 i Stratified rocks, 277 Stratum of mean heat, 534 Straw-hats , 764 Strawberry-tree, 22 7 Streets , fyc. in London , 729 Strength, experiments cn, 90 Structure of rocks, 249 — of animals, 1<>8 — of the eye, 503 Struve, 392 Studies in universities, 683 Stutgard library, 660 — general description, 7*7 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Subdivisions of weight, &c. 3 — musical, 603 Subdominant chord. 607 Subduplicate law , 410 [300 Submersions of the land, 270, Subscribers to Paris journals. Subsidies , 884 [665 Subsoil, 918 Substrata of roads, 777 Suburbs of London , 727 Suction , a nonentity, 97 Sugar, 416 — cane, 225. 233 — consumed. 817 — analysed, 840 Suhbingen, manufactures.845 Sulphate and sulphuret, 423 — of lime, 434 [456 Sulphur , 249 — springs, 322 — compounds, 427 Sulphuric acid, 433 — combined with snow, 4/1 Sun's parallax, 401 — decimation, 348 — - mean distance, 349, 371 — motion towards Hercules , — position. 379 [367 — spots, 406 — light, 565 — effect on oxides, 583 — cycle, 37 Sunday papers , 663 Sun flower, 212, 583 — effects of heat on, 478 Superficial extent of the globe — Great Britain, 764 [347 Supernumerary rainbow, 58/ Superstition opposed to sci ence , 116 857 — erroneous deductions from — how produced, 365 [123 Superstitions, 1091 Supporters of flame, 479, 462 Surface of the globe, 313, 335 Surfaces , rules for, 65 6 Surgeons, college of, 150 Surgery, 14/, 648 Surplus revenue , 885 Surrey Zoological Gar., 174 Survey, trigonometrical, 90/ Surveyors’ measure. 16, 67 Suspension- bridges, 795 — roads, 79/ Sussex, its temperature for. merly higher than that of any part of Europe at present, 292 — marble, 305 Sutures, 132 Swallows, 178 — migration of, 176 Swammerdam, 190 Swan, constellation, 386 Swans, 1 77 — Australian, 178 Swarm of bees, 194 Swedish universities, 692 — population, 760 Swiss races o I animals, 160 Sword preferred to educa.69Q »a Sylvester, recorder of London, Sympathetic nerve, 141 [769 — sounds, 600 Sympathy, animal, 116, 151 Symphonian, 610-11 Synccllus , 983 Synod, holy, 145 Synodical month, 33, 409 Syria, 337. 725 Syringe, 151 Systems, circulatory, 134 — of stars, 392 — manufacturing, 821 Systole, 135 Taautus. 620 — cycle of, 42 — mythology, 967 ! abasheer, 253 Tables of sines & cosines, 63 — of specific weights, /9 — dimensions of mammalia, — of tides, 331 [160 — of heights of mountains,310 — of equivalents, 421 — of magnetic varia., 519-22 — of density, 525 — of temperature & rain, 535 — chronological. 48 — of decimals, 59 — of logarithms, 60 — of commerce, exports, &c. — of wages, 896 [802 — 12 — of Alphonsus, 1006 Table-land, 290 — Mexican, 870 Tablet of Abydos. 990 Tabriz marble, 253 Tadpoles, 190 Tagus river, 726 Tail of comets, 395 Talipot, 228 Tallow.tree, 224 Talmud, 164 Taming of animals, 119 Tamworth chesnut-trees, 231 Tangent, analogies of, 62 — force, 3/4 Tannin, 436, 457 Tanning, improved, 102 Taper pieces of charcoal, 502 Tapestry, 833 Tap roots, 918 Tar, its ignition, 463 — manufacture, 456 Tarantula. 198 T irtar, 456 Tartarian horses, 165 — hares, 169 — affinity with Americans, Tartaric acid. 433 [862 Tasmania , 931 Tasso, 64 1 Taste, nerves of, 143 — of gas. 429 — electric. 