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 An Annotated Bibliography 
 
 ON THE 
 
 ORIGIN AND DESCENT 
 OF DOMESTIC MAMMALS 
 
 1900-1955 
 
 SHIMON ANGRESS 
 
 AND 
 
 CHARLES A. REED 
 
 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 
 VOLUME 54, NUMBER 1 
 
 Published by 
 
 CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM 
 
 OCTOBER 26, 1962 
 
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 ON THE 
 
 ORIGIN AND DESCENT OF DOMESTIC MAMMALS 
 
An Annotated Bibliography 
 
 ON THE 
 
 ORIGIN AND DESCENT 
 OF DOMESTIC MAMMALS 
 
 1900-1955 
 
 SHIMON ANGRESS 
 
 AND 
 
 CHARLES A. REED 
 
 Peabody Museum of Natural History 
 Yale University 
 
 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 VOLUME 54, NUMBER 1 
 
 Published by 
 
 CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM 
 
 OCTOBER 26, 1962 
 
Edited by Lillian A. Ross 
 
 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 62-21868 
 
 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 BY CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM PRESS 
 
I 
 
 Shimon Angress 
 
 March 14, 1924-March 30, 1958 
 
 Shimon Angress was a rare individual who had many abiHties and 
 developed them equally over the years. Gifted in art, poetry, philos- 
 ophy, the humanities, and the natural sciences, he was patiently nur- 
 turing them all to intellectual maturity when his tragic death in a 
 highway accident ended a most promising scientific career. 
 
 Shimon's first 15 years were in the happy tradition of a typical 
 intellectual German-Jewish family, but with the Nazi shadow darken- 
 ing over them. An ardent Zionist who rightly feared the worst from 
 his homeland, Shimon slipped across the Danish border on the first 
 day of World War II; his parents lingered — to disappear into Ausch- 
 witz. Abandoning school of necessity, Shimon and other Jewish 
 youths learned farm work during the first months of the war, and 
 again Shimon got away — this time to Palestine — before Denmark 
 was overrun by the Nazis. 
 
 In the youth group at Ramat David, Shimon worked with the 
 livestock, and his interest in domestic animals and their origins be- 
 came one more among many. Working hours were long and the labor 
 hard, but some time for reading was always to be found. In 1942 he 
 moved to the kibbutz of Ma'ayan Ts'wi, where he was in charge of 
 the dairy cattle, but he patiently continued his self-education, read- 
 ing particularly at this time in philosophy and the humanities. Four 
 years thus, milking and learning, and then he was chosen by his 
 group to attend the Kibbutz Teachers Seminary, where for two brief 
 years he resumed his formal schooling. Here he was intrigued by the 
 natural sciences, particularly zoology, and here he caught up educa- 
 tionally with the lost years. 
 
 Returning in 1948 to Ma'ayan Ts'wi, Shimon founded the first 
 school there. The worth of a teacher is evaluated only over the long 
 years by the achievement of his students, and one hears glowing tales 
 of Shimon's breadth of knowledge, his infectious enthusiasm, his clar- 
 ity of presentation, and the answering responses of the children. 
 During this time he built a museum collection of zoological, geolog- 
 
6 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 ical, and archaeological specimens; patiently accumulated much of 
 the information contained in the bibliography published here; tamed 
 wild animals; joined in the activities of the kibbutz; and wrote poetry, 
 drew incessantly, taught and inspired the children, and always learned 
 more and more. 
 
 So outstanding a record was not to be unrewarded; in 1954 the 
 kibbutz again supported Shimon's necessity for further education. 
 After several months in South America, he spent slightly more than 
 a year at the University of Chicago. In spite of having had only two 
 years of formal education since he was 14, Shimon received his mas- 
 ter's degree (in zoology) by June of 1955, and two departments — 
 Zoology and Anthropology — wanted him to continue as a graduate 
 student. The sense of duty called him home, however — that and a 
 desire to put his new knowledge to use — and Shimon returned to his 
 teaching and his natural history at Ma'ayan Ts'wi, while, amongst 
 a multitude of other activities, he continued his graduate studies at 
 the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. His interests in zoology, archae- 
 ology, and paleontology here combined to produce a thorough student 
 of the animal remains dug from archaeological sites, and his few 
 technical publications are in this field. 
 
 During this time, too, Shimon married. It was a most happy 
 marriage, unfortunately brief; barely was there time for a daughter 
 to be born. 
 
 The simultaneous role of teacher at Ma'ayan Ts'wi and graduate 
 student in Jerusalem necessitated much highway travel. Shimon had 
 no control over his instantaneous death, no chance for decision, as 
 he was not driving. 
 
 I met Shimon Angress only once, in Chicago, in the summer of 
 1954. I have met many people only once, but no other such meeting 
 has led me nearly half around the world to visit the small community 
 where the person had his life. It was in June of 1960 that I visited 
 the small jewel of a museum that the people of Ma'ayan Ts'wi have 
 built to honor Shimon Angress and to keep his collections intact. 
 I went through his files, where everything is meticulously in order, 
 and looked over the small library of the working-man-scholar. 
 Museum and library are open for any to use, but with Shimon's 
 knowledge and leadership gone, few there are who do so. 
 
 If the museum was built in honor, the rock garden on a jutting 
 promontory of cliff was built in love, for it was built by the children 
 whom Shimon had taught. They took a bit of the natural land that 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 7 
 
 Shimon loved, and left it natural, adding but a path and stairway 
 and a bench by a small pool. I walked down the path in the summer 
 evening with Shimon's widow and Shimon's child and looked across 
 the narrow strip of green coastal plain to the sun sinking into the 
 Mediterranean. Below me the cliff dropped abruptly; behind me 
 rose the limestone mass of Mt. Carmel, where Shimon had spent 
 so many happy days studying and collecting. Wasps came to the 
 edge of the pool, gaining mud for their nests, and a variety of small 
 birds flitted above. Here was Shimon's world, a world that he had 
 helped to create, a world incomplete now because of his absence. 
 
 Charles A. Reed 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 In the growth of cultures, as Kroeber has pointed out, there are 
 some basic factors that have profoundly influenced many societies. 
 One of these fundamental elements has to do with farming and 
 stock-raising. 
 
 The taming of animals for man's use and pleasure constituted a 
 revolutionizing innovation that enormously raised his subsistence 
 level. Furthermore, by the process of domestication, man brought 
 under control some of the natural forces about him. In effect, he 
 created an artificial animal environment and by thus controlling his 
 environment he assured himself of a more stable food supply and a 
 great source of protein. 
 
 Since the subject of this paper has always been of great impor- 
 tance to anthropologists and since the literature is difficult for us to 
 find, we welcome the opportunity to place this monograph in the 
 Anthropology Series. 
 
 We are greatly indebted to Dr. D. A. Hooijer of Leiden, who has 
 abstracted some of the articles from the Dutch; his abstracts 'are 
 signed "D. H." Abstracts contributed by Dr. Reed are signed 
 "C. A. R." Dr. Reed also read all proofs and made the indexes to 
 this volume. 
 
 Paul S. Martin 
 Chief Curator, Department of Anthropology 
 February, 1962 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 I'AGE 
 
 Introduction 13 
 
 Acknowledgments 15 
 
 Bibliography and Abstracts 17 
 
 Systematic Index Ill 
 
 General Index 118 
 
 11 
 
Origin and Descent of Domestic Mammals 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 However a domestic animal may be defined, two factors at least, 
 the animal itself and the human-controlled environment, must be in- 
 cluded. Consequently, domestic animals, with respect to their origin 
 and history, have been studied from two points of view. Origins of 
 domestication, inseparably associated with the evolution of human 
 civilization, have been investigated chiefly by students of cultural 
 history. The descent of domestic species, their phylogenetic rela- 
 tionships, and the aspects of speciation under the domestic environ- 
 ment, have been considered mainly a subject for biological research. 
 Additional studies on the ancestry of recent breeds have been made 
 by students of animal husbandry. 
 
 Although these types of studies, each with its own methods, have 
 been devoted to particular ends, it has been evident since the days 
 of Rutimeyer, who laid the cornerstone for modern research in the 
 history of domestication a century ago, that a co-operation of several 
 sciences is imperative, and that the combined data of archaeological, 
 historical and zoological research are essential to a comprehensive 
 understanding of the fascinating problem. 
 
 At the dawn of this century, Keller (1902) included in his critical 
 review the more important works that had been published prior to 
 1900 on the origin of domestic animals. Since then numerous man- 
 uals on the subject have been issued. A wealth of information, the 
 result of extensive exploration and research, has been published; it 
 is scattered through archaeological, ethnological, biological and agri- 
 cultural literature, incorporated in historical and zoological treat- 
 ments of general nature, and attached to reports of excavations. 
 Most of the data have never been considered within the scope of 
 any abstracting journal. 
 
 The body of this report consists of abstracts and indexes of the 
 ethno-zoological records published in the last five and a half decades 
 that have been available to us. The work was undertaken in the 
 hope that this compilation would be of some help to students of 
 
 13 
 
14 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 domestication by providing a collection of references, of subjects dealt 
 with, and of conclusions reached in the study of the descent and an- 
 cestry of domestic mammals. 
 
 The nature of the study, which must include various fields of 
 science, and the scope of this compilation set certain limits in the 
 choice of the material to be abstracted. As indicated by the title, 
 this bibliography is concerned with the study of the origin of domestic 
 mammals rather than with the origin of domestication. Works based 
 on zoological evidence form the primary listing, and few investiga- 
 tions of pure epigraphical or linguistic nature are included. Even 
 among zoological treatments only those that bear directly on the 
 topic under consideration are cited. An extensive literature on the 
 genetics, breeding experiments, and hybridization of domestic spe- 
 cies exists but does not bear directly on the subject. A collection of 
 those records would demand another bibliography equal in scope to 
 the present work. The same applies to the studies on the effects of 
 domestication, from which we have tried to select those presentations, 
 mainly concerned with osteological effects, that may help the zoolo- 
 gist to determine the domestic status of those animals whose sub- 
 fossil remains have been discovered. The latter, arrayed with the 
 stratigraphical and distributional data of the archaeologist, are re- 
 garded as the most valuable basis for the study of the rise of domestic 
 species, and thus this bibliography depends principally upon the zoo- 
 logical treatments of material provided from archaeological, mainly 
 prehistoric, sources and upon comparative studies of primitive liv- 
 ing breeds and related wild forms in relation to those ethno-zoolog- 
 ical facts. 
 
 Even within this defined scope, this collection is probably far 
 from complete. The most obvious omissions are the numerous orig- 
 inal papers in the Russian language, in particular the reports of exca- 
 vations from the cultures of Tripolje and Minussinsk. These, like 
 a number of other references, have not been available. 
 
 This work is merely descriptive. The view of the author is 
 given without comment or evaluation. Chronologies and generic 
 and specific nomenclature used in the original paper are retained 
 in the abstracts, although in many cases these have been shown 
 to be incorrect or inadequate by more recent evidence. Moreover, 
 the recent evidence on chronology concerning the periods and re- 
 gions to which most of the abstracted articles refer has been sum- 
 marized by Charlesworth (1957, the Quaternary Era, vol. 11), by 
 Barendsen, Deerey, and Gralenski (Science, 1957, vol. 126, p. 917), by 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 15 
 
 Braidwood (1958, Science, vol. 127, pp. 1419-1430; 1958, Osterreich 
 Akiid. Wissensch., phil.-hist. Kl., Anz., no. 19, pp. 249-259), by 
 Reed (1959, Science, vol. 130, pp. 1629-1639), by Braidwood, Howe, 
 et al. (1960, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, vol. 31), and 
 by Clark (1961, World Prehistory in Outline). 
 
 The determination of the correct names of the animals, with 
 all the involved synonyms, is beyond the scope of the present 
 work, and in no way has been attempted. For recent breeds the 
 spelling recommended by Mason (1951, A World Dictionary of 
 Breeds . . .) is used throughout the text. Where possible, foreign 
 descriptive names have been translated, but sometimes translation 
 was impossible (e.g., Heidschnucke, Pr^alpes du Sud, etc.). 
 
 Wherever possible, the references are abbreviated in the form 
 used in the World List of Scientific Periodicals, 1900-1950 (third ed., 
 1952). Other references have been written out more fully. The 
 date of the year under the author's name designates in every case 
 the year of publication of the work. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 When I presented myself at the University of Chicago in 1954 as 
 a graduate student interested in the origins of domestic animals, and 
 thus in their comparative anatomy, I was assigned to the direction 
 of Dr. Karl P. Schmidt, then Chief Curator of the Department of 
 Zoology at Chicago Natural History Museum, and Lecturer in Zool- 
 ogy at the University. Dr. Schmidt suggested the present bibliog- 
 raphy and its form as an annotated list in lieu of studies on the 
 remains of domestic animals from archaeological sites, pointing out 
 that it would in any case be an essential preliminary to further studies 
 on the origins of domestication. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Schmidt 
 for aid and advice, and also to Dr. Everett C. Olson, Professor of 
 Vertebrate Paleontology at the University, who took an active in- 
 terest in the project. 
 
 The study of the origins of domestication, and of domestic mam- 
 mals in particular, combines essentially archaeological studies with 
 zoological investigations, and these in turn must frequently refer to 
 paleontological data. The study itself represents the co-operation 
 between the University of Chicago and Chicago Natural History 
 Museum. At the Museum, all of the resources of the Museum library 
 were made available to me, and when these failed I had the ever ready 
 aid of the library staff under the direction of Mrs. Meta P. Howell, 
 
16 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 who searched for sources from which the required books and journals 
 could be borrowed. Thus this paper is based on the riches of the 
 library of Chicago Natural History Museum, quite as other studies 
 are based on wealth of materials in the scientific departments. I 
 wish to express my gratitude to the authorities of the Museum for 
 placing these facilities at my disposal. 
 
 Shimon Angress 
 
 I have to thank, first of all, Shimon Angress himself, whose vision 
 and industry started this annotated bibliography, which I have seen 
 through into final published form, working fi'om his first manuscript. 
 Miss Lillian Ross, Editor of Publications at Chicago Natural History 
 Museum, has borne a greater editorial load with this publication than 
 she would ordinarily have to do, since the senior author was deceased 
 and the junior one not always available for consultation; she has 
 carried this load with cheer and fortitude. Lastly, I owe a great 
 debt to Miss Roberta French, Secretary at the Peabody Museum 
 of Yale University, who successfully assembled the Index in alpha- 
 betical order from my numerous pages of handwritten notes. 
 
 Charles Reed 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ABSTRACTS 
 
 Adametz, Leopold 
 
 1915. Untersuchungen iiber Capra prisca, einer ausgestorbenen Stammform 
 unserer Hausziegen. Mitt, landw. Lehrk. Wien, Bd. Ill, Heft 1, pp. 1-21, 
 4 pis. 
 
 Detailed description of the skull, especially the horns, of a goat, found together 
 with other Neolithic skeletal parts near Zloczow (Poland). The specimen, charac- 
 terized by the homonymously twisted horns in the male, is made the holotype of 
 a new form, which is named Capra prisca. 
 
 A comparison of the crania of C. prisca and C. aegagrus shows that the majority 
 of the European domestic goats agree in skull and horn features with the extinct 
 C. prisca, which therefore is considered the probable ancestor of most of the Euro- 
 pean domestic breeds. 
 
 1920. Herkunft und Wanderungen der Hamiten erschlossen aus ihren Haustier- 
 rassen. Osten und Orient, Ser. I, Bd. II; Wien, Verl. des Forschungsinsti- 
 tuts fiir Osten und Orient. 107 pp., 24 pis., 44 figs. 
 
 Based on the origin and the distribution of ancient Egypt's domestic animals, 
 conclusions are drawn as to the origin of the Egyptian people and the Hamite 
 immigration into Africa. 
 
 The most ancient domestic breeds kept among Egyptians and also among 
 Sumerians were sheep (Ovis vignei cycloceros) and goat (Capra falconeri jerdoni). 
 These point to Afghanistan, Baluchistan and northwestern India, where they first 
 became tamed, as the region where the cradle of the Sumerian-Hamitic civilization 
 should be sought. The tamed horse, not known to the Hamites when they invaded 
 Africa, was introduced from Mesopotamia during the Eighteenth Dynasty. The 
 earliest domestic cattle, however, were tamed by the ancient Egyptians from the 
 indigenous Bos primigenius, whose later distribution — North and South Africa — 
 indicates the dispersal of the Hamite race. The same is true in the case of the 
 greyhound, which was tamed by Hamites in Africa. 
 
 1925. iJber den Schiidelbau des Rindes der Auvergne und dessen Stellung im 
 Riitimeyer-Wilkensschen Einteilungssystem der Rinderrassen. Z. Tierz. 
 ZuchtBioL, Bd. II, pp. 163-177, 2 figs. 
 
 A study of eleven skulls from cattle of Auvergne (Salers, in Cantal, France) 
 refutes their supposed relation to the brachycephalid type, which was suggested 
 formerly for this breed. The skull characters are clearly of the primigenius type, 
 and the breed seems to have originated from Bos primigenius hahni, which latter 
 gave rise also to the Iberian cattle of southern Spain. The race of Auvergne is 
 considered a connecting link, indicating the route of dispersal the breed took in 
 prehistoric times from Spain via France to England. 
 
 17 
 
18 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 1926. Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Tierzucht. Julius Springer (Wien). 
 
 The first chapter (pp. 5-49) is devoted to the origin of domestic animals and 
 gives a short summary of information about the ancestors and history of the most 
 important farm animals. 
 
 Table 2 summarizes the origin, distribution and time of first domestication of 
 mammals; Table 3 does the same for the important kinds of domestic fowl. 
 
 1927. iJber die Herkunft der Karakulschafe Bocharas. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., 
 Ed. VIII, pp. 2-64. 
 
 A study of the origin of the fat-rumped sheep of the Bukhara, the Karakul or 
 "Arabi." The radiation center for the breed is sought in the vicinity of Baghdad 
 (Arabian tribes brought the sheep to Bukhara and Chiwa from Mesopotamia in 
 the eighth century A.D.), its wild ancestor being of an urial type, probably Ovis 
 vignei arkal. 
 
 1928. tJber neolithische Ziegen des ostlichen Mitteleuropas. Z. Tierz. Ziicht- 
 Biol., Bd. XII, pp. 65-83, 1 table, 5 text figs. 
 
 The skull-fragment of a goat, discovered in a Neolithic cemetery (end of third 
 millennium B.C.) at Zlota near Sandomircz (Poland), is identified as belonging to 
 the Capra prisca type. Other Neolithic finds of C. prisca from Nauenburg, 
 Schaffis (Switzerland), and Klausenburg (Transylvania) are described. 
 
 The occurrence of descendants from Capra aegagrus among the European races 
 of the domestic goat is doubted by the author, who, however, takes C. aegagrus to 
 be the ancestor of certain central Asian breeds. 
 
 1932. tJber die Stellung der Ziege von Girgentini im zootechnischen Systeme 
 und ihre angebliche Herkunft von Capra falconeri. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., 
 Bd. XXV, pp. 231-236, 5 figs. 
 
 Investigation of shape and twisting of horns of the goats from Agrigento 
 (Girgentini, Sicily), considered by Magliano in 1930 as a type of Capra falconeri. 
 Since the anterior keel is twisted in clockwise direction (homonymous) and not 
 counter-clockwise as in the falconeri type, the Girgentinian goat is regarded by 
 the author as a special but characteristic form of C. prisca. 
 
 1933. Die Bedeutung der Abzeichen des Banteng (Bibos banteng Raffl.) und 
 des Urus fiir das Abstammungsproblem des Hausrindes. Biol, gen., Bd. IX, 
 pt. 2, no. 3, pp. 33-47, 3 figs. 
 
 The author refutes the suggestion of a banteng ancestry for the European 
 brachyceros cattle on the basis of similar color characters. 
 
 1936. Untersuchungen iiber den Schadelbau der Binder Bocharas mit Riick- 
 sicht auf deren Herkunft und Abstammung. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. 
 XXXV, pp. 239-266. 
 
 On the basis of a craniological study of Bukhara cattle the author contradicts 
 the traditional view of a brachyceros ancestry for this breed. The main characters 
 of the Bukhara cattle correspond closely to those of the Pleistocene Bos namadicus 
 Lydekker. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 19 
 
 1937. tJber die Rassenzugehirigkeit des "ziegenhornigen Torfschafes" der neo- 
 lithischen schweizer Pfahlbauten und seiner Abkommlinge. Z. Tierz. Zucht- 
 Biol., Bd. XXXVIII, pp. 113-129, 4 figs. 
 
 The "goat-horned" type of the turbary sheep — previously regarded as a dis- 
 tinct race — is considered as the female form of Oris aries palusiris or its derivative. 
 Closely related to the turbary sheep is the southern European Zackel sheep, and 
 since the latter is derived from the Asian Ovis vignei the former is also taken to be 
 descended from a wild form of the urial. The primitive northern European breeds 
 (Soay sheep, Heidschnucke) bear no relation to the turbary sheep but show close 
 affinity to the European mouflon (Ovis musimon). 
 
 1941. Ursprung und heutiges Vorkommen der Rasse der Girgentiziege und ihre 
 Beziehungen zur Angoraziege. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XLVIII, pp. 1-6, 
 7 figs. 
 
 The goat of Agrigento (cf. Adametz, 1932) is traced back to a screw-horned 
 form represented at Ur, and the close relationship of both to the extinct Capra 
 prisca is emphasized. The Angora goat of Asia Minor (cf. Vetulani, 1934) is seen 
 as another surviving breed of this ancient stock, kept by Sumerians as early as 
 the fourth millennium B.C. 
 
 Adlerberg, G. P. 
 
 1933. [On the origin of the domestic pig.] (Russ., Eng. summ.) Transcript of 
 the conference on the origin of domesticated animals, held at the Laboratory 
 of Genetics, Acad. Sci. USSR, Leningrad, 1932, pp. 185-209. 
 
 On the basis of extensive, mainly craniological, material of wild boars it is 
 assumed that the Asiatic pig {Sus orientalis) has to be considered as a mere sub- 
 species of S. scrofa, which latter is subdivided into a western and an eastern com- 
 plex. Also S. mediterrayieus cannot be seen as a separate species. All European 
 and most of the Asiatic races of the domestic pig (including the Chinese pig) 
 originated from S. scrofa. 
 
 S. cristatus, the East Asian wild boar, is taken as the probable progenitor of 
 the Indian domestic pig. 
 
 S. rittatus may have had a local influence on domestic breeds of the Indonesian 
 islands, which, however, also show many characteristics of European breeds. 
 
 Albright, William F. 
 
 1940. From the stone age to Christianity, xi 4-363 pp. The Johns Hopkins 
 Press (Baltimore). 
 
 After discussing archaeological records of the occurrence of the camel in western 
 Asia (pp. 120, 121), the author concludes that its effective domestication cannot 
 antedate the outgoing Bronze Age (end of second millennium B.C.), though partial 
 and sporadic domestication may go back several centuries earlier. 
 
 1950. On the taming of the camel. Z. Alttestamentliche Wiss., Bd. LXII 
 (XXI), p. 315. 
 
 It is shown that the dromedary was well known in Egypt down to the begin- 
 ning of the dynastic age, after which it disappeared. It is suggested that the animal 
 
20 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 became domesticated during the late centuries of the second millennium B.C. in 
 Arabia. 
 
 Allen, Glover M. 
 
 1920. Dogs of the American aborigines. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard 
 University, vol. LXIH, no. 9, pp. 431-517, 12 pis. 
 
 A brief general outline of views on the origin of the domestic dog, in which a 
 wolf ancestry is concluded, is followed by a detailed study of North American dogs 
 and their origin. 
 
 In an extensive description of the breeds of American aboriginal dogs three 
 main types are distinguished: («) the large broad-muzzled Eskimo dog, (b) a large, 
 and (c) a smaller Indian dog. The two latter types, both of which gave rise to 
 several distinct local breeds, are compared to the large Canis ititermedius and the 
 small C. palustris, respectively, found in Eurasia from the Neolithic on, and it is 
 suggested that these two general types of dogs were cultivated in Asia, reaching 
 Europe as well as America at a very early period with the human immigrants. 
 In a similar way the Eskimo dog, of a type common to Asia and Europe, has been 
 introduced into America by the Eskimos. 
 
 Although hybridization of the larger dogs with wolf or coyote may have oc- 
 curred occasionally, such crossing had no significant influence on the original stock. 
 
 Amon, Rudolf 
 
 1938. Abstammung, Arten und Rassen der Wildschweine Eurasiens. Z. Tierz. 
 ZuchtBiol., Bd. XI, pp. 49-88, 5 figs., 4 maps, 6 tables. 
 
 While investigating Eurasian races of the wild boar, the author also attempts 
 to create a background for solving questions as to the origin of the domestic pig. 
 Three forms ("Artengruppen") of Eurasian wild pigs are distinguished: a northern 
 group {Sus scrofa), a southern type (S. vittatus), and a third group (S. verrucosus). 
 Only the first two are regarded as "hereditarily fixed." 
 
 The origin of new populations is explained by "mutual penetration" of the 
 two groups resulting from climatic changes during the glacial periods, which ulti- 
 mately also caused the restriction of the vittatus group to its recent range. 
 
 Amschler, J. Wolfgang 
 
 1929a. Zur Revision der Abstammungsfrage der Hausziege. Ziichtungskunde, 
 Bd. IV, pp. 466-469, 1 fig. 
 
 Two primitive types of the domestic goat — a saber-horned and a twisted- 
 horned form — are described from the Caucasus. Both appear to be geographical 
 variations derived from the same wild ancestor, the bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus). 
 
 1929b. Gengeographische Studie am Hissarschaf. Ziichtungskunde, Bd. IV, 
 pp. 336-341, 2 figs. 
 
 The Hissar sheep, kept in Tadzhikistan, USSR, is seen as an example of the 
 most generalized type of sheep in terms of evolution, combining almost all the main 
 characters of primitive domestic races; all transitions from hairy to fleecy fur are 
 found and the weight ranges from 99 up to 440 (!) pounds. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 21 
 
 Like the Tadzhikians themselves, the Hissar sheep were isohited for millen- 
 niums and retained the characters of a type that gave rise to many breeds of 
 domestic sheep in the Near and Far East. 
 
 1931. Beitrag zur Rassen- und Abstammungsfrage der Hausziege sowie zur 
 Erforschung der Urzentren der Haustierwerdung. Biol, gen., Bd. VII, 
 pp. 445-468, 16 figs. 
 
 Summary of the results of an expedition of the Siberian academy at Omsk 
 under the direction of the author in the summer of 1930. 
 
 In the Siberian Altai (including the mountains of the MongoHan boundary) 
 a domestic type of Capra prii<ca is kept. Domestic forms of C. falconeri and 
 C. aegagrin< are also present, and the wild ancestor of the latter is still found in 
 the eastern Dzungarian mountains today. Capra pris^cn was presumably imported 
 from the north, while the dispersal of (\ acgagrm and C. falconeri as domestic goats 
 is supposed to have coincided with the spread of conquering armies from cen- 
 tral Asia. 
 
 The Siberian Altai is seen as the primeval center and radiation area for all 
 the forms of domestic goats. 
 
 1932. Zur Biologie und Kraniologie des Haus-Yak im Sibirischen Altai. Biol, 
 gen., Bd. VIII, pp. 1-44, 15 figs. 
 
 A morphological and craniological description of the Siberian yak follows a 
 discussion of the distribution of wild and tame yaks in general and the origin of 
 the latter. The center of origin is found in the Koko-Nor region (northeastern 
 Tibet), whence the domesticated yak spread in two main directions: westward 
 into the Hindu Kush and via the Pamir plateau to eastern Turkestan, and north- 
 ward to Mongolia, to a secondary radiation center. In a map of the area under 
 discussion the distribution of wild and domestic yak is depicted. 
 
 1933. '2000-Jahrige Pferde in den Skythengrabern des Sibirischen Altai. Kos- 
 mos, Jhg. 1933, Heft 11, pp. 382-387, 5 figs. 
 
 Short description of the horses from the Scythian tombs in the Altai and the 
 Sajan, found frozen and almost completely preserved and dated to the fifth century 
 B.C. The author holds that all the horses belong clearly to the tarpan type, which 
 fact leads him to the conclusion that the tarpan did pass the Volga-line eastward 
 and has to be considered ancestral also to the horses of the Kalmucks and the 
 Kirghizes. 
 
 1934. Die altesten Nachrichten und Zeugnisse liber das Hauspferd in Europa 
 und Asien. Forsch. Fortschr. dtsch. Wiss., 10 Jhg., pp. 248-299, 2 figs. 
 
 After a short survey of the archaeological evidences for horse breeding in an- 
 cient European (mainly Scandinavian) and Asian civilizations (especially from 
 sites in Mesopotamia and Iran, and those of the Minussinsk culture of Siberia), it 
 is concluded that the inner Asian-Iranian area has to be considered as the area of 
 origin of the domestic horse. 
 
 1935. The oldest pedigree chart. A genealogical table of the horse and pictures 
 of horsemen dating back 5000 years. J. Hered., vol, XXVI, no. 6, pp. 233- 
 238, figs. 5, 6. 
 
r-- 
 
 22 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 An engraved seal from 3000 B.C., discovered by De Mecquenem near Ur, 
 Mesopotamia, is taken as a pedigree record of horses representing the oldest 
 known genealogical table. On the basis of this and other archaeological material 
 the author concludes that horses — descendants of the Przewalski as well as the 
 tarpan type — were known and used in the earliest Sumerian and Elamitic civiliza- 
 tions. The supposition is expressed that the first crossbreeding between horse and 
 ass took place at Ur. 
 
 1936. Die altesten Funde des Hauspferdes. Wiener Beitrage zur Kulturge- 
 schichte und Linguistik, Jhg. 4, pp. 497-516, 5 figs. 
 
 This preliminary description of the equid material from Kish in Mesopotamia 
 distinguishes two forms of true horses (Equus caballus) and also a type of ass. 
 The presence of the horse in the Anau fauna (cf. Durst, 1908) is confirmed. Finds 
 of horse remains from various excavations — Ur, Susa, Minussinsk (Sajan in west- 
 ern Siberia), and Tripolje (Kiew, Ukraine) — are summarized briefly. 
 
 \ 
 
 1937. Goats from Ur and Kish. Antiquity, vol. 11, pp. 226-228, pis. V, VI. 
 
 A horn, found among animal bones from the early dynastic levels (ca. 3000- 
 2530 B.C.) at Kish, is compared with a goat's horn portrayed in a sculpture dis- 
 covered at Ur, and both are identified as belonging to Capra girgentana (cf. 
 Adametz, 1932). 
 
 1939a. Die Knochenfunde aus dem Konigshiigel Shah Tepe in Nord-Iran. 
 Forsch. Fortschr. dtsch. Wiss., 15 Jhg., Nr. 9, pp. 115-116. 
 
 Preliminary report on the bone material from Shah Tepe (cf. Amschler, 1939b). 
 The author emphasizes the frequency of sheep remains, the presence of bones of 
 the horse and two-humped camel and especially the discovery of the wild ancestral 
 type for the brachyceros cattle, named Bos brachyceros arnei. 
 
 1939b. Tierreste der Ausgrabungen von dem "grossen Konigshiigel" Shah Tepe. 
 The Sino-Swedish Expedition, vol. VIT, part 4, pp. 35-129, pis. XIV-XXVI. 
 Bokf0rl. Aktieblaget Thule (Stockholm). 
 
 A detailed discussion of the animal remains discovered in the mound of 
 Shah Tepe on the Turkoman steppe, southeast of the Caspian Sea, during archae- 
 ological excavations in 1932-33. The material, mainly prehistoric, from the 
 fourth and third millenniums B.C., consisted of bones of wild and domestic animals. 
 Among the latter, bones of sheep (30.1 per cent) were most frequent. Fewer 
 remains were found of pig, horse, ass, and Bactrian camel. 
 
 The author takes the domestic pig of Shah Tepe to be derived from the wild 
 Sus scrofa attila, finding both types as well as transition forms in the material 
 of the site. The domestic dog seems to be closely related to the pariah dogs of 
 today. 
 
 A special part (pp. 100-120) is devoted to the wild cattle of Shah Tepe 
 (Bos brachyceros arnei) in which the author finds the progenitor of the short- 
 horned domestic type (B. taurus brachyceros) present in the same strata. 
 
 1939c. Uranfange der Tierzucht in Vorarlberg. Fosch. Fortschr. dtsch. Wiss., 
 15 Jhg., Nr. 17, pp. 222-223. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 23 
 
 A short report on animal remains collected at Bludenz in Vorarlberg (western 
 Austria), mainly from the Bronze Age and the following urn-field culture (1500- 
 1000 B.C.). By far the most numerous bones were those of cattle, most of brachy- 
 ceros type, but a larger form was also present about 1000 B.C. 
 
 Sheep possessed mouflon-like horns; among the few horse remains, a pony 
 type and a larger "cold-blooded horse" could be distinguished; the dog bones 
 belonged to the group of the large Canis familiaris inostranzewi. Pig remains 
 were absent at the end of the Bronze Age. 
 
 1949. Ur- und Friihgoschichtliche Haustierfunde aus Osterreich. Archeol. 
 Austriaca, Heft 3, 102 pp., 12 pis., 58 tables. 
 
 A study of the domestic fauna of prehistoric and early historic Austria, 
 based upon an examination of over 10,000 skeletal remains from twelve sites, 
 dating from the Neolithic (Attersee, Follik) up to the Turkish period. 
 
 Domestic species kept during the Neolithic comprised cattle, sheep, goat, 
 pig, horse, and dog. The Neolithic ox belonged to the brachyceros type, the 
 sheep was derived from the European moufion and is referred to as Ovis aries 
 var. m)(i<imon, the prehistoric goat is considered a descendant of Capra prisca 
 Adam., and the Neolithic pig was an indigenous breed of the wild European 
 boar. Sits scrofa ferus. The domestic horse of the Neolithic shows similarity 
 to the Oriental race, Eqnus caballus orientalis, and the dog is of the Canis familiaris 
 palusiris type. 
 
 From the Bronze Age on, there occurred two additional races of the domestic 
 dog, Canis familiaris mairis optimae and C. familiaris inostranzewi, and after the 
 Hallstatt period appeared cattle of the primigenius type and sheep belonging 
 to the Ovis vignei group. 
 
 Anderson, J. G. 
 
 1943. Prehistory of the Chinese. Bull. Mus. far east Antiq., Stockholm, 
 no. 15, 304 pp., 200 pis. 
 
 Animal remains, collected from prehistoric sites in Honan and Kansu in the 
 Hwang-Ho (Yellow River) valley, are identified by E. Dahr (p. 43). 
 
 At Chih Kou Chai, one of the Ho Yin sites (Honan), the most common 
 remains were those of pigs. Also well represented were domestic cattle; neither 
 sheep nor goats were found. 
 
 Bones of the domestic pig were most abundant also at the site of Ma Chia 
 Yao (Kansu). The only other domesticated animal there was the dog, while 
 bones of large cattle from this site belonged to the wild Bos namadicus. However, 
 at Ch'i Chia P'ing (oldest of the Kansu cultures), bones of domestic dog, pig, 
 cattle, goat and sheep were present. 
 
 Andreeva, E. 
 
 1933. [The structure of the metapoda of some wild and domestic animals.] 
 (Russ., Eng. summ.) Transcript of the conference on the origin of domes- 
 ticated animals, held at the Laboratory of Genetics, Acad. Sci. USSR, 
 Leningrad, 1932, pp. 263-311. 
 
24 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Investigation of anatomical and histological structure of metacarpals of 
 wild and domestic animals. A marked difference in tissue and shape (stouter 
 and with thinner walls in domestic races) is found in bones of wild and domestic 
 sheep, resulting in a more efficient blood supply in the metapodials of wild forms. 
 Primitive breeds exhibit intermediate character. In the horse (przewalskii and 
 domestic) the osteological changes due to domestication are much less obvious 
 than in sheep. 
 
 Antonius, Otto 
 
 1918. Die Abstammung des Hauspferdes und des Hausesels. Naturwissen- 
 schaften, 6 Jhg., Heft 2, pp. 13-18. 
 
 A short account of the paleontologic and historic evidence of the origin 
 of the domestic horse. The Mongolian breed is derived from the Mongolian 
 wild horse (przewalskii), and its cradle of domestication is sought either in the 
 Mongolian steppe or in southern Asia among Aryan tribes, in which latter case 
 the tarpan, Eqiois gmelini Ant., would be the ancestral type. An independent 
 domestication of "Occidental" breeds in prehistoric central or western Europe 
 is suggested. 
 
 1919. Die Abstammung der Hausrinder. Naturwissenschaften, 7 Jhg., Heft 43, 
 pp. 781-789. 
 
 A study of the origin of domestic cattle. The first part tries to give a sys- 
 tematic outline of wild bovids, recent and extinct; the second part deals with 
 domestic buffalo, banteng, gayal and yak; the third section covers the wild 
 forms of the genus Bos sensu stricto. 
 
 The fourth and main part is devoted to the earliest domestic oxen and their 
 origin. Domestic cattle are divided into three main stocks: (a) the brachyceros 
 cattle, derived from a small, wild European bovid. Bos hrachyceros enropaeus 
 ( = B. longifrons Owen); (b) the primigene cattle of Europe and Africa, derived 
 from B. primigenius, the large urus of Europe, North Africa, and southwestern 
 Asia; (c) the zebu cattle of southern and central Asia, the ancestor being of an 
 unknown race related to the urus. It is suggested that the domestication of c 
 took place much later than the taming of a and b. 
 
 1922. Grundziige einer Stammesgeschichte der Haustiere. xvi + 336 pp., 
 144 figs. Gustav Fischer (Jena). 
 
 The origin and history of the important domestic mammals are covered 
 in a semi-popular manual, which is based to a great extent upon original investi- 
 gations of the author. 
 
 The first section (pp. 1-50) evaluates the various sources that supply ma- 
 terials for the study of domestication, and the different methods by which the 
 problem is attacked; the second section (pp. 51-71) gives an account of the 
 morphological and physiological changes that followed domestication. Another 
 part deals comprehensively with cattle (divided into a primigenius and a zebu 
 type), sheep, goat, camel and llama; more briefly with swine (three hearths of 
 domestication — two in Europe, one in Asia — are suggested); and at great length 
 with the horse and the domestic dog. To the Oriental (Eqiius orientalis) and the 
 Occidental (E. robustus) horses a third species (E. ferus) is added, considered 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 25 
 
 to be a descendant of the Mongolian wild horse. The wolf is taken to be the 
 true ancestor of the domestic dog. 
 
 The book is supplemented with a wealth of photographs. 
 
 1935a. Zur Abstammung des Hauspferdes. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XXXIII, 
 pp. 359-398, 13 figs. 
 
 A discussion of recent views on the origin of the domestic horse. The author 
 takes the tarpan ancestry as certain for the "Indo-European" breeds and as 
 possible in the case of the Oriental horse, but as doubtful for the origin of the 
 "cold-blooded" stock. 
 
 Special treatment is given to the taming of the half-ass in the ancient Near 
 East, and earlier archaeological and zoological identifications of "horses" from 
 this area are discussed. 
 
 1935b. tJber das Kladruber Pferd. Beobachtungen an Einhufern in Schon- 
 brunn, XII. Der Zool. Gart., Heft 7, pp. 249-262. 
 
 A study of the Kladrub breed ("a horse that belongs to the past") and its 
 history. In the last section, dealing with the origin of the ancient Spanish (later 
 Habsburgian) breed, the close correspondence of the Kladrub skull and dentition 
 with those of the stout cold-blooded horses of Quaternary times (Equus mos- 
 bachensis = E. abeli) is worked out. 
 
 1937. On the geographic distribution, in former times and today, of the 
 recent Equidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, vol. 107B, pp. 557 564. 
 
 The author considers the geographical ranges of all known species and sub- 
 species of equids (true horses, asses, onagers, and zebras) from the beginning of 
 human history to the present. The story is one of continually decreasing ranges 
 and diminishing populations (sometimes extermination). Of particular interest 
 to students of animal domestication are the original ranges of the tarpan (Equus 
 silvestris or E. gmelini), Przewalski's horse {E. przewalskii), the Syrian onager 
 (E. hemionus hemippus), the Atlantic ass (Asinus "atlanticus"), and the Nubian 
 ass (Equus asinus africanus), for these are the only wild equids which have been 
 considered as ancestors of the domesticated ones. — C.A.R. 
 
 1944. tfber die Herkunft der Haustiere, insbesondere des Pferdes. Verh. 
 zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, Jhg. 1940/41, Bd. 90/91, pp. 294-303. 
 
 A brief review of data on the ancestry of domesticated mammals. The 
 domestic dog is considered to be derived exclusively from the wolf. For cattle 
 three independent ancestors are supposed: Bos brachyceros, first tamed in Africa; 
 B. primigenius, its probable domestication center on the Iberian Peninsula; 
 and the Asiatic B. namadicus, which gave rise to the zebu stock. 
 
 The Iranian plateau is seen as the cradle for the domestic goat and sheep, 
 derived from Capra aegagrus and Ovis vignei respectively. Screw-horned breeds 
 of goats, derived from the extinct Capra prisca Adametz, and the race of the 
 "copper-sheep," a domestic form of Ovis musimon, were developed independently 
 in late Neolithic or early Bronze Age Europe. 
 
 The riding of horses, preceded by the use of equids with chariots, was intro- 
 duced into Europe from the East about 1000 B.C. 
 
26 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Ash, Edward C. 
 
 1927. Dogs: their history and development. Vol. I, pp. i-xviii, 1-384; frontis- 
 piece, pis. 1-108, 6 figs. Vol. n, pp. i-xvi, 385-778; frontispiece, pis. 109- 
 160; 7 figs. Houghton Mifllin Company (Boston). 
 
 The author attempts to include almost everything known about dogs, ex- 
 clusive of detailed anatomy and physiology. The result is encyclopaedic but 
 uncritical. Major emphasis is placed on the different breeds and their history, 
 but there is much random information on the history of dogs in general, and on 
 dogs in medicine, folklore, law, poetry, and art. The literature concerning the 
 hybridization of dogs with wild canids is summarized. — C.A.R. 
 
 Ashton, E. H., and Thompson, A. P. D. 
 
 1955. Some characters of the skulls and skins of the European polecat, the 
 Asiatic polecat and the domestic ferret. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, vol. 125, 
 no. 2, pp. 317-333. 
 
 Skulls and skins of the domestic ferret, Mustela putorius furo, are compared 
 with skulls and skins of the European polecat, M. p. pw/orn/.s, and the Asiatic 
 polecat, .1/. p. eversmanni. The domestic ferret resembles the European polecat 
 in more characters than it does the Asiatic polecat, but the available data do not 
 allow a final conclusion as to the ancestry of the domestic ferret. The skulls of the 
 domestic ferrets are more variable than are those of the wild subspecies studied, 
 primarily because of differences in human selection, since different breeders dis- 
 agree on the proper form of a good hunting ferret. — C.A.R. 
 
 Auld, Robert 
 
 1927. Polled and horned cattle. J. Hered., vol. XVIII, no. 7, pp. 309-321, 
 figs. 10-19. 
 
 A summary of evidence about the appearance of polled cattle in ancient and 
 recent times, and a discussion of the genetic factors involved. It is suggested that 
 cattle were hornless when domestication started. 
 
 Baas, Josef 
 
 1938. Der alteste Haushund der Welt im "Senckenberg." Natur u. Volk, 
 Bd. LXVI, Heft 10, pp. 469-475, frontispiece, 3 figs., 1 table. 
 
 A dog skeleton, found near Frankfort and dated by pollen analysis to about 
 9000 B.C., is regarded as the most ancient domestic dog. The animal shows a 
 close relationship to Canis poutiatini and to the present Australian dingo. 
 
 The author holds that a small type of wolf became tamed in the earliest 
 Mesolithic (or even Paleolithic) times, and that this type — transition forms not 
 yet found — gave rise to the European dogs of the poutiatini group as well as to the 
 dingo, which was taken to Australia by man. 
 
 Bate, Dorothea M. 
 
 1932. A note on the fauna of the Athlit caves. J. R. anthrop. Inst., Gt. Brit, 
 and Ireland, vol. 62, pp. 277-279. 
 
 This is a first report on animals associated with the Natufian culture (Palestine, 
 Mesolithic). The author rejects the possibility that the horse and ox found were 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 27 
 
 domesticated. No domestic dog was found (but see Bate, 1937). Study of the 
 Natufian culture would seem to indicate that agriculture was developed prior to 
 domestication of animals. — C.A.R. 
 
 1937. The fossil fauna of the Wady El-Mughara caves. In The Stone Age of 
 Mount Carmel. by D. Garrod and D. M. Bate, vol. 1, part 2, pp. 136-240. 
 Clarendon Press (Oxford). 
 
 On pp. 175-177 (fig. 4a, b) the skull of a supposedly domestic dog from the 
 Mesolithic of Palestine is described. The Palestine form seems to show closest 
 resemblance to the type Canis matris optimae and to the dog from Anau (cf. 
 Diirst, 1908). 
 
 1938. Animal remains from Megiddo. Orient. Inst. Pubi. (Univ. Chicago), 
 vol. 33, pp. 209-213, figs. 204-206. 
 
 Description of animal bones from tombs at Megiddo (Palestine), including 
 deposits from late Neolithic to Late Bronze II. Domesticated specimens identi- 
 fied are Bos cf. longifrons, Hircus mambricus, Ovis sp. and Sus sp.; designated 
 "probably domesticated" are Canis sp. and a small equid (Eqiius hemionus?). 
 
 1942. The fossil mammals of Shukbah. Proc. Prehist. Soc, vol. VIII, pp. 15-20. 
 
 Identification of a lower jaw of a domestic dog found among the skeletal mate- 
 rial from the Mesolithic cave of Shukbah in the Judean hills (Palestine). Exca- 
 vated by D. A. E. Garrod. 
 
 Remains of oxen, probably Bos primigenius, goat, pig and an equid (Equus cf . 
 hemionus?) are not considered as belonging to domestic species. 
 
 1949. The fauna of Esh Shaheinab. Arch. News Letter, vol. II, no. 7, pp. 128- 
 129. 
 The author, who investigated the mammalian faunas of Early Khartoum and 
 the nearby Esh Shaheinab, stresses the emergence of domestic animals in the latter 
 site in contrast to the former, where domestic species were not found. From the 
 presence of three forms (a dwarf goat with small horns, another goat with twisted 
 horns, and a small sheep), all of which bear no relationship to local species and had 
 to be imported, she concludes that stock-farming at Esh Shaheinab was a well- 
 established custom. A northwest African origin of those three animals, which 
 were accompanied probably by a domestic dog, is suggested (see Bate, 1953, for 
 the full account of the fauna of Esh Shaheinab). 
 
 1953. The vertebrate fauna. Pp. 11-19, figs. 2-5, in Shaheinab: An account of 
 a Neolithic occupation site carried out for the Sudan Antiquities Service in 
 1949-50, by A. J. Arkell. Published for the Sudan Government by Geoffrey 
 Cumberlege, Oxford University Press (London). 
 
 The site is on the west bank of the Nile, and is dated at approximately 3300 
 and 3900 B.C.; the climate was somewhat more humid than at present. Numerous 
 bones of a dwarf goat and rare remains of what may be a larger goat or sheep con- 
 stitute the earliest known record of domestic animals from the Sudan. Many of 
 the goats, as indicated by the dentition, were immature at time of death. The 
 dwarf goats were of almost the same size as present dwarf Nilotic goats but are 
 
28 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 thought to be morphologically more like the remains of dwarf goats from Algerian 
 cave-sites. Horn-cores of the dwarf goats from the predynastic site of Toukh in 
 southern Egypt (cf. Gaillard, 1934) are quite different from those found at Esh 
 Shaheinab. 
 
 No remains of the domestic dog were found. — C.A.R. 
 
 Batu, Selahattin 
 
 1939. Neue Feststellungen liber die Geschichte, Herkunft und Abstammung 
 der Hausziege. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBioL, Bd. XLIV, pp. 219-229, 2 figs. 
 
 A survey of ancient records shows that the Angora goat was unknown in its 
 present distribution center (Anatolia) during the Hittite period and in classical 
 times as well. The view of a Capra prisca origin (cf. Adametz, 1928, 1941, and 
 Vetulani, 1934) is accepted, and the Angora goat is seen as a very ancient breed 
 which originated in Asia and was already kept by Sumerians in the fourth and 
 third millenniums B.C. It is suggested that the Angora goat reached Anatolia 
 only in the thirteenth century a.d. with the invasion of the Turks. 
 
 Baumler, Hans 
 
 1921. Die morphologischen Veranderungen des Schweineschadels unter dem 
 Einfluss der Domestikation. Arch. Naturgesch., Bd. 87, Abt. A, Heft 12, 
 pp. 140-178, 11 tables. 
 
 A craniological study of domestic and wild pigs, part of the latter brought up 
 under captivity. The skull of the Sus vittatus type is seen as a retardation of an 
 early ontogenetic stage of a primitive form, the further development of which pro- 
 duced S. scrofa ferns. The skull of the European as well as of the Indian domestic 
 pig resembles in its neotenic character the wild vittatus rather than the wild scrofa 
 type. 
 
 Belie, Jovan 
 
 1939. Die Abstammung des Balkanwildschweines. Z. Tierz. ZuchtBiol., Bd. 
 XLII, pp. 151 214, 30 tables, 54 figs., 12 graphical charts. 
 
 Following an investigation of 130 skulls of wild boars from Eurasian countries 
 (central Europe through southeastern Asia), the author concludes that a diphyletic 
 origin of the domestic pig from Sus scrofa and S. vittatus is indicated. Both the 
 latter are seen as distinct species; S. mediterraneus, however, is considered a sub- 
 species of S. scrofa, and the Sardinian S. meridionalis probably a stunted form of 
 the European wild boar. 
 
 Bishop, Carl Whiting 
 
 1933. The Neolithic age in North China. Antiquity, vol. 7, pp. 389-404, 8 pis., 
 2 figs. 
 
 The Neolithic of Europe had domestic cattle, goat, sheep, pig, and dog, but 
 the Neolithic of north China had only the pig and dog. The chief activity of the 
 people was probably agriculture, with no evidence of a pastoral type of life. The 
 major source of protein seems to have been the pig. — C.A.R. 
 
 1939. The beginnings of civilization in eastern Asia. J. Amer. Orient. Soc, 
 vol. 59, suppl. to no. 4, pp. 45-61. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 29 
 
 In a brief review of Far Eastern prehistoric cultures, the earliest types of farm- 
 ing in the northern Chinese plains are outlined (pp. 48-49). On all save the latest 
 Neolithic sites the only remains of domestic animals are those of dog and pig. 
 At later sites, bones of sheep and ox also occur. Few if any of the domestic ani- 
 mals appearing prior to and around the beginning of the Bronze Age were of native 
 origin. Most of the domesticated breeds — ox, sheep (derived from the western 
 Ovis vignei), horse (not derived from Equus przewalskii), water-buffalo, and jungle 
 fowl — were acquired as culture loans from abroad. 
 
 1940. Beginnings of civilization in eastern Asia. Antiquity, vol. 14, pp. 301- 
 316 (cf. Bishop, 1939). 
 
 Bisschop, J. H. R. 
 
 1937. Parent stock and derived types of African cattle (with particular refer- 
 ence to the importance of conformational characteristics in the study of 
 their origin). S. Afr. J. Sci., vol. 33, pp. 852-870, 1 fig., 2 tables. 
 
 Summary of information on the derivation of African domestic cattle. The 
 Hamitic longhorn is regarded as a descendant of the African urus. Bos opisthono- 
 mus Pomel, which was domesticated in Egypt before and during the Neolithic. 
 At the end of the Neolithic, brachyceros cattle, derived from Bos namadicus, were 
 brought to Lower Egypt and forced the longhorn breeds westward. Longhorned 
 zebus arrived in Ethiopia and Upper Egypt during the third millennium B.C. and 
 by interbreeding with the Hamitic stock formed the Sanga type of cattle. Short- 
 horned zebus arrived later, by the same route. 
 
 Boessneck, Joachim 
 
 1953. Die Haustiere Altagyptens. Veroff. zool. Staatssamml. Miinch., Bd. Ill, 
 50 pp., 22 tables with 45 figs. 
 
 An account of domestic and semi-domestic animals kept in predynastic and 
 ancient dynastic Egypt, based mainly upon an evaluation of animal representations 
 from prehistoric and early historic sites all over North Africa. An extensive bibli- 
 ography and numerous illustrations are appended. 
 
 Bogaevsky, B. 
 
 1937. [The artifacts and the domestic animals of Tripolje.] (Russ., Fr. summ.) 
 Akademiia Nauk SSSR. Gruzinskii Filial. Institut iazyka, istorii i mate- 
 rial'noi kul'tury im N. lA. Marra, Leningrad. 309 pp., 18 tables, 4 pis. 
 
 The second part of the book (pp. 144 ff.) attempts to reveal the origin and 
 first stages in the development of stock-farming among the Tripolje cultures in 
 the Dnieper basin. The study is based upon subfossil finds, animal representa- 
 tions on vases, and animal figurines. 
 
 Domestication began at the beginning of Tripolje B; pig and sheep (both of 
 the palustris type), goat and a primigenius race of cattle were kept everywhere. 
 The horse had been a rare animal among the early Tripolje settlements, in contrast 
 with dogs, numerous remains of which were found in most of the sites. 
 
 Boicoianu, C. 
 
 1932. Studien uber das belgische Pferd. Z. Tierz. ZuchlBiol., Bd. XXIII, 
 pp. 25-54, 5 figs. 
 
30 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 A craniological, and especially odontological, study of the origin of the Belgian 
 horse. Besides characters of the "Occidental" breeds, features of tarpan-like 
 ("Oriental") races are evident, and a hybrid origin from both groups is assumed 
 for the Belgian strain. 
 
 Boule, Marcellin 
 
 1910. Les chevaux fossiles des grottes de Grimaldi et observations generales 
 sur les chevaux quaternaires. Ann. Paleont., Paris, Tom. V, pp. 113-135, 
 7 figs. 
 
 Description of the equid remains from cave deposits of the French Aurigna- 
 cian and discussion of European Quaternary horses in general. The Quaternary 
 Eqnus caballus typicus — considered ancestral to recent horses — is derived from the 
 Pliocene E. ^itenonsis. Remains of ass and half-ass (E. hemionus) from the caverns 
 of Grimaldi are described and compared to those of the true horse. 
 
 Bourdelle, E. 
 
 1932. Notes osteologiques et osteometriques sur le cheval de Przewalski. Bull. 
 Mus. Hist, nat., Paris; 2nd Ser., Tom. IV, pp. 810-821, 3 tables, 
 
 Osteometric characters of Equus caballus przewalskii are worked out and com- 
 pared to those of the domestic horse and the domestic ass. Special emphasis is 
 given to the limb bones, their measurements and indices. A table (no. 3) sum- 
 marizes the osteometric features of the horse group as contrasted to the ass group. 
 
 1938. Essai d'une etude morphologique des equides prehistorique de France 
 d'apres les gravures rupestres. Mammalia, Tom. II, pp. 1-11, 8 figs., 2 pis. 
 
 A study of the numerous rupestrian engravings and sculptures of prehistoric 
 equids discovered in France. The author finds few representations of ass- or 
 onager-like forms, but distinguishes three types of horses according to the shape 
 of the cranial profile. Pointing to the same variations of profile in Przewalski 
 horses kept in captivity, he finds in Equus przewalskii the common ancestor for 
 all those varieties, and regards the recent Camargue horse as one of its descendants. 
 
 Bourdelle, E., and Trombe, F, 
 
 1946. Les dessins d'equides prehistoriques de Ganties-Montespan, Haute- 
 Garonne. Mammalia, vol. 10, pp. 13-25, 20 figs. 
 
 Equid images, depicted on gallery walls of the underground river Ganties- 
 Montespan (in the Plantaurel range of the Pyrenees) and in caves frequented by 
 Upper Paleolithic people, are described and analyzed. 
 
 The authors distinguish four types of equids among the representations. 
 Most frequently portrayed and most primitive in type is the Przewalski horse, 
 taken as the ancestor of the Arabian as well as of the Camargue breed. Other 
 types recognized are the Celtic horse (the ancestor of the Shetland pony), the 
 Nordic horse, and an ass-half-ass type. 
 
 Braidwood, Robert 
 
 1952. The Near East and the foundations for civilization. Condon Lectures. 
 Oregon State System of Higher Education (Eugene). 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 31 
 
 Animal remains from the site at Jarmo (see Braidwood and Braidwood, 1950) 
 are described briefly (pp. 26 and 30). Ninety-five per cent of the animal bones 
 fall in the sheep, goat, pig and ox categories, and many of the first two are those 
 of yearlings. 
 
 1954. The Iraq-Jarmo project of the Oriental Institute of the University of 
 Chicago, season 1954-1955. Sumer, vol. 10, pp. 120-136. 
 
 On pp. 134-136, C. A. Reed outlines the necessary training and skills for a 
 zoo-archaeologist who is studying, among other matters, the origin of domestic 
 animals. Preliminary results are given of study of three sites in northeastern 
 Iraq: M'lefaat (early village-farming). El Khan (archaic Hassuna), and Banahilk 
 (Halafian). Equid remains were found at none, dog was very rare; all three had 
 sheep and 'or goat (stated to be mostly domestic goat), and all three had medium- 
 -sized cattle. Remains of pigs were common at Banahilk, rare at M'lefaat, not 
 found at El Khan. (The supposedly domestic status of any animals from M'lefaat 
 was later disclaimed: Science, vol. 130 [1959], p. 1639).— C. A. R. 
 
 Braidwood, Robert, and Braidwood, Linda 
 
 1950. Jarmo; a village of early farmers in Iraq. Antiquity, vol. 24, no. 96, 
 pp. 189-195. 
 
 A brief report on the first excavation (1948) of Jarmo near Kirkuk (Iraq), a 
 site dated to 5270-4630 B.C., and therefore preceding the earliest village assem- 
 blages of the Near-Middle East. A preliminary study of the animal bones by 
 Bryan Patterson revealed remains of sheep and/or goat, cattle, pig, and dog, and 
 several equid teeth. 
 
 Breuil, M. H., and Kemal el Dine 
 
 1928. Les gravures rupestres du Djebel Ouenat. Rev. Sci., Paris, Ann. 66, 
 No. 4, pp. 105-117, frontispiece and figs. 45-62. 
 
 Description of animal pictures found at Ouenat, a mountain mass in the heart 
 of the Libyan desert. Among numerous other animals the pictures show cattle, 
 horses, camels and dogs (or jackals). Besides engravings of a Paleolithic hunter- 
 culture and modern additions (probably the depicted camels and dogs), the pic- 
 tures range from the fifth to the first millennium B.C. and are divided by the author 
 into two main cultures: V-a (proto-dynastic and Old Empire) and V-b (starting 
 at about the Middle Empire). The big-horned Bos africanus is the only domestic 
 type of cattle depicted in V-a; in V-b B. brachyceros appears beside B. africanus, 
 which latter becomes gradually displaced. 
 
 Brinkmann, August 
 
 1920. Equidenstudien I, II. Bergens Mus. Aarbok 1919-20, Naturvidenska- 
 belig rakke, Nr. 5, pp. 1-38, 1 fig., 3 tables. 
 
 Osteological study of the extinct Norwegian Lofoten breed of horse, which is 
 described in the first part and compared to other prehistoric types. The author 
 accepts the four basic types of horses, established by Ewart (cf. Ewart, 1904, 1907a, 
 1909), and considers the Lofoten horse a straight derivation from the small, broad- 
 headed EcjHH.^ cahallu.^ robusius, endemic in Europe since glacial times. The second 
 part is a craniological investigation of asses, in which the racial significance of the 
 cranial index is emphasized. 
 
 / 
 
 iV 
 
32 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 1921. Canidenstudien I, II, III. Vidensk. Medd. dansk naturh. Foren. Kbh., 
 Bd. 7-2, pp. 1-44, 3 pis. with 16 figs., 3 tables. 
 
 A study of several prehistoric dogs from Scandinavian sites, especially of a 
 skeleton found near Errindlev (Denmark) with close affinities to a greyhound 
 type. The origin of the large greyhounds is discussed. They are derived from 
 the Indian wolf, Canis pallipes, the Errindlev dog representing a link between 
 C. pallipcx and recent greyhounds and borzois. C. pallipes is regarded as a sep- 
 arate species clearly distinct from C. lupus and its races. 
 
 1923-24. Canidenstudien V, VI. Bergens Mus. Aarbok 1923-24, Naturviden- 
 skabelig rakke, Nr. 7, pp. 1-57, 4 pis., 4 tables, 3 figs. 
 
 An extensive investigation of the dog remains from Scandinavian Stone Age 
 sites, collected by the Museum of K0benhavn and the Bergen Museum. A large 
 type of dog, belonging to the Canis inostranzewi group and considered the most 
 ancient domesticated dog, occurred in all Danish sites from the Azilien (pre- 
 Campignien) on. Beginning with the next culture period (Campignien, the 
 Danish "kitchen-midden" time), this form is accompanied by C. palustris lado- 
 gensis, which by that time already showed signs of advanced influence of a domestic 
 environment. Inostranzewi and palustris types are seen as the earliest forms 
 of domesticated dogs, living throughout millenniums in northern Europe. The 
 latter type in a dwarfed form constituted the turbary or peat-dog, Canis palustris 
 proper, which either reached Switzerland by late Neolithic or developed there. 
 The author holds that Canis palustris ladogensis is derived directly from a small 
 type of wolf and is the result of thousands of years of domestication, while the 
 inostranzewi type is identified with a wolf-dog hybrid. 
 
 A palustris type and wolf hybrid occur simultaneously in all the Neolithic 
 sites throughout the Nordic countries until recent times, where they are repre- 
 sented by the gray deerhound (wolf hybrid) and the Finnish dog {palustris type) 
 respectively, both the latter breeds described in detail in part VI. 
 
 Br0gger, A. W. 
 
 J940. From the Stone Age to the Motor Age. A sketch of Norwegian cultural 
 history. Antiquity, vol. 14, pp. 163-181. 
 
 In the chapter "Hunting, Catching and Farming," the economic foundation 
 of the Stone and Bronze Age in Norway is outlined. During the first few thousand 
 years of the settlement of the country, when people lived in a hunting and catching 
 stage, no domestic species besides the dog was known. Only from the third 
 millennium B.C., with new civihzations invading from the south, additional do- 
 mestic animals (cow, sheep and pig) became known and were kept. 
 
 Bronholm, H. C, and Rasmussen, J. P. 
 
 1931. Ein steinzeitlicher Hausgrund bei Strandegaard, Ostseeland. Acta Ar- 
 chaeol., vol. II, pp. 265-278, 8 illus. 
 
 Remains of domestic cattle (Bos taurus domesticus) were found in a dwelling 
 place dating to the end of the early Stone Age, and were identified by M. Degerb0l 
 
 (p. 278). 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 33 
 
 Brunton, Guy, and Caton-Thompson, G. 
 
 1928. The Badarian civilization. British School of Archaeology in Egypt. 
 X + 128 pp., 85 pis. 
 
 Report of e.xcav^ation of the predynastic cemeteries and settlements at Badari 
 (near Qau, Upper Egypt). Among the mammal remains found in the graves, 
 skulls of an "ox-bufTalo" and a sheep were identified by D. M. S. Watson (p. 38). 
 The faunal remains discovered at the settlements (North Spur Hamamieh, between 
 Badari and Qau-el-Kebir) yielded bones of sheep (or goat), pig and ox (p. 77). 
 Pottery from this site shows figures of a bovine (pi. XXXVIII). On pp. 92-94 
 an account of animal burials is given. They consisted of thirteen carefully ar- 
 ranged piles, composed of the remains of young oxen (connected with one of 
 the heaps was the skull of an ass), and masses of dog bones beneath blocks of 
 limestone. All the ontogenetic stages were represented. Intermingled with the 
 dog remains were jaw parts of (domestic?) cats. 
 
 Bryner, Jones 
 
 1932. The origin and development of British cattle. Proceedings of the First 
 International Congress of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences, London, 
 pp. 151-154. Oxford University Press (London). 
 
 An account of the origin of cattle, not only of Britain but in general. The Pleis- 
 tocene Leptobos with horned males and hornless females — although descendants of a 
 remote ancestor which was hornless in both sexes — is seen as the first representa- 
 tive of the species from which all domesticated cattle were ultimately derived. 
 From this early wild race sprang several forms, one of which. Bos primigenius, was 
 domesticated at an early period in western Asia. This species has contributed 
 the main share to the make-up of modern cattle in western Europe, including 
 Britain, in which latter the wild Bos primigenius was found up to the Neolithic, 
 although it was probably never domesticated there. From the late Neolithic 
 onward there is found in abundance a smaller, more slightly built race, Bos longi- 
 frons Owen, which also originated in Asia (found at Anau; cf. Diirst, 1908). It 
 does not constitute a separate species but is a mere domestic breed of prehistoric 
 times derived from the same primigenius ancestor. Intercrossing between the 
 different forms had probably occurred already in prehistoric periods. 
 
 Burkhill, I. H. 
 
 1935 Origins of the cultivated plants of the Old World. Proc. Linn. Soc, 
 London, vol. 164, part 1, pp. 12-42. 
 
 In the introductory pages to a comprehensive study on the origin and dis- 
 persal of cultivated plants, the author devotes some discussion to the earliest 
 breeding of sheep, which probably gave rise to the first tillage, when abundant 
 spring pasture inspired the herdsmen to try to increase the supply of vegetation. 
 
 Burns, Robert, and Moody, E. C. 
 
 1935. The trek of the Golden Fleece. J. Hered., vol. XXVI, nos. 11-12, 
 pp. 433-443, 505-518. 
 
 An account of the origin and history of the Merino stock throughout two 
 millenniums is preceded by a short section on the origin and ancestors of domestic 
 sheep. 
 
 r-l 
 
 ^-r 
 
34 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Bylin-Althin, Margit 
 
 1946. The sites of Ch'i Chia P'ing and Lo Han T'ang in Kansu. Bull. Mus. 
 far east. Antiq., Stockholm, no. 18, pp. 383-498, 6 pis., 18 figs. 
 
 Report of excavations in the prehistoric sites in the Hwang-Ho valley: Ch'i 
 Chia P'ing (pre-Yang-Shao period) and Lo Han T'ang (Yang-Shao period). 
 The bones, examined by E. Dahr (pp. 457-498), were mainly those of domestic 
 mammals (the stratigraphic conditions are uncertain). The majority of the 
 bones belonged to a small form of dog (one skull similar to Canh familiar is palns- 
 tris), pigs (which displayed clear affinities to Sus vittatus), and a large type of 
 cattle. There were fewer remains of sheep and goat. 
 
 Cabrera, Angel 
 
 1922. The domestic animals. 94 pp. Libro de la Naturaleza, Calpe (Madrid). 
 
 This popular guide to the origin and history of the common domestic mammals 
 and birds and their influence upon human society is provided with numerous 
 photos and drawings. 
 
 1932. Los perros domesticos de los indigenos. Actas Cient. Congr. Intern. 
 Amer., La Plata, 25 (1931). Tom. I, pp. 81-93, 5 figs. 
 
 Brief description and discussion of bones of subfossil dog and of dog mummies 
 from South America, especially Argentina. A common wild ancestor is sug- 
 gested for South American, North American, and Old World dogs; the appearance 
 of similar types of breeds in the Old and the New World is, however, explained 
 by convergent evolution, due to similar adaptations and mutations. 
 
 Cardas, A. 
 
 1926. Essai sur I'origine des animaux domestiques de Roumaine. Ann. Sci. 
 Univ. Jassy, Tom. XIII, pp. 409-423. 
 
 A brief survey of the important domestic species and their wild ancestors 
 with special emphasis on the Romanian races. Treated are equids, oxen, buffalos, 
 sheep, goats, pigs and dogs. The primitive Romanian horses (Hutsul, Moldavian 
 breeds) are derived from the tarpan with some admixture of Przewalski's horse; 
 the indigenous cattle are considered as derived from Bos primigenius (the descent 
 of the Montagne cattle from a brachyceros ancestor is refuted). The ancestor 
 of the Tsigaia sheep is regarded as Ovis argali and that of the Tzourcana breeds 
 as O. musimon. The Romanian domestic goat is derived from Capra prisca (cf. 
 Adametz, 1915), and breeds of the primitive Mangalitsa pig are traced back to 
 Sus ferus europaeus. 
 
 Cardoso, Anibal 
 
 1912. Antiguedad del caballo en el Plata. An. Mus. nac. B. Aires, Tom. XXII 
 (Ser. Ill, Tom. XV), pp. 371-439, 16 figs. (Fr. summ.). 
 
 A review of historical sources on the introduction of Spanish horses into 
 South America is followed by an osteological study of the Criollo horse and of 
 fossil equid remains from South America. The author concludes that Hippidium 
 is the ancestor of the Pleistocene Argentinian Equus rectidens, which gave rise 
 to the domestic Criollo horse, which consequently is taken as an indigenous breed. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 35 
 
 Carruthers, Douj^las 
 
 1949. Beyond the Caspian. A Naturalist in Central Asia, xx + 290 pp., 22 pis. 
 Oliver and Boyd (Edinburgh and London). 
 
 In the tale of his wanderings beyond the Caspian the author deals at some 
 length (pp. 41 50) with the Bukharian breeds of sheep and especially with the 
 distribution and habits of the wild species (Ovis vignei and O. orientalis) considered 
 ancestral to the domestic stock. A useful synopsis of the various classifications 
 of the genus Ovis is appended (pp. 226-244). 
 
 Caton-Thompson, G. 
 
 1934. The camel in dynastic Egypt. Man, vol. XXXIV, no. 24, p. 21. 
 
 The presence of the camel in ancient Egypt is proved by a twist of cord made 
 of camel hair, found among other objects from the third dynasty during excava- 
 tions in the northern Fayum. 
 
 Caton-Thompson, G., and Gardner, E. W. 
 
 1934. The desert Fayum. 2 vols. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great 
 Britain and Ireland (London). 
 
 Report of excavations at predynastic and early dynastic sites in the desert 
 oasis of Fayum (northern Egypt). Remains of animals from Kom W (predynastic) 
 included those of pig and sheep (or goat), cattle, and five canid teeth or parts of 
 jaws which may be dog or jackal ; contrary to the assumptions of many later authors, 
 there is no mention in the original report that these animals were presumed to 
 be domestic. 
 
 Among the faunal remains from the Old Kingdom site of Umm-es-Sawan 
 were horn cores of typical domestic longhorned cattle from the early dynasties. 
 These contrast with the shorthorned cattle from Old Kingdom levels at Hemamiah 
 (cf. Brunton and Caton-Thompson, 1928). Thus rock engravings of shorthorned 
 cattle may be from the Old Kingdom period, contemporaneous with those of 
 longhorned cattle. 
 
 A cord of camel-hair was found among the quarrymen's debris of the Old 
 Kingdom period (cf. Caton-Thompson, 1934), suggesting fairly common use 
 of camel-hair by the poorer laborers. — C.A.R. 
 
 Chard, Thornton 
 
 1937. An early horse skeleton. J. Hered., vol. XXVIII, no. 9, pp. 317-319. 
 
 The earliest horse skeleton from Egypt, found in a tomb of the time of the 
 Queen Hatshepsut (early in the fifteenth century B.C.), is described. On the basis 
 of the skull-likeness and estimated height the author relates the specimen to the 
 modern Arabian type. 
 
 Childe, V. Gordon 
 
 1940. Prehistoric communities of the British Isles, xiv + 274 pp., 16 pis., 
 96 figs. W. & R. Chambers, Ltd. (London and Edinburgh). 
 
 Chapter III ("The Neolithic Revolution") contains a description of the oldest 
 Neolithic culture in the archaeological record of Britain, named after the site at 
 Windmill Hill. Besides sheep (or goat) and pig, the occupants kept cattle, which 
 
f^- 
 
 36 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 were smaller than the then native wild urus but were larger and provided with 
 longer horns than the later Celtic shorthorn (Bos longifrons). The origin of this 
 early breed of cattle from a cross of imported shorthorn with wild indigenous oxen 
 is seen as conceivable (cf. also Bryner, 1932). 
 
 ( 1941. Horses, chariots and battle-axes. Antiquity, vol. 15, no. 58, pp. 196-199. 
 On the basis of equid identifications from Tepe Sialk (cf. Vaufrey, 1939) 
 the use of horses in southwestern Iran in the fourth millennium B.C. is taken as 
 certain. The author also finds evidence for equids in Elam and Mesopotamia 
 during the fourth and early third millenniums B.C. 
 
 ChlebaroflF, G. S. 
 
 1929-30. Das brachycere Rodoporind in Bulgarien. Univ. i Sofia, Agronomi- 
 cheski fakul'tet, Tom. VIII; special copy-print, 99 pp. 
 
 A craniological study of the brachyceros cattle of the Balkan breeds (Illyrian, 
 Albanese, Macedonian, Montenegrin) and particularly of the Bulgarian Rhodope 
 cattle. It is concluded that this race could not have been derived from the European 
 Bos brachyceros but is probably of Asiatic origin. The Asiatic urus (B. namadicus) 
 or one of its varieties is considered as a possible ancestor. 
 
 Chubb, S. H. 
 
 1913. The horse under domestication; its origin and the structure and growth 
 of the teeth. Amer. Mus. nat. Hist., Guide Leaflet Ser., no. 36, ed. 3, 
 part II, pp. 37-60, figs. 25-38. 
 
 An account of horse ancestry, in which the view of a diphyletic origin for the 
 domestic horse is accepted. The "Norseman's" horse, from which both European 
 draft horses and Shetland ponies were derived, is a descendant of the native horse 
 of Europe and northwestern Asia, which in turn was perhaps a near relative of the 
 Przewalski horse of MongoHa. In contrast, the "Oriental" stock (the Arabian type) 
 originated from Equus lybicus in North Africa. 
 
 Clark, Grahame 
 
 1941. Horses and battle-axes. Antiquity, vol. 15, no. 57, pp. 50-70, 9 figs. 
 
 The introduction of horses into Asia Minor by 2500-2000 B.C., the earliest 
 occurrence of horses in the Near East, is examined from the archaeological point 
 of view. The area between the Baltic and the Black Sea is regarded as the home 
 of horses and battle-axe people, who originally probably used their animals only 
 as pack-horses. (See also Childe, 1941.) 
 
 1947. Sheep and swine in the husbandry of prehistoric Europe. Antiquity, 
 vol. 21, no. 83, pp. 122-136. 
 
 A consideration of the position of pigs and sheep in prehistoric European 
 husbandry, based upon a comparison of animal remains from successive levels at 
 various archaeological excavations. Characteristic for most of the sites under 
 consideration (mainly in the British Isles, Scandinavia, and Switzerland) is a 
 relative abundance of the pig in the Neolithic, and a substantial decline in its 
 frequency, together with a steady increase in sheep population, in the transition 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 37 
 
 time between the Neolithic and the Early Iron Age. It is suggested that the 
 foliaceous forest, which formed the background for rearing pigs and also cattle, 
 became reduced at about that period, forming thereby favorable conditions for 
 sheep breeding. 
 
 1948. Fowling in prehistoric Europe. Antiquity, vol. 22, pp. 116-130, 7 figs. 
 
 Ancient man hunted nesting geese for food and feathers; it would seem prob- 
 able that the young, after the parents had been killed, were taken to camp and 
 kept alive for food and the down. In this way the domestication of the goose 
 probably occurred. — C.A.R. 
 
 Clark, J. G. D. 
 
 1952. Prehistoric Europe, the economic basis, xix + 349 pp., 180 figs., 16 pis. 
 Methuen & Co., Ltd. (London). 
 
 A survey of animal remains from prehistoric sites in northern, northwestern 
 and central Europe (pp. 108-128). It becomes apparent that cattle and swine 
 were the predominant domestic forms in Neolithic times, but from the Late 
 Bronze Age sheep and goats came to play a part of increasing importance, a 
 phenomenon explained by changes in the flora, due to settled farming. The 
 European domestic pig (Sus scrofa palustris) is regarded as a stunted version of 
 the European wild pig (S. scrofa ferns) ; the earliest European dog is considered 
 a small race of Canis familiaris palustris; and the chief breeds of cattle kept by 
 prehistoric farmers are divided into two main groups — the primigeniiis form 
 with large horns and the longifrons group with short ones, both groups derived 
 from the aurochs. 
 
 Coon, Carleton 
 
 1951. Cave explorations in Iran — 1949. Univ. Monog. Univ. Mus., Univ. 
 of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia). 
 
 A brief description (pp. 43-52, tables III-VI) of the animal bones found in 
 northern Iranian Mesolithic and NeoHthic caves (especially in the "Belt Cave"). 
 During late Mesolithic times remains of gazelle and (wild?) ox outnumbered by 
 far those of sheep and goat, but the latter became more abundant and were appar- 
 ently domesticated in the early Neolithic period. The increase in immature 
 bones of goats in the later Neolithic phase was caused by a selective slaughtering 
 of the young males, while the females were kept for milking. At this time, or 
 somewhat later, oxen and pigs probably became domesticated also. The upper 
 Mesolithic levels of the Belt Cave (layers 24-15) also yielded fragments of canids, 
 and some of these bones were identified as belonging to the domestic dog. 
 
 1952. Excavations in Hotu Cave, Iran, 1951. A preliminary report. Proc. 
 Amer. Phil. Soc, vol. 96, pp. 230-249, 23 figs., 2 tables. 
 
 A short account (pp. 243-246) of the faunal findings from the Hotu Cave 
 (northern Iran). In the Neolithic levels (fifth millennium B.C.) domestic oxen, 
 pigs, sheep and goats were represented. Both of the latter were present as domestic 
 animals throughout the occupancy of the cave but pigs and cattle became tamed 
 (or introduced) later. Remains of the wild urus, however, which apparently had 
 been hunted from the very beginning, were detected in the lowest levels. 
 
38 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 1954. The story of man. xiii-425 pp., 32 pis., figs, in text. Alfred A. Knopf 
 (New York). 
 
 A popular account of the rise of garden tilling and animal husbandry is given 
 (pp. 114-150). Archaeological data for the earliest farming, and zoological evi- 
 dences for the ancestry of domestic farm animals, are summarized briefly. 
 
 Crawford, O. G. S. 
 
 1938. The Kish goat, Bulgaria. Antiquity, vol. 12, no. 45 (Notes and News). 
 pp. 81, 82, pi. I. 
 
 The occurrence of goats of the Capra girgentana type (cf. Adametz, 1932) 
 from Bulgaria is reported. The horns correspond also to the "Kish goat" (cf. 
 Amschler, 1937), and a Capra prisca ancestry is suggested. 
 
 Curwen, E. Cecil 
 
 1938. Early agriculture in Denmark. Antiquity, vol. 12, pp. 135-153, 4 pis. 
 
 Bones from the Mesolithic of the Mullerup cultures (approximately 6000 B.C.) 
 indicate that the dog was the only domestic animal; the domestic ox, pig, sheep, 
 and goat first appear at the beginning of the Neolithic, simultaneously with wheat 
 and barley, and must have been introduced from the south. The sheep is believed 
 descended from a species domesticated in Turkestan about 6000 B.C., and the goat 
 is regarded as derived from Capra aegagrus. The similarity between domestic and 
 wild pigs was greatest in the Neolithic, with subsequent morphological divergence. 
 The domestic cattle were either longhorned (thought to be derived from Bos primi- 
 genius) or shorthorned (B. brachyceros) . The origin of the latter is unknown. The 
 horse seems not to have reached Denmark until the Megalithic period; poultry and 
 cats did not appear until the Roman Iron Age. — C.A.R. 
 
 1946. Plough and pasture. Past and Present, vol. IV, 122 pp., 14 pis., 21 figs. 
 Thomas Knight & Co. (Hoddesdon, England). 
 
 Cf. Curwen, E. C, and Hatt, G., 1953. 
 
 Curwen, E. Cecil, and Hatt, Gudmund 
 
 1953. Plough and pasture — the early history of farming, xii+529 pp., 14 pis., 
 24 figs. Henry Schuman (New York). 
 
 A semipopular outline of the story of food production from its earliest begin- 
 nings. In the first part of the book Curwen deals with the origin of stock-breeding 
 in Europe and the Near East (chap. 3, pp. 36-48) and gives a brief review of the 
 ancestry of the earliest domestic animals — sheep, goat, ox and pig. Their hearth 
 of domestication is sought at some point within the area bounded by the Nile on 
 the west, the Indus on the east, and the forty-fifth parallel on the north. Nomadic 
 tribes — not identical with the settled farmers, who started the cultivation of cereals 
 in about the same area — are considered as the first animal-breeders. Tarpan- 
 ancestry is accepted for the domestic horse, and its first domestication center is 
 found in southern Russia as early as the fourth millennium B.C. 
 
 The second part, by Hatt, is a study of the economic cultures of non-European 
 peoples in modern and historic times. In America (p. 199) two independent cen- 
 ters of animal domestication are distinguished — Peru and Central America, llama 
 and alpaca being characteristic of the former and never reaching the latter, where- 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 39 
 
 as domestic turkeys and tame bees were characteristic of Central America but 
 never were found in Peru. Old World pastoralism (chaps. 15 and 18) arose in 
 Asia. The first domestication (of bovids, reindeer, horse, camel) was done by 
 hunters, who developed the use of animals for transport and for dairy purposes. 
 
 Dahr, Elias 
 
 1937. Studien liber Hunde aus primitiven Steinzeitkulturen in Nordeuropa. 
 Acta Univ. Lundensis, N. S., Avdelingen 2, Bd. 32, Nr. 4, pp. 1-63, 3 pis., 
 12 tables, 5 figs. (Eng. summ., pp. 58-61). 
 
 An osteological treatment of dog remains from pre-Neolithic ("Miolithic") 
 cultures of northern Europe (from among Baltic comb ceramics and Danish 
 kitchen-middens'), especially from the dwelling site at Sj0holmen in southern 
 Sweden. In all these Stone Age cultures the only achievement in domestication 
 is the dog, of which, however, there are several breeds, all closely related. On the 
 basis of diflferences in the dentition and in other craniological features (e.g., the 
 position of the orbital plane), wolves, jackals and coyotes are excluded from the 
 pedigree of the Miolithic dogs, which are supposed to have been derived from an 
 extinct species closely resembling or even identical with the dingo, assuming that 
 the latter was represented in Asia during prehistoric times. 
 
 1942. iJber die Variationen der Hirnschale bei wilden und zahmen Caniden. 
 Ein Beitrag zur Genealogie der Haushunde. Arkiv Zool., Bd. 33 A, Nr. 16, 
 pp. 1-56, 3 figs., 7 tables. 
 
 The co-variation of length and breadth of the brain-case in wild and domestic 
 dogs is investigated, and conclusions concerning the genealogy of the latter are 
 drawn from the results. Neither true wolves nor typical jackals are considered 
 ancestral to recent domestic dogs, which are supposed to have been derived from 
 a dingo-like form, spread during early Quaternary time on the Eurasian continent. 
 
 Dalimier, Paul 
 
 1954. La morphologie de la chevre sous I'influence de la domestication. Bull. 
 Inst. Sci. Nat. Belg., vol. 30, no. 13, pp. 1-12, 5 figs. 
 
 Following a discussion of the opinions of Keller and of Lydekker, the author 
 concludes that the domestic goats of Kashmir and Tibet, with heteronymous horns, 
 are derived from the markhor, Capra falconeri; most other domestic goats (and 
 particularly those of Europe) are descended from the bezoar or pisang, Capra hir- 
 cus aegagruii. There are aegagrus-Aefix&d dwarf goats in Lapland and West Africa. 
 Human selection has had little influence on the behavior or morphology of the goat, 
 aside from the retention of the lop ear and the development of different kinds of 
 pelage. This lack of change under domestication, as contrasted with profound 
 changes in most domestic mammals, is ascribed to the fact that the goat has 
 always been kept in small groups by the poor, never in large flocks by rich stock- 
 men who might have practiced selective breeding. — C.A.R. 
 
 Davis, Malcolm 
 
 1954. The history of the domestication of animals. All-Pets Magazine, Feb- 
 ruary, 1954, pp. 21, 32-37. 
 
 A popular review of domestic mammals and birds and how they originated. 
 
40 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Davvkins, W. Boyd, and Jackson, J. W. 
 
 1917. The domestic animals of the Lake Village. In A. Bulleid and H. G. Gray, 
 The Glastonbury Lake Village, vol. H, chap. 26, pp. 648-661, pi. XCVIL 
 The Glastonbury Antiquarian Society (Glastonbury). 
 
 Study of the faunal remains from excavations at a lake village near Glaston- 
 bury (Great Britain), dated to the prehistoric Iron Age prior to the Roman occu- 
 pation. Sheep bones constitute by far the most abundant remains and represent 
 at least two distinct breeds. Sheep are followed in frequency by cattle (Bos longi- 
 frons), while few remains belonged to the horse (a small breed, probably Equns 
 agiUs), dog and goat(?). The description of the lake village fauna follows a brief 
 discussion on animals in prehistoric Britain in general; all of the domestic breeds 
 — horse, cattle, sheep, goat, pig and dog — are considered as introduced species, 
 brought by Neolithic herdsmen from the Continent. 
 
 Debono, Fernand 
 
 1948. El-Omari (pres d'Helouan). Expose sommaire sur le campagnes des 
 fouilles 1943-1944 et 1948. Ann. Serv. Antiq. Egypte, vol. 48, pp. 561- 
 569, 6 pis. 
 
 The pre-dynastic site of El-Omari in Egypt yielded a fauna which included 
 pig, goat, a bovid (presumably cattle), and a canid. It is suggested that the 
 goat and the bovid were probably domesticated. The time of occupation of 
 El-Omari probably lies between the times of occupation of Merimde and Maadi. 
 — C.A.R. 
 
 Degerb0l, Magnus 
 
 1927. IJber prahistorische danische Hunde. Vidensk. Medd. dansk naturh. 
 Foren. Kbh., Bd. 84, pp. 17-60, 6 tables, 4 pis. 
 
 Discussion of dogs from the Danish Stone Age and description of dog skulls 
 from the Svardborg Moor (Ancylus period). Those skulls, remains of the most 
 ancient domestic animal in Denmark, are regarded as a "palustris-svardborgensis" 
 form distinct from the larger and stouter Canis palusfris ladogensis. A dog skele- 
 ton from the following (pre-Roman) period is described and identified with Cayiis 
 familiaris inostranzewi, the occurrence of which in the Danish Campignien is dis- 
 cussed briefly. 
 
 1933a. Danmarks Pattedyr i Fortiden i Sammenlingning med recente Former. 
 (Danish mammals of old times in comparison with recent forms.) Festskr. 
 i Anledning Hundredaarsdagen dansk naturhist. Foren., pp. 357-641, 
 pis. xii-xxiv, 21 figs. (cf. Degerb0l, M., 1933b). 
 
 1933b. Danmarks Pattedyr i Fortiden. (Danish mammals of old times.) 
 284 pp., 21 figs., 24 pis., 50 tables in text, 13 tables appended. C. A. Reizels 
 Forlag (K0benhavn). 
 
 A detailed survey of the Danish mammal fauna from the last interglacial 
 period up to the Neolithic, based primarily upon the subfossil material collected 
 by the Zoological Museum of the University of Copenhagen. 
 
 The book deals almost exclusively with wild forms, but a special part (pp. 231 - 
 237) is devoted to the domestic dog, the most ancient and up to early Neolithic 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 41 
 
 the only domesticated animal. Specimens found in Zealand settlements (Lundby 
 Bog") are closely related to Conis familiaris i nostra nzewi. But beside this larger 
 form the sites at Svardborg (cf. Degerbol, 1927) and Mullerup (also early Neolithic) 
 yielded a smaller dog related to the palHstris type, which had been kept in Den- 
 mark thousands of years before C. familiaris palustris appeared at Lake Ladoga. 
 The new type is named C. fayniliaris palustris svardborgensis. The wolf is seen as 
 ancestor for the large breeds of dogs, the jackal as probable progenitor for the 
 small breeds. 
 
 1939. Dyreknogler. (Animal bones.) In T. Mathiassen, Bunds0. En yngre 
 Stenalders Boplads paa Als; Aarb0ger, 1939 (K0benhavn), pp. 85-198, 
 3 pis., 36 figs., 25 tables. 
 
 A detailed description and discussion of the faunal remains from a prehistoric 
 dwelling place, Bundsd on Jylland (Denmark). 
 
 Bones of the wild urus and domestic cattle were found. Among the latter, 
 primigenius and brachyceros ( = longifrons) types are distinguished and their osteo- 
 logical relationship is worked out in detail; trochoceros and fro ntos us forms are re- 
 garded as variations of the primigenius type. Pig and sheep belonged to the tur- 
 bary type (Sus scrofa palustris and Ovis aries palustris), and the few goat remains 
 are identified as Capra hircus. The dogs at Bunds0 showed closest resemblance to 
 Canis familiaris pahistris ladogensis. 
 
 Dobzhansky, Theodosius 
 
 1955. Evolution, Genetics, and Man. xi+398 pp. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 
 
 (New York). 
 
 In chap. 9 (pp. 191-221) a domestic form is tentatively defined as one that 
 regularly reproduces in captivity and whose populations are controlled by man. 
 The horse is discussed as an example. The European forest horse, the tarpan of 
 the steppes, and the eastern Przewalski horse are regarded as no more than sub- 
 specifically distinct, and all three populations have contributed to the gene-pool 
 of the domestic horse. 
 
 A table (p. 193) of domestic mammals is presented, with the place and time of 
 their domestication, as known. The reindeer is not included. — C.A.R. 
 
 Dottrens, E. 
 
 1946. La faune neolithique de la couche profonde de Saint- Aubin. I. Etude 
 preliminaire: les phalanges osseuses de Bos taurus domesticus. Rev. Suisse 
 Zool., Tom. 53, no. 4, pp. 739-774. 
 
 Preliminary report of the cattle remains from Saint-Aubin (cf. Revilliod and 
 Dottrens, 1947) and a detailed study of the phalanges from ten individuals. 
 
 DiJrst, J. Ulrich 
 
 1900. Die Rinder von Babylon, Assyrien und Agypten — und ihr Zusammen- 
 hang mit den Rindern der Alten Welt. 94 pp., 8 pis. Georg Reimer (Berlin) . 
 
 Animal representations in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and osteological 
 material from recent African and Asiatic cattle are studied and compared in order 
 to trace the history and nature of the domestic cattle kept by Assyrians, Baby- 
 lonians and Egyptians. The author suggests that the domesticated longhorned 
 
42 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 races as well as the brachyceros breeds from the Near East, from North and East 
 Africa, and from the Swiss lake dwellings originated in India, probably from Bos 
 namadicns Falconer. 
 
 1904. iJber ein neues prahistorisches Hausschaf und dessen Herkunft. Vjschr. 
 naturf. Ges. Zurich, Jhg. 49, pp. 17-31, 2 pis. with 6 figs. 
 
 Description of the remains of a new type of domestic sheep from a Swiss lake 
 dwelling, but found in other European Neolithic sites as well. The stouter bones 
 and heavier horns clearly distinguish this type from the turbary sheep {Ovis aries 
 palustris) and it is named by the author Ovis aries studeri; since it seems to appear 
 at the threshold of the Copper Age it is referred to as "copper sheep." 
 
 The copper sheep is seen as an offspring from a cross of the turbary sheep with 
 the wild mouflon. 
 
 1908. Animal remains from the excavations at Anau, and the horse of Anau in 
 its relation to the races of domestic horses. Carnegie Inst. Washington, 
 publ. 73, vol. II, part 6, pp. 339-442, pis. 71-91. 
 
 Extensive and detailed treatment of the osteological material from the pre- 
 historic site at Anau in southwestern Turkestan. Domestic species identified and 
 described were dog, pig, cattle, sheep, goat, camel and horse. The dog of Anau 
 is of the type Canis familiaris matris optimae, which resembles the dingo as well as 
 the fossil Conis poutiatini (cf. Studer, 1906) and is derived from one of them. 
 Remains of pig, very common in later strata, are close to Sus vittatus and regarded 
 as the oldest trace of the turbary pig. The bovid of the lower layers from Anau is 
 identified with wild Bos namadicns, but during later periods a domesticated long- 
 horned type of cattle originated from this wild form. Among the sheep bones 
 (about 20 per cent in all levels), the author distinguishes the wild Ovis vignei arkal 
 and a domestic form, O. aries palustris, which is considered a direct descendant of 
 the former. Domestic goat (Capra hircus) and camel yielded few fragments and 
 only in the uppermost layers; it is suggested that both were imported from the 
 Iranian plateau. 
 
 The numerous equid remains from Anau are designated as a desert type of 
 horse — the oldest domestic breed of the Oriental group and named Equui^ caballus 
 pumpellii. The horse of Anau, its genealogy and its connection with the other 
 domestic horses are discussed in a special chapter (pp. 401-442). Three basic 
 types for the domestic horse stock are suggested, all derived from E. c. fossilis 
 (a recent form of which is found in the Przewalski horse) : (a) a steppe type (E. c. 
 robnstus), which gave rise to the Occidental horses; (b) a forest type (E. c. neh- 
 ringi), the ancestor of the Celtic pony; and (c) a desert type, the horse of Anau 
 (cf. above). 
 
 1945. Zur Frage der Herkunft des Haushundes. Anthropos, Tom. 37-40 
 (1942-45), Analecta et Additamenta, pp. 318-319. , 
 
 Serological tests showed that the jackal and the wolf have the same affinity 
 to the domestic dog; both are considered ancestors. The Australian Canis dingo 
 is seen as a wild, never domesticated animal, though a related form gave rise to 
 the pariah type, found at a domestic stage in the Anau culture. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 43 
 
 Diirst, J. U., and Gaillard, C. 
 
 1902. Studien iiber die Geschichte des iigyptischen Hausschafes. Rec. Trav. 
 Rel. Phil, el Arch. Egypt, et Assyr., Paris, Tom. 24, pp. 44-76, 10 figs. 
 
 A zoological-archaeological study of the "goat-horned sheep," which oc- 
 curred in prehistoric Egypt. It was the original prototype for the famous "Ram 
 of Mendes," but was replaced later, after its extinction, by a goat (probably Hircus 
 mambrictiii). The study shows the similarity of the African wild Ovis longipes and 
 the Egyptian "goat-horned sheep" named O. I. palaeoaegypticus, which is taken 
 to be the oldest domestic form of the long-legged and horizontally screw-horned 
 breeds (as represented by the recent Walachian sheep). 
 
 Dyson, Robert H. 
 
 1953. Archaeology and the domestication of animals. Amer. Anthi»op., vol. 55, 
 no. 5, part 1, pp. 661-671. 
 
 A brief summary of early archaeological evidence concerning the domestication 
 of cattle, pig, goat and sheep, and a compilation of references to studies on their 
 origin. It is concluded that a Neolithic economy, based in part on those four 
 domestic animals, was first developed in the Near East, some time during or prior 
 to the fifth millennium B.C. 
 
 A comprehensive bibliography is appended. 
 
 Epstein, H. 
 
 1933. Descent and origin of the Afrikaner cattle. J. Hered., vol. XXIV, no. 12, 
 pp. 449-462, frontispiece, 5 figs. 
 
 The South African red Afrikaner cattle evolved from indigenous breeds by 
 severe and careful selection. The nucleus was formed by the Hottentot cattle, 
 which did not originate from a cross of Hamitic longhorn {primigenius type) with 
 zebus, like most of the other African breeds (Zulu, Bechuana, Watusi and Damara 
 cattle), but represents — according to craniological and other skeleton features - 
 a pure zebu breed (derived from Bos namadicus), which is believed to have reached 
 Africa via Bab-el-Mandeb and Ethiopia during the second millennium B.C. The 
 author holds that the original characteristics of the zebu race are preserved in a 
 purer form in the Afrikaner cattle than in the zebus of Asia, which have been 
 exposed to the influence of shorthorned (brachyceros) breeds. 
 
 Erkes, Eduard 
 
 1940. Das Pferd im alten China. T'oung-Pao Archives, vol. 36, liv. 1, pp. 26- 
 63. E. J. Brill (Leiden). 
 
 Archaeological evidences are brought together to prove that the wild horse 
 was known to man in China in early Paleolithic times and was tamed in China 
 by the Neolithic. Also, on the basis of ethnological material, it is assumed that 
 horse-breeding evolved in China from the taming of the indigenous wild horse. 
 The ass, on the other hand, was introduced into China, together with mule and 
 camel, by the Huns at the end of the third century B.C. 
 
 Etheridge, R. 
 
 1916. The warrigal, or "dingo" introduced or indigenous? Mem. geol. Surv. 
 N. S. W., Ethn., no. 2, pp. 43-54, pis. x-xii. 
 
 T* 
 
44 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Records dealing with discoveries of post-Pliocene dog remains from the Wel- 
 lington and other bone caves in New South Wales are presented, and contradictory 
 views concerning the status of the dingo — whether indigenous in Australia previous 
 to the advent of man or introduced by the latter — are quoted. The "WeUington 
 Caves Teeth" are compared with teeth of a modern domestic dog, and with those 
 of the Tasmanian wolf and the Tasmanian devil. The author concludes that a dog 
 did exist in New South Wales in Post-Tertiary times, and that some of the teeth 
 are those of a dog. 
 
 Ewart, J. Cossar 
 
 1904. The multiple origin of horses and ponies. Trans. Highl. agric. Soc. Scot- 
 land, vol. XVI, pp. 230-268, 24 figs. 
 
 An outline of the probable polyphyletic origin of domestic horses from several 
 distinct species which persisted from pre-glacial times almost unaltered to recent 
 days. Three distinct types of living horses are distinguished and described: the 
 wild Equus przewalskii, the Celtic pony, and the Norse horse, the two latter called 
 E. caballus celficus and E. c. typicus, respectively. In addition to these, several 
 African and Oriental varieties are suggested as possible ancestors of modern breeds. 
 
 1907a. On skulls of horses from the Roman Fort at Newstead near Melrose, 
 with observations on the origin of the domestic horse. Trans, roy. Soc. 
 Edinb., vol. 45, part 3, pp. 555-587, 1 table, 17 figs., 3 pis. 
 
 Among the horse remains from the Roman Fort at Newstead, Scotland, dated 
 to the first and second centuries a.d., three distinct kinds of skulls are distinguished. 
 A comparative study of the skulls of living varieties with the skulls of Newstead 
 proved that (a) long, bent skulls from Newstead are almost identical with the skull 
 of Equus przeivalskii ; (b) very narrow skulls agree with those of typical Celtic 
 ponies (and also some Arabian horses); (c) broad-faced skulls resemble closely the 
 skulls of horses of the "forest type," frequently met with in northern Europe and 
 in northern and western Africa. 
 
 The new evidence confirms the previous view of the author on the origin of the 
 tamed horse (cf. Ewart, 1904), and three groups of domestic horses are recognized: 
 (a) The "steppe variety," which has either sprung from or is closely allied to 
 Przewalski's horse; this group comprises the Oriental horses, including the tarpan, 
 which is taken to be a feral horse, (b) The "plateau variety," which includes two 
 races, the "Celtic," adapted for a subarctic habitat and widely distributed in pre- 
 historic Europe, and the "Libyan" (identical with Equus caballus libycus; cf. 
 Ridgeway, 1905), adapted for a subtropical region, (c) The "forest variety" 
 (identical with the Norse horse; cf. Ewart, 1904), derived from the wild Equus 
 robustus, found in alluvial deposits in France. 
 
 The Arabian horses are considered partly of the steppe and partly of the forest 
 type. Most of the recent breeds, which are reviewed briefly, carry blood of sev- 
 eral ancestors. 
 
 1907b. The derivation of the modern horse. Quart. Rev., vol. 206, no. 411. 
 
 After a short review of the theories on the origins of the domestic horse, evi- 
 dence is produced to show that the three types of recent horses, forest, plateau, 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 45 
 
 and steppe types (cf. Ewart, 1907a), were already present in prehistoric times and 
 go back to three distinct Paleolithic ancestors. 
 
 1909. The possible ancestors of the horses living under domestication. Science, 
 vol. 30, no. 763, pp. 219-223. 
 
 In a brief discussion of the probable ancestors of the domestic races of horses 
 the author claims a polyphyletic origin from several (at least five) Pleistocene 
 forms. To the three forms previously established (cf. Ewart, 1907a, b), a "Si- 
 walik" type is added, to include horses allied to Eqims sivalensis of the Pliocene 
 deposits found in the Siwalik Hills of India. Slender-limbed forms are derived 
 either from E. gracilis libycus (syn., E. caballus libijcus; cf. Ridgeway, 1905) or 
 from a cross of the latter wilh E. robustus. 
 
 1912. The principles of breeding and the origin of domesticated breeds of ani- 
 mals. 27th Ann. Rep., Bur. Anim. Industry, 1910, Washington, pp. 125- 
 186, 7 figs. 
 
 In the second part of this article the author gives a detailed description of the 
 characteristics of ancient domestic breeds and deals at length with the origin of 
 sheep, cattle and domestic horses. It is suggested that some of the long-tailed 
 European breeds of sheep descended from the urial or from mouflons, but the 
 spiral-horned varieties were perhaps derived from the argali type (cf. Ewart, 1913, 
 1914). The Celtic shorthorn {Bos longifrons) is considered to be more intimately 
 related to longhorned zebus than to Bos primigenius; other British races, however 
 (Galloway, Cadrow cattle), are regarded as of the primigenius type; Aberdeen- 
 Angus cattle are derived from an ancient Oriental race. Gaur and banteng are 
 considered as descendants of Bos aciitifrons of the Punjab. 
 
 A full description is given of the four types of domesticated horses distin- 
 guished by the author: the forest, plateau, steppe and Siwalik types (cf. Ewart, 
 1907a, b, 1909). The latter is related to the Pliocene Equus sivalensis, or to its more 
 specialized relative, E. stenonis of Europe. 
 
 1913. Domestic sheep and their wild ancestors. I. Sheep of the mouflon and 
 the urial types. Trans. Highl. agric. Soc. Scotland, ser. V, vol. XXV, 
 pp. 160-191, figs. 30-67. 
 