485 I'atler, 646 Tawny race, 124 7 'axes in London, 728 — on malt and hops, 840 — net revenue from, 8/7 Taxes, East Indian, 929 Teachers not patronized, 69C Teams of oxen, 915 Tea-tree, 227 Teas, to distinguish. 45 7 — imported, 817, 1696 ’l ease], 229 [122,133 Teeth, arrangement of, 112, — of the elephant, 163 — of the horse, 165 — various, found in England, — of saw-nulls, 845 [291 Teheran, 747 Telegraph, 103 778, 1095 Telescopes, 58S, 90, 1096 Telescovic stars , 396 Tell , William, 10/2 Temperaments, 123 [137 Temperature of blood, 135, — of reptiles, 187 — of plants, 218 — of mines, 539 — former, of Sussex, 292 — of the sea, 313, 540 — mean, 532 — of man & various animals, — of ships, 477 [465 — of water, 78 Temple , Inner. 947 Temple of Belus, 367 — of Ypsambul, 698 — of Mecca, 702, 735 — of Diana, 702 — of Jupiter Olympus, 703 — of the sun, 725 Temples, Hindoo, 627 Tendo Achillis, 134 Tendons, 108 Tenerifie, 346 Teniers. 629 'Tenor, 606 Terebinth-tree, 232 Term of life, 75/ Terms in law courts, 949 Termites. 160, 195 Terrestrial currents electri- cal, 506 Territory, extent of, 785 Tertiary strata, 280 — epoch, divisions of, 281 Testacea, 184-6 Texas , 871 Text, biblical, various, 31 Thales. 634, 4/9, 10/2 Thames water, 7 1 haumutrope, 592 Theatre, national, 667, 731 — French, 8.' 5 Theban tombs, 697 — colossal antiquities, 990 Thenard, 209 ’Theophrastus, 4/9 Theonj of the Editor. 44, 72, 88, 136 7, 276, 353, 381, 397. 507, 85/, 97S — of Haiiv, 259 — ot atoms, 418 — of hurricane, 548 — of light, 563-8 — of heat, 458 — of electricity, 480, 516 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Theory of taxation , 883 Theory, Newtonian, 369 — Copernican, 367 — of hieroglyphics, 990 Therapeutics , 153 Thermo-electricity, 493 Thermo-electric pile, 503 Thermometer , 524, 532 [464 — Fahrenheit’s & centigrade, — at New York & Rome, 860 Thermo-multiplier, 465 Thermostat, 467-8 Thibet, goat of, 168 Thirds, musical, 607 Thistle, 230 — knight of the, 939 Thomason, Sir E., 81 '7 Thorough-bass, 607 Thoth, epoch of, 46 Thread of the spider, 197 Three series of creation , 299 — months’ snow, 541 Thunder, distance at which it is heard, 494 — imitation of, 1092 Thurlow, Lord, 769 Thuthmosis, 44 Tiber, forest under its banks, Tides, 325, 331 [300 — error of Laplace, 410 (See Water, Perihelion, fyc.) Tiger, 164 Tiles broken by expansion of water, 473 Tilgate strata, 292 Timber for the navy, 966 — measure, 66 Time, 30—42 — decimal division, 5 — civil reckoning, 32 — equation of, 33 — pieces, 99 — as related to longitude, 350 — and eternity, 3S0 — bargains, 904 Times newspaper, 666 Tin, 265, 269 Tissue, cellular, 1 09 — cutaneous, 130 Titans, 970 Tithes, 774 Titica Lake, 320 Titmouse, 180 Titre of gold, 25, 895 Titus destroyed Jerusalem, Tivatherium, 311 [723 Toads, experiments on, 188 — embedded in coal, 174 Tobacco, 229 — its numerous seeds, 212 — American, 864 Toggle-joint, 83, 1 02 Tomb, glass, at Belus, 1092 Tombs, decorated, 628 Tones of animals, 1 1 9 — their production, 131 — musical, 607-8 Tongue, nerves of, 143 Tonic chords, 607 Tonnage, 780 [791 Toothed, wheels for locomo. % Topography, English, 952 Torpedo, 480, 493, 503 Torpid animals, 164 Torricelli, 528 Tortoise, longevity of, 186 Torture by law, 948 Tower of London, animals in — Babel, 699, 993 [164 Towns in