 After referring to characteristics and distribution of the present types of 
 wild sheep, an attempt is made to indicate the part that the varieties of the mouflon 
 {Ovis orientalis and 0. musimon) and the urial (O. vignei) have played in forming 
 modern breeds. Special attention is directed to the Shetland sheep of the peat 
 or turbary type (O. aries palustris), which retains the main characteristics of 
 the urial ancestor, and to the semi-wild sheep of the islands of Soay, some of 
 which resemble the urial while others appear to be closely related to the mouflon 
 or to its early domesticated ancestor, the so-called "copper sheep" (cf. Diirst, 
 1904). It is suggested that a tame mouflon and the urial, the latter in the form 
 of the domestic turbary sheep, met and blended early in the Bronze Age. 
 
 1914. Domestic sheep and their wild ancestors. II. Wild sheep of the argali 
 type. Trans. Highl. agric. Soc. Scotland, ser. V, vol. XXVI, pp. 74-101, 
 8 pis. with 26 figs. 
 
46 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 By examining sheep remains from alluvial deposits of the Thames Valley 
 and by studying skeletons of wild and domestic forms, primitive and improved, 
 evidences are obtained that besides the urial and the mouflon (cf. Ewart, 1913), 
 the wild argali {Ovis ammon) has also contributed to domestic breeds of sheep. 
 Argali characters are found in subfossil sheep material from the Thames alluvium 
 and in the fat-rumped breeds of Bukhara and Turkestan. 
 
 Fairservis, Walter A., Jr. 
 
 1955. Wool through the ages: A research survey on the history of wool. 23 pp. 
 The Wool Bureau, Inc. (New York). 
 
 A popular summary of the history of wool and the wool-industry, from the 
 prehistoric period into the first millennium a.d. Included is a short account of 
 the archeologic evidence, as known, for the origin of domestic sheep and for their 
 early history (cf. Hilzheimer, 1936; Braidwood, 1952; Dyson, 1953).— C.A.R. 
 
 Feige, Ernst 
 
 1927. Das Haustierproblem. Naturwissenschaften, Jhg. XV, Heft 42, pp. 
 841-847. 
 
 A brief summary of information on the early dispersal of domestic mammals 
 is followed by a discussion of zoogeographic aspects. Particular emphasis is 
 given to the significance of pigmentation in relation to the original environment 
 of domesticated animals. 
 
 1928. Die Haustierzonen der alten Welt. Petermanns Mitt., Nr. 198, 121 pp., 
 1 map. 
 
 The wild ancestors of domestic ungulates and their geographic distribution 
 are investigated in order to localize the areas of domestication. "Natural areas" 
 of domestication are marked for the various groups in Africa, Asia and Europe 
 and contrasted to "economic areas" of domestication in these continents. The 
 dependence of pigments upon geographic and ecological factors is stressed (pp. 
 107-117). The author holds that the morphological influence of human culture 
 on domestic forms has usually been insignificant in comparison with the influence 
 of the natural environment. A geographical map schematizes the "natural areas" 
 of domestication. 
 
 Flor, Fritz 
 
 1930. Haustiere und Hirtenkulturen. Wiener Beitr. Kulturges. und Linguistik. 
 Inst. Volkerkunde, Univ. Wien, pp. 1-238. 
 
 This historical survey covers the origins of the domestic dog, reindeer and 
 horse. The philological aspects are emphasized, but zoological information is 
 considered. The author finds the cradle of the domestic dog (chap. 3) in the 
 Protoeskimoid culture in arctic Siberia and associates with the rearing of the 
 dog the earliest breeding of reindeer (chap. 4) among the Protosamojeds. The 
 keeping of reindeer is considered to be the most ancient pastoral culture and it 
 eventually gave rise to the domestication of the horse (chap. 6), practiced first 
 in Asia by the Proto-Altaian tribes. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 47 
 
 Forbes, R. J. 
 
 1955. The coming of the camel. In Studies in Ancient Technology, vol. II, 
 pp. 187-208. E. J. Brill (Leiden). 
 
 The camel and the dromedary are separate species, independently domesticated 
 from different wild species. The camel was probably domesticated in central 
 Asia in late Neolithic times, the dromedary in Arabia, perhaps somewhat earlier. 
 Neither animal was adopted by peoples of historical cultures for several millen- 
 niums, although both species were known to the Akkadians; the Egyptians, from 
 pre-dynastic times onward, had rare contacts with dromedary-owning Bedouins. 
 
 The Assyrians were the first historical people to use these animals, the camel 
 from about 1100 B.C. onward, the dromedary from approximately 800 B.C. Trans- 
 desert traffic by means of dromedary caravans came only with the Persian Empire. 
 Although the dromedary existed wild in northern Africa in prehistoric times, there 
 is no evidence that it was domesticated there, and its use west of the Nile spread 
 slowly, even after its introduction into Egypt about 300 B.C. — C.A.R. 
 
 Fraser, F. C, and King, J. E. 
 
 1954. Faunal remains. In Excavations at Star Carr: An Early Mesolithic 
 Site at Seamer near Scarborough, Yorkshire, by J. G. D. Clark, pp. 70-95. 
 Cambridge, at the University Press. 
 
 The Star Carr horizon of the Maglemosian (Mesolithic) culture belongs to 
 an earlier period (a late phase of the pre-Boreal, or Zone IV) of post-glacial time 
 than did the classic Maglemosian sites of Denmark and the shores of the Baltic. 
 A wide variety of animal remains was found, but none were domestic species, 
 although an earlier report (Proc. prehist. Soc, 1950, vol. 15, pp. 109-129) had 
 suggested the presence of the domestic dog. However, all canid materials proved 
 to belong to the wolf. The absence of a dog is particularly interesting in view 
 of the C* determination (9488 ±350 years), which is so close to the suggested 
 date of 9000 years ascribed to the dog found at Frankfort (cf. Baas, 1938).— C.A.R. 
 
 Free, Joseph 
 
 1944. Abraham's camels. J. Near East. Stud., vol. Ill, pp. 187-197. 
 
 A collection of evidences (chiefly art representations) that point to the presence 
 of camels in ancient Egypt in predynastic periods. Many items seem to offer 
 evidence that the animals were domesticated. 
 
 Friederichs, Heinz 
 
 1933. Zur Kenntnis der friihgeschichtHchen Tierwelt Siidwestasiens. Alte 
 Orient, Bd. 32, Hefte 3, 4, pp. 1-44, 26 figs. 
 
 Animal representations from four sites in southwestern Asia — Mohenjo-Daro 
 near the Indus, Tell Halaf in northern and Ur in southern Mesopotamia, and 
 Maikop in northern Caucasia — are described, and problems of domestication in 
 the fourth and third millenniums B.C. in this area are worked out. Earliest domestic 
 animals of southwestern Asia, according to their representations, are Bos primi- 
 genius, spread over all the area and, in Mohenjo-Daro, accompanied by B. namad- 
 iciis; sheep {Ovis aries in India, O. vignei in Mesopotamia and O. orieydalis in 
 Maikop); and goat. Those species are followed somewhat later by camels (at 
 Tell Halaf), horses and asses, both the latter indicated by the occurrence of mules. 
 
\^ 
 
 ^>v 
 
 48 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Funkenstein, Daniel II. 
 
 1955. The physiology of fear and anger. Sci. Amer., vol. 192, no. 5, pp. 74-78, 
 80, 7 figs. 
 
 Domestic mammals, mammals depending upon flight for survival, and very 
 social animals such as baboons produce a high proportion of adrenalin to nor- 
 adrenalin, whereas aggressive animals such as the lion have a higher proportion 
 of nor-adrenalin. The domestic cat produces about equal amounts of each. Adren- 
 alin and nor-adrenaUn are both hormones secreted by the medulla of the adrenal 
 gland; nor-adrenalin is associated with emotional and physiological reactions 
 accompanying rage, whereas adrenalin is associated with those of fear. — C.A.R. 
 
 Fiirer-Haimendorf, C. von 
 
 1932. Zur Frage der Herkunft der BUffelhaltung auf den Philippinen. Biol, 
 gen., Bd. VIH, pp. 66-72. 
 
 The carabao, kept as an animal of the household and for cult purposes by the 
 mountain tribes of the Philippines, cannot be derived from the only indigenous 
 bovid {Bo^< mindorensis). Looking for the cradle of the domestic carabao and 
 discussing the date of its introduction to the islands, the author concludes that 
 Austro-Asiatic invaders brought the tamed animal from the Asian continent. 
 
 1955. Culture history and cultural development. Yearb. Anthr., vol. 1, pp. 
 149-168. 
 
 Based on recent archaeological evidence (cf. Dyson, 1953), there has been a 
 complete reversal of ethnological theory concerning origins of domestication. 
 Former ideas of the antiquity and independence of horse and reindeer breeding 
 by nomads of central and northern Eurasia must be abandoned in favor of the 
 concept of primary domestication of goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs by the early 
 farmers (or their immediate ancestors) of southwestern Asia. — C.A.R. 
 
 Gaillard, Claude 
 
 1912. Les tatonnements des Egyptiens a la recherche des animaux a domesti- 
 quer. Rev. Ethnogr. Sociol., Paris, Tom. IH, pp. 329-348, 19 figs. 
 
 A survey of the domestic and semi-domestic fauna of Egypt at the time of 
 the Old Kingdom as reflected by animal figurines, sculptures and paintings from 
 the ancient monuments. Besides the domestication of sheep, mamber-goat and 
 longhorned cattle, which are dealt with briefly, the author finds evidence in the 
 animal representations for a taming of the Nubian wild goat {Ibex nubiana), 
 the dorcas gazelle, the Beatrix antelope (Oryx), and the addax {Addax nasomaculata) 
 during several dynasties. 
 
 1934. Contribution a I'etude de la faune prehistorique de I'Egypte. Arch. 
 Mus. Hist. nat. Lyon, Tom. XIV, Mem. IIL 126 pp., 12 pis., 55 figs. 
 
 A detailed study of the fossils from the Paleolithic site at Kom Ombo (north 
 of Aswan) and the faunal remains from a Neolithic kitchen-midden deposit at 
 Toukh (Upper Egypt). Besides remains of wild horse, ass, and buffalo among 
 the faunal assemblage from Kom Ombo, those of Bos primigenius and B. brachy- 
 ceros were identified; both species were considered to belong to wild and indigenous 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 49 
 
 races. Most of the species represented in Toukh are regarded as probably domes- 
 ticated: they inchided cattle, pig, dog, bufTalo, goat and sheep. Cattle remains 
 were most frequent and belonged to the brachijceros type, the pig was of the turbary 
 race (Sus scrofa aff. palustris), sheep were identified as Ovif! longipes palaeoaegijpticus 
 (cf. Diirst and Gaillard, 1902), and among the goat remains two species were 
 distinguished — the mamber goat (///rr».s- mombn'cHf<) and //. reversus. 
 
 Galbreath, Edwin C, 
 
 1947. Additions to the flora of the late Pleistocene deposits at Ashmore, Illinois. 
 Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 60-61. 
 
 The Indian dog is listed as being present with the following extinct mammals: 
 giant beaver, ground sloth, American mastodon, and an undetermined ovibovid. 
 The coyote was separately identified. — C.A.R. 
 
 Gandert, Otto F. 
 
 1930. Forschungen zur Geschichte des Haushundes. Mannus Bib., Nr. 46, 
 93 pp., 34 figs. C. Kabitzsch (Leipzig). 
 
 An archaeological-chronological analysis of the Neolithic comb-ceramic culture 
 of northeastern Europe (third millennium B.C.) is followed by an investigation 
 of its domestic stock. The finds from the Russian site at Bologoe (Gouv. Novgerod) 
 are described and treated in detail. The only domestic animal of this culture 
 was the dog, used for hunting. It also provided food and fur. The dog remains 
 belong to two forms: Canis familiaris palustris and the larger C. /. inostranzewi. 
 The author opposes the view that the larger gave rise to the smaller turbary 
 form and suggests that the reverse may have been true. 
 
 Gehl, Otto 
 
 1930. Postglaziale Haushunde aus Schleswig-Holstein — nebst einem Beitrag zur 
 caniden Osteometrie. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBioL, Bd. VIII, pp. 225-288, 5 figs., 
 12 tables, 4 pis. 
 
 Remains of Neolithic canids from northern Germany, especially from sites 
 in Schleswig-Holstein, are described and discussed. In the early Neolithic sites 
 (Kiel, Klausdorf ) two forms appeared: Canis palustris ladogensis and C. intermedins. 
 In the high Neolithic (Ellebeck, Husum) C. palustris appeared as the result of a 
 more intensive domestication. A dog (the body preserved in peat) from the 
 early Iron Age showed affinities to C. pallipes and a marked influence of the north 
 European wolf. 
 
 The first part of the paper contains a discussion of the customary craniometric 
 methods for canids, with a guide to new ones. 
 
 Gejvali, Nils G. 
 
 1937-38. The fauna of the different settlements of Troy. Kungl. Humanist. 
 Vetenskaps. Lund, Arsberattelse 1937-38, pp. 50-57. 
 
 Preliminary report on the animal bones collected at Troy during the excavations 
 from 1932 onward. From Troy I (early third millennium B.C.) the genera Bos, 
 Sus, Ovis, Capra and Canis are recorded. In Troy II an increase in cattle breeding 
 becomes evident. Equid remains, first recorded from Troy IV, belong probably 
 to the domestic ass, while the horse appears only in Troy VI. 
 
50 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 1938-39. The fauna of the successive settlements of Troy. Kungl. Humanist. 
 Vetenskaps. Lund, Arsberattelse 1938-39, pp. 1-7. 
 
 The second preliminary report on the faunal remains from Troy (cf. Gejvali, 
 1937-38) confirms the occurrence of the horse in early Troy VL The domestic 
 horse seemed to become abundant soon after its first appearance. From Troy IX 
 a skull of a domestic(?) cat is recorded. 
 
 1938. liber ein Pferd aus der schwedischen Wikingerzeit. Ark. Zool., Bd. 30A, 
 Nr. 17, pp. 1-16, 2 figs. 
 
 A detailed investigation of a skeleton belonging to a domestic horse of the 
 Viking period, found in Uppland (Sweden). The measurements and indices point 
 to a close affinity with the Arabian horse or the tarpan. 
 
 George, Naguib 
 
 1950. The camel in ancient Egypt. Brit. vet. J., vol. 106, no. 2, pp. 76-81, 5 figs. 
 
 Cervical vertebrae and ribs of camel were found in excavations at Helwan 
 near Cairo, Egypt. They are regarded as evidence that the camel was present 
 in Egypt during predynastic periods. 
 
 Gerbes, Eduard 
 
 1951. IJber die Rinderreste aus den keltisch-romischen Niederlassungen der 
 Engelhalbinsel bei Bern. Rev. suisse Zool., Tom. 58, no. 1, pp. 1-23. 
 
 On the basis of a study of the cattle remains from a Celtic site (400-58 
 B.C.) on the Engel Peninsula near Bern the conclusion is reached that the stout 
 bovid of this site also belongs to the brachycephalus race, as cattle of primi- 
 genius type are lacking. 
 
 Gromova, V. J. 
 
 1927. [Material on the knowledge of the fauna of the Tripolje culture.] Yezhe- 
 godik Zoologicheskogo Muzeia, Akad. Nauk SSSR., pp. 83-121 (in Russian). 
 
 Detailed description and summary of the animal remains collected from 
 five sites in the central sphere of the Tripolje culture (near Kiev, Ukraine). The 
 great majority of the bones (86 per cent) belonged to domestic species, among 
 which cattle were represented most frequently (37 per cent), followed by pig 
 (23 per cent) and sheep or goat (15 per cent). Other animals recognized were 
 domestic horse (6 per cent) and dog. The preponderance of cattle over pig, 
 sheep and goat and the insignificance of horse-keeping are seen as main char- 
 acteristics for the domestic fauna of this Tripolje (B) culture. 
 
 Among the wild fauna. Bos primigenius, apparently hunted in Tripolje A, was 
 identified, and most of the domestic oxen from Tripolje are taken to be the direct 
 result of domestication of the wild urus, though some cattle of brachijceros type 
 were recorded as well. 
 
 Haag, Wm. G. 
 
 1948. An osteometric analysis of some aboriginal dogs. Univ. Ky. Rep. Anthr., 
 vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 105-264, 16 figs. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 51 
 
 The study is based on large collections of skeletons of domestic dogs from 
 North American archaeological sites. These dogs resemble Old World domestic 
 dogs, not native wild North American canids. North American aboriginal dogs 
 are classified into 8 morphologic breeds, distinguishable primarily on a size basis 
 (the husky is the largest). For any area, small size of dog is correlated with 
 older archaeological horizon and also with poverty of human cultural remains. 
 The necessity is stressed of making statistical analyses of large series before 
 attempting conclusions. The study lends support to the idea that the dog was 
 derived from a small wolf-like form not approximated by any of the living boreal 
 wolves, and that domestication occurred not long before 6000 B.C. It is thought 
 that the ancestors of the dog, as scavengers, adopted man long before man adopted 
 and domesticated the dog. Probably the domestic dog was introduced to North 
 America about 500 B.C. by a people with a late Mesolithic culture. —C. A. R. 
 
 Hahn, Eduard 
 
 1909. Die Entstehung der Pflugkultur. viii + 192 pp. Carl Winter (Heidel- 
 berg). 
 In his ethnological study the author sees in religious rites and cult associations 
 the origin of domestication of oxen, and, following it, the origin of plough-culture 
 in general. Herd animals (and eventually pastoralism) as well as horse-breeding 
 and camel-breeding came out of this early seed-and-plough agriculture, practiced 
 first in Mesopotamia. 
 
 Haltenorth, Theodor 
 
 1953. Die Wildkatzen der Alten Welt, eine Ubersicht uber die Untergattung 
 Felis. 166 pp., 10 tables, 117 figs. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft. Geest 
 & Portig (Leipzig). 
 
 A systematic treatment, based on morphology, of the Old World wild cats. 
 In the last chapter the origin of the domestic cat is dealt with. The only truly 
 domesticated cat is Felis silvesiris libyca Forster of Egypt, which appears in a stage 
 of domestication from the beginning of the Middle Empire (2000 B.C.). When it was 
 introduced into Europe, it may have mated with European wild cats occasionally. 
 
 Hancar, Franz 
 
 1951. Probleme und Ergebnisse der neuen russischen Urgeschichtsforschung. 
 33. Ber. Romisch-Germanischen Komm. 1943-50, Deutsches Archaeol. 
 Inst., Berlin, pp. 25-60, 3 pis., 10 figs. 
 
 A comprehensive survey of the Russian literature concerned with the latest 
 archaeological excavations of the Tripolje settlements, the Neolithic complex of 
 the Ukrainian steppe. Special attention is directed toward the change in the com- 
 position of the domestic stock from the "classical" stage (Tripolje B), in which 
 tillage appeared to have been the principal economic base, to the final stage (Tri- 
 polje C, ca. 2100-1700 B.C.; demonstrated by the sites at Horodsk and Usatovo), 
 which is characterized by a marked increase in the number of domestic animals 
 identified at Usatovo) : sheep (48 per cent), cattle (28 per cent), horse (13 per cent), 
 and goat, pig and dog (only a few fragments). The great increase in the frequency 
 of sheep and horse (associated with a decrease of pig) becomes evident by a com- 
 parison with the faunal composition from Tripolje B (cf. Gromova, 1927). 
 
 S^fS^^ 
 
52 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 The author traces in detail the transition from a culture of settled farmers 
 and cattle-breeders to a nomadic pastoralism, based upon the rearing of huge 
 herds and change of pastures. 
 
 1952. Stand und historische Bedeutung der Pferdezucht Mittelasiens im ersten 
 Jahrlausend v. Chr. Wiener Beitr. Kulturges. und Linguistik, Jhg. IX, 
 pp. 465-483. 
 
 A compilation of ethnological, historical and zoological data forms the back- 
 ground from which a picture of horse-breeding in Bactria and adjacent inner Asia 
 is drawn. Such breeding reached a high level in the early first millennium B.C. 
 Inner Asia is seen as the radiation center for all the mounted invaders that haunted 
 Europe. 
 
 Hatt, Gudmund 
 
 1919. Notes on reindeer nomadism. Mem. Amer. anthrop. Ass., vol. VI, 
 pp. 75-133. 
 
 A collection of references on the biology of the reindeer and on the history of 
 reindeer nomadism, based largely on Scandinavian literature. The nature of rein- 
 deer nomadism is seen as responsible for the slight degree of domestication in the 
 tamed reindeer (when compared to other domestic animals), and therefore does not 
 indicate the recent origin of their domestication; however, it is not considered to 
 be a very ancient achievement. 
 
 Havesson, D. 
 
 1933. On the domestic pigs of Tschuwasia (Russ.). Transcript of the confer- 
 ence on the origin of domesticated animals, held at the Laboratory of 
 Genetics, Acad. Sci. USSR, Leningrad, 1932, pp. 313-373. 
 
 A primitive, small breed of pig from Tschuwasia (Chuvash, former Gouv. 
 Kazan) is investigated (46 skulls) and compared with wild and domestic pigs 
 (fossil and recent) of other races. The Tschuwasian pig exhibits a close affinity 
 to the Neolithic turbary pig {Sus scrofa palustns). It is distinct from the surround- 
 ing domestic breeds but resembles wild forms. Presumably the breed was brought 
 in by the ancestors of the Tschuwasians (of Turkish origin) and probably it was 
 originally domesticated in the area of Kuen-Lun or Tien-Shan. 
 
 Hediger, H. 
 
 1938. Tierpsychologie und Haustierforschung. Z. Tierpsychol., Bd. II, pp. 29- 
 46, 302-313, 2 figs. 
 
 A treatment of the psychical background of the origin of domestication. The 
 author shows the transition from the wild via the tamed to the domestic stage and 
 suggests the presence of a "psychical preadaptation" for the status of domestica- 
 tion present in certain species and usually associated with a biological inferiority 
 of those forms in their natural biocoenosis. 
 
 Hehn, Victor 
 
 1902. Kulturpflanzen und Haustiere in ihrem Ubergang aus Asien nach Grie- 
 chenland und Italien sowie in das iibrige Europa. 7th ed., viii+651 pp., 
 published and annotated by 0. Schrader. Gebriider Borntrager (Berlin). 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 53 
 
 The work (first edition, 1870) is an attempt to investigate the history and dis- 
 persal of civilization in general and of cultivated plants and domestic animals in 
 particular on the basis of a study of comparative linguistics. The author comes to 
 the conclusion that the domestication of numerous animals was started in the 
 Orient, and that from there the idea of domestication together with the animals 
 themselves spread to Greece, Italy, and later to the remaining European countries. 
 Among the domestic mammals the story of the horse is examined at greatest length 
 (pp. 19-54). Its cradle is found among Iranian tribes, whence it was received by 
 Indo-Europeans only after they became established in their historical places of 
 residence. Rabbit, cat and cattle are dealt with more briefly. 
 
 Heinrich, E. 
 
 1936. Kleinfunde aus den archaischen Tempelschichten in Uruk. Ausgra- 
 
 bungen der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk-Warka, Bd. I. 
 
 Leipzig. 
 
 The animal images from Uruk-Warka (Mesopotamia) are described in detail 
 
 (pp. 17-28) and discussed from a zoological point of view by M. Hilzheimer 
 
 (pp. 48-54). Major emphasis is given to the domestic sheep in comparison to 
 
 the wild form. Goat and cattle are mentioned briefly. 
 
 Hermanns, Matthias 
 
 1949. Die Nomaden von Tibet, xvi-f-325 pp., 4 maps, 56 figs. Herold (Wien). 
 
 This book, based to a great extent upon original exploration, deals extensively 
 with the sources and developments of the herdsmen-cultures in A mdo ( = Tsing 
 Hai, northwestern Tibet) and with the origin of cattle-breeding in general. The 
 cradle of stock-farming is sought in western Asia (probably western Turkestan). 
 The earliest breeds are sheep and goat, followed soon afterward by domestic oxen 
 (in the ancient herdsmen-culture of A mdo only sheep and yak were known as 
 breeds). Somewhat later, ass and onager became domesticated; much later, camel, 
 horse and reindeer. 
 
 Appended are tables on the origin of the most important domestic breeds, 
 chronological lists, maps and a comprehensive bibliography. 
 
 1952. Were animals first domesticated and bred in India? J. Bombay Br., 
 R. Asiat. Soc, vol. XXVII, pp. 134-173. 
 
 A survey of various domestic animals of India and their related wild forms: 
 gayal, banteng, water bufTalo, yak, zebu, sheep, goat, camel, pig and kiang {Equus 
 onager indicus). The gayal (Bibos frontalis) is considered an offspring of the wild 
 gaur male and the domestic cow. For the Indian humped cattle (zebu) a specific 
 wild, probably indigenous ancestor (not Bos namadicus) is suggested. Cattle and 
 sheep constituted the oldest domestic stock of prehistoric Asia, followed later by 
 horse and reindeer. 
 
 The northwest Indian highlands together with the Iranian and Tibetan plateau 
 are seen as the center where cattle-breeding originated, perhaps as early as the 
 Mesolithic (9000 B.C.). 
 
 Hermes, Certrud 
 
 1935 36. Das geziihmte Pferd im neolithischen und friihbronzezeitlichen Eu- 
 ropa. Anthropos, Tom. 31, pp. 115-129. 
 
 ^ 
 
54 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 A compilation of data on horse remains, horse representations and finds of 
 artifacts associated with horse-breeding, from prehistoric Europe. Although of a 
 doubtful character, the Neolithic "evidences" and those of the Bronze Age lead to 
 the assumption that the practice of horse-breeding was introduced into Europe by 
 that time. 
 
 1936. Das gezahmte Pferd im alten Orient. Anthropos, Tom. 31, pp. 364-394, 
 2 figs. 
 
 Archaeological records of equids from the ancient Near East back to the 
 fourth millennium B.C. are collected, and their historical background is traced. 
 The development of the harness, especially the bridle, from the primitive halter 
 to the bridoon-bit, is outlined in detail. 
 
 Herre, Wolf 
 
 1939. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Wildpferde. Z. Tierz. ZuchtBiol., Bd. XLIV, 
 pp. 342-363, 11 figs. 
 
 A consideration of methods for solving problems of the origin of domestic ani- 
 mals in general, and a study of some aspects of the distribution of wild horses and 
 their relation to domestic species in particular. The author discusses the status of 
 the Russian tarpan and considers it as a form of the przewalskii horse (now re- 
 stricted to Mongolia). 
 
 1949. Zur Abstammung und Entwicklung der Haustiere. I. Uber das bisher 
 alteste primigene Hausrind Europas. Verhandl. Deutschen Zool. in Kiel, 
 August, 1948, pp. 312-324. 
 
 A description of the most ancient cattle of primigenius type from northern 
 Europe, found in Schleswig-Holstein (Moor of Satrupholm) and dated to the early 
 Neolithic (3000-1800 B.C.). The find seems to indicate domestication in northern 
 Europe, and though the primigene character is dominant the skull shows also a 
 slight resemblance to the brachyceros type. The author assumes that at the same 
 time and in diff'erent localities primigenius and brachyceros groups were developed 
 from the domesticated urus. Animals with mixed characters from the Neolithic 
 are seen as the primitive material and not as results of later crosses. 
 
 1951. Kritische Bemerkungen zum Gigantenproblem der Summoprimaten auf 
 Grund vergleichender Domestikationsstudien. Anat. Anz., Bd. 98, pp. 49- 
 65, 12 figs. 
 
 A comparative study of lower jaws and teeth in wild and domestic animals. 
 The author points to the great variability in size and form of teeth and in size and 
 powerfulness of lower jaw bones, which characters cannot be associated per se with 
 general size and skull-form of domesticated races or their wild ancestors. Effects 
 of domestication are considered to be due to selection rather than to physiologi- 
 cal factors. 
 
 1952. Studien liber die wilden und domestizierten Typlopoden Siidamerikas. 
 Zool. Gart., Bd. 19, Hefte 2-4, pp. 20-98, 16 figs. 
 
 More than a hundred skulls of the wild and domesticated typlopods of South 
 America — guanaco and vicugna on the one hand, llama and alpaca on the other — 
 
ANGRESS AND REP:D: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 55 
 
 are examined, in order to find the phylogenetic relationship of both of the ancient 
 domestic breeds. On the base of the craniological difTorences, the wild vicugna is 
 excluded as possible ancestor, and both the llama and the alpaca are traced back 
 to the wild guanaco. Llama guanicoe. 
 
 1955. Domestikation und Stammesgeschichte. In Die Evolution der Organis- 
 men: Ergebnisse und Probleme der Abstammungslehre. Herausgegeben von 
 Gerhard Heberer. 2. Erweiterte Aufiage. 4. Lieferung. pp. 801-856; 
 24 figs. Gustav Fischer (Stuttgart). 
 
 This is an important summary of the literature on domestication, as evidenced 
 by the bibliography of 11 pages in small print. The 44 pages of text are in them- 
 selves an abstract of this literature. The subjects covered range far beyond the 
 origins of domesticated mammals and birds to include much material on the effects 
 of domestication upon the different species, parallel evolutionary trends under the 
 influence of artificial selection, heredity in domestic animals, and other subjects. 
 — C.A.R. 
 
 Hescheler, Karl 
 
 1920. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Pfahlbautenfauna des Neolithikums. — Die 
 Fauna der Pfahlbauten im Wauwylersee. Vjschr. naturf. Ges. Ziirich, 
 Jhg. 65, pp. 248-322. 
 
 The first part (pp. 248-281) gives a review of earlier investigations of the 
 Swiss lake-dwelling fauna; the second part contains a description of remains from 
 wild and domestic animals found in the palisade dwellings (Neolithic) of Lake 
 Wauwyl in Switzerland. Goat and sheep — the former appearing in the lower strata 
 more and in the upper ones much less frequently than the latter — are both of the 
 turbary type; the "copper sheep" (Ovis aries studeri) is absent. Remains of the 
 domestic turbary pig (Sits palustris) are very distinct from those of the wild boar 
 (Sus scrofa) found in the same levels, so that a relationship is doubted. All the 
 dog material belongs to Canis palustris, and cattle also are represented by the 
 turbary form (Bos (aurus brachyceros) only. The few fragments of equids are 
 probably those of a wild horse. 
 
 Hescheler, Karl, and Riiger, J. 
 
 1939. Die Wirbeltierreste aus dem neolithischen Pfahlbaudorf Egolzwil II 
 (Wauwielersee) nach den Grabungen von 1932-34. Vjschr. naturf. Ges. 
 Zurich, Jhg. 84, pp. 307-330. 
 
 Report on the excavations at a settlement of lake-dwellers (Egolzwil, on Lake 
 Wauwyl, Canton Luzern). The remains of domestic animals (33.4 per cent of 
 the total fos.sil material) belonged to dog, pig, sheep, goat and cattle. 
 
 1940. Die Wirbeltierreste aus den Pfahlbauten des Baldeggersees nach den 
 Grabungen 1938 und 1939. Vjschr. naturf. Ges. Zurich, Jhg. 85, pp. 59 70. 
 
 A description of the faunal remains from Neolithic (Seematte) and Early 
 Bronze Age (Baldegg") sites around Lake Baldegg in central Switzerland. Among 
 the remains from Seematte those of cattle are the most frequent, followed by pig 
 bones; there were fewer remains of .sheep, goats and dogs. In Baldegg (Canton 
 Luzernj bones of cattle are still dominant, followed closely by sheep and goat. 
 
56 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Pig remains are rare. Two new arrivals, which appeared from the Late Bronze Age 
 on — the horse and a new, larger race of dogs — are described in detail (see also 
 Hescheler and Riiger, 1942). 
 
 1942. Die Reste der Haustiere aus den neolithischen Pfahlbaudorfern — Egolz- 
 wil (Wauwielersee) und Seematte-Gelfingen (Baldeggersee), Kt. Luzern. 
 Vjschr. naturf. Ges. Zurich, Jhg. 87, pp. 313-478, numerous tables in text, 
 5 tables appended. 
 
 A systematic study of the remains of domestic animals from two Neolithic sites 
 — Egolzwil (cf. Hescheler and Ruger, 1939) and Seematte (cf. Hescheler and Riiger, 
 1940). Five main forms — cattle, sheep, goat, pig and dogs — are described in de- 
 tail. The remains of dogs (skulls of which are the best preserved, since the animal 
 did not serve for food) constituted about 9.5 per cent of the material; all belong 
 to the palustris group. The turbary pig — remains of which were found in addition 
 to those of the European wild boar — were 28 per cent of the total remains and were 
 outnumbered only by cattle, the latter identified as Bos taurus brachyceros. Osteo- 
 logical differences between the brachyceros oxen and the wild urus are worked out. 
 Goats were all of the sable-horned Capra hircus type. 
 
 Hildebrand, Milton 
 
 1955. Skeletal differences between deer, sheep, and goats. Calif. Fish Game, 
 vol. 41, pp. 327-346, 9 figs. 
 
 This paper, useful to the anatomist working with bones from archaeological 
 sites, is concerned with the post-cranial skeletons of domestic sheep and goats, 
 and a North American deer, Odocoileus. The applicability of the information on 
 the latter to Old World deer remains to be tested. Domestic sheep are best set 
 apart from domestic goats by characters of the metacarpal, scapula, pelvis, and 
 ulna. The femur is the bone least distinguishable. Individual variations are strik- 
 ing, and the necessity of using statistical techniques on large series is stressed. — 
 C.A.R. 
 
 Hilzheimer, Max 
 
 1908. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der nordafrikanischen Schakale — nebst Bemerkun- 
 gen liber deren Verhaltnis zu den Haushunden insbesondere nordafriksmischer 
 und altagyptischer Hunderassen. Zoologica (Stuttgart), vol. XX (1906- 
 1908), Heft 53, pp. 1-111, 4 tables, 10 pis. 
 
 After a detailed morphological (esp. craniological) examination of North Afri- 
 can races of jackals and a discussion of their classification, skulls of domestic dogs 
 from sites of ancient Egypt are described, and conclusions are drawn as to the origin 
 of the breeds. One of the jackals, Canis liipaster, is considered to be certainly the 
 ancestor for certain Egyptian domestic dogs, two others probable progenitors for 
 the other ancient breeds in Egypt. 
 
 In four tables craniological data of wolves, jackals and domestic dogs are 
 compared. 
 
 1909-10. Die Haustiere in Abstammung und Entwicklung. Naturwissen- 
 schaftlicher Wegweiser, ser. A, Bd. 11, 126 pp., 1 pi., 56 figs. Strecker & 
 Schroder (Stuttgart). 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 57 
 
 A popular guide to domestic mammals and birds, their origin and history. 
 After an introductory chapter, presenting general trends in the evolution of do- 
 mestication, the book describes each of the domestic stocks and its history. Dog 
 and horse are treated at considerable length; cat, rabbit, ass, pig, camel, llama, 
 reindeer, cattle, sheep and goat are covered briefly. The text is well illustrated, 
 from zoological and archaeological sources. 
 
 1913. Uberblick liber die Geschichte der Haustierforschung, besonders der 
 letzten 30 Jahre. Zool. Ann., Bd. V, pp. 233-254. Wurzburg. 
 
 A critical survey of the literature on the origin and history of the domestic cat, 
 camel, llama and reindeer. A bibliographical list of the literature on the origin 
 of the first two animals is added. 
 
 1926. Natiirliche Rassengeschichte der Haussaugetiere. 235 pp., 124 figs. 
 Walter de Gruyter & Co. (Berlin & Leipzig). 
 
 Problems, evidences— based largely upon investigations by the author — and 
 recent views on the ancestry of domestic mammals are brought together in a semi- 
 popular manual. 
 
 In the first section, which deals with the concept of domestication in general 
 and the morphological changes in the domestic stage, special attention is devoted 
 to the phenomenon of developmental arrest in skull-form due to domestication, 
 which trend is traced through the various domestic groups and treated in the next 
 section of the book. 
 
 The second part deals at length with the origin of dogs, equids, cattle, sheep, 
 goats and pigs. The wolf is taken as the only progenitor of domestic dogs. The 
 Russian tarpan is accepted as ancestor of the Oriental breeds, the Celtic pony re- 
 garded as a special type. For the domestic ass a monophyletic origin is suggested; 
 any connection with the half-ass (onager) group is contested. 
 
 A discussion of bufi'alo, Indian oxen and yak is followed by a detailed treat- 
 ment of the relationship between the urus and domestic cattle and of the post- 
 embryonic development of the bovine skull. The urus is taken as the only an- 
 cestral form for domestic cattle, though domestication took place repeatedly in 
 different localities and at various periods. Domestic sheep are derived mainly 
 from the Ovis viguei group, argali and European mouflon being of only minor im- 
 portance as ancestral forms. The domestic goat is traced back to Capra aegagrus, 
 C. prisca and C. falconeri, the Kirghiz goat (cf. Philiptschenko, 1928) being seen 
 as the only living derivation from the latter. The existence of a wild Mediter- 
 ranean form of pigs (Sus mediterranaeus) is doubted, all the domestic breeds of 
 pigs being descendants of Sus scrofa or S. vittatns. Camel (the question of mono- 
 or diphyletic origin is left open), reindeer, cat and rabbit are treated more briefly. 
 
 1927. Rind. In M. Ebert, Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, Bd. XI, pp. 137-141. 
 
 A brief survey of the origin of European cattle and the cattle tribe in general. 
 Since all the ancient as well as the now living races of domestic cattle (genus Bos) 
 belong to the taurine group (parietals and interparietals displaced from forehead), 
 all of them must be traced back to the only taurine wild ox known so far — the urus. 
 
 All primigenius, froiitosus and longifrons ( = hrachyceros) forms are products of 
 domestication; the hornless domestic forms, appearing in various groups of bovids 
 
58 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 (yak, buffalo, etc.), cannot be derived from a single hornless ancestor (e.g., Bos 
 taurus akeratos, as supposed by Arenander). 
 
 1928. Die Umbildung der Schadelformen der HausLiere infolge der Domestika- 
 tion. — Ein Beitrag zur Rassengeschichte der Haustiere. Z. Tierz. ZuchtBiol., 
 Bd. XH, pp. 85-118, 24 figs. 
 
 Investigating the postembryonic development of the skull in domestic pigs, 
 dogs and cattle, the author finds that wide variations in the form and shape of the 
 skull of domestic mammals are caused by developmental persistence in different 
 ontogenetic stages. This phenomenon of domestication is taken to explain cranio- 
 logical distinction between certain races in spite of their monophyletic origin. 
 
 1932. Dogs. Antiquity, vol. 6, no. 23, pp. 411-419, 2 figs., 12 pis. 
 
 A discussion of certain problems related to the history of the domestic dog. 
 The status of the dingo and of the pariah dog is examined, and a number of types 
 belonging to different periods and countries — terriers from the Swiss lake-dwell- 
 ings, mastiffs from the Neolithic Baltic countries, greyhounds from ancient Egypt 
 — are described, mainly on the basis of pictorial evidence. It is suggested that 
 all breeds of dogs, with the possible exception of ancient Egyptian races and their 
 derivatives (the greyhounds), have evolved from the wolf. 
 
 1933. Untersuchungen liber die Ziegen der Gattung Capra s. str. und deren 
 Kreuzungen. — Ein Beitrag zur Stammesgeschichte der Hausziegen beson- 
 ders Zentralasiens. Wissens. Archiv der Landwirtschaft. — B' Archiv fiir 
 Erniihrung der Tiere und Tierzucht, Bd. VIII, pp. 323-371. 
 
 A study of skulls and horns reveals three sharply distinct groups of wild goats: 
 Capra prisca Adam., C. hircus L. and C.falconeri Wagner. Being readily crossed 
 mutually and giving rise to fertile offspring, the three types could have produced 
 many transitional forms by cross-breeding; only the first two, however, are taken 
 into consideration as ancestors for the domestic breeds of goat. 
 
 The goats in central Asia, with markhor horns and bezoar characters, origi- 
 nated probably from a later cross-breeding with goats of the Capra prisca type. 
 
 1934. Eine altsumerische Fauna. Forsch. Fortschr. dtsch. Wiss., Jhg. 10, 
 pp. 336-337. 
 
 Short preliminary report on the faunal remains from Tell-Asmar (cf. Hilz- 
 heimer, 1941) and on the frequency of domestic species at the site. A brief account 
 is presented of the position of the tamed onager in Sumer. 
 
 1935. The evolution of the domestic horse. Antiquity, vol. 9, no. 34, pp. 133- 
 139, 9 pis. 
 
 The author deals briefly with the taming of the Asiatic half-ass (Equus hemi- 
 onus) by Sumerians around 3000 B.C. and with the occurrence of the domestic ass 
 in the early periods of Egyptian history; the origin and dispersal of the domestic 
 horse are also examined. 
 
 The habitats of the types under consideration — Przewalski's horse (Equus 
 equiferus Pallas) and the tarpan (E. gmelini Antonius) — are traced throughout 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 59 
 
 the critical periods, and the author concludes that both recent groups of breeds, the 
 Oriental as well as the Occidental, are derived from the Russian tarpan. 
 
 1936. Sheep. Anti(iuity, vol. 10, no. 38, pp. 195-206, 8 pis. 
 
 A survey of the living groups of wild sheep is followed by an examination of 
 archaeological and philological evidence concerning the origin of the domestic 
 sheep. The author finds three possible lines of ancestry for them, all to be looked 
 for in Asia: the Asiatic mouflon (Oci'-s orientaliH), the urial (O. vignei) and the argali 
 (O. ommon); the latter is not considered to have been important for European 
 breeds. 
 
 1941. Animal remains from Tell Asmar. Stud. Anc. Oriental Civiliz., no. 20, 
 xiii+52 pp., 20 figs., 8 tables. 
 
 A study of fossil material collected at the Northern Palace in Tell Asmar 
 (Mesopotamia) in 1932, 1933 and 1934-35. The position of the Asiatic onager or 
 half-ass (Equus onager hemippus) — bones of which constituted 9 per cent of the 
 total skeletal material — and its relationship to the domestic ass and the domestic 
 horse are discussed in detail in the light of the osteological material. Other do- 
 mestic species identified and treated are: Sus sp. (29.1 per cent of the total), 
 Ovis sp. and Capra prisca (together 27.7 per cent), Bos taurus primigenius (13.5 
 per cent) and Canis familaris palustris (8 per cent). 
 
 Table VIII (pp. 49-51) summarizes the findings and their sources. 
 
 Hooijer, D. A. 
 
 1947. Protohistoric mammals from the Linderbeek, Province of Overijssel, 
 The Netherlands. Proc. K. Nederl. Akad. Wetensch., vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 3- 
 15, 2 pis., 13 tables. 
 
 A collection of subfossil mammals is dated at 650 B.C. on the basis of pollen 
 analysis. A large dog is recorded, of the Great Dane-Newfoundland-St. Bernard 
 type. The domestic cat is listed, on the basis of right humerus and tibia and left 
 OS coxae, all smaller than those of Felis silvesiris, the European wild cat. This is 
 the earliest record of the domestic cat in northern Europe, and also the earliest 
 record of such a large breed of dog. — C.A.R. 
 
 Houbard, Albert 
 
 1934. Les chiens dans I'ancienne Egypte. Chron. Egypte, no. 17, pp. 28-34, 
 5 figs. 
 
 Brief discussions of representations of dogs from ancient Egypt, starting with a 
 hunting scene on a vase from the fourth millennium B.C., which shows canids re- 
 sembling a greyhound type. The author holds that by early dynastic times a great 
 variety of dog breeds was known in Egypt. 
 
 Ilrozny, Bedrik 
 
 1931. L'entrainement des chevaux chez les anciens Indo-Europeens d'apris un 
 texte Mitannien-Hittite pronenent du 14*^ siecle av. J.C. Archiv Orientalni, 
 Prague, Tom. Ill, pp. 430-461. 
 
 ^^ 
 
60 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 The famous Kikkuli text from the fourteenth century B.C., found in Bogaz Koy 
 (Anatolia), is translated and explained. The text — one of the earliest literary evi- 
 dences of horse breeding — is written by a Mitannian and contains a detailed guide 
 for the treatment of race- and draft-horses. The technical terms are, in part, of 
 Indo-European origin. 
 
 Hue, Edmund 
 
 190()a. Etude sur un nouveau chien des palafittes de Clairvaux. Bull. Soc. 
 prehist. fran?., Tom. Ill, Ann. 1906, pp. 279-295, 1 pi. 
 
 Description of a dog-skull from the NeoHthic lake dwelling at Clairvaux (Jura) 
 and a comparison with other prehistoric canid skulls {Canisf. palustris, C.f. matris 
 optimae, C.f. leineri, etc.). The new dog is craniologically distinct from all the other 
 forms (high, convex forehead, broad jugals, slender palate) and is taken as a new 
 type, called Cam's le mirei Hue. 
 
 1906b. Note sur une mandibule de canide des palafittes de Chalain. Bull. 
 Soc. prehist. frang., Tom. Ill, Ann. 1906, pp. 441 453, 2 figs. 
 
 Study of a mandible and teeth of a prehistoric domestic dog from the Neo- 
 lithic dwelling places at Lake Chalain (Jura). Although few specific odontological 
 characters are worked out, the dog is identified as belonging to the type of Cams 
 familiaris palustris Rutim. 
 
 Hummerlink, Paul 
 
 1928. Westindische Hundetypen. Naturforscher, Bd. IV, Nr. 11, pp. 550-552. 
 
 Some data are given about two ancient dogs from the West Indies, not dealt 
 with in most treatments. The extinct "alco," remains of which were found in 
 caves on Jamaica, Haiti and San Domingo, was the domestic dog of the Arawak 
 Indians and is regarded as ancestral to the Mexican pug. The "xibaro" ( = hibaro) 
 is very similar to the Aguara dog of Surinam (Netherlands Guiana), and its iden- 
 tity with the Brasilian roe-dog is suggested. 
 
 Isserlin, B. S. J. 
 
 1950. On some possible early occurrences of the camel in Palestine. Palest. 
 Expl. Quart., vol. 82, pp. 50-53. 
 
 Several cases of skeletal finds (mainly teeth) belonging to camels, discovered 
 at Palestine sites (Gezer, Megiddo, Taanek) from the Early and Middle Bronze 
 Age, are listed and seen as possible evidence for the occurrence of the domestic 
 animal by that time. 
 
 Jackson, J. W. 
 
 1932. Prehistoric domestic animals. Proc. First Int. Congr. Prehist. Protohist. 
 Sci., pp. 154-157. Oxford Univ. Press (London). 
 
 Evidence from Neolithic domestication in Britain and other European cul- 
 tures is summarized briefly and problems connected with prehistoric animals — 
 especially ox and horse — are posed. The identity of the domestic cattle of pre- 
 historic England (the longifrons type) with the Bos hrachyceros stock of the Con- 
 tinent is questioned. The domestic status of horses, remains of which were found 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 61 
 
 at Neolithic sites in Great Britain (Cotswolds, Glamorgan, northern Wales), is 
 doubted, and the possibility of an independent domestication of at least two wild 
 species of horses — somewhere north of the Iranian Plateau and somewhere near 
 or in Scandinavia — is suggested. 
 
 1937. The osteology: Report on the animal remains. In R. Mond & O. H. 
 Myers, Cemeteries of Armant, vol. I, pp. 254-258. The Egypt Exploration 
 Society, London. 
 
 Bones of ox, sheep, and pig, from cultural levels of the Amratian period in the 
 prehistoric cemeteries of Armant (near Luxor, Egypt) are assumed to be those of 
 domestic animals. There is a useful summary of prior finds of animals (domestic 
 and other) in prehistoric Egypt. — C.A.R. 
 
 Jettmar, Karl >^ 
 
 1950. The Karasuk culture and its southeastern affinities. The Museum of 
 Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm, Bull. no. 22, pp. 83-126, 16 pis. 
 
 In a short summary of publications (mainly from Russian literature) on the 
 Karasuk culture of Minusinsk (northern Siberia), the author presents some details 
 on the domestic stock as reflected by remains of animals sacrificed as mortuary 
 food gifts. In graves from eighteen sites sheep constituted by far the major part 
 of the remains, followed in frequency by cattle. Few bones belonged to horses. 
 In one site forelegs of camels and in a grave from another site the full skeleton of a 
 domestic dog were found. 
 
 The sudden importance of sheep-raising and its predominance in the Karasuk 
 culture (1200-700 B.C.) contrasted with the former (Andronovo-) period, during 
 which domestic animals were distributed about equally, is emphasized and seen 
 as a significant feature, showing affinities to a similar process in northern Chinese 
 cultures. 
 
 1952. Zu den Anfangen der Rentierzucht. Anthropos, Tom. 47, pp. 736-766. 
 
 A review of the results of numerous Russian excavations, and a survey of re- 
 cent views concerning the origin of the domestication of reindeer. All the data 
 seem to prove that the taming of reindeer could never have influenced the domesti- 
 cation of cattle, sheep or horses; the reverse could have been possible. 
 
 An extensive bibliography, especially from the Russian language, is appended. 
 
 Johansen, K. F. 
 
 1919. En Boplads fra den aldeste Stenalder i Svardborg Mose. Aarb^ger, 
 Bd. IX, pp. 106-235. 
 
 Among the numerous animal remains from an early Stone Age settlement in 
 the moors of Svardborg (near Vordingborg, southwestern Zealand, Denmark), 
 identified by H. Winge (pp. 127 134), there were bones of domestic dogs. 
 
 Jones, ¥. Wood 
 
 1921. The status of the dingo. Trans, roy. Soc, S. Australia, vol. 45, pp. 254- 
 263. 
 
62 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 A craniological (mainly odontological) investigation of the dingo on the basis 
 of much material (22 skulls). The author concludes that the dingo is not indige- 
 nous — that it arrived relatively recently in Australia. It was brought by a sea 
 route by man from the Asian continent as already a variety of the domestic dog, 
 and it became feral thereafter. The name Canis dingo is therefore rejected, and 
 the name Canis familiaris dingo is suggested. 
 
 Josien, Therese 
 
 1955. La faune Chalcolithique des gisement Palestiniens de Bir Es-Safadi et 
 Bir Abou Matar. Israel Expl. J., vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 246-256. 
 
 Description and evaluation of the skeletal remains collected during the exca- 
 vations near Beer-Sheba (southern Israel) and dated to about 3000 B.C. The 
 domestic fauna (95% of the determined material) is considered as typical for a 
 semi-nomadic population at the dawn of domestication. It comprised mainly 
 sheep (60.2%), followed by goat (16.7%) and ox (12.8%). Dog and horse were 
 represented by a few fragments only. 
 
 Kacrkowski, B. 
 
 1928. Contribution to the studies of the origin of European sheep. Proc. roy. 
 Soc. Edinburgh, vol. 48, part 1, no. 2, pp. 10-24. 
 
 Serological (iso-agglutination) methods were used to determine the origin of 
 the European sheep. Two main groups, A and 0, could be distinguished, the latter 
 divided into two sub-groups, one with and the other without anti-A. 
 
 Mouflons (from the zoological gardens at Vienna and Budapest) proved to 
 belong to group A. Since the majority of the Polish domestic sheep belong to the 
 same group, a relationship to the moufion is probable. English Southdown sheep 
 show no serological affinity to mouflons. 
 
 Keller, Conrad 
 
 1902. Die Abstammung der altesten Haustiere. 232 pp., 81 figs. Fritz Am- 
 beyer (Ziirich). 
 
 A comprehensive manual on the derivation and origin of most domestic mam- 
 mals. Chap. 1-4 explain the methods used and give the cultural background, the 
 zoological aspects and a review of 19th century literature and research. Each of 
 the next eight chapters is devoted to a specific animal group and is divided into 
 three sections: (a) an account of the fossil and archaeological evidence; (6) infor- 
 mation on the distribution of the related wild form; (c) a discussion and a phylo- 
 genetic summary. 
 
 Dogs and cattle are dealt with extensively. Races of Old World dogs are 
 traced back to two species of wolves (Canis sinensis and C. niger) and the jackal 
 (C. aureus); the ancient New World dogs are regarded as indigenous and derived 
 from the North American wolf (Lupus occiden talis). Domestic bovines are classi- 
 fied into a European (Bos taurus) group, derived from Bos primigenius, and an 
 Asiatic zebu group (B. indicus), descended from the banteng (Bos sondaicus). 
 The banteng is also considered the ancestor of the southeastern European brachy- 
 ccros type. For sheep a triphyletic origin is suggested, for goats and for horses a 
 diphyletic descent; Frank's classification of the latter into Occidental and Oriental 
 breeds is retained. The camel and the domestic cat are also treated. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 63 
 
 A discussion of the species concept and nomenclature for domestic animals is 
 appended. 
 
 1919. Die Stammesgeschichte unserer Haustiere. Natur u. Geisteswelt, No. 252; 
 117 pp., 29 figs. Teubner (Leipzig, Berlin). 
 A popular discussion of general problems of domestication is followed by a 
 treatment of specific animals and their phylogeny. Described are the "ancient 
 domestic mammals" (dogs, equids, pigs, ruminants), the "more recent achieve- 
 ments" (reindeer, rabbit) and finally the domestic birds. 
 
 1922. Die Methoden der Hauslierforschung. In Abderhalden, Emil, Hand- 
 buch der biologischen Arbeitsmethoden, Abt. VII, part 1, pp. 77-90. 
 
 Brief description of methods used to investigate the origins of domestic spe- 
 cies. The author distinguishes the following methods: (a) zoogeographical; (6) ana- 
 tomical; (r) prehistoric (by investigation of fossil material); (d) physiological 
 (using fertile hybrids as criteria of close relationship and serological methods); 
 (e) ethnographical; (/) archaeological; and {g) linguistic. 
 
 Kelm, Ilans 
 
 1938. Die postembryonale Schadelentwicklung des Wild- und Berkshire 
 Schweines. Z. ges. Anat. 1. Z. Anat. EntwGesch., Bd. 108, pp. 499-559, 
 29 figs. 
 
 The wild boars of the scrofa-vittatus group are shown to belong to one species 
 (formenkreis). Skulls of Sus scrofa scrofa (as representative of this wild form), 
 from the new-born to the old animal, are compared with a corresponding onto- 
 genetic sequence of skulls from the highly modified domestic Berkshire pig. Even 
 at birth the skulls show a characteristic difference, but in the course of postembry- 
 onic development distinct tendencies in growth cause increasing discrepancy be- 
 tween the skulls of the wild boar and the Berkshire. 
 
 The author contests a "retention of juvenile characters" as solution for the 
 characteristics of domestication, which latter he seeks to explain on the basis of a 
 changed balance in the endocrine system. 
 
 1939. Zur Systematik der Wildschweine. Z. Tierz. ZuchtBiol., Bd. XLIII, 
 pp. 362-369, 4 figs. 
 
 A survey of the wild pigs of Eurasia. The scrofa-vittatus group is seen as a 
 single species, the allopatric races of which form a clear taxocline from Europe (Sus 
 scrofa scrofa) to eastern Asia (Sus scrofa vittatus). 
 
 Klatt, B. 
 
 1927. Entstehung der Haustiere. Handbuch der Vererbungswissenschaft, 
 Bd. Ill, 107 pp., 15 figs. Gebriider Borntrager (Berlin). 
 
 A comprehensive treatise, dealing mainly with the origin of domestication in 
 terms of the general aspects involved. The first part ("genesis of domestication") 
 tries to outline the human motives that led to the rise of domestication, and the 
 zoological background that made it possible. In the second part ("effects of do- 
 mestication") the general morphological and physiological trends characteristic 
 
64 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 of domestic animals are illustrated by rich comparative material, and an attempt 
 is made to reveal the special evolutionary factors that seem to operate under the 
 conditions of domestication. The third part ("history of domestic animals") is 
 subdivided into a general section, which deals with the various methods of research 
 (zoological, culture-historical and philological), and a specific part, wherein is out- 
 lined the origin of the main domestic mammals (in particular the dog and the 
 ungulates). 
 
 1948. Haustier und Mensch. 95 pp., 33 figs. Richard Hermes (Hamburg). 
 
 A discussion of the evolutionary mechanism operating under domestication. 
 After a short survey of the oldest historical civilizations and their domestic ani- 
 mals, the pamphlet investigates the conditions of the domestic environment in 
 relation to the morphological modifications recognized among domesticated ani- 
 mals. The parallel occurrence of these modifications is regarded as the cardinal 
 point in domestication and is explained by similar alterations of the hormone sys- 
 tem, which becomes affected by the human-controlled environment. 
 
 Koby, F. 
 
 1954. Y a-t-il eu, a Lascaux, "un bos longifrons"? Bull. Soc. prehist. fran?., 
 vol. 51, nos. 9-10, pp. 434-441, 3 figs. 
 
 The cattle depicted in the cave-paintings at Lascaux have been identified by 
 prehistorians as Bos primigenius (the large forms with curved horns) and B. longi- 
 frons (smaller, thinner, and with horns shorter and more horizontal). This latter, 
 however, is nothing more than the female of B. primigenius. There was no sep- 
 arate small species of Bos in the European Pleistocene. If the domestic cattle of 
 the Neolithic and later are actually derived from small wild cattle these must 
 have lived elsewhere, probably in western Asia, but there is no evidence for this 
 supposition. (Zeuner [1953, Man, vol. 53, pp. 68-69] had already mentioned, in 
 a discussion of the color of Bos primigenius, that the so-called Bos longifrons of 
 Lascaux was actually the female of B. primigenius; Koby was presumably unaware 
 of Zeuner's paper.) — C.A.R. 
 
 Koch, W. 
 
 1937. Das Gehorn der Schraubenziege — Capra falconeri. Zool. Anz., Bd. 93, 
 Nr. 7-10, pp. 275-278, 2 figs. 
 
 On the basis of differences in the shape of the horns, the markhor, Capra fal- 
 coneri Wagner, is excluded as an ancestral type for any domestic form of goat. 
 The heteronymous twisting in the horns of the markhor is distinct from the ho- 
 monymous type of the screw-horned domestic breeds, and the cross section of the 
 horn (keel at hind edge) is contrary to the domestic Capra hircus type (keel at 
 front edge). 
 
 Kolesnik, N. N. 
 
 1936. [The origin and the geographical distribution of cattle.] (Russ.; Eng. 
 summ.) Akad. Nauk USSR, Leningrad, Ser. Biol., Nos. 2-3, pp. 375-414, 
 28 figs., 5 tables. 
 
 A paleozoological survey of the evolution of the Bovinae in general and the 
 genus Bos in diluvial and alluvial times in particular is followed by a study of 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 66 
 
 recent breeds of cattle, their geographical distribution, and their history. The 
 author accepts the view that Boh priinig(')iiH.'< and B. brachifceros are both imme- 
 diate ancestors of domestic cattle, and he adds two more species: B. indicus, which 
 is considered forefather of the Asiatic humped cattle, and B. turano-mongolicus, 
 which gave rise to the different breeds of central Asia (Kalmuck, Mongol, Yakut 
 and Kirghiz cattle). 
 
 Cattle-breeding probably originated in several regions, but southwestern Asia 
 (i.e., Assyro-Babylonia) and northwestern India are regarded as the most ancient 
 centers of domestication. 
 
 Koppers, Wilhelm 
 
 1932. Konnten Jagervolker Tierziichter werden? Biol, gen., Bd. VIII, pp. 179- 
 186. 
 
 In a brief discussion of the beginnings and motives of animal domestication 
 the author holds that hunting tribes were the first breeders, that the first domestic 
 animals were reindeer and horse, and that the cradle of domestication was the sub- 
 arctic region of inner Asia; the motives were mainly practical and economic. 
 
 Koppers, Wilhelm, and Jungblut, L. 
 
 1942-45. The water-buffalo and the zebu in central India. Anthropos, Tom. 
 37-40, pp. 647-666, 11 photos, 4 drawings. 
 
 Anthropological observations on Indian zebus and buffalos. In conclusion 
 J. U. Diirst sketches the zoological characters of both the forms and then dis- 
 cusses their origin (pp. 661-666). The tame Indian water-buffalo (Bubalus in- 
 dicus macroceros) is seen as the direct descendant of the wild arni buffalo (Bubalus 
 arnii), which became domesticated in India and was brought to Persia, where it 
 appeared in the second century B.C. Much earlier (in the third millennium B.C.), 
 domestic cattle of the Bos taurus type — direct descendants of the wild Bos namadi- 
 cus — were introduced into India by the nomadic Chorwa from the Anau region 
 via the Zufilcar Pass, and gave rise to the zebu stock, the marked hump being a 
 result of selection on religious bases. 
 
 Kramer, Hermann 
 
 1900. Die Haustierfunde von Vindonissa. Rev. suisse Zool., Tom. VII, 
 pp. 143-272, 19 figs. 
 
 A history of domestic animals in Switzerland, outlined on the basis of the 
 faunal remains from Vindonissa, which are described. The author compares the 
 species of the Swiss lake-dwellings with the later forms introduced by the Romans, 
 found in Vindonissa — large types of dogs, a new kind of sheep and big-horned goats. 
 The discussion is based to a great extent also on representational art from early 
 Roman times. 
 
 Krieg, H. 
 
 1929. tJber siidamerikanische Haustiere. Zool. Gart., Heft 1, pp. 273-284. 
 
 Information on the pre-Columbian domestic stock of South America. Llama, 
 alpaca and guinea pig are dealt with briefly; the domestic dog is treated at length. 
 A consideration of the dogs of the Indians from Gran Chaco, which live in a semi- 
 
66 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 domesticated stage, leads to the conclusion that the desired properties of advanced 
 breeding in the dog are deficiencies ("defect mutants") in terms of natural selection. 
 
 Kroll, Hubert 
 
 1928. Die Haustiere der Bantu. Z. Ethn., Bd. 60, pp. 177-290, 6 maps. 
 
 A detailed treatment of domestication, its role and significance, and the origin 
 of domestic stock not only among the Bantu, but in southern and eastern Africa 
 in general. Associated with the domestic forms all over the area, and therefore 
 seen as the most ancient domestic animal, is a type of dog of African origin; only 
 later a greyhound type was introduced, probably by the Hamites. 
 
 Besides the dog, cattle and goat are considered the most ancient breeds, the 
 former being the animal of the stock-farmer, the latter associated with cultivation 
 of plants. The first herdsmen invading the Bantu area did not possess sheep, which 
 were introduced later. Much later, the ass, pig, horse and cat were brought. 
 With the exception of the ass, which was descended from an indigenous form, all 
 the breeds of southern and eastern Africa (horse, cat, pig) are regarded as of 
 European origin. 
 
 Kronacher, C. 
 
 1928. Allgemeine Tierzucht. Abt. 1, xxvii+482 pp., 366 figs. (3rd ed.) Paul 
 Parey (Berlin). 
 
 The second section (pp. 59-478) is devoted to the origin of domestication and 
 to the descent and the prehistoric and historic evolution of domestic animals. 
 Chap. 2 and 3 consider general aspects of domestication in terms of its origins, and 
 the morphological, physiological and psychological changes caused in the process 
 of domestication. In chap. 4 (pp. 183-478) extensive material on the origin of 
 the important domestic species and their early evolution is brought together, and 
 recent views are summarized. Horse, ass, mule, cattle, sheep, goat, pig and rabbit 
 are treated at length. 
 
 Kruger, W. 
 
 1939. Unser Pferd und seine Vorfahren. VerstandHche Wissenschaften, Bd. 41, 
 164 pp. 
 A popular account of the domestic horse and the origin of its races. 
 
 Krumbiegel, Ingo 
 
 1947. Von Haustieren und ihrer Geschichte. Kosmos, 83 pp., 22 figs. 
 
 In a popular pamphlet, the origin, significance and earmarks of domestication 
 are discussed and a brief history of the domestic species is given. In a tentative 
 table (p. 34) the ancestry of the important domestic mammals and birds is sum- 
 marized. 
 
 Kuhn, Emil 
 
 1932. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Saugetierfauna der Schweiz seit dem Neo- 
 lithikum. Rev. suisse Zool., Tom. 39, no. 18, pp. 531-768. 
 
 A survey of the Swnss prehistoric fauna, based on a study of animal remains 
 from ten sites: seven Neolithic, three Celtic-Roman, and one from the La-Tene 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 67 
 
 period. Domestic animals constituted most of the material, among which cattle 
 were most numerous (often more than 50 per cent) in Neolithic times, followed by 
 pigs (about 30 per cent). Sheep and goats were of minor importance. In Roman 
 times sheep (the heavy-horned Ovis aries studeri), pigs and cattle constituted 
 most of the domestic fauna. 
 
 1935. Die Fauna des Pfahlbaues Obermailen am Ziiricher See. Vjschr. naturf. 
 Ges. Ziirich, Jhg. 80, pp. 241-330. 
 
 Systematic study of new animal remains, excavated from Obermeilon (Lake 
 Zurich) in 1933. This was the first site of lake-dwellings, the faunal remains of 
 which were described by Rutimeyer as early as 1860-61. 
 
 The faunal assemblage points to a late NeoHthic period. Cattle and pig con- 
 stitute the bulk of the domestic stock. The former is represented by two forms — 
 a brochyceroi:; and a pn'nugeniuti type. The latter is identified as the turbary pig. 
 All the dogs as well as the sheep belonged to the palustris type. The few equid 
 remains were probably those of wild animals. 
 
 Kuschel, Paul 
 
 1911. Die Haustiere Agyptens im Altertum. Diss., Zootechnische Inst, der 
 konigl. tierarztlichen Hochschule, Dresden, 42 pp. Publ. by "Gorlitzer 
 Nachrichten und Anzeiger." 
 
 A historical survey of how cattle, camel, sheep, goat, dog, cat, horse, ass and 
 pig were reared in ancient Egypt. 
 
 Kwaschnin, Samarin N. 
 
 1928. Kraniologische Untersuchungen iiber das litauische Pferd. Z. Tierz. 
 ZiichtBiol., Bd. XII, pp. 249-287, 14 figs. 
 
 A detailed study of twenty skulls of the Lithuanian (Shmudic) horse breed, 
 which is nearly extinct in its pure form. The skull of the Lithuanian horse shows 
 it to be an autonomous, ancient branch of the Oriental group, which shows many 
 affinities to Equus przewalskii and especially to the tarpan type and shows also 
 some similarities to the Arabian horse. 
 
 1931. Studien iiber die Herkunft des osteuropaischen Pferdes, hauptsachlich 
 auf Grund des baltischen Materials. Acta Comm. Univ. Tartuensis (Dor- 
 patensis), Ser. A, Tom. XXI, pp. 1-138, 4 pis., 30 figs. 
 
 A detailed osteological treatment of recent Lithuanian horses and of fossil 
 remains of horses from Baltic sites forms the basis for an investigation of the 
 origin of the East European domestic horse, especially its relation to the tarpan 
 and the Przewalski horse. 
 
 All types of recent and prehistoric horses can be traced back to two basic 
 types — Oriental and Occidental. The Lithuanian-Polish-Esthonian horse group 
 is seen as one unit belonging to the Oriental type, with close affinities to the Prze- 
 walski horse. The South Russian tarpan is considered a feral horse. 
 
 La Baume, Wolfgang 
 
 1949. Die altesten europaischen Haustiere. Verhandl. dtsch. zool. Ges., pp. 
 74-90, Aug., 1948, in Kiel. 
 
68 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY. VOLUME 54 
 
 A review of the literature on the first occurrence of domestic animals. Only 
 the dog is surely known from Mesolithic time. It belonged to a culture of hunters 
 and gatherers. The beginnings of all the other domestic animals (cattle, pig, 
 sheep, goat and horse) are found in earliest Neolithic (proto-Neolithic) times, 
 their origin probably associated with the first cultivation of plants. 
 
 Langton, N. and B. 
 
 1940. The cat in ancient Egypt. 89 pp., frontispiece, 19 pis. Cambridge 
 University Press (London). 
 
 Essentially a catalogue of the Langton Collection (cat figures from ancient 
 Egypt), but additional comments and suggestions give a framework of the earliest 
 culture of the cat. Felis chaus and F. ochreata are suggested as probable originals 
 for two distinct types — one long-eared and sharp-nosed, the other short-eared 
 and blunt-nosed — which can be distinguished among the images of domestic 
 cats from ancient Egypt. 
 
 Latcham, Ricardo 
 
 1924. Los animales domesticos de la America precolombiana. Publ. Mus. 
 Etnol. Antr., Chile, Tom. IH, pp. 1-199. 
 
 An account of the domestic stock of ancient South and Central America 
 based upon archaeological excavations. Treated in detail among the mammalian 
 fauna are dogs (chap. 1); species of the genus Auchenida — llama, alpaca, vicugna 
 and guanaco (chap. 2); and the guinea pig (chap. 4). All those animals, kept 
 as domestic breeds prior to the Spanish invasion, are without exception derived 
 from indigenous wild forms. The dog had the widest distribution and therefore is 
 regarded as the first animal that was domesticated. It is represented among 
 the various cultures by many varieties. 
 
 Laufer, Berthold 
 
 1917. The reindeer and its domestication. Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Ass., vol. IV, 
 pp. 91-147. 
 
 On the basis of ethnographical data (Russian and early Chinese sources) 
 an attempt is made to determine where and when reindeer breeding originated. 
 It is concluded that the first domestication of reindeer took place in the Baikal 
 region and was practiced originally by Samoyeds in the early period of their 
 history (prior to their migration into the present northern habitats). It was later 
 transmitted to the Lapps. 
 
 Lawrence, Barbara 
 
 1944. Bones from the Governador area. Columbia Stud. Archaeol., vol. II, 
 no. 1, pp. 73-78. 
 
 A description and craniological study of dog skulls and mandibles found 
 among the mammal bones discovered at Governador, New Mexico. Most of the 
 bones belonged to young individuals, suggesting that the animals were used 
 as food. Three breeds of dogs are distinguished: Basket Maker, Techichi, and a 
 short-nosed form. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 69 
 
 1951. Post-cranial skeletal characters of deer, pronghorn, and sheep-goat, with 
 notes on Bos and Bison. Pap. Peabody Mus., vol. 35, no. .3, pp. 7-43, 20 figs. 
 
 This paper, with its lists of comparative characters and numerous sketches 
 of the bones, is an aid to the archaeologist or mammalogist identifying fauna 
 of the larger Artiodactyla from North American excavations. Only generic 
 differentiation is attempted of Ovis, Capra, Antilocapra, Odocoileus, Bison, and 
 Bos, except for a few characters where the mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) 
 can be distinguished. No characters of the post-cranial skeleton were found 
 that would separate domestic sheep and goat, so they are grouped as a unit. 
 Little or no reliance can be placed upon characters of ribs, vertebrae or many of 
 the smaller bones of the carpus and tarsus, so such bones are not considered. 
 Bos and Bison are very similar in their skeletal parts, although not to the degree 
 of Capra and Ovis. — C.A.R. ', . 
 
 Lebel, L. D. 
 
 1939. Origin and quality of the Don-Danube goat. [Polish; English summ.) 
 Sbornik rabot po raswed i sekr. owez, Woroschilowsk, vol. IX, pp. 63-76. 
 
 Short account of the Don-Danube goat, which is kept all over the Don Valley 
 down to the Sea of Azov, and which is markedly distinct, not only from the breeds 
 of the surrounding areas but also from all the other forms described in the literature. 
 The goat shows characters, especially in the skull and horns, very close to the 
 extinct Capra prisca Adametz. 
 
 Leister, Claude W. 
 
 1943. Before Montefiore Joash sunshine. . . . Anim. Kingd., vol. 46, no. 3, 
 pp. 63-70. 
 
 Popular guide to domestic cattle, their wild relatives, and their probable 
 ancestors. Urus, zebu, and Celtic shorthorn (Bos longifrons) are seen as ancestors 
 of present-day (taurine) domestic cattle. Brief discussion is also devoted to the 
 yak, to the Bibovine group (gaur, gayal, banteng) and to the domestication 
 of the water-buffalo. 
 
 Lengerken, H. von 
 
 1953. Der Ur und seine Beziehungen zum Menschen. Die Neue Brehm- 
 Bucherei, Heft 105, 79 pp., 68 figs. 
 
 A monograph on the evolution of the urus and its bearing on man's civilization. 
 The author deals extensively with the role of the urus as the ancestor of domestic 
 oxen and concludes that all existing cattle except yak, buffalo, and Bali cattle 
 originated from Bos primigenius. 
 
 1955. Ur, Hausrind und Mensch. 191 pp., 253 figs. Deutscher Bauernverlag 
 
 (BerHn). 
 
 A comprehensive survey of the knowledge about Bos primigenius, its speciation 
 and domestication among various cultures. Compiled from zoological and paleon- 
 tological as well as archaeological and ethnological sources. Hundreds of pictorial 
 representations of the urus and domestic oxen throughout all ages and cultures 
 are added. 
 
70 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Lhote, Henri 
 
 1953. Le cheval et le chameau dans les peintures et gravures rupestres du 
 Sahara. Bull. Inst, frang. Afr. noire, Tom. XV, no. 3, pp. 1138-1228, 20 figs. 
 
 A detailed description of the horse and camel representations in the rock paint- 
 ings and rock engravings in the Sahara Desert forms the background for a dis- 
 cussion of the place of these animals in North African civilizations during early 
 historical times. 
 
 Liang, Ssu-Yung 
 
 1934. Human, animal, and bird skeletal remains, and shell-fish remains, hi 
 Li Chi and others, Ch'eng-tzu-yai [Report on the excavation of Ch'eng- 
 tzti-yai, a Neolithic and, subsequently, Bronze-Age site in northeast China], 
 Arch., Sinica, no. 1 [In Chinese]. English transl., 1956, Yale Publ. Anthrop., 
 vol. 52, pp. 1 232; see particularly p. 152. 
 
 Human occupation at this site in Shantung Province continued approximately 
 from 2000 to 200 B.C. Nine genera of mammals were identified: rabbit, pig, dog, 
 horse, sheep, ox, and three kinds of deer; only the dog, Canis familiaris, could 
 definitely be regarded as domestic. The sheep and ox are assigned to extinct 
 species, and horse and pig were not specifically identified. Pig and dog bones 
 were most numerous, horse and ox bones next, deer and sheep bones next; rabbit 
 was rare. — C.A.R. 
 
 Linton, Ralph 
 
 1955. Domestication of plants and animals. Chap. 8, in The Tree of Culture. 
 Alfred A. Knopf (New York). 
 
 This is a non-technical summary of what an anthropologist regards as essential 
 knowledge concerning domestication. As such, there are correlations with human 
 culture not always known to zoologists, as the possibility that chickens may 
 have been kept originally to guard against ghosts. 
 
 Except for the dog and the reindeer, domestic animals were tamed by agri- 
 cultural people. Man's association with reindeer at first was that of herder only; 
 all other domesticated animals are thought to have been kept first as young animals, 
 probably as pets for children. 
 
 There were two major centers of animal domestication in the Old World: The 
 dry, open country of Egypt and southwestern Asia and the jungle environment of 
 southeastern Asia. In the latter area occurred the domestication of the chicken 
 and probably an independent domestication of the pig. The Bactrian camel was 
 domesticated in Mongolia, and the horse on the steppes somewhere west of Mon- 
 golia; possible sites for the origin of the domestic dog and water buffalo are not 
 mentioned. — C.A.R. 
 
 Lloyd, Seton 
 
 1940. Iraq government soundings at Sinjar. Iraq, vol. 7, pp. 13-21, pis. 2-4, 
 4 figs. 
 
 The horn-cores of a water buffalo (Bubalus) are reported from the site of 
 Grai Resh in northern Iraq, occurring with artifacts of the Uruk culture period. 
 —C.A.R. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 71 
 
 Lloyd, Seton, and Safar, Fuad 
 
 1945. Tell Hassuna. J. near East. Stud., vol. TV, pp. 255-289, 21 pis. 
 
 Account of an excavation by the Iraq government in 1943 and 1944 at the 
 early site of Tell Ha.ssuna in northern Iraq. In appendix I (p. 284) there is a 
 preliminary report on the animal bones. Most numerous among the remains 
 were those of goat and sheep; fragments of probably domestic animals belonged to 
 ox and ass. 
 
 Lorenz, Konrad Z. 
 
 1955. Man meets dog. x + 211 pp., illus. Houghton Mifflin Company (Boston). 
 
 The domestic dog, as determined primarily on the basis of comparative be- 
 havior, is considered to have been derived from the golden jackal, Canis aureus, 
 after a long period of symbiotic relationship. As man finally moved into the 
 far north, he cross-bred these jackal-ancestored dogs with wolves, C. lupus, thus 
 establishing those breeds (Eskimo husky, chow chow, samoyed, and Russian Lajkas) 
 which are mainly wolf-derived. 
 
 The domestic cat is descended with little change of morphology or behavior 
 from Felis ocreaia of Africa and Syria. This species is today easily tamed, even 
 when caught adult, whereas the European wildcat, F. sylvesfris, can never be 
 tamed, even when hand-reared from a kitten. — C.A.R. 
 
 Lortet, L., and Gaillard, C. 
 
 1903-09. La faune momifee de I'ancienne Egypte. Arch. Mus. hist. nat. Lyon, 
 Tom. VIII, viii + 205 pp., 8 pis., 82 figs.; Tom. IX, xiv + 126 pp., 184 
 figs.; Tom. X, 336 pp., 223 figs. 
 
 A detailed study of the mummies excavated from animal graves in Egypt — 
 mainly from around Roda, Thebes, Sakkara, Kom Ombo, and Gizeh — dating 
 to the first millennium B.C. 
 
 Identified among the domestic animals are dogs, cats, oxen, sheep, and goats. 
 Dogs, which were found together with jackals, are mostly of the pariah type; 
 a few were a kind of greyhound. Among the numerous cat mummies two forms are 
 distinguished: A large type, identified with the wild, indigenous Felis maniculata, 
 and a smaller type, considered the domestic derivative of the former. Cattle 
 are identified as Bos africanus Fitzinger and are seen as the race that supplied 
 the "steer of Apis"; sheep mummies are regarded as of two species: Ovis palaeo- 
 aegypticus and a mouflon type. 
 
 Luho, V. 
 
 1948. iJber steinzeitliche Winterverkehrsmittel in Finnland. Acta Arch., 
 vol. XIX, pp. 115-144, 22 figs. 
 
 Finds of various types of sledges from prehistoric Finland (pre-Comb-Ceramic 
 to post-Comb-Ceramic periods) are described in detail, and conclusions are drawn 
 as to the introduction and taming of the draft-animals (dog and reindeer) asso- 
 ciated with sledge driving. The earliest sledges from the pre-Comb-Ceramic 
 sites (Heinola, Rantasalami) were probably drawn by man only; from the Comb- 
 Ceramic culture on, a new type of sledge occurs (Saarigiirvi-Tarvala), together 
 
72 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 with an increased frequency in the remains of dogs, three breeds of which are 
 already known from this time. 
 
 The use of the reindeer as a draft-animal began later, possibly by the end of 
 the late Stone Age. 
 
 Lundholm, Bengt 
 
 1949. Abstammung und Domestikation des Hauspferdes. Zool. Bidr. Uppsala, 
 Bd. 27, pp. 1-292, 6 pis., 1 map, 9 tables, 45 figs. [Eng. summ. pp. 241-251.] 
 
 An osteological comparison between fossil and recent wild horses and early 
 domestic horses is the basis for a study of the origin of the domestic horse. Beside 
 measurements collected from the literature, the author uses extensive new mate- 
 rial from sub-fossil peat-bog finds — mainly from Sweden — from the Ancylus and 
 Litorina time (7000-2000 B.C.) and from the Nordic Bronze Age (chiefly from the 
 sacrificial site at Lake Bokarn, Uppland). 
 
 The division of the wild horse population into two groups — an eastern group, 
 comprising the tarpan and the Przewalski horse, and a western one, represented 
 by late- and post-glacial wild horses from central and northern Europe — is ex- 
 plained by the biogeographical conditions during the Ice Age. The domesticated 
 Nordic Bronze Age horse shows a close connection to the Nordic wild horse and 
 no resemblance to the tarpan, which fact seems to refute the monophyletic origin 
 of the domestic horse from the latter. 
 
 In the last chapter — "domestication and its significance" — the specific effects 
 of domestication in general are traced, and their possible causes are discussed. 
 A comprehensive bibliography is appended. 
 
 Lydekker, R. 
 
 1912a. The horse and its relatives. vi-|-281 pp., 11 figs. George Allen & 
 Company, Ltd. (London). 
 
 In chap. 2 (pp. 71-116) various views as to the relation of the domestic horse 
 to the wild tarpan are examined and discussed. The author finds signs of near 
 relationship between the Mongolian tarpan (Equus caballus przewalskii) and the 
 existent breeds of western Europe and their prehistoric ancestors, all of them de- 
 rived from one species (Equus caballus typicus), which gave rise to the Mongolian 
 ponies as well. 
 
 The differences between the eastern and western stock are only the results of 
 different climatic conditions, modes of treatment and selection; "Oriental" and 
 "Occidental" horses are derived from the same ancestral form. The Arab-Barb 
 group, however, is regarded as markedly distinct from the original tarpan-like 
 horses of western Europe and Mongolia. The origin of the Arab stock is traced 
 back to Equus stenonis in the Pliocene (chap. 5, pp. 150-170). The author finds 
 in this Arabian breed the original type from which both "Barb" (the Libyan 
 stock) and "Turk" (the Turkoman horses of Turkestan) were early derivatives. 
 
 When dealing with the domestic ass (chap. 9, pp. 215-225), the author accepts 
 the view that the wild animal, whose original home may have been in northwest 
 Africa, was probably first tamed in the eastern Mediterranean countries. 
 
 1912b. The ox and its kindred. xi-h271 pp., 23 pis. with 46 figs., 7 text figs. 
 Methuen & Co., Ltd. (London). 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 73 
 
 The volume contains detailed information on the zoological position and struc- 
 ture of the ox, the distribution and history of wild bovines, and an account of the 
 origin of domestic cattle and of the chief breeds by which they are represented. 
 Special attention is devoted to the history of the extermination of the aurochs of 
 Europe and western Asia {Bos iaurus primigeniiis), taken as the principal ancestor 
 of domestic cattle. 
 
 Humped cattle — a distinct species, Boi< indicus — are regarded as a domesti- 
 cated derivative from the wild banteng of southeastern Asia (cf. also Keller, 1902). 
 Its connection with the brachyceros stock, however, is contested. 
 
 1912c. The sheep and its cousins, xv +315 pp., 14 pis., 61 figs. George Allen 
 ct Company, Ltd. (London). 
 
 Popular information about the races of wild and the breeds of domestic sheep 
 and the origin and history of the latter. The Himalayan urial (Ovis vignei) is con- 
 sidered progenitor of the ancient Oriental domestic breeds and also of 0. aries 
 palustris from the Swiss lake-dwellings, although a taming of the indigenous wild 
 mouflon (O. a. mntiimon) by the prehistoric inhabitants of Europe may have oc- 
 curred. The specialized African breeds — the longipes type of ancient Egypt as 
 well as the long-legged (0. a. longipes) and long-eared (O. a. catoiis) breeds of today 
 — are considered to be of Asiatic origin. 
 
 Mackay, E. J. H. 
 
 1938. Further excavations at Mohenjo-daro. Manager of Publication, Delhi. 
 
 A brief summary of the domestic animals represented on the seals of Mohenjo- 
 daro from the excavations of 1927-31 (cf. Sewell, 1931) is given, and the identifi- 
 cations of H. Friederichs (cf. Friederichs, 1933) are discussed (vol. I, appendix 1, 
 pp. 669-671). The animal that appears most frequently is a form of cattle, show- 
 ing the characters of both the primigeniiis and the namadicus type, which fact may 
 indicate a crossing of the two in the Indus valley. Among the figurines and model 
 animals (pp. 286-292), domestic dog (of a mastiff type), cattle, horse(?), sheep, 
 goat and pig are identified. 
 
 Madsen, A., et al. 
 
 1900. AfTaldsdynger fra Stenalderen i Danmark. [Stone Age kitchen middens 
 from Denmark.) 196 pp., 11 pis., figs, and tables in text [Fr. summ. pp. 193- 
 196). C. A. Reitzel (Kjpbenhavn). 
 
 A study of the kitchen midden remains from Danish Stone Age sites (Ertebplle 
 period), collected by the National Museum of Copenhagen. Skeletal remains of 
 domestic mammals, identified by H. Winge, belonged to two types of dogs {Canis 
 familiaris palustris and C. /. matris-optimae), pigs and sheep (both of the turbary 
 type), and cattle (generally resembling Bos taurus brachyceros but with some fea- 
 tures of the primigenius type). 
 
 Mallowan, M. E. L. 
 
 1936. Excavations at Tall Chagar Bazar and an archaeological survey of the 
 Habur region. Second campaign. Iraq, vol. 4, pp. 91-154, pis. 12-19, 
 25 figs. 
 
74 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 The area considered is part of northeastern Syria. The horse, sometimes with 
 its trappings, is frequently represented by clay figurines, which, together with 
 chariot wheels, are common in levels dated ca. 1900 B.C. (see Smith, 1928) and sug- 
 gest the use of both draught and chariot horses. — C.A.R. 
 
 1946. Excavations in the BaHh valley, 1938. Iraq, vol. 8, pp. 111-159. 
 
 Report on excavations from several sites in northeastern Syria in the valley 
 of the River Balih (a tributary of the Euphrates), dated to the Halafian period. 
 Proof of mixed farming was obtained as far back as the Chalcolithic; cows, sheep 
 and goats were kept, and the domestic dog was also at the disposal of the herdsmen. 
 
 Some remains of domestic animals, found in or near Tell Mefesh, are identified 
 by D. M. A. Bate (p. 128). They belong to a large ox, a small equid and a large 
 goat with twisted horns — considered to be an example of an early stage in the 
 development of the domestic Mamber goat. 
 
 1947. Excavations at Brak and Chagar Bazar. Iraq, vol. 9, pp. 1-266, 86 pis., 
 18 figs. 
 
 These sites are in northeastern Syria. From Brak, dated as not later than 
 3200 B.C., were identified a small Equus, pig, and ox; the latter two were probably 
 domestic. Also from Brak, at about 2300 B.C., were identified a small Equm, and 
 domestic dog, pig, goat, cattle, and probably sheep. The Equus could be either 
 the domestic ass or the Syrian onager. 
 
 Remains of a goat with twisted horns are thought to be those of the typical 
 Mamber goat. A sheep is represented by a portion of a large twisted horn core, 
 which resembles that of some domesticated races and differs from that of the wild 
 species. Similar horn cores associated with the Mamber goat were also found at 
 Megiddo, in levels dated as of Chalcolithic to Early Bronze age. — C.A.R. 
 
 Mangelsdorf, P. C. 
 
 1952. Evolution under domestication. Amer. Nat., vol. 86, pp. 65-77. 
 
 The same factors that operate in "natural evolution" (mutation, genetic drift, 
 hybridization, selection, etc.) were effective in the speciation of domestic animals 
 and plants, though evolution directed by man led to much quicker changes than 
 natural evolution. Data are taken almost exclusively from cultivated plants. 
 
 Mason, I. L. 
 
 1951. A world dictionary of breeds, types and varieties of livestock. Technical 
 Communication No. 8 of the Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding 
 and Genetics, 272 pp. Slough, Buckinghamshire, England. 
 
 A dictionary of the names which have been applied to groups of horses, cattle, 
 sheep, pigs, goats, buffaloes and asses on the basis of common origin, similarity or 
 geographical proximity. Synonymous names are indicated and for each breed a 
 brief discussion of origin, present distribution, breed characters and relationship 
 to other breeds is given. 
 
 Mathiassen, Therkel 
 
 1944. The Stone Age settlement at Trelleborg. Acta Arch., vol. XV, pp. 77-98, 
 9 figs. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 75 
 
 Among artifacts from a settlement (dating from the passage-grave period) near 
 Trelleborg on Zealand (Denmark), a few bone artifacts, made from skeleton parts 
 of domestic oxen, are identified (pp. 81-82). 
 
 Matthey, Robert 
 
 1954. Chromosomes et systematique des canides. Mammalia, vol. 18, no. 3, 
 pp. 225-230, 14 figs. 
 
 Since the domestic dog has a diploid chromosomal number of 78, whereas the 
 golden jackal, Titos aureus, has only 74, it is concluded that dogs cannot have been 
 derived from this species of jackal. The number of chromosomes in the wolf has 
 not yet been determined. — C.A.R. 
 
 Meissner, B. 
 
 1926. Haustier. In M. Ebert, Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, Bd. V, pp. 216- 
 221. Walter de Gruyter & Co. (Berlin). 
 
 In the first part — a general consideration of the origins of domestication — it is 
 assumed that the necessity for keeping animals as offerings for the gods had been 
 the main motive for the taming of wild forms. This is followed by a brief account 
 of archaeological evidences of dog, pig, and cattle from prehistoric Europe, and of 
 cattle, sheep, goat, horse, ass and camel from the ancient Near East. 
 
 Melnyk, Oleska 
 
 1927. Das Wildrind Osteuropas und seine Domestikation. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., 
 Bd. IX, pp. 475-483. 
 
 Fossil and recent material of the genus Bos from Ukrainian museums is investi- 
 gated. The East European domestic cattle are of primigenius type (although with 
 great variability) and are supposed to have descended from Bos urns primigenius 
 in the early Stone Age, their domestication being already very advanced by late 
 Neolithic. Cross-breeding with the Asiatic urus {B. namadicus) or with the ban- 
 teng may occasionally have occurred. 
 
 1928. Die neolithischen Haustiere Siidosteuropas. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XI, 
 pp. 15-25. 
 
 The author summarizes briefly the material (mainly figurines) of NeoHthic 
 domestic animals from southeastern Europe (especially Ukraine) and concludes 
 that by the fourth millennium B.C. cattle (of primigenius type), sheep, goats(?) 
 and horses(?) were domesticated in this area. 
 
 Menj^hin, Oswald 
 
 1931. Weltgeschichte der Steinzeit. xvi-|-648pp. Anton Schroll& Co. (Wien). 
 
 The author claims three independent civilizations, which gave rise to animal 
 breeding at the threshold of the Neolithic. 
 
 Widespread across southern Asia and southern Europe was a swine-breeding 
 culture, associated with hoe-agriculture and lacking draft animals, the only do- 
 mestic species besides the pig being the dog. Another civilization complex, rep- 
 resented by the Anau culture, rose in western Turkestan, its domestic stock 
 comprising cattle and sheep, the former derived from Bos namadicus, the latter 
 
76 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 from Ovis vignei arkar. Later the goat was added. A third civilization is indicated 
 by the domestication of riding animals — horse, ass and camel — its origin being 
 sought in central Asia. 
 
 1933. Merimde-Benisalame und Ma'adi. In H. Junker, Vorlaufiger Bericht 
 iiber die Grabungen von Merimde-Benisalame, Anz. Akad. Wiss., Wien, 
 Jhg. 70, pp. 83-97. 
 
 In a preliminary report on the excavations at the Neolithic settlement of 
 Merimde-Benisalame (western Delta region of Egypt) a short account of the 
 faunal finds is given (pp. 88, 89) and their significance in tracing early stock- 
 farming in Egypt is emphasized. The faunal remains show close resemblance to 
 those from Ma'adi (cf. Menghin and Amar, 1932), especially in the abundance 
 of bones of the domestic pig. 
 
 Pig, cattle, sheep, and goat(?) are also recorded. In spite of the great amount 
 of skeletal material no trace of either equids or camels was detected. 
 
 Menghin, Oswald, and Amar, M. 
 
 1932. The excavations of the Egyptian University in the Neolithic site at 
 Ma'adi. Egypt. Univ., Fac. Arts, Publ. 10, 59 pp., 78 pis. 
 
 The bone material from the Ma'adian culture (ca. 3000 B.C.) in Lower Egypt 
 is discussed briefly (p. 52). A considerable number of oxen, sheep, goats and pigs 
 could be distinguished. The importance of the high frequency of pigs in early 
 Neolithic sites from Lower Egypt, as contrasted to the few faint traces of pig- 
 breeding in Upper Egyptian sites from the same era, is emphasized, and the 
 marshy Delta region is considered to be the pig-breeding center of prehistoric 
 Egypt. 
 
 Merkens, J. 
 
 1929. Die Abstammung des Java-Madurarindes — zugleich eine Untersuchung 
 iiber die Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen von anderen Rinderrassen nieder- 
 landisch Indiens nach der Prazipitationsmethode. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., 
 Bd. XVI, pp. 361-400, 20 figs., 9 tables. 
 
 An extensive series of precipitation tests was made, in order to investigate 
 the serological relationship of cattle in the Dutch East Indies in general and of the 
 Java-Madurese cattle in particular. The results confirmed the view that the Java 
 and the Madurese cattle originated from a cross between banteng and zebu; both 
 are related mutually as well, with the zebu on one side and the banteng (Bali 
 cattle. Bos sondaicus) on the other. 
 
 Zebu and Friesian-Dutch (Bos taurus) cattle show almost the same relation- 
 ship reciprocally as each of them does with the banteng, the banteng being more 
 closely related to the buffalo (Bos bubalis) than the two former. The buffalo 
 shows less affinity to the bovines sensu stricto than those do among themselves. 
 It is in an intermediate position between the investigated Bovinae and the sheep. 
 
 The high titer of Shorthorn and Jersey against anti-Friesian-Dutch serum on 
 the one hand and anti-zebu on the other seems to confirm the view of a diphyletic 
 origin of European breeds of cattle. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 77 
 
 Mikesell, Marvin W. 
 
 1955. Notes on the dispersal of the dromedary. Sthwest. J. Anthrop., vol. 11, 
 no. 3, pp. 231-245. 
 
 Wild Camelus dromedarius occurred in northern Africa and probably in Pales- 
 tine and Arabia in Pleistocene and prehistoric times, but it became extinct in 
 northern Africa during Early Dynastic time without having been domesticated 
 there, leaving only a few early evidences of its presence. The most probable site 
 of domestication was southern Arabia (Yemen and Hadramaut), where agricul- 
 tural people with domestic animals (goats, cattle, asses) lived in close proximity 
 to the desert. The dromedary first appears clearly in the historical record in 
 Mesopotamia during Assyrian times. The domesticated animal was then intro- 
 duced into Egypt in numbers by the Persians, although some individuals had 
 probably been taken there occasionally before (cf. Free, 1944, and Forbes, 1955). 
 From Egypt the domestic dromedary spread across the Sahara, very possibly prior 
 to the first century a.d., the time usually assigned to this event. — C.A.R. 
 
 Mirov, N. T. 
 
 1945. Notes on the domestication of reindeer. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 47, 
 no. 3, pp. 393-407. 
 
 Early records and archaeological evidences of the distribution of the reindeer 
 in past and present times are summarized, and previous investigations on the origin 
 of reindeer-breeding are critically reviewed. A map visualizing the recent distri- 
 bution of reindeer is added. 
 
 Mohapl, Franz 
 
 1914. Untersuchungen liber das prahistorische Rind Mahrens. Mitt, landw. 
 Lehrk. Wien, Bd. II, pp. 75-97, 4 pis. with 8 figs. 
 
 Skull fragments of cattle from several Neolithic sites from Moravia (especially 
 from the lake dwellings near Olmiitz) are investigated. Most of the domestic 
 specimens belong to the brachyceros and only a few to the primigenius type. It is 
 suggested that it had been principally the small brachyceros ox that was distrib- 
 uted and kept among the Slavonian settlements during the Neolithic. 
 
 Mend, Robert, and Myers, Oliver H. 
 
 1934. The Bucheum. The Egypt Exploration Society, London. 
 
 J. W. Jackson reports on the remains of sacred cattle from the Baquaria and 
 the Bucheum at Armant, Upper Egypt (New Kingdom and Roman period) (vol. I, 
 chap. 17, pp. 137-142; pi. xcvii in vol. III). 
 
 The skeletal parts examined resemble closely those of the Celtic shorthorn 
 (Bos brachyceros=B. longifrons Owen). 
 
 Morrison-Scott, T. C. 
 
 1952. The mummified cats of ancient Egypt. Proc. zool. Soc. London, vol. 121, 
 pp. 861-867. 
 
 About 200 skulls of mummified cats, excavated at Gizeh and dating from 
 600-200 B.C., form the basis for a study of ancient Egyptian cats and their identity. 
 
 P- 
 
78 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 A craniological examination and statistical analysis lead to the conclusion that two 
 forms of cat were mummified. The larger form, the domestic status of which is 
 questioned, represents ^V/(',s chaus. The smaller and by far the commoner mum- 
 mies appear to represent a domestic form of the wild F. libyca Forster, called 
 F. libyca bubastis. 
 
 Morse, E. W. 
 
 1912. The ancestry of domesticated cattle. U. S. Dept. Agr., 27th Ann. Rep., 
 Bur. Anim. Ind., 1910, pp. 187-239, pis. XIH, XIV, 16 figs. 
 
 A treatise on cattle ancestry, introduced by a historical sketch of bovid evo- 
 lution throughout the Pleistocene, wherein the probable progenitors for domestic 
 oxen are sought. Bos namadicus is taken as the ancestor of B. primigenius, which 
 gave rise to a number of domestic varieties (B. trochoceros, B. frontosus, B. longi- 
 frons). Bos africanus Fitzinger, proposed to designate the ancient Egyptian cattle 
 (cf. Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09), is regarded as a local race of the primigenius 
 type. B. brachycephalus is seen as a derivative of a different species. 
 
 Munro, Robert 
 
 1902. On the prehistoric horses of Europe and their supposed domestication in 
 Paleolithic times. Arch. Jour., vol. 59, pp. 109-143. London. 
 
 A consideration of the paleontological and archaeological evidence known at 
 the dawn of the twentieth century on horses of the Paleolithic and Neolithic 
 periods in Europe. The author suggests that horses were not tamed in Europe in 
 pre-Neolithic times, but that in early Neolithic periods domesticated horses de- 
 rived from wild Asian species were brought into Europe by Aryan immigrants. 
 
 Nachtsheim, Hans 
 
 1929. Die Entstehung der Kaninchenrassen im Lichte ihrer Genetik. Z. Tierz. 
 ZtichtBiol., Bd. XIV, pp. 53-109, 10 figs., 6 tables, 3 colored pis. 
 
 The origin of strains in the domestic rabbit is studied on the basis of the 
 genetics of skin and hair characters. The author lists twenty factors influencing 
 color pattern and hair character, which rose by mutations during domestication, 
 and which were fixed by breeding. 
 
 The ancestor of the domestic rabbit is proved to be the wild rabbit of south- 
 western Europe (Orydolagus cuniculus) which probably was first tamed by the 
 Romans in Spain. 
 
 1936. Vom Wildtier zum Haustier. viii + 100 pp., 50 figs. Alfred Metzner 
 (Berlin). 
 
 A survey of domestic animals and their origin. The rabbit is taken as a sam- 
 ple species, and its genetic characters and mechanisms are compared with those 
 found in other domestic animals. Special emphasis is given to the parallel char- 
 acters which occur independently in various groups of domestic animals, and an 
 attempt is made to work out their genetic and physiological background. 
 
 1938. Vom Wesen der Domestikation. Biologe, Jhg. VII, Heft 10, pp. 321-329. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 79 
 
 It is explained that mere taming of wild animals never led to the stage of true 
 domestication. The latter was reached only by selection of mutations, deleterious 
 in the wild stage but useful for man, over many generations. 
 
 Nehring, Alfons 
 
 1936. Studien zur indogermanischen Kultur und Urheimat. Wiener Beitrage 
 zur Kulturgeschichte und Linguistik, Jhg. 4, pp. 7 229. 
 
 Investigating the origin of the Indo-European civilization, the author deals 
 (pp. 64-117) with the sources of its domestic stock, mainly from the linguistic 
 point of view. In some forms a local origin from southeastern Europe is conceiv- 
 able, as in the case of goat and pig, the latter being domesticated usually from the 
 wild, indigenous animal everywhere. In most cases, however — sheep, dog, cattle, 
 horse — the domestic breeds are clearly of Asiatic origin. 
 
 Newberry, P. E. 
 
 1928. The pig and the cult-animal of Set. J. Egypt. Archaeol., vol. XIV, 
 pp. 211-225, 2 pis., 6 figs. London. 
 
 The first sections (1-3) contain a collection of archaeological, philological and 
 ethnological evidences for the occurrence of the domestic pig in Egypt from pre- 
 dynastic times. In section 4, which deals with the origin of the domestic pig, 
 current views on the subject are given, and the point is stressed that pig breeding 
 was associated with an agricultural but not with a pastoral life. Wild, domestic 
 and feral pigs are compared, and the last is taken to be the cult-animal of Set. 
 
 Newbold, D. 
 
 1928. Rock-pictures and archaeology in the Libyan desert. Antiquity, vol. 2, 
 pp. 261-291, 9 pis., 6 figs. 
 
 The area of this study is generally west of the big bend of the Nile at Don- 
 gola. The rock-carvings probably range in time from late Paleolithic to relatively 
 recent historical time. In the pre-Christian era, the domestic camel was unknown 
 in these deserts, and transportation was by horse, ox, or donkey. The hunting 
 dogs shown are very spirited, and probably are of Dynastic times. The big- 
 horned Bos africanus of proto-dynastic and Old Kingdom times is the commonest 
 type of cattle represented; it was replaced in the Middle Kingdom by B. brachy- 
 ceros. Some of the sites have only B. africanus represented, but others have 
 both.— C.A.R. 
 
 Nitsche, Max 
 
 1924. Untersuchungen iiber fossile Schweinereste Bohmens und ihre Bezie- 
 hungen zu dem iglauer Landschwein. Z. indukt. Abstammung- u. Vererb- 
 Lehre, Bd. 35, pp. 59-94, 6 tables. 
 
 A study of three sub-fossil pig skulls found in the vicinity of Teplitz (Bohemia). 
 Two skulls from the late Neolithic, identified as those of descendants of Bus scrofa 
 ferns are in a stage of primitive domestication. The third skull — a peat find from 
 Tschentschitz, belonging to the Bronze Age — is considered a feral pig and shows 
 resemblance to a Swedish race of the turbary pig S. s. palustris. 
 
80 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 1928. Untersuchungen tiber fossile Pferdereste Bohmens. — Ein Beitrag zur Ab- 
 stammung der Pferderassen. Z. indukt. Abstammung- u. VererbLehre, 
 Bd. 51. 
 
 A detailed description of three equid skulls, found in the environs of Teplitz 
 and Aussig (northern Bohemia). One skull belongs to a tarpan-like form (wild), 
 the second is regarded as a dwarfed horse of the prehistoric type found in Spain 
 (the proposed ancestor of the Kladruber breed), and the third is related to a 
 dwarfed form of the "Occidental" race, close to the type Eqiius caballus fossilis 
 var. germanicus Nehr. 
 
 In the first part new craniometrical methods and indices for equids are sug- 
 gested, which — though using traditional measurements — express the image of the 
 skull characters actually seen. Former data from the literature are revised and 
 compared on the basis of the new methods. 
 