England, &c., 750 — libraries, 657 — corporate, 953 Townsend’s experiments, 188 Toys, Chinese, 844 Traders, early, 77 4 — coasting, 812 [China, 768 — classified in Russia and Trade-winds, 549, 551 Trades, fyc. in London, al- phabetically arranged, 729 — in Great Britain, do. , /65 — provision for aged, &c.,770 Traditions of the flood, 278 Trains on railways, 791 Trajan's column, 746 Transactions, commer., 1094 Transatlantic Colonics, 933 Transformations of insects, — colours, 581 [1912 — mythological, 974 Transits of Venus, 377 Transition, primitive, 280 — rocks, 252 — of languages, 61 2 Transla. of Arabian Nights, Transportation, 769 [637 Travelling in sledges, 168 — by railway, 791 Tread-mill , 99 Treasury, American, 873 Treaties with Indians , 374 Treble, &c., 606 Trees, to measure, 66-7 — age of, 229 — South American, 231 — in white sandstone, 301 — cut down in Spain, 923 Trevethick's engines, 790 Trial and error, rule of, 61 — by jury, 935, 1095 Triangles, properties of, 62 — their area, 65 Tridacua Gigas, 184 Trigonometrical survey of England , 907 Trigonometry, 62 Trilobites, 304 Trinity -house, 783 Triptolemus, 45 Triumphal arches, 746 Troglodytes, 162 Trophonius, cave of, 1092 Trollope on competition, 821 Trombone, 610 Tropical year, 34, 38, 349 — ants, 195 Tropics, 38 — region of monkeys, 162 — rainy season, 545 Trotting horses, 165 Troy weight, 10 Trumpet, 610 1 Trunk of the elephant, 163 Trussing, diagonal, 101 Truth, 353 Tuam, eccles. inc. of, 1083 Tunbridge- Wells, 294 Tuning of instruments, 606-7 Turbine, 796 Turenne, Marshal, 1073 Turf in marshes, 237 Turkey carpets, 768 — poets, 641 — journals, 677 — agriculture, 923 Turnips, 233 — culture, &c. 924 Turnpike-roads, 777 Turn-wrist plough, 921 Turpentine, 457 Turtle, 186 Tuscan order, 703 Tusk of the boar, 169 Twilight, 586 Twist and yarn, 829 [397,857 ' Two motions of the earth , — rays of colour, 566 Tyburn, executions at, 769 Tympanum, 144 Types, inking of, 102 — moveable, 651 — various sizes, 655 — stereo. 652 Types of the mythology, 967 Uncertainty of the law, 946 Undulations, theory of, 566 Unfunded debt, 883 Union of gases, 482 — poor-law, 772 — acts of, 946 Unison, 606 Unit, dynamic, 90 United Kingdom, statistical details, 749 — canals, 7/8 — foreign trade, 813 — capital and interest, 889 — rents, 922 United States Bank , 745 — springs, 322 — weather, 536 — newspapers, 663 — national education, 694 — commerce, 774-5 [1083 United States, bishopricks of, Univalve, 305 Universal medicine, 151 — traditions of a deluge, 979 — law of nature, 372 — climates of Russia, 813 — America, 858 [115 Universality of animal life , Universities, 683-695 — Oxford & Cambridge, 684 — Scotland. 685, 721 — Dublin, 686 — Durham, 687 — foreign, 691-3 Unnatural cravings, 155 Unproductive population,763 Unrequited merit , 858 Unwieldy capital, 901 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, TJpas-tree , 229 Upholsterer insect, 192 Uplifting of strata, 311 Upper Canada , 926 Ur of the Chaldees , 994 Uraguay, 8/0 Uralian lemming, 1/0 Urine, 133, 440 Ursine baboon, 162 Usance , 897 Use of machinery, 96 — the eye, 563 Useful Knowledge Society , suggestion for, 658 Useful arts invented, 983 Usury , 889 — laws, 903 Vaccination, 149 Vacuum , , its effect, 