 Noack, Th. 
 
 1907. Wolfe, Schakale, vorgeschichtliche und neuzeitliche Haushunde. Zool. 
 Anz., Bd. 31, Nr. 21-22, pp. 660-695. 
 
 An investigation of north African domestic dogs and of jackals and wolves kept 
 in captivity shows that the new environment causes rapid changes in the skull of 
 the wild animals, resembling partly the craniological modifications typical for the 
 domestic dog. Jackals and wolves are therefore regarded as the only ancestors of 
 the domestic dog, with pariah dogs and dingos representing feral types. 
 
 1909. Haustiere der Altai-Kalmucken. Zool. Anz., Bd. 34, Nr. 4, pp. 683-695, 
 750-760, 782, 787. 
 
 In an investigation of the crania of certain domestic breeds of the Altai- 
 Kalmucks (southeast of Biisk, the region around the head-waters of the River Ob) 
 the author stresses the affinities of the Kalmuck dog with Canisfamiliaris inostran- 
 zewi, of the Kalmuck cattle with Bos hrachyceros, and the resemblance of the 
 Kalmuck horse to Equus przewalskii. 
 
 The identification of the Kalmuck cat with a domestic variety of the East 
 Asian Felis microbis is followed by a discussion of the origin of the European do- 
 mestic cat, the cradle of which is found in northern Africa. 
 
 1915a. iJber den mumifizierten Kopf eines Inkahundes aus dem Totenfelde 
 von Ancon in Peru. Zool. Anz., Bd. 46, Nr. 2-3, pp. 62-64, 65-70, 6 figs. 
 
 A mummified head found in a pre-Spanish cemetery at Ancon (Peru) is de- 
 scribed, and the skull identified as Canis ingae (Tschudi). 
 
 The author excludes the possibility that this type descended from an indige- 
 nous South American canid and suggests a relationship to the European peat-dog 
 group. 
 
 1915b. Uber die Schadel vorgeschichtlicher Haushunde im Romermuseum zu 
 Hildesheim. Zool. Anz., Bd. 46, Nr. 2-3, pp. 76-94, 9 figs. 
 
 Skulls and skull-fragments of dogs from Neolithic finds near Hildesheim (Ger- 
 many) are compared to recent and fossil canids and studied in terms of their phylo- 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 81 
 
 genetic relationship. In the remains of three large dogs, a resemblance to the 
 Indian wolf Canis pallipefi is found; this type is named C. pallipes domesticm and 
 is seen as a connecting link in the evolution of the large domestic dogs. An achieve- 
 ment of the Indo-European Aryans, it spread from east to west (contrary to the 
 C. palustris group, which dispersed eastward) and became the ancestor of the 
 shepherd-dog type. 
 
 Oppenheim, Leo, and Hartmann, L. 
 
 1945. The domestic animals of ancient Mesopotamia — according to the Xlllth 
 tablet of the series Har.Ra-Hubullu. J. Near East. Stud., vol. IV, pp. 152- 
 
 177. 
 
 A translation and explanation of the famous Sumerian-Akkadian tablet which 
 classifies sheep, goat, ox, and donkey, designating these animals with an abundance 
 of names and attributes. 
 
 Otto, F. 
 
 1901. Osteologische Studien zur Geschichte des Torfschweines und seiner Stel- 
 lung innerhalb des Genus Sus. Rev. suisse Zool., Tom. IX, No. 1, pp. 43- 
 130, pis. iii-ix. 
 
 A detailed study of the turbary pig (Sus scrofa palustris) from the Swiss lake- 
 dwellings. In its first part the paper traces the evolution of the skull, noticeable 
 in the difl'erent periods, from the earliest sub-fossils via the Celtic-Helvetian to 
 the Bronze and Iron Age. In the second part, an examination of the crania of 
 recent domestic pigs and wild boars, the turbary pig is represented as a probable 
 derivative of the Asiatic boar Sus vittatus. 
 
 Page, J. W. 
 
 1939. From hunter to husbandman. 256 pp., illus. George G. Harrap & Co., 
 Ltd. (London). 
 
 A popular treatment, principally an attempt to trace the origins and develop- 
 ment of pastoralism and agriculture, the ancestry of domestic cattle, sheep, goat 
 and pig, and the origin and early evolution of the domestic ass, horse, camel and 
 reindeer. 
 
 Patterson, Bryan 
 
 1937. Animal remains from Alishar Huyiik. Orient. Inst. Publ. (Univ. Chicago), 
 no. 30, pp. 294-309, figs. 248-254. 
 
 Description of animal remains collected at Alishar Hiiyiik (Anatolia) during 
 the excavations in 1927-32, ranging from Chalcolithic to Phrygian-Hellenistic 
 layers. Most abundant among the bones of domestic animals were remains of 
 sheep, which appeared to be represented by the "copper sheep" type in the Hittite 
 levels, by a cross of the latter with the turbary sheep in the earlier strata. 
 
 Some remains of a domestic goat resembled Capra prisca, while horn-cores 
 of cattle pointed to the brachyceros type. Pig remains— present at all levels — 
 indicated that the Alishar swine belonged to the Sus scrofa group. Fragments 
 of domestic dogs are referred to as Canis familiaris palustris ladogensis and C. /. 
 inostranzewi respectively. Equid remains, of indeterminable type, were scarce. 
 
82 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Peet, T. Eric 
 
 1914. The Cemeteries of Abydos, Part IL— 1911-1912. Egypt Exploration 
 Fund (London), Mem. 34, pp. xvi + 133, 39 pis., 89 figs. 
 
 According to the identifications of Kathleen Haddon (pp. 6-7), the Amratian 
 levels from Abydos (30 km. north of Luxor, Egypt) yielded bones of large oxen, 
 sheep (tentatively identified as Ov^'.s polaeoaegypiiciiK, but these could have been 
 goats), part of a goat {Hircus mambricus), and a part of the mandible of a dog 
 similar to that of a pariah dog. No statement as to possible wild or domestic 
 status of the animals is made. — C.A.R. 
 
 Pequart, Marthe, et al. 
 
 1937. Teviec, station-necropole mesolithique du Morbihan. Arch. Inst. Paleont. 
 hum., Mem. XVIII, 227 pp., 19 pis., 20 figs. 
 
 In the faunal assemblage from the Mesolithic dwelling place at Teviec (on 
 an island ofl' the Bay of Quiberon, Morbihan, France) examined by M. Boule 
 were remains of a domestic dog (pp. 101-102). The dog resembled Canis familiaris 
 palustris from the Swiss lake-dwellings and the Danish kitchen middens. 
 
 Fetters, V. 
 
 1934. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der siidafrikanischen Haushunde. Z. Saugetierk., 
 Bd. IX, pp. 142-163, 11 figs. 
 
 The origins of South African Kaffir dogs are described and studied. Recent 
 specimens show a strong influence of European breeds, but the original type 
 points to a close relationship with the North African greyhounds. 
 
 Philiptschenko, J. A. 
 
 1928. Untersuchungen an Haustieren im Turkestan. Ztichtungskunde, Bd. Ill, 
 pp. 398-417, 1 map, 7 figs. , 
 
 Summary of some results of an expedition to eastern Kasakstan on the Russian- 
 Chinese border (1926-27). The fat-tailed sheep of Kasakstan is seen as a descendant 
 of the wild argali, first tamed in this area, where once a member of the argali group 
 — Ovis ammon koslovi (now restricted to the Gobi desert) — had been indigenous. 
 The Kirghiz goat is regarded as belonging to a markhor {Capra falconeri) 
 type. 
 
 1933. [Contributions to the origin of the domestic pig.] (Russ., Eng. summ.) 
 Transcript of the conference on the origin of domestic animals, held at the 
 Laboratory of Genetics, Acad. Sci. USSR, Leningrad, 1932, pp. 157- 
 185, 11 figs. 
 
 Craniological studies led to the conclusion that three races of wild boars are 
 ancestral to the domestic pig: (1) the European and Western Asiatic wild boar 
 Sus scrofa, with three subspecies (S. s. scrofa, S. s. attila Thomas and S. s. nigripes 
 Blanford); (2) the Eastern Asiatic wild boar S. orientalis, also with three sub- 
 species (S. 0. continentalis, S. o. raddeanus and S. o. moupinensis); (3) the South- 
 eastern Asiatic S. vittatus. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 83 
 
 Pia, Julius 
 
 1941. Rassenkundliche Untersuchungen an Schiidelresten des altagyptischen 
 Hausrindes. Z. Tierz. ZuchtBiol., Bd. XLVIII, pp. 17-55, 14 figs., 10 tables. 
 
 Investigation of eleven skulls of domestic cattle from various Egyptian excava- 
 tions, among them two from predynastic sites. On the basis of craniometrical 
 comparison the ancient Egyptian cattle are taken to be of primigenius type, most 
 resembling the Hungarian Grey Steppe breed. The animal sculptures confirm 
 the view that this longhorned breed was dominant in prehistoric and early dynastic 
 
 Egypt- 
 
 1942a. Untersuchungen liber die Rassenzugehorigkeit der altagyptischen Haus- 
 ziege. Z. Tierz. ZuchtBiol., Bd. LI, pp. 295-307, 4 pis. 
 
 A study of about thirty skulls or skull fragments of goats from ancient Egypt, 
 all of which are designated as typical prisca. Animal remains and representative 
 art indicate that this species (Copra prisca), characterized by homonymous twisted 
 horns, was the only one kept in Egypt from the first dynasty until the Late King- 
 dom. In prehistoric times, another, dwarfish breed of goat occurred in Egypt. 
 
 1942b. Beobachtungen an Schadeln des altagyptischen Hausschafs. Z. Tierz. 
 ZiichtBiol., Bd. LIII, pp. 171-179, 2 pis. 
 
 Description of more than fifty skulls from ancient Egyptian sheep, all belonging 
 to a spiral-horned, fleecy race w^iich appeared about the twelfth dynasty and com- 
 pletely displaced the older, hairy, "goat-horned" race (cf. Dlirst and Gaillard, 
 1902). The horns described are similar to those of the "Ram of Ammon," rep- 
 sented in Egyptian art from the twelfth dynasty on. 
 
 Piggot, Stuart 
 
 1950. Prehistoric India. 293 pp., 8 pis., 32 figs. Penguin Books, Harmonds- 
 worth, Middlesex. 
 
 A short summary of the domestic stock of prehistoric India, as reflected by 
 the finds from Harappa (cf. Prashad, 1936) and Rana Ghundai in Baluchistan 
 (pp. 155-158). The cradle of the domestic horse is discussed briefly (pp. 266-267). 
 
 Pilgrim, Guy E. p^ 
 
 1947. The evolution of the buffaloes, oxen, sheep and goats. J. Linn. Soc. 
 (Zool.), vol. 41, no. 279, pp. 272-286, 6 figs., 1 diagram. 
 
 Essentially an outline of the evolution of the Bovidae as shown by the fossil 
 record, but also an account of living representatives of wild oxen, sheep and goats 
 and their probable relation to recent domestic forms. Otns orientalis is seen as 
 ancestor of the turbary sheep; some domestic sheep are derived from O. ammon, 
 while O. vignei is taken to be the probable progenitor of the prehistoric domestic 
 breeds from Turkestan. 
 
 Domestic goats are derived partly from the markhor and partly from the 
 bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus) or from a cross of the latter with the descendants 
 of the Pleistocene C. prisca. 
 
 Pira, Adolf 
 
 1909. Studien zur Geschichte der Schweinerassen, insbesondere derjenigen 
 Schwedens. Zool. Jb., Allg. Zool., Suppl. 10, pp. 233 426, 52 figs., 10 tables. 
 
84 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 An extensive study of prehistoric pig remains from peat-moors and Neolithic 
 sites in Ringsjon (Schonen), Goltland, Aloppe (Uppland) and Annerod (Bohnsliin). 
 Osteological differences between wild and domestic forms are worked out (pp. 
 344-371). 
 
 The first domestic pigs appeared in the late Stone Age, where, besides the 
 wild boar — Sus scrofa antiquus ("already hunted in previous periods) — a form 
 occurred intermediate between the latter and the turbary pig, which in its pure 
 type (S. .s'. pahtslris) appears only much later. The long chain of transition stages 
 from the wild boar to the domestic turbary pig may indicate that the tamed 
 races have been developed in Sweden as a result of a local domestication from 
 an indigenous wild stock. 
 
 1926. On bone deposits in the cave "Stora Forvar" on the isle of Stora Karlso, 
 Sweden. A contribution to the knowledge of prehistoric domestic animals. 
 Acta ZooL, Bd. VII, pp. 123-217, 18 tables. 
 
 A study of the skeletal fragments from a typical Stone Age kitchen midden, 
 excavated in the cavern of Stora Forvar on the island of Stora Karlso off the south- 
 west coast of Gottland. 
 
 Remains of domestic animals are absent or rare in the lowest layers (mainly 
 seal bones), but they become by far the majority in the upper strata, comprisiiig 
 bones of ox, dog, goat, sheep, pig and horse. The dog is of the peat-dog (palustris) 
 type. The goat — a rare animal on Stora Karlso — is taken to be derived from 
 Capra aegagrus, while the Forvar sheep (much more frequent than goat) is con- 
 sidered a derivative of the mouflon (Ovis niHsimon), the rams being horned, the 
 ewes hornless. Cattle are of the brachyceros type, which is regarded by the author 
 as a domestic variation of the wild Bos primigenius ferns. 
 
 Pittard, Eugene, and Reverdin, L. 
 
 1921. A propos de la domestication des animaux pendant la period neolithique. 
 Arch, suisses Anthrop. gen., Tom. IV, no. 3, pp. 259-271. 
 
 A reconstruction of the domestic fauna in the Swiss Neolithic, based on a 
 statistical review of animal remains from sites near the lake of Neuchatel. 
 
 Five domestic species — cattle, dog, pig, sheep and goat — were present from 
 the lowest levels, the frequency of the first three decreasing in the later strata. 
 Horses were absent. While the majority of pig bones were those of young animals, 
 the remains of the other forms proved to be mainly those of adults. 
 
 Pohl, A. 
 
 1950-52. Das Kamel in Mesopotamien. Orientalia, vol. XIX (n.s.), pp. 251- 
 253; vol. XXI (n.s.), pp. 373-374. 
 
 Camel representations in Mesopotamia from the third millennium B.C. are 
 listed and seen as evidence that tamed camels were kept during the corresponding 
 periods. 
 
 Prashad, B. 
 
 1936. Animal remains from Harappa. Mem. Archaeol. Surv. India, no. 51, 
 62 pp., 7 pis. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 85 
 
 A systematic description of the animal remains from Harappa in the Indus 
 valley, collected during the seasons from 1924-25 to 1980-31. The material — 
 dated back to the third millennium B.C. — contained skulls and other skeletal 
 parts of dog, cattle, sheep and goat, besides fragments from the one-humped 
 camel, the Indian pig (Sus cristatus, all parts of young animals), the domestic ass, 
 the domesticated buffalo and an apparently domestic cat. 
 
 The dog — named Canis tenggeranas harappensis — showed marked skull- 
 affinities to the Indian wolf (Canis pallipes) and is considered the ancestor of the 
 Indian greyhound. Cattle found were of the humped zebu (Bos indicus) and 
 the humpless type, both regarded as descendants of B. primigenius. Sheep were 
 identified with Oris vignei (domestic us). The goats of Harappa were regarded 
 as derived from Capra aegagrus and their probable cradle of domestication is 
 sought within the Indus valley. 
 
 Pycraft, F. Z. S. 
 
 1938. The origin of domesticated animals. 111. London News, vol. 102, p. 444. 
 
 Popular discussion of some general aspects involved in the origin of domestic 
 animals. Examples are taken mainly from domestic birds. 
 
 Ralph, Elizabeth K. 
 
 1955. L^niversity of Pennsylvania radiocarbon dates I. Science, vol. 121, pp. 
 149-151, 1 fig. 
 
 The C'^ determinations for certain key levels in Belt cave, northern Iran 
 (see Coon, 1951, 1952) are: (1) Earliest pre-pottery Neolithic, with sheep and 
 goats supposedly domesticated (7790 ±330 years ago); (2) Mesolithic, which con- 
 tained bones of a large breed of domestic dog (11,480 ±550 years ago). — C.A.R. 
 
 Randall-Maclver, D., and Mace, A. C. 
 
 1902. El Amrah and Abydos, 1899-1901. Egypt Exploration Fund (London), 
 Mem. 23, pp. xiii + 108, 60 pis. 
 
 Amratian graves from the prehistoric site of El Amrah (north of Luxor, Egypt) 
 yielded several clay figurines of cattle (pp. 16-17, 41; pi. ix), some of which were 
 mounted four abreast on a single base and one of which showed a remarkably large 
 udder. These figurines lack the kind of evidence (halters, ropes, stall, mangers, 
 fencing, etc.) that would indicate domestication, but it would appear that the 
 people who made these rough grave-goods knew the models as household animals. 
 Figurines of pigs were rare; remains of goats are mentioned. — C.A.R, 
 
 Randhawa, M. S. 
 
 1946. Role of domesticated animals in Indian history. Sci. & Cult., Calcutta, 
 vol. XII, no. 1, pp. 5 14, 4 figs. 
 
 A popular account of the domestic stock of ancient India. The first domesti- 
 cated breeds, kept by the Negritos and by the Proto-Australoid population, com- 
 prised dog, elephant and buffalo; with the invasion of Aryan-speaking tribes 
 (around 1600 B.C.) the elephant-buffalo culture was replaced by a horse-cow 
 culture, though the buffalo was retained in certain parts throughout later times. 
 
 Independent domestication centers are suggested for the Bactrian camel 
 (central Asia) and the dromedary (northern Africa). Sheep and goat were prob- 
 ably first domesticated in the mountains of Turkestan. 
 
86 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Rathjens, Carl 
 
 1955. Die tierischen plastischen Darstellungen. Mitt. Mus. Volkerk. Hamb., 
 vol. XXIV, pp. 114-139, figs. 181-188. 
 
 In his report on three archaeological surveys in southern Arabia, the author 
 deals with the first occurrence of cattle, sheep, ass, horse, camel, and dog on the 
 Arabian peninsula. The domestication of the ass is seen as one of the most ancient 
 achievements. It was introduced from eastern Africa, where its domestication 
 originated. Also introduced very early were ox and sheep, the former by sea and 
 the latter by the land route from the north. The domestic horse is regarded as a 
 much later introduction. 
 
 The domestication of the one-humped camel started prior to the third millen- 
 nium B.C. in northeastern Africa, where it later disappeared. It was probably 
 introduced from Mesopotamia into Arabia before the beginning of the second 
 millennium B.C. 
 
 Reinhardt, Ludwig 
 
 1912. Kulturgeschichte der Nutztiere. In L. Reinhardt, "Die Erde und die 
 Kultur," Bd. III. Ernst Reinhard (Miinchen). 
 
 A comprehensive compilation of archaeological and ethnological data on 
 all animals ever domesticated or tamed in the Old and the New World. Mammals, 
 birds, and fishes as well as "domestic" invertebrates are treated, and their evolu- 
 tion from the dawn of civilization throughout history is outlined. The text is 
 illustrated by many reproductions of archaeological and zoological nature. 
 
 Rcitsma, G. G. 
 
 1932. Het schaap. Zool. onderzoek d. Nederl. terpen. I. Wageningen. 46 pp., 
 65 figs. Fonds Landbouw Export Bureau 1916-1918. 
 
 All sheep bones encountered in the "terpen" (mounds of refuge in the pre- 
 historic swamps of Holland) originate from one identical breed, the "Terp" sheep, 
 which is still extant as the primitive "Drentsch Heide" sheep. It is not plausible 
 to regard the "Terp" sheep as the ancestor of the "Frisian Milk" sheep. 
 
 The encountered skulls and skull fragments of Ovis aries palustris have all 
 belonged to females. O. a. Hiuderi never existed; the skeletal remnants ascribed 
 to that breed are from male specimens of O. a. palustris. The so-called Bronze 
 sheep never existed as an autonomous breed, but is merely a non-horned variety 
 of the female O. a. palustris. The "Drentsch Heide" sheep is, through the "Terp" 
 sheep, the lineal descendant of O. a. palustris. — D.H. 
 
 1935. Het varken. Zool. onderzoek d. Nederl. terpen. II. Wageningen. 58 pp., 
 93 figs. H. Veenman & Sons. 
 
 In the "terpen," as well as near Swiss lake-dwellings, remains have been 
 found of wild boars and domesticated pigs. The wild form is Sus scrofa, the Euro- 
 pean wild pig. The domestic pig is derived directly from S. scrofa; the names 
 "S. verrucosus," "S. vittatus," and "S. mediterraneus" are not to be considered, 
 since these are also derived from S. scrofa. 
 
 The remains of domesticated pigs found in Swiss lake-dwellings show no 
 essential differences; such variability as is present is due to individual variation. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 87 
 
 difTerences in the degree of domestication, and differences in absolute size. Thus 
 Sus scrofa paliistn'i< Riit. may be designated S. n. domei^ticus palustri^. The small 
 deviations that have been noted between this latter and the Dutch mound-hog, 
 sometimes called S. s. domesticus tumidorum, are exclusively the results of differ- 
 ences in the degree of domestication and in differences of environment. Both 
 represent one domesticated form of .S«.s' }<crnfa. — D.H. 
 
 Reverdin, Louis 
 
 192L La faune neolithique de la station de Saint-Aubin, Port-Con ty, Lac de 
 Neuchatel. Arch, suisses Anthrop. gen., Tom. IV, no. 3, pp. 251 254. 
 
 A short summary of the animal remains from two layers (III and IV) of the 
 Neolithic site at Saint-Aubin (Switzerland). Domestic animals constituted about 
 70 per cent of the total. Cattle {Bos brachijceros) occupied first place in both 
 levels, followed by the dog in level IV, by the pig (Sus paluslris) in level III. 
 Fewer remains belonged to the domestic sheep (4-9 per cent) and to the goat 
 (Capra hircits) (4.4-6.6 per cent). 
 
 1927-28. Recherches sur les mandibles de chien du niveau inferieur neolithique 
 lacustre. Bull, schweiz., Ges. Anthrop., Tom. IV, pp. 18 20. 
 
 Mandibles of ca. 54 dogs — a part of the faunal remains from the deepest stratum 
 at Saint-Aubin (cf. Reverdin, 1921) — are studied. The animals were apparently 
 slaughtered and eaten. Most of the mandibles are in the variation range of the 
 peat-dog Canis familiaris palustris; some, however, deviate significantly in their 
 jaw indices, which fact leads to the assumption that more than one form of dogs 
 were represented among the Neolithic fauna of Switzerland. 
 
 1928. Sur la faune du neolithique ancien et moyen des stations lacustres. Arch, 
 suisses Anthrop. gen., Tom. V, no. 1, pp. 41-46. 
 
 A brief summary of the frequency of domestic species out of the total faunal 
 remains from Saint-Aubin (cf. Reverdin, 1921) and Cortaillod, in which the relative 
 decrease of domestic animals during the transition from the early to the middle 
 ( — late) Neolithic is shown. In Saint-Aubin domestic animals (ox, pig, sheep, 
 goat, dog) constituted 67.8 per cent of the total fauna in layer IV, and only 55.6 
 per cent in layer III. At Cortaillod the corresponding percentages were 56.8 in 
 layer IV and 54.5 per cent in layer III. The decrease affected especially sheep 
 and goat (from 20.2 per cent to 11.2 per cent in Saint-Aubin) and dogs (in both 
 sites from 11.6 to 3.7 per cent). 
 
 1930 31. Sur la faune du kjokkenmodding Morbihannais, Er Yoh, et ses 
 rapports avec celle des stations lacustres de la Suisses. Arch, suisses Anthrop. 
 gen., Tom. VI, no. 1, pp. 79-86. 
 
 A study of the animal remains from the Neolithic kitchen middens at Er 
 Yoh (off the coast of Morbihan, France), the results of which are compared briefly 
 with the fauna of the Neolithic sites from Lake Neuchatel. Most frequent remains 
 among the domestic stock of Er Yoh were those of the turbary sheep (about 62 
 per cent) and small cattle of brachijceros type (28.5 per cent); a few remains were 
 of a larger type of cattle and of the turbary pig {Sus scrofa paluslris). The few 
 equid remains are considered to belong to a wild horse. 
 
88 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Revilliod, P. 
 
 1926. Sur les animaux domestiques de la station de I'epoque de La Tene de 
 Geneve et siir le boeuf brachycephale de I'epoque Romaine. Arch. Sci. 
 Phys. nat., vol. VIII, pp. 65-74. 
 
 The finds of La Tene — a settlement from the Iron Age near Geneva — are 
 described (cf. Schwarz, F., 1918). Among 400 bones and bone fragments there 
 were 148 of cattle, 149 of pig, 69 of sheep, 7 of goat and 26 of dog. All the cattle 
 remains belonged to Bos (auriis brachijceros. Pigs were represented by Sus palustris 
 and sheep showed affinities to the larger specimens of the Neolithic Ovis pnliistris. 
 The single skull of a dog seemed to be related to Canis inostravzewi, though in 
 size it resembled C. intermedins. 
 
 Revilliod, P., and Dottrens, E. 
 
 1947. La faune neolithique de la couche profonde de Saint-Aubin. II. Les 
 ossements de Bos taunts brachijceros Rlitim. et de Bos primigenius Boj. Rev. 
 Suisse Zool., Tom. 54, no. 22, pp. 459-544, 12 figs. 
 
 A critical examination of the cattle remains from Saint-Aubin (cf. Reverdin, 
 1921, 1928; Dottrens, 1946) and a discussion of the remains of large cattle from 
 the lake-dwellings, identified as a domestic race of the aurochs jBo.s taurus primi- 
 genius. A biometrical study revealed that sexes of the small. Neolithic brachij- 
 ceros race were much less distinct than they are in domesticated cattle today, 
 while dimorphism in sexual size is marked in the wild urus. 
 
 The great majority of the remains from Saint-Aubin (stratum IV) belonged 
 to the domestic Bos taurus brachijceros and the few primigenius bones are those of 
 wild cattle, either males or females; no reason is seen to admit the existence of a 
 domesticated race of the urus in the early Neolithic of this site. 
 
 Reynolds, Sidney H. 
 
 1939. The Bovidae. Monog. Brit. Pleist. Mamm., vol. 3, pt. 6, pp. 1-65, 
 5 pis., 20 figs. 
 
 Although the bulk of this monograph is devoted to a study of the distribution 
 and osteology of Bos primigenius, consideration is also given to B. longifrons, the 
 Celtic Shorthorn. This latter is clearly the domestic ox of the British Neolithic. 
 It is unknown from the British Pleistocene, and was introduced as a domestic ani- 
 mal to Ireland (which never had native cattle). The ancestry and place of domes- 
 tication of B. longifrons are unknown; some think it was merely a domesticated and 
 smaller variant of B. primigenius, but others think it a distinct wild species that 
 became domesticated, whereas B. primigenius was never domesticated. 
 
 In a historical review it is shown that "urus" (not "aurochs") is the correct 
 common name for B. primigenius. — C.A.R. 
 
 Rice, Victor 
 
 1942. Breeding and improvement of farm animals, xx+750 pp., 212 illus. 
 McGraw-Hill Book Co. (New York and London). 
 
 Chapters 2 and 3, section I, deal briefly and in a popular way with the evolu- 
 tion of man and the domestic animals. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 89 
 
 Richter, Curt P. 
 
 1952. Domestication of the Norway rat and its implication for the study of 
 genetics in man. Amer. J. Hum. Genet., vol. IV, pp. 273-285. 
 
 The Norway rat was domesticated for experimental purposes, and changes 
 during the course of its domestication are analyzed. These domestic modifications 
 seem to rest upon changes in the endocrine system and are associated with a hypo- 
 function of the adrenals and a hyperfunction of the gonads. 
 
 It is suggested that a special selection mechanism may operate under the pro- 
 tected and controlled environmental conditions found under domestication. 
 
 Ridgeway, William 
 
 1903. The origin and influence of the thoroughbred horse. xi-|-538pp., 143 figs. 
 Cambridge Univ. Press (London). 
 
 A wealth of data on horse breeding in prehistoric and ancient historical times 
 is brought together (pp. 82-424). On the basis of these historical and of biological- 
 morphological evidences as well, the author favors (pp. 425-477) a North African 
 origin for a bay domestic horse, called Equus cahallus Ubycus. This variety devel- 
 oped during a long succession of time in Libya and came to Egypt prior to 1500 B.C., 
 about the same time that the North Eurasian (originally dun or white) horse was 
 brought into Mesopotamia. By 1000 B.C. the Libyan horse spread into the Near 
 East, and by blending with the Eurasian stock gave rise to all the improved breeds 
 of the world. 
 
 Riedel, Alfredo 
 
 1948. Resti di animali domestici neo-eneolitici della caverna Pocala (Aurisina) 
 conservati nel Museo dell' Istituto Geologico dell' Universita di Padova. 
 Accad. Naz. dei Lincei, Rome; Rendiconti, CI. di sci. fis., mat. e nat., 
 ser. 8 A, Tom. IV, pp. 445-459, 5 figs. 
 
 A study of the neo-eneolithical faunal remains from the Pocala cavern (near 
 Trieste, Italy), in which typical domestic forms known from the Swiss lake-dwell- 
 ings were represented. 
 
 Described are: Canis familiaris palustris, Sus scrofa palustris, Capra hircus, 
 Ovis aries palustris, and Bos taurus brachyceros. 
 
 1951. Risultati e significato degli studi di paleontologia degli animali domestici. 
 Natura, Milano, vol. 42, fasc. 3-4, pp. 101-106. 
 
 A study of the fossil remains of prehistoric domestic animals found in Italy 
 shows that most of the species — dog, pig, goat, sheep, and ox — belong to the tur- 
 bary types, similar to the forms of the Swiss lake-dwellings. The significance of a 
 statistical analysis in treating sub-fossil material is discussed briefly. 
 
 Ritzoffy, Nikola 
 
 1932. Prinos poznavanju Mangulice. [Study of the Mangalitza pig.] Vet. 
 Arhiv, knjiga II, nr. 8-9, pp. 342 412, 21 figs., numerous tables in text, 
 2 tables append. (Ger. summ.) 
 
 A short review of previous investigations on the origin of South Slavian breeds 
 of swine is followed by a detailed craniological study of the Mangalitza pig, which 
 
90 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 is kept in Croatia and Slavonia in addition to the primitive Siska pig. The cranio- 
 logical measurements and indices lead to the view that the MangaUtza breed orig- 
 inated from a cross between the European wild boar S«.s- ncrofa scrofa and the 
 Mediterranean boar S. mediterranus. 
 
 1933. Die Rolle der Inzucht in der turopoljer Schweinerasse. Z. Tierz. Ziicht- 
 Biol., Bd. XXVII, pp. 419-429. 
 
 The pig breed from Turopolje in Croatia is derived directly from Sm mediter- 
 raneus Ulmansky and as a result of inbreeding for centuries it retains ancient 
 primitive characters. 
 
 Robinson, A. E. 
 
 193&. The camel in antiquity. Sudan Notes, vol. XIX, part I, pp. 47-69. 
 
 A collection of records, archaeological and ethnological, on the occurrence of 
 the Bactrian camel and the dromedary in prehistoric and historic times. The 
 author holds that the ancestor of both forms still lived in predynastic periods on 
 the frontiers of Egypt, retreating later into Asia, where it speciated and where it 
 became domesticated by 1200 B.C. 
 
 Rostafinski, Jan 
 
 1933. Proba systemtyki malych bosidow europy. [Systematics of the small 
 European bovids.J Rozpr. bid. z Zak. Med. wet., vol. XI, nr. 3. (Eng. 
 summ.) 
 
 A skull, found at Krzeszowice (Poland), is described and designated as a new 
 race, named Bok colUceros Rostafinski, which in size and several characters occu- 
 pies a somewhat intermediate position between Bos frontosus and B. brachyceros. 
 In contrast with the latter the horn-cores of B. colUceros are keeled. 
 
 Roy, C. R. 
 
 1946. Unicorn in the seals of Mohenjo-Daro and its relation to the rehgion 
 of the Indus valley civihzation. Sci. & Cult., Calcutta, vol. XI, no. 8, 
 pp. 408-411. 
 
 A discussion of the representations of the "unicorn," found in several sites of 
 the ancient Indus valley cultures (Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, etc.). The author 
 doubts the identification of the "unicorn" with the urus, and takes it rather to 
 represent the wild ass. The wild ass is considered a native of the Indus valley 
 from time immemorial, the domestic form being the result of an autochthonous 
 breeding in association with cult-ceremonies. 
 
 Riiger, Jakob 
 
 1942. Die Tierreste aus der spatbronzezeitlichen Siedlung Crestaulta nach den 
 Grabungen 1935-38. Rev. Suisse Zool., Tom. 49, no. 18, pp. 251-267. 
 
 A brief description of the bone material from Crestaulta (Graubunden, Switzer- 
 land), a dwelling place from the Middle Bronze, the culture of which was main- 
 tained probably up to the Late Bronze. Domestic mammals constituted the great 
 majority of the faunal remains. The most frequent species were the sheep, fol- 
 lowed by cattle and goat. Much fewer remains were those of the domestic pig. 
 Bones of dog and horse(?) were scarce. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 91 
 
 Rumjancev, B. F. 
 
 1936. [Origin of the domestic horse.] (Russ.; Eng. summ.) Bull. Akad. Nauk 
 SSSR, Ser. Biol., nos. 2-3, pp. 415 448, 21 figs., 2 tables. Moskva. 
 
 The disputed przewalski ancestry for domestic horses is investigated by an 
 extensive morphological comparison of the przewalski horse, the Mongolian do- 
 mestic horse, and the tarpan. It is assumed that the przewalski horse— showing 
 a marked resemblance to the half-ass group — played no part in the evolution of 
 the domestic horse. The Mongolian horses are considered, together with the under- 
 sized breeds of northeastern Europe (Clepper, Finnish, Vyatka horses), to be a 
 special "northern group" of domestic horses, which originated independently from 
 the "southern group" (represented by Equns caballus pumpellij from Anau; cf. 
 Diirst, 1908) and the "eastern group," the heavy cart-horses of western Europe. 
 
 Sankalia, H. D., and Karve, I. 
 
 1949. Early primitive Microlithic culture and people of Gujarat. Amer. An- 
 throp., vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 28-34. 
 
 Animal remains were recognized — associated with Microlithic artifacts — at the 
 prehistoric site at Langhnaj (Gujarat, India). According to preliminary studies 
 they comprised bones of sheep or goat, a large form of cattle, and pig, horse 
 and dog. 
 
 Sasaki, Kiyoshuna 
 
 1934. Serological test for the blood relationship of some bovines with reference 
 to the racial discernment. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XXIV, pp. 287-300, 
 8 figs. 
 The affinities of some races of cattle were tested by means of the precipitine 
 reaction. Two races of European cattle — Holstein-Friesian (of the Bos taurus 
 primigenius group) and Aberdeen-Angus (derived by Areander from the hypo- 
 thetical Bos laiirus akeratos) — could be distinguished by absorption tests. Hol- 
 stein-Friesian, improved Japanese native, and their hybrids could not be distin- 
 guished mutually. 
 
 The blood serum of the South Korean cattle could be distinguished from that 
 of the Holstein-Friesian, but not from that of the Formosan zebu (Bos zebu in- 
 dicus planus), so that the South Korean cattle can be considered a strain from the 
 Indian zebu. The Formosan zebu, however, is more closely related to the Holstein- 
 Friesian than the Formosan water-buffalo. 
 
 Sauer, Carl O. 
 
 1952. Agricultural origins and dispersals, vi +104 pp., 4 pis. American Geo- 
 graphic Society (New York). 
 
 A review of "what man has done with the plants and animals at his disposal." 
 In chap. 2 the cradle of earliest domestication is found in southeastern Asia, where 
 the origin of animals of the household (dog, pig) was associated with vegetative 
 planting — in contrast to herd-animals (cattle, sheep, goat), whose origin has been 
 related to seed farming, practiced first in southwestern Asia. Chap. 3 (pp. 40-61) 
 describes a similar process in the New World, represented by the tropical north- 
 western South American (dog and Muscovy duck) and Andean cultures (llama, 
 alpaca, guinea pig), respectively. 
 
92 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 The author accepts the view that sedentary fishing peoples became the first 
 domesticators, that cult associations were the main cause of keeping herd-animals, 
 and that the long and tedious work of domestication was accomplished before the 
 Neolithic opened. 
 
 The origin of a series of herd-animals (Equidae and Bovidae) is outlined 
 (pp. 91-95). Four maps show the hearths of domestication and the routes of 
 dispersal of the domestic breeds. 
 
 Schafer, E. H. 
 
 1950. The camel in China down to the Mongol dynasty. Sinologica, Zeitschr. 
 fiir chinesische Kultur und Wissens., vol. II, pp. 165-195 and 263-290. 
 
 A compilation of all Chinese records mentioning the camel, from the very 
 beginning up to the Mongol dynasty (a.d. 1.369). The first appearance of the 
 camel as a domesticated animal in the historic Chinese sources is from the northern 
 border countries by the end of the Chou period (the end of the fourth century B.C.). 
 
 Schmidt, Karl P. 
 
 1938. Our friendly animals and whence they came. 64 pp., frontispiece, 11 pis. 
 M. A. Donahue & Co. (Chicago and New York). 
 
 A popular guide to the important domestic animals, their origin and their wild 
 ancestors. Dog, cat, cattle, sheep, goat, horse, ass and pig are treated. The story 
 of the domestic mammals is illustrated by twelve colored plates and many text 
 figures. 
 
 Schmidt, W. 
 
 1951. Zu den Anfangen der Herdentierzucht. Z. Ethn., Bd. 76, pp. 1-41. 
 
 An examination and discussion of data and evidences concerning early herd- 
 animals and their origin. Domestication of animals is seen as a gradual result of 
 a primitive hunting civilization ("Urkultur"), nomadism associated with herd- 
 animals being a necessary transitional stage. Man came in earliest touch with 
 herd-animals in the steppe lands of central Asia, where the cradles of ancient 
 domestication are sought. 
 
 Reindeer supplied the material for the earliest domestication, practiced by 
 Samojedic Sojots by Mesolithic (or even late Paleolithic) times, followed by horses, 
 the taming of which was started in the fifth millennium B.C. among Turk tribes in 
 Iran. Domestic sheep and goats are secondary to horse or camel, the latter itself 
 originally a mere follower of horse-breeding. Cattle-breeding arose also as a sec- 
 ondary element, but its geographical origin remains obscure. 
 
 Schultze, Robert 
 
 1934. Beitrag zur Monographic der Soay-Schafe. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. 
 XXXI, pp. 229-237, 3 figs. 
 
 A morphological investigation of the Soay sheep, kept in a semi-domesticated 
 stage on the Hebrides near the west coast of Scotland (cf. Ewart, 1913). Since 
 skulls and horns exhibit the same characters as those of the wild European mouf- 
 lon, the straight derivation from Ovis musimon is taken to be certain. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 93 
 
 Schwangart, F. 
 
 192S. Zur Stammes- und Typenkunde der Hauskatze. Arbeiter Reichs-Zen- 
 trale fiir Pelztier und Rauchwaren-Forschung, Nr. 9, 32 pp., 9 figs. Arthur 
 Heber & Co. (Leipzig). 
 
 Felis silvestris and F. ocreata are seen as progenitors of the domestic cat, and 
 the main characters of both species are worked out. The suggestion of a third 
 ancestor, Otolobui^ mannal, is contested. 
 
 1031. Neuere Hauskatzenforschung. Forsch. Fortschr. dtsch. Wiss., Jhg. VH, 
 Nr. 4, pp. 59-60. 
 
 The northern wild cat, Felis silvestris, is taken to be a secondary ancestor for 
 the domestic cat besides the African F. ocreata. 
 
 Schwarz, Ernst 
 
 1922. tiber europaische fossile Pferde und den Ursprung der Hauspferde. Sitz. 
 der paliio. Ges. zu Frankfurt a. M., 1921, Palao. Zeitschr., Bd. IV, pp. 132- 
 134. 
 
 Two types of true horses, which roamed in western and southern Europe during 
 the early Pleistocene, are distinguished: Equiis caballus and E. stenonis (distin- 
 guished by the degree of complexity in the enamel pattern). Both forms became 
 displaced from Europe during the glacial periods. The latter migrated to Africa 
 and could not come back to Europe, which got separated from North Africa (where 
 E. stenonis persisted until the Neolithic). Several times in inter-glacial and post- 
 glacial periods Eqiius caballus returned to Europe from central and eastern Asia. 
 
 The domestic "Oriental" breeds (Arabian, Barb) are traced back to Equus 
 stenonis. E. caballus gave rise to the heavy "cold-blooded" horses and to the 
 small eastern breeds as well. 
 
 1928. tJber diluviale Pferde der Equus caballus Gruppe. Jb. preuss. geol. 
 Landesanst., Bd. 48. 
 
 A comprehensive study of the fossil equid material from glacial and post- 
 glacial times, collected in museums of central Europe. The European wild horses 
 are divided into three groups: A small form (Equus caballus caballus, comprising 
 E. robustus, the tarpan, and the Przewalski horse), an intermediate group (E.c. 
 plicidens, often the undomesticated attendant of Paleolithic man), and a large 
 type (E. c. robustus = E. robustus, E. mosbachensis, E. obeli). The latter forms did 
 not survive the last glacial period and had no part in the origin of the domestic 
 horses, which in their primitive forms were all of small stature. 
 
 Domestication was either started independently in two centers, one in east- 
 ern Europe and a second in central Asia, or in a large area comprising both the 
 centers. 
 
 1935. On ibex and wild goat. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., vol. XVI (ser. 10), no. 94, 
 pp. 433-437. 
 
 The genus Capra, considered to include all the goats, ibexes and turs, is divided 
 into a northern (Capra ibex) and a southern (C. hircus) group. The author sees in 
 C. hircus aegagrus the most primitive type, which gave rise to the majority of 
 domestic goats. 
 
94 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 The origin of the screw-horned breeds and their relation to C. prhca (cf. Ada- 
 metz, 1915) is discussed in defail, the latter being regarded as an already domes- 
 tic goat. 
 
 Schwarz, F. 
 
 1918. Tierreste aus La Tene. Anat. Anz., Bd. 50, pp. 457-472, 12 figs. 
 
 Description and short summary of faunal remains from early excavations of 
 the Iron Age site at La Tene near Geneva (for further excavations cf. Revilliod, 
 1926). Domestic animals listed include horses of the Oriental type, brachyceros 
 cattle (with possible incross of Bos brachycephalus), turbary pig (cross with the 
 European wild boar may have occurred), two forms of sheep (Ovis aries palustris 
 and a hornless type), a big-horned race of goat and the large palustris type of dog. 
 None of these animals is considered a result of local domestication from indigenous 
 wild forms. 
 
 Schweinfurth, G. 
 
 1912. Tierbilder und Felseneinschriften bei Assuan. Z. Ethnol., Bd. 44, 
 pp. 627-658. 
 
 Study and interpretation of the animal representations at Aswan, which date 
 from prehistoric times on. Among the domestic animals are cattle, represented 
 only by the longhorned form in most ancient times, and much later by a short- 
 horned type, which was, however, never domesticated. Dogs are mainly of a grey- 
 hound type, but pariah forms can be identified. The wild ibex is depicted fre- 
 quently, but there are only few and unclear representations of a domestic goat. 
 Camel images exist from the ancient dynasties. The pig is always shown as being 
 hunted, which fact seems to prove its wild status. 
 
 Scott, J. P. 
 
 1954. The effects of selection and domestication upon the behavior of the dog. 
 Jour. nat. Cancer Inst., vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 739-758. 
 
 On the basis of archaeological evidence and behavioral studies, it is assumed 
 that the dog was domesticated from the wolf, Canis lupus, in Asia or northern 
 Europe some time between 6000 and 8000 B.C. The jackal, C. aureus, is not con- 
 sidered to be a possible ancestor of the dog. 
 
 Dogs and wolves have identical basic traits of behavior, but as the result of 
 artificial selection there is a great deal of variability in behavior in different breeds 
 of dogs. The only new character, however, is with regard to the tail carriage, 
 which varies from sickle-shaped to curled in the dog, but in the wolf is almost 
 straight when relaxed. 
 
 Wolves are scavengers as well as hunters, and could easily assume a com- 
 mensal relationship with primitive man. The peaceful and socially cooperative 
 home life of wolves would contribute to the ease of domestication once wolf pups 
 were taken into the human home, where they would come to regard man as part 
 of the social unit. Selection for docility and against wildness, with concomitant 
 changes in the hormone production of the adrenal glands (cf. Richter, 1952), 
 would inevitably follow. — C.A.R. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 95 
 
 Sewell, R. B., and Guhr, B. S. 
 
 1931. Zoological remains from Mohenjo-Daro. In Sir John Marshall, Mo- 
 
 henjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization, vol. II, chap. 31, pp. 649-673. 
 
 Arthur Probsthain (London). 
 An account of the animal remains from the excavations of 1922-27 at Mohenjo- 
 Daro in the Indus valley. The considerable amount of bones from the humped 
 cattle — most of them belonging to calves seems to indicate that large herds of 
 this animal were maintained. The pig was present in large numbers in this area 
 from the very earliest time, although its status of domestication cannot be taken 
 as certain. The pig is identified with Sus cristatus. A fragment of an equid skull 
 shows similarity to the "horse of Anau" (cf. Durst, 1908). 
 
 Shaw, W. B. 
 
 1936. Rock paintings in the Libyan desert. Antiquity, vol. 10, pp. 175-178, 
 4 pis. 
 The site is that of Gilf Kebir, a high plateau in the Libyan desert. The cattle 
 portrayed, tentatively identified as Bos africanus, are thought to belong to Old 
 Kingdom and pre-dynastic times. Some wear halters, so were undoubtedly do- 
 mesticated. Prominent udders would indicate the importance of milk. 
 
 A center of animal domestication is suggested for the Abyssinian plateau. — 
 C.A.R. 
 
 Sickenberg, Otto 
 
 1930. Eine Wildziege der Capra prisca-Gvuppe aus dem Plistozan Niederoster- 
 reichs. Palaeobiologica, vol. Ill, pp. 92-103, 1 fig., 2 tables, 1 pi. 
 
 Description of a skull fragment of a wild male goat from the Pleistocene, 
 found near Schleinbach (Lower Austria). The horns show the characters of Capra 
 prisca, and are similar in shape and twisting to some domestic breeds (e.g., Pinz- 
 gauer), which were considered previously of the aegagnis type. The ancestry of 
 C. prisca for all European breeds is emphasized. 
 
 Simpson, George G. 
 
 1936. Horses and history. Nat. Hist., N.Y., vol. 38, pp. 276-289, frontispiece, 
 6 pis. 
 A short and popular account of the domestic horse and its history from earliest 
 times. 
 
 1951. Horses, xxi +247 pp., 13 pis., 17 figs. Oxford Univ. Press (New York). 
 
 A discussion of the derivation of the domestic horse; a monophyletic origin is 
 suggested (pp. 24-33). A brief survey of early records on horse-breeding is given, 
 and various opinions on the origin of the most ancient breeds (Barb, Arabian) are 
 reviewed briefly (pp. 34-41). 
 
 Sirelius, U. T. 
 
 1916 20. iJber die Art und Zeit der Ziihmung der Rentiere. Trav. ethnogr. 
 Soc. finno-ougr., Tom. 33, pp. 1-5. Helsinki. 
 The author finds the very beginnings of reindeer domestication in the use of 
 tame reindeer as decoys while hunting wild reindeer; the use of the animal as a 
 
96 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 beast of burden came next and the keeping of larger herds came later. Based upon 
 a find of a drag-sledge in the moors of Saasigaroi (Finland) from the Finnish Stone 
 Age, it is assumed that the reindeer was already in use as a draft animal at that 
 time. 
 
 Slavvkowski, Wilhelni 
 
 1933. Kleinasien, die Wiege der Haustierztichtung. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., 
 Bd. XXVII, pp. 287-292. 
 
 In a brief historical review the Hittite Empire is seen as the cradle of origin 
 of certain domestic animals. It is suggested that the first domestication of horses, 
 shorthorned breeds of cattle, and fleecy sheep took place in Asia Minor at the 
 beginning of the second millennium B.C. 
 
 1940. Die Haustiere Altkretas im minoischen Zeitalter. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., 
 Bd. XLVII, pp. 166-178, 19 figs. 
 
 Evidence is brought together to prove that the domestic animals of ancient 
 Crete — cattle, goat, sheep, pig, horse — were all imported, mainly from Egypt and 
 Asia Minor but also from Syria and Mesopotamia. The sources are animal repre- 
 sentations and ancient literary records. 
 
 Slijper, E. J. 
 
 1948. Mens en Huisdier. [Men and domestic animals.] 2nd ed. pp. i-vi, 
 1-410, 22 pis., 298 figs. W. J. Thieme (Zutphen). 
 
 This book is intended for the intelligent layman; scientific terms, unsolved 
 problems, and conflicting opinions are avoided as far as possible. The first few 
 chapters deal with the history of the earth and its fauna, the vertebrates in par- 
 ticular. One chapter is then devoted to each of the domestic animals: horse, cattle, 
 goat and sheep, pig, dog, and cat. There are further chapters on the behavior of 
 animals (particularly domestic animals), on the prehistory of the Netherlands, and 
 on evolution. The book is well-edited and profusely illustrated, and has extensive 
 bibliographies. — D.H. 
 
 Smith, Sidney 
 
 1928. Early history of Assyria, to 1000 B.C. xxvii-|-418 pp., 24 pis., 22 figs., 
 7 maps. Chatto & Windus (London). 
 
 A discussion (pp. 213 ff.) of the rise to power of the Mitanni kings and their 
 nobles in what is now northern Syria; the date is ca. 1750 B.C. The Mitanni were 
 the first to introduce the domestic horse onto the historical scene, although it had 
 undoubtedly had a long prior history of domestication to the north (of. Hrozny, 
 1931). Linguistic evidence indicates a previous and common Irano-Sanskrit ex- 
 perience with horse-domestication, and the building of a technical vocabulary. 
 — C.A.R. 
 
 Solanet, Emilio 
 
 1930. The criollo horse. J. Hered., vol. XXI, no. 11, pp. 450-480, 20 figs. 
 
 A richly illustrated paper on the South American criollo horse, its origin and 
 history. The author emphasizes the derivation of the criollo breed from the 
 Spanish horse only. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 97 
 
 Sommerfeld, Kurt 
 
 1927. Das Madurarind. Z. Tiorz. ZuchtBiol., Bd. VITT, pp. 65-112, 9 figs. 
 
 A morphological comparison of banteng, zebu and Java-Madurese cattle. The 
 last constitutes the most widespread breed in the Dutch East Indies and is a 
 hybrid oil'spring of the others. The banteng is derived directly from the indige- 
 nous Bos sojidaicus, which was domesticated on Bali. 
 
 Sowerby, Arthur 
 
 1935. The domestic animals of ancient China. China Journal, vol. 23, no. 4, 
 pp. 233-243. 
 
 Popular account of the domestic stock of the ancient Chinese from the Shang 
 dynasty (1776 B.C.) on, based mainly upon animal pictures on the "Oracle bones" 
 and other Chinese artifacts, especially bas reliefs and tomb figures. Special dis- 
 cussion is devoted to horse, cattle (three distinct breeds already recognized in the 
 Han period), and sheep, all of which are considered introduced forms, and to the 
 pig of ancient China, which, in contrast to other breeds, is derived from the native 
 wild boar. 
 
 Staflfe, Adolf 
 
 1938. iJber einen Hausschweineschadel aus dem frlihdynastischen Agypten. 
 Z. Tierz. ZiichtBioL, Bd. XLI, pp. 107-115, 4 figs. 
 
 A pig skull, found in the tomb of Hetep Heres (6th dynasty, 2400 B.C.), is 
 described and considered to belong to a domestic form. In a brief discussion, the 
 East Asian (vitiaius) origin for the Egyptian domestic pig is contested. The latter 
 is seen as a descendant of Sus mediterraneus. 
 
 1939. Die Haustiere auf den nordafrikanischen Feldbildern. Forsch. Fortschr. 
 dtsch. Wiss., Jhg. 15, Nr. 27, pp. 344-346. 
 
 A study of the origin of the important African domestic breeds in the Hght of 
 the rock paintings from eastern and western North Africa. The author accepts 
 the view that domestication originated on a religious basis and sees in the repre- 
 sentations primarily an illustration of sacrificial animals. 
 
 Both the primigenius and the brachyceros types of cattle are found from the 
 prehistoric periods on; zebu representations are lacking. Two types of horses, the 
 Oriental and the stouter Occidental, are distinguished, the latter dominating in 
 earlier periods; an ancient domestication center for horses in northwest Africa is 
 suggested. Sheep and goat are almost absent, a fact explained by their association 
 with nomadic life, a settled culture being a basic condition for the practice of rock 
 painting. One of the most frequently depicted domestic animals is the one- 
 humped camel, which fact leads to the suggestion that the dromedary may have 
 been a widely used beast of burden and a riding animal in North Africa in ancient 
 times (from the third millennium B.C.). 
 
 1940. Die Frage der Herkunft des Kameles in Afrika. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBioL, 
 Bd. XLVI, pp. 135 141. 
 
 The domestication of the camel in Africa in prehistoric times is questioned by 
 the author, who postulates an invasion of camel-breeding tribes from southern 
 
98 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Arabia (via Bab el Mandeb) into eastern Africa during the third or second mil- 
 lennium B.C. 
 
 1943. iJber zwei Funde vorgeschichtlicher Kurzhornrinder in Spanien. Z. 
 Tierz. ZiichtBioL, Bd. LIV, pp. 99-104, 10 figs. 
 
 Skull fragments from a Neolithic site at Tartaren (Lerida), from the Central 
 Spanish grottos culture, are identified with a typical brachyceros type. The 
 brochi/ccroii breed is regarded as the earliest stock of domestic cattle kept in Iberia, 
 long before the appearance of primigenius derivatives. 
 
 Stegmann von Pritzwald, F. P. 
 
 1924. Die Rassengeschichte der Wirtschaftstiere. viii-|-371 pp., 108 figs. 
 Gustav Fischer (Jena). 
 
 Archaeological and zoological records concerning the origin and domestication 
 of farm animals are summarized and examined in terms of their significance for 
 studies in human history and civilization. The book deals with most of the do- 
 mesticated ungulates and also with the elephant and the rabbit; numerous illus- 
 trations. 
 
 Steinbacher, G. 
 
 1953. Zur Abstammung des Alpakka-Lama Pacos. Saugetierk. Mitteil., Bd. I, 
 Heft 2, pp. 78-79. 
 
 On the basis of distinctive behavior, two groups of South American tylopods 
 are distinguished: Alpaca and vicugna on the one side, llama and guanaco on the 
 other. The domestic alpaca is derived from Vicugna vicugna. 
 
 Stekelis, M. 
 
 1950. A new Neolithic industry: the Yarmukian of Palestine. Israel Expl. J., 
 Jerusalem, vol. I, pp. 1-19. 
 
 Among the finds of a Neolithic culture (8000 B.C.) near Sha'ar ha-Golan in the 
 Jordan Valley, remains of calves, goats, sheep and dogs were found (p. 16), which 
 are considered evidence that pastoralism was known by that time. 
 
 Studer, Th. 
 
 1901. Die prahistorischen Hunde in ihrer Beziehung zu den gegenwartig leben- 
 den Rassen. Abh. schweiz. palaont. Ges., vol. 28, pp. 1-137, 9 pis., 16 figs., 
 numerous tables. 
 
 A comprehensive investigation of the crania of subfossil and recent dogs, from 
 which it is concluded that all the domestic breeds of today can be traced back to 
 three main prehistoric forms, represented by Canis familiaris palustris, C. f. in- 
 ostranzewi and C. /. leineri Studer, the latter being the ancestor of the deerhounds. 
 
 Views on the status of the pariah dogs and the dingo are reviewed briefly. 
 A dingo-like ancestor (resembling Cania tenggeranus of Java) is suggested for the 
 southern breeds of domestic dogs (pariahs, greyhounds, Tibet mastiffs), while the 
 Palearctic breeds are thought to be derived from a small canid {Canis ferufi Bourg) 
 or from its cross with the wolf. An extensive 19th century bibliography on dog 
 origin is appended. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 99 
 
 1906. IJber einen Hund aus der paleolithischen Zeit Russlands. Zool. Anz., 
 Bd. 29, Nr. 2, pp. 24-35, 2 pis. 
 
 A skull and other skeletal remains of a dog, which were found associated with 
 Mousterian artifacts near Bologoie (Russia), are compared with remains of other 
 fossil canids and with the dingo. The dog of Bologoie, which resembles the dingo 
 in shape and size, is named Canis poutialini and regarded as a diluvial type, the 
 first to become tamed by man; it is thought to have given rise to C. matris optimae 
 (ancestor of the shepherd dogs) as well as to C. intermedium (progenitor of the 
 hunting dogs) from the Bronze Age. By crossing with the wolf the breeds of large 
 domestic dogs (mastiffs, deerhounds) originated, while a dwarfed form of the wild 
 hound (C. mikii) gave rise to the Neolithic C. familiaris palustris. 
 
 1907. Schadel eines Hundes aus einer prahistorischen Wohnstatte der Hall- 
 stattzeit bei Karlstein, Amtsgericht Reichenhall. Mitt, naturf. Ges. Bern, 
 Jhg. 1907, pp. 155-168, 2 pis. 
 
 Description of a dog skull from the Hallstatt period, found near Berchtes- 
 gaden. The skull is taken to represent the first example of a prehistoric mastiff 
 type and shows close affinities to Canis inostranzewi. 
 
 Swanton, John R. 
 
 1940. The first description of an Indian tribe in the territory of the present 
 
 United States. In Studies for William A. Read: A Miscellany presented by 
 
 some of his Colleagues and Friends. Edited by Nathaniel M. Caffee and 
 
 Thomas A. Kirby. pp. 326-338. Louisiana State University Press (Baton 
 
 Rouge). 
 
 On the basis of information derived from members of a Spanish expedition to 
 
 South Carolina in 1521, and from an Indian taken back to the West Indies by 
 
 that expedition, Pietro Martire de Anghierra, in his De Orbe Novo, reported that 
 
 the Indians of the region had domestic deer. These deer, it was said, were milked, 
 
 and cheese was made of the milk. 
 
 Although many other parts of this early account are shown to be accurate, 
 Swanton denies this history of domestic deer without offering any reason for his 
 opinion; presumably the lack of any confirmatory evidence from later periods 
 leads him to his conclusion. — C.A.R. 
 
 Szalay, A. B. 
 
 1930. Polyphletische Rinderabstammung. — Eine historische Studie. Z. Tierz. 
 ZuchtBiol., Bd. IX, pp. 165-232. 
 Various views on the origin of domestic cattle (whether mono-, di-, or poly- 
 phyletic) are reviewed and examined in the light of historical evidence. The 
 author holds that the primitive domestic environment — essentially not distinct 
 from the wild habitat — could not have caused great morphological changes (such 
 as dwarfing) in the types of cattle, and concludes that at least five different species 
 have been tamed in Africa and Asia, three of which (Bos primigenius, B. nnmadicus 
 and B. hrachyceroif) are known. Zebus are regarded as derived from two or three 
 independent groups, not related to the other European bovids. 
 
100 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Teilhard de Ghardin, P., and Young, C. G. 
 
 1936. On the mammalian remains from the archaeological site of Anyang. 
 Palaeont. Sinica, ser. C, vol. XII, fasc. 1, 86 pp., 8 pis. 
 
 A systematic study was made of the mammalian bones recovered at Anyang 
 (northern Honan), the old capital of the semi-historic Shang culture (ca. 1400- 
 1100 B.C.). Remains of the dog, a "curious" pig and a massive water-buffalo were 
 abundant. Less frequently found were bones of sheep, goat, ox, elephant and tapir. 
 
 The pig is considered to be a highly specialized breed of southern origin (called 
 Sus littatKs var.fronfalis var. nov.); the ox is taken to be a domesticated race of the 
 urus; and the primitive-looking buffalo (Bubalus mephisiopheles Hopw.) is regarded 
 as the descendant of a Pleistocene Chinese buffalo, raised by man. The elephant 
 was apparently imported from southern regions. 
 
 Tackenberg, Kurt 
 
 1954. Zum Siedlungswesen der Tripolje-Kultur. Anthropos, vol. 49, fasc. 1-2, 
 pp. 67-87. 
 
 Summary of the Russian excavations of the Neolithic Tripolje civilization 
 between the Sereth and Dnieper rivers. Among the skeletal material the remains 
 of cattle, the domestic status of which was pointed out by numerous representa- 
 tions and figurines of bovids, were by far the most numerous; in two sites they 
 amounted to 67 per cent of all the animal bones. On the average (summary of 
 five localities) cattle constituted 37 per cent of the remains, pigs 23 per cent, sheep 
 and goats 15 per cent, and dogs 5 per cent. The remainder belonged to wild ani- 
 mals. In the latest period a marked decrease of pig bones became obvious, while 
 — besides oxen — sheep and goats became more numerous. This process seemed to 
 be associated with a decline in grain culture and an increase in pastoral economy, 
 which is explained by the bioclimatic changes during the Neolithic. 
 
 Teodoreanu, N. 
 
 1924. Recherches sur 2 cranes de Capra prisca. Bull. Sect. sci. Acad, roum., 
 Tom. IX, pp. 21 24, 4 figs. 
 
 Two skulls of goats, found together with a skull of Ovis aries at Kronstadt 
 ( = Brasov, central Rumania), are described. In the circumference of the horn- 
 cores and the nature of their twisting, the skulls are similar to that of Capra prisca, 
 which is seen as ancestral for all the breeds of domestic goats now distributed over 
 central Europe, Hungary and the Balkan Peninsula. These goats also have horns 
 twisted from outside inward. 
 
 1926. iJber ein Quartarpferd aus Siebenbiirgen — Equus transilvanicus. Z. Tierz. 
 ZiichtBiol., Bd. VI, pp. 269-276, 5 figs. 
 
 Two skulls — one of a horse, the second belonging to a dog — both from the 
 Bronze Age, were found near St. Georghe-Bedehaza (Transylvania). The dog is 
 identified as a variety of Canis poutiatini, and consequently named C. p. var. tran- 
 silvanicus. The horse skull proved to be distinct, especially in its dental charac- 
 ters, from all other Quaternary horses described, and is termed Equus transilvanicus. 
 
 1929. Beitrage zum Studium liber die Abstammung der dobrudschaner Rinder. 
 Z. Tierz. ZuchtBiol., Bd. XVII, pp. 444-479, 9 figs., 8 tables. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 101 
 
 An investigation of the crania of cattle from Dobruja (Rumania) and a dis- 
 cussion of their origin. The skulls examined showed no affinity to that of Bos 
 iaiirus primigcniu!<, but exhibited the typical characters of the brachyceros type. 
 It is suggested that the brachyceros cattle were brought in prehistoric times from 
 the southern Balkan to the Danubian region by Gothic and Thracian tribes. 
 
 Thevenin, Rene 
 
 1947. Origine des animaux domcstiques. 127 pp. Presses Universitaires de 
 France (Paris). 
 
 In a popular pamphlet, views on the origin of domestication and the rise of 
 the domestic breeds are summarized. The first four chapters (pp. 5-24) are con- 
 cerned with questions of general nature — definitions, motives, place and time of 
 earliest domestication. Chap. 5 deals with the "companions and auxiliaries" of 
 man (dog, cat, horse, ass, camel, llama and reindeer). In chap. 6 are discussed 
 the origins of those animals (cattle, sheep, goat, pig and rabbit), reared for ali- 
 mentary and industrial purposes. 
 
 Thilenius, G. 
 
 1900. Das agyptische Hausschaf. Recueil de Travaux Relatifs a la philologie 
 et a I'archeologie Egyptiennes et Assyriennes, Ann. XX, n. s., Tom. VI, 
 pp. 199-212. 
 
 In a survey of animal representations from predynastic and early dynastic 
 Egypt, an attempt is made to trace the ancestry of the domestic sheep kept in 
 North Africa during prehistoric and ancient historic time. It is concluded that 
 the wild Barbary sheep {Ammotragus tragclocephahis), an autochthonous breed, 
 was domesticated in the Neolithic period and constituted the first domestic sheep 
 of the Egyptians. By the end of the Old Empire the fleecy sheep had been 
 introduced from Babylonia and the autochthonous breed gradually became dis- 
 placed. 
 
 Uhden, Richard 
 
 1929. Zur Geschichte des Kamels in Nordafrika. Petermanns Mitt., Jhg. 75, 
 p. 307. 
 
 Brief account of camel representations in Egypt and Libya to show that camels 
 were known and kept in Egypt during all the dynastic periods. 
 
 Ulmansky, S. 
 
 1914. Untersuchungen liber das Wild- und Hausschwein des Pfahlbaues im 
 Laibacher Moor und liber einige von diesem Schweinen abstammenden 
 rezenten Rassen. Mitt, landw. Lehrk. Wien, Bd. II, pp. 17-74, 6 tables, 
 4 pis. 
 
 Identifications of remains of wild and domestic pigs found in the kitchen mid- 
 dens in a lake-dwelling in the moors of Laibach (Austria). The wild boar exhibits 
 an intermediate ("independent") form between the scrofa and the vittatus types, 
 and is termed Sus mediterraneus. The domestic pig is seen as a direct derivative 
 from this wild form and shows close affinities to the turbary pig from the Swiss 
 lake-dwellings. 
 
102 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Van Buren, Elizabeth Douglas 
 
 1939. The fauna of ancient Mesopotamia as represented in art. Analecta 
 Orientalia, vol. 18, xi+113 pp., 23 pis. 
 
 An account of animals reproduced in Mesopotamian art from the earliest 
 times to the fall of the Assyrian empire. The various species are treated in their 
 systematic sequence, and archaeological as well as zoological aspects are discussed. 
 The domestic animals dealt with include dog, horse, ass, mule, camel, goat, sheep, 
 cattle and pig. 
 
 Van Giffen, A. E. 
 
 1914. Die Fauna der Wurten. Tijdschr. ned. dierk. Ver., ser. II, Deel XIII, 
 pp. 1-166, 9 pis., tables in text. 
 
 Comprehensive treatise on the faunal remains from the kitchen middens of the 
 "terpen" (the artificial proto-historic hills in the lowlands along the Dutch and 
 Frisian shore). The first section gives a topographical and chronological descrip- 
 tion of the terpen. The second section deals in detail with the wild fauna; domestic 
 animals are mentioned only briefly (see, however. Van Giffen, 1929). 
 
 Most frequent among the domestic mammals were cattle, followed by sheep, 
 dog, horse, pig (in this sequence); remains of goat were rare. On the basis of a 
 statistical study it is shown that primigenius and brachyceros cattle cannot be 
 derived from two distinct ancestors. 
 
 1929. On the oldest domestic animal and its significance for palethnology. 
 Koninklijke Akad. van wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Afd. nat., Proc. Sec. 
 sci., vol. 32, pp. 321-329, 5 pis. 
 
 Statistical studies of three large populations of subfossil dogs from the Meso- 
 lithic Danish kitchen middens, the Neolithic and Bronze Age Swiss lake-dwellings 
 and the Frisian and Groningen terpen (late Iron Age; cf. Van Giffen, 1914); for 
 comparison recent dogs and related wild canids (wolf, jackal) were added. It is 
 shown that the terp-dogs, which appeared to betray much wolf blood, displayed 
 smaller divergencies than recent dogs, but more than the lake-dwelling and kitchen 
 midden specimens. 
 
 The earliest known European dogs (from the kitchen middens) have nothing 
 in common with the analogous Asiatic forms (represented by the Anau material; 
 cf. Diirst, 1908), which are derived from the Indian wolf Cams pallipes. The origin 
 of the kitchen midden dogs is obscure, but they were not derived from C. palustris 
 of the Swiss lake-dwellings. The terp-dogs, on the other hand, are taken to be the 
 probable progenitors for the Cimbric-Megalithic and the recent Arctic dogs. 
 
 Vaufrey, R. 
 
 1939. Faune de Sialk. Mus. Louvre, Dept. Antiq. Orient., Ser. Archaeol., 
 Tom. IV, vol. II, pp. 195-197, figs. 22, 23. 
 
 Short description of the skeletal remains found at Sialk (west of the city of 
 Kashan, Iran), the lowest layers of which are estimated to belong approximately 
 to the fifth millennium B.C. 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 103 
 
 The domestic animals from Sialk I (transition from the Neolithic to the Aeneo- 
 lithic) included sheep, K<';it and cattle. From Sialk II on (already with copper 
 artifacts), pig, dog and horse also appear. The sheep belongs to the Ovi'.s vignei 
 group, the goat is of the Capra acgagrus type and the horse is identified with 
 Equus caballus piimpeUi. 
 
 1951. Etude paleontologique. I. Mammiferes. Arch. Inst. Paleont. hum., 
 Mem. 24, pp. i;)S 217. 
 
 In a discussion of the fauna associated with Natufian (Mesolithic) culture at 
 the site of El-Khiam in eastern Palestine, the goat is listed as domestic, a small ox 
 as probably domestic, and the pig as perhaps domestic. The goat, Capra hircus, 
 is represented by three horn-cores (resembling those of C. aegagrus) and a variety 
 of limb-bones. Bos sp. by a fragment of mandible with two milk teeth, and Bus sp. 
 by a single phalanx. — C.A.R. 
 
 Vetulani, Th. 
 
 1928. Tarpan und polnisches Landpferd (Konik). Beitrag zur Herkunft des 
 europaischen Hauspferdes. Biol, gen., Bd. IV, pp. 387-402. 
 
 A critical examination of the skull material of fossil equids leads the author 
 to set up a new subspecies of the Russian tarpan called Equus gmelini Ant. ssp. 
 silvatica, or the "forest tarpan." This form is regarded as the part of the steppe 
 tarpan population that remained when most of the group retreated into southern 
 Russia because of climatic changes in post-glacial times. 
 
 An analysis of the skull of a Polish country horse revealed characters of both 
 tarpan types and also additional features peculiar to the Przewalski horse. 
 
 1934. Beitrag zur Characteristic und Abstammung der anatolischen Hauszie- 
 gen. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XXIX, pp. 243-286, 6 tables, 29 figs. 
 
 The two races of Anatolian goats — the common Anatolian goat (kil-keci) and 
 the Angora goat (tiftik-keci) — are described and investigated as to their origin 
 and relationship to the Anatolian wild goat, Capra aegagrus. It is shown that the 
 latter form cannot be considered as having any part in the ancestry of the Ana- 
 tolian domestic breeds, which are regarded as two races of the Capra prisca type; 
 the "kil-keci" race resembles the fossil skulls from Zloczow (cf. Adametz, 1915), 
 and the Angora goat is related to the fossil goats from Zlota (cf. Adametz, 1928) and 
 from Schleinbach (cf. Sickenberg, 1930). 
 
 Vittor, D. R. 
 
 1933. Etude zootechnique de I'elevage et I'exploitation des bovins du Sud- 
 Indochinos en Cochinchine. Bull. econ. Indoch., Nov.-Dec. 1933, pp. 947- 
 971, 44 figs. 
 
 An account of the wild bovids still existing in Cochin-China (southern Indo- 
 China). A detailed description of the recent domestic stock of this area is followed 
 by a short discussion of the origin of the latter. 
 
 Except for some introduced cattle, the main dairy stock kept in Cochin-China 
 is derived directly or indirectly from Bos indirus. Domestic gaur and banteng are 
 descendants of the wild Bibos gaur us and Bibos sondaicus respectively. 
 
104 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Vofiel, R. 
 
 1933. Tierreste aus vor- und friihgeschichtlichen Siedlungen Schwabens. Teil I : 
 Die Tierreste aus den Pfahlbauten des Bodensees. Zoologica (Stuttgart), 
 Bd. 31, Heft 82, Lief. 1, vii+109 pp., 14 pis., 3 tables, 4 figs. 
 
 An extensive osteological treatment of the faunal remains from the Neolithic 
 lake-dwellings around Lake Constance, especially from the site at Sipplingen exca- 
 vated by H. Reinerth in 1929-30. The domestic stock is composed of dog, cattle, 
 sheep, goat and pig. The great speciation of the dog — the only animal not used 
 for food purposes — seems to point to its very early domestication. The majority 
 of the remains fall into the Canis familiaris paliistri^ group, but those are often 
 accompanied by a larger type (C /. intermedius) and a dwarf form, identified with 
 C. /. spaletti. 
 
 The small sheep (Ovis aries pahistris) possessed horns in both sexes, which fact 
 seems to exclude a mouflon ancestry but points toward an origin from the non- 
 European 0. vignei. A few remains were those of the domestic goat {Capra hircus, 
 a screw-horned type), but the great number of bones from domestic cattle indicated 
 their economic importance. The skeletal material is in part of primigenius, in part 
 of brachyceros, and sometimes of mixed character. 
 
 The domestic animal found by far most frequently was the pig, the rearing of 
 which was probably favored in prehistoric times by the then dominant oak forest. 
 The pig is of the scrofa type and, showing no affinities to the Oriental Siis vitta- 
 tus, is brought by the author in direct relationship to the European wild boar, 
 S. scrofa ferns. 
 
 In the Bronze Age levels a few remains of a domestic horse appeared. 
 
 Wagner, K. 
 
 1930. Rezente Hunderassen. Vidensk. Akad. Skr. i Oslo; Matem.-Naturv. KL, 
 Bd. IIL pp. 1-157, 36 figs., 12 pis., 14 tables appended. 
 
 The osteological racial peculiarities of recent domestic dogs are examined 
 in detail and compared. No conclusions are reached regarding the origin of 
 the domestic dog, but archaeological findings and their earlier treatments are 
 evaluated by means of the new comparative material. 
 
 Walz, Reinhard 
 
 1951. Zum Problem des Zeitpunkts der Domestikation der altweltlichen 
 Cameliden. Z. dtsch. morgenland. Ges., Bd. 101 (n. ser., Bd. 26), pp. 29-51. 
 
 A compilation of archaeological material on the early history of the one- 
 humped camel {Camelus dromedaries) in the Orient. On the basis of the records 
 collected, the author assumes that the domestication of the dromedary probably 
 originated in central Arabia in the last half of the second millennium B.C. 
 
 1954. Neue Untersuchungen zum Domestikationsproblem der altweltlichen 
 Cameliden. Beitrage zur Geschichte des zweihockrigen Kamels. Z. dtsch. 
 morgenland. Ges., Bd. 104, Heft 1, pp. 45-87. 
 
 Data on the ancient history of the two-humped camel {Camelus bactrianus) 
 are given, and historical as well as zoological aspects are examined. The evidence- 
 results of archaeological excavations and early records from the areas under 
 
ANGRESS AND HEED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 105 
 
 consideration (China, western Turkestan, Iran, Mesopotamia) — seem to point 
 to a central Asian origin of the domestic Bactrian camel. 
 
 Watson, D. M. S. 
 
 1931. The animal bones from Skara Brae. In V. G. Childe, Skara Brae, 
 a Pictish village in Orkney, pp. 198-204, pis. Ivii lix. Kegan Paul, Trench, 
 Trubner & Co. Ltd. (London). 
 
 A study of the animal remains found during the excavations at Skara Brae, 
 a Neolithic dwelling place in Orkney (Scotland). Among the numerous cattle 
 bones three groups were distinguished, taken to be representative of bulls, cows 
 and bullocks of a single breed, not corresponding with longifrons or with primigenius 
 cattle from other Neolithic, Bronze or Iron Age sites. Abundant also were bones 
 of a slender-limbed sheep, resembling the sheep of Soay (cf. Ewart, 1913). Very 
 rare remains of pigs (uncertain whether domesticated) seemed to indicate lack 
 of oak or beech woods in Skara Brae times. 
 
 The three characteristic features of this faunal assemblage, the abundance 
 of sheep, the scarcity of pigs and the complete lack of dogs, are all features con- 
 trary to those of Neolithic camps in England. 
 
 Weidenreich, Franz 
 
 1925. Domestikation und Kultur in ihrer Wirkung auf Schiidelform und 
 Korpergestalt. Z. ges. Anat., Z. KonstLehre, Bd. XI, pp. 1 52, 5 figs. 
 
 To determine the factors that caused the specific phenomena of domestication 
 (and of human civilization as well), the nature of domestication and the parallelism 
 between the changes produced by it are analyzed in different domestic animals. 
 The author shows that the specific domestic adaptations were originally patho- 
 logical (brachygnathy, dwarf forms) and were caused by the injurious factors 
 of the changed environment, w^hich led eventually to a racial fixation of body 
 reactions to adjust this injury. 
 
 Werth, E. 
 
 1939. Grundsatzliches zum Problem der Haustierwerdung. Naturwissen- 
 schaften, Bd. 27, Heft 17, pp. 271-274. 
 
 From the chronological succession of important stages in human civilization 
 conclusions are drawn as to the history of domestic mammals. Domestic breeds 
 are completely lacking in the Paleolithic, but dogs and artiodactyls (bovids and 
 pigs) were kept from the Mesolithic on. It is only in the Neolithic that the horse — 
 first in Asia, later in Europe — was added to the domestic stock. 
 
 1940. Zur Verbreitung und Geschichte der Transporttiere. Z. Ges. Erdk. 
 Berl., Hefte 5-6, pp. 181-204. 
 
 An account of the origin and dispersal of the common pack and draft animals. 
 Bovids are regarded as the most ancient transport animals, appearing in the 
 late Paleolithic and dominant throughout early history from the Caspian to 
 southeastern India and also in northeastern Asia. Their center of origin is found 
 in India. Cattle were replaced by horses in central Asia (considered the area 
 where horse-taming originated) and northeastern Europe, while Ethiopia is seen 
 as the original home of the domestic donkey. 
 
106 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Two other transport animals — yak (Tibet) and llama (Peru) — were only of 
 local significance. The use of reindeer rose probably by association with the 
 domestication of the horse, and the northeast Asian dog-sledge was an outgrowth 
 of the Mongolian plough-culture. 
 
 Wettstein, Ernst 
 
 1924. Die Tierreste aus dem Pfahlbau am Alpenquai in Zurich. Vjschr. naturf. 
 Ges. Ziirich, Jhg. 69, pp. 78-127. 
 
 Description of animal remains in a lake-dwelling, recovered from the bottom 
 of Lake Zurich. Most of the bones belonged to domestic species. Most frequently 
 represented were cattle, closely followed by pigs; fewer remains were those of 
 sheep (or goat) and dogs, with few bones of the horse. Among cattle three races 
 could be distinguished {primigenius, brachyceros, and an intermediate type, 
 resembling Bos trochoceros). Sheep were chiefly of the "copper" type (though 
 hornless forms were represented). The goat was Capra hirca. The pigs of Alpen- 
 quai exhibited the characters of the palustris form, the equid remains were closest 
 to Equus caballus celticus, and all the dogs were identified with Canis familiaris 
 inostranzewi. 
 
 Whitehead, G. Kenneth 
 
 1953. The ancient white cattle of Britain and their descendants. 174 pp., 
 48 pis. Faber and Faber, Ltd. (London). 
 
 The theory that the wild white cattle of Britain are direct descendants of 
 Bos primigenius is rejected, as this latter species was probably extinct in England 
 and southern Scotland by 1000 B.C. Instead, it is thought that longhorned white 
 cattle were brought from Italy by the Romans, who may have kept and bred 
 them for sacrificial purposes. With the collapse of Roman power and the turmoil 
 of the Germanic invasions, these herds became feral in the forests, from where 
 they were subsequently driven into enclosed parks, beginning in the thirteenth 
 century. These cattle are unknown in Ireland. 
 
 The white color is genetically dominant. Only the Chillingham herd produces 
 100% white calves; it is the only herd that remains pure-bred and is representative 
 of the wild white forest cattle of the post-Roman, pre-Norman period. 
 
 The domestic polled white cattle ("British Whites"), which are today a 
 commercial breed, may be derived from the Fjallras cattle of Scandinavia, brought 
 to England by the Vikings. — C.A.R. 
 
 Wiklund, K. P. 
 
 1918. Om renskotselns uppkomst. [On the origin of reindeer.] Ymer, Arg. 38, 
 Heften 3, pp. 249-273. 
 
 Reviewing archaeological and paleontological evidence on the early sledge 
 cultures, the author finds that reindeer-breeding arose independently among 
 Chukchi and Koryak (Lapps), but in the Tungusian and Soyotian areas it was 
 a result of cultural influence from Turko-Mongolian horse-breeding. 
 
 Wilckens, Martin 
 
 1905. Grundziige der Naturgeschichte der Haustiere. Revised and rewritten 
 by J. U. Durst, xi + 408 pp., 85 figs. Richard C. Schmidt (Leipzig). 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 107 
 
 A summary of information on the morphology, origin, and history of the 
 domestic animals. The introduction contains a classification of the domesticated 
 species and deals with their geographical distribution. An attempt is made 
 to cover all the animals ever considered to be domestic^ — among them various 
 birds, fishes and insects. 
 
 Major attention is directed to domestic mammals, which are treated according 
 to their orders: odd-toed ungulates (horse, ass, mule), even-toed ungulates (pig, 
 camel, llama, goat, sheep, cattle), rodents (rabbit) and carnivores (cat, dog). 
 An outline of the zoological characters of each group is followd by a discussion 
 on its origin and taming, and finally by an account of its domestic breeds. 
 
 Wilson, James 
 
 1909. The evolution of British cattle and the fashioning of breeds, pp. viii + 
 147, text figs. Vinton & Company, Ltd. (London). 
 
 No British cattle are directly descended from Bos primigenius, which was 
 extinct — at least south of the Highlands — by the Bronze Age. B. longifrons 
 were small black domestic Neolithic cattle, introduced from the mainland. The 
 famous wild horned white cattle of Britain are descended from domestic white 
 Italian cattle, which became feral after the Roman withdrawal. English medieval 
 horned red cattle were introduced by the Angles and Saxons, and the small dun 
 polled cattle of many coastal areas of Britain and Ireland were brought by the 
 Norsemen. None of these cattle are economically important in the 20th century 
 breeds, which are descended from Dutch importations, beginning in the 17th 
 century. — C.A.R. 
 
 Winge, Herluf 
 
 1904. Om jordfundne pattedyr fra Danmark. [On excavated mammals from 
 Denmark.] Vidensk. Medd. dansk naturh. Foren. Kbh., Arg. 1904, pp. 
 193-303, pis. vii-xiii. 
 
 An account of mammal remains from prehistoric Danish sites, listed in 
 systematic, geographical and chronological sequence. Among the faunal remains 
 from the early Stone Age appear domestic dog and cattle; by the later Stone 
 Age pig, sheep and horse occur, and in the Bronze Age, in addition to the former, 
 the domestic goat. 
 
 1919. Dyreknogler fra bronzealders bopladser. [Animal bones from Bronze Age 
 settlement.) In S. Miiller, Bopladsfund fra Bronzealderen, Aarbpger for 
 nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historia, Bd. 9, pp. 93-101. 
 
 Brief account of animal remains discovered at seven sites from Danish Bronze 
 Age settlements. The domestic species identified comprised dog, ox, sheep and 
 pig in all the sites; in five sites also was found the horse, among whose remains 
 the author distinguishes members of the Oriental as well as of the Occidental race. 
 
 Winkler, Hans 
 
 1938-39. Rock-drawings of southern Upper Egypt. Vol. I, 44 pp., 41 pis., 
 1 map; vol. II, 51 pp., 39 pis., 1 map. Egypt Exploration Society (London). 
 
108 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 The early inhabitants of the desert valleys east and west of the Upper Nile 
 are studied in the light of their rock-drawings. Vol. I deals with the eastern 
 desert between Quena and Aswan, vol. II with the western parts — the regions 
 of Kharga, Dakhla and Uwenat. The author distinguishes two cultures that 
 occurred in the desert valleys in predynastic times. The most ancient population 
 consisted of hunters who kept the dog as their only domesticated animal. Those 
 were followed by mountain dwellers (believed to be Hamites), who had cattle 
 and some of whom became herdsmen in isolated pasture oases. 
 
 Wissler, Clark 
 
 1945. The domestication of animals. Nat. Hist. N.Y., vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 200- 
 206. 
 In a popular survey of domestication, its sources and the possible motives 
 that caused it are discussed. The author considers it conceivable that not man's 
 activity but the behavior patterns of the animal to become domesticated may 
 have been the first causes of domestication. Dog and pig are regarded as the 
 first animals domesticated, next in order cattle and reindeer were tamed, then 
 sheep followed by goat, still later ass followed by horse, and finally camel and 
 elephant. 
 
 Woolley, C. Leonard 
 
 1934. The royal cemetery. Ur Excavations, vol. II. Oxford University Press 
 
 (London). 
 
 A report on the animal remains discovered at Ur (Mesopotamia) is given 
 
 by R. I. Pocock (pp. 409-410). Material from cattle, pigs and sheep is described 
 
 briefly. No definite remains of goats and no trace of bones from horses or asses 
 
 were detected. 
 
 Yetts, Perceval 
 
 1934. The horse: a factor in early Chinese history. Eurasia septentrionalis 
 antiqua, Helsinki. Vol. IX, pp. 231-255, 11 figs. 
 
 The author gives a short summary of archaeological and ethnological evidences 
 of horse-breeding in most ancient China. Until the second century B.C. the 
 only horse kept by the Chinese was a domesticated variety of the small, indigenous 
 steppe horse, a breed which was shared with the nomadic neighbors. About 
 126 B.C. superior breeds were introduced from the "countries of the West" (prob- 
 ably Bactria). 
 
 Zeuner, F. E. 
 
 1950. The cat. Oryx, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 65-71. 
 
 The three commonly accepted species of Old World small cats — Felis sil- 
 vestris Schreber, of the forests of Europe and Asia Minor; F. manul Pall., the steppe 
 cat of central Asia; and F. constaniina Forst., the yellow cat of Africa and southern 
 Asia — are hardly more than geographical and ecological subspecies of a single 
 species. The majority of specimens cannot be distinguished osteologically, nor 
 can the domestic cat usually be separated from these wild cats except by char- 
 acters of the pelage. The cat is psychologically the least domestic of animals, 
 and it has undergone the least anatomical change. The cat was first domesticated 
 in Egypt- — some claim as early as the Fifth Dynasty — but clear evidence of do- 
 
ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 109 
 
 mestic status is lacking until the New Kingdom (16th century B.C.). The Romans 
 carried domestic cats throughout much of Europe, where they have persisted and 
 interbred with F. silvestris. — C.A.R. 
 
 1954. Domestication of animals. In A History of Technology, Vol. I, pp. 327- 
 352, "From Early Times to Fall of Ancient Empires." Ed. Charles Singer, 
 et al. Clarendon Press (Oxford). 
 
 Domestication arose as a natural symbiosis between two species of social 
 animals, the less inteUigent of which became dependent upon the more intelligent. 
 In the primary stages of domestication, there was no concept of purpose involved, 
 as man could not foresee, several generations ahead, the values to be derived. 
 Later, as v\ith reindeer domestication and attempts during Old Kingdom times 
 in Egypt to domesticate gazelles, antelopes, and hyenas, purposive planning is 
 apparent. 
 
 Social animals that could become scavengers if the opportunity were pre- 
 sented are the ones most likely to have become domesticated. The dog might 
 best be derived from one of the smaller southern wolves, which tend to scavenge 
 more and hunt less than do the larger northern ones. With the establishment of 
 agriculture, there arose opportunities for symbiotic relations with the ungulates. 
 Pet-keeping and use of pets as decoys to capture other individuals can perhaps 
 e.xplain the earliest phases of domestication in ungulates, but the species in- 
 volved have to be psychologically adapted to breeding in captivity, must be 
 physiologically adapted to surviving under difficult conditions (including almost 
 complete neglect), and must then be so bred that they will become practically 
 insensitive to the opportunity for personal freedom. 
 
 All domestic animals except the reindeer have become adapted to man's 
 behavior; with regard to the latter, however, man's culture has become adapted 
 to the behavior of the deer. 
 
 Much of the article is concerned with the effects of artificial selection upon 
 different domestic mammals. — C.A.R. 
 
 1955. The goats of early Jericho. Palest. Expl. Quart., Apr., 1955, pp. 70-86, 
 37 figs. 
 
 Animal bones from the pre-pottery Neolithic of Jericho, Palestine, are identi- 
 fied as wild cattle (Bos pri mi genius), gazelles, antelopes, wild pigs, domestic goats, 
 and domestic dogs. Neither sheep nor ibex has been identified. The goats 
 are of the Capra aegagrus type, with straight and upright horns. One male 
 and two female horn-cores were recovered; comparison of these with a large 
 series of cores from known wild and domestic straight-horned and screw-horned 
 goats indicates that the horns of the females are useless in attempting to determine 
 domestication. The male core is much thinner and with lateral, medial, and 
 posterior surfaces more rounded than in any wild male C. aegagrus, and is corre- 
 spondingly ovoid-shaped, instead of being irregularly angular. This cross section 
 of the Jericho male horn-core more closely resembles that of domestic goats than 
 that of the wild C. aegagrus, and so it is very possible that the goat of pre-pottery 
 Jericho was domesticated. 
 
 The Neolithic goat with straight horns was replaced by goats with twisted 
 horns early in the Bronze Age, throughout the areas of the Fertile Crescent and 
 the eastern Mediterranean. — C.A.R. 
 
no FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Zurowski, Josef 
 
 1930. Neue Ergebnisse der neolithischen Forschung im siidwestpolnischen 
 Lossgebiet. Priihist. Z., Bd. XXI, Hefte 1-2, pp. 1-26, 16 figs. 
 
 Among finds of Neolithic sites from Zlota (Sandomierz, Poland) animal 
 bones belonging to cattle (hornless and shorthorned breeds), pig, dog, sheep, 
 and horse were identified. 
 
SYSTEMATIC INDEX 
 
 Adda :c n a so macidata 
 
 Gaillard, 1912 
 Ammotragus tragelocephalus 
 
 Thilenius, 1900 
 Antilocapra 
 
 Lawrence, 1951 
 Asinui> atlanticHs 
 
 Antonius, 1937 
 Aucheyiida 
 
 Latcham, 1924 
 
 Bibof! banteng 
 
 Adametz, 1933 
 Bibos frontalis 
 
 Hermanns, 1952 
 Bibos gaitrns 
 
 Vittor, 1933 
 Bibos so7idaicus 
 
 Vittor, 1933 
 Bison 
 
 Lawrence, 1951 
 Bos 
 
 Gejvali, 1937-38 
 
 Kolesnik, 1936 
 
 Lawrence, 1951 
 
 Melnyk, 1927 
 Bos sp. 
 
 Vaufrey, 1951 
 Bos acutifrons 
 
 Ewart, 1912 
 Bos africamis 
 
 Breuiland el Dine, 1928 
 
 Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 
 
 Morse, 1912 
 
 Newbold, 1928 
 
 Shaw, 1936 
 Bos bracfujcephalus 
 
 Gerbes, 1951 
 
 Morse, 1912 
 
 F. Schwarz, 1918 
 Bos brachyceros 
 
 Antonius, 1944 
 
 Breuil and el Dine, 1928 
 
 ChlebarofT, 1929-30 
 
 Curwen, 1938 
 
 Degerbol, 1939 
 
 Durst, 1900 
 
 Epstein, 1933 
 
 Gaillard, 1934 
 
 Gromova. 1927 
 
 Herre, 1949 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1927 
 
 Jackson, 1932 
 
 Keller, 1902 
 
 Kolesnik, 1936 
 
 Kuhn, 1935 
 
 Lvdekker, 1912b 
 
 Mohapl, 1914 
 
 Mond and Myers, 1934 
 
 Newbold, 1928 
 
 Noack, 1909 
 
 Patterson, 1937 
 
 Pira, 1926 
 
 Reverdin, 1921, 1930-31 
 
 Rostafinski, 1933 
 
 F. Schwarz, 1918 
 
 Staffe, 1939, 1943 
 
 Szalav, 1930 
 
 Van Giffen, 1914 
 
 Vogel, 1933 
 
 Wettstein, 1924 
 Bos brachyceros arnei 
 
 Amschler. 1939a, 1939b 
 Bos brachyceros enropaeus 
 
 Antonius, 1919 
 Bos bubalis 
 
 Merkens, 1929 
 Bos colliceros 
 
 Rostafinski, 1933 
 Bos front OS us 
 
 Degerb0l, 1939 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1927 
 
 Morse, 1912 
 
 Rostafinski, 1933 
 Bos indicus 
 
 Keller, 1902 
 
 Kolesnik, 1936 
 
 Lydekker, 1912b 
 
 Prashad, 1936 
 
 Vittor, 1933 
 Bos longifrons 
 
 Antonius, 1919 
 
 Bate, 1938 
 
 Bryner, 1938 
 
 Childe, 1940 
 
 Clark, 1952 
 
 Dawkins and Jackson, 1917 
 
 Degerbpl, 1939 
 
 Ewart, 1912 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1927 
 
 Jackson, 1932 
 
 Koby, 1954 
 
 Leister, 1943 
 
 Mond and Myers, 1934 
 
 111 
 
112 
 
 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Morso, 1912 
 Reynolds, 1939 
 Watson, 19:n 
 Wilson, 1909 
 
 Box mindoroiiiix 
 
 von Kurcr-Haimendorf, 1932 
 
 Bos namadicKX 
 Adametz, 1936 
 Anderson, 1943 
 Antonius, 1944 
 Bisschop, 1937 
 ChlebarofV, 1929-30 
 Diirst, 1900, 1908 
 Epstein, 1933 
 Friederichs, 1933 
 Hermanns, 1952 
 Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 Mackay, 1938 
 Melnvk, 1927 
 Menghin, 1931 
 Morse, 1912 
 Szalay, 1930 
 Bos opisfhonomus 
 Bisschop, 1937 
 Bos primigenius 
 Adametz, 1920 
 Antonius, 1919, 1944 
 Bate, 1942 
 Bogaevsky, 1937 
 Bryner, 1932 
 Cardas, 1926 
 Clark, 1952 
 Curwen, 1938 
 Degerbdl, 1939 
 Epstein, 1933 
 Ewart, 1912 
 Friederichs, 1933 
 
 Gaillard, 1934 
 
 Gerbes, 1951 
 
 Gromova, 1927 
 
 Herre, 1949 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1927 
 
 Keller, 1902 
 
 Koby, 1954 
 Female of 
 Color of 
 
 Kolesnik, 1936 
 
 Kuhn, 1935 
 
 Lengerken, 1953, 1955 
 
 Mackay, 1938 
 
 Melnyk, 1928 
 
 Mohapl, 1914 
 
 Morse, 1912 
 
 Pia, 1941 
 
 Prashad, 1936 
 
 Reynolds, 1939 
 
 Staffe, 1939, 1943 
 
 Szalav, 1930 
 
 Van Giflen, 1914 
 
 Vogel, 1933 
 
 Watson, 1931 
 
 Wettstein, 1924 
 
 Whitehead, 1953 
 Wilson, 1909 
 Zeuner, 1955 
 Bos primigenius ferns 
 
 Pira, 1926 
 Bos primigenius hahni 
 
 Adametz, 1925 
 Bos sondaicus 
 
 Keller, 1902 
 
 Merkens, 1929 
 
 Sommerfeld, 1927 
 Bos tour us 
 
 Keller, 1902 
 
 Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 
 Merkens, 1929 
 Bos taurus akeratos 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1927 
 
 Sasaki, 1934 
 Bos taurus brachyceros 
 
 Amschler, 1939b 
 
 Hescheler, 1920 
 
 Hescheler and Riiger, 1942 
 
 Madsen, 1900 
 
 Revilliod, 1926 
 
 Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 
 
 Riedel, 1948 
 
 Teodoreanu, 1929 
 Bos tauriis domesticus 
 
 Bronholm and Rasmussen, 1931 
 
 Dottrens, 1946 
 Bos taurus primigenius 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1941 
 
 Lydekker, 1912b 
 
 Madsen, 1900 
 
 Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 
 
 Sasaki, 1934 
 
 Teodoreanu, 1929 
 Bos troclwceros 
 
 Degerbpl, 1939 
 
 Morse, 1912 
 
 Wettstein, 1924 
 Bos turano-mongolicus 
 
 Kolesnik, 1936 
 Bos urus primigenius 
 
 Melnyk, 1927 
 Bos zebu indicus planus 
 
 Sasaki, 1934 
 Bubahts 
 
 Lloyd, 1940 
 Bubalus arnii 
 
 Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 Bubalus indieus macroceros 
 
 Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 Bubalus mephistopheles 
 
 Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 
 1936 
 
 Camelus bactrianus 
 
 Walz, 1954 
 Camelus dromedarius 
 
 Mikesell, 1955 
 
 Walz, 1951 
 
SYSTEMATIC INDEX 
 
 113 
 
 Canis 
 
 Gejvali, 1937-38 
 Canis sp. 
 
 Bate, 1938 
 Canis aureus 
 
 Keller, 1902 
 
 Lorenz, 1955 
 
 Scott, 1954 
 ^ Canis dingo 
 
 Durst, 1945 
 
 Jones, 1921 
 Canis fa miliar is 
 
 Liang, 1934 
 Canis familiaris dingo 
 
 Jones, 1921 
 X) Canis familiaris inostranzewi 
 
 Amschler, 1939c, 1949 
 
 Degerbol, 1927, 1933b 
 
 Gandert, 1930 
 
 Noack, 1909 
 
 Patterson, 1937 
 
 Studer, 1901 
 
 Wettstein, 1924 
 Canis familiaris intermedius 
 
 Vogel, 1933 
 Canis familiaris leineri 
 
 Hue, 1906a 
 
 Studer, 1901 
 Canis familiaris matris optimae 
 
 Amschler, 1949 
 
 Durst, 1908 
 
 Hue, 1906a 
 
 Madsen, 1900 
 Canis familiaris palustris 
 
 Amschler, 1949 
 
 Bvlin-Althin, 1946 
 
 Clark, 1952 
 
 Degerbol, 1933b 
 
 Gandert, 1930 
 
 Hue, 1906a,b 
 
 Madsen, 1900 
 
 Pequart, 1937 
 
 Reverdin, 1927-28 
 
 Riedel, 1948 
 
 Studer, 1901, 1906 
 
 Vogel, 1933 
 Canis familiaris palustris ladogensis 
 
 Patterson, 1937 
 Canis familiaris palustris svardborgensis 
 
 Degerbpl, 1933b, 1939 
 Canis familiaris spaletti 
 
 Vogel, 1933 
 Canis ferus 
 
 Studer, 19ai 
 Canis ingae 
 
 Noack, 1915a 
 Canis inostranzewi 
 
 Brinkmann, 1923-24 
 
 Revilliod, 1926 
 
 Studer, 1906 
 Canis intermedius (or intermedium) 
 
 Allen, 1920 
 
 Gehl, 1930 
 
 Revilliod, 1926 
 
 Studer, 1906 
 Canis le mirei 
 
 Hue, 1906a 
 Canis lupaster 
 ^ Hilzheimer, 1908 
 Canis lupus 
 
 Brinkmann, 1921 
 
 Lorenz, 1955 
 
 Scott, 1954 
 Cam's matris optimae 
 
 Bate, 1937 
 
 Studer, 1906 
 Canis mikii 
 
 Studer, 1906 
 Canis niger 
 
 Keller, 1902 
 Canis pallipes 
 
 Brinkmann, 1921 
 
 Gehl, 1930 
 
 Noack, 1915b 
 
 Prashad, 1936 
 
 Van Gifl'en, 1914 
 Canis pallipes domesticus 
 
 Noack, 1915b 
 Canis palustris '^ 
 
 Allen, 1920 ^ 
 
 Brinkmann, 1923-24 
 
 Gehl, 1930 
 
 Hescheler, 1920 
 
 Hescheler and Riiger, 1942 
 
 Kuhn, 1935 
 
 Noack, 1915b 
 
 Pira, 1926 
 
 F. Schwarz, 1918 
 
 Van Giffen, 1929 
 Canis palustris ladogensis 
 
 Brinkmann, 1923-24 
 
 Degerb0l, 1927 
 
 Gehl, 1930 
 Canis poutiatini 
 
 Baas, 1938 
 
 Diirst, 1908 
 
 Studer, 1906 
 Canis poutiatini transilvanicus 
 
 Teodoreanu, 1926 
 Canis sinensis 
 
 Keller, 1902 
 Canis tenggeranus 
 
 Studer, 1901 
 Canis tenggeranus harappensis 
 
 Prashad, 1936 
 Capra 
 
 Gejvali, 1937-38 
 
 Lawrence, 1951 
 
 E. Schwarz, 1935 
 Capra aegagrus 
 
 Adametz, 1915, 1928 
 
 Amschler, 1929a, 1931 
 
 Antonius, 1944 
 
 Curwen, 1938 
 
114 
 
 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1926 
 
 Pilgrim, 1947 
 
 Pira, 1926 
 
 Prashad. 1936 
 
 Sickenberg, 1930 
 
 Vaufrev, 1939, 1951 
 
 Vetulani, 1934 
 
 Zeuner, 1950 
 Capra falconcri 
 
 Adametz, 1932 
 
 Amschler, 1931 
 
 Dalimier, 1954 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1926, 1933 
 
 Koch, 1937 
 
 Philiptschenko, 1928 
 Copra falconeri jerdoni 
 
 Adametz, 1920 
 Capra girgentana 
 
 Amschler, 1937 
 
 Crawford, 1938 
 Capra hircus 
 
 Degerbpl, 1939 
 
 Durst, 1908 
 
 Hescheler and R tiger, 1942 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1933 
 
 Koch, 1937 
 
 Reverdin, 1921 
 
 Riedel, 1948 
 
 E. Schwarz, 1935 
 
 Vaufrey, 1951 
 
 Vogel, 1933 
 
 Wettstein, 1924 
 Capra hircus aegagriis 
 
 Dalimier, 1954 
 
 E. Schwarz, 1935 
 
 Capra ibex 
 
 E. Schwarz, 1935 
 Capra prisca 
 
 Adametz, 1915, 1928, 1932, 1941 
 
 Amschler, 1931, 1949 
 
 Antonius, 1944 
 
 Batu, 1939 
 
 Cardas, 1926 
 
 Crawford, 1938 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1926, 1933, 1941 
 
 Lebel, 1939 
 
 Patterson, 1937 
 
 Pia, 1942a 
 
 Pilgrim, 1947 
 
 E. Schwarz, 1935 
 
 Sickenberg, 1930 
 
 Teodoreanu, 1924 
 
 Vetulani, 1934 
 
 Equus 
 
 Mallowan, 1947 
 Equus abeli 
 
 Antonius, 1935b 
 
 E. Schwarz, 1928 
 Equus agilis 
 
 Dawkins and Jackson, 1917 
 
 Equus asinus africamis 
 
 Antonius, 1937 
 Equus caballus 
 
 Amschler, 1936 
 
 E. Schwarz, 1922, 1928 
 Equus caballus caballus 
 
 E. Schwarz, 1928 
 Equus caballus celticus 
 
 Ewart, 1904 
 
 Wettstein, 1924 
 Equus caballus fossilis 
 
 Durst, 1908 
 Equus caballus fossilis germanicus 
 
 Nitsche, 1928 
 Equus caballus libycus 
 
 Ewart, 1907a, 1909 
 
 Ridgeway, 1905 
 Equus caballus nehringi 
 
 Diirst, 1908 
 Equus caballus orientalis 
 
 Amschler, 1949 
 Equus caballus plicidens 
 
 E. Schwarz, 1928 
 Equus caballus przewalskii 
 
 Bourdelle, 1932 
 
 Lydekker, 1912a 
 Equus caballus pumpellii 
 
 Durst, 1908 
 
 Rumjancev, 1936 
 
 Vaufrey, 1939 
 Equus caballus rob}(stus 
 
 Brinkmann, 1920 
 
 Diirst, 1908 
 Equus caballus tijpicus 
 
 Boule, 1910 
 
 Ewart, 1904 
 
 Lydekker, 1912a 
 Equus equiferus 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1935 
 Equus ferus 
 
 Antonius, 1922 
 Equus gmelini 
 
 Antonius, 1918, 1937 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1935 
 Equus gmelini silvatica 
 
 Vetulani, 1928 
 Equus gracilis libycus 
 
 Ewart, 1909 
 Equus hemionus 
 
 Bate, 1938, 1942 
 
 Boule, 1910 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1935 
 Equus hemionus hemippus 
 
 Antonius, 1937 
 Equus libycus 
 
 Chubb, 1913 
 Equus mosbachensis 
 
 Antonius, 1935b 
 
 E. Schwarz, 1928 
 Equus onager hemippus 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1941 
 
SYSTEMATIC INDEX 
 
 115 
 
 Equus onager indiciis 
 
 Hermanns, 1952 
 Equui^ oricntalis 
 
 Antonius, 1922 
 Equns przewolskii 
 
 Andreeva, 1933 
 
 Antonius, 1918, 1937 
 
 Bishop, 1939 
 
 Bourdelk', 1938 
 
 Ewart, 1904, 1907a 
 
 Herre, 1939 
 
 Kwaschnin, 1928 
 
 Noack, 1909 
 
 Rumjancev, 1936 
 Equus recddens 
 
 Cardoso, 1912 
 EquHS robusfus 
 
 Antonius, 1922 
 
 Ewart, 1907a, 1909 
 
 E. Schwarz, 1928 
 EquuH i<ih'eslriii 
 
 Antonius, 1937 
 Equus siixdensis 
 
 Ewart, 1909, 1912 
 Equus stenonis 
 
 Boule, 1910 
 
 Ewart, 1912 
 
 Lydekker, 1912a 
 Equus transilvanicus 
 
 Teodoreanu, 1926 
 
 Felis chaus 
 
 Langton, 1940 
 ^ A'lorrison-Scott, 1952 
 Felis constantina 
 
 Zeuner, 1950 
 Felis lihyca bubastis 
 ^ Morrison-Scott, 1952 
 Felis monieulafa 
 
 Lortet and Gailiard, 1903-09 
 Felis manul 
 
 Zeuner, 1950 
 Felis mierobis 
 ^ Noack, 1909 
 Felis ochreaia (or oereata) 
 
 Langton, 1940 
 
 Lorenz, 1955 
 
 Schwangart, 1928, 1931 
 Felis silvestris 
 
 Hooijer, 1947 
 
 Lorenz, 1955 
 
 Schwangart, 1928, 1931 
 ^ Zeuner, 1950 
 Felis silvestris libyea 
 
 Haltenorth, 1953 
 
 flippidium 
 
 Cardoso, 1912 
 Ilircus mambrieus 
 
 Bate, 1938 
 
 Durst and Gailiard, 1902 
 
 Gailiard, 1934 
 
 Peet, 1914 
 
 [fire)(s reversus 
 Gailiard, 1934 
 
 Ibex mibians 
 Gailiard, 1912 
 
 Leptobos 
 
 Bryner, 1932 
 Llama guanicoe 
 
 Herre, 1952 
 Lupus occidentalis 
 
 Keller, 1902 
 
 Mustela putorius eversmanni 
 Ashton and Thompson, 1955 
 
 Mustela putorius furo 
 
 Ashton and Thompson, 1955 
 
 Mustela putorius putorius 
 Ashton and Thompson, 1955 
 
 Odocoileus 
 
 Hildebrand, 1955 
 
 Lawrence, 1951 
 Oryetolagus cuniculus 
 
 Nachtsheim, 1929 
 Oryx 
 
 Gailiard, 1912 
 Otolobus manual 
 
 Schwangart, 1928 
 Ovis 
 
 Carruthers, 1949 
 
 Gejvali, 1937-38 
 
 Lawrence, 1951 
 Ovis sp. 
 