97, 528 — boiling point in, 466 Valasnieri, 190 Valuation of ships, 781 Value of coins, 26 — official, 801 Van Royen, 205 Van Diemen's Land , 354 Van den Bosch's pauper - colony, 774 Vapors , specific weight of, 79 — aqueous, 422 — atmospheric, 525.6 — various, 477 — bath, 478 Variations of tides, 328 the needle, 515—17 — barometer, 529 — colors, 572 — prices, 896 — funds, 904 Varieties of man, 121—3 — nerves, 143 — seals, 172 — mineral produce, 251 — weights, 1 [623 Various directions in reading, — nations, emigration from. Varnish, 457, 629 [861 Vases, Greek, 630 Vassalag •, 921 Vast oriental structures , 702 — extent of British dominion Vatican, 659, 745 [925 Vattel , 1075 Vauxhall balloon, 558 Vegetables , 242 [252 — introduction of in England, — fossil, 298 Vegetable kingdom, 204— — life, 207 [245 — fibres for carpets, 103 — diet, 151, 155,911 — poison, 152 — butter, 227 — acids, 431 — oils, 440, 820 — germs, 117 [index, 120 Vegetation, its geographical — details of, 204—245 — composition of, 209 [210 influence of poisons on, 31 Vegetation, arctic, 538 Veins, metallic, 261 — in granite & limestone, 263 Velocity , influence of, 58, 65, — of the earth’s centre, 72 [98 — virtual, 84 — cup, 96 — of the wind, 97, 549 — collision, 101 — planets, 374 — light. 384, 568 — rain, 541 — angular, 406 — of balloons, 558 — of sound, 596 [846 Velveteens made at Moscow, Veneration of serpents, 189 — mistletoe, 240 Venetian artists, 625 — trade in the middle ages, — carpets, 833 [775 — banking, 893 Venezuela, 870 Venomous serpents, 189 Venous circulation, 134 Ventricles of the heart, 135 Venus, 377 Verdicts , 948 Vernier scale, 68 Versailles, 742 Vertibrated animals, experi- ments on, 478 Vertebra, 132 — cervical, 157 — of birds, 175 — of fishes, 181 Vespasian’s amphitheatre. Vessels sailing, 780 [746 Viaducts, 793 Vibrations of the glottis, 131 — earth, how prevented, 313 — air, 595 — musical strings, 601 — 6 Vicinage of seas, 533 Victory, 964 Vienna, library at, 660 — account of, 747 Villeinage , 954 Vine at Harnpton-court, 230 — introduction of, 233 Vinegar, animalculae in, 202 Violin, 610 Viper, 189 Virtual velocity, 84 Viscera, comparison of, 161 Visible distances, 67 — radiation, 460, 470 Visual phenomena, 586 Vital parts, 131 — powers, 506 Vitality , its support, 424 Vitriol, 433 Viviers, experim. at, 556 Vivification of the blood, 136 — of seeds, 192 Vocabulary, Hindoos tan , 929 Voice, human, 131, 600 — animal, 119, 608 Volatile matter of wood, 210 Volcanic rocks, 297 — action, 335 Volcanoes, 333 Voltaic action, 192, 480, 506 — poles, 483 — theory, 498 Volume of gaseous bod., 4 Volvox globatur , 202 Vorticella, 202 Votes, 941 Vowels and consonants, Vowel-tubes, 601 Voyage to Margate, 7/6 Voyages of discovery 353, 857 Vulcan, 44 Vulgar opinion on weight , 397 — curiosity in electricity, 4S8 Vulgate, 45 Vulture, 178 Wages, 771, 896, 833 — conventions for raising, 821 Walbrook church, 710 Wales, population, 750 — geology. 293 — newspapers, 675 Walker, of Oxford, 471 Wallace oak, 229 — on population, 758 Wall of China, 701 Walnut-tree, 232-3 Walpole, 1076 Walrus, 172 Walsh's woodpecker , 178-9 Wapiti, 169 War and glory, 963 War, elephants train, to, — practised by ants, 195 — office, 937 — of the Titans , 970 Warp and weft, 94 Warrant, arrest, Sfc. 950 Washington, George, 1076 — city, 74S Wasps, 193 Watch, beating of, 30, 99 — springs, 828 Watches of the night, 39 Water, its weight, 6, 74, 82 — its specific weight, 541 — its expansion & contract., — vaporised, 74 [87 — its various temperat., 78 — as a conductor of heat, 90 — mills, 97, 102 3 — contained in blood, 136 — fetid, 148 — beetle, 198 — barometer, 530 — spout, 554 — sea, 258 — its analysis, 313, 419, 421 — its elimination, 133 — its color, 626 — forced through membrane® by galvanic action, 500 — artificially decompos., 503 Waterloo , 964 Water-tight sections , 784 Waters, mobile, 313 — in perihelion, 248 Watson’s electrical expen meuts, 496 Waits ’ improvement of the steam-engine , 476 Waverley, 648 Waves , velociiy of, 77 — of light, 567 Wax, 436 Wealth of London, 733 — its character, 901 — contrasted, 77 3 Weapons, artificial, used by Simiae, 161 Weasel, 171 Weather, 535-6 — probabilities, 547 — lunar inHuence, 556 — doctrines, erroneous, 557 Weaving, 90 — lace, 94 — wages, 830 — American, 866 Web of the spider, 196 7 Webster on the earth, 2 77 Wedge, 85 Wedgwood's pyrometer , 465 — improved pottery, 838 Weight, what, 2,9, 71 — vulgar opinion , 397 — specific, 71 — ''2 — of men, 127 8, 130 — of cattle, 1 66 — of bees, 194 — of gases, 429 — of produce on an acre, 236 — disting from pressure, 313 — & heat of the atmos., 524 Weights, imperial, 1 — compared, 5, 12 — of grain, 7 — various, 10 — 13 — of English coin, 22 — decimal, 1 1 — carried by camels, 164 Welsh language, 616-7 Wei ner's arrangement of the primitive rocks, 246 West Indies, 858 — hurricanes, 548 Western railway, 7 92 «- empire, 982 Wet an J dry seasons, 546 Weymouth-clilfs, 339 Whale-fisheries, 820 Whales, not ranked as fishes, — size ot, 172 £171 Wheat analysed, 436 — price per quarter, during last two centuries, 819 "Wheatsohe’s galvan. pile,504 Wheel and axle, 85 — carriages, 777 Wheels and pinions, 82, 99 Whewel on tides , 329 Whip-snakes, 189 Whig administration , 794 Whtst, game of, 68 White crops, 912 •- asses, 1 65 ants, 195 — sandstone, 301 — race of men, 124 ALPHABETICAL INDEX* White slavery, 820 W T hittamore’s machine, 102 Wickliffe, 1077 Wight, Isle of, 750 Wild ox, preserved in Eng- — ass, 165 [land, 114 — cat, 167 — boar, 169 W ilson's improvement of ste- reotype, 666 Wilson, Philip, 480 Wilton can-pets, 833 Winchester school, 687 — bushel, 913 — benefices of, 1081 — churches & chapels, 1081 — income, 1081 Wind, its velocity. 97, 549 — instruments, 600 Winds, 547 — trade, 549 Windmills, 97, 550 Windows, 492 Window- tax, 728 Wines, color of, 458 — cooling. 474 — taxes, 840 — various, 845 Wings of insects, 199 Winifred’s well. 321 Winter-wheat, 913 W ires, copper, tin, & sine, 271 — of various metals, their re- acting power, 491 — galvanic, produce motion in dead bodies, 503 Wittenagemote , 943 Wodanium, 271 Wollaston’s experi., 572,10^8 — prismatic proportions, 584 Wolves, appointments to kill, — locality, 160 [114, 138 Women , poetical alius, to, 124 — quick perceptions of, 156 — oriental, degradat. of, 768 — seandalously-low wages to, 833 Wonders of the micros., 204 Wooden bridge, Petersburg, — railways, 791 [795 Wood, friction of, 98 pecker, 178 — piercer, 192 — in Languedoc, 300 — analysis, 436 Woody fibre, 207 Wool carding, 102 — quantity grown, 833 Woollen manufactures, 92-3, _ German, 808 [764 Woolstrope apple-tree, 232 Woolwich, experim. at, 798 Worcester, churches and cha- pels, 1081 — income, 1081 Words in various lang., 613 Working bees, 194 Work in mines, 269 — iron, 103 — houses, 771 Works of Canova , in Eng., 6S0 Worms. 