 Bate, 1938 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1941 
 Ovis anmwn 
 
 Ewart, 1914 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1936 
 
 Pilgrim, 1947 
 Ovis ammon koslovi 
 
 Philiptschenko, 1928 
 Ovis argali 
 
 Cardas, 1926 
 Ovis dries 
 
 Friederichs, 1933 
 Ovis aries catotis 
 
 Lydekker, 1912c 
 Ovis aries longipes 
 
 Lydekker, 1912c 
 Ovis aries musimon 
 
 Amschler, 1949 
 
 Lydekker, 1912c 
 Ovis aries palustris 
 
 Adametz, 1937 
 
 Bogaevsky, 1937 
 
 Degerb0l, 1939 
 
 Diirst, 1904, 1908 
 
 Ewart, 1913 
 
 Kuhn, 1935 
 
 Lydekker, 1912c 
 
 Reitsma, 1932 
 
 Riedel, 1948 
 
116 
 
 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 F. Schwarz, 1918 
 
 Vogel, 1933 
 Ovis aries studeri 
 
 Diirst, 1904 
 
 Hescheler, 1920 
 
 Kuhn, 1932 
 
 Reitsma, 1932 
 Ovis canadensis 
 
 Lawrence, 1951 
 Ovis longipes 
 
 Durst and Gaillard, 1902 
 Ovis longipes palacoacgupticus 
 
 Diirst and Gaillard, "l902 
 
 Gaillard, 1934 
 Ovis mnsimon 
 
 Adametz, 1937 
 
 Antonius, 1944 
 
 Cardas, 1926 
 
 Pira, 1926 
 
 Schultze, 1934 
 Ovis orientalis 
 
 Carruthers, 1949 
 
 Ewart, 1913 
 
 Friederichs, 1933 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1936 
 
 Pilgrim, 1947 
 Ovis palaeoaegypticns 
 
 Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 
 
 Peet, 1914 
 Ovis paliistris 
 
 Revilliod, 1926 
 Ovis vignei 
 
 Adametz, 1937 
 
 Amschler, 1949 
 
 Antonius, 1944 
 
 Bishop, 1939 
 
 Carruthers, 1949 
 
 Ewart, 1913 
 
 Friederichs, 1933 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1926, 1936 
 
 Lydekker, 1912c 
 
 Pilgrim, 1947 
 
 Vaufrey, 1939 
 
 Vogel, 1933 
 Ovis vignei arkal 
 
 Adametz, 1927 
 
 Diirst, 1908 
 
 Menghin, 1931 
 Ovis vignei cycloceros 
 
 Adametz, 1920 
 Ovis vignei domes ticus 
 
 Prashad, 1936 
 
 Siis 
 
 Gejvali, 1937-38 
 Sus sp. 
 
 Bate, 1938 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1941 
 
 Vaufrey, 1951 
 Sus cristatus 
 
 Adlerberg, 1933 
 
 Prashad, 1936 
 
 Sus ferns europaeus 
 
 Cardas, 1926 
 Sus mediierraneus 
 
 Adlerberg, 1933 
 
 Belie, 1939 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1926 
 
 Reitsma, 1935 
 
 RitzofTy, 1932, 1933 
 
 Staffe, 1938 
 
 Ulmansky, 1914 
 Sks meridionalis 
 
 Belie, 1939 
 Sus orientalis 
 
 Adlerberg, 1933 
 
 Philiptschenko, 1933 
 Sus orientalis continentalis 
 
 Philiptschenko, 1933 
 Sus orientalis moupinensis 
 
 Philiptschenko, 1933 
 Sus orientalis raddeanus 
 
 Philiptschenko, 1933 
 Sus palustris 
 
 Bogaevsky, 1937 
 
 Hescheler, 1920 
 
 Reverdin, 1921 
 
 Revilliod, 1926 
 
 Wettstein, 1924 
 Sus scrofa 
 
 Adlerberg, 1 933 
 
 Amon, 1938 
 
 Belie, 1939 
 
 Hescheler, 1920 
 
 Hilzheimer, 1926 
 
 Patterson, 1937 
 
 PhiHptschenko, 1933 
 
 Reitsma, 1935 
 
 Ulmansky, 1914 
 Sus scrofa attila 
 
 Amschler, 1939b 
 
 Philiptschenko, 1933 
 Sus scrofa antiquus 
 
 Pira, 1909 
 Sus scrofa domesticus palustris 
 
 Reitsma, 1935 
 Sus scrofa domesticus tumulorum 
 
 Reitsma, 1935 
 Sus scrofa ferus 
 
 Amschler, 1949 
 
 Baumler, 1921 
 
 Clark, 1952 
 
 Nitsche, 1924 
 
 Vogel, 1933 
 Sus scrofa nigripes 
 
 Philiptschenko, 1933 
 Sus scrofa palustris 
 
 Clark, 1952 
 
 Degerbpl, 1939 
 
 Gaillard, 1934 
 
 Havesson, 1933 
 
 Nitsche, 1924 
 
 Otto, 1901 
 
 Pira, 1909 
 
SYSTEMATIC INDEX 
 
 11' 
 
 Reitsma, 1935 
 
 Reverdin, 1930 HI 
 
 Riedel, 1948 
 Siis t^crofa ncrofa 
 
 KelnV, 19;}8," 1939 
 
 Philiptschenko, 1933 
 
 Ritzofty, 1932 
 Sus scrofa vittatus 
 
 Kelm", 1939 
 Sus verrucosus 
 
 Amon, 1938 
 
 Reitsma, 1935 
 Sus vitiafus 
 
 Adlerberg, 1933 
 
 Amon, 1938 
 
 Baiimler, 1921 
 
 Belie, 1939 
 
 Bylin-Althin, 1946 
 Diirsi, 1908 
 Hilzheimer, 1926 
 Otto, 1901 
 
 Philipt.schenko, 1933 
 Reitsma, 1935 
 Staffe, 1938 
 Ulmansky, 1914 
 Vogel, 1933 
 Siis viHatns frontalis 
 
 Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936 
 
 Thos aureus 
 Matt hey, 1954 
 
 Vicugna vicugna 
 Steinbacher, 1953 
 
GENERAL INDEX 
 
 A, blood-group, sheep; Kacrkowski, 1928 
 Absence of: 
 
 dog, Star Carr, England; Fraser and King, 1954 
 
 northern Scotland, Neolithic; Watson, 1931 
 horse, prehistoric northern Iraq; Braidwood, 1954 
 primigene cattle, Celtic period, Switzerland; Gerbes, 1951 
 Adaptations to domestication; Weidenreich, 1925 
 Addax, Egypt; Gaillard, 1912 
 Adrenalin, role in socialization; Funkenstein, 1955 
 Aggressive animals; Funkenstein, 1955 
 Agricultural association with pigs; Newberry, 1928 
 Agricultural people and domestication; Linton, 1955 
 
 and dromedary, Arabia; Mikesell, 1955 
 Agriculture: 
 
 China; Bishop, 1933 
 Denmark; Curwen, 1938 
 preceding animal domestication; Bate, 1932 
 world; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 Allopatric races, pig; Kelm, 1939 
 
 Alpaca; Curwen and Hatt, 1953; Herre, 1952; Krieg, 1929; Steinbacher, 1953 
 Amnion, Ram of, Egypt; Pia, 1942b 
 Anatomy, general: 
 cats; Zeuner, 1950 
 
 cattle, East Indies; Sommerfeld, 1927 
 horses; Rumjancev, 1936 
 sheep, Soay; Schultze, 1934 
 Anatomy, detailed: 
 
 brachygnathy; Weidenreich, 1925 
 brain-case, canids; Dahr, 1942 
 
 craniometrical methods and indices, equids; Nitsche, 1924 
 craniometry, cattle; Pia, 1941 
 dentition; Herre, 1951 
 dingo; Jones, 1921 
 
 Equus transilvanicns; Teodoreanu, 1926 
 horses; Boicoianu, 1932; E. Schwarz, 1922 
 dwarfing, cattle; Szalay, 1930 
 dwarfism; Weidenreich, 1925 
 endocrine balance, domestic animals; Klatt, 1948 
 
 pigs; Helm, 1938 
 gonads, hyperfunction, rat; Richter, 1952 
 horn-cores, goats; Bate, 1953; Teodoreanu, 1924; Zeuner, 1955 
 
 keeled. Bos colliceros; Rostafinski, 1933 
 hump, zebu, origin of; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 mandible; Herre, 1951 
 
 dog; Hue, 1960b; Reverdin, 1927-28 
 metapodials, of wild and domestic sheep; Andreeva, 1933 
 osteology, animals in Switzerland; Vogel, 1933 
 
 cattle; Degerb0l, 1939; Hescheler and Riiger, 1942 
 
 dogs; Dahr, 1937; Wagner, 1930 
 
 goats; Hildebrand, 1955 
 
 horse; Kwaschnin, 1931; Lundholni, 1949; Brinkmann, 1920; Cardoso, 1912 
 
 Odocoileus; Hildebrand, 1955 
 
 pig; Pira, 1909 
 
 118 
 
GENERAL INDEX 119 
 
 Anatomy (continued): 
 osteology, 
 
 sheep; Hildcbrand, 1955 
 urus; Reynolds, 19.39 
 osteometrv, cattle; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 
 dogs; Haag, 1948 
 equids; Bourdelle, 1932 
 pathological characters; Weidenreich, 1925 
 phalanges, cattle; Dottrens, 1946 
 precipitine reaction, cattle; Sasaki, 1934 
 serology, canids; Dlirst, 1945 
 
 cattlb; Merkens, 1929; Sasaki, 1934 
 sheep; Kacrkowski, 1928 
 skeleton, cattle; Epstein, 1933 
 skeletons, Artiodactvla; Lawrence, 1944 
 skull, cattle; Herre,"l949 
 dog; Hue, 1906a 
 Don-Danube goat; Lebel, 1939 
 goat; Sickenberg, 1930 
 growth, cattle; Hilzheimer, 1926 
 domestic animals; Hilzheimer, 1928 
 skulls, asses; Brinkmann, 1920 
 
 canids; Gehl, 1930; Hilzheimer, 1908 
 
 canids, effects of captivity; Noack, 1907 
 
 cats; Morrison-Scott, 1952 
 
 cattle; Chlebaroff, 1929-30; Noack, 1909; Teodoreanu, 1929 
 
 developmental arrest; Hilzheimer, 1926 
 
 dingo; Jones, 1921 
 
 dog; Lawrence, 1944; Degerbpl, 1927; Noack, 1909; Studer, 1900 
 
 equids; Vetulani, 1928 
 
 goats; Pia, 1942a 
 
 growth, pig: Helm, 1938 
 
 horse; Kwaschnin, 1928; Noack, 1909; Boicoianu, 1932; Nitsche, 1924 
 
 pig; Otto, 1901; Philiptschenko, 1933; Ritzoffy, 1932; Baumler, 1921; Belie, 
 
 1939 
 variability, ferrets and polecats; Ashton and Thompson, 1955 
 statistical studies, cattle; Van Giffen, 1914 
 statistics, dogs; Van Giffen, 1929 
 teeth (see dentition) 
 Ancestry of cattle; Morse, 1912 
 Ancient domestic mammals; Keller, 1919 
 Anger, physiology of; Funkenstein, 1955 
 Animal behavior; Slijper, 1948 
 Animal breeding, independent; Menghin, 1931 
 
 Animal representation: rock-drawings, figurines, paintings, seals, art, etc : 
 Africa, north, rock-drawings, horse and camel; Lhote, 1953 
 north, rock-paintings, domesticants; Staffe, 1939 
 northeast, representations of camel; Uhden, 1929 
 
 northeast, rock-drawings of domesticants; Breuil and Kemal el Dine, 1928 
 Asia, southwestern, representations of domesticants; Friederichs, 1933 
 China; Sowerbv, 1935 
 Crete; Slawkowski, 1940 
 Egypt, engravings, cattle; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934 
 figurines, cattle; Randall-Maclver and Mace, 1902 
 figurines, sculptures, paintings, domesticants; Gaillard, 1912 
 representations of cats; Langton, 1940 
 of dogs; Houbard, 1934 
 
 of domesticants; Pia, 1941, 1942a, b; Schweinfurth, 1912 
 of fauna; Boessneck, 1953 
 of sheep; Thilenius, 1900 
 rock-drawings, dog and cattle; Winkler, 1938-39 
 Europe, representations of horse; Hermes, 1935-36 
 
120 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Animal representation {continued): 
 
 France, cave-paintings, cattle; Koby, 1954 
 
 representations of equids; Bourdelle, 1938; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946 
 
 Indus Valley, seals, domesticanls; Mackay, 1938 
 
 Mesopotamia, images, domesticants; Heinrich, 1936 
 representations of camel; Pohl, 1950-52 
 of domesticants; Van Buren, 1939 
 
 Near East, representations of cattle; Durst, 1900 
 
 Palaearctic, representations of dogs; Hilzheimer, 1932 
 
 Sudan, rock-drawings, domesticants; Newbold, 1928 
 
 Sumeria, sculpture of goat; Amschler, 1937 
 
 Switzerland, representations of domesticants; Kramer, 1900 
 
 Ukraine, figurines, cattle; Tackenberg, 1954 
 figurines, domesticants; Melnyk, 1928 
 representations of domesticants; Bogaevsky, 1937 
 Antelope, Beatrix, Egypt; Gaillard, 1912 
 
 domestication of, Egypt; Zeuner, 1954 
 Anti-A, sheep; Kacrkowski, 1928 
 Apis, steer of; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 
 Archaeological sites (see Local place names) 
 Arni buffalo; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 Artifacts: 
 
 Denmark; Mathiassen, 1944 
 
 Mesopotamia, with water buffalo; Lloyd, 1940 
 Artiodactyla, bones of. North America; Lawrence, 1951 
 Aryans and origin of dog; Noack, 1915b 
 Asino-hemion, type of equid; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946 
 Ass, domestic; Antonius, 1918; Bourdelle, 1932; Lydekker, 1912a 
 
 Asia, central; Menghin, 1931 
 
 China; Erkes, 1940 
 
 Egypt; Hilzheimer, 1935 
 
 Iraq; Lloyd and Safer, 1945 
 
 Syria; Mallowan, 1947 
 Ass, half-ass; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946 
 Ass, wild: 
 
 Africa, northwestern; Lydekker, 1912a 
 
 Egypt; Gaillard, 1934 
 
 France; Boule, 1910; Bourdelle, 1938 
 
 Indus valley; Roy, 1946 
 Aurochs (see Urus; also Reynolds, 1939) 
 Autochthonous domestication, pig, Sweden; Pira, 1909 
 
 Baboons; Funkenstein, 1955 
 
 Banteng; Adametz. 1933; Ewart, 1912; Keller, 1902; Melnyk, 1927 
 
 East Indies; Merkens, 1929; Sommerfeld, 1927 
 
 Indo-China: Vittor, 1933 
 Battle-ax; Childe, 1941 
 
 Battle-ax people, Europe, eastern; Clark, 1941 
 Beatrix antelope, Egypt; Gaillard, 1912 
 Beaver, giant; Galbreath, 1947 
 Bees, Central America; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 Behavior, dog and wolf; Scott, 1954 
 Bergen Museum, dogs in; Brinkmann, 1921 
 Bibliography of camel; Hilzheimer, 1913 
 
 of cat; Hilzheimer, 1913 
 
 of dog, 19th century; Studer, 1900 
 
 of domestic animals. Near East; Dyson, 1953 
 
 of fauna of ancient Egypt; Boessneck, 1953 
 
 of horse; Lundholm, 1949 
 
 of reindeer; Jettmar, 1952; Hatt, 1919 
 Bibovine group; Leister, 1943 
 Biocoenosis, natural; Hediger, 1938 
 Biogeographical conditions, glacial; Lundholm, 1949 
 
■ GENERAL INDEX 121 
 
 Biological inferiority and domestication; Ilcdigpr, 1938 
 Birds, domestic; Reinhardt, 1912; Wilckens, 1905 
 
 origin of; Pycraft, 1988 
 Blood-groups, sheep; Kacrkowski, 1928 
 Bones, identification; Lawrence, 1944 
 
 individual variation; Hildebrand, 1955 
 Bovidae, evolution; Pilgrim, 1947 
 Bovids, wild; Antonius, 1919 
 evolution of; Morse, 1912 
 Lido-China; Vittor, 1988 
 Bovinae, evolution; Kolesnik, 1986 
 
 inter-relationships among; Merkens, 1929 
 Breeds of domestic animals; Mason, 1951 
 Bridoon-bit ; Hermes, 1986 
 Buffalo, African, in Egypt; Gaillard, 1988 
 water; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 China; Bishop, 1989 
 East Indies; Merkens, 1929 
 Formosa; Sasaki, 1984 
 Iraq; Lloyd, 1940 
 Philippines; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1932 
 
 Camel and /or dromedarv; Forbes, 1955; Hilzheimer, 1913 
 
 Africa, north; Lhote, 1933; Staffe, 1939, 1940 
 northeast; Robinson, 1936 
 
 Arabia; Walz, 1951 
 
 Asia; Robinson, 1936 
 
 central; Menghin, 1931; Walz, 1954 
 
 China; Erkes, 1940; Schafer, 1950 
 
 Egypt; Caton-Thompson, 1984; Free, 1954; George, 1950 
 
 Mesopotamia; Pohl, 1950-52 
 
 Near East; Albright, 1940; Mikesell, 1955 
 
 Palestine; Isserlin, 1950 
 
 Sahara; Newbold, 1928 
 Camel-hair, Egypt, early Dynastic; Caton-Thompson, 1934 
 Camelidae, South America; Herre, 1952; Latcham, 1924; Steinbacher, 1953 
 Canids, wild. North America; Haag, 1948 
 Captivity, effects on skull; Noack, 1907 
 Carabao (see Buffalo, water) 
 Caravans, desert travel by; Forbes, 1955 
 Carbon-14 determinations, Iran; Ralph, 1955 
 Cart-horse, Europe, west; Rumjancev, 1936 
 
 Cat; Haltenorth, 1958; Hilzheimer, 1913; Lorenz, 1955; Schwangart, 1928, 1931; 
 Zeuner, 1950 
 
 adrenal physiology; Funkenstein, 1955 
 
 Anatolia; GejvaH, 1938-89 
 
 Asia, central; Noack, 1909 
 
 Denmark; Curwen, 1938 
 
 Egypt; Brunton and Caton-Thompson, 1928; Langton, 1940; Morrison-Scott, 
 1952 
 
 Holland; Hooijer, 1947 
 Cattle-breeders, Ukraine; Hancar, 1951 
 Cattle, breeds and or types; Lydekker, 1912b 
 
 Aberdeen-Angus; Ewart, 1912; Sasaki, 1984 
 
 Afrikaner; Epstein, 1988 
 
 Albanese; Chlebaroff, 1929 80 
 
 Bechuana; Epstein, 1983 
 
 brachycephalid; Adametz, 1925 
 
 brachyceros, Egypt; Bisschop 1987 
 
 brachyceros-type; Adametz, 1933 
 
 British white; Whitehead, 1958 
 
 Cadrow; Ewart, 1912 
 
122 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Cattle, breeds and /or types (continued): 
 
 Celtic shorthorn; Chlldc, 1940; Ewart, 1912; Mond and Myers, 1934; Reynolds, 
 
 1939 
 Damara; Epstein, 1933 
 dun-polled; Wilson, 1909 
 Fjiillras; Whitehead, 1953 
 Eriesian-Dutch; Merkens, 1929 
 Galloway; Ewart, 1912 
 Hamitic longhorn; Epstein, 1933 
 Holstein-Friesian; Sasaki, 1934 
 horned red; Wilson, 1909 
 Hottentot; Epstein, 1933 
 Hungarian Grey Steepe; Pia, 1941 
 identification of; Bronholm and Rasmussen, 1931 
 Illyrian; ChlebarofT, 1929-30 
 Japanese native; Sasaki, 1934 
 
 Java-Madurese; Merkens, 1929; Sommerfeld, 1927 
 Jersey; Merkens, 1929 
 Kalmuck; Kolesnik, 1936; Noack, 1909 
 Kirghiz; Kolesnik, 1936 
 Korean, south; Sasaki, 1934 
 
 longhorn, Hamitic; Bisschop, 1937; Epstein, 1933 
 long-horned; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934; Curwen. 1938; Durst, 1900; 
 
 Newbold, 1928; Schweinfurth, 1912; Pia, 1941 
 longhorned white; Whitehead, 1953; Wilson, 1909 
 Macedonian; ChlebaroJf, 1929-30 
 Madurese; Sommerfeld, 1929 
 Mongol; Kolesnik, 1936 
 Montagne; Cardas, 1926 
 Montenegrin; ChlebarofT, 1929-30 
 oriental; Ewart, 1912 
 polled; Auld, 1927 
 polled white; Whitehead, 1953 
 Rhodope; ChlebarofT, 1929-30 
 Sanga; Bisschop, 1937 
 short horned; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934; Curwen, 1938; Epstein, 
 
 1933; Schweinfurth, 1912; Slawkowski, 1933; Merkens, 1929 
 Watusi; Epstein, 1933 
 wild white; Whitehead, 1953 
 Yakut; Kolesnik, 1936 
 
 Zulu; Epstein, 1933 ^ ^^^^ ^ 
 
 Cattle, domestic and /or possibly domestic; Antonius, 1919; Durst, 1900; Ewart, 
 1912; Hahn, 1909; Hilzheimer, 1927; Koby, 1954; Kolesnik, 1936; Leister, 
 1943; von Lengerken, 1953, 1955; Lydekker, 1912b; Morse, 1912; Pilgrim, 1947; 
 Sauer, 1952; Szalay, 1930 
 
 Africa; Bisschop, 1937 
 south; Epstein, 1933 
 
 Anatolia; Slawkowski, 1933 
 
 Balkans; ChlebarofT, 1929-30 
 
 British Isles; Reynolds, 1939; Whitehead, 1953; Wilson, 1909 
 
 Bukhara; Adametz, 1936 
 
 Denmark; Bronholm and Rasmussen, 1931; Mathiassen, 1944 
 
 East Indies; Merkens, 1929; Sommerfeld, 1927 
 
 Egypt; Adametz, 1920; Winkler, 1938-39 
 
 Egypt, southwest; "Shaw, 1936 
 
 Eurasia; Brvner, 1932 
 
 Europe; Clark, 1947; Jackson, 1932 
 
 Europe, northern; Herre, 1949 
 
 France; Adametz, 1925 
 
 Holland; Van GifTen, 1914 
 
 Indo-China; Vittor, 1933 
 
 Indus Valley; Sewell and Guhr, 1931 
 
 Iran; Amschler, 1939a, b 
 
GENERAL INDEX 123 
 
 Cattle, domestic and or possibly domestic (continued): 
 
 Iraq: Lloyd and Saber, 1945 
 
 Mesopotamia; Heinrich, 1936 
 
 Moravia: Mohapl, 1914 
 
 Pakistan: Mackay, 1938 
 
 Palestine: Vaufrev, 1951 
 
 Spain: Adametz, 1925; Staile, 1943 
 
 Sudan; Newbold, 1928 
 
 Switzerland: Dottrens, 1946; Gerbes, 1951; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 
 
 Turkestan, western; Menghin, 1931 
 
 Ukraine; Melnvk, 1927 
 Cattle, wild: Lvdekker, 1912b 
 
 Egypt; Gaillard, 1934 
 
 Eurasia; Bryner, 1932 
 
 France; Kobv, 1954 
 
 Palestine; Bate, 1932, 1942 
 Chariot-horses; Mallowan, 1936 
 
 Cheese from deer milk, South Carolina; Swanton, 1940 
 Chicken (sre Fowl, jungle) 
 Chromosome number, canids; Matthey, 1954 
 Chronology of domestication (see Sequence of domestication) 
 Civilization, general; Hehn, 1902 
 
 Africa, north; Lhote, 1953 
 
 Indo-European; Nehring, 1936 
 Civilization and cattle; von Lengerken, 1953 
 
 and domestication; Stegmann von Pritzwald, 1924; Weidenreich, 1925 
 Civilizations, independent; Menghin, 1931 
 
 Classification of animals, Sumeria; Oppenheimer and Hartmann, 1945 
 Climatic change, Sudan; Bate, 1953 
 
 and pig distribution; Amon, 1938 
 
 and tarpan distribution; Vetulani, 1928 
 
 Ukraine, Neolithic; Tackenberg, 1954 
 Color similarities, banteng and brachyceros cattle; Adametz, 1933 
 Commensalism, wolf and man; Scott, 1954 
 Convergent evolution: Cabrera, 1932 
 Co-operative social life, wolves; Scott, 1954 
 
 Co-variation, length and breadth of brain-case, canids; Dahr, 1942 
 Coyote; Dahr, 1937; Galbreath, 1947 
 Cross section of horn of goat; Koch, 1937 
 Cult-animal of Set, Egypt; Newberry, 1928 
 Cult-association, oxen; Hahn, 1909 
 Cultivated plants; Mangelsdorf, 1952 
 Cultivation of plants, Africa, and goats; Kroll, 1928 
 Cultural background, domestication; Keller, 1902 
 
 loans, China; Bishop, 1939 
 Culture: 
 
 Amratian. Egypt, cattle figurines; Randall-Maclver and Mace, 1902 
 domestic animals; Jackson, 1937 
 fauna; Peet, 1914 
 
 Anau, Turkestan, SSR, domestic animals; Menghin, 1931 
 
 Andronovo, northern Siberia, domestic animals; Jettmar, 1950 
 
 Badarian, Egypt, fauna; Brunton and Caton-Thompson, 1928 
 
 comb-ceramic, northeastern Europe, domestic animals; Gandert, 1930 
 
 Ertebole, Denmark, domestic animals; Madsen, 1900 
 
 Halafian, Syria, domestic animals; Mallowan, 1946 
 
 Karasuk, northern Siberia, domestic animals; Jettmar, 1950 
 
 Maglemosian, England, fauna; Eraser and King, 1954 
 
 Minussinsk, Siberia, origin of horse; Amschler, 1934 
 
 Mullerup, Denmark, domestic animals; Curwen, 1938 
 
 Natufian, Palestine, dog; Bate, 1937 
 fauna; Bate, 1932, 1937; Vaufrey, 1951 
 
 Protoeskimoid, arctic Siberia, dog; Flor, 1930 
 
 Protosamojed, arctic Siberia, reindeer; Flor, 1930 
 
124 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Culture {continued): 
 
 Sh'xriK, northern China, fauna; Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936 
 
 Tripolje, Ukraine, domestic animals; Bogaevsky, 1937; Hancar, 1951 
 fauna; Gromova, 1927; Tackenberg, 1954 
 
 Uruk, Iraq, water buffalo; Lloyd, 1940 
 
 Yarmukian, Palestine, domestic animals; Stekelis, 1950 
 Culture, swine-breeding, southern Asia and Europe; Menghin, 1931 
 
 adapted to reindeer behavior; Zeuner, 1954 
 
 Dairy purposes and origin of domestication; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 
 Dawn of domestication, Palestine; Josien, 1955 
 
 Deer, domestic. South Carolina; Swanton, 1940 
 
 Defective mutations, dogs; Krieg, 1929 
 
 Degree of domestication, pigs; Reitsm.a, 1935 
 
 Desert travel by animals; Forbes, 1955 
 
 Desert valleys, culture of, Egypt; Winkler, 1938-39 
 
 Dingo (see Dog, breeds, dingo) 
 
 Diphvletic ancestrv, horse; Chubb, 1913 
 
 Diphvletic origin of cattle, Europe; Merkens, 1929; Morse, 1912 
 
 of dog; Noack, 1907 
 
 of goats; Keller, 1902 
 
 of horses; Keller, 1902 
 
 of pig; BeUc, 1939 
 Dispersal, routes of; Sauer, 1952 
 Docility, selection for; Richter, 1952; Scott, 1954 
 Dog, breeds and 'or types; Ash, 1927; Hilzheimer, 1932 
 
 African, ancient; Kroll, 1928 
 
 Aguara; Hummerlink, 1928 
 
 aico; Hummerlink, 1928 
 
 Arctic; Van Giffen, 1929 
 
 basket maker; Lawrence, 1944 
 
 borzoi; Brinkmann, 1921 
 
 Brazilian roe-dog; Hummerlink, 1928 
 
 Cimbric-Megalithic; Van Giffen, 1929 
 
 deerhound; Brinkmann, 1923-24; Studer, 1901, 1906 
 
 dingo; Baas, 1938; Dahr, 1937. 1942; Diirst, 1945; Etheridge, 1916; Jones, 1921; 
 Noack, 1907; Studer, 1901 
 Russia; Studer, 1906 
 
 Egyptian; Houbard, 1934 
 
 Eskimo; Allen, 1920 
 
 Finnish; Brinkmann, 1923-24 
 
 gray deerhound; Brinkmann, 1923-24 
 
 Great Dane-Newfoundland-St. Bernard; Hooijer, 1947 
 
 greyhound; Brinkmann, 1921; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09; Studer, 1901 
 Africa; Kroll, 1928 
 Egypt; Schweinfurth, 1912 
 Indian; Prashad. 1936 
 North African; Fetters, 1934 
 
 husky; Haag, 1948 
 
 Kaffir; Fetters, 1934 
 
 Kalmuck; Noack. 1909 
 
 mastiff, Pakistan; Mackay, 1938 
 
 mastiffs; Studer, 1906, 1907 
 
 Mexican pug; Hummerlink, 1928 
 
 "pilustris-svardborgensis;" Degerb0l, 1927 
 
 pariah; Amschler, 1939b; Durst, 1945; Noack, 1907; Feet, 1914; Studer, 1901 
 Egypt; Schweinfurth, 1912 
 
 peat-dog; Brinkmann, 1923-24 
 Sweden; Fira, 1926 
 Switzerland; Reverdin, 1927-28 
 
 pug, Mexican; Hummerlink, 1928 
 
 roe-dog, BraziHan; HummerHnk, 1928 
 
GENERAL INDEX 125 
 
 Dog, breeds and/or types (coHlinued): 
 shepherd; Noack, 1915b; Studer, 1906 
 short-nosed; Lawrence, 1944 
 Techichi; Lawrence, 1944 
 terp-dogs; Van Giffen, 1929 
 Tibetan mastiffs; Studer, 1901 
 turbary; Brinkmann, 192;3-24; Gandert, 1930 
 Dog, domestic and or possibly domestic; Ash, 1927; Cabrera, 1932; Hilzheimer, 
 
 1932; Linton, 1955; Lorenz, 1955; Matthey, 1954; Scott, 1954; Studer, 1901; 
 
 Wagner, 1930 
 Africa, north; Noack, 1907 
 China; Bishop. 1933, 1939; Liang, 1934 
 Denmark; Degerbol, 1927, 1933; Johansen, 1919 
 Egypt; Adametz, 1920; Hilzheimer, 1908; Winkler, 1938-39 
 England; Eraser and King, 1954 
 Eurasia; Dahr, 1942 
 Eurasia, southern; Menghin, 1931 
 Europe; Dahr, 1937; Hue, 1906a; Van Giff'en, 1929 
 
 northeastern; Gandert, 1930 
 Finland; Luho, 1948 
 France; Hue, 1906b; Pequart, 1937 
 Germany; Baas, 1938; Gehl, 1930 
 Holland; Hooijer, 1947 
 Illinois; Galbreath, 1947 
 Iran; Bate, 1937 
 
 North America; Allen, 1920; Haag, 1948 
 Palestine; Bate, 1932, 1937, 1942; Zeuner, 1955 
 Russia; Studer, 1906 
 Scandinavia; Brinkmann, 1921, 1923-24 
 Siberia; Flor, 1930 
 South America; Krieg, 1929 
 Sudan; Bate, 1949, 1953 
 Switzerland; Brinkmann, 1923-24 
 West Indies; Hummerlink, 1928 
 Dog head, mummified, Peru; Noack, 1915a 
 Dog, wild, Australia {see Dingo) 
 Dogs, semi-domesticated. Grand Chaco; Krieg, 1929 
 
 used as food; Gandert, 1930; Lawrence, 1944; Reverdin, 1927-28 
 Domestic animals, surveys of: 
 
 General: Adametz, 1926; Antonius, 1922, 1944; Cabrera, 1922; Coon, 1954; 
 
 Curwen and Hatt, 1953; Davis, 1954; Dobzhanskv, 1955; Feige, 1927, 1928; 
 
 Hehn, 1902; Herre, 1955; Hilzheimer, 1909-10, 1913, 1926; Keller, 1902, 1919; 
 
 Klatt, 1927; Kronacher, 1928; Krumbiegel, 1947; La Baume, 1949; Linton, 
 
 1955; Page, 1939; Pycraft, 1938; Reinhardt, 1912; Rice, 1942; K. P. Schmidt, 
 
 1938; W. Schmidt, 1951; Slijper, 1948; Stegmann von Pritzwald, 1924; 
 
 Thevenin, 1947; Werth, 1939; Wilckens, 1905; Wissler, 1945; Zeuner, 1954 
 Regional: 
 
 Africa, east; Kroll, 1928 
 north; Staffe, 1939 
 south; Kroll, 1928 
 
 Anatolia; Gejvali, 1937-38; Patterson, 1937 
 
 Arabia; Rathjens, 1955 
 
 Asia, central; Hermanns, 1949 
 
 southwest; Friederichs, 1933; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1955 
 
 Austria; Amschler, 1939c 
 
 British Isles; Childe, 1940; Dawkins and Jackson, 1917 
 
 Central America; Latcham, 1924 
 
 China; Sowerby, 1935 
 
 north; Anderson, 1943; Bylin-Althin, 1946; Teilhard de Chardin and 
 Young, 1936 
 
 Crete; Slawkowski, 1940 
 
 Denmark; Curwen, 1938; Degerb0l, 1939; Madsen, 1900; Winge, 1904, 1919 
 
126 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Domestic animals, surveys of (continued): 
 Regional : 
 
 Egypt; Adametz, 1920; Boessneck, 1953; Brunton and Caton-Thompson, 
 1928; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934; Debono, 1948; Gaillard, 1912, 
 1934; Jackson, 1937; Kuschel, 1911 ; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09; Menghin, 
 1933; Menghin and Amar, 1932; Peet, 1914; Schweinfurlh, 1912 
 Eurasia; Meissner, 1926; Nehring, 1936 
 Europe; Clark, 1952 
 
 France; Reverdin, 1930-31; Revilliod, 1926 
 Holland; Van Giffen, 1914, 1929 
 India; Hermanns, 1952; Randhawa, 1946; Sankalia and Karve, 1949 
 
 northwestern; Piggot, 1950; Prashad, 1936 
 Indus Valley; Sewell and Guhr, 1931 
 
 Iran; Amschler, 1939a, b; Coon, 1951, 1952; Vaufrey, 1939 
 Iraq; Braidwood, 1952, 1954; Braidwood and Braidwood, 1950 
 Italy; Riedel, 1948, 1951 
 Libyan Desert; Breuil and el Dine, 1928 
 Mesopotamia; Hilzheimer, 1941; Oppenheim and Hartmann, 1945; Van Buren, 
 
 1939; Woolley, 1934 
 Near East; Dyson, 1953 
 Norway; Br0gger, 1940 
 Pakistan; Mackay, 1938 
 Palestine; Josien, 1955; Stekelis, 1950 
 Poland; Zurowski, 1930 
 Roumania; Cardas, 1926 
 Scotland; Watson, 1931 
 Siberia, northern; Jettmar, 1950 
 South America; Latcham, 1924 
 Sweden; Pira, 1926 
 
 Switzerland; Hescheler, 1920; Hescheler and Ruger, 1939, 1940, 1942; Kramer, 
 1900; Kuhn, 1932, 1935; Pittard and Reverdin, 1921; Reverdin, 1921, 1928; 
 Ruger, 1942; F. Schwarz, 1932; Vogel, 1933 
 Syria; Mallowan, 1946, 1947 
 Turkestan, southwestern; Diirst, 1908 
 
 Ukraine; Bogaevsky, 1937; Gromova, 1927; Hancar, 1951; Melnyk, 1928; 
 Tackenberg, 1954 
 Domestication, dawn of, Palestine; Josien, 1955 
 definition of; Dobzhansky, 1955 
 determination of, by goat horn-cores; Zeuner, 1955 
 Domestication, effects of; Antonius, 1922; Feige, 1928; Herre, 1951, 1955; Hilz- 
 heimer, 1926; Klatt, 1927; Kronacher, 1928; Lundholm, 1949; Weidenreich, 
 1925; Zeuner, 1954 
 dog, behavior; Scott, 1954 
 goat; Dalimier, 1934 
 pig; Pira, 1909 
 
 crania; Baumler, 1921 
 Domestication, mode of origin; Keller, 1919, 1922; Klatt, 1927; Kronacher, 1928; 
 Lundholm, 1949; Weidenreich, 1925 
 agricultural people; Linton, 1955 
 behavior of domesticable animals; Wissler, 1945 
 decoy-use in hunting; Sirelius, 1916-20; Zeuner, 1954 
 economic use of young; Clark, 1948 
 hunters; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 hunting tribes, importance of; Koppers, 1932 
 nomadism, importance of; W. Schmidt, 1951 
 pet-keeping; Linton, 1955; Zeuner, 1954 
 psychological factors; Hediger, 1938 
 reindeer, herding of; Linton, 1955 
 influence of; Jettmar, 1952 
 
 on horse-breeding; Werth, 1940; Wiklund, 1918 
 religious; Meissner, 1926; Roy, 1946; Sauer, 1952; Staffe, 1939 
 
 with cattle; Hahn, 1909 
 scavenging, in dog; Haag, 1948 
 
GENERAL INDEX 127 
 
 Domestication (contintied): 
 
 selection, artificial, after taming; Nachtsheim, 1938 
 social factors, man and animals; Zeuner, 1954 
 symbiosis, natural; Zeuner, 1954 
 taming, followed by selection; Nachtsheim, 1938 
 Domestication, origins of; Meissner, 1926 
 Domestication, site of; Feige, 1927, 1928 
 Geographical: 
 
 Abyssinia; Shaw, 1936 
 
 Anatolia; Slawkowski, 1933 
 
 Asia, southeastern; Linton, 1955; Sauer, 1952 
 
 Asia, southwestern; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1955; Linton, 1955; Sauer, 1952 
 
 Egvpt; Linton, 1955 
 
 Orient; Hehn, 1902 
 
 South America; Sauer, 1952 
 
 sub-Arctic; Koppers, 1932 
 
 Turkestan, western; Hermanns, 1949 
 Domestication, studv of: Antonius, 1922; Braidwood, 1954; Herre, 1939, 1955; 
 
 Keller, 1902; Klatt, 1927 
 Domestication of various animals: 
 alpaca, Peru; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 ass, Africa, eastern; Rathjens, 1955 
 
 Ethiopia; Werth, 1940 
 
 Mediterranean area, eastern; Lydekker, 1912a 
 banteng, Java; Sommerfeld, 1927 
 buffalo, water, India; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 camel, Asia, central; Forbes, 1955; Randhawa, 1946; Walz, 1954 
 
 Mongolia; Linton, 1955 
 cat, Africa, north; Noack, 1909 
 
 Egypt; Zeuner, 1950 
 cattle, Asia, southwestern; Kolesnik, 1936 
 
 Bactria and periphery; Hermanns, 1952 
 
 Europe, north; Herre, 1949 
 
 India; Durst, 1900; Werth, 1940; Kolesnik, 1936 
 dog, Egvpt; Hilzheimer, 1908 
 
 Russia; Studer, 1906 
 
 Siberia, northern; Flor, 1930 
 domesticants, earliest. Near East; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 dromedary, Africa, north; Randhawa, 1946 
 
 Africa, northeastern; Rathjens, 1955 
 
 Arabia; Albright, 1950; Forbes, 1955; Mikesell, 1955; Walz, 1951 
 fowl, jungle, Asia, southeastern; Linton, 1955 
 goat, Turkestan; Randhawa, 1946 
 "herd animals," Asia, southwest; Sauer, 1952 
 
 South America; Sauer, 1952 
 horse, Africa; Ridgeway, 1905; Sommerfeld, 1927 
 
 Asia; Flor, 1930; Linton, 1955; Werth, 1940; Jackson, 1932 
 
 China; Erkes, 1940 
 
 Eurasia, north; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1955 
 
 Europe, eastern; Clark, 1941 
 
 Iran; Hehn, 1902 
 
 Oriental, Africa, north; Chubb, 1913 
 
 Russia, southern; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 
 Scandinav'ia; Jackson, 1932 
 
 sub-Arctic; Koppers, 1932 
 "household animals" Asia, southeast; Sauer, 1952 
 llama, Peru; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 pig, Asia, southeastern; Linton, 1955 
 pig, Tschuwasian breed, Tien-Shan; Havesson, 1933 
 rabbit, Spain; Nachtsheim, 1929 
 reindeer, Asia, central; Laufer, 1917 
 
 Siberia, northern; Flor, 1930 
 
 sub-Arctic; Koppers, 1932 
 
128 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Domestication of various animals (continued) : 
 
 sheep, Africa, north; Thilenius, 1900 
 Asia, central; Philiptschenko, 1928 
 Turkestan; Randhawa, 1946 
 
 turkey. Central America; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 Donkey (see Ass, domestic) 
 Dorcas gazelle, Egypt; Gaillard, 1912 
 Draft animal; Menghin, 1931; Werth, 1940 
 
 dog used as; Luho, 1948 
 
 reindeer used as; Sirelius, 1916-20 
 Draft horses, European; Chubb, 1913 
 
 northeastern Syria; Mallowan, 1936 
 Drag-sledge, use with reindeer, Finland; Sirelius, 1916-20 
 Drift, genetic; Mangelsdorf, 1952 
 Dromedary {sec Camel) 
 Dromedary, wild, extinction of; Mikesell, 1955 
 
 North Africa; Mikesell, 1955 
 Dry environment and domestication; Linton, 1955 
 Dwarf dog; Brinkmann, 1923 24 
 
 Switzerland; Vogel, 1933 
 Dwarf goats; Dalimier, 1954 
 
 Egypt; Bate, 1953; Pia, 1942a 
 
 Sudan; Bate, 1949, 1953 
 Dwarf pig; Clark, 1952 
 Dwarfed horses, Bohemia; Nitsche, 1924 
 Dwarfed hound. Neolithic; Studer, 1906 
 Dwarfing in cattle; Szalay, 1930 
 
 Ecologic factors, pigmentation; Feige, 1927 
 
 Ecological subspecies, cats, wild; Zeuner, 1950 
 
 Economic areas, domestication; Feige, 1928 
 
 Elephant, China, north; Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936 
 
 Elephant-buffalo culture, India; Randhawa, 1946 
 
 Environment, arid, and domestication; Linton, 1955; Klatt, 1948 
 
 differences in, and variation in animals; Reitsma, 1935 
 
 effect of; Weidenreich, 1925 
 
 original, of domestic animals; Feige, 1927 
 
 of primitive domestication; Szalay, 1930 
 Equid, wild, Europe; Boule, 1910 
 
 Palestine; Bate, 1942 
 Equids, distribution; Antonius, 1937 
 Ethnological data, horse; Hancar, 1952 
 Ethnology and domestication; von Furer-Haimendorf, 1955 
 
 of cattle; Hahn, 1909 
 Evolution; Slijper, 1941 
 
 of Bovidae; Morse, 1912; Pilgrim, 1947 
 
 of Bovinae; Kolesnik, 1936 
 
 convergent; Cabrera, 1932 
 
 of domestic animals; Kronacher, 1928; Reinhardt, 1912; Rice, 1942 
 
 under domestication; Mangelsdorf, 1952 
 
 of man; Rice, 1942 
 
 natural; Mangelsdorf, 1952 
 
 parallel; Herre, 1952 
 Evolutionary factors in domestication; Klatt, 1927, 1948 
 Extermination of urus; Lydekker, 19r2b 
 Extinction of wild dromedary; Mikesell, 1955 
 
 Farmers, Ukraine; Hancar, 1951 
 Farming, Europe; Clark, 1952 
 
 mixed, Syria; Mallowan, 1946 
 Fauna, wild, China; Liang, 1934 
 Fear, physiology of; Funkenstein, 1955 
 
GENERAL INDEX 129 
 
 Feral canids; Noack, 1907 
 
 Feral cattle, British forests; Whitehead, 1953 
 
 British Isles; Wilson, 1909 
 Feral dog (dingo), Australia; Jones, 1921 
 Feral horse, Russia; Kwaschnin, 19.'n 
 Feral pigs of Set, Egypt; Newberry, 1928 
 Ferret, domestic; Ashton and Thompson, 1955 
 Figurines, cattle, Egypt; Randall-Maclver and Mace, 1902 
 
 domestic animals, Indus \'alley; Mackay, 1938; Melnyk, 1928 
 
 horse; Mallowan, 1936 
 
 pigs, Egypt; Randall-Maclver and Mace, 1902 
 First known appearance, dating, etc.: 
 
 cat, northern Europe; Hooijer, 1947 
 
 dog, Denmark; Degerbol, 1927 
 Germany: Baas, 1938 
 
 large type, northern Europe; Hooijer, 1947 
 Iran; Ralph, 1955 
 
 domestic animals, Denmark; Curwen, 1938 
 
 dromedary, Assyria; Mikesell, 1955 
 
 goat, Iran; Ralph, 1955 
 
 horse, southwestern Asia; Smith, 1928 
 
 sheep, Iran; Ralph, 1955 
 Fish, domestic; Reinhardt, 1912; Wilckens, 1905 
 Fishing peoples as first domesticators; Sauer, 1952 
 Flight for survival; Funkenstein, 1955 
 Flora, Europe; Clark, 1952 
 Food, dogs used as; Gandert, 1930; Lawrence, 1944; Reverdin, 1927-28 
 
 gifts, mortuary; Jettmar, 1950 
 Forest, Europe; Clark, 1947 
 Forest tarpan, Russia; Vetulani, 1928 
 Fort, Roman, Scotland; Ewart, 1907a 
 Fowl, jungle (poultry, chickens); Adametz, 1925 
 
 Asia, southeastern; Linton, 1955 
 
 China; Bishop, 1939 
 
 Denmark; Curwen, 1938 
 Freedom, avoidance of; Zeuner, 1954 
 
 Garden tilling; Coon, 1954 
 Gaur; Ewart, 1912 
 
 Indo-China; Vittor, 1933 
 Gayal, India; Hermanns, 1952 
 Gazelle, dorcas; Gaillard, 1912 
 Gazelles, domestication of, Egypt; Zeuner, 1954 
 Genealogical table, horses, Ur; Amschler, 1935 
 Geographic distribution of Bovinae; Kolesnik, 1936 
 
 of domestic animals; Feige, 1927, 1928 
 
 of wild equids; Antonius, 1937 
 Genetic characters, independent occurrence of; Nachtsheim, 1936 
 Genetic dominant, white, in cattle; Whitehead, 1953 
 Genetic drift; Mangelsdorf, 1952 
 Genetics, polled cattle; Auld, 1927 
 
 rabbit; Nachtsheim, 1929, 1936 
 Germanic invasions and British cattle; Whitehead, 1953 
 Ghosts, chickens guard against; Linton, 1955 
 Giant beaver; Galbreath, 1947 
 Goats, breeds and 'or types: 
 
 Anatolian; Vetulani, 1934 
 
 Angora; Adametz, 1941; Batu, 1939 
 
 Angora, Anatolia; Vetulani, 1934 
 
 Asia, southwest; Zeuner, 1955 
 
 big-horned; Kramer, 1900 
 
 Don-Danube; Lebel, 1939 
 
 Girgentinian goat; Adametz, 1932, 1941 
 
130 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Goats, breeds and/or types {continued): 
 
 Kirghiz; Hilzheimer, 1926; Philiptschenko, 1928 
 
 Mamber; Gaillard, 1934; Mallowan, 1946, 1947 
 
 Pinzgauer; Sickenberg, 1930 
 
 screw-horned (.^ee spiral-horned) 
 
 spiral-horned; Antonius, 1944; Bate, 1940; Koch, 1937; Mallowan, 1946, 1947; 
 E. Schwarz, 1935 
 
 straight-horned, Asia, southwest; Zeuner, 1955 
 
 twisted-horned {see spiral-horned) 
 Goats, domestic and or possibly domestic; Adametz, 1928; Dalimier, 1954; Hilz- 
 heimer, 1933; E. Schwarz, 1935 
 
 Altai; Amschler, 1931 
 
 Anatolia; Vetulani, 1934 
 
 Asia; Batu, 1939 
 
 Caucasus; Amschler, 1929a 
 
 Egypt; Adametz, 1920; Pia, 1942a; Randall-Maclver and Mace, 1902 
 
 Europe; Adametz, 1915 
 
 Europe, central and southeastern; Teodoreanu, 1924 
 
 Iraq; Lloyd and Safer, 1945 
 
 Kashmir; Dalimier, 1954 
 
 Mesopotamia; Heinrich, 1936 
 
 Palestine; Vaufrey, 1951; Zeuner, 1934 
 
 Poland; Adametz, 1915 
 
 Sicilv; Adametz, 1932 
 
 Sudan; Bate, 1949, 1953 
 
 Sumeria; Amschler, 1937 
 
 Tibet; DaHmier, 1954 
 
 Turkestan, western; Menghin, 1931 
 Goats, wild; E. Schwarz, 1935 
 
 bezoar; Amschler, 1929a; Bate, 1942 (possibly ibex); Dalimier, 1954; Pilgrim, 
 1947; Vetulani, 1934 
 
 markhor; Dalimier, 1954; Koch, 1937; Phihptschenko, 1928; Pilgrim, 1947 
 Gods, offerings for; Meissner, 1926 
 
 Golden Fleece, history of Merino sheep; Burns and Moody, 1935 
 Goose; Clark, 1948 
 
 domestication of; Clark, 1948 
 Grain-culture, decline of, in Ukraine; Tackenberg, 1954 
 Grave-goods, figurines, cattle, Egypt; Randall-Maclver and Mace, 1902 
 Graves, Amratian, animal figurines; Randall-Maclver and Mace, 1902 
 
 animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 
 Ground sloth; Galbreath, 1947 
 Group A and Group O, sheep; Kacrkowski, 1928 
 Guanaco; Herre, 1952; Steinbacher, 1953 
 Guinea-pig; Krieg, 1929; Latcham, 1924 
 
 Hair, rabbit, genetics of; Nachtsheim, 1929 
 
 Half-ass (see Onager) 
 
 Halters, cattle, Libyan Desert; Shaw, 1936 
 
 Hand-sledges; Luho, 1948 
 
 Hare (see Rabbit) 
 
 Har. Ra-Hubullu tablet, Mesopotamian animals; Oppenheim and Hartmann, 
 
 1945 
 Hatshepsut, Queen; Chard, 1937 
 Herders, reindeer; Linton, 1955 
 Herdsmen, mountain, with cattle, Egypt; Winkler, 1938-39 
 
 Syria; Mallowan, 1946 
 Herdsmen-cultures, Tibet; Hermanns, 1949 
 Heredity, domestic animals; Herre, 1952 
 Heteronymous horns, goats; Dalimier, 1954 
 Heteronymous twist, horn of goat; Koch, 1937 
 History and domestication; Stegmann von Pritzwald, 1924 
 History of domestication, 19th century; Keller, 1902 
 
GENERAL INDEX l.U 
 
 Hoe-agriculture; Menghin, 19.'31 
 Homonymous twist, horn of goat; Koch, 1937 
 Horse-breeding, Bactria; Hancar, 1952 
 Europe; Hermes, 1935 36 
 hterary evidence of; Hrozny, 1931 
 Horse, breeds and or type; Lydetcker, 1912a 
 
 Arabian; Bourdelleand Trombe, 1946; Chard, 1937; Chubb, 1913; Ewart, 1907a- 
 
 Kwaschnin, 1928; E. Schwarz, 1922; Simpson, 1951 
 Barb; E. Schwarz, 1922; Simpson, 1951 
 Belgian; Boicoianu, 1932 
 
 Camargue; Bourdelle, 1938; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946 
 Celtic; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946; Ewart, 1904, 1907a 
 Clepper; Rumjancev, 1936 
 
 cold-blooded; Antonius, 1935a, b; E. Schwarz, 1922 
 criollo; Cardoso, 1912; Solanet, 1930 
 
 eastern; E. Schwarz, 1922; Lundholm, 1949; Rumjancev, 1936 
 Finnish; Rumjancev, 1936 
 forest tvpe; Ewart, 1907a, b, 1912 
 Hutzel; Cardas, 1926 
 Indo-European; Antonius, 1935a 
 Kalmuck; Noack, 1909 
 Kladrub; Antonius, 1935b; Nitsche, 1924 
 Libyan; Ewart, 1907a; Ridgeway, 1905 
 Lithuanian; Kwaschnin, 1928, 1931 
 Lithuanian-PoHsh-Esthonian group; Kwaschnin, 1931 
 Lofoten; Brinkmann, 1920 
 Moldavian; Cardas, 1926 
 Mongolian; Antonius, 1918 
 
 Nordic; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946; Lundholm, 1949 
 Norse; Ewart, 1904, 1907a 
 Norseman's; Chubb, 1913 
 northern group; Rumjancev, 1936 
 Norwegian Lofoten; Brinkmann, 1920 
 Occidental; Antonius, 1918; Boicoianu, 1932; Hilzheimer, 1935; Kwaschnin, 
 
 1931; Nitsche, 1924; Winge, 1919 
 Oriental; Antonius, 1935a; Chubb, 1913; Ewart, 1907a; Hilzheimer, 1935; 
 
 Kwaschnin, 1928, 1931; Schwarz, 1922; Winge, 1919 
 Plateau variety; Ewart, 1907a, b 
 Polish country horse; Vetulani, 1928 
 Przewalski; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946; Cardas, 1926; Chubb, 1913; Ewart, 
 
 1907a; Hilzheimer, 1935; Kwaschnin, 1931; Lundholm, 1949; Rumjancev, 
 
 1936; E. Schwarz, 1928; Vetulani, 1928 
 Shetland; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946; Chubb, 1913 
 Shmudic; Kwaschnin, 1928 
 Siwalik; Ewart, 1909, 1912 
 "southern group"; Rumjancev, 1936 
 Spanish; Antonius, 1935b; Solanet, 1930 
 steppe; Yetts, 1934 
 steppe variety; Ewart, 1907a, b, 1912 
 Vyatka; Rumjancev, 1936 
 western group; Lundholm, 1949 
 tarpan: Amschler, 1933; Antonius, 1918, 1935a; Cardas, 1926; Curwen and 
 
 Hatt, 1933; Dobzhansky, 1955; Ewart, 1907a; Herre, 1939; Hilzheimer, 1935; 
 
 Kwaschnin, 1928, 1931; Lundholm, 1949; Lydekker, 1912a; Nitsche, 1924; 
 
 Rumjancev, 1936; E. Schwarz, 1922; Vetulani, 1928 
 Horse-cow culture, India; Randhawa, 1946 
 Horse, domestic and 'or possibly domestic; Bourdelle, 1932; Ewart, 1904, 1907a, b, 
 
 1909, 1912; Herre, 1939; Hilzheimer, 1935; Kriiger, 1939; Lundholm, 1949; 
 
 Lydekker, 1912a; Sauer, 1952; E. Schwarz, 1922, 1928; Simpson, 1936, 1951 
 Africa, north; Lhote, 1953; Ridgeway, 1905 
 
 Anatolia; Clark, 1941; Gejvali, 1938-39; Hrozny, 1931; Slawkowski, 1933 
 Asia; Flor, 1930 
 
132 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Horse, domestic and/or possibly domestic {continued) : 
 
 Asia, central; Amschler, 1933; Menghin. 1931 
 
 Asia, southwest; Smith, 1928 
 
 Asia Minor {see Anatolia) 
 
 Bactria; Hancar, 1952 
 
 China; Erkes, 1940; Yetts, 1934 
 
 Egypt; Adametz, 1920; Chard, 1937 . 
 
 Eurasia; Amschler, 1934, 1936; Antonius, 1918; Jackson, 1932; Rumjancev, 1936 
 
 Europe; Hermes, 1935-36; Munro, 1902 
 east; Kwaschnin, 1931 
 
 India, northwestern; Piggot, 1950 
 
 Iran; Amschler, 1935; Childe, 1940 
 
 Mesopotamia; Childe, 1940; Ridgeway, 1905 
 
 Scythia; Amschler, 1933 
 
 Sumeria; Amschler, 1935 
 Horse, harness, riding, etc. 
 
 bridle; Hermes, 1936 
 
 chariots; Antonius, 1944; Childe, 1941 
 
 chariot wheels; Mallowan, 1936 
 
 harness; Hermes, 1936; Mallowan, 1936 
 
 riding; Antonius, 1944 
 Horse, wild; Herre, 1939; Lundholm, 1949; Lydekker, 1912a; E. Schwarz, 1922, 
 1928; Simpson, 1951 
 
 China; Erkes, 1940 
 
 Egypt; Gaillard, 1934 
 
 Eurasia; Dobzhansky, 1955 
 
 Europe; Brinkmann, 1920; Chubb, 1913 
 
 France; Reverdin, 1930-31 
 
 Palestine; Bate, 1932 
 
 Pyrenees; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946 
 Hunters with dogs, Egypt; Winkler, 1938-39 
 Hunting pigs, Egypt; Schweinfurth, 1912 
 Hybridization; Mangelsdorf, 1952 
 
 "banteng and zebu; Merkens, 1929 
 
 Bos primigenius and B. namadicus; Mackay, 1938 
 
 cattle; Melnyk, 1927 
 
 dogs; Ash, 1927 
 
 gauer and cow; Hermanns, 1952 
 
 turbary sheep and mouflon; Diirst, 1904 
 
 wolf and dog; Brinkmann, 1923-24 
 Hyena, domestication of, Egypt; Zeuner, 1954 
 
 Ibex; E. Schwarz, 1935; Schweinfurth, 1912 
 
 Egypt; Gaillard, 1912 
 Identification of bones, Artiodactyla; Lawrence, 1944 
 Indians (American) and domestic deer; Swanton, 1940 
 Indices, mandibles, dogs; Reverdin, 1927-28 
 Indo-Europeans and origin of dog; Noack, 1915b 
 Inferiority, biological, and domestication; Hediger, 1938 
 Insects, domestic; Wilckens, 1905 
 Introduction and/or dispersal of: 
 
 buffalo, water, to Persia; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 
 into PhiHppines; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1932 
 cat into Europe; Haltenorth, 1953 
 
 cattle, Auvergne breed, to France and England; Adametz, 1925 
 brachyceros, into Egypt; Bisschop, 1937 
 longhorn, out of Egypt; Bisschop, 1937 
 taurus, to India; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 dingo into Austraha; Baas, 1938; Etheridge, 1916; Jones, 1921 
 dog, greyhound, into eastern Africa; Kroll, 1928 
 dog into North America; Haag, 1948 
 dogs, Eurasia; Noack, 1915b 
 into Europe; Allen, 1920 
 
GENERAL INDEX l.j.j 
 
 Introduction and 'or dispersal of (continued): 
 dogs, into Finland; Luho, 1948 
 
 into North America; Allen, 1920 
 domestic animals, into Africa; Adametz, 1920 
 
 into British Isles; Dawkins and Jackson, 1917 
 
 into Europe: Hehn, 1902 
 
 into southern Arabia; Rathjens, 1955 
 dromedary. North Africa; Mikesell, 1955 
 
 into eastern Africa; Staffe, 1940 
 goat. Angora, into Anatolia; Batu, 1939 
 goats, Asia, central; Amschler, 1931 
 horse, into Anatolia; Clark, 1941 
 
 into Egypt; Ridgeway, 1905 
 
 into Near East; Ridgeway, 1905 
 
 to historical peoples; Smith, 1928 
 pack and draft animals, Asia; Werth, 1940 
 reindeer to Finland; Luho, 1948 
 
 to Lapps; Laufer, 1917 
 sheep, fat-rumped, to Bukhara; Adametz, 1927 
 yak, Asia, central; Amschler, 1932 
 zebu, into northwestern Africa; Bisschop, 1937 
 
 into Africa; Epstein, 1933 
 Invaders, mounted; Hancar, 1952 
 Invertebrates, domestic; Reinhardt, 1912 
 
 Irano-Sanskrit v^ocabulary and horse domestication; Smith, 1928 
 Italian white cattle, British Isles; Wilson, 1909 
 
 Jackal; Dahr, 1937, 1942; Degerb0l, 1933b; Durst, 1945; Keller, 1902; Matthey 
 1954; Noack, 1907; Scott, 1954; Van Giffen, 1929 
 
 Africa, north; Hilzheimer, 1908 
 
 Egypt; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 
 
 Palestine; Bate, 1937 
 Jungle and domestication; Linton, 1955 
 Jungle fowl (see Fowl, jungle) 
 
 Keel of horn, goat; Koch, 1937 
 Kikkuli text; Hroznv, 1931 
 "Kish" goat; Crawford, 1938 
 Kpbenhavn Museum, dogs in; Brinkmann, 1921 
 sub-fossil materials in; Degerb0l, 1933b 
 
 Linguistic evidence and domestication; Nehring, 1936 
 
 Linguistics, comparative; Hehn, 1902 
 
 Lion; Funkenstein, 1955 
 
 Literary evidence of first horse-breeding; Hrozny, 1931 
 
 Llama; Curwen and Hatt, 1953; Herre, 1952; Hilzheimer, 1913; Krieg, 1929; Stein- 
 
 bacher, 1953; Werth, 1940 
 Local place names, archaeological sites, etc.: 
 
 Abydos, Egypt, fauna; Peet, 1914 
 
 Agrigento, Sicily, spiral-horned goat; Adametz, 1932, 1941 
 
 Alishar Huyuk, Anatolia, domestic animals; Patterson, 1937 
 
 Aloppe, Sweden, pigs; Pira, 1909 
 
 Alpenquai, Switzerland, domestic animals; Wettstein, 1924 
 
 Altai Mts., Siberia, goats; Amschler, 1931 
 horses; Amschler, 1933 
 
 Anau, Turkmen SSR, dog; Bate, 1932; Diirst, 1908; Van Giffen, 1929 
 fauna; Diirst, 1908 
 horse; Amschler, 1936; Rumjancev, 1936 
 
 Ancon, Peru, mummified head of Canis ingae; Noack, 1915a 
 
 Annerod, Sweden, pigs; Pira, 1909 
 
 Anyany, northern China, fauna; Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936 
 
134 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Loral place names, archaeological sites, etc. (continued): 
 Armant, Egypt, cattle; Mond and Myers, 1934 
 
 domestic animals; Jackson, 1937 
 Ashmore, Illinois, U.S.A., dog; Galbreath, 1947 
 Asmar (see Tell Asmar) 
 Assuan (see Aswan) 
 Aswan. Egypt, animal representations; Schweinfurth, 1912 
 
 rock-drawings; Winkler, 1938-39 
 Athlit caves, Palestine, fauna; Bate, 1932 
 
 Badari, Egypt, shorthorned cattle; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934b 
 Baldegg, Switzerland, domestic animals; Hescheler and Riiger, 1940 
 Balih (valley), Syria, domestic animals; Mallowan, 1946 
 Banahilk, Iraq, fauna; Braidwood, 1954 
 Beer-Sheba, Palestine, domestic animals; Josien, 1955 
 Belt Cave, Iran, Carbon-14 determinations; Ralph, 1955 
 
 fauna; Coon, 1951 
 Berchtesgaden, Germany, dog; Studer, 1907 
 Bern, Switzerland, cattle; Gerbes, 1951 
 Biisk, central Asia, domestic animals; Noack, 1909 
 Bir Abou Matar (see Beer-Sheba) 
 Bir Es-Safadi (see Beer-Sheba) 
 Bludenz, Austria, fauna; Amschler, 1939c 
 Bogaz Koy, Anatolia, Kikkuli text found; Hrozny, 1931 
 Bokarn (Lake), Sweden, horses; Lundholm, 1949 
 Bologoie, Russia, Canis poiitiatini; Studer, 1906 
 
 dog; Gandert, 1930 
 Brak, Syria, domestic animals; Mallowan, 1947 
 Bukhara, Turkestan, fat-rumped sheep; Adametz, 1927 
 Bunds0 on Jylland, Denmark, fauna; Degerb0l, 1939 
 Chagar Bazar, Syria, horse; Mallowan, 1936 
 Chalain (Lake), France, dog; Hue, 1906b 
 Ch'eng-tzu-yai, Shantung, China, fauna; Liang, 1934 
 Ch'i Chia P'ing, Kansu, China, domestic animals; Bylin-Althin, 1946 
 Clairvaux, France, dog; Hue, 1906a 
 
 Constance (Lake), Switzerland, domestic animals; Vogel, 1933 
 Cortaillod, Switzerland, domestic animals; Reverdin, 1928 
 Crestaulta, Switzerland, domestic animals; Riiger, 1942 
 Dakhla, oasis, Egypt, rock-drawings; Winkler, 1938-39 
 Djebel Ouenat (see Ouenat) 
 Dobruja, Rumania, cattle; Teodoreanu, 1929 
 
 Egolzwil, Switzerland, domestic animals; Hescheler and Riiger, 1939, 1942 
 El Amrah, Egypt, cattle figurines; Randall-Maclver and Mace, 1902 
 El Khan, Iraq, fauna; Braidwood, 1954 
 El-Khiam, Palestine, fauna; Vaufrey, 1951 
 Ellebeck, Germany, dog; Gehl, 1930 
 El-Mughara (see Wadi El-Mughara) 
 El-Omari, Egypt, fauna; Debono, 1948 
 Engel Peninsula, Switzerland, cattle; Gerbes, 1951 
 Er Yoh, France, fauna; Reverdin, 1930-31 
 Errindlev, Denmark, dogs; Brinkmann, 1921 
 Esh Shaheinab (.see Shaheinab) 
 Fayum, Egypt, camel hair; Caton-Thompson, 1934 
 
 fauna; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934 
 Frankfort, Germany, dog; Baas, 1938 
 
 Ganties-Montespan river, Pyrenees Mts., horses; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946 
 Gezer, Palestine, camel; Isserlin, 1950 
 
 Gilf Kebir, Libyan Desert, animal representations; Shaw, 1936 
 Girgentini (see Agrigento) 
 Gizeh, Egypt, cats; Morrison-Scott, 1952 
 
 mummified animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-1909 
 Glamorgan, Wales, horses; Jackson, 1932 
 
 Glastonbury, Great Britain, domestic animals; Dawkins and Jackson, 1917 
 Gottland, Sweden, pigs; Pira, 1909 
 
GENERAL INDEX 135 
 
 Local place names, archaeological sites, etc. (con(inHed): 
 Governador, New Mexico, U.S.A., dogs; Lawrence, 1944 
 Grai Resh, Iraq, water buffalo; Lloyd, 1940 
 Grimaldi, caves of, asses; Boule, 1910 
 Groningen, Holland, terpen dog; Van Giffen, 1929 
 Gujarat, India, domestic animals; Sankalia and Karve, 1949 
 Habur (vallev), Svria, domestic animals; Mallowan, 1946 
 Halaf (.see Tell Halaf) 
 Harappa, Indus \'alley, domestic animals; Piggot, 1950; Prashad, 1936 
 
 unicorn; Roy, 1946 
 Hassuna (see Tell Hassuna) 
 Hebrides, Scotland, Soay sheep; Schultze, 1934 
 Heinola, Finland, hand-drawn sledges; Luho, 1948 
 Helwan, Egypt, dromedary; George, 1950 
 Hemaniah {see Badari) 
 Hildesheim, Germany, dogs; Noack, 1915b 
 Hotu Cave, Iran, fauna; Coon, 1951 
 Husum, Germany, dog; Gehl, 1930 
 
 Jarmo, Iracj, fauna; Braidwood, 1952; Braidwood and Braidwood, 1950 
 Jericho, Palestine, goats; Zeuner, 1955 
 Kashan, Iran, domestic animals; Vaufrey, 1939 
 Kharga (oasis), Egypt, rock-drawings; Winkler, 1938-39 
 Kiel, Germany, dog; Gehl, 1930 
 Kiev, Ukraine, fauna; Gromova, 1927 
 Kish, Mesopotamia, equids; Amschler, 1936 
 
 Girgentini goat; Amschler, 1937 
 Klausdorf, Germany, dog; Gehl, 1930 
 Klausenberg, Transylvania, Capra prii^ca; Adametz, 1941 
 Koko-Nor, Tibet, yak; Amschler, 1932 
 Kom Ombo, Egypt, fauna; Gaillard, 1934 
 
 mummified animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 
 Kom W {see Fayum) 
 
 Krzeszowice, Poland, Bos colliceros; Rostafinski, 1933 
 Kronstadt, Rumania, Capra prisca; Teodoreanu, 1924 
 Ladoga (Lake), Denmark, dog; Degerb0l, 1933b 
 Laibach (moors), Austria, pigs; Ulmansky, 1914 
 "Lake Village" {see Glastonbury) 
 
 Langhnaj, India, domestic animals; Sankalia and Karve, 1949 
 Lascau.x cave, France, cattle; Koby, 1954 
 
 La Tene, France, domestic animals; Revilliod, 1926; F. Schwarz, 1918 
 Lerida, Spain, cattle; Staffe, 1943 
 Linderbeek, Holland, dog and cat; Hooijer, 1947 
 Lo Han T'ang, Kansu, China, domestic animals; Bylin-Althin, 1946 
 Lundby Bog, Denmark, dogs; Degerb0l, 1933b 
 Ma'adi, Egypt, fauna; Menghin, 1933; Menghin and Amar, 1932 
 Maikop, Caucasus Mts., animal representations; Friederichs, 1933 
 Mefesh (see Tell Mefesh) 
 Megiddo, Palestine, camel; Isserlin, 1950 
 
 goat; Mallowan, 1947 
 Merimde-Benisalame, Egypt, fauna; Menghin, 1933 
 Minusinsk, northern Siberia, domestic animals; Jettmar, 1950 
 Minu.ssinsk (Sajan), Siberia, horse; Amschler, 1936 
 M'lefaat, Iraq, fauna; Braidwood, 1954 
 Mohenjo-Daro, Indus Valley, animal representations; Friederichs, 1933 
 
 domestic animals; Mackay, 1938; Sewell and Guhr, 1931 
 
 unicorn; Roy, 1946 
 Morbihan (see Er Yoh) 
 Mullerup, Denmark, dog; Degerb0l, 1933b 
 Nauenberg, Capra prisca; Adametz, 1941 
 
 Neuchatel (Lake), Switzerland, domestic animals; Pittard and Reverdin, 1921 
 Newstead, Scotland, horse; Ewart, 1907a 
 Obermoilen, Switzerland, domestic animals; Kuhn, 1935 
 Olmiitz, Moravia, cattle; Mohapl, 1914 
 
136 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Local place names, archaeological sites, etc. (continued): 
 Omsk, Siberia, Academy of; Amschler, 1931 
 Ouenat, Libyan desert, fauna; Breuil and Kemal el Dine, 1928 
 Pocala (cave), Italy, domestic animals; Riedel, 1948 
 Quena, Egypt, rock-drawings; Winkler, 1938-39 
 Rana Ghundai, Baluchistan, domestic animals; Piggot, 1950 
 Ringsj0n, Sweden, pigs; Pira, 1909 
 
 Roda, Egypt, mummified animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 
 Rantasalami, Finland, hand-drawn sledges; Luho, 1948 
 Saasigaroi (moors'), Finland, drag-sledge; Sirelius, 1916-20 
 Saint-Aubin, Switzerland, cattle; Dottrens, 1946; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 
 
 dogs; Reverdin, 1927-28 
 
 domestic animals; Reverdin, 1921, 1928 
 St. Georghe-Bedehaza, Transylvania, dog and horse; Teodoreanu, 1926 
 Sakkara, Egypt, mummified animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 
 Salers, France, cattle; Adametz, 1925 
 Sandomierz, Poland, domestic animals; Zurowski, 1930 
 Satrupholm Moor, Germany, cattle; Herre, 1949 
 SchafRs, Switzerland, Capra prisca; Adametz, 1941 
 Schleinbach, Austria, goat; Sickenberg, 1930; Vetulani, 1934 
 Seematte, Switzerland, domestic animals; Hescheler and Rliger, 1940, 1942 
 Sha'ar ha-Golan, Palestine, domestic animals; Stekelis, 1950 
 Shaheinab, Sudan, fauna; Bate, 1953 
 Shah Tepe, Iran, fauna; Amschler, 1939a, b 
 Sialk, Iran, domestic animals; Vaufrey, 1939 
 Sinjar (see Grai Resh) 
 
 Sipplingen, Switzerland, domestic animals; Vogel, 1933 
 Sj0holmen, Sweden, dog; Dahr, 1937 
 Skara Brae, Scotland, domestic animals; Watson, 1931 
 Star Carr, England, fauna; Eraser and King, 1954 
 Stora Forvar (cave), Sweden, fauna; Pira, 1926 
 Stora Karlso (island), Sweden, fauna; Pira, 1926 
 Strandegaard, Denmark, cattle; Bronholm and Rassmussen, 1931 
 Susa, Iran, horse; Amschler, 1936 
 
 Svardborg Moor, Denmark, dogs; Degerb0l, 1927, 1933b; Johansen, 1919 
 Taanek, Palestine, camel; Isserlin, 1950 
 Tall Chagar Bazar (see Chagar Bazar) 
 Tartaren, Spain, cattle; Staffe, 1943 
 
 Tell Asmar, Mesopotamia, domestic animals; Hilzheimer, 1934, 1941 
 Tell Halaf, Mesopotamia, animal representations; Friederichs, 1933 
 Tell Hassuna, Iraq, fauna; Lloyd and Safer, 1945 
 Tell Mefesh, Syria, domestic animals; Mallowan, 1946 
 Tepe Sialk. Iran, equids; Childe, 1941 (see also Sialk) 
 Teplitz, Bohemia, horses; Nitsche, 1928 
 
 pigs; Nitsche, 1924 
 Teviec, France, dog; Pequart, 1937 
 
 Thebes, Egypt, mummified animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 
 Toukh, Egypt, fauna; Gaillard, 1934 
 
 goats; Bate, 1953 
 Trelleborg, Denmark, cattle; Mathiassen, 1944 
 Tripolje, Ukraine, horses; Amschler, 1936 
 Troy, Anatolia, domestic animals; Gejvali, 1937-38, 1938-39 
 Tschuwasia, Kazan, pig; Havesson, 1933 
 Turopolje, Croatia, pig; RitzofTy, 1933 
 Umm-es-Sawan (.see Fayum) 
 
 Ur, Mesopotamia, domestic animals; Woolley, 1934 
 Ur, Sumeria, animal representations; Friederichs, 1933 
 
 Girgentini goat; Amschler, 1932 
 
 horse genealogy; Amschler, 1935 
 
 spiral-horned goat; Adametz, 1932, 1941 
 Uwenat (oasis), Egypt, rock-drawings; Winkler, 1938-39 
 Vindonissa, Switzerland, domestic animals; Kramer, 1900 
 Wadi El-Mughara caves, Palestine, dog; Bate, 1937 
 
GENERAL INDEX 137 
 
 Local place names, archaeological sites, etc. (continued): 
 
 Wauwyl (Lake), Switzerland, domestic animals; Hescheler and Riiger, 1939 
 
 fauna; Hescheler, 1920 
 Wellington caves, New South Wales, dingo; Etheridge, 1916 
 Windmill Hill, P:ngland, fauna; Childe, 1940 
 Wurten, Holland, fauna; Van Gilfen, 1914 
 Zloczow, Poland, Copra priaca; Adametz, 1915 
 
 goats; Vetulani, 1934 
 Zlota, Poland, Capra prisca; Adametz, 1928 
 
 domestic animals; Zurowski, 1930 
 
 goat; Vetulani, 1934 
 Zufilcar Pass, cattle through to India; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 Zurich, Switzerland, domestic animals; Wettstein, 1924 
 Lop ear, goat; Dalimier, 1954 
 
 Man, evolution of; Rice, 1942 
 
 Man's behavior adapted to reindeer behavior; Zeuner, 1954 
 
 Markhor horns; Hilzheimer, 1933 
 
 Mastodon, American; Galbreath, 1947 
 
 Mechanism of evolution and domestication; Klatt, 1927, 1948 
 
 Mendes, Ram of; Durst and Gaillard, 1902 
 
 Migrations, dog; Noack, 1915b 
 
 Milking, cattle, Libyan Desert; Shaw, 1936 
 
 deer. South CaroHna; Swanton, 1940 
 
 goats; Coon, 1951 
 Mitanni kings and introduction of horse; Smith, 1928 
 Mixed farming, Syria; Mallowan, 1946 
 Modifications of cranium, dog; Noack, 1907 
 Monophyletic ancestry, cattle; Van Giffen, 1914 
 
 origin, horse; Lundholm, 1949 
 Mortuary food-gifts; Jettmar, 1950 
 Mounds of refuge, Holland; Reitsma, 1932, 1935 
 Mounted invaders, radiation center of; Hancar, 1952 
 Mousterian artifacts with dog, Russia; Studer, 1906 
 Mule, Asia, southwest; Friederichs, 1933 
 
 China; Erkes, 1940 
 
 first occurrence; Amschler, 1933 
 Mummies, animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-1909 
 
 dogs, South America; Cabrera, 1932 
 Mummified cats, Egypt; Morrison-Scott, 1952 
 Mummified head, dog, Peru; Noack, 1915a 
 Mutations; Mangelsdorf, 1952 
 
 defectiv'e, dogs; Krieg, 1929 
 
 deleterious in wild; Nachtsheim, 1938 
 
 in domestication, rabbit; Nachtsheim, 1929 
 
 selection of; Nachtsheim, 1938 
 
 Names of breeds; Mason, 1951 
 
 Natural area, domestication; Feige, 1928 
 
 Natural evolution; Mangelsdorf, 1952 
 
 Neolithic cattle, British Isles; Wilson, 1909 
 
 Neoteny, pig; Baumler, 1921; Kelm, 1938 
 
 Nomadic pastoralism, Ukraine; Hancar, 1951 
 
 Nomadic, semi-, population; Josien, 1955 
 
 Nomadism, reindeer; Hatt, 1919 
 
 Nomads and domestication; von Flirer-Haimendorf, 1955 
 
 Nomenclature, domestic animals; Keller, 1902 
 
 Nor-adrenalin, role in socialization; Funkenstein, 1955 
 
 Nubian wild goat; Gaillard, 1912 
 
 O, blood-group, sheep; Kacrkowski, 1928 
 Oases, cattle in, Egypt; Winkler, 1938-39 
 
138 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Offerings for the gods; Meissner, 1926 
 Onager; Rumjancev, 1936 
 
 France: Boule, 1910; Bourdelle, 1938 
 
 Mesopotamia; Hilzheimer, 1934, 1935, 1941 
 
 Near East; Antonius, 1935a 
 
 Syria; Mallowan, 1947 
 Ontogenetic sequence, pig; Kelm, 1938 
 
 stages; Hilzheimer, 1928 
 Oracle bones, pictures on; Sowerby, 1935 
 Orbital plane, canids; Dahr, 1937 
 Origins of domestication; Meissner, 1926 
 Ovibovid, Illinois; Galbreath, 1947 
 
 Ox-buffalo, Egypt; Brunton and Caton-Thompson, 1928 
 Oxen (see Cattle) 
 
 Pack animal, reindeer used as; Sirelius, 1916-20 
 
 Pack animals; Werth, 1940 
 
 Pack horses, Europe, eastern; Clark, 1941 
 
 Parallel characters, domestic animals; Nachtsheim, 1936 
 
 under domestication; Weidenreich, 1925 
 Parallel evolution; Herre, 1952 
 Parallel modifications; Klatt, 1948 
 Pastoral culture; Flor, 1930 
 PastoraHsm, Asia; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 
 and domestication; Page, 1939 
 
 increase of, in Ukraine; Tackenberg, 1954 
 
 lack of, in China; Bishop, 1933 
 
 not associated with pigs; Newberry, 1928 
 
 Ukraine; Hancar, 1951 
 Pasture oases, cattle in, Egypt; Winkler, 1938-39 
 Pathological characters, fixation of; Weidenreich, 1925 
 Pedigree chart, horse, Ur, Mesopotamia; Amschler, 1935 
 Pelages of cats, wild and domestic; Zeuner, 1950 
 Peoples: 
 
 Akkadians, camel; Forbes, 1955 
 
 Arawak, "alco" dogs; Hummerlink, 1928 
 
 Aryan tribes, southern Asia, horse; Antonius, 1918 
 
 Assyrians, cattle; Diirst, 1900 
 camels; Forbes, 1955 
 
 Babylonians, cattle; Diirst, 1900 
 
 Bantu, domestic animals; Kroll, 1928 
 
 Bedouins, dromedary; Forbes, 1955 
 
 Chorwa, southwestern Asia, cattle; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 
 Chukchi, reindeer-breeding; Wiklund, 1918 
 
 Egyptians, origin of domestic animals; Adametz, 1920 
 cattle; Diirst, 1900 
 dromedary; Forbes, 1955 
 
 Hamites, dispersal, Africa; Adametz, 1920 
 Egypt, cattle-herders; Winkler, 1938-39 
 greyhound into eastern Africa; Kroll, 1928 
 
 Koryak (Lapps), reindeer-breeding; Wiklund, 1918 
 
 Lapps, acquiring of reindeer; Laufer, 1917 
 
 Mitanni, introduction of horse; Smith, 1928 
 
 Negritos, India, original domestic animals; Randhawa, 1946 
 
 Persians, dromedary into Egypt; Mikesell, 1955 
 
 Proto-Altaian, central Asia, horse; Flor, 1930 
 
 Proto-Australoids, India, domestic animals; Randhawa, 1946 
 
 Romans, cats into Europe; Zeuner, 1950 
 
 Samoyeds, origin of reindeer domestication; Laufer, 1917 
 
 Sumerians, Girgentinl goat; Adametz, 1941 
 onager; Hilzheimer, 1934, 1935, 1941 
 
GENERAL INDEX 139 
 
 Peoples {coHtiHued): 
 
 Sumerians, sheep and goal; Adametz, 1920 
 Physiological adaptations to survival, domestication; Zeuner, 1954 
 Physiological background of domestication; Nachtsheim, 1936 
 Physiological factors in domestication; Herre, 1951 
 Pig-breeding center, Egypt; Menghin and Amar, 1932 
 Pigmentation of domestic animals; F'eige, 1927, 1928 
 Physiology : 
 
 absorption tests, cattle; Sasaki, 1934 
 
 adrenal production, wolf and dog; Scott, 1954 
 
 adrenals, hypofunction, rat; Richter, 1952 
 Pigs, breeds and or tvpes: 
 
 Berkshire: Kelm, 1938 
 
 Dutch mound-hog; Reitsma, 1935 
 
 MangaHtza; Cardas, 1926; Ritzofly, 1932 
 
 Siska; RitzofTv, 1932 
 
 South Slavian; Ritzofly, 1932 
 
 Tschuwasian: Havesson, 1933 
 
 turbarv; Gaillard, 1934; Havesson, 1933; Madsen, 1900; Nitsche, 1924; Otto, 
 1901; Pira, 1909; Ulmansky, 1914 
 Pigs, domestic and or possibly domestic: 
 
 Austria; Ulmansky, 1914 
 
 Bohemia; Nitsche, 1924 
 
 China; Bishop, 1933, 1939 
 
 Egvpt; Menghin, 1933; Menghin and Amar, 1932; Newberry, 1928; Randall- 
 Maclver and Mace, 1902; Stafle, 1938 
 
 Eurasia; Adlerberg, 1933; Belie, 1939; Philiptschenko, 1933 
 southern; Menghin, 1931 
 
 Europe; Clark, 1947; Reitsma, 1935 
 central; Ritzofly, 1932, 1933 
 
 Holland; Reitsma, 1935 
 
 Indonesia; Adlerberg, 1933 
 
 Iran; Amschler, 1939b 
 
 Palestine; Vaufrev, 1931 
 
 Sweden; Pira, 1909 
 
 Switzerland; Otto, 1901 
 Pigs, wild: 
 
 Eurasia; Adlerberg, 1933; Amon, 1938; Belie, 1939; Kelm, 1939; Philiptschenko, 
 1933 
 
 Europe; Reitsma, 1935 
 
 Palearctic; Kelm, 1938 
 
 Palestine; Bate, 1942 
 
 Sweden; Pira, 1909 
 Pisang (see Goat, bezoar) 
 Place names, local (see Local place names) 
 Plants, cultivated; Mangelsdorf, 1952 
 Plough-culture; Hahn, 1909 
 
 Mongolian; Werth, 1940 
 Polecat, Asiatic; Ashton and Thompson, 1955 
 
 European; Ashton and Thompson, 1955 
 Polled cattle, genetics; Auld, 1927 
 Polyphyletic ancestry of cattle; Szalay, 1930 
 Polyphyletic origin of horse; Ewart, 1904, 1909 
 Pony, Mongolian; Lydekker, 1912a 
 
 Shetland; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946; Chubb, 1913 
 Post-glacial climatic change and larpan; Vetulani, 1928 
 Poultry (see Fowl, jungle) 
 
 Pre-adaptation for domestication; Hediger, 1938; Zeuner, 1954 
 Precipitation tests, cattle; Merkens, 1929 
 Protein, pig as major source, China; Bishop, 1933 
 Purpose, lack of in origin of domestication; Zeuner, 1954 
 
110 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Purposive planning, domestication, Egypt; Zeuner, 1954 
 
 Queen Hatshepsut; Chard, 1937 
 
 Rabbit, Europe; Nachtsheim, 1929 
 
 Racial fixation of characters; Weidenreich, 1925 
 
 Radiation center, mounted invaders; Hancar, 1952 
 
 Rage, endocrine factors in; Funkenstein, 1955 
 
 Ram of Ammon, Egypt; Pia, 1942b 
 
 Ram of Mendes; Diirst and Gaillard, 1902 
 
 Rat, domestication of; Richter, 1952 
 
 Refuge mounds, Holland; Reitsma, 1982, 1935 
 
 Reindeer; Flor, 1930; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1955; Hatt, 1919; Hilzheimer, 
 
 1913; Jettmar, 1952; Laufer, 1917; Linton, 1955; Luho, 1948; Mirov, 1945; 
 
 W. Schmidt, 1951; Sirelius, 1916-20; Werth, 1940; Wiklund, 1918; Zeuner, 
 
 1954 
 Riding animals; Menghin, 1931 
 Routes of dispersal; Sauer, 1952 
 
 Saarigarvi-Tarvala sledge; Luho, 1948 
 Sacred cattle, Egypt; Mond and Myers, 1934 
 Sacrificial animals and domestication; StafiFe, 1939 
 Sacrificial purpose for breeding cattle; Whitehead, 1953 
 Sahara Desert, transportation across; Newbold, 1928 
 
 and dromedary; Lhote, 1953; Mikesell, 1955 
 
 and horse; Lhote, 1953 
 Scavenger wolves as potential dogs; Zeuner, 1954 
 Scavengers and domestication of wolves; Scott, 1954 
 Sculpture, animal, Egvpt; Pia, 1941 
 Seals, Sweden; Pira, 1926 
 
 domestic animals on, Indus Valley; Mackay, 1938 
 
 with horse pedigree, Ur; Amschler, 1935 
 Selection; Herre, 1951 
 
 artificial; Epstein, 1933; Herre, 1952; Klatt, 1927, 1948; Mangelsdorf, 1952; 
 Nachtsheim, 1929, 1938; Richter, 1952; Scott, 1954 
 
 artificial, religious; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942 45 
 
 natural; Krieg, 1929 
 Selective breeding; Dalimier, 1954 
 Selective slaughtering, goats; Coon, 1951 
 Semi-domesticated dogs. Gran Chaco; Krieg, 1929 
 Semi-nomadic population, Palestine; Josien, 1955 
 Sequence of domestication; Werth, 1939; Wissler, 1945 
 Set, cult-animal of, Egypt; Newberry, 1928 
 Settled culture and rock-painting; Staffe, 1938 
 Sexual difl'erentiation in cattle; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 
 Sheep, breeds and/or types; Lydekker, 1912c 
 
 bronze; Reitsma, 1932 
 
 Bukharian; Carruthers, 1949 
 
 copper; Antonius, 1944; Ewart, 1913; Durst, 1904; Patterson, 1937 
 
 Drentsch Heide; Reitsma, 1932 
 
 English southdown; Kacrkowski, 1928 
 
 fat-rumped; Adametz, 1927; Ewart, 1914 
 
 fat-tailed; Philiptschenko, 1928 
 
 fleecy; Slawkowski, 1933 
 
 Forvar; Pira, 1926 
 
 Frisian milk; Reitsma, 1932 
 
 goat-horned; Adametz, 1937; Pia, 1942b 
 
 Heidschnucke; Adametz, 1937 
 
 Hissar; Amschler, 1929b 
 
 long-tailed; Ewart, 1912 
 
 merino; Burns and Moody, 1935 
 
 Montagne; Cardas, 1926 
 
GENERAL INDEX 141 
 
 Sheep, breeds and/or types (continued): 
 
 peat (see turbary) 
 
 Polish; Kacrkowski, 1928 
 
 primitive; Amschler, 1929b 
 
 screw-horned (see spiral-horned) 
 
 Shetland; Ewart, 1913 
 
 Soay; Adametz, 1937; Ewart, 1913; Schultze, 1934 
 
 southdown, English; Kacrkowski, 1928 
 
 spiral-horned; Diirst and Gaillard, 1902; Ewart, 1912; Mallowan, 1947 
 
 terp; Reitsnia, 1932 
 
 turbarv; Adametz, 1937; Durst, 1904; Ewart, 1913; Madsen, 1900; Patterson, 
 1937; Pilgrim, 1947 
 
 twisted-horned (see spiral-horned) 
 
 Tzourcana; Cardas, 1926 
 
 Wallachian; Durst and Gaillard, 1902 
 
 Zackel; Adametz, 1937 
 Sheep, domestic and or possiblv domestic; Burkhill, 1935; Burns and Moody, 1935; 
 Ewart, 1912, 1913, 1914; Fairservis, 1955; Hilzheimer, 1936; Lydekker, 1912c 
 
 Africa, north; Thilenius, 1900 
 
 Bukhara; Adametz, 1927 
 
 Egypt; Adametz, 1920 
 
 Eurasia; Adametz, 1937 
 
 Europe; Clark, 1947 
 
 Holland; Reitsma, 1932 
 
 Iran; Amschler, 1939a, b 
 
 Iraq; Lloyd and Safer, 1945 
 
 Mesopotamia; Adametz, 1927; Heinrich, 1936 
 
 Siberia, northern; Jettmar, 1950 
 
 Sudan; Bate, 1949, 1953 
 
 Sumeria; Adametz, 1920 
 
 Switzerland; Diirst, 1904 
 
 Tadzhikistan; Amschler, 1929b 
 
 Turkestan, western; Menghin, 1931 
 Sheep, wild; Carruthers, 1949; Heinrich, 1936; Hilzheimer, 1936; Lydekker, 1912c. 
 
 argali; Ewart, 1912, 1913, 1914; Philiptschenko, 1928 
 
 Barbarv; Thilenius, 1900 
 
 mouflon; Adametz, 1937; Diirst, 1904; Ewart, 1912, 1913, 1914; Kacrkowski, 
 1928; Pira, 1926 
 
 urial; Adametz, 1937; Ewart, 1912, 1913, 1914 
 Sites, archaeological (see Local place names) 
 Skin, rabbit, genetics of; Nachtsheim, 1929 
 Sledge, dog; Werth, 1940 
 
 use with reindeer, Finland; Sirelius, 1916-20 
 Sledge-cultures, Eurasia, north; Wiklund, 1918 
 Sledge-driving; Luho, 1948 
 Sledges, Finland; Luho, 1948 
 Slender-limbed horses; Ewart, 1909 
 Small wild cattle, Eurasia; Koby, 1954 
 Social animals' adaptations to domestication; Zeuner, 1954 
 Social animals and adrenal hormones; Funkenstein, 1955 
 Social life, wolves, cooperative; Scott, 1954 
 Speciation of camel, Asia; Robinson, 1936 
 
 of domestic animals; Mangelsdorf, 1952 
 Spirited dogs, Sudan; Newbold, 1928 
 Statistical analyses of sub-fossil materials; Riedel, 1951 
 Statistical study, cattle ancestors; Van Giffen, 1914 
 Statistics; Dahr, 1942 
 
 of cat skulls; Morrison-Scott, 1952 
 
 large series; Hildebrand, 1955 
 Steer of Apis; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 
 Steppe tarpan, Russia; Vetulani, 1928 
 Stock-farmer, Africa; KroU, 1928 
 Stock-farming, Egypt; Menghin, 1933 
 
142 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54 
 
 Stunted pig; Belie, 1939 
 
 Subspecies, ecological, of cats; Zeuner, 1950 
 
 Surv^ival by flight; Funkenstein, 1955 
 
 Swine (,s-ce Pigs) 
 
 Swine-breeding culture; Menghin, 1931 
 
 Tail carriage, dog; Scott, 1954 
 
 Tamed horse, Paleolithic; Munro, 1902 
 
 Tamed reindeer; Hatt, 1919 
 
 Taming, domestication not following; Nachtsheim, 1938 
 
 Taming of wild animals; Meissner, 1926 
 
 Tasmanian devil; Etheridge, 1916 
 
 Tasmanian wolf; Etheridge, 1916 
 
 Tapir, China, north; Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936 
 
 Taurine cattle; Leister, 1943 
 
 Taxocline, pig; Kelm, 1939 
 
 Teeth, Wellington Caves, New South Wales; Etheridge, 1916 
 
 Terpen, dogs from, Holland; Van Giflfen, 1929 
 
 fauna of, Holland; Van Giffen, 1914 
 
 pig from, Holland; Reitsma, 1935 
 
 sheep from, Holland; Reitsma, 1932 
 Tillage, Ukraine; Hancar, 1951 
 Transition stage, pig, wild to domestic; Pira, 1909 
 
 Transport purposes and origin of domestication; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 Transportation, Sahara, pre-Christian; Newbold, 1928 
 Triphyletic origin of sheep; Keller, 1902 
 Turkey, Central America; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 
 Tylopoda, South America (see Camelidae, South America) 
 
 Udder of cow, figurine; Randall-Maclver and Mace, 1902 
 
 Udders, cattle, Libyan Desert; Shaw, 1936 
 
 Ungulates, domestic; Feige, 1928 
 
 Unicorns, Indus valley; Roy, 1946 
 
 Urus; Clark, 1952; Hilzheimer, 1927; von Lengerken, 1953, 1955; Lydekker, 1912a 
 
 Africa; Bisschop, 1937 
 
 Asia; Chlebaroff, 1929-30; Melnyk, 1927 
 
 British Isles; Childe, 1940; Whitehead, 1953; Wilson, 1909 
 
 Denmark; Degerb0l, 1933b 
 
 Europe; Hescheler and Riiger, 1942; Herre, 1949 
 
 France; Koby, 1954 
 
 Indus Valley; Roy, 1946 
 
 Iran; Coon, 1952 
 
 Switzerland; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 
 
 Ukraine; Gromova, 1927 
 
 Variability, skulls, polecats and ferrets; Ashton and Thompson, 1955 
 Variation, cattle; Melnyk, 1927 
 
 in behavior, dogs; Scott, 1954 
 
 individual, bones; Hildebrand, 1955 
 
 individual, pigs; Reitsma, 1935 
 
 range of, in dog mandibles; Reverdin, 1927-28 
 
 sexual, cattle; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 
 Varieties {see Breeds) 
 
 Vegetative planting and domestication; Sauer, 1952 
 Vicugna; Herre, 1952; Steinbacher, 1953 
 Viking invasions and British cattle; Whitehead, 1953 
 
 Water buffalo (see Buffalo, water) 
 
 White, genetic dominant in cattle; Whitehead, 1953 
 
 Wild animals, taming of; Meissner, 1926 
 
 Wildness, selection against; Richter, 1952; Scott, 1954 
 
GENERAL INDEX 143 
 
 Wolf; Antonius, 1944; Baas, 19:?8; Brinkmann, 1923-24; Dahr, 1937, 1942; Deger- 
 bpl, 193;ib; Durst, 1945; Hilzheimer, 1908, 1932; Keller, 1902; Mallhey, 1954; 
 Noack, 1907; Van Giffen, 1929 
 England; Eraser and King, 1954 
 PJurasia; Scott, 1954 
 Europe, north; (Jchl, 1930 
 
 Indian; Brinkmann, 1921; Noack, 1915b; Prashad, 1936 
 Wool; Fairservis, 1955 
 
 Tadzhikistan; Amschler, 1929b 
 
 Yak, Asia, central; Amschler, 1932 
 history of; Amschler, 1932 
 Tibet; Werth, 1940 
 
 Zebu; Epstein, 1933; Ewart, 1912; Szalay, 1930 
 
 Africa; Antonius, 1919; Bisschop, 1937 
 
 Asia; Kolesnik, 1936 
 
 East Indies; Merkens, 1929; Sommerfeld, 1927 
 
 Formosa; Sasaki, 1934 
 
 India; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 
 northwestern; Prashad, 1936 
 
 Indo-China; Vittor, 1933 
 
 Indus Valley; Sewell and Guhr, 1931 
 Zoogeography (see Geographic distribution) 
 
Publication 959 
 

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