190 — silk, 835 6 Worship, places of, 1089 — of Protest, dissenters, 1089 — of Roman Catholics, 1089 Worsted pictures, 629 — origrn of the name, 835 Wort, its gravity, 469 Wounds in service, 965 Wrecks, 781 Writers, Eng., characterized, — dramatic, 678 [636 Writing, itsantiquity,6l4,975 — Chinese & Egyptian, 615 — paper, 839 Wykeham, William, 1079 Xeres or sherry wines, 845 Xerxes, not mentioned by the Persian authors, 995 Xisuthrus , deluge of, 44,1006, 1079 Yagonare, 171 Yard, 14 — square, to reduce to acres, — dock, 967 [65 Yarn, 824 — exports of, 1093 Year, anomalistic, 34, 413 — length of, 34,349 — bissextile, 35 — of various "planets, 41 — equinoctial, 413 — sabbatical, 901 — books, 944 — Egyptian, 980 Yellow. breasted chat, 180 — fever, 148 Yew-tree, 230 York, benefices of, 1081 — income, 1081 York Minster, 710 Yorkshire, forests in, 300 Young, Dr., on hieroglyphics. Young's law, 566 [973 — eriometer, 592 Young birds, 175 Zealand, New, 354 Zebra, 165 Zend, 615 Zendavesta, 995 Zinc, 265, 457 — and silver, experim. with, Zion, 723 [50* Zodiac, 39, 42, 366, 385 — original, 980 — of Deridera, 990 Zoology, Kay’s, 105 — varies with climate, 120 Zoological gardens, 119, 169, — society,* 1 73 [ 174 Zoophiles, 107, 200 — 4 — lime produced by, 253 — fossil, 301 Zones, 349 Zorilla, 171 Zoroaster , 1080 END OF INDEX London, Warwick House , Paternoster Roiv. ftcfo $00 hs mxis Hclu (Sfoittonss PUBLISHED BY WARD, LOCK, & TYLER. FOR FAMILY READING AND REFERENCE. Second Edition, price One Guinea, cloth gilt, and gilt edges (or in Two Volumes, 25J.). BEETON’S GREAT BOOK OF POETRY. From Csedmon and King Alfred’s Loethius to Browning and Tennyson. Containing nearly Two Thousand of the Best Pieces in the English Language. With Sketches of the History of the Poetry of our Country, and Biographical Notices of the Poets. 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Hard Cash . • • Ditto ditto 2 6 3- Peg Woffington . • • Ditto ditto 2 0 4- Christie Johnstone • • Ditto ditto 2 0 5- Griffith Gaunt • • Ditto ditto 2 6 6. Double Marriage, or White Lies Ditto ditto 2 6 About November , and subsequently. 7. Love me Little, Love me Long. 8. Foul Play. By C. Reade and Bion Boucicault. 9. The Cloister and the Hearth. 10. The Course of True Love Never did Run Smooth. 11. Jack of All Trades. Autobiography of a Thief. *** All the above are also done in cloth , gilt binding , each 3s. 6 d. Published by Ward ' Lock , and Tyltr . New Books and New Editions . 23 Uhtsirateb 30. 6b. Presentation Ententes. Suitable for Presents & School Prizes, and especially adapted for Young People. Each Volume beautifully Illustrated, well printed, efficiently edited, and handsomely bound in extra cloth, gilt sides, back, and edges. Price 3s. 6d. each. 1. The Wonders of the World, in Earth, Sea, and Sky. As Related by Uncle John. 